Continuing Professional Education for the Information Society: The Fifth World Conference on Continuing Professional Education for the Library and Information Science Professions [Reprint 2013 ed.] 9783110958980, 9783598218309

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International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Fédération Internationale des Associations de Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques Internationaler Verband der bibliothekarischen Vereine und Institutionen MeiKAyHapoAHaR €Aepaunji En6.nnoTeHHi>LX AccounauHfl h yspeatfleuHR

Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Bibliotecarios y Bibliotecas

I FLA Publications 100

Continuing Professional Education For the Information Society The Fifth World Conference on Continuing Professional Education for the Library and Information Science Professions Edited by Patricia Layzell Ward

Κ · G · Saur München 2002

IFLA Publications edited by Sjoerd Koopman

Recommended catalogue entry: Continuing Professional Education for the Information Society : The Fifth World Conference on Continuing Professional Education for the Library and Information Science Professions. Ed. by Patricia Layzell Ward. [International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions], - München : Saur, 2002, Χ, 316 p. 21 cm (IFLA publications ; 100) ISBN 3-598-21830-3

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Continuing professional education for the information society : The Fifth World Conference on Continuing Professional Education for the Library and Information Science Professions. Ed. by Patricia Layzell Ward. [International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions], - München : Saur, 2002 (IFLA publications ; 100) ISBN 3-598-21830-3

© Printed on acid-free paper The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences - Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48.1984. © 2002 by International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, The Hague, The Netherlands Alle Rechte vorbehalten / All Rights Strictly Reserved K. G Saur Verlag GmbH. München 2002 Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system of any nature, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed / Bound by Strauss Offsetdruck, Mörlenbach ISBN 3-598-21830-3 ISSN 0344-6891 (IFLA Publications)

TABLE OF CONTENTS Dr. Elizabeth Stone Blanche Woolls.

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Foreword Ian Johnson and Diann Rusch-Feja

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Introduction Ann Ritchie

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CPE: DEVELOPING TOMORROW S LEADERS

Filling the Empty Chair: Succession Planning Strategies for Senior Information Management Posts in Higher Education Christine Abbott

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Staff Development and Continuing Professional Education: Policy and Practice in Australian Academic and Research Libraries Ian W. Smith

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Retooling Cataloguers and Indexers for the Information and Knowledge Management Society: A Needs Assessment for Continuing Professional Education in the UK and the US Patricia A. Lawton

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Opportunities and Strategies for Continuing Professional Education In India Through Distance Mode Dinesh K. Gupta and S. B. Ghosh

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The SEFLIN Technology Training Program: Linking Lifelong Staff Learners Through Continuing Professional Education Bruce E. Massis

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Knowledge Management and Information Literacy: A New Partnership in the Workplace? Jan Houghton and Sue Halbwirth

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CPE: DEVELOPING INFORMATION LITERACY

Cognitive Apprenticeships in Education for Information Literacy Penny Moore and Nicki Page Teachers Continuing Professional Education in Information Literacy: The Case Study of French Secondary Schools Viviane Couzinet Learning to Learn: An ICT Training Model to Support Ongoing Professional Development and Change in School Libraries Dorothy Williams Information Literacy for Mere Mortals Susie Andretta Information Literacy: Helping Librarians Apply the Research to Teaching Information Skills to Patrons: The Importance of the Human Interface David V. Loertscher and Blanche Woolls

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DEVELOPING GLOBAL CPE

East-West Co-operation Between Bio-Medicai University Libraries: Information Skills for Albanian Librarians 134 Elisabetta Marinoni, Pierangela Mazzon and Maurizio Tiziano Moretto Local Touch, Global Reach: Transborder CPE in Texas-Mexico Barbara Immroth Promotion of the Information Research in the Republic of South Africa, DISSA-net: 1988-2000 in a Social and Intercultural Perspective Irene Wormell Special Libraries Association s Global 2000 Conference Leads to Creation of a Community of Practice for Developing Country Librarians: A Case Study Sue O Neill Johnson and Judith J. Field Global Continuing Professional Education Via the Web: The Challenge of Internationalisation Anna H. Perrault and Vicki L. Gregory Continuing Education for LIS Professionals in Canada Fiona Black, Judy Dunn, Rhonda Miller and Stan Skrzeszewski

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VIRTUAL DELIVERY OF CPE

Successful Faculty Participation in Distance Education: What Research and Experience Can Teach Us Pamela P. Barron

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Developing a Model for Web Enhanced Continuing Education Programs for LIS Professionals Urna Kanjilal

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Learning to Teach in the Virtual World Lynne Rudasill

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Web Based LIS Education: Potentials and Feasibility of Regional Models Kornelija Petr, Radovan Vrana and Tatjana Aparac

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Digital Professional Education for Digital Librarians Alastair G. Smith

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CPE Anywhere Anytime: Online Resources for the Information Society Lesley Moyo

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QUALITY ISSUES IN CPE

Quality Control and Assurance for Continuing Professional Education Jana Varlejs Chasing Certificates: Problems of CPE Assessment and Quality Assurance Within the South African National Qualifications Framework Clare M. Walker Continuing Professional Education as an Ethical Issue Jitka Hurych

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DR. ELIZABETH STONE

As this volume was going to press we heard of the death of Dr. Stone. Blanche Woolls has contributed this appreciation of Betty Stone's work for CPERT. "CPERT, IFLA, and librarianship around the world has lost a leader. Dr. Elizabeth Stone understood the need for librarians to continue their education after their formal training ended. She also recognised that this would not be easy. In order to acknowledge both the need and the lack of assistance that librarians might have in working to upgrade their skills, she organised the Continuing Library Education Network and Exchange (CLENE). For many years CLENE remained on the campus of The Catholic University of America where Dr. Stone managed the office as a part of her duties there as Dean of the School of Library and Information Science. Through her exercise of her proposal writing skills, she saw that CLENE had funding. This was moved to the American Library Association as a Round Table where it resides today. When she determined that these efforts could be expanded into the global community, she worked diligently with a committee of colleagues and, she secured funding to sponsor the First World Conference on Continuing Education for the Library and Information Science Professions in 1985 immediately before IFLA in Chicago. Following this meeting and through her continued efforts, she helped establish the Continuing Professional Education Round Table of IFLA, an active organisation that is now sponsoring yet another successful pre-conference for IFLA in Scotland. We will sorely miss her ability to make things happen, her support for continuing education, her mentoring of library professionals around the world. But most of all, we will miss our friend." Blanche Woolls San Jose, California, USA

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FOREWORD The World Conference on Continuing Education for the Library and Information Professions held in Palos Hills - near Chicago - in 198S led directly to the foundation of IFLA's Round Table in Continuing Professional Education. Each year since its inception the Round Table has organised an Open Session as part of the IFLA Conference, as well as occasional collaborative Sessions with other IFLA groups and workshops within the IFLA Conference framework. These have always been well attended. In the current reorganisation of IFLA's structure, the Round Table is bidding to enhance its status and become the Section on Continuing Education and Workplace Learning. The Round Table held its first seminar in 1988 at the Matica Slovenska, the Slovak national library and cultural centre in Martin, Czechoslovakia.1 Subsequent World Conferences Were organised on behalf of the Round Table and scheduled in association with IFLA Conferences in Barcelona (1993), Copenhagen (1997), and Chester near Boston (2001). This World Conference takes place immediately before IFLA celebrates the 75th anniversary of its foundation in Scotland. Over the past few years, the library and information profession has been deeply affected by the growing interest in continuing professional education, reflected in the increasing frequency of these World Conferences. The evolution of the Information Society has stimulated the need for lifelong learning, created new means of delivering it, and new opportunities to participate in it. It presents new challenges for teachers and institutional managers, some of which are explored in the themes of these Conference papers. In accordance with the goals of the Round Table, the purpose of this World Conference are to improve the opportunities of librarians and information professionals worldwide to contribute to the lifelong learning of individuals both within and outside the profession; facilitate collaboration and development of networks for the exchange of ideas; stimulate research in continuing education for library and information professions; and identify elements that can be used in establishing quality measurements and evaluation methods for continuing professional education. We trust that you will agree that the papers fulfil these aims. As with previous World Conferences, they reflect the global sharing of interest in the field. Building on the experience of recent World Conferences, where the delegates were anxious not only to hear of others' experiences but also to discuss them and share insights into similar situations, the programme for this Conference was arranged to permit more time for discussion. However, we have followed the practice of previous World Conference organisers in arranging for the proceedings to be published simultaneously with the Conference. We hope that a summary of the discussions will be published elsewhere in due course. We are grateful to K. G. Saur Verlag for their continued support as publisher of the Conference Proceedings. A special thanks must go to Patricia Layzell Ward for her editorial work.

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This World Conference, like its predecessors, takes place in the industrialised Northern Hemisphere. We hope that the confidence and expertise in the field that is evident in contributions to these proceedings from other parts of the globe will be reflected in the choice of location for the next World Conference, and that we shall soon meet again in a different continent. Ian M Johnson School of Information and Media The Robert Gordon University Aberdeen Scotland Diann Rusch-Feja Library and Research Documentation Max Planck Institute for Human Development Berlin Germany Conference Organisers The proceedings were published as Continuing Professional Education for Library and Information Science Personnel - Papers From the Seminar Held at the Mattea Slovenska, Czechoslovakia, October 10-13 1988. H. Hogh (Ed.). Martin, Czechoslovakia: Matica Slovenska, 1989.

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INTRODUCTION With the increasing importance of information and knowledge management in our society and the concomitant dependence on information technology to facilitate these processes, there is a vital need for library and information professionals to continue to enhance and upgrade their skills and knowledge in these areas. In the tertiary education sphere, traditional education for Jibrarianship has expanded to include units which are relevant to education for employment in a broadening range of related information professions. First qualifications are no more than a licence to start practicing, providing only the knowledge base for a first job, not a career. To remain relevant in the workplace, library and information practitioners must engage in and take responsibility for their own continuing professional development. The Continuing Professional Development Round Table (CPERT) offers a forum for educators and trainers who have an interest in the management and provision of continuing professional development programs and activities. CPERT also offers an opportunity for practitioners to participate in professional development activities which may contribute to their professional registration or certification requirements, as well as their professional networking and workplace learning activities. Continuing professional development courses encompass a broad range of topics in many different subject and specialty areas of librarianship. Facilitated by developments in information and communications technologies, these courses are being delivered in an increasing diversity of modes. The content of the papers in the proceedings of the 5th World Conference of CPERT explores the theme of "Continuing Professional Education for the Information Society". However, one of the key advantages of attending pre-conferences, is the smaller size of the gathering compared with the thousands of delegates to the IFLA conference, and the opportunities this offers for interactive and structured learning. A model for a synergogical style of learning is established. The conference proceedings reflect the cross-cultural diversity of the Round Table, which draws on the breadth of experience and wisdom of its international membership. Over the seventeen years since the inception of CPERT, the proceedings provide a valuable and ongoing record of trends in the development of continuing professional development programs in the library and information professions. Ann Ritchie Chair, CPERT Darwin, Australia

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FILLING THE EMPTY CHAIR: SUCCESSION PLANNING STRATEGIES FOR SENIOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT POSTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION Christine Abbott Director of Planning The University of Birmingham England

Abstract:

This paper reflects on the findings and outcomes of the HIMSS project (Hybrid Information Management Skills for Senior Staff). Misguided assumptions are often made regarding the skills set needed by senior information managers within Higher Education institutions. Institutions struggle to recruit leaders with the requisite mix of generic and specialist skills, and a 'skills gap' has become apparent. Anecdotal evidence suggests that a serious succession planning problem exists within the Higher Education sector in the UK. The HIMSS project aims to contribute practical solutions to this problem by reviewing the skills set needed by senior managers of library, information and computing functions within converged and non converged services. Funded under the HEFCE Good Management Practice initiative and led by the University of Birmingham, the project will produce its final report in February 2002. Findings will be based on interviews conducted by professional researchers with senior institutional managers, backed up by the results of a skills survey conducted amongst aspiring heads of information services. The project will identify the nature and extent of the skills gap which currently exists between these management tiers, as well as other barriers to progression within institutions. The paper summarises the findings of the research project and draws conclusions and implications from the research for the information community, in the Higher Education and other library sectors and demonstrates the key role of continuing professional education in helping to address succession planning issues

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE FOR THE PROJECT In Autumn 1999 the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) launched a funding initiative called 'Good Management Practice'. The aim of the initiative was to accelerate the implementation of management improvements across the sector through the identification of existing good practice and the development and implementation of models of good practice. The total value of the initiative was £10 million, allocated between April 2000 and March 2003. The University of Birmingham submitted a successful bid focussing on the skills gaps and the skills development needs of hybrid information managers at senior management level - the HIMSS project. The objectives of the HIMSS project were: -

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•

• •

•

To identify the skills set required by senior managers of library, information and computing services to enable them to function effectively at the strategic management level. This included the identification of generic management skills requirements, and specific technical or specialist skills. Through a skills assessment survey, to identify the skills gaps of the current generation of information managers working at 'Deputy' level who are aspiring to senior information management positions. To make recommendations to relevant bodies within the Higher Education (HE) community and to relevant training providers on how the skills gaps identified might be translated into modular learning products, within a coherent framework, for potential delivery via the Web. To explore the feasibility of developing a diagnostic tool from the findings of the research phase, for assessing staff potential.

Funds were allocated in early summer 2000 and the project commenced in September 2000. At the time of writing (December 2001) the project is due to be completed in March 2002. The rationale for the project came from evidence emerging from recruitment exercises for senior Library, Information and Computing Services posts over recent years, concerning the difficulty of attracting suitably qualified and experienced candidates. There was evidence from across the sector that, irrespective of the size or reputation of the institution concerned, senior level posts were often difficult to fill, and sometimes lengthy delays occurred before a suitable appointee was found. Concern over this state of affairs was heightened in those institutions, such as the University of Birmingham, which had converged their library services and their computing services into a single management unit. The University of Birmingham Information Services was, and remains, the largest converged HE information service in the country, with a staff of nearly 500 and a core budget of £12 million per annum1. Information services such as this are complex, multi functional departments, and the Director of such services therefore needs a demanding range of skills, expertise and experience in order to lead them effectively. Director posts in converged services require a breadth of understanding across the whole information spectrum, enabling the post holder to make decisions on a wide range of strategic matters. He or she also needs the background and experience sufficient to ensure credibility with other information professionals from both library and computing backgrounds. At the same time the post holder needs to demonstrate high level generic management skills, in order to make him/her credible to senior institutional managers. All this is against a background of exceptional change and high demands for all staff working in HE. The pace of change in higher education places exceptional demands on all managers now, as they grapple with new models of curriculum design and delivery, and the implications of e-business and e-learning; as they seek to resolve the continuing tension between paper based and electronic modes of delivery of information resources; and as they try to translate into their own services the impact of government initiatives such as lifelong learning, sustainability strategies, the requirement for transparency in funding processes and increased emphasis on risk management and business continuity. The imperatives for change in Universities create a need for managers with the energy, drive, vision, and flexibility to respond appropriately to such change 2. At the time the project was initiated there was little evidence to suggest that Universities were taking proactive measures to plan for successor generations of leaders in information management.

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Concerns about succession planning issues are not confined to the UK. Research within Association of Research Libraries institutions in the United States revealed similar concerns that not enough was being done to groom successor generations of Library Directors 3. In the US, concerns at the apparent failure to groom successor generations of library directors with the requisite leadership skills are compounded by research into the demographics of present day leadership, which shows that the percentage of library directors aged over 55 rose from 25.5 percent to 43 percent between 1990 and 1994; and that the percentage of library directors in the 60 - 64 age group is twice that of the population as a whole. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research project considered the leadership requirements both for converged and non converged information services. Terminology provided some obstacles here, since there appear to be almost as many structural models for the organisation of information services in Universities as there are Universities; and there is little consistency in the use of titles for posts at senior and 'deputy' level. Indeed, defining a 'deputy' was itself a significant challenge, given the differences in size, scale and complexity of Universities, combined with the different structural models. Criteria for defining those deemed to be at 'deputy' level were agreed (see Appendix 1), and formed the basis for the questionnaire survey, which is discussed below. Another interesting debate focused on the meaning of the word 'Hybrid'. The word is used in the title of the project in two senses: first, in the sense of the hybrid manager: one who has a combination of generic and specialist, or specialised, skills; secondly, in the sense of the hybrid information environment straddling both traditional and non-traditional forms of information delivery (see Appendix 2). It was perhaps disappointing, if not entirely unexpected, that the senior institutional managers interviewed generally had a poorly developed understanding of the range of skills and expertise which their senior information managers could contribute to the institution, either as Heads of Information Services, or in other management or information related roles outside the Information Service itself. Once again we are reminded of the need for good marketing and self-promotion, in order to raise our own profile and that of our professional colleagues and our services. The research for the project was carried out by researchers from the Centre for Information Research (CIRT) at the University of Central England. The research phase commenced with a one day seminar in January 2001, which was attended by over fifty senior information professionals. The ideas generated by this workshop provided the touchstone for the development of the survey instruments, and a future reference point for the comments and views gathered from the research. The workshop was followed, in the Spring and early Summer of 2001, by a series of structured interviews with different client groups. The aims of these interviews were to identify the skills set needed at senior information manager/director level, the perceived barriers to candidates acquiring the necessary skills, and barriers to recruitment to top jobs - cultural, institutional, sectoral, economic, as well as barriers created through the absence of the necessary skills, experience or expertise. The research took the form of four surveys with different client groups. The four groups were: •

Directors of Personnel: eleven directors of Personnel were interviewed.

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• •

•

Senior Managers: an interview survey was conducted with thirteen senior institutional managers with direct line management responsibility for the Director of Information Services (or equivalent) in their institution. Newly appointed Heads of Service: in depth interviews were conducted with ten Heads of Information Services who had been appointed within the previous two years. In addition, these interviewees were asked to complete a skills survey. This survey asked them to rate their levels of competency in a variety of skills and personal qualities, and to rate the importance of these skills and qualities to their work as heads of service. Aspiring Heads of Information Services: a questionnaire survey was sent to all HE institutions in the UK to investigate the skills and development needs of individuals who were working at one tier below a Head of Information Services post and who were aspiring to move to a Head of Information Services post in the near future. These questionnaires, which were developed with the assistance of a senior researcher from HESDA (the Higher Education Staff Development Agency), were deliberately based on standard management competencies. The questionnaires were sent out through standard mailing lists, but the responses were returned anonymously to the researchers. In all, over 80 responses were received.

RESEARCH FINDINGS The research provided a wealth of qualitative data about perceptions of the sector from those within it; those aspiring to reach top positions within it, and those managing it. The research confirmed the initial assumptions of the project that there are recruitment problems at senior level, yet also demonstrated that, generally speaking, institutions are failing to take a proactive approach to resolving these problems. A few telling findings from the research are as follows: > There continues to be an assumption across institutions that professional leaders will emerge 'naturally', and that the past is good enough preparation for the future. > All institutional management interviewed, even those who are completely satisfied with the performance of their own head of information service(s), expressed concern at the absence of talent emerging from staff at 'deputy' level. > By contrast, there was widespread dissatisfaction expressed by the questionnaire respondents at the lack of opportunities to develop the necessary skills; and the failure of parent institutions to exploit resident talent. > Aspiring heads of service identified generic management skills as the area of greatest development need. > With the exception of certain generic management skills, aspiring heads of service feel that institutional culture, economic and mobility issues are greater barriers to progression than the absence of the necessary skills. > There continue to be perceived difficulties in moving between subsectors within the profession - between a research intensive university and a teaching - led university, for example. Whether these difficulties are real or perceived, they have the effect of inhibiting applications from potentially qualified candidates. > Despite the increasing involvement of information services staff in emerging areas such as elearning, there is a widely held view amongst aspiring heads of service that senior institutional managers fail to grasp fully the potential contribution of information professionals to institutional objectives and priorities. And as noted

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above, little reference was made by those senior institutional managers interviewed to the transferability of information management skills to other roles in the institution. Yet a significant percentage of respondents indicated that they would actively consider a career move out of information services. This suggests that as individual professionals we realise the transferability of our information management skills, yet as a profession we have not done enough to convince institutional managers of this fact. > The emergence of converged services, which by definition are larger in size and wider in remit than non converged ones, has exacerbated the recruitment problem, since the majority of questionnaire respondents who worked in non converged services indicated that they would only consider posts in non converged services. This suggests the need to develop the confidence of those working in non converged services, and their confidence in dealing with strategic level issues, as a way of increasing the potential pool of suitable candidates for senior posts. Overall, the picture, which emerged from the structured interviews, is of institutions which, by culture and inclination, are risk averse, and lack imagination in their approach to recruitment and HR. Broadly speaking, Higher Education has been reluctant to recruit staff to senior posts who do not have previous experience of HE although there are a few isolated examples of appointments to senior posts from the private sector which suggest that this is changing now, albeit slowly. Universities, particularly large, research - led Universities, have tended, in the past, to have fairly stereotypical images of the type of candidates they think are suitable for senior management posts. As it concerns Heads of Information Services, this may well be a legacy of the constitutional status of the University Librarian in many old Universities, as a scholar first and foremost, rather than a manager. While this view is undoubtedly changing, and there is increasing recognition that good generic management skills are the single most important attribute of a head of information service, the means by which Universities continue to recruit to senior posts still militate against non-traditional candidates applying. For example, the education pages of national newspapers and the specialist educational press are the most used methods of advertising Head of Information Services posts, rather than headhunters or management consultants. As institutions we may, unwittingly, through our recruitment publicity, be projecting an image of insularity, and lack of readiness to accept professionals from outside the sector. Anecdotal evidence collected during the project suggests that the perception remains that Universities, particularly older ones, will only recruit from other Universities of similar size and calibre. While this view is almost certainly erroneous, so long as it continues to be the view held by those who might otherwise apply for posts within HE, then it is a real obstacle to widening the recruitment net. LEARNING FRAMEWORK As indicated in the introduction to this paper, one of the original intentions of the project was to explore the potential for developing a diagnostic tool, to assist managers and professionals themselves to assess their capabilities and readiness for senior management positions. The idea for the diagnostic tool arose as a direct response to the views of stakeholders, gained during evidence gathering in preparation for the bid itself, that such a tool would be welcome. It emerged during the research phase, however, that issues of maintenance and currency, scope and specificity of any

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such product meant that the development of a bespoke diagnostic tool would not represent value for money. On the other hand a skills assessment tool, which included within it pointers to existing diagnostic tools, was considered to be an important deliverable from the project. At the time of writing work is under way to develop a prototype for a web-based skills assessment tool, along the lines of the model summarised in figure 1. Figure 1 HIMSS Learning framework: draft prototype for development

HIMSS Skllli Assessment Toolkit: d r a f t prototype for development

The intention is that the tool will enable individuals to compare their own skills and experience with the profile of skills and aptitudes needed to be a Head of Information Services. The tool will highlight areas of skills gap and development needs, and provide pointers to possible training providers and products to bridge the skills gaps. Since the HIMSS project is finite, and modest, in time and money, the project can only hope to produce a prototype, which could be used by other organisations in future development work. In this regard it has been fortunate that the HIMSS project coincided with work sponsored by the Information Services National Training Organisation (ISNTO) to develop a prototype skills toolkit for knowledge workers of all descriptions 4. At the time of writing discussions are under way for a collaborative initiative between HIMSS, ISNTO and other interested parties to develop a web-based skills assessment tool, as described above, which would integrate the findings of both the HIMSS project, and the ISNTO work on the skills toolkit. LESSONS FOR EIE INSTITUTIONS: A NEW MODEL OF SUCCESSION PLANNING? Throughout the project there has been considerable discussion about the relevance of succession planning in helping to resolve problems of recruitment and retention in the sector. It is clear that the traditional view of succession planning, whereby certain staff are deliberately groomed for top positions, is no longer appropriate. This

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approach is premised on the assumption of stability of demand, and could in any case be considered inconsistent with equal opportunities policies. Conversely however it is increasingly apparent that a 'do nothing' approach to succession issues is counter productive for institutions. It became very apparent from the research undertaken that institutions under capitalise on the human resources at their disposal, simply because they have not analysed the nature of that capital. It is easy to see how this state of affairs has come about in HE, in the absence of robust performance management and reward management schemes, and appraisal and staff development review schemes which focus on the development of individuals' potential first and foremost. The Higher Education Funding Councils have recently required institutions to produce Human Resource Strategies 5 and have allocated funds to Universities to help develop HR strategies and policies. It is to be hoped that this increased emphasis on Human Resource Management in Universities will encourage Universities to take stock of the human capital they hold, to model human resource needs in different professional areas and to undertake exercises such as career maps and skills audits, in order to bridge the gap between future skills requirements and present skills resources. This is the sort of succession planning which institutions need if they are to maintain their competitive edge, through the recruitment and development of leaders with the imagination and vision needed. In their approaches to recruitment, Universities tend to see recruitment for generalist administrators, and recruitment for specialists, including information services staff, as two separate and distinct processes. There are of course dangers in an information professional being perceived as 'just another generalist' as this could detract from the need for professional expertise which forms the bedrock of an information professional's skills. However now may be the time for the distinction to be blurred somewhat, and for there to be a commonly-agreed set of management competencies and evidence of potential to progress, which any new professional recruits, be they in specialist, or generalist, posts need to demonstrate. This might be one way in which future strategic managers could be developed. The development of Human Resource Strategies needs to be complemented by many more target«! staff development activities for staff at senior levels. There was universal evidence emerging from the research that, the more senior staff become, the less they are expected by their institutions to need induction training or continuing professional development. This is arguably one reason why institutions traditionally recruit 'safe' candidates to top jobs: because there are few safety nets, in terms of support, induction and development activity, 'mistakes' made by staff in top positions are difficult to contain, and hence institutions are reluctant to take risks and appoint staff who may make such mistakes, as part of the learning process. Institutions find it less risky, and cheaper, to recruit candidates for senior posts who can survive and function effectively with little institutional support. While this strategy may make sense from a risk management perspective, there is the danger that it is ultimately selfdefeating: the danger is that able candidates, who for reasons of experience or background would require some degree of institutional development support in order to be reach their full potential, are overlooked. LESSONS FOR THE PROFESSION One of the very important findings from the research was that generic management skills emerged as being far more important for top information posts

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than any particular set of technical or specialist skills, or any particular professional background. This came as no surprise to those of us with experience of working in information services, yet in some institutions there continue to be concerns about the credibility of candidates for top information posts who do not have a certain prescribed professional background. This is of particular concern to those whose information services are converged, since it is almost impossible to find candidates who have an equal depth of experience in both libraries, and computing. The research confirmed that the particular professional background is irrelevant, provided that the postholder has sufficient understanding of the strategic issues affecting both ends of the information spectrum, and sufficient management aptitude to be able to ask the right questions, identify the pertinent issues, and seek the right information to make informed decisions. It would however be inaccurate to suggest that professional training and experience are irrelevant to the success of a head of information services. What is more pertinent however is that those at deputy level or equivalent, who believe they have the requisite professional background and expertise for top jobs, often doubted their generic management abilities and felt the need for generic management development. There was a widespread view that the information profession could do more to encourage networking, mentoring, coaching, and management master classes, and that there was a need for professional training and development bodies to provide 'management top ups' specifically aimed at senior staff. The course on Strategic Management Development which is run annually under the auspices of SCONUL, UCISA and HESDA was acknowledged to be a significant contribution to development for this level of staff. Yet it was felt that this should be complemented by other on-going management development opportunities, preferably offered in a modular way. It is interesting to speculate that one of the reasons that there is a succession planning problem among information professionals has to do with the personality type of those entering the profession in the first place. Some extremely interesting research has recently been carried out in the City of London which suggests that so called 'glass ceiling' issues, the invisible barrier existing in the higher echelons of organisations, are less related to gender than to commitment; and that library and information professionals tend to have low commitment to corporate goals 6. If this research is correct, then this suggests that the profession must look to itself, to the image it projects to prospective professionals and to its own members, if it wishes to see information professionals break through to strategic management positions. CONCLUSIONS The HIMSS project has successfully identified the skills set required by senior managers of library, information and computing services, and demonstrated the importance of generic management skills for posts at this level. It has also demonstrated the potential value of a skills assessment tool to assist individuals and their managers to identify skills gaps, and the means of addressing those gaps. Much more work will need to be done by individual professionals, by their employers, and by a range of professional bodies and organisations if there are to be any lasting measures taken to address these skills gaps. Yet above all the project has demonstrated the wealth of expertise which exists within our profession, and the wealth of opportunities which exist for us to make use of the skills we have to offer.

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5 6

Field, Clive D. "Implementing Convergence at the University of Birmingham." SCONUL Newsletter, 9, Winter (1996): 33-37. Field, Clive D. "Building on Shifting Sands: Information Age Organisations." Ariadne, 17, September (1998): 6-7. Hernon, Peter D., Ronald R. Powell, and Arthur P. Young. "University Library Directors in the Association of Research Libraries: the Next Generation, Part One." College and Research Libraries, 62, 2 (2001): 116-145. Skelton, Val and Angela Abell. Scenarios for the Knowledge Economy: Strategic Information Skills. Developing Skillsfor the Information Services Workforce in the Knowledge Economy: a Report on the Outcomes of Eight Scenario Planning Workshops. Commissioned by the Information Services National Training Organisation. London: Resource, 2001. Higher Education Funding Council. Rewarding and Developing Staff in Higher Education. (HEFCE consultation document, 00/56). Bristol: HEFCE, 2000. Sabatier, Sophie and Charles Oppenheim. "The ILS Professional in the City of London: Personality and Glass Ceiling Issues." Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 33, 3 (2001): 145-155.

Appendix 1: Criteria for defining a 'deputy' level postholder/ aspiring heads of service To be eligible to complete the HIMSS questionnaire, respondents needed to meet the following criteria: They should be working at one tier below the Head of Information Services level, where the information service is non converged, or up to two tiers below the Head of Information Services level, where the service is converged They should normally have a service wide generic management role (such as Human Resource Management, Financial Management) as well as strategic responsibility for a professional function or functions They should be aspiring to career progression, to a Head of Information Services post They should have approximately seven years' relevant professional experience.

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Appendix 2: Definition of terms Converged service

Senior Information Manager Skills Generic management skills Technical knowledge or expertise Specialist knowledge or expertise

Personal qualities Hybrid

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Two or more Information Service areas or units, which traditionally formed stand-alone service areas (administrative computing, academic computing, library service, learning support services, educational technology, media services...) which have been brought together within the same organisational structure and within the same directorship. The Head of Budget Centre/head of the service of either a converged Information Service, or a more traditional, unconverged one Skills is used in a very broad way throughout this research to encompass skills, knowledge and experience. The range of skills (financial skills, people skills, influencing skills, strategic management skills etc) which are required of a senior manager working in any environment or industry Technical knowledge or expertise which is only relevant to the professional librarian, or the ICT professional etc, and which would normally be acquired through working one's way up the hierarchy in a linear way For example: 1) Specialist legal knowledge e.g. Data protection, Copyright, Regulation of Investigatory Powers, Freedom of Information, Intellectual Property. 2) Buildings and construction regulations, issues to do with Planning permission 3) Employment law 4) Risk management, business continuity For example: flexibility; integrity; ability to work long hours; commitment; charisma. 1) Hybrid information environments: means working with a mix of technologies - e.g. print and electronic media [in libraries]; traditional programming and web-based technologies [for computing services]. All Information Services are now, to a greater or lesser extent, hybrid information environments 2) Hybrid manager: a manager who needs and employs both generic management skills; and specific technical or niche skills relevant to the service area s/he is managing

STAFF DEVELOPMENT AND CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION: POLICY AND PRACTICE IN AUSTRALIAN ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES Ian W. Smith Senior Librarían (Personnel) La Trobe University Library Australia Abstract:

This paper presents the results of a research project undertaken in 2001. The study examined the pattern of staff development activity in Australian university libraries, State Libraries, the National Library and the Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Library Network. Data for the study was collected via a questionnaire that was distributed to all libraries in the academic and research library sector. The survey, which achieved a 92% response rate, showed staff development in Australian academic and research libraries to be in a strong and healthy state. The libraries in this sector demonstrate a commitment to staff development that is strategically focused and has a strong emphasis on linking individual and organisational goals. Many of the libraries in the sector, both small and large, have allocated a strategic priority to staff development, have formally stated staff development policies and organised staff development programs. The commitment to staff development in the academic and research library sector has endured despite the pressure of contracting budgets in many parts of that sector. The evidence of this survey is that staff development has established a strong and enduring place in the future of Australian academic and research libraries.

STAFF DEVELOPMENT - THE BROAD AUSTRALIAN CONTEXT For the purposes of this research study the term 'staff development' has been used to cover the broad areas of staff training, staff development and continuing professional education. This distinction was made apparent to the recipients of the research questionnaire. 'Staff development' is used in this sense throughout the paper. Since the early 1990's in Australia there has been an increasing emphasis on the importance of staff development, training and continuing education in both private and public sector organisations. Successive Australian federal governments have placed particular emphasis on increasing the skill and knowledge base of the country's workforce and achieving greater workplace and workforce efficiency as part of a wider objective of making Australia more competitive in the world economy. This has been done using a range of initiatives that include: • the National Training Reform Agenda, • the Training Guarantee Act, • the National Framework for the Recognition of Training, • nationally endorsed industry competency standards (including a set of standards for the Library and information sector) • a National Library/Information Industry Training package.

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The intention at the base of all of these initiatives was to ensure that the federal government reform programs for education, training and skilling of the Australian workforce was effective. While the success of these various initiatives has been mixed, one of their effects has been a considerably enhanced awareness of the importance of staff development as a means of enhancing organisational functioning. Within the library and information services sector the peak professional body, the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA), has long been an enthusiastic advocate for staff development and has an active program of encouraging and facilitating continuing professional education for its members. In its policy statement on Continuing Professional Development the Association encourages its members to maintain a commitment to lifelong learning in order to extend and develop their knowledge skills and competencies as information services practitioners.1 Between 1985 and 2001 the staff development needs of the Australian library and information services sector were served by a not for profit organisation the Australian Information Management Association (AIMA) - that was dedicated to the provision of training and consultancy services to the sector. AIMA was, until its recent demise, a major force in both raising the profile of staff development and providing a range of consultancy and training and development services to the sector. Although AIMA has recently been wound up, its work is to some degree being carried on up by successor organisations, such as the Aurora Foundation, that are committed to providing education, development and training opportunities for the library profession in Australia2. THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY Within this national context the study set out to survey staff development practice in the Australian academic and research library sector. The sector is taken to include all members of the Council of Australian University Librarians, the Council of Australian State Libraries (which includes the National Library of Australia) and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Library Network. In providing this 'snapshot' of current policy and practice in these libraries the study also provides a base for possible farther exploration and analysis of particular aspects of this topic. PREVIOUS STUDIES Two previous studies provide an interesting and useful point of comparison for this current survey.3 In 1981 Margaret Trask, then Head of the School of Library & Information Studies at the Kuring-gai College of Advanced Education, conducted a survey of staff development activity in the Australian Academic & Research Library Sector. Trask's study found that there were at that time only a small number of libraries within the sector that had well developed and coordinated staff development programmes and few libraries had a formally stated staff development policy. Trask found that staff development activity at that time was "... sporcuiic, with limited annual planning, co-ordination and evaluation ". Balancing this somewhat gloomy picture of staff development at that time Trask also noted "a high degree of interest in further developing staff development programmes" with more than half of her survey group indicatili that they had plans for major expansion of their staff development programs.

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Several years later, Gray carried out a follow-up survey of a similar group.5 He found some limited improvement in the picture, and while there were still only a small number of libraries with either written statements of staff development policy and/or organised staff development programs, there was an increased level of interest in the concept of staff development and many libraries had some form of staff development activities in place. The general support for the concept staff development that Gray found in his survey led him to describe staff development as "... an idea whose time has come" THE METHODOLOGY OF THIS RESEARCH STUDY A survey questionnaire1 was sent by email to the forty nine libraries in the Australian academic and research library sector." Forty five libraries responded including the CSIRO Library Network, the National Library of Australia, the eight State and Territory libraries, and thirty five of the thirty nine members of the Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL).,U Tabulation and analysis of the survey results was undertaken using MS Excel. The people answering the survey questionnaire. Respondents

No. of replies 19 The Director or equivalent of their library A senior manager whose responsibilities include staff development in 14 the Library as a whole Middle managers whose responsibilities include staff development in 9 the Library either as a whole or for parts of their library Other designations 3 45 Total

%of total 42% 31% 20% 7% 100%

A comment on the response/non-response rate in this study. Of the forty nine libraries in the sector surveyed forty five replied (92%) replied to the survey. (Two libraries relied in narrative from rather than by completing the survey.) The high level of response allows a strong degree of confidence in the conclusions drawn as to the pattern of staff development activity in the respondent libraries. It is not possible to draw inferences from the non response of some libraries to this questionnaire. One library indicated that they had intended to reply but missed the deadline. Possible reasons for non-response by the other three libraries include lack of interest in the topic under examination, unwillingness to take the time to complete the survey, unwillingness to share information or simply the fact that some libraries may not have a commitment to staff development and/or do not have an organised approach to staff development and so saw the survey as not being relevant to them.

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THE SURVEY FINDINGS Policy Survey respondents were asked if their library has a formally stated policy on staff development. No. of % of replies total 62% Library has a staff development policy or is included in a policy that 28 applies to a wider organisational grouping within which the library is located. 17 38% Library does not have staff development policy 45 100% Total Responses

Almost all (91%) of the larger libraries, (that is those with a staff of 130 or more), reported having a formally stated policy, and 34% of the smaller libraries reported doing so. Samples of policy documents from respondents' institutions were reviewed and some common themes identified: • strategic focus with an emphasis on the alignment of staff development with organisational objectives and priorities; • commitment to the importance of staff development in enabling both individuals and organisations to achieve their goals; • emphasis on both individual and organisational learning and development; • emphasis on both individual and organisational responsibilities for staff development; • recognition of the importance of staff development in the provision of quality service to clients; and • emphasis on evaluating the effectiveness of staff development activities and using the knowledge gained in future program planning. The way in which staff development activity is organised Respondents were asked several questions about the way in which staff development activity is organised in their library. Responses Library has a planned staff development program. Library has an informal approach to staff development Library regards staff development as individual's responsibility Total

No. of replies 36 9 0 45

% of total 80% 20% 100%

Of those reporting an informal approach to the organisation of staff development, the majority are smaller libraries (130 staff members) reported an informal mode of organisation.

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Respondents were asked to describe the pattern of coordination of staff development. No. of % of replies total 11% There is no overall co-ordination of staff development in the library, 5 staff development is the responsibility of managers in each area of the library 27% Overall co-ordination of staff development is the responsibility of a 12 designated library staff member 32% Responsibility for staff development is shared between area 14 managers and a staff member with designated authority for staff development 18% Staff development is the responsibility of a library staff development 8 committee No overall coordination of staff development, staff development is 3 7% the responsibility of managers in each area of the library often in coordination with either a staff development committee and/or the senior manager of the library. Some or all of the major Divisions within the Library have a 2 3% designated training officer/unit No response 1 2% Total 100% 45 Responses

All of the libraries reporting that they have no overall co-ordination of staff development in their organisation are smaller libraries in the survey group. Staff development committees Respondents were asked if their library has a staff development committee. Responses Library has a staff development committee Library does not have a staff development committee Total

No. of replies 22 23 45

% of total 49% 51% 100%

All but one of the libraries reporting that they have a staff development committee have specified terms of reference for that committee. Staff development committees in the respondents' libraries have one of two reporting lines. More than half of the Committees report to the Director, University Librarian or another Senior Manager, the remainder report to a library executive or management committee. Several libraries reported that they have some form of senior advisory committee that deals with a wide range of matters including staff development. The characteristics of staff development programs Respondents were asked about the ways in which staff development is delivered in their organisations.

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Responses

No. of replies 42 41 40 41

Externally conducted programs On the job staff development In-house training using internal trainers In-house training using external trainers

% of total 93% 91% 90% 91%

A number of libraries reported utilising programmes run or coordinated by their parent body. Several libraries reported regular use of online training programmes. Respondents were asked a further range of questions regarding the pattern and type of their staff development activities. Responses

No. of % of replies replies conference 42 93%

Support for attendance at conferences, pre/post workshops and seminars. Orientation/induction programs. Attendance at external short-course training and development programs. Visits to other libraries Attendance at CPE programs In-house short-courses. In-service training programs. Job exchanges within the library. Guest speakers on topics of professional interest. Staff exchanges with other organisations. Support for publication. Support for research. Reports of research in progress and/or completed.

40 40

90% 90%

40 39 37 35 34 31 27 20 17 7

89% 87% 82% 78% 75% 69% 60% 44% 38% 15%

The libraries supporting research work by their staff included the CSIRO, one of the State libraries and six of the university libraries. In commenting on the characteristics of their staff development activities, several of the respondents noted that they seek to make their staff development budgets go further by adopting a preference for the more cost effective option of internal and/or online programs. Staff development activity: increasing, decreasing or staying the same? The respondent libraries were asked whether staff development activity had increased, stayed the same or decreased over the past five years. Responses Staff development activity increased. Staff development activity stayed the same. Staff development activity decreased. Total

30

No. of replies 28 15 2 45

% of total 62% 33% 4% 100%

Of the two libraries reporting a decrease, one cited several reasons for this including a change of focus following a change in senior management and the impact of organisational downsizing and restructuring in reducing the scope for staff development. This same organisation reported that the decrease in staff development is cyclical rather than a permanent change and that following the completion of a major redevelopment program there will be an increased emphasis on staff development especially in areas of customer service. Factors influencing staff development The influence of information technology Respondents were asked if the increased use of information technology in information services delivery had affected their staff development program. Over 90% reported that Information Technology has had such an effect. These libraries were asked about the nature of that influence.

Responses Information technology has affected the staff development program. Increased information technology applications have led to a greater need to train staff in IT applications. Increased information technology applications have had an impact on the focus and content of our staff development program. Increased use of information technology in staff development programs (e.g. computer aided instruction).

No. of % of replies total 41 41

91% 91%

35

78%

25

55%

Strategic plans Respondents were asked if their Libraries have a strategic plan and if so whether staff development is allocated a high medium or low priority within that plan.

Responses Library has a strategic plan. Library does not have a strategic plan. Staff development a high priority within the strategic plan Staff development a medium priority within the strategic plan Staff development a low priority within the strategic plan

No. of % of replies total 38 4 30 9 0

84% 9% 67% 20%

Other factors The survey asked if any other factors had had a significant influence on the staff development program. Slightly over half (24 responses or 53%) of those answering indicated that this was the case. Several broad themes emerged from these comments. Chief amongst these was the impact, particularly in the higher education sector, of shifts in the funding climate and resultant contracting budgets. The decrease in library budgets has reduced staff numbers, constricted the opportunities for staff mobility and put pressure on the budget available for staff development. The need for multiskilling/reskilling of the workforce was mentioned by several respondents - with a particular emphasis on the increasing role of librarians in teaching information literacy and knowledge management. For many libraries organisational review and restructuring - either within the library or as part of a 31

broader organisational restructure has placed an increased emphasis on staff development as a component of effecting such change. A number of organisations noted an increased emphasis on regular work review/appraisal processes and the important role that such programs play in identifying individual staff development needs. The impact of several of these factors was summarised by one respondent as follows: "The external pressures resulting from the university sector funding situation as a whole is instrumental in limiting the library in most areas as regards implementing our vision. Low staff turnover for many years and the ageing of the workforce is a real factor. The challenge is to keep staff up to date, motivated and effective. An unresolved challenge is skilling for the medium term future with minimal young staff to develop and those we do get tending to move on to more financially rewarding areas." Incentives and recognition Incentives Respondents were asked to indicate what forms of incentive they have in place to encourage their employees' participation in staff development programs. Responses

No. replies 40 Paid time granted to attend staff development programs. Payment of course fees for approved study programs and the 36 like. Provision of per diem payments and/or travel allowances. 35 Staff development provides enhanced opportunities for 11 promotion.

of % of total 89% 80% 78% 24%

Commenting on the last of these, one respondent said: "The issue of providing enhanced opportunities for promotion by way of staff development incentive is difficult to balance at times. It is the case that participation in staff development programs can enhance people's promotability. However, promotion is not an automatic outcome of such activity. There can sometimes be dissatisfaction resulting if people who participate in staff development do not get promotions that they may be seeking. However, that is not a reason to stop undertaking staff development!" Several respondents commented that in their experience little incentive was needed to encourage participation in staff development. One said: "These 'incentives' are in place but we find that staff need very little encouragement or 'incentives' to participate in most staff development activities. The majority of Library staff are interested in developing their skills and participating in professional development activities." 32

Recognition of staff development Respondents were asked about the forms of recognition that they have in place for staff members who have participated in staff development activities. No. of replies 25 Documentation of participation on staff member's personal file. 20 In-house certification. Formal accreditation (for example Library supported diploma degree 9 or accredited short course programs). 17 Other means of recognition. Responses

% of total 55% 44% 20% 38%

Other methods of recognition cited included: recognition through the Library's performance management system; placing staff conference reports on a staff Intranet and listing of participants in staff development activities in some form of library staff development newsletter or Intranet listing. Evaluation The surveyed libraries were asked whether they have mechanisms in place for evaluating the effectiveness of staff development in their libraries and if so what these are. No. of replies 40 Mechanisms in place for evaluating staff development 5 No mechanisms in place for evaluating staff development Staff development program participants complete evaluation forms 28 at the completion of a training/development program Completion of evaluation forms at some time after the completion of 15 a training/development program Review of evaluation forms by the person/s with primary 20 responsibility for staff development 11 Review of evaluation forms by the staff development committee Periodic review of the whole staff development program. 23 Periodic review of the staff development program focussing on 16 specific parts of the program Other methods of review and evaluation 9 Responses

% of total 89% 11% 62% 33% 44% 24% 51 35% 20%

A range of methods was reported under the last category above. These included: • evaluation of activities concentrating on what the learning outcomes have been for participants, what they have learnt from the course and how it can be improved; • annual review of the staff development program by the Staff Development Committee as part of the Library planning process; • pre and post testing,

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• • • •

use of specific performance indicators identified for each training and development program; formal reporting back to colleagues by participants in external courses and conferences; supervisors and staff members sharing the outcomes of staff development programs in workplace applications; evaluation, several months after attendance, to determine whether skills, knowledge and attitudes from the training have been implemented in the workplace.

COMMENTARY ON THE STUDY FINDINGS Policy A formal statement of staff development policy is important because it formalises and actively states organisational commitment to staff development, gives clear guidelines to staff members on the terms and conditions of the library's support for staff development and sets out the obligations on the part of staff members who are recipients of support for staff development. A significant number of libraries reported they do have such a commitment stated through a staff development policy. Several clear themes were evident in the policies examined in this study: • strategic focus • alignment of staff development activity and organisational objectives • emphasis on both individual and organisational development • recognition of the importance of staff development in the provision of quality service to clients • emphasis on evaluating the effectiveness of staff development. Staff development committees A staff development committee provides an important focus for staff development activity and also provides opportunities for staff members, from a range of areas and levels of the organisation, to participate in the promotion and organisation of staff development activities in their library. Half of the libraries that responded to the survey have such a committee, all but one having defined terms of reference. All of these committees have a senior reporting line in their organisation. This senior level of reporting of the staff development committees indicates that there is a high level of importance accorded to the work of these committees and it give these committees the potential to be influential in shaping and directing staff development in their organisations. The types of staff development activity This study has shown that staff development is being undertaken in a wide range of modes. There is evidence of a good balance between training in specific knowledge and job skills and broader professional developmental programs and activities. In many instances the libraries surveyed reported that that they have a preference for staff development that could be undertaken in house. This, in part at least, appears to 34

be due to a need to achieve economies and to make staff development budgets go further. However, such in house training can have strong benefits in its own right. By involving staff members in a process of actively passing on their skills to others the trainers themselves gain a benefit - extending their skills and ability through the process of training and developing the skills of others. The level of staff development activity The survey responses indicate a strong and growing body of staff development activity in the Australian academic and research libraries sector. All but two of the libraries in the study reported that the level of staff development activity had, over the past five years, either increased or been maintained at the same level. Of the two libraries reporting a decrease, one noted that this was not due to any lack of commitment to staff development but rather due to current organisational factors. The impact of information technology Advances in both the sophistication of information technology applications and the wide scale use of these applications has had a major impact on libraries. As might be expected, this has in turn led to a significant flow-on for the staff development programs in a large majority of the respondent libraries. Over 90% of the libraries replying to the survey reported that the increased use of information technology had led to a greater need to train staff in the use of information technology applications and 75% of respondents noted an impact on the focus and content of staff development programs. Many libraries reported that that the growing role of libraries in teaching literacy and knowledge management skills has resulted in a need to develop these skills in their staff. This is both necessary in order to apply these skills for these staff members to take on these skills in their own work and to take a prime role in training library clients in information literacy. Budget strictures Many libraries reported on the impact of budget constraints on their organisation and in turn on their staff development programs. Budgetary pressures were reported as impacting directly on staff development programs - reducing the money available and forcing organisations to find ways of maintain their staff development programs while spending less on that activity. Despite the pressures of contracting budgets, the majority of libraries surveyed have continued to maintain their commitment to staff development and to allocate a high priority to these programs within their budgets. Many libraries reported that they are actively seeking ways in which to make those budgets go further, for example by increased use of internal training resources and the use of online training packages. Contracting budgets have also impacted on staff development programs by reducing the overall number of staff positions available with a resulting flow on restriction of opportunities for movement between jobs. This has the potential to produce stagnation at both individual and organisational levels. A number of respondents noted this as both a potential problem - staff members sometimes lacking interest in, or commitment to, undertaking staff development - and as a need and an opportunity for creative organisational growth through staff development programs.

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Evaluation Evaluation of staff development activity is important in assessing the effectiveness of staff development undertaken (for the individual, the team and the library as a whole and for and informing future planning. Bridgland observed "Without evaluation staff development runs the risk of being ad hoc, lacking direction and occurring in isolation -without having any relevance to either the recipient or the library.'"6 This current study has revealed a strong and active commitment to carrying out evaluation by a variety of means, and to improving their staff development programs through those means. Differences between large and small libraries Differences between larger and smaller libraries in the study group showed up mainly in two areas. Most of the larger libraries have a formally stated staff development policy and they more frequently reported having both a planned staff development program and a designated staff member undertaking coordination of that program. This result is not surprising given the differences in size of the libraries within the sector. Smaller libraries may have neither the need nor the organisational capacity to sustain a position that is either fully or partially responsible for staff development. The lack of such a position, or of a stated staff development policy in these smaller libraries does not, however, imply any less a commitment to staff development. Over two thirds of the smaller academic and research libraries have a planned staff development program and offer a wide range of staff development opportunities to their staff. Strategic plans/priorities Strategic plans are important in setting broad organisational objectives and priorities. It is significant that over 80% of respondent libraries have a strategic plan and of these close to 80% have allocated staff development a high priority within those Plans. This is a strong indication that staff development is seen as an important factor in the achievement of organisational objectives and priorities. Across the Australian academic and research library sector investment in staff development is seen as a necessary and valuable investment in the process of developing a skilled and committed workforce and through this means achieving more effective organisations. CONCLUSION This study has shown staff development in Australian academic and research libraries to be in a strong and healthy state. The emerging interest in staff development that was evident in the sector in the early and mid 1980's has been realised to a point where Australian academic and research libraries have overwhelmingly adopted a strong commitment to staff development. This is evidenced by the allocation of strategic priority to staff development, formally stated staff development policies and the allocation of designated staff development responsibility within many libraries. Staff development is seen as a key means of developing a skilled and committed workforce and more effective organisations. Both small and large libraries within the sector have a demonstrable commitment to

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staff development that is strategically focused and has a strong emphasis on linking individual and organisational goals. The development in Australia of a public policy environment that has placed an emphasis on educating and skilling the workforce has provided an environment in which the growth of staff development programs has been encouraged and assisted. The commitment to staff development in the academic and research library sector has endured despite the pressure of contracting budgets in many parts of that sector. Staff development - the development of the people resources of our organisations is an important investment in developing the future capability of those organisations. The evidence of this survey is that staff development has established a strong and enduring place in the future of Australian academic and research libraries. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This investigation was conducted under the auspices of the La Trobe University Library Research Committee and with support from the Library for the project. NOTES I

II

III

A copy of the survey questionnaire is available on request to the author: i. [email protected] A range of libraries is represented in this sector. Some of the university libraries responding to the survey have a relatively small staff (between 30 and 60). The majority of the libraries in the survey group fall in the range 90 to 270 staff members while the three largest (two state libraries and the national Library of Australia have 358, 401 and 512 staff members respectively.) A response was also received from a New Zealand university library. While that group of libraries is outside the scope of this survey and therefore not included in the data analysis, the response nevertheless provides an interesting comparison - with some similarities and some differences between that and the Australian respondents.

REFERENCES 1

2 3

4

Australian Library and Information Association. Statement on Continuing Professional Development. Available from: www.alia.org.au/education/cpd/ For more information on the Aurora Foundation: http://www.alia.org.au/aurora/ A third, and more recent, study should also be noted. Bridgland in the mid 1990's undertook two surveys of Australian academic and state libraries with a specific focus on the impact of the National Training Reform Agenda and federal government policy encouraging workplace rearrangement on staff development in Australian academic and state libraries. Bridgland, Angela, The Impact of the National Training Reform Agenda and Workplace Rearrangement on Staff Development in Australian Academic and State Libraries, PhD Thesis, University of Melbourne, 1997. Trask, Margaret. Staff Development in Libraries: Report of a Study Project September 1981-Jvne 1982. Lindfield, NSW: Kuring-gai college of Advanced Education, 1983, p. 7. 37

Gray, John. "Staff Development Policies and Practices in some Australian Libraries." In Lifestyles and Librarians. Proceedings of the 24"" LAA Conference 1986. Darwin: LAA, 1986, p. 444. Bridgland, Angela. The Impact of the National Training Reform Agenda and Workplace Rearrangement on Staff Development in Australian Academic and State Libraries. PhD Thesis. University of Melbourne, 1997.

RETOOLING CATALOGUERS AND INDEXERS FOR THE INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SOCIETY: A NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN THE UK AND THE US Patricia A. Lawton

University o f Illinois Urbana-Champaign USA Abstract:

During the past decade, library and information science programs have hastened to patch together a curriculum that will address new roles and responsibilities of the information professional. This can be recognised in job titles such as Knowledge Manager, Content Manager and Information Architect to name a few. Continuing professional education needs to address these same concerns, with the practitioners in mind. This preliminary study addresses the changing role and responsibilities of professionals already engaged in organising and describing information the cataloguers and indexers. What new challenges do they perceive in the workplace? And what concepts and skills are demanded? Is there a need for information about metadata generally, specific metadata schema, GIS, how to catalogue ebooks, indexing theory, how to construct indexes or classification schemes? What concepts and skills can CPE provide to help practitioners to better meet the demands of the marketplace? What about the Cataloguer who is interested in helping to build the company's taxonomy? How can s/he best be supported? Through a survey and interviews with Aslib and Special Libraries Association members, recommendations for specific components of CPE curricula will be proposed and Compared against a sample o f current CPE offerings and enrolments in the US and UK.

INTRODUCTION Over the past ten years, Library and Information Science (LIS) programs have hastened to patch together a curriculum to address new roles and responsibilities o f the information professional. We can recognise these new roles in job titles such as 'Knowledge Manager', 'Content Manager', and 'Information Architect', to name a few. Continuing professional education (CPE) needs to address these same concerns, with the working professional in mind. This preliminary study addresses the changing role and responsibilities of working professionals already engaged in organising and describing information, our cataloguers and indexers. What new challenges and responsibilities do they perceive in the workplace, and what concepts and skills are demanded? What concepts and skills can CPE provide to help working information professionals to better meet the demands of the marketplace? What about the cataloguer who is interested in helping to build the company's taxonomy? How can s/he best be supported?

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DISINTERMEDIATION If the pundits and soothsayers are correct, 'disintermediation' is at hand; it is in fact upon us.1'2'3 Disintermediation, or 'the act of bypassing information specialists in the age of ubiquitous information retrieval systems4 means essentially that end users are finding their own way throughout the information universe. Where there used to be three points on the line of access to information: information resource, intermediary, and end user, the more popular model today has just two nodes, straight from resource to end user. The change is attributed to the encroachment of information technology and the blurring of the boundaries among the triad of resource, intermediary, and user. Also blurring are the lines between information scientist and librarian. If we accept that the intermediary is no longer necessarily between the resource and the user, as in the early days of DIALOG searching, for example, then, what are we as information professionals to do? Pack our bags and go home? Rather, this seems like a call to arms for our cataloguers and indexers. If users of all kinds are going straight to the information, then those who organise information to enhance access are needed more than ever. The LIS profession understands the needs of the user (at least considers them, we hope) and has a long and rich tradition of organising, representing, and displaying information. But, more importantly, does the world outside LIS that is now grappling with many of the questions with which LIS has wrestled since before the time of Perni zzi, know that LIS exists and that it might have something to offer to their information problems? And if, as we suspect, the LIS world is not a key player in this larger world of information, then how do we go about ensuring that our knowledge is tapped? This paper describes part one of a two part study designed to identify the new challenges to those in LIS who organise information within environments beyond the typical LIS setting and to determine the role of CPE in meeting new information organisational challenges. Two key questions guide the research: "What do our cataloguers and indexers need to retool for the 21st century and What gaps exist between what is needed by practitioners and what is offered in our continuing professional education (CPE) programs?" This paper addresses the first - "what do our cataloguers and indexers need to retool?" Eight individuals with LIS backgrounds whose work addresses the organisation of information were interviewed. Four interviewees were from the United Kingdom (UK) and four were from the United States (US). Participants were asked to identify and describe the new challenges facing recent LIS graduates and the educational opportunities cataloguers and indexers need to retool and prepare for those new challenges. These new challenges include such tasks as thesaurus and taxonomy construction for Intranets. While the interviewees provide some observations on gaps between what is needed and what is offered through CPE, a further analysis of these gaps will be conducted in part two of the study. Part two will provide a content analysis of current CPE offerings and map the content of those offerings to the needs identified by the study participants. Gaps, then, between what is needed and what is offered will be manifest. ASSUMPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS There are a number of assumptions inherent in this study. First, is the assumption that there are transferable skills and a knowledge base that 'qualify' our knowledge or information organisation (IO) professionals (formerly cataloguers and indexers) for these tasks. Second, that this assumed body of knowledge includes

40

principles of controlled vocabulary, classification, and description; tenets with which cataloguers and indexers have been grappling for generations. However, the scope and definition of 'information organisation' may be fuzzy at best, both to those familiar and those not so familiar with the area. For the sake of clarity, Jesse Shera's definition of'The Theory and Practice of Bibliographic Organisation" is invoked and provides the framework for this investigation. "This area includes the total problem of organising information for use, its fundamental theory, its logical foundations, and the techniques and practices which have emerged from them. It emphasises classification, indexing, abstracting, and the mechanisation of information retrieval ."5 Classification, indexing, abstracting, and the mechanisation of retrieval, then, serve as the defining indicators of 'information organisation' (IO) and are the centrepiece for discussions and choice of participants. Those writing about, thinking about, or engaged in these activities were selected to participate. The focus of this inquiry is the working professional faced with tasks such as creating thesauri or taxonomies for institutional and corporate networks, for assigning and determining metadata schemes and the like. Most often, information professionals who have traditionally dealt with controlled vocabularies and the application of metadata (before it was called metadata) are those whom we in the library and information science (LIS) world have long called indexers and cataloguers. And, is it not appropriate that they are called upon to do this sort of work? Who better to handle the challenges of organising information than those who have been doing just that and codifying their discoveries and resultant knowledge since the time of Antonio Panizzi in the mid-nineteenth century? JOB TITLES A quick review of the position announcements today suggests that change is afoot in this profession. We see a range of titles from 'Information Manâger' to 'Information Architect', 'Consultant for Implementation of Knowledge Structures'. To describe this area of LIS, that side of the profession that is not reference or enquiry-based, but the side that has been dealt with organising bibliographic information, or knowledge organisation is increasingly difficult. What do we now call those whom we once called cataloguers and indexers? Information organisation (IO) professionals? Knowledge Access Managers? (OCLC tried that several years ago, but it hasn't quite caught on). For the sake of simplicity and middle of the road between the rather arcane-sounding bibliographic and the hotly debated knowledge, let's just call them IO professionals, or information organisation professionals. PARTICIPANTS Participants were selected from two main categories - the practitioners and the experts (for lack of better terms). The practitioners work in non traditional settings (i.e., not public, academic or school libraries), and have work responsibilities that include organising information in some form - cataloguing, indexing, constructing controlled vocabularies, or any combination. The 'experts' include those who also work in some way with the organisation of information, but the experts have a broader perspective than do the 'practitioners'. This broader perspective comes from their

41

activities as consultants, educators, and/or scholars, and the number of years in the profession. The average number of years in the field for the experts is 22 vs. 8 for the practitioners. Another distinction between the two groups is simply stated. The experts are the ones conducting the CPE courses; the practitioners comprise the attendees or consumers of CPE. UK AND US Both the US and the UK were examined for a number of reasons. The primary stimulus included the desire to cast a wider net than was possible by examining just one of the two. Another rationale for looking at both is to grapple with the theory/practice issue. It has been suggested that theory and principle in LIS receive greater emphasis in the UK than in the US6. And if indeed theory is of more value in the UK LIS professional world, then how does this enhance and support or even change the everyday world of IO work? Is the US workplace and are LIS professionals hospitable to theory-based learning? Is that even the responsibility of CPE?

CONTEXT/SETTING The context chosen for this study is the 'special' library, which here is limited to government and corporate world. This focus leaves off work in academic, public, and school libraries. It appears that government and business are those institutions currently propelling forth the demands on the exchange and organisation of information, as witnessed by the prevalence of Intranets, pricey automatic vocabulary builders, and the presence of the practise known as 'knowledge management'. Although academics do act as interviewees, their comments are focused not on the occurrence of events within that setting, but targeted toward work and advances in government and business. METHODOLOGY Open ended interviews were conducted with eight individuals working at various levels in the area of IO in the US and the UK. The overriding research question for the interviews was - "What knowledge and skills are needed for retooling cataloguers and indexers for the next decade?" Ancillary questions included: Is there any difference in what is needed between the US and the UK and what can each learn from the other about KO? Are LIS professionals in fact being identified by the corporate world as experts in organising vast amounts of information? What CPE opportunities exist for this segment of information professionals, and what gaps, if any, can be identified between the participants' identified needs and the offerings in CPE today? How can those from the LIS tradition contribute and what do they need from CPE to succeed? In short, what can and should continuing professional education offer to assist the retooling of our cataloguers and indexers? Data in the form of eight 30-60 minute taped interviews was gathered. The interviews were open-ended, with five central areas. The key questions (culled from Weingand 7 ) include: 42

1. anecdotal observations Can you describe a situation that challenged you? How did you meet that challenge? What helped to prepare you? 2. observations What new challenges do you see for our cataloguers and indexers? 3. trends What trends do you see in the job market (within IO)? 4. prescriptions What is necessary to retool? What skills and knowledge bases are needed to address these challenges? Can you name three to five things that the IO professional needs to know to meet today's challenges? 5 KM What about knowledge management (KM)? How do you conceive of it and do you see LIS playing a role? Data were analysed using methods described by Creswell.8 The taped interviews were transcribed by the researcher, then reviewed as a whole. One set of transcripts was then examined and emerging themes were noted. Basically, the question "what is this about?" played throughout the classification process. All transcripts were analysed in this manner a set of categories emerged. With these categories, the data as a whole were encoded. From this process emerged a number of themes and concerns which will be described in the results section of this paper. RESULTS/INFORMATION: TECHNOLOGY Not surprisingly, the 'experts' talked freely about taxonomies, ontologies, and knowledge management. The 'practitioners', on the other hand, raised questions about these topics, questions that underscored a desire to define and categorise these events and issues within their framework of IO. All respondents suggested tension between, and the necessity for fusion of, the concepts of information and technology. A number of different words were used, but the meaning was consistent, that a real challenge in the workplace and therefore for CPE to address is this tension and movement between: theory LIS theory information print content

practice technology technology electronic technology

One expert suggests that the IO professional needs to be able to "marry the two:" "Before, we talked about needing to know principles so you could apply the system. Dewey [Dewey Decimal Classification], for example, is an example

43

of a practical application and it is a technology, it is a tool that helps us to do our work, just like systems and databases today. It's really all about information content and our tools to provide access to organise it." Yet, we must understand, too, that although theory, history, and foundations are important, they're not enough. We must also utilise the opportunities that technological innovation has offered. ". . .There are tons of new capabilities our there and we need to learn to build on those ... understanding the history's nice ... you don't repeat yourself ... you understand the past and you can grow from there ... but a lot of people seem to be immersed in the history and they're not moving." The theme of keeping up with technology, of marrying the two is echoed here: "Big academic libraries and some of the cataloguing utilities didn't really understand the database aspect of things because they just automated library catalogues and they never really looked at the A&I [Abstracting and Indexing] end of things. So we have a bit of a collision course coming forward, it hasn't hit us yet but I imagine it will soon ... we didn't think outside the box, we were still in the drawer ... and that's why librarians are being left behind." Several respondents discussed the technology/information dichotomy at some length. Communication is noted as the key to addressing this problem. Respondents continually emphasised the library professional's knowledge of the user and knowledge of principles of control of content, but they also noted that it was essential to understand the systems designers and to be able to talk with them. It is especially interesting to note that all respondents who addressed this issue indicated that it was up to the IO professional to ensure that communication. In other words, the 'tech people' were not expected to make efforts to understand the LIS people, but the LIS people were expected to learn enough of the technical language to communicate at a fairly proficient level with the technical people. The practitioners and experts agree that there is a real problem in keeping up with both the theory and the technology, but there was unanimous agreement that LIS graduates should have a good theoretical background and build from there in CPE. CPE education can support the information professional's retooling efforts by exposure to new applications and technologies which aid in the organisation of and access to information. KM There was general agreement concerning the meaning and scope of KM. Most thought that IO professionals do have a role to play and saw it as a role shared by business professionals and ethnographers. The only dissenting view was that one saw KM as synonymous with knowledge/information organisation. Many suggested that it is an area where LIS professionals could be more visible, but is an area where they are absent due to the 'image' problem of the librarian and a lack of self promotion. Librarians, in the words of one expert "are still associated with books ... we need to move the image to include information management."

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MARKETING/IMAGE The marketing/image theme was consistent throughout the interviews. Respondents spoke strongly about the LIS profession's need to market who we are and what we know to communities outside LIS. One expert noted that there have been a number of grassroots efforts but they have not gone far enough. She noted two key obstacles to continued efforts in this area as 1) the problem that "business people that need [marketing] won't do it in collaboration with their competition" and 2) academics don't emphasise what they know (the foundational aspects of vocabulary control and classifications, for instance) but instead have moved towards the area of natural language processing (NLP). Most of the practitioners noted that the obstacle to marketing was inadequate amounts of time. They are so busy doing their daily work, that there isn't time left in the day to tell others what you do. On the other hand, the experts heavily emphasised networking and utilising informal channels, such as the old 'conversation at the watercooler' notion as well as attendance at professional seminars and conferences. LIS professionals have many key and unique contributions that could be marketed and promoted to the business world. Noted by participants were: • • •

knowledge and understanding of the user foundational knowledge and understanding of classification, vocabulary control, content management knowledge of standards

SUGGESTED COURSES FOR CPE The next part of this study will investigate what is being offered through CPE and will be compared to the needs of the IO community as articulated by participants. Though respondents suggested the following topics, they were all in agreement that many of the suggestions wouldn't come under the purview of CPE if LIS schools were doing their job. To date, respondents have suggested the following topics: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

XML computer systems - strengths and weaknesses theory of classification, faceted schemes, thesaurus construction exposure to automatic classification tools existing schemes (DDC, LCC, UDC, LCSH) - strengths and weaknesses mapping from one scheme to another (investment in data not systems) relational database design database driven websites standards how to categorise information how to label information how to map terms how to catalogue websites how to communicate with systems designers how to apply MARC usability ontologies 45

Those in the UK indicated a greater desire for an increase in their technological knowledge, whereas those in the US more often noted a need for more theory. All interviewees point to the role and failure of LIS schools to provide the theoretical foundation that information professionals need, yet none feel that filling that gap is the role of CPE. Rather, they think that CPE should address things we weren't 'supposed' to learn in library school, for example, using XML and how-to information about thesaurus construction. CONCLUSIONS The lack of confidence in LIS schools by practitioners was a theme throughout the interviews. And surprisingly, it was not the lack of technological education that was most lamented, but the lack of a good foundation in the principles of the organisation of information. The refrain was nearly unanimous, and freely given. Participants were not asked, "How well do you think the LIS schools are preparing graduates?" but offered it up to the interviewer as a point of great frustration and discontent. They noted that professionals can learn the software, the technology, etc. but that they need to first understand the how and why of controlled vocabulary, classification, and description. They noted that thesauri, ontologies, taxonomies, and metadata are merely new ways of naming controlled vocabulary, classification, and cataloguing and that if the LIS schools would provide students with this foundational and theoretical understanding, then the role of CPE would be simpler. Those who teach CPE workshops or courses unanimously noted that they have had to incorporate basic principles into their courses, but that this should not be so. This, they noted, was the role of the LIS schools. It has become apparent that no comprehensive examination of CPE and its objectives can be studied apart from an awareness of the library schools, their role, their educational objectives and the attainment of those objectives. Though I cringe at the notion of graduates as 'products' still, "there are two questions to be answered: (a) what sort of 'product' do the library schools aim to tum out? and (b) what sort of "product" do employers want - now and in the future?"9 I would add to that "(c) how can CPE support, enhance, and even ensure the success of the IO professional, given an understanding of the true measures of (a) and (b)?" The problem, of course, is that we still lack adequate understanding of (a) and (b). It is disconcerting that not a lot has been added to our knowledge of the true educational needs of LIS graduates since Cronin's 1982 10 report examining educational objectives of educators and practitioners in the UK. In that study, Cronin conducted a content analysis of UK library school prospectuses and job announcements, and concluded that there is a conflict of objectives between the two groups. He found, as did Conant 11 in the US in the late 70s, that practitioners still did not trust LIS educators to provide the education that professionals needed. This theme is certainly echoed here again. Though both Cronin and Conant were looking at LIS education in terms of library schools and not in a continuing education vein, the same principles apply. If, in fact, (and there is a great need for more study in this area) the LIS schools are not adequately preparing graduates for the workplace, then the burden will more heavily fall on the shoulders of CPE to provide more and different educational opportunities. For not only will CPE be fulfilling its role to support the education of the working professional and to offer optional learning

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opportunities, but the role of CPE may become a necessity to the survival and viability of the information professional in today's information marketplace. The results here indicate the urgent necessity for further dialogue between LIS schools and our professional organisations. On that front, there is encouraging news from SLA's President, Karen Kreizman-Reczek "I would like to see the association [SLA] reach out directly to library school students, and play a more significant role in influencing library school curricula. SLA should increase involvement with library schools and lobby at the ALA-accreditation level to make sure that coursework in special library skills such as knowledge/content management, business intelligence, and strategic planning and analysis are required as part of re-accreditation. Ensuring new librarians have the necessary competencies is critical to the future success and positive perception of our profession". Continued dialogue, further research into the needs of employers and the roles of LIS schools, alliances between and among our professional organisations, and more watercooler chats within our organisations; all seem appropriate to the perceived threat of disintermediation that is upon us. FURTHER RESEARCH Part two of the study will more closely examine the offerings of CPE to better gauge how the respondents' views of the needs of CPE match with the state of the art in CPE. Preliminary content analyses of Aslib and SLA continuing education offerings over the last three years, however, indicate that our professional associations are pretty much on target with the needs described by information professionals interviewed. A sample of offerings reveals that the topic knowledge management has been well addressed in the UK, as have thesaurus and taxonomy building in the US. In both countries, traditional cataloguing and indexing issues such as using MARC, how to catalogue websites, etc. and are also being addressed. A more thorough analysis of actual course offerings will be reported at the upcoming conference in August. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I want to thank all the study participants for their generous participation. I have read where 'expert' interviews result in valuable data, but one of the dangers with them is finding people to talk to you, as experts schedules are full. I am happy to report that experts in the area of the organisation of information are incredibly generous and gracious. Of the 25 individuals I invited to speak with me, I have heard from all but S. Thank you all, and I hope that my words do service to your thoughts. NOTE 1 The term 'bibliographic', in LIS includes many types of materials, but the root stem of the word suggests 'book' to many and so is not used in this paper. The more inclusive-sounding 'information' is used instead to avoid confusion and to underscore the all-encompassing scope of resources with which we deal today. 'Knowledge' organisation is often heard today as well, but because of my own philosophical bias

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against the use of'knowledge' in this context, the more benign 'information' will be used. REFERENCES 1

2

3

4 5

6

7

8

9 10 11

12

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Cronin, Blaise. The Education of Library-Information Professionals: A Conflict of Objectives? Aslib Occasional Publication No. 28. London: Aslib, 1982 Downey, J. Stephen. Jumping Off the Disintermediation Bandwagon: Reharmonizing LIS Education for the Realities of the 21s' Century. 1999. Available from: http://www.lis.uiuc.edu/~jdownie/alise99/ Special Committee on Competencies for Special Librarians. Competencies for Special Librarians of the 21st Century. 1996. Available from: http://www.sla.org/content/SLA/professional/meaning/competency.cfm Accessed 20 January 2002. Downey, op. cit. Shera, Jesse H. Foundations ofEducation for Librarianship. New York: Wiley, 1972, p. 183. Quinn, Brian (1994), "Recent theoretical approaches in classification and indexing." Knowledge Organization 21, no. 3, p. 145. Weingand, Darlene E. "Training the Trainer: A Perspective from the ALA/CLENE-RT." In Patricia Layzell Ward and Darlene E. Weingand (Eds.) Human Development: Competencies for the Twenty-first Century, Papers from the IFLA CPERT Third International Conference on Continuing Professional Education for the Library and Information Professions. München: Κ. G. Saur, 1997, pp. 296-297. Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994, p. 155. Cronin, op. cit. p. 4. Cronin, op. cit. Conant, R. W. A Study of the Education of Librarians. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 1980. Kreizman-Reczek, Karen. Karen Kreizman-Reczek - SLA - Special Libraries Association. 2001. Available from: http://www.sla.org/œntent/SLA/Stnicture/board-index/0102board/kkreiz.cfm Accessed 20 January 2002.

OPPORTUNITIES AND STRATEGIES FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN INDIA THROUGH DISTANCE MODE Dr. Dinesh K. Gupta Department of Library and Information Science Kota Open University India

Abstract

Prof. S.B.Ghosh Department of Library and Information Science Indira Gandhi National Open University New Delhi India

In the information society, our knowledge and skills become obsolete more quickly. The 'one-shot' philosophy of education is no longer tenable. If library and information systems need to be sustained and prosper, then training and education must be undertaken on a continuing basis. The opportunity for the library and information professionals to be proactive to ensure that the new technologies become a structurally integrated part of the education and training process has never been greater. Moreover, new technologies have increased academic productivity and have brought changes in pedagogy and the curriculum. Open and distance learning, characterised as flexible and more responsive to the demands of learners, is the manifestation of the new learning environment. This new environment, especially with respect to the delivery of appropriate information and knowledge to the learners at a place and time of their choice, contributes to a dramatic revolution in the education and training of library professionals. The paper analyses the role of distance education in the continual professional education of librarians; discusses the existing opportunities available to LIS professionals in India and presents an overview of the strategies adopted for CPE through this mode in the delivery of library and information science programmes in the country.

INTRODUCTION Distance education is now recognised as an important mode of providing education that ensures that professionals remain occupationally competent in today's knowledge based society. Distance education in library and information science has grown rapidly in recent years, and is available to a wider audience in India. The number of institutions offering library and information science education has increased over the years, and programmes are offered at various levels. Standardisation in the delivery of resources and services has taken place in common with other institutions which derive benefits from modern technologies. This extends the reach of classrooms to off-campus sites, and by transmitting courses into workplace, enables library and information professionals to view class lectures in the comfort of their homes and offices. Library and information science education in the distance mode has become an integral part of the professional's life for not only for achieving 'education for all' but also for 'life long learning'.1 In this paper an attempt has been made to see what opportunities are available to the new entrants and in-service library and information

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professionals in India, and what strategies are being adopted in delivering education through distance learning. NEW OPPORTUNITIES We are moving towards a knowledge society, in which it is a convention to regard the years spent in formal schooling as not being a once in a lifetime experience. The shelf life of the knowledge acquired is getting shorter and shorter. This is not confined to high technology industries, but also to service industries such as banking and finance, insurance, transportation, health services, and many others likely to capitalise on the latest break through in IT. Those who fail to catch up with the latest market trends in their field will be left behind. As such the one shot philosophy of education is no longer tenable. If libraries are to be sustained and prosper they need to become knowledge organisations in the true sense. In the knowledge organisation every individual must be ready to integrate 'working' with 'learning' and be willing to update his knowledge to retain relevant knowledge in the fast changing environment. Open and distance learning (ODL) has proved to be a powerful instrument to achieve this objective. Some two decades of the experience of providing distance and open learning to library and information professionals in India has shown how new opportunities can be, and have been, exploited in making higher education accessible to far more people than ever envisaged. First and foremost has been the opportunity to cooperate with other institutions, involving practising librarians at different levels from course design to lesson writing, from counselling to evaluation. They are equal partners with the teachers as members of committees, course contributors, counsellors, evaluators, and trainers. This has enriched the open university programmes, as the best of both the streams become co-partners in the successful implementation of distance education programmes. That is the most striking success of the open university's course team approach. Because of their high quality study materials (the only visible output to the outside world) are now finding their way into conventional institutions. This indirectly fills a vacuum that has concerned LIS educators for a long time - that of making available quality learning materials. The second new opportunity lies in the exploitation of technologies. The computer, email, the Internet, audiovisual and audiovideo conferencing are examples of opportunities confined to a minority in the beginning, but with the potential for wider use. Experimenting with alternative sources of energy is one way of expanding the number of those who can be reached in these ways. The third opportunity is that life long learning becomes a reality to many more people than before. In the past, life long learning was associated particularly with literacy and numeracy, functional literacy, and such aspects of knowledge sharing. Open universities are providing new opportunities for everyone. If we take an example of library and information science programmes, these are available for all professionals, semi professionals and non professionals, from the lower level to the chief librarian, for the people residing in rural and urban areas, and for new comers and in-service training. Thus these universities meet the educational needs of everybody. The objectives of LIS education through distance mode can be identified as: • providing opportunities to earn qualifications in librarianship to those who could not join the formal stream for various reasons;

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• • • •

upgrading and enhancing the professional level of knowledge and understanding of working library and information professionals who do not have formal qualifications; supplementing and enriching the formal qualifications of those who need higher qualifications for their career development; equalising the professional educational opportunities among the people who are in dire need; providing self supported and less expensive professional education to the working professionals living in distant locations.

Thus, open and distance learning is the most useful and cost effective means of enhancing or updating information and library skills and qualifications.2 Continuous learning will also help to achieve quality assurance in library and information services at last. The fourth category of opportunity is the flexibility in the style of teaching and learning made possible with the courses provided by open universities. The use of technologies makes it possible to reach a greater number of learners than was ever possible in the past, and at their convenience. At the same time, practitioners using both new and old technologies should be aware of the full range of possibilities so that their experiences can be made available for the benefit of learners. The fifth opportunity is that open learning creates a meaningful and authentic space for self learning. This means that we can move beyond the minimum level of learning or completing the syllabi in the given time towards an open ended pedagogy that encourages the learner to imagine, to dream, to experiment. Their own diverse experiences, aspirations, portfolio of multiple intelligence, learning styles and learning pace are recognised. PROGRAMMES ON OFFER The growth of distance education in recent years has been striking in respect of both the numbers of students undertaking study at a distance, and the number of institutions providing distance education in library and information science. The range of programmes offered by different universities is shown in Table 1. Those offered by correspondence have also been considered as being in the distance mode. Many of the correspondence course institutes of the universities are changing their names to become Directorates of Distance Education (DDEs). The striking feature is that such universities are offering the programmes in a dual mode: correspondence/distance education, and the classroom mode.

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Table 1 Programmes available through open and distance education in India Name of the University

C. Lib. & Inf. Sc.

Dip. Lib. & Inf. Sc.

B. Lib. & Inf. Sc.

(A) Institutions offering dual mode * Algappa University * Annamalai University * APS University, Rewa * Barkatullah University, Bhopal Bharathidasan University, Tiruchipalli * Calicut University Chitrakoot University * HS Gaur University, S agar * Guru Ghashi Das Univ. r Bilaspure * * Kakatiya University * Kashmir University * Kurukshetra University * LN Mithila Univ. * * Madras University » Madurai Kamraj university * * Manomaniam, Sundaranar * Maharshi Dayanand Univ. Punjabi University, Patiala Patna University SV University, Tirupati

M. Lib. PhD. & Inf. Sc.

* * *

* *

*

» *

* *

*

(B ι Open universities * * Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University (BRAOU), Hyderabad * * Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU, New Delhi * Karnataka State OU, Mysore * + Kota OpenUniversity (K.O.U.), Kota • Nalanda Open University, Patna UP Rajshri Tandan OU, Allahabad • * * Yashwantrao Chauhan Maharastra Open University (YCMOU), Nasic • Programme licensed from IGNOU + To be launched shortly

»

*

It is clear from the table above that open universities as well as the correspondence institutes of the regular universities provide library and information science courses. Open education is more a philosophy, than a method, in which some or all of the traditional boundaries of education provision, e.g. age, physical presence, 52

previous qualifications are removed. However correspondence education is an early stage of distance education, and only emphasises the mechanism as a method of universalising education. Though there is a good number of correspondence courses and institutions, they suffer from several constraints, such as: 3 •

•

• •

They are treated as appendices to the conventional universities. They do not have freedom either in their courses, or in incurring expenditure. Decisionmaking is totally in the hands of others. Their courses, entry qualifications, examination, etc. are the same as those stipulated for the regular students. Their courses suffer from the same rigidity as those of the courses designed for regular students. Their courses are mainly based on the use of a single media, i.e. print media (sometimes classes are also organised). Most of the time academics and administrators of the conventional system treat the correspondence education as a secondary system.

By contrast, open universities, like their conventional counterpart, are autonomous bodies, free to make their own decisions and formulate their courses and programmes. The openness in open education system presupposes the availability of education - anyone, anywhere and anytime - without social, physical and geographical restrictions. Learner centredness is the key to the open learning system whereas it need not necessarily be the same for the courses offered by correspondence institutes. In fact, learner centredness guides the structure, process, behaviour of open learning system through distance education mode. 4 The silent features of the open universities are: • •

• • •

Flexibility in entry qualifications, evaluation and study as per the pace and convenience of the learners. Very high quality multi media learning materials produced by multiskilled academic teams. Study materials must be excellent and varied to make learning at the campus in the home or workplace a congenial experience. Dedicated personal academic support. They comment on and evaluate the student's assignments, hold group meetings and give support by phone, email, teleconferencing, computer conference, phone in radio programmes. Slick logistics. Each individual student must receive the right materials and information at the right time. A strong research base. When thousand of students use the materials for each course and millions of people view each TV programme the academic content must be up to date.

FLEXIBILITY IN ADMISSION AND EVALUATION Open universities offer relaxed entry qualifications for learners. The entry qualifications for some of the library and information programmes offered by different open universities is shown in the table below.

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Table 2. Entry qualifications for library and information science programmes Name of the Entry qualifications Programme D. Lib. & Inf. 10+2 or equivalent Sc. (K. 0 . U.))

Age

Experience

19

Entry qualifications are exempted for in service staff who have 6 years experience in a library Alternatively, Cert. Library and Information Inf. Sc. With One years experience One year's experience/graduate with 55%

B. Lib. & Inf. Graduate Sc. (APOU) B. Lib. & Inf. Graduate Sc. (IGNOU)

In conventional universities students are required to have a minimum percentage gained in the qualifying examination for admission to library and information science courses, as with other courses. However in open universities greater weighting is given to experience, as can be seen clearly in the table above. Not only this, but there are provisions in Kota Open University so that a person who has contributed significantly in a specified field and has attained the age of SO years may be exempted from having a Master's degree as an essential qualification for admission to the PhD degree. Such flexibility is generally not found in any other university except the open universities. In open education, flexibility in requisites has been maintained to enable learners to set their pace of their studies. The following table gives an idea of flexibility in duration in the programmes in library and information science in open universities. Table 3. Duration of programmes Name of the Programme

Minimum period

Maximum period

DLISc. (K.O.U.) BLISc. (BRAOU) BLISc. (IGNOU) MLISc. (BRAOU) MLISc. (IGNOU) PhD. D. (IGNOU) PhD. D. (K.OU)

1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year 2 years 3 years

4 years 5 years 5 years 4 years 4 years 4 years 5 years

Thus the duration of a programme varies from one year to four/five years. The examinations are held twice a year and whatever the credits the learner earns in a particular examination is transferred to his account. As, and when, the learner acquires the necessary number of credit for the programme, he is declared qualified. Thus, the evaluation in open universities conforms to the progress of the learner, in relation to skill and knowledge of the subject that he acquires, with the passage of time rather than being branded as a failure for once and for all.

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MEDIA USED FOR DELIVERY Distance education depends on the use of media. These are the channels used for the transmission of the message, in the form of print, sound and vision. The channels are: printed message, usually on paper or on screen, which can be, writing, graphics or photographs; still pictures, which are transparent for projection or viewing; sounds, as in a live radio broadcast, or recorded on a sound disk; moving pictures, as in a live television broadcast or recorded on a cine film, or a combination of all the three in the form of multi media. Information technology has radically opened up new vistas in distance learning. Most of the teaching in distance education is delivered through these media and, increasingly through a variety of computers based systems. The media options available to learners have been demonstrated in the following figure.5

Figure 1. Media options for distance learners

Human Interaction -Face to face -Telephone conversation learner -learner/ learnertutor -Audio conferencing -Video conferencinc

Audio -visual -Audio cassettes -Video cassettes -Broadcasts on radio -Telecast on T V

I (

Learner Λ

I

Computer Assisted Media -Interactive multi media -On-line resources -Computer mediated communication

Print Media -Books -Self learning material -Internal assignments

In practical terms, we can see that conventional methods used in education have been joined by a great variety of new types of materials such as specially structured learning materials, and less common ones such as micro graphics, video recording, CD ROMs, computer files print to multiple media, Internet sites and so forth. An important development in the impact of information technology is that the group learning is replaced by individualised learning. In fact with the development of

55

information devices such as CD ROM, the availability of multi media and the Internet, individualised learning has the potential to become the most popular learning process. Thus, the media approaches are wider, and a learner selects one or more media which may be useful according to their capacity and the availability of the media options. As such the selection of appropriate media has become a difficult task for the learners and education providers It is equally important to indicate that each medium has unique merits and demerits. We must recognise that every media has its role and place - even in the same institution and to the extent it is deployed in each course within a programme. Media choice greatly depends on access, motivation to use, ease in use, skills required, etc. Media resources and their different functions are enumerated below: Printed texts: Provide the conceptual and theoretical learning materials in the course; designed to give the students a 'good read' without requiring to be online; also used to integrate the other course materials by setting up the wider context and directing students to other resources. Audio video programmes: Contextualise the students' activities in the course to wider trends in the world at large, and real problems and applications. Many programmes feature interviews with experts from the core and related fields, which assists the learner to view the subject from different perspectives. WWW site: Acts as the course library, containing complementary course materials of a timely nature, such as those which change from year to year, new updates to course resources, and pointers to additional background materials. Computer conferencing·. Supports general communication among course participants and the necessary discourse between group members during collaborative design and group working. Email·. Supports student tutor communication and the submission of assignments, discussion groups. Peer group communication is also possible. Personal interaction. It is the device that replaces the teacher found in the traditional system. The counsellors and tutors provide a link between the print material and other media so that the objective of the course material is achieved with minimum economy and effort. As such every media has its own functions to perform. No one media is able to meet the requirements of learners individually. There is a need to blend the different media in educating learners, depending on the requirement of the topic, course and programme, and also the learners' ability to learn. In spite of the fact that print media is important in distance learning; rather it forms a base for learning. Its utility is diminishing day by day because of the advent of an era of new media. Now the quality of the products of distance education depends greatly on the use of multi media. The use of multi media is an accepted fact and the current situation presented in the following table reveals variations.

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Table 4. Use of non print media Name of the Audio University BRAOU IGNOU Kota Open University YCMOU

V

Video

Radio

Λ/

Λ/

V

V V

Λ/

ν

Λ/

V

Comp uter

TV

Satellite

V Λ/

V V

V ν

Λ/

V

Toll free phone

Cable

V

V

Λ/

ν

This table indicates that the commonly used media are audio, video, and phone in radio counselling. The computer is also used in many universities. But facilities such as toll free telephone and telecasts using cable networks are minimal and available only at IGNOU. STRONG SUPPORT SERVICES The student support service refers to any service other than the actual course material that an institution provides to its students to achieve the instructional objectives of the course. This service is the backbone of the open university system and is used for minimising the gap between learners and instruction. The student support service aims to: • • • • •

minimise the negative effect of isolation and lack of regular personal contact; achieve tangible results with the introduction of specific services to special need/ enquiry groups; solve the administrative and learning/ psychological problems of learners; develop autonomy and independence among students; help the students to overcome the limitations of the print media.

This is achieved by providing tutorials, practicals, problem solving sessions, information, advice and counselling, and library and audiovisual facilities to the students. A study centre enables learners to have regular and close contact with the university. The main function of the study centre is to maintain and organise student support services to learners in their literary pursuits. The number of study centres for library and information science programmes is shown in the following table: Table 5. Number of study centres Name of the University Kota Open University IGNOU YCMOU

Programme DLISc BLISc. MLISc.

Number of study centres 20 69 25

The main purpose of the study centres/network is to ensure the learner's access to: consulting the learning materials (printed, video, and audio taped, software, etc.); face to face scientific and pedagogical advice from tutors; meeting with other students in

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an informal way; communication with the university via telephone, fax, email or Internet, seminars and carrying out practical work. PRACTICAL ORIENTATION Library and information science is a skills oriented discipline where it is necessary to impart skills through practicáis and hands on experience. This is true for some other disciplines and is a great challenge for open and distance instruction. The skills are imparted through practical components made available at the study centres. Attendance and passing these practicáis are compulsory to complete the subject. Perhaps this is one area where some compromise has to be made with the flexibility of the mode. Even if the technology is available and the capability of learners to use the technology increases, some components of LIS programmes need hands on experience which may not be possible either at the study centres or at the designated work place (internship). There are provisions for practical training for library and information science students, e.g. in K.O.U. students of the Diploma programme have to undergo two weeks training in a public/ special/ academic library. Similarly in IGNOU, students of the Master's degree programme need to have 36 hours practical exposure to the use of modern information technologies at a workplace identified by the universities. BLISc students must have a 1S hours computer practical using LIS software. Such training provides exposure for learners to work in a particular environment.6 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES •

•

•

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Short-term training programmes: the nature of information work, services and products is changing rapidly. From time to time the technology is updated which has a direct impact on the availability and accessibility of information. In such a changing environment, distance and open learning institutions have a special responsibility in preparing the LIS professionals to update their skills and knowledge. As such there is an urgent need to start short term non degree programmes to meet these demands.7 In open universities, information and communication media are used to a limited extent. Audio video media and phone in radio counselling have been very much a part of the instructional system. But, electronic media have always been a supporting component rather than an essential one - remaining an optional input. Print material is considered to be self contained for the purpose of evaluation. Thus, even though quite a large number of students are not exposed to electronic media, they may graduate with high grades. The use of such media needs to be promoted. Continual assessment since assessment plays a major role in shaping the quality of learning in higher education. Distance learning institutions use continual assessment as a part of the study package. It has three functions, namely, (a) assessment to indicate progress through out, (b) assessment as a means of communicating knowledge, and (c) assessment as a means of facilitating the students' learning. But, it cannot be assumed that the assignment feedback process taking place at study centres meets expectations and is of the appropriate quality. To make this process more meaningful, it is essential to ensure that it is used as an instrument for the improvement of teaching and learning.

•

The advantage of latecomers has frequently been mentioned in connection with distance education in library and information science - the chance to shorten paths of development and implement new strategies without retreading old ground. In practice, distance education has developed more slowly than expected. This is partly due to slow progress in the environment in responding to rapid change in distance education itself, particularly in the accelerated development of information and communication technologies and the convergence of traditional and open learning methods. It is also due to the slow recognition of the importance of a fully professional approach and methods, the need to introduce quality assurance, the arrival of new information and communication technologies, and the need for professional marketing in this area. There is an urgent need for a communication and marketing strategy for distance education, as it has begun to gather a number of negative connotations. The heritage of correspondence education persists, the more so as correspondence educational institutions use 'open learning' as a marketing keyword to label their courses, of sometimes questionable quality, and this has had a bad effect. Accreditation and legislative arrangements for distance education are still not in place, reinforcing ambivalence towards distance education.

•

The Distance Education Council (DEC), a statutory body examines the coordination of various distance teaching institution (DTIs), their quality assurance and networking, accreditation and provision of development grants for system development. The DEC is very curious about the standards of library and information science education delivered through distance and open learning, and has developed guidelines for open universities and institutes of correspondence education. These norms relate to curriculum design, eligibility criteria, admission/selection procedure, student intake and class size, measures of course/programme, faculty, learning resources, student support services, evaluation, physical facilities and equipment, library, computer facilities, monitoring and system evaluation, etc. 8 Norms are developed and the guidelines issued have not been made compulsory to follow, but are only advisory in nature. Under a paradigm of self learning, the role of the teacher is not to teach/preach, but to support learners in becoming more conscious of themselves and their learning. Individuals should be given freedom to choose learning materials in the preferred media available and the self assessment mechanism. It requires flexibility and versatility in the use of teaching methods.

•

CONCLUSION In India library and information science education through the distance education mode in the form of open universities has been in existence for nearly two decades. During this time it has been proved beyond doubt that it is an effective form of education, not only for new entrants, but also for in service professionals. During these formative years open universities have had to expend their time and energies in proving to the world that they are capable of imparting high quality education to all those who seek it. Consequently, the focus was placed on producing high quality materials. Having established its credentials, now it is time for the open universities to consolidate these gains and aim at helping other groups of learners to achieve the

59

objectives of the programme/courses. This is possible by strengthening student support services, extending media oriented delivery, providing short term needs based courses, extending teaching learning facilities and innovative evaluation techniques, to enhance its effectiveness and extending it to a wider group of learners residing in isolated, tribal, rural and remote areas. Already some steps have been taken in this direction. REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

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Gupta, Dinesh K. "Role of Open Learning in Life Long Learning of Library and Information Science Professionals in India". Paper presented in the LASLIC Conference, held at B. R. Ambedkar University, Agra, 28-30 Dec. 1999. Ghosh, S. B. "Reaching the Unreached for Library and Information Science Education: a Perspective for Developing Countries". 2001 Available from: www. ifla_boston\pprog. e. htm Mohanty, Jagannath. "Open University of India: IGNOU - a Case Study." University News, January 31 (1994): 7-10 Prasad, V S. "Open and Distance Learning in the New Millennium: Welcome Address." ICDE Asian Regional Conference, New Delhi, 3-5 November 2000. Ghadoliya, M. K. and Dinesh K. Gupta. "Media Delivery in Distance Education: the Case of Kota Open University." In Report of the Round Table cum Workshop on Media delivery, jointly organised by STRIDE (IGNOU) and YCMOU, YCMOU, 24-26 Feb. 2001, pp. 42-48. Gupta, Dinesh K. "Library and Information Science Education in Indian Open Universities". In Α. A. N. Raju et al. (Eds.) Fifty Years of Library and Information Science Education in India. New Delhi: IATLIS, 1997, pp. 137144. Ghosh, S B and T. Viswanathan. "Library and Information Science Education: The Indian scenario With Particular Reference to Training at the Workplace." Paper presented at the 12th General Congress and Assembly of the FID/CAO, 18-23 November, 1993, Melbourne, Australia Distance Education Council. Norms and Standards for Library and Information Science Programmes (BLISc andMLISc) Through Distance Mode. New Delhi: DEC, 1997.

THE SEFLIN TECHNOLOGY TRAINING PROGRAM: LINKING LIFELONG STAFF LEARNERS THROUGH CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Bruce E. Massis Associate Director Southeast Florida Library Information Network (SEFLIN) USA Abstract:

The concept of linking intuits a natural and common connection which must be clearly established in libraries between library staff and technology to support core competencies necessary for staff to perform their jobs better, and to best serve both internal and external customers. Staff need to achieve a level of learning that supports their professional and service-oriented goals, and acquire a heightened awareness of the value of continuous learning. The customers being served by our libraries expect a technological ability inherent in the staff that is at least equal, if not above that of the customers themselves. Successfully servicing internal customers requires a program of continuous learning that assists all staff in achieving technological skills whereby they may interact with other library staff in a coherent and knowledgeable manner. The paper describes the creation and implementation of a technology training program for library staff, the Southeast Florida Library and Information Network (SEFLIN), a large multitype library consortium that delivers a curriculum targeted to the staff working in those libraries and to users. Companies in the private sector invest in training for their staff and hold an attraction such that librarians/information technologists are unwilling to work in the public service and there is a constant cry of short staffing. A technology training program for library staff must be designed to address these issues. This paper argues that if the opportunity for staff to receive technology training on a continuous basis is accepted and promoted by the library, the rewards may be measured in increased staff hiring and a higher retention of qualified staff.

INTRODUCTION According to recent statistics provided by the American Society of Training and Development (ASTD)1 the top 10 percent of companies surveyed train 98.4 percent of employees in their organisations. Author of the study Mark Van Buren states, "The top 10 percent of companies surveyed, or 'Training Investment Leaders' also spent an average of $1,665 on training per eligible employee...Training Investment Leaders have made learning a central focus of organisation wide efforts to stay competitive and deliver results in the New Economy." Such statistics as much reflect library needs as private sector ones. As graduate schools concentrate their education efforts on training MLS graduates who are increasingly fluent in information technology, the attraction of work in the private sector becomes more alluring. In addition, some librarians/information technologists are increasingly unwilling to work in direct public service, resulting in a constant cry of short staffing from both public and academic libraries.

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Is continuing technology education and training a cure all for the hiring and retention of library staff? Certainly not. Can it be an important element in the hiring and retention of library staff? Perhaps. Remember the trainer's axiom: "If you're not helping them learn, you're helping them leave." Southeast Florida Library Information Network (SEFLIN) designed a technology training program for library staff to address both these issues, while improving the hiring and retention of qualified staff. This professional training administrator contends that if the opportunity for staff to receive technology training on a continuous basis is accepted and promoted by the library, the rewards may well be measured in increased staff hiring and a higher retention of qualified staff, thus leading to the provision of the best customer service. Life in the ever changing environment of the library may not appear so daunting when familiarity and knowledge evolve into the confidence to perform one's duties ably. SEFLIN, Florida's largest library cooperative, is a membership organisation of Southeast Florida libraries that are located in Broward, Martin, Miami Dade, Monroe, and Palm Beach counties. SEFLIN members represent more than 150 academic, public and school libraries serving a culturally rich and diverse population of S million Floridians. SEFLIN Academy: Continuous Learning Environment PLANNING FOR TECHNOLOGY TRAINING USING A MIX OF MARKET RESEARCH METHODS SEFLIN planners knew that, for the technology training program to be successful, it must 'fit' the climate of its member libraries, and it must directly respond to its member library staff's needs. They knew that any library network about to undergo the rigors of planning a fully integrated technology training program must ponder a number of questions. Using the tools of market research to discover the actual technology needs of the library's internal customers provided SEFLIN's technology training team with the information upon which to define the training program. Decision maker interviews and focus groups First, they posed questions to the library administration regarding the climate for a staff technology training program. These questions were asked during a one on one interview or focus groups comprised of administrators and managers, which built support and understanding among decision makers, yielded valuable information, and served to assist the technology training team in their successful creation of the staff questionnaire. In the interviews and focus groups, SEFLIN planners asked: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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Who is the target audience? What are the staff skills? What is the stafF s motivation level? What kind of training has staff specifically requested? What kind of definite, perceptible information is available that indicates training was needed? In the past, how was training delivered? Has training traditionally been onsite or offsite? How successful has technology training been in the past? If training has not been successful, why hasn't it?

10. Is there enough money in the budget to fund a training program? 11. Is funding incorporated into the annual budget as a regular line item or must capital be raised to finance the program? 12. What methods of training are planning to be employed? 13. How does the staff learn most effectively? 14. What is to be included in the training program? 15. What are the successful outcomes of a training program? Upon analysis of responses to these questions, with some direct follow up by the technology training team as needed, a number of key activities in the planning and implementation of the program were designed. Technology training planning team SEFLIN organised a representative training team. At its initial meeting, the team established their timeline, team duties, and meeting schedule. They agreed to meet regularly in order to create, administer, analyse and report the findings of the survey. Library workplace technology training facilities survey In order to establish locations where 'dedicated' classes (classes held on specific technology topics in specific locations) would be accommodated, the planning team visited proposed sites to identify appropriate technology training facilities to be used in the program. Before visiting, the team produced a checklist of parameters. (See "Evaluating the Technology Training Facility" at http ://www. seflin. org/academv/index, html. ) Research on technology training Research into the best current practices in technology training provided the planning team with recent articles on instructional design of technology programs in the workplace and the manner in which it could best be employed in the creation of this training program. Research uncovered narratives on the value of such a program and a wealth of statistical information on how technology training is currently being used in the workplace and projections for the future. (See "Core Technology Competencies" at http://www.seflin.org/academy/index.html.) Staff questionnaire on technology training needs The questionnaire team created a technology needs assessment questionnaire and tested it on select staff prior to finalising it for distribution to the entire staff. Because the questionnaire would be one concentrating on technology, and there would, undoubtedly, be those who would have difficulty if the questionnaire were made available only electronically, the questionnaire team distributed it in print. (See the questionnaire created and administered by the SEFLIN Technology Training Team at: www.seflin.org/academy/questionnaire.html.) During the interviews, library directors had suggested that the training program be made available to all staff, so anonymous questionnaires were sent to 3,000 potential respondents working in 25 member libraries/library systems; they

63

were given 30 days to return the questionnaires Which took no more than 15 minutes to complete. Since the staffs of SEFLIN-member libraries work in jobs with disparate titles and functions, the goal in constructing the questionnaire was to make certain it was built for clarity and ease of use. It was important to ascertain the range of technological abilities from the simplest to the more esoteric in order to design a technology training program applicable to all library staff including top management, middle management, professional librarians, paraprofessionale, clerical and support staff, facilities staff and part time employees. The questionnaire gathered a great deal of important information about the continuing education and training needs of the staff. The questionnaire team analysed the statistical data and the responses to the open-ended questions. These responses offered the questionnaire team in-depth information useful not only in the design of the training program but also in addressing other staff needs for the following year. Taking staff needs seriously and responding to them where appropriate also created an atmosphere of trust in SEFLIN. Other advantages of the questionnaire - it was: • • • • • • •

anonymous easy to complete extremely cost effective easy to analyse familiar for most people uniform for all audiences to reduce bias not intrusive

Clarifying the nature and needs of the audience for training is one of the most important activities during the analysis phase of instructional design. The SEFLIN questionnaire was constructed in such a manner that respondents answered according to their perceived performance levels in terms of: a) skills - the ability to use one's knowledge effectively and readily in execution or performance b) tasks - assigned pieces of work to be completed within a certain time c) knowledge - acquaintance with, or understanding of, (in this case) specific hardware/desktop applications. DESIGNING IMPLEMENTATION BASED ON THE RESEARCH The challenge of creating a fully integrated technology training program for SEFLIN was to fully identify the various elements that intersected with one another so that staffs were fully brought into the process. Staff must be offered the opportunity to receive continuing education and training whenever required. For SEFLIN, the result culminated in a technology training program that includes online, onsite, and vendorbased components. Curriculum The next step for SEFLIN was to draft, review, and finalise the technology training curriculum. As questionnaire responses were tabulated, there was ample evidence that the technology training program must offer the widest array of courses available

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in order to accommodate widely differing learning needs. The instructional design team created a comprehensive, fully integrated technology training program that would serve as a direct response to staff needs identified in the questionnaire. Technology training: SEFLIN's integrated approach SEFLIN planners contacted vendors and interviewed them with the intent of creating a fully integrated technology training program. SEFLIN's goal was to develop a training program that offered online and 'live delivery' courseware that were complimentary in content, look and feel. Vendors supplying web based training had to furnish courses that provided some continuity with the vendor offering 'dedicated' and 'voucher' courses. The SEFLIN technology training program was built with the goal of providing a comprehensive and integrated service delivery of training for the staff of SEFLIN member libraries. Because adult learners acquire knowledge via various delivery methods, the technology training program offers staff training through several delivery methods that are accessible to all staff; the program was built incorporating three distinct delivery methods: •

•

•

'Web based' Training (a full curriculum of online delivery of technology training classes). SEFLIN selected ElementK to provide web based training. ElementK currently offers two main types of courses: Self Study and Instructor Led. Self Study courses are set up in an interactive, multimedia format for the students to take at their own pace. Instructor Led courses, while still available online only, are taught by industry experts located remotely. The Instructor leads discussions, posts lessons, gives assignments, quizzes, etc. 'Dedicated" class training (daylong, instructor led classes on a specific topic held in one of five SEFLIN's member library technology training facilities. Current topics include HTML, Frontpage, Excel, Word, Access, Powerpoint, Publisher ' Voucher ' class training (vouchers for instructor lead classes where library staff may attend a class at their convenience held at a vendor facility). SEFLIN contracted with CompUSA in purchasing a number of 'vouchers' for use in the Continuing Education and Technology Training Program. Beginning January 2, 2001, vouchers may be used by anyone employed in a SEFLIN member library, by obtain the appropriate approval from their library to attend the class, visiting the CompUSA web site (www.compusa.com), selecting the class and location of that class. (Throughout the SEFLIN coverage area there are 5 CompUSA locations. Select the location most convenient.), phoning SEFLIN or sending a FAX indicating the class and location of the class, remaining for the entire session to be given credit or a certificate of attendance.

The team sought out multiple vendors so that product comparisons might be conducted. They tested products and made suggestions based on the parameters the planning team had established. A 'web based' training vendor was selected. A second vendor, offering the ability to provide 'live' technology training was also selected. This vendor offered both a 'dedicated' class training curriculum and a 'voucher' supported training program.

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Regarding the selection of the web based training vendor, the team decided on one with the ability to provide the following deliverables: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Electronic 'pre assessment' evaluation so that users may gauge their strong and weak points prior to registering for a particular training module. Electronic 'post assessment' so that the users (and administrators) may gauge the success of each student. The most comprehensive selection of technology training courses available. Courses must be downloadable so that they may be taken at the user's convenience. Courses must be accessible for reference purposes so users need not take an entire course in order to answer a reference question. Courses must be able to be taken as many times as the user desires. Courses must be available for 'continuing education' credits (CEUs). There must be an electronic reference library available so users may consult recognised reference sources for assistance when necessary. There must be an electronic and live 'help desk' to assist users. There must be a selection of 'instructor led' classes as well as 'self study' courses so users may select the manner by which they may be more effectively trained. The vendor must offer a selection of new courses each month so users may avail themselves of the latest in technology training opportunities. Similarly with 'web based' training, the vendor must offer pre and postassessment testing with each class attended.

In selecting the vendor to provide the 'live' technology training component of the program, SEFLIN required the following elements: • • • • • • •

The vendor must provide classes whose courseware is synchronous with that being offered by the web based training vendor. Instructors must be certified to teach their specialities. 'Dedicated' classes may not be larger than 12 students. Because the coverage area is more than S.l million acres overall, the vendor must offer training classes with the use of a voucher that must be accessible throughout the coverage area. Because staff turnover is fairly constant, the vendor must offer technology training to replacement staff at a cost of only the courseware. So that there remains flexibility in the technology training program, staff must be able to attend training with the use of a voucher at a vendor facility anywhere in the country. If necessary, staff must be able to repeat a class where a voucher has been redeemed at no cost.

Promote technology training program The SEFLIN planning team designed activities to promote the program including: • Site visits to member libraries • Presentations at annual and committee meetings • Web site promotion on home page 66

• • • •

Training Administrator meetings Campaign strategy meetings with vendors Promotional material handouts Email reminders

Prior to rollout During the negotiation phase of the project, vendors agreed to work with the training team to assist in establishing a publicity campaign for the program. Upon designation of local 'Training Administrators' (TAs) selected by library directors for each library or library system within the consortium, an informational kickoff meeting was scheduled, approximately one month prior to the rollout. This meeting included the lead SEFLIN TA, local TAs and the vendors. Goals of this meeting were to: • • • • • • • • • •

Explain the project plan Agree on goals Explore the vendor offerings Explain TA responsibilities Identify contacts Distribute email and telephone contact list Discuss maximum use of communication tools Identify and find solutions for any barriers to implementation Finalise timeline for implementation Schedule onsite training for interested staff

Two weeks prior to the rollout and continuing into the implementation period, the SEFLIN TA travelled to all of the libraries/library systems within the consortium and gave a presentation on the integrated technology training program to staff. Besides serving as communications liaison between the SEFLIN TA and the library staff, the local TA's primary responsibility was to act as the 'champion' of the integrated technology training program. This task is a continuous one and is of great importance to the success of the program. The local TAs shoulder the responsibility of promoting the values of the program to staff and may use various promotional tools to do so. Registration procedures were put in place so that staff would be able to access and refer to a step by step process when registering for any element of the program. Sign up The training began and was instantaneously embraced by library staff. Hundreds of vouchers were used. Hundreds of online classes were accessed. Many staff registered for 'dedicated' classes throughout the SEFLIN region, held in SEFLIN member library technology training facilities. Reporting and evaluation began almost immediately and a variety of reports are generated monthly to track usage of deliverables offered by the technology training program. Thousands of technology training courses were accessed through the program. The term 'access' is a key element in a fair evaluation of the means by which the

67

program was utilised by staff. Since individuals all learn differently, it becomes paramount for the evaluation team to understand by what methods the training is being used. Instructor led training is that which is provided to staff, either at a vendor computer training facility or one located in a SEFLIN member institution, and taught by a qualified trainer. These courses are full day ones where an individual receives specific training in a single subject in a very concentrated session. On the other hand, online training courses are offered to staff 24/7 and are accessible whenever an individual can find the opportunity of logging into their individual pass worded account from any computer. The team discovered that not only were online courses accessed in order for an individual to complete an entire learning module on a specific subject, but were also used heavily as online courses were accessed either for reference purposes or to support knowledge gained through taking instructor-led courses. Thus, entire courses were more often taken through the instructor-led offerings of the program than were the online offerings. Through monthly analysis of usage statistics, it became quite clear that the online training courses served as a very important reference and support tool for those seeking information about the operation of a certain software package. Also, since the online vendor also offered a virtual reference library that could also be accessed by staff, these reference materials were highly used in lieu of purchasing or borrowing the print books when necessary. With the implementation of a 'user evaluation survey', the team was able to fully realise the nature by which the program was used and who participated in it. The survey responses that were received represented a cross-section of staff that had participated either in parts of the program, dedicated courses, voucher/vendor courses or online classes, or in all segments of the program. Responses sufficiently provided the technology training team with ample raw data from which to comment. Key highlights of the survey responses to the multiple-choice questions yielded the following raw data: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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52% of the respondents were holders of the MLS degree 70% of the responses were from public libraries 47% of the respondents had more than 10 years of service 26% of the respondents had more than 20 years of service Knowledge/skill levels before taking training: 67% Knowledge/skill levels after taking training: 92% Confidence/ability to use tech skills learned in training program: 65% Had the time to use tech skills learned in training program: 70% Able to access library resources to apply knowledge learned: 83% Training program improved daily performance on the job: 87% Training program improved overall job performance: 84% Effectiveness of delivery methods: 'Voucher' classes: 93%, Dedicated classes: 86%: Online learning: 81% Overall program design and delivery: Excellent: 55% Good: 38% Average: 5%

WELL CONSTRUCTED, ONGOING TRAINING: NOT A FRILL In libraries today, where so much change continues to occur, well constructed ongoing training not only addresses the needs of the moment but also the continuing training needs of staff with every imaginable level of ability. Continuous technology training designed to serve library staff is not a frill, but as an essential element designed to provide the library staff with the tools they require to perform at the very highest level of service. SEFLIN is gratefiil to the Florida State Library, through which LSTA grant funding was generously provided to support the technology training program. SEFLIN is also grateful to its Board of Directors for providing vision, leadership and complete support to the technology training program. NOTE For SEFLIN's 'core technology competencies', surveys and survey results, and a reading list and tips for "Evaluating the Technology Training Facility", visit http://www.seflin.org/academv/index.html. REFERENCE 1

Van Buren, Mark. State of the Industry. Alexandria, Va.: American Society for Training and Development, 2001.

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KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION LITERACY: A NEW PARTNERSHIP IN THE WORKPLACE? Jan Houghton and Sue Halbwirth Department of Media Arts, Communication and Information University of Technology, Sydney Australia Abstract:

Organisations in both the public and private sectors have rushed to embrace the techniques and tools of knowledge management because of the perceived benefits in efficiency and productivity. However, there is growing evidence that, without appropriate training of information workers, the effort can be wasted and costly mistakes made in organisations which adopt the practices without understanding the principles. This paper explores the relationship between knowledge management and information literacy and argues that a concept of knowledge literacy offers a clearer guide to the skills and expertise needed to effectively design, manage and use information and knowledge resources. In the changing information environment of the workplace, there are new roles for information professionals which require new approaches in professional education.

INTRODUCTION In the 1960s, when Fritz Machlup undertook his ground breaking research into the development of the information economy, he measured the size of what he called the 'knowledge production' industries - education, research and development, communications media and so on.1 Machlup's concept of the information economy and of the importance of knowledge as the basis of production and therefore economic prosperity was broad and encompassing. However, for the next thirty years the terminology of the age was not about knowledge but about information; terms such as 'information technology', 'information infrastructure', 'information work', for example, dominated in the broad social, economic and political environment, nationally and globally. In the workplace, the focus was on 'information management' and the use of communication and information technologies to increase productivity and efficiency in operations. Developing 'information literacy' in the workforce, schools and general population was a key concern of governments, industry and educators although, as discussed below, this often translated into a narrow definition of technological literacy rather than the broader set of skills that information professionals understand to be the basis of an information literate person. More recently, the term 'knowledge' has made a comeback with the concept of 'knowledge management' grabbing the attention of government and industry as the new catch phrase of the times particularly in relation to the development of egovernment and ebusiness; the rhetoric of the information economy has given way to that of the knowledge economy (or knowledge driven economy) and the importance of knowledge as a prime economic asset. In Australia, as in other countries, governments at both federal and state level are introducing knowledge management strategies into the public sector and developing policies and initiatives for industry. Through the National Office for the Information Economy, for example, there has been a strong focus on government agencies acting as leaders to show the way ahead to industry. The Australian Labor Party introduced its policy for a 'Knowledge 70

Nation' as the centrepiece of the 2001 election campaign. In June, 2001, the Business and Higher Education Round Table (a discussion forum and lobby group representing major corporations and higher education institutions) issued a paper identifying major policy challenges relating to our understanding of the "nature of knowledge and learning" and detailing changes that are needed in education and training to make Australia a "knowledge-driven and learning-driven society" 2 . At the micro level, organisations large and small across the public and private sectors are embracing the techniques and tools of knowledge management in order to reap the benefits for service delivery and efficient performance. Educators are revising curricula to accommodate the demand for professionals trained in these tools and techniques. The information profession too is looking at the types of skills needed to design, manage and utilise information and knowledge systems; however, as with the concept of information literacy, there is a broader appreciation of what makes a knowledge literate worker than that generally held by governments, corporate managers and regrettably some educators and trainers. In the scholarly and professional literature, there are many explanations of the concepts of knowledge management and information literacy and some of these are mentioned later in the paper. We do not intend to explore these in any detail but to rely on readers having a general understanding of the terms while fitting it into their own disciplinary and professional perspective. Part I of this paper identifies important factors affecting the information and knowledge environments of modern workplaces and considers the individual within the workplace and the need for new skills and abilities. This will be described as the development of what we are calling 'knowledge literacy'. In Part Π, we explore the nature of knowledge literacy and consider some of the ways in which professions and organisations are approaching the development of a knowledge literate workforce. In Part ΠΙ, we discuss changes needed in education and training to equip information professionals with the expertise and skills to continue to act as leaders and catalysts in the development of effective 'knowledge' workers. PART I: FROM INFORMATION LITERACY TO KNOWLEDGE LITERACY Where have we come from? We are all familiar with the changes to the workplace and to the nature of work, which have resulted from the increased use of new communication and information technologies. These have been well studied and documented as have the skills and knowledge needed by all workers to manage their work in this new environment. Our concern here is with the changes which have been the key to the move from information management and information literacy to the current emphasis on knowledge management and for the need for knowledge literacy. This is more than a change in terminology; it is a change in the information environment of workplaces that require organisations and workers to rethink how information and knowledge resources are managed and used. There are some definitional issues in relation to this but broadly we are using 'information resources' to denote information provided in whatever format (print, visual, computer etc) and 'knowledge resources' to denote the less tangible notion of personal and organisational knowledge including tacit knowledge which comes from collaboration, innovation and sharing. In the physical environment of the workplace there is now a PC on everyone's desk and organisations have concentrated on developing computer literacy across the workforce. In other words making sure workers are able to push the buttons and use 71

the tools. There has been little emphasis to date on the development of skills for managing content; that is, for the effective utilisation of information as it is understood by information professionals. The widespread introduction of technology into the workplace was accompanied by a fear that the computer would de-skill the workplace. However the evidence of the last thirty years suggests that the computer on the desk has contributed to a work environment where more skills are needed rather than less and that these skills are much broader than simply the ability to push the right button or choose the right tool. One of the key changes to the nature of work is multiskilling or the loss of specialisation; all workers are expected to 'manage' information and contribute to the information resources of the workplace. As Fowell3 points out, organisations "support a variety of methods and systems for information creation, storage, resource discovery and management" and many organisations now place more emphasis on all end users (that is, all workers) being able to use these in their general work. Information professionals, both within and outside organisations, have had an important role in not only effectively managing information resources, but also training and assisting others in the workplace to do so as well. One of the key issues of the past thirty years has been the impact on the individual, both as a consumer and worker, of the exponential growth in information sources and content. Research by Butcher4 highlighted two dimensions of information overload. First, personal information overload and its relationship to stress and lack of control and second, organisational information overload hampering effective decision making and problem solving. Information overload is not a 'new' problem. Edmunds and Morris review the literature on information overload in business organisations and show the "paradoxical situation that, although there is an abundance of information available, it is often difficult to obtain useful, relevant information when it is needed".5 Some of the solutions to reduce information overload described in their paper include the adoption of "personal information management strategies" and increased information literacy. Obviously, the knowledge management systems now being established in workplaces are intended to, in part, deal with the problem of information overload; however, we would argue that, as with all systems, their effectiveness will depend on the ability of workers to utilise them to the benefit of the organisation. Where are we going to? Now, in the new century, the key drivers of change in the internal environment of the workplace have not changed: the need to adapt to changes in the market, the efficient management of resources, keeping up with the competition. However, the pace of change and increasing influence of the external environment has had impact. This is most obvious when considering aspects such as the blurring of boundaries between the inside and the outside of the organisation. There is now a recognition of the two way flow of information between the organisation and its suppliers, outsource service providers, stakeholders, contractors and clients. Collaboration with others, joint ventures and strategic alliances "span the boundaries between enterprise and environment" contributing to survival in the marketplace.6 There are also changes within organisations at individual work unit levels as traditional boundaries between roles and professions become less clearly defined as in the past. Layers of management have been reduced and technology allows great«" collaboration and sharing across boundaries. Managing resources efficiently, that is doing more with less has been intensified by the imperatives of a fast moving international marketplace and the 72

pressures of global competition. Organisations have long known the value of their information resources now they are increasingly recognising the value of knowledge resources. Peter Drucker in 1993 7 stated that "knowledge is the only meaningful resource today" and this mantra has been embraced by many organisations in both the public and private sector as they recognise that success depends on their ability to create, expand and exploit their knowledge base. Knowledge management as well as information management is needed. From an understanding that the majority of workers today are involved in information tasks (creation, organisation, retrieval, transmission of information etc) and are utilising a range of information methods and systems, we are moving towards the concept of the knowledge worker. Organisations need employees who can "use information effectively to analyse and solve problems, to plan and predict". 8 Similarly, Kalseth and Cummings 9 point out that: "It is the quality of an organisation's employees, how they perform their work, how they cooperate and collaborate, and on what common grounds their decisions are taken, that distinguish successful organisations from failures" From documented KM case studies10 some of the lessons learnt as organisations implement knowledge management are now being shared. Knowledge is about people From a study of KM projects, Davenport et al11 stated: "in knowledge management initiatives, we observed that the complexity of human factors to be managed was much greater than for most data or information management projects". This complexity of human factors includes not just the organisational culture but the skills and abilities of the staff to be able to create, share and integrate knowledge. Also, as we argue later, it is about the ability of individuals to learn. Alignment of knowledge processes into business processes is the most effective strategy. The development of effective and ongoing KM projects requires not just an understanding of the management of information but also the business goals and processes. For the information professional this understanding of the organisational culture and business drivers is a challenge to extend their skills into managing knowledge. While embedding knowledge processes into the business processes may increase the success of a KM strategy there is also an effect on staff. Workers need to be able to adapt to change and learn new behaviours and skills to participate in knowledge processes. The discussion of lifelong learning as a valuable work related skill is highlighted here. Knowledge is about learning The development of knowledge management strategies in workplaces is often discussed within the context of organisations as learning organisations; that is, it is not only the ability or willingness of the individual worker to continue to learn that is important but also that the organisation has the right attitude and infrastructure to allow this to happen. See for example the articles by Rowley12, Fowell13, Field and Ford14 and Bruce15 listed in the references. A detailed discussion of knowledge management and learning organisations is beyond the scope of this paper but some brief comments on each are offered to explain our perspective.

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The discourse of knowledge management There are representations of the concept from the broadest societal level to the organisational level. For example from the US Federal Government: "Knowledge management is the discipline dedicated to more deliberate means of people creating and sharing knowledge - data, information, and understanding in a social context - to make the right decisions and take the right actions".16 At the organisational level, knowledge management has many definitions and connotations from the building of knowledge repositories to the facilitation of access to knowledge, to the creating of knowledge-based cultures to the valuing of knowledge as an organisational asset.17 For example, from Rowley, "knowledge management concerns itself with the processes and structures that organisations use to create, store, share and disseminate information".18 Current work by Standards Australia has defined knowledge management as "a multi-disciplined approach to achieving organisational objectives by making the best use of knowledge".19 While being a useful definition, it is the articulation of the knowledge processes such as sharing, acquiring and creating knowledge that is most useful in this discussion and, to pick up on the broader view, the use of knowledge management to assist workers and organisations 'to make the right decisions and take the right actions'. The discourse of the learning organisation At the societal level, there is a clear understanding by governments, industry and the education sector that there needs to be an education and training policy developed along side the methods and systems for knowledge management if they are to meet the planned objectives. This understanding has been slower to arrive at the organisational level. However, now aligned with the discussions on knowledge management, is the concept of the learning organisation - " an organisation that facilitates individual and organisational learning in such a way as to support success in responding to continual change" 20 It is this ability of the organisation to actively use the learning process and the resultant knowledge that creates an effective knowledge based enterprise. Implicit in this is that both the organisations and employees need to be effective at learning and have a high level of information literacy skills. As articulated earlier, information professionals are in a position to assist organisations to, not only design and manage KM systems but also to educate and train the workforce to use them effectively. PART Π: ADAPTING WORKPLACE

TO CHANGE - THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE

The above factors have contributed to a workplace environment that puts increasing pressure on the skills and abilities of the individual worker. Underlying these initiatives to build the learning organisation, the knowledge based enterprise and incorporate knowledge management strategies is the assumption that there is a workforce which is information and knowledge literate. Organisations are striving to build greater interactions amongst staff to generate, manage and share knowledge; individual workers are expected to collaborate, innovate, create, organise, utilise available information resources as part of their normal work. 74

Information literacy in the workplace The workplace in the twenty first century needs workers with a range of literacy skills beginning with basic literacy (the ability to read and comprehend), technology/ computer literacy (the ability to use the tools) and information literacy. There is a broad literature available on information literacy generally covering a range of perspectives and explanations. In the traditional view according to Bruce21 there is a focus on "engagement with information rather than on the skills prerequisite for such engagement". For example, the oft-quoted ALA definition refers to "the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information" rather than describing the individual skills needed to be able to do this. Bruce suggests an alternative approach is to think more about information literacy as "a way of thinking and reasoning about aspects of subject matter".22 This approach begins to move the concept of information literacy towards a concept of knowledge literacy which encompasses a myriad of skills that provide a basis for meeting the challenges of the knowledge based environment. There is a small body of literature on information literacy in the workplace most of it very specific in that it deals with strategies introduced into particular workplaces. Two more general articles on the topic are by Oman23and Bruce.24 Oman suggests that organisations need to assess their information infrastructure and demographics of employees as well as current information literacies and clearly demonstrate the links to knowledge management. She articulates a number of questions that information professionals in organisations can begin to ask to do to improve information literacy; for example, questions about computer literacy programs, how internal and external information content is made available, how information management guidelines are articulated and what are the current literacy competencies of individual workers. Bruce reports on research undertaken with different types of professionals and identifies what she terms the "seven faces of information literacy in the workplace", each of which is made up of three key elements: information technology and information use are present in all views. The third element is distinctive to each view.25 The 'faces' begin with an initial focus on information technology through to views which incorporate the processes (finding, retrieving, using etc). At the 'fifth face', we begin to see the broader perspective that is needed for knowledge management. This involves learning as the user builds up their personal knowledge base. The 'sixth face' sees information literacy as about being able to work with knowledge leading to the creation of new knowledge and finally, the 'seventh face' where knowledge is used for the benefit of others. In terms of knowledge management, we now have an idea of the level of literacy for which skills are now needed; for collaboration and sharing, innovation, problem solving and decisionmaking and can begin to feel comfortable about using the term knowledge literacy as being qualitatively different to a concept of information literacy. Although the professionals in Bruce's research were in educational institutions, she suggests their experiences will be similar to those of information professionals in other organisations. She links the seven faces or views of literacy to workplace processes such as environmental scanning, information management, corporate memory and research and development and argues that "the relationships... firmly establish information literacy as an important part of the character of 'learning organisations', as well as of 'life-long learners'".2 Bruce also makes the point that in the workplace, information literacy is important, not only for individual workers, but also for work teams. She argues that senior managers need to understand information 75

literacy for the design and implementation of information systems but also for staff training. Knowledge literacy in the workplace This latter point brings us back to the need for the development of additional skills for the information professional, if they are to continue their role as a change agent within the information environment of an organisation in the process of moving from information management to knowledge management. As has been discussed at length in the professional literature, the role of the information professional has been changing as levels of information literacy rise and users are more able to find and retrieve needed information directly. Fowell27 models the changing environment between the information 'specialists' and 'end users' in an 'enterprise information environment' and notes a change in the relationship from mediation between source and user and from interpretation of information needs to more involvement in information design and usability. She identifies four main areas of activity all which will require particular skills:28 • • • •

Developing the information artefact and the system within which it is located Supporting users and information use Information management Enterprise-level information service planning

Fowell goes on to argue that as information environments in organisations become more complex and as the roles of end users and information professionals change, individual organisations will need to develop "an enterprise level view of information provision". This will require new approaches in the areas listed above and the "leveraging of existing skills and expertise in areas such as user needs analysis, organisational information auditing and information policy development".29 In a briefing paper for the UK Library and Information Commission, TPFL Ltd reports on research findings on skills for knowledge management. The paper highlights the "importance of information management skills in KM environments, but show that people employing these skills in a knowledge environment do not necessarily come from the information profession". The briefing paper goes on to state an important consideration for the training and continuing development of information professionals - " many of the traditional LIS skills are invaluable but need to be applied in a new context and linked to business processes and core operations."30 The concept of life long professional learning for the information professional is again emphasised as they contribute to the new environment and position themselves as knowledge professionals. The knowledge professional recognises and embraces a set of skills and expertise from a variety of disciplinary areas - human resource management, training and development, communications, technology systems design, usability, information management to name a few. However, while it is acknowledged that the information professional needs a new literacy for KM initiatives to succeed then there must be an upskilling / reskilling of all workers. Jennifer Rowley has linked the concepts of the learning organisation and knowledge management and developed a model with six stages shown on the left side of Table 1 below.31 While the labels for each stage are self-explanatory, the reader is referred to Rowley's article for a detailed explanation. Rowley has called her model 76

the 'Learning with Knowledge Cycle' and for each stage has detailed activities associated with tacit and explicit knowledge. In an attempt to add some definition to our concept of knowledge literacy we have used the stages as explained by Rowley and listed examples of skills areas against each, that is, the skills that would be needed to undertake these activities. This is not meant as a comprehensive list but as a preliminary guide to the types of skills appropriate to the type of task. Table 1: Knowledge management and knowledge literacy Knowledge acquisition, creation Relationship management Working with outside consultants and construction Environmental scanning Data mining processes Brainstorming and other knowledge creation techniques Development of intuitive skills Knowledge articulation and Development and nurturing of communities and teams sharing Skills in managing online conversations Record and store information Peer evaluation Knowledge repository updating Storytelling as a way of contributing to a knowledge repository Document management processes Preparing documents for online environments information design, new ways of writing Archiving knowledge - skills for knowing what is redundant Knowledge diffusion, access and Using search engines dissemination Information structuring and architecture Coaching skills Mentoring skills Knowledge use Ability to select and evaluate information/knowledge for relevancy Understanding business processes they are engaged in and how it relates to information and knowledge Information workflow management Benchmarking Knowledge revision Knowledge mapping and auditing Information provision planning PART ΠΙ: ADAPTING TO CHANGE - EDUCATION AND TRAINING One of the main implications of the previous discussion is that professional education is under pressure to accommodate an ever increasing range of skills and knowledge required by employers. There is an ongoing tension between the development of traditional library and information skills and knowledge and the need to encompass new areas of learning. Some preliminary research investigating KM training programs reveals a wide range of objectives and content is being put forward 77

as essential for practice in business and government. We intend to report more thoroughly on the quality of these programs at a later date; in particular, we will be looking at them in the context of 'knowledge literacy' as we have been discussing in this paper. Initial impressions, however, suggest there are weaknesses and gaps in many of these programs and that, in some cases, only the names appear to have been changed. Other programs are demonstrating that a conceptual leap has been made and that the changing needs of workplaces are understood and are being incorporated into content. As has been discussed in the key literature referred to above; it is of paramount importance that there is a commitment to the development of professionals who understand the need to keep on learning and developing so that they can adapt to change in the workplace. This commitment must come not only from individuals and organisations but also from higher education and continuing professional education providers. At the time of writing this paper the Information Program at the University of Technology, Sydney is developing plans for continuing professional education offerings in the later half of 2002. While the CPE planning is considered still at the commercially in confidence stage (program to be released in mid 2002) some of the areas that are being discussed are: • Information architecture • Managing corporate intranet content • Knowledge mapping and auditing • Understanding the knowledge environment • Knowledge management for competitive advantage A theme of the planning is the goal of assisting professionals value their current skills set, develop new insights and to explore new opportunities and ways of contributing to organisational objectives. We are also currently undergoing a review of graduate and undergraduate programs and, as part of that review, will be looking at ways to adapt curricula to include new skills and areas of knowledge required by information professionals in the knowledge economy. The discipline and practice of knowledge management is now mainstream rather than for specialists only. The Graduate Diploma in Knowledge Management has been offered for a number of years and it is timely to now revise it to bring in new approaches and research findings about knowledge management and its application in business, government and the broader society. At present it includes core content such as information organisation and access and information use as well as a specific subject, Knowledge Management Strategies, which seeks to expose students to the range of skills and competencies not just that they need as they seek to be knowledge leaders but also explores the expectations/pressures on workers within knowledge organisations. We will report on curriculum developments and the planned continuing professional education program at the CPERT conference in August, 2002. REFERENCES 1

2

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Machlup, F. The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962. What is Needed to Make Australia a Knowledge-Driven and Learning-Driven Society, B-HERT Position Paper No.5. Melbourne: Business/Higher Education Round Table, June 2001.

Fowell, S. "Designing for Enterprise Use: a Response to the Changing Information Environment." New Review of Information and Library Research, 7, (2002) (in press). Butcher, H. "Information Overload in Management and Business." IEE Colloquium Digest, 95/223 (1995). Edmunds, A. and A. Morris. "The Problem of Information Overload in Business Organisations: a Review of the Literature." International Journal of Information Management, 20, 1 (2000): 17-28, p. 17. Field, L. and B. Ford. Managing Organisational Learning: From Rhetoric to Reality. Melbourne: Longman, 1996, p. 6. Drucker, P. Post-Capitalist Society. New York: Harper Business, 1993, p.38. Field, L. and B. Ford, B., op.cit. Kaiseth, K. and S. Cummings. "Knowledge Management: Development Strategy or Business Strategy?" Information Development, 17, 3 (2001): 163171, p.163 Standards Australia. International Best Practices - Case Studies in Knowledge Management. Sydney: Standards Australia International, 2001 Davenport, T.H., D.W. DeLong and M.C. Beers. "Successful Knowledge Management Projects." Sloan Management Review, 39, 2 (1998): 374-384 p.382 Rowley, J. "Knowledge Management in Pursuit of Learning: the Learning with Knowledge Cycle." Journal of Information Science, 27, 4 (2001): 227-237. Fowell, op. cit. Field and Ford, op. cit. Bruce C. "Information Literacy: an International Review of Programs and Research. Paper presented to LIANZA Conference, Auckland 1999. Available from: htto://w\vw2.aucklandac.nz/lbr/™nwq/hnira htm; Accessed 30 October 2001. Federal Chief Information Officers' Council, KM-GOV-Knowledge Management in the Federal Government 2002. Available from http://km.eov. Accessed 23 January 2002. Davenport, DeLong and Beers, op.cit. Rowley, op. cit. p. 227. Standards Australia, Knowledge Management: a Framework for Succeeding in the Knowledge Era, Sydney, Standards Australia International, 2001. Rowley, op.cit., p.227 Bruce, op. cit. Ibid. Oman, J. "Information Literacy in the Workplace." Information Outlook, 5, 6 (2001): 32-43. Bruce, C. "Workplace Experiences of Information Literacy." International Journal of Information Management, 19, 1 (1999): 33-47 p.34. Ibid, p.36 Ibid, p. 43 Fowell, op.cit. Fowell, op.cit., p.4 Fowell, op.cit., p.6 TFPL Ltd. "Skills for Knowledge Management: a Briefing Paper." Paper presented at Skills for the Knowledge Economy: a one day seminar, RSA, London, 5 ft July, 1999. Rowley, op.cit.

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COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIPS IN EDUCATION FOR INFORMATION LITERACY Dr. Penny Moore Educational Research Consultant and Executive Director, IASL Abstract:

Nicki Page Wellington College of Education New Zealand

This paper reports on the development of a continuing professional education proof of concept trial, funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Education. It involves a team of 12 primary and secondary teachers who were supported in creating, testing and reflecting on lessons designed to promote information literacy. A website featuring the learning activities created and teachers' reflections on practice, together with a wide range of information literacy support materials, will be used as a self directed professional development resource. During February to April 2002, a second group of teachers will evaluate the website itself, its content in terms of the personal learning it promotes, and the information literacy gains of their students resulting from adopting and adapting tested methods of Teaching for Information Literacy. The latter is the ultimate test of effective professional development in teaching. The information gained from this second phase of the project will be used to refine the underlying professional development strategy, evaluate the benefits of making the resource available online to teachers nationally, and provide a model for extending the project across all curriculum areas.

INTRODUCTION Information literacy is seen as an essential knowledge area for students, but as Breivik and Ford1, Bruce2 and Candy3 have all noted, it requires that teachers themselves include this complex set of skills in their instructional design and assessment of learning. Thus school librarians and teachers not only need to be information literate themselves, they need a level of understanding that facilitates the development of information literacy among all students, regardless of their age and ability. However, those graduating from teacher training colleges as recently as five years ago may have experienced little explicit training in this field, which is often obscured by the need to meet curriculum objectives specific to subjects such as English and Science. Consequently the majority of established teachers may require professional development that exposes the information literacy underpinnings of the curriculum. Similarly, school librarians, both professional and paraprofessional, have learning needs centred on information literacy and its implications for learning and teaching. Several studies demonstrate that teachers are often uncertain where, when and how to begin promotion of information literacy in the classroom, but also suggest that where information literacy is explicitly targeted in professional development, teachers increase in confidence. With that development of confidence, and appreciation of a wider range of appropriate resources, comes recognition of the need for collaborative partnerships with library staff 4 Studies show that learning programmes, founded on the nexus between constructivism, resource based learning and information literacy have powerful

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positive effects on student learning 5' 6 ' 7 Internationally, many such programmes (school library programmes in particular) are predicated upon the existence of information specialists, trained in both teaching and librarianship, working in close collaboration with other teaching staff in the design, conduct and evaluation of learning activities. Their understanding of what it means to be information literate has implications for their ability to create and take leadership roles in teachers' professional development and school wide information services, as well as for the development of policies and resources to support the curriculum. In New Zealand, the network of such specialists is not well established and options for inservice training in this field have until now been limited. While secondary schools frequently employ a professional librarian, primary schools do not, and the number of qualified teacher librarians across compulsory education sectors is small. In addition, a large number of primary schools have fewer than five full time teaching staff, so funding a full time teacher librarian in every school is not a viable option. Hence it is important to find complementary methods of developing information services in schools and to promote information literacy through continuing professional education of teachers themselves, as well as that of the information specialists who can support them. Surveys 8' 9 ' 10 suggest that New Zealand teachers and principals are likely to be highly supportive of such initiatives. The Ministry of Education is endeavouring to address this complex issue through a range of literacy and information and communication technology (ICT) initiatives, including the provision of self paced, self directed online professional development. In information literacy, two pilot online programmes are being developed and evaluated in terms of both the mode of delivery itself and the effectiveness of the resource for professional development. In this report, the methods adopted and models underlying the development of one of those projects, which is simply called Teachingfor Information Literacy, are discussed, together with the practical challenges that developers face. (Commentary on the outcomes of project evaluation will be available by August 2002.) THE CONTEXT OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT The challenges of creating Teaching for Information Literacy reflect those present in continuing professional education in many fields. There are marked differences in the teaching practices, information needs and teachers' expectations of students at primary and secondary school levels, yet this resource is required to address the needs of both sectors. The adult learners using the resource have different levels of prior knowledge and ability concerning information literacy and are at different stages of readiness to adopt ICT in their own lives, as well as in their teaching. They must implement their personal learning in school communities where expectations of students, resource availability and collégial support vary. In addition, there is evidence from primary school surveys at least that teachers prefer personal contact to gather information for solving professional problems11. The immediacy of gaining clarification and ability to interrogate information sources is attractive, as scarcity of time is often an issue. Perhaps the biggest challenge is one that is more insidious. Using the Internet to deliver Teachingfor Information Literacy sends an implicit message to new comers that information literacy is centred on ICT. As Bruce12 points out, if one thinks information literacy is about information technology skills that one does not have (and is not ready to acquire) information literacy appears unattainable. It is therefore

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critical to convey a strong message within in the online resource that information literacy is not about ICT alone. The final contextual factor to be considered relates to time, time for study and reflection. While desktop delivery to the context in which learning will be applied is highly desirable educationally, experience suggests that if one is on site at the computer, one is perceived to be available to respond to other school tasks. Off site professional development opportunities are accorded an allocation of non contact teaching time and this needs to be maintained for online study. IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Given the wide variations in teachers' prior knowledge, ICT confidence and understanding of information literacy, it is essential that entry to the professional development resource is possible at points that reflect differing states of knowledge and information needs. Teaching for Information Literacy does not, at this point, attract academic credit. There is, therefore, no guarantee that visitors to the site will persist beyond an initial encounter. The implication is that the developers must 'capture' the attention of users and offer them something of immediate concrete benefit that motivates sustained use. Thus, for some teachers, the most attractive section of the website resource will be the collection of tested and evaluated learning activities. Yet what works well in one setting does not necessarily transfer with the same effect to other settings. The teacher who adopts an activity and experiences little success may not persist with any self directed professional development programme. Therefore, differences in school communities: teaching styles, student abilities and available resources, must be catered for by assisting teachers in adapting activities to local conditions. Preservice teacher education is partially based on observation of the interaction between students and teachers and having access to the advice of established teachers. This apprenticeship approach is highly effective, but is rarely apparent in online environments, beyond provision of 'off the peg' lessons that frequently detail the content of teaching, assuming that the teaching strategies and process need no explanation. An approach to online professional development that reflects the depth of knowledge available in interactions with skilled teachers is assumed to be more likely to meet the information needs of teachers, but structuring dense materials to avoid overwhelming users, is itself a challenge. With regard to the ICT challenges faced by online users, it was considered essential that guidance and support should be available if required, so that despite personal uncertainty and technological inexperience, teachers would persist in exploring the resource. These considerations signalled a need for a strong convergence between modelling facets of Teaching for Information Literacy as continuing professional education, and transfer of resultant learning to classroom practice. Briefly put, Teachingfor Information Literacy involves collaboration between Wellington College of Education and twelve teachers (six primary and six secondary) in the planning, teaching and evaluation of a variety of learning activities in two curriculum areas: English and Science. Each activity is centred on explicit information literacy teaching goals, in addition to curriculum achievement objectives. Development team participants were assisted in revealing the thinking underlying instructional design, as well as that associated with actual teaching and reflection on the learning outcomes of

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their students. Users of the resource will have access to information literacy theory and research, models to guide instructional design, examples of learning activities and, most importantly, the insights of skilled teachers concerning teaching practice and ways to improve learning outcomes. KEY CONCEPTS UNDERLYING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Five concepts have been interwoven in Teaching for Information Literacy. The target concept of information literacy itself is discussed later. Professional education in information literacy is to be achieved through resource based learning, constructivism, cognitive apprenticeship and a related emphasis on metacognitive development, all of which are familiar, yet covert, in many classrooms. The supporting concepts have in common a central concern with the learner. For example, constructivist theory assumes that literate people deliberately and inventively make meaning and crystallise relationships between events and ideas 13. Applied to information literacy, it is recognised that learners not only need to use a wide range of resources to survive in the information age, but that they make sense of the world around them, constructing knowledge by selecting, organising and connecting information for particular purposes. Those purposes vary in the extent to which they are clearly defined. Resource based learning emphasises interaction with a wide range of information sources, active involvement of students at the centre of all learning activities and is dependent upon the articulation of process and content objectives. Thus it requires deliberate teacher planning to incorporate multiple resources and varied teaching strategies in instructional design14. Key factors in instructional design are the student's current knowledge and the identification of knowledge and skills developments for which teachers will have to give most support. The explicit articulation of information processes on the part of the designer is vital given the current context. The final threads, central to this discussion, are those of cognitive apprenticeship and metacognitive development. Metacognitive theory takes account of the way people reflect on knowledge of themselves as learners and manage their activities. In terms of information literacy, metacognitive ability is reflected in self selection of information sources appropriate to prior knowledge of the topic, as well as relevance to the information problem to be solved. It includes monitoring changes in personal knowledge base as information gathering proceeds, monitoring the resulting shifts required in the focus of the search, as well as reviewing, evaluating and revising search behaviours as dictated by the demands of a variety of information sources. It implies thinking about and coordinating both product and process elements of learning. Metacognitive knowledge is central to the development and application of flexible strategies, the outcomes of which can be predicted as a function of contextual and conditional knowledge. In the context of professional development, the teaching practices and instructional design needed to develop the complex amalgam of thinking skills underlying information literacy must provide practical teaching tools, together with an understanding of contexts in which each is effective. It is this latter knowledge that will enable teachers and librarians to create flexible strategies to suit their own needs and those of their students. However, whether adults or younger students are the learners of interest, the processes of thinking are often invisible in the classroom. Cognitive apprenticeship is a model of

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instruction that is designed specifically to address this. It reveals the reasoning and strategies that experts use to acquire knowledge and solve problems in real life tasks. In explaining cognitive apprenticeship, Collins, Brown and Holum19 compare traditional apprenticeship and schooling. In the former, skilled tradesmen continually demonstrated application of practical skills, explaining processes and reasoning, all in the context of creating a visible product. This included analysis of events when something unexpectedly went wrong (e.g. a tool broke or materials were not up to standard) and consequent revision of strategies to ensure completion of the task. Collins et al state that "Apprenticeship involves learning a physical, tangible activity... but in schooling, the practice of problem solving, reading comprehension and writing is not at all obvious to the student." (p. 1). This is also true of information literacy, since, despite familiarity with observing teaching practices, teachers may be unaware of the sophistication of the information processes they themselves follow and demand of their students. For example, copying and 'knowledge-telling'16 as strategies for 'independent' writing may occur when students are unaware of the range of strategies writers use in thinking about audience needs and organising information to meet those needs. Similarly, library systems make a variety of problem solving demands on users that are negotiated with ease by information professionals, but which are not evident to those outside the profession. Collins et al note that "students fail to use [mental] resources available to them to improve their skills because they lack models of how to tap into those resources." The aim of cognitive apprenticeship in professional education is therefore to increase the learners' skill by revealing the nature of expert thinking and fostering the development of strategies central to that practice. Four intertwined aspects of traditional apprenticeship form the basis for cognitive apprenticeship: modelling, scaffolding, fading and coaching. These are discussed here in the context of the development of Teachingfor Information Literacy. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP INFORMATION LITERACY

FRAMEWORK

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TEACHING

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Modelling Teaching for Information Literacy models teaching practice on several levels. It is organised around, and addresses, three aspects of the information process - acting, thinking, and feeling. Online users are encouraged to address all three in their practice. They will be presented with a range of models (see below) and illustrations of how these have been applied in instructional design. The insights and conditional knowledge provided by the development team reveal the basis of choosing particular information process models, thus modelling the application of cognitive apprenticeship as a whole. The purpose is to support reasoned decision making by online users concerning information literacy teaching. Multiple paths through the website materials are signposted and teachers as learners are responsible for their own learning decisions, but there is support for making those decisions. Apart from browsing, decision making may be based on a set of questions that reflect information needs of teachers or on the application of rubrics in self assessment of current information literacy and ICT understandings, thus simultaneously introducing and modelling tools for classroom use. Just as resource based learning and information literacy development require students to go beyond the range of materials presented by teachers, users of this

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education programme are encouraged to explore the literature relating to information literacy theory and practice through provision of direct electronic links and signposts to print materials. Most importantly of all, while English and Science are the vehicles for the activities designed by the team of 12 'expert' teachers, the prime descriptors are in terms of information literacy goals. The unit plans describe information literacy demands of common tasks, thus supporting analysis of current teaching plans in terms of information literacy and the possibility of seeing information literacy as an 'add on' to the curriculum is reduced. Scaffolding The concept of scaifolding is clearly seen in traditional apprenticeships as the expert initially demonstrates a process, then supports the learner with direct instruction, prompts and hints as the work progresses. In other words, the expert takes responsibility for those parts of the task that the learner is as yet unable to complete independently. In Teaching for Information Literacy, the process of becoming information literate is conceived as a journey, with no finite point of arrival, but many stopping off points. This analogy led the project leaders to include three specific levels of scaffolding and to describe them in terms of travelling. The self assessment rubrics mentioned above lead to a variety of introductory materials (Getting Started) or a range that assume limited prior knowledge (Escorted Journey). The third level (Independent Travellers) focuses on acquisition of an appreciation of information leadership17 in schools. This level introduces concepts and tools that will assist teachers in planning and implementing information literacy initiatives beyond their own classrooms, supporting their colleagues and developing consistent school library programmes for all age groups. Depending on information purposes, users may identify different paths through the materials at different times. The rubrics may also be avoided altogether by browsing or seeking answers to particular questions. Thus as developers, we have modelled provision of quick routes to materials that meet immediate information needs, while encouraging deeper exploration. Similarly, in relation to information literacy as a concept, scaffolding is provided in terms of locating and selecting relevant information sources as well as evaluating websites. For example, for those just beginning to use ICT, there are web tours of information literacy related sites which ensure users do not get 'lost' in cyberspace and have access to critical comment, as well as guidance in selecting and evaluating websites in general. Fading As learners' skills develop, they needs to take increasing responsibility for completion of the task, to become independent of heuristics and strategies devised by others and to construct solutions for themselves in new contexts. Fading refers to a gradual reduction in the level of support provided by the expert as the knowledge and skills of the learner increase. For example, the learning activities in Teaching for Information Literacy provide a full description of resources, teaching techniques for drawing attention to information behaviours and suggested timelines for classroom implementation. Some

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teachers will inevitably treat these as 'recipes for success' to be used with children of a particular age. However, instructional materials also support more flexible application of knowledge including discussion of acting, thinking and feeling models of information processes, templates for translating learning activities to other subject areas and questions to consider in creating new information literacy focused activities. Coaching Throughout the apprenticeship experience, a more knowledgeable person (who could be a teacher, librarian, parent, older or younger student) offers advice, suggestions and prompts. The coach also helps with predicting outcomes of decisions and evaluating actual outcomes and processes. From a position of greater knowledge, the coach can draw attention to key factors in the analysis of situations, problems and possible routes to solution. In an online professional development resource, achieving this continual, tailored feedback is a challenge. One method being tested is the provision of brief commentaries highlighting the information literacy core of learning activities produced by expert teachers. It is hoped that this level of analysis will assist users in focusing on the critical success elements of the learning activities. Teaching for Information Literacy also provides techniques to assist teachers in gathering empirical evidence of the students' responses to information literacy based learning activities. Such information will provide direct, grounded feedback concerning teaching practice. Where two or more teachers, or school library staff, in one school evaluate the resource, they will be encouraged to act as mentors for each other, thus a level of more personal coaching is possible. Additional coaching will be provided through a variety of embedded support devices which will be developed during the evaluation phase of the project. These include an electronic forum, frequently asked questions page and email contact with the developers. PUTTING THE FRAMEWORK INTO PRACTICE Development team participants were selected on the basis of prior information literacy experience and innovative teaching practice. All but two participants had had some kind of professional development that could be said to relate to information literacy. However, it was not assumed that information literacy or the demands of creating online professional development materials were uniformly understood within the group. The initiative was therefore introduced in the context of information literacy, ICT and instructional design workshops, which were held with primary and secondary teachers separately to meet their different needs with regard to the curriculum and the developmental level of students. The concept of information literacy was discussed in terms of acting, thinking and feeling, as complementary models and perspectives were explored, including, among others, those by Eisenberg and Berkowitz l s ; Kuhlthau 19; Learning for the Future 20 ; Stripling and Pitts 21, and Moore 22. Participants were encouraged to base their instructional design on any model, i.e. they were not limited to those presented, but they were required explain what determined their selection. The point here was not only to broaden awareness of the richness of the literature and ensure that acting, thinking and feeling were all addressed, but also to avoid imposing a model that might not match the teaching and learning styles of the teachers. It was assumed that

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commitment to thorough application of any model would be influenced by the degree to which teachers 'owned' decisions and felt able to interpret models themselves. To assist participants in focusing on specific aspects of information behaviour, expectations concerning students' learning and existing levels of information literacy were discussed, together with ways of testing teachers' assumptions during learning activities. The need for an evidence-based understanding of information literacy 2 was emphasised. Members of the development team, like their peers, were not expected to be equally confident in teaching with ICT. While Teaching for Irrformation Literacy is not centred on ICT alone, it does need to address this issue. One workshop therefore focused on using the World Wide Web for gathering information. This was achieved through experiencing use of software which allows topic specific websites to be linked as in a guided tour, thus simultaneously introducing a teaching tool. Finally, the concept of cognitive apprenticeship was discussed as it related to the learning needs of teachers new to information literacy. Apart from discussing the concepts of modelling, scaffolding, fading, and coaching, one activity explored categories of information required by teachers embarking on a different way of teaching. From this, a template was created which provided scaffolding for team members in writing the materials that would later appear on the website. The final workshop focused on designing learning activities and planning to monitor the information literacy behaviours of students. Development team members worked individually or collaboratively but one also planned as a leader of a team in her own school. A key question was "What are you going to do to make information and information handling apparent to students?" Given that participation in the development team was itself a professional development opportunity, at the end of their first workshop, the twelve teachers were asked to complete a questionnaire about feelings and expectations of the project and their own learning. At the conclusion of the development phase, each was interviewed regarding their personal learning, that of their students, and the management challenges of the project. Ongoing support and advice were available to the development team through a listserv and project leaders visited several schools to observe children learning. DEVELOPING THE MATERIALS While the cognitive apprenticeship framework for professional development is educationally sound, it is challenging to implement online for variety of reasons. The most basic of these is that the model assumes a face to face situation where questions and responses flow naturally between expert and novice. Without the stimulus of an apprentice being physically present, many aspects of thinking with and about information that are part of good teaching (or librarianship) practice are simply taken for granted and not recorded, particularly where the expert is involved in interactions with thirty students on a variety of levels. Further, the template that was jointly conceived by the development team to assist in recording expert thinking and essential information was not easily applied beyond the workshop sessions. Some schools require adherence to particular modes of creating lesson plans and completing the project template was an additional task. While some teachers adapted standard planning tools to accommodate information literacy goals, for a few the information needs of the audience for the materials slipped from view. Project leaders therefore interviewed teachers to clarify meaning,

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address omissions and record insights retrospectively. Teachers invariably commented that it was much easier to complete this task in a supported writing environment. However, the reliability of the reflections may be somewhat undermined. The interview process also prompted developers to think about wider aspects of teaching for information literacy and to reveal much about what 'really' happened in class, both positive and negative. For example, despite reporting evidence of positive learning outcomes and information literacy gains for students, four teachers admitted that they had done little explicitly to draw information behaviours to the attention of students. A surprise was that two of these teachers were experienced in planning learning activities around information literacy and three of the four commented that the students would not have been aware that they were handling information. Each rather ruefully predicted that the gains for students would have been far greater had information handling been made apparent. A further factor influencing the quality of materials developed was time. The development team had release time to attend workshops, but none was specifically allocated for writing reflections. In addition, learning activities were sometimes fragmented by whole-school dramatic productions and attention to creation of professional development materials diminished when hosting a visit from the Education Review Office. The range of learning activities developed and tested was as a result small, but all phases of the information process were addressed in activities suited to 5 to 15 year olds. The implication here is that the teachers invited to adopt, adapt and trial these lessons may find little that meshes with their existing teaching plans for the school term. EVALUATING COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIPS EFFECTS At the time of writing, it was not possible to comment on the effectiveness of the professional development initiative for online users. The effects on the information literacy practices of the development team are however apparent and have some implications for others engaged in designing continuing education opportunities. A factor contributing to effectiveness of the cognitive apprenticeship model was that teachers selected an information process model for themselves and revealed their thinking. For example, those adopting Kuhlthau 24 and/or Moore 25 claimed to be empowered by recognition that teaching for information literacy can begin from activities other than questioning and defining an information need. Simply giving students information to evaluate, analyse and/or reorganise led to meaningful interactions that provided a motivating context for future questioning and information seeking. Earlier it was stated that getting evidence of improvement in students' learning outcomes was expected to be a critical motivating factor in capturing attention of online users of this resource. If that assumption is to have any validity at all, then the evidence gathered and reported by the development team should similarly affect their practices. Workshop discussions had focused on expectations of students and project leaders provided scaffolding in the creation of tools that would reveal information behaviours and allow data collection as a normal part of teaching. Ten of the twelve teachers indicated a firm commitment to continue teaching for information literacy and could articulate ways in which their expectations of students' performance had changed. Maintenance of these changes cannot be

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assessed at this point, but it is encouraging that several participants had already begun to take information literacy leadership roles in their schools. Further, the teachers whom they had influenced had also reported differences in student learning outcomes. However, as previously indicated the question, "What are you going to do to make information and information handling apparent to students?" revealed that four teachers had taken little explicit action. In these cases it seems that knowledge of information literacy concepts does not necessarily result in exposure of information problem solving, thinking and feeling in the classroom. The impression gained was that notions of cognitive apprenticeship were only partially applied in relation to the teachers' peers, and were overlooked in terms of their value to young students. The lesson is that planning instructional design from an information literacy viewpoint does not necessarily equate with actively teaching for information literacy. For several development team members, the notion of explicitly implementing cognitive apprenticeship in the classroom was new and, in hindsight, it was unrealistic to expect thorough implementation based on the activities of a single workshop. One of the confounding factors for project leaders was that commitment and understanding evident during workshops was more fragile than expected. For example, the enthusiasm and information literacy understanding apparent from the contributions to discussion by one teacher, ebbed considerably when she was faced by a class of low ability students. Expectations concerning their performance undermined her attempts to teach for information literacy. Most teachers discussed their personal learning in terms of greater understanding of information literacy or insights into students' abilities. Underlying many comments was recognition that they themselves had been the beneficiaries of scaffolded learning and reflection, even if they had not applied the technique fully in class. Some found affirmation for planning and teaching techniques usually used, but not considered before in terms of information literacy. One said, "Most of our planning is integrated and as a school we focus a lot on the process and what kids are doing to manipulate information. I hadn't actually thought of it as anything valid in itself." This experience had assisted her in developing tools to focus on information processes in a meaningful manner. Another teacher commented that she was appreciating what "information power really could do for students". In this case, cognitive apprenticeship and metacognition had a high profile as three teachers "taught [the lessons] collaboratively and we've discussed it all the way through and we've come out with a new understanding." At the heart of this was explicit teaching for information literacy and having tools for observing students' information handling. For the development team, centring the initiative on student learning has been very effective. THE PROOF OF THE PUDDING - SOME EXAMPLES OF STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES During interviews teachers were asked what the students had gained. To the project leaders, this is the ultimate test of the effectiveness of professional development for teachers. While changes in learning outcomes are rarely expected to occur over night teachers who explicitly focused students' attention on acting, thinking and/or feeling in relation to information processes reported significant improvements in the course of a single learning activity. One teacher working on a newspaper production activity for 15 year olds reported that for the first time in the school year, some less committed students had

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followed through with, or actually completed work. This teacher believes that constantly drawing the students' attention to the various stages of the information processing requirements of their research, coupled with the 'feeling' aspects as represented by Kuhlthau's model, was extremely motivating. The integration of thinking and feeling elements in teaching for information literacy was highly successful with 11 year olds too. Whilst taking a research unit on 'inventors' a teacher encouraged her children to pin paper figures representing themselves along a confidence/emotions scale, which was placed on the classroom wall. The scale was annotated with statements ranging from those which might be described as 'procrastinating' at the left hand end through to personal satisfaction and triumph at the right hand end. As the unit progressed the teacher became aware that not only did understanding of information processes increase in this group, there was a new level of trust developing between her and the class. The students spontaneously began to make reference to their avoidance behaviours ("Oh, I think I'd better go and sharpen my pencil now!") thereby recognising displacement activities and uncertainty. Half of the development team spontaneously and enthusiastically mentioned the depth of student learning evident. Across all age groups, there were reports that students were being more critical of information sources and were displaying more ability to share knowledge in formal debates and persuasive writing, class discussion, drama and poetry writing. For example, another teacher of 11 year olds was surprised to find that she could safely focus on information processes and the subject knowledge would follow naturally. Students engaged with information on live shark finning from so many different information viewpoiilts that their knowledge of the topic was extensive and boredom had never been an issue. (This is rather a reversal of the usual expectation that information skills will arise by osmosis!) These kinds of results were not limited to established readers. A class of new entrants was found to be able, in the context of shared reading, to predict which nonfiction chapters in simple texts would hold answers to questions (even though vocabulary in chapter titles and questions differed) and to evaluate whether their questions had been answered satisfactorily. These children appeared to make a marked shift in their expectations of text as they discovered that reading accesses interesting information. Evidence for this conclusion came from an increase in books brought from home and requests for assistance in reading them. There were also increases in the information content of children's writing and the degree to which they commented at home on what they had learned. (This last was apparent from the parents' comments in children's home and school notebooks and discussions with teachers.) Teachers have evidence that skills gained have been transferred to learning activities centred on two further topics. One extensive learning activity undertaken for this initiative was a secondary school science unit relating to the five senses. This was the focus of 20 lessons over five weeks. The 12 and 13 year olds involved all stated that while they had 'done projects' in the past, no one had ever really explained the research process. The teacher concerned provided an overview of the process and scaffolding that would prevent students leaping from data gathering to presentation of conclusions without passing through thoughtful analysis, organisation and synthesis of information. The class quickly moved from accepting all information sources as valid, to being suspicious of everything and gradually taking a more reasoned critical stance. Information seeking strategies were examined and search planning, both electronic and print based, became the expected behaviour for all. This was an average ability

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class in which several students extended their information literacy perceptions and abilities markedly. One student has even been invited to place his overview of the debilitating effects of loss of smell on the website at a university outside New Zealand. CONCLUSIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR SIMILAR INITIATIVES The first phase of this work in progress suggests that the professional development model adopted in Teaching for Information Literacy results in changes in student performance that motivate teachers towards further increasing their understanding of information literacy. In sum, the professional development approach can be described as being based on. • • • • • •

cognitive apprenticeship in which expert teachers reveal their thinking while doing tasks beyond the current experience of teachers as learners in the evaluation phase of the project; the learner's ownership of a personally selected optimal approach to instructional design based on information literacy; provision of a continuum of support from dependence to independence in information literacy instructional design; achievement of initial success in information literacy teaching within the constraints of available resources and the teacher's current technological confidence; first hand experience of ways in which resource-based learning, constructivist concepts and development of metacognitive knowledge and skills foster information literacy growth, and a belief that critical application of strategies is enduring and effective in promoting information literacy and that revealing expert thinking is essential to strategy development by others.

Reflection on implementation of the model suggests that development participants should be those who will benefit from involvement on a personal level. In this case those who would not claim to be information literacy experts at the beginning gained much more than others. Indeed, two whose previous experience of information literacy programmes had left them sceptical became strong leaders in their schools as they took responsibility for the direction of their personal learning and observed the effect of teaching for information literacy on students. It is recognised that participants were venturing onto new ground in two directions simultaneously - information literacy and the practice of cognitive apprenticeship. That increases to three directions if the curriculum area is also new. Consequently, project leaders would revise the preparatory workshops in light of the unexpected gap between planning and teaching for information literacy. The question, "What are you going to do explicitly to draw students' attention to information processes?" would be given a higher profile at every stage of instructional design. We would also provide greater practise in the cognitive apprenticeship aspects by including a learning activity centred on revealing thinking while information seeking, evaluating resources and planning with pairs of teachers taking alternate expert/novice roles.

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We had placed considerable emphasis on systematically seeking evidence that challenges teachers' assumptions about students as information handlers. Practitioners may need the assistance of colleagues in observing, collecting and analysing data from this type of activity as well as encouragement to disseminate their findings. It is also apparent that when practitioners are involved as producers of online professional development materials, their other commitments to school communities need to be taken into consideration to a greater extent. Disruption to teaching plans, not to mention the many technological failures experienced, suggest that simply providing more release time for writing is insufficient. Providing a supported writing environment with team members independent of school constraints does assist, but scheduling school visits can become a challenge. While this is an expensive way of producing online materials, it appears that the classroom benefits for the development group may justify the practice. However, a cost-benefit analysis cannot be attempted until the benefits to online users and their students are assessed. It may be that to gain the same level of benefits, online users should also add their learning activities and reflections to the resource. Principals of schools intending involvement in the evaluation of this trial have indicated a variety of approaches to use of the resource for professional development; thus the final report will include recommendations based on their experiences. REFERENCES 1

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Breivik, P. and B. Ford. "Promoting Learning in Libraries Through Information Literacy." American Libraries, 24, 1 (1993): 98, 101-102. Bruce, C. The Seven Faces of Information Literacy. Adelaide: Auslib Press, 1997. Candy, P. "Major Themes and Future Directions: Conference Summary and Implications." Paper presented at Learning for Life and the Autonomous Learner, 2nd Australian Conference on Information Literacy, Adelaide, 30 November - 1 December 1995. Moore, P. A. Towards Information Literacy: One School's Journey. Wellington: NZCER, 2000. Todd, R. "Integrated Information Skills Instruction: Does it Make a Difference?" School Library Media Quarterly, 23, 2 (1995): 133-138. Haycock, K. "Research in Teacher Librarianship and the Institutionalisation of Change." In L. A. Clyde (Ed.) Sustaining the Vision: A Collection of Articles and Papers on Research in School Librarianship in Honor of Jean E. Lowrie. Castle Rock, CO: Hi Willow, 1996, pp. 13-23. Lance, K. C. Information Empowered: The School Librarian as an Agent of Academic Achievement in Alaska Schools. Anchorage: Alaska State Library, 2000.

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Chalmers, A. and H. Slyfield. Contributions to Learning: Libraries and New Zealand Schools. Wellington: Research Unit, National Library of New Zealand, 1993. Moore, P. A. Teaching Information Problem Solving in Primary Schools. Wellington: Ministry of Education, Research Report, 1998. Slyfield, H. New Zealand School Libraries in the Information Age. Wellington: Research Unit National Library of New Zealand, 1997.

Moore, 1998, op. cit. Bruce, op. cit. Greene, S. and J. Ackerman. "Expanding the Constnictivist Metaphor: A Rhetorical Perspective on Literacy Research and Practice." Review of Educational Research, 65, 4(1995): 383-420. Newfoundland Department of Education. Learning to Learn: Policy and Guidelines for the Implementation of Resource Based Learning. St. John's: Queen's Printer, 1991. Collins, Α., J. S. Brown and A. Holum. "Cognitive Apprenticeship: Making Thinking Visible." 1991. Available from: http://www 211earn.org/arch/articles/brown_seely html Accessed 18 March 2001. Scardemalia, M. and C. Bereiter. "Fostering the Development of Self Regulation in Children's Knowledge Processing." In S. F. Chipman, J. W. Segal, and R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and Learning Skills: Research and Open Questions. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1985, pp. 563-577. Hay, L. "Information leadership: managing the ICT Integration Equation." Computers in New Zealand Schools, February (2002). In press. Eisenberg, M. and R. Berkowitz. Information Problem Solving: The Big 6 Skills Approach to Library and Information Skills Instruction. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1996. Kuhlthau, C. C. Seeking Meaning: A Process Approach to Library and Information Services. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1996. Curriculum Corporation, Australian School Library Association and the Australian Library and Information Association. Learningfor the Future. Carlton, Victoria: Curriculum Corporation, 1994. Stripling, B. and J. Pitts. Brainstorms and Blueprints: Teaching Library Research as a Thinking Process. Englewood, NJ: Libraries Unlimited, 1988. Moore, P. A. "Information Literacy: The Importance of Questions." SCAN, 15, 1 (1996): 43-46. Todd, R. "Transitions for Preferred Futures of School Libraries." Keynote address at Inspiring Connections: Learning, Libraries and Literacies, the 30th Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship, Waipuna Hotel, Auckland, 9-12 July 2001. Kuhlthau, op. cit. Moore, P. A. "Information Problem Solving: A Wider View of Library Skills." Journal of Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20, 1 (1995): 1-31.

TEACHERS' CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN INFORMATION LITERACY: THE CASE STUDY OF FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOLS Viviane Couzinet Laboratoire d'Études et de Recherches Appliquées en Sciences Sociales Equipe MIC S, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse France Abstract:

French school documentants are in charge of training students in information literacy. The new teaching curriculum requires study skills to be introduced by subject teachers in collaboration with the documentaliste. Subject teachers, however, have not had any training in teaching these skills. By analysing the themes of articles published in two specialised periodicals - Intercdi and Les Cahiers Pédagogiques - and a local authority's continuing education programmes, this research intends to put in context the difficulties encountered by both groups in sharing their competence.

INTRODUCTION This research was carried out under the umbrella of the MIC S (Médiations en Information et communication spécialisées) research group of the LERAS S - a Social Science Research laboratory - based in one of the universities of Toulouse (France). It follows a series of studies about the way PhD students in the Humanities use scientific journals, and the part played by information specialists in providing training in information retrieval and use at the university level. After recording the difficulties met by university students, we were led to try and trace back to their secondary school training and the part played, at that level, by documentaliste in charge of imparting study skills. According to the new 1995 national curricula, teachers must teach both their subjects and study skills. Three recommendations were made in the national curriculum: to teach how to work across subjects, how to retrieve information, and how to use documents. Few teachers have been trained to teach these skills. Therefore, they must first master them and then adapt their teaching. To what extent does continuing education introduce teachers to knowledge access methods? At the same time, however, teaching information 'know how' is the province of documentalists - their mission being both to manage 'documentation centres' and to teach information skills. Thus, in their schools they are the intellectual skills experts, the teachers who teach how to learn. How do subject teachers and documentalist teachers collaborate? To answer these questions we defined the context of our research by referring it to current work in education sociology, education science and information science. After gathering and analysing the investigation corpus we were able to produce some tentative results that we are submitting here as food for future thought.

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THE FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework Recent French Education Science studies on information retrieval and exploitation methods have shown that information skills were an important success factor in the first two years of university.1 Indeed, these skills take an instrumental role in facilitating the 'passage' - in the ethnological sense of the word - from the 'pupil' to the 'student' status by acquiring a new relationship to knowledge. To this end, many North American and European universities have set up information literacy courses 2 information should be understood as imparted, passed on, knowledge.3 It has also been shown that Humanities PhD students do not use the Internet as efficiently as they could, because they consider that work disseminated through this channel is not credible due to the lack of traceable sources.4 This raises the problem of information literacy training at the university level. Currently the human and technical resources provided to French university libraries are not sufficient to introduce all the first two year students to these skills - which led us to question what is being done at secondary school level. According to the sociologist Philippe Perrenoud, renewing knowledge involves high level skills. Learning no longer means learning content but "learning how to learn, how to get information, how to communicate, how to reason, how to compare, how to decide...".3 Learning these skills should enable students to build their own knowledge, their own 'know how' and to put them to future use. Such skills thus evolve from a personal process, a work within oneself, which produces meaning.6 Moreover, an academic subject is a set of methodological skills and a set of networked concepts.7 Teachers should show their pupils that learning a concept, a method, or a technique is linked to other concepts, methods or techniques within a subject or beyond it. This ability to build cognitive bridges is a means of "understanding what generates links between subjects so as to create larger knowledge spaces".8 It is indeed possible to consider interdisciplinary education as putting into practice crossdisciplinary content together with process knowledge and behaviour.9 How can secondary school education take these studies into account? The institutional framework As early as 1952, a regulation entitled "The Role of Documentation in Secondary Schools" advised teachers to promote a more active involvement by pupils in the construction and assimilation of their knowledge. However, the way in which this was implemented - which included a set and restricted list of documents - severely limited the scope of this text. 10 In 1958, the first 'Centre de Documentation' was created at the Lycée Janson de Sailly in Paris. This led the way to the opening of other similar centres in large secondary schools, but at first, they were only meant for teachers. Until 1986, their role was mainly technical and administrative. From then on, the emphasis was more specifically placed on the development of pluridisciplinary teaching methods, on the opening of schools to the outside world, and on active learning via independent work. The status of staff employed in these centres was still unclear. It was defined in 1989, when a 'Certificate of Aptitude for Secondary Teaching' otherwise referred to as CAPES in France - was created. Thus, 'Information and Documentation Centres' (CDI's) would be led by teacher documentalists. In addition to managing CDI's, their responsibilities would include introducing pupils to

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information retrieval and information use and collaborating with subject teachers in order to implement interdisciplinary projects. u ' 1 2 The 1995 secondary school reform patterns itself on the 1952 recommendations and on the ideas developed by education science researchers. Pupils must build their own autonomous identity, with the teacher as a 'mere' guide. The letter's role is to convey both knowledge in his/her subject and methods which should help the learner understand the relationships between disciplines. In order to enforce this reform and make it universal, two types of assignments were made compulsory: 'cross discipline activities' in the 8th form - the mark awarded is then taken into account to award the 'Brevet des Collèges' - a mid secondary education degree in France, and 'travaux personnels encadrés' (TPE's) - personal tutored activities in 10th form, the mark awarded is then taken into account to award the Baccalauréat - the French GCSE or High School Diploma. From 1998 onwards, a series of official regulations have defined the way in which these activities should be carried out. Crossdiscipline activities consist of collective work across a minimum of two subjects. The goal is to show the possible relationships existing between them, especially regarding content and approach. The purpose is to "put certain items of the current curriculum across in a motivating way for pupils".13 TPE's are based on the same idea but they give rise to the creation of a personal log book aimed at enabling teachers to follow the student's work progress and to some concrete achievement which will take the form of an oral presentation. This regulation is implemented by means of various organisational provisions, which lead towards a nationwide enforcement of the new curriculum, by the beginning of the 2001/2002 school year. In the meantime, some schools have been testing the changes and have been responsible for communicating the outcomes and the problems they have met. If the practical modes of implementing these instructions are spelled out - i.e. the number of scheduled work hours for teachers, the list of themes, the availability of specific facilities - so is the role of school CDI's (Information and Documentation Centres). Technological remedial classes, space planning to facilitate group work, and mutualising the school's resources on the national education documentation network are emphasised. However, if documentaliste are actually mentioned as part of the teaching team, their mission is only mentioned in relation to the practical organisation of their activity. Since the creation of the CAPES in Documentation, though, documentaliste are supposed to introduce pupils to working with the CDI during hours specially dedicated to that purpose. Being trained in educational and communication information technologies, in working with documents, in information searching and retrieval and in collaborative work, they are seen as teaching practice innovators. That this secondary school reform should assign some study skills training to subject teachers seems to blur the lines between subject teaching and study skills training. MATERIALS AND METHODS In order to carry out this research, we first conducted exploratory interviews with a documentalist and a continuing education instructor. These interviews enabled us to determine the time period for the analysis, and to select the materials to be investigated. Thus, the time required to assimilate and implement - at the experimental level- the Ministry of Education's recommendations was taken into account. Our study encompasses the period September 1998 - June 2001.

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Next we listed and analysed the articles published in two French national periodicals which are regularly referred to by both teachers and documentaliste. Intercdi is published by CEDI S (Centre d'Etude de la Documentation et de l'Information Scolaire), which is an organisation created in 1972 by a group of 'lycée' and 'collège' documentaliste, in collaboration with Jean Hassenforder. The latter - who ended his career as an Education Science University professor - was also in charge of the documentation sector of the Pedagogical Research Department of the Institut National de la Recherche Pédagogique (INRP) and a member of the board of directors of ADBS - the most representative French documentalist organisation. The journal is issued six times a year; its circulation is 8800 for a roughly similar number of subscribers. Although Education Science researchers are part of the editorial committee and Information Science researchers contributions occasionally featured in it, it is made 'for and by practising documentalists'. 14 The "Cahiers Pédagogiques" (http://www.cahiers-pédagogiques.com) is a periodical aimed at teachers of all grades - from elementary school to university. First issued in 1945, it is non-partisan, non-union, has no links with the Ministry of Education and promotes education démocratisation and renovation. It is published by CRAP (Cercle de Recherche et d'Action Pédagogique) and the content covers both thought provoking articles and practical tools, and combines theory and practice. It is issued monthly during the school year and has a circulation of 8000. 15 Furthermore, each year, the French local education authorities offer a programme of continuing education training courses - the PAF (Programme Académique de Formation) aimed at all education staff members. We have studied the courses available during the chosen time period to check if there was any concurrence between courses offered to documentalists and those offered to subject teachers. We have limited this study to the Toulouse local authority as we consider that, given its size - it is the largest in terms of surface area, number of teachers and number of documentalists (442), the results could provide a meaningful indication of major trends, even if they cannot depict the whole national situation. DOCUMENTALISTS TEACHERS AND SUBJECT TEACHERS: DIFFERENT WORLDS?

TWO

The analysis of these two periodicals and of the continuing education curriculum over the given period of time has enabled us to select the articles dealing with cross disciplinary activities and TPE's, and then more generally those dealing with autonomous identity construction and interdisciplinarity in education. Documentalist teachers seen through their own eyes From September 1998 to June 2001, Intercdi devoted fifteen articles related either to the goals or the means of implementing the reformed curriculum, nine of them more specifically reporting practical experiences, l6"24 the other six discussing the role of documentalists in building independence.25'30 The documents, which reported collaborative work experiences with subject teachers, were mostly featured in the 'pedagogical' section of the journal. They report cases with some objectivity, and describe the various ways they were implemented. Deliberately matter of fact, they illustrate how instructors can, in practice, collaborate; they also describe the students' performance. Their conclusions are favourable,

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sometimes even enthusiastic: "a successful collaboration" 3I , "autonomous students in the CDI!" 32 "TPE's are an opportunity that should not be missed" 33 Written by documentalist teachers, they convey a kind of dedicated involvement in their job. All the thought provoking articles are featured in the 'Our function' section. Their authors' profiles are varied. One documentalist teacher delivers a "sensible and cautious" assessment of the role of CDI's in schools, in relation to the 'Lycees for the 21st century' White Paper.34 This qualified opinion is supported by the records of a one day training session organised by a local authority, presented by two documentalist teachers. It reports the opinions of some subject inspectors and of directors of 'Centres de Documentation Pédagogique' in support of increased collaboration between subject teachers and documentation teachers. 35 Then, after stressing how important this aspect is, it carries a critical assessment of the TPE system by an information science researcher who sees the danger of making the mission of documentants being purely instrumental in activities which in his opinion are not as interdisciplinary as they seem. 36 Finally, two articles deal with teaching methods which could be useful to documentalist teachers. A still current analysis carried out in 1979 by a sociologist and school head, was reproduced in 2001.3 It aims to demonstrate that information literacy training involves learning how to raise a question. Learning how to question would be a factor in preparing teenagers for independent study. The authors maintain that "training pupils for autonomous information work is a major aspect of today's education, which is oriented towards lifelong learning". Then a 'conseiller pédagogique' (i.e. a teacher who serves as advisor and tutor for newly recruited teachers) and former documentalist presented the benefits of a 'diagnostic assessment'.38 It consists in first measuring the pupils' competence in various skills before starting a project. This enables documentaliste to perceive the gap between theoretical and actual prerequisites. Assessing pupils prior to introducing them to the task is a means of involving them and making them question their knowledge. This is presented here as a major asset in the development of autonomy. These articles show that the authors - who are documentalists - want to share their experience and to prove that collaborative work is possible. Also, it all looks as if Irttercdi was feeling the need to contribute to the positioning of documentalists within the educational community by seeking the approval of researchers and of the hierarchy. It thus gathers 'spokespersons' - who speak on behalf of others and enlist allies, according to the meaning given to that term by science and technical sociology. They have a double barrelled function: by telling documentalists that they are right in asserting their teaching competence they serve as evidence and endorsement, and by creating links with Academe and the hierarchy they have a supporting function. Intercdi, the documentation centres' journal thus conveys an image of a periodical which builds a positive image of the CDI documentalists. The continuing education courses designed specifically for documentalists are mainly focused on computer science applied to documentation and to information retrieval in electronic formats (17 courses in 1998-1999; 15 in 1999-2000; 18 in 20002001). Other courses deal with content specifically aimed at CAPES internal candidates, at trainee documentalist teachers and at teacher trainers. The courses, which are also open to subject teachers, deal with children's or teenage literature and culture (3 or 4 courses each year). Introduction to collaborative work is on the increase (only one course in 1998-1999; 3 dealing specifically with TPE's and cross discipline activities in 2000-2001). The number of courses open to both documentalists and subject teachers is growing: from 5 in 1998-1999, they reached 17 in 2000-2001.

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However, even though the reform recommendations have, to a certain extent, been taken into account in the continuing education curriculum, this structure cannot, as it is, provide training to all the teachers who need it. As this was not foreseen, several years will be required to update teachers' awareness, and it will be the most highly motivated people who get trained first. Subject teachers seen through their own eyes From the Cahiers de l'Education, a periodical which, as you may remember, targets all teachers whatever subject they teach, we have selected ten articles. A special issue included twenty six articles devoted to self study. We have ruled out those whose scope was too general and only kept those which had some bearing with documentation, interdisciplinary activities and teaching practice. We were thus able to put together three types of texts. The first one is aimed at teachers as such. Using relevant resources of information and analysing one's experience plays an important part in a person's ability to assimilate change in one's profession. Thus, for teachers, the current issue is: what is it that should be taught: content or the way to access information resources? Or both? 39 Three teacher profiles are described: the transmitting teacher who passes on knowledge, contents, the 'constructivist' teacher who considers that everyone builds one's own knowledge and the 'dialogist' teacher who considers that knowledge is both something that can be passed on and needs to be produced individually.40 Finally, an article written by a documentalist tells the story of her professional life as a teacher who keeps wavering between content and skills building in her conception of her teaching mission, but who provides no hint of her life as a documentalist! 1 Therefore, as neither of these three articles allude to the documentalista function, only subject teachers appear to be concerned by the issues raised by the new curricula. The second type of article deals with reading. Informative reading, first, as an answer to one's own expectations; it is described as 'training oneself by one's own means through a dialogue with somebody else'.42 Reading for pleasure, next, - i.e. reading comics at the CDI 43 or reading books during the holidays while working for the French class.44 In this second type of article the role played by documentalists is not mentioned either. The CDI only seems to exist as a reading space or as a place where one can borrow books. The last group is made up of four texts dealing with the new measures. One author, after sharing some general views on collaborative work, comments an experiment of crossdiscipline activities introduced by the 'collège's' head. Out of the three work themes which were selected, only one involves the documentalist - since this theme is based on information retrieval. But although this latter theme is mentioned by the head as well as the special missions it involves, it is completely overlooked by the commentator who only takes the subject teachers' missions into account.49 In two more papers history-geography, maths and French teachers express their views on the difficulties of implementing TPE's. 46 ' 47 Finally, the dangers of self study when applied to the Internet and the role of documentalists are described.48 Only this last paper gives documentalists their full importance. One must say that its author is himself a documentalist and teaches a course to prepare candidates to take the documentation CAPES - which accounts for his interest in the subject. Within the time period of this study, when interdisciplinary work and learning how to be come autonomous through study skills were hot issues, we found that the very people whose assigned missions are to provide training in them are left out - as

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trainers - from the texts written by subject teachers. Hence, the CDI appears only as a book providing space and only incidentally as a training aid. Subject teachers seem to be the only ones able to provide instruction to pupils, even though providing intellectual work methodology seems a little complex to them. As for continuing education, although it does make a number of courses available for every academic subject, it meets the documentaliste' needs, as was previously mentioned, only by introducing other courses such as so called 'reform support' courses including citizenship education and civics to them. Some sort of decompartmentalisation seems to be on the way for academic subjects, but as in the case of documentalists, courses are short (they last only one or two days) and rarely attempt at broadening knowledge. We can only note that we are faced with two worlds who work next to each other, but do not necessarily know each other. One is left to wonder how documentalists and subject teachers can learn to collaborate. WHO SHOULD BE TRAINED TO DO WHAT ? Our analysis of these published documents during the given time period provides an inkling of how difficult it is to implement a reformed curriculum in which the partners do not quite know what is expected of each them. We believe that changing teaching methods should challenge the training of both teachers and documentalists. Academic subject knowledge for documentalists Education science shows that interdisciplinary teaching is feasible only if the main features of the academic subjects involved are examined.49 It is therefore necessary to identify the 'conceptual competencies' and the 'methodological competencies' of each, to observe and record where they converge and where they separate, what makes them specific. Also, each academic subject involves "some subject-specific methodological knowledge which by carrying out certain tasks, helps to acquire certain concepts". But being a documentalist-teacher in France implies being trained primarily in an academic subject, not being trained in librarianship and information science. Some information retrieval practice as well as an introduction to training information practice have been tacked on to those academic subjects which usually belong to the Humanities or Languages category. As the time devoted to training for this competitive exam is relatively short - about eight months - candidates do not have the time to acquire, and of course to broaden the few notions they have learnt. In their subject colleagues"eyes, they are mere specialists in technologies, technicians who have a few concepts in teaching methods. And this to the point that they are taking part in 'pedagogical projects' is sometimes considered as 'interfering' in their subject and in their colleagues' work. 51 As the 'know how' that documentalists have are not, or barely are, hinged on conceptual competencies it is difficult for them to assert their cross discipline competence except at the methodological level. Documentalists then become 'methodology experts', locked in methodology. This also partially accounts for the relative inability to conceptualise their practice that we have noticed in the papers published in Intercdi. The experience that is being shared is an often naive report with no idea of 'the big picture'. The teaching activity itself seems to be limited. The ability

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to create one's own information tools is completely overlooked, which leads them to look down on management tasks which seem to be of no pedagogical consequence. The noticeable malaise towards their school partners and the lack of consideration indicated by the absence of any articles by them in the Cahiers Pédagogiques, can only find a solution in a revised training programme based both on information science and a knowledge of concepts and methods. This challenges the present training system for the competitive exam, and also more widely, the whole documentalist curriculum. Indeed, only few universities provide a full programme in that field. Students can enter the programme at various levels. Studies are short and lead to a vocational degree. The 'double competence' which is often claimed by trainers is illusory. It is mostly a superimposition of conceptual and methodological competencies in one subject on methodology knowledge in documentation. It is thus virtually impossible for these two layers to feed upon each other. Therefore, the reason why documentalists choose to focus on introducing pupils to information retrieval and on the use of information is better understandable. Besides the fact that this introduction is actually important for pupils, it also is a means of gaining respect and of being recognised as a teacher in a fairly closed community. Some methodology training for subject teachers Confident in their acknowledged identity as subject teachers, subject teachers do not consider training students in methods as essential. They pay very little attention to it, as can be seen in the papers we have analysed, which seems to indicate that they would like to stick to the old romantic image of the teacher who has sufficient knowledge to give a lecture without preparation. Concealing from pupils the existence of intellectual and material skills which can be used to build one's knowledge is in complete contrast with the methodological attitude of documentalists. It raises the issue of knowledge sharing. Recent research in information science, indicates that many teachers in their fifties seldom take advantage of the CDI resources or establish cooperation with documentalists. In this case, continuing education has a specific part to play: by refocusing teaching on methodology it would narrow the gap between documentalists' demand for, and the teachers"closed attitude, towards collaboration. If creating cognitive bridges across subjects would be conducive to learning for students, it would be just as usefìil for teachers. To be viable, a bridge needs to lean on equivalent banks. Thus, if documentalists need to learn the conceptual competencies related to their activity, teachers need to learn the methodological skills related to their subjects. Just as in the case of students, acknowledging what makes their subject specific requires finding out where they converge and what makes them different. Also, it would be very important to use two moderators - one a documentali st teacher and one a subject teacher - for most continuing education training sessions. Some teacher training institutes have already included bibliographic instruction for young subject teachers. This has proved to be positive in many cases but is not enough to fill the gap between documentalists and teachers as seen in the periodical articles we have analysed.

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CONCLUSION The distance we have noted between the documentalists demand for collaboration in training pupils in information searching methods and information use, and the subject teacher's reaction does not bode well for the new teaching reforms. A yearly continuing education programme has been set up to help find ways of adapting the system. However, recent work in education science shows that interdisciplinary activities cannot be organised without first identifying the skills which are common to the subjects involved. If we apply this theory to teachers, it means that the documentalists training programme should be reexamined and that subject teachers should receive more training m teaching methods. However, we must bear in mind that this study only involved two very specific periodicals over a transition period. It would be essential to check how the situation will have evolved in a few years' time. This work has highlighted the fact that collaboration between documentalists and teachers was difficult and the remedies were not easy to find; it also draws attention to the blurred image teachers have of documentalists' mission. REFERENCES 1

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Pantanella, R. "Travaux Croisés: un Dispositif à Croisements Multiples..." Cahiers Pédagogiques, 385 (2000). 51-53. Dupont, F. and J. Taillandier. "Premiers Regards sur les TPE." Cahiers Pédagogiques, 385 (2000): 47-50. Pantanella R. "Les TPE à l'Épreuve du Feu." Cahiers Pédagogiques, 385 (2000). 49-50 Alava, S. "Cyberapprendre ou les Risques de l'Autoformation." Cahiers Pédagogiques, 370 (1999): 22-24 Delevay, op. cit. Delevay, op. cit. Duplessis, op. cit.

LEARNING TO LEARN: AN ICT TRAINING MODEL TO SUPPORT PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE IN SCHOOL LIBRARIES Dorothy Williams School of Information and Media The Robert Gordon University Scotland Abstract:

Standards and guidelines stress the importance of the integration of the school library resource centre (SLRC) within the teaching and learning process. Recent developments in Scotland reinforce this further by encouraging schools to evaluate the impact of their SLRC on the quality of learning, despite research findings which show that this relationship is by no means clear to either teachers or librarians. At the same time, information and communications technology (ICT) initiatives are creating opportunities for librarians to take a lead in developing new approaches to teaching and learning. Are school librarians prepared for the challenges and opportunities offered? This paper examines the skills and knowledge needs of professional librarians if they are to respond to these opportunities, and in particular the SCOTIA Consortium's current ICT training programme which is one of the CPD options put in place in support of major lottery funded ICT initiatives for schools in the UK. The programme aims to ensure that school librarians have an appropriate skills and knowledge base to suit a modern teaching and learning environment, providing value added resources to support the curriculum and developing information literacy and ICT literacy amongst learners. Perhaps even more importantly, the programme has been deliberately structured to provide a launch pad for future CPD. Librarians are expected to appraise and plan their own role and skills in relation to whole school development. The mixed face to face and distance learning approach, which provides online support and networking, stresses the potential of ICT to provide ongoing learning opportunities for librarians throughout their professional life. The paper reviews progress and responses amongst school librarians and examines some of the challenges, as well as successes of this approach to CPD.

INTRODUCTION For many years standards and guidelines have stressed the importance of the integration of the school library resource centre (SLRC) within the teaching and learning process. Recent developments in Scotland reinforce this further by encouraging schools to evaluate the impact of their SLRC on the quality of learning. This is all part of a programme of educational reform and curriculum development which aims to improve the quality of educational experience and enable teaching and learning to keep pace with the changing work and social environment. This programme began in the late nineties with the Government White Paper 'Excellence in Schools'1 and the Scottish equivalent 'Targeting Excellence'2. Schools in Scotland are encouraged to set targets for student learning and to self evaluate their

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performance using guidelines such as 'How good is our school?'3 In turn, school librarians are encouraged to use a self evaluation tool 'Taking a Closer Look at the School Library Resource Centre' 4 which is based on, and should become part of, the whole school evaluation process. A great deal of the emphasis in this evaluation process is on examining the impact of the SLRC on the learning outcomes and, as such, assumes a full integration between SLRC and the teaching and learning process. At the same time, information and communications technology (ICT) initiatives are creating opportunities for librarians to take a lead in developing new approaches to teaching and learning. In recognition of a need to support the development of the nation's ICT skills, a number of major Government initiatives were launched in the UK during the latter part of the 1990s. The National Grid for Learning (NGfL) was developed as a strategy to integrate new technology into learning institutions across the country by providing hardware, encouraging the development of networks and creating a market for private sector investment in educational software. Earmarked New Opportunity Fund (NOF) resources from the National Lottery are being used to ensure a marked increase in the numbers of computers and much greater access to networked learning resources in schools. This is already resulting in greater emphasis on information use within the school curriculum, and important opportunities for librarians to become more involved in the learning experience. Alongside these initiatives, another NOF programme was launched in 1998/9, to provide ICT training for teachers, school and public librarians to ensure successful integration of ICT into the curriculum and the teaching and learning experience. On the face of it this training initiative offers recognition of the central role school librarians are expected to play in this changing educational climate. However, in practice, if it is to fully support librarians' development, the training provided must address not only ICT application but also the role of the librarian in the learning process. This paper examines the skills and knowledge needs of professional librarians if they are to respond to the opportunities and challenges in a rapidly changing school environment. In particular it examines the SCOTIA Consortium's current ICT training programme which is one of the CPD options put in place in support of the NOF ICT initiatives for Scottish schools. The paper describes the training content and structure of the training programme and goes on to reflect on the issues which are emerging as librarians across Scotland engage with a programme which assumes elements of continuous self-reflection, sustained periods of self study, and integration of professional training needs within the development planning of the school as a whole. THE SCOTIA CONSORTIUM TRAINING PROGRAMME The NOF ICT training programme for school librarians was launched in 1998/99 although in practice it was well into 2000 before school librarians in Scotland were beginning to engage with the training. Approval was given to training providers who demonstrated the ability to deliver quality instruction and distance learning materials to ensure completion of specified expected outcomes. The SCOTIA Consortium is one of a number of training providers approved to train librarians and teachers within Scottish schools. The Consortium is a partnership of four Scottish Higher Education establishments with wide experience in librarian and teacher education: The Robert Gordon University (leading the programme for librarians);

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University of Glasgow (leading the Consortium's programme programme for teachers), Queen Margaret University College and University of Paisley. It is clear, that the skills and knowledge required to ensure integration of ICT within the learning process need to go beyond the skills in using the technology. The original NOF specification for the content of the training provision encompassed a very wide range of ICT skills with five main categories: • • • • •

Using ICT to develop the role of the library within the school; Supporting teachers to ensure effective teaching; Ensuring the effective management of resources; Supporting the development of pupils' skills; School librarians' knowledge and understanding of, and competence with, ICT.

These expected outcomes, developed by the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTa), were broad enough to encompass all levels of ICT ability within the school library profession in the UK as a whole. In Scotland, where more than ninety percent of SLRCs in secondary schools are staffed by professionally qualified librarians, the levels of technical competence could be expected to be relatively well developed compared to other UK countries with lower proportions of professionally qualified staff. However, while basic ICT awareness was not part of the core training, there had to be some differentiation within the programme to support librarians and library assistants who would enter training with varying levels of experience in ICT application. What was required was a programme of training which: • • • •

stressed the application of ICT within the learning and teaching context, taking account of the learning process and the needs of teachers as well as students; encouraged professional development in relation to the needs and priorities of the SLRC and the school as a whole; provided a supportive base for librarians' continuing development beyond the immediate training programme; allowed for some variation in entry levels of knowledge and skills.

The resulting SCOTIA Consortium ICT training programme aims to support the professional development of school librarians in their dual roles of: • •

providing value-added resources to support the curriculum, the teacher and the learner, supporting the development of the learner.

A whole school approach is taken throughout the training course emphasising the need for the integration of the development of the librarian and library with wider school developments. The principles of flexibility and integration are developed within the structure of the training programme: Modular programme There are four modules in the programme:

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> Library Support for the Curriculum, which includes identifying opportunities for ICT in the curriculum, resource discovery and evaluation, advanced search skills, and creative use of ICT to support teaching and learning; > Developing the Library and the Librarian Through ICT, including using ICT to enhance and deliver services, promoting the library and using ICT to support the librarian's professional development; > Effective Management of ICT Resources, which covers deploying and locating ICT in a library environment, creative use and extension of existing library resources, and strategic planning and management of networked resources; > Support for the Learner (in the context of ICT and information literacy), which includes planning, developing and delivering ICT/information skills programmes for learners and teachers, and strategies for supporting learners in their use of ICT within the library. Throughout all modules an emphasis is placed on the application of ICT in the teaching and learning context rather than simple technology instruction. Flexibility Prior to beginning the training, discussions are undertaken between SCOTIA representatives and the head of the Schools Library Services (occasionally a small group of librarians from the education authority are also included in these discussions). This meeting allows both sides to share expectations of the training, discuss local priorities and skills needs, and plan the provision of training. Requirements from authority to authority can vary widely and although the self-study elements of the course remain the same, some aspects are negotiable: > level of entry > time taken to complete the course: SCOTIA advise allowing six weeks for the completion of each module, translated as approximately 2 hours a week of individual study, but education authorities can choose a different timescale to suit their wider planning and individual trainees' needs - timing of workshops which introduce each workshop are therefore flexible; > tailoring of materials to local needs/local software: while the written materials are fundamentally the same for each client, some local differences can be catered for, for instance materials written for web design have been produced for both FrontPage Express and FrontPage 2000; > drop in sessions: provision of drop in sessions providing additional support for small groups of trainees experiencing difficulties in completing the course have also been planned by some authorities. Mix of learning modes The course as a whole, and each module in turn, is introduced by means of a tutor led face to face workshop. Thereafter, librarians work through self study materials with core inschool planned activities which cover all expected outcomes, and suggested extension activities for those with more advanced skills and/or those who wish to spend more time beyond the core tasks. Additional online and written support resources are provided, including a URL directory 'Finding information on the World Wide Web', and a Legal and Ethical Issues guide. Email tutor support is available at any stage.

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Opportunities for networking between programme participants In the course of the training participants are encouraged to join the SCOTIA online forum hosted on the consortium's website. Many of the trainees use this facility extensively, and interactions have included discussions about ICT and discipline; requests and suggestions for useful websites for the support of particular subject areas; discussions of copyright on the web; and wider issues concerned with salaries and career progression. Integration with the wider work of the school There is a conscious emphasis on placing the training programme within the context of the librarian's existing work and school-wide priorities and development plans. Module activities presented in the form of a practical handbook, centre on the practical application of ICT in the library and within the teaching and learning context and to encourage trainees to reflect and improve on the way they use ICT to support their work within the school. Accompanying readers provide more theory behind the practical applications of skills, but always within the school context. Consideration of wider school goals and activities is also emphasised in reflection, planning and personal development activities, and are discussed in more detail below. Self evaluation and development planning As figure 1 shows, a number of elements have been put in place to emphasise the importance of self evaluation and CPD beyond the immediate programme. Figure 1. The S C O T I A School Librarian Training Model Troinirin KfaûHe

Anolucie

Core Modules Evaluation of Progress Personal Development Plan

•

Training Needs Analysis (TNA) Prior to beginning their SCOTIA ICT training, the trainees are asked to complete a questionnaire, which has been developed from the NOF expected outcomes. Returns are analysed, and results fed back in the form of a report to the local coordinator (usually the Head of Schools Library Service) and the SCOTIA tutor(s) delivering the training locally. The T N A provides a means of identifying any individuals who will need to build basic IT skills prior to starting the core programme. In such a (rare) case SCOTIA can offer a basic Threshold ICT booklet covering generic ICT functions and skills. Alternatively, the client may

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choose to develop their basic skills internally through courses offered within their local authority. It is also a useful tool for the SCOTIA tutors, identifying any potential problem areas for the group as a whole, or particular individuals that might need greater support in specific areas of the training. •

Evaluation of Progress At the end of each module, trainees are asked to complete a reflection on achievement document. This document prompts them to consider whether they have understood the key activities, knowledge and skills covered by the module; provides space for them to discuss and note examples of their application of their skills and knowledge in their work; and identify which aspects they feel could beneßt from further development. These reflection sheets are intended to be used both during and at the end of their training to feed into their development plan and their ongoing professional development programme.

•

Personal Development Plan A key concern of the SCOTIA training plan (and the wider NOF training initiative) is that the funded training should not be a one off endeavour. It is important that what has been learnt should be integrated into everyday practice, and that newly found ICT skills should be used to support the librarian's own professional development. At the end of the training, once all modules have been completed, trainees are therefore asked to complete a Personal Development Plan prioritising areas for further development, in discussions with their line managers in school and planning in the context of their development plans for their library and for the school as a whole.

OUTCOMES AND ISSUES The SCOTIA training programme has now been running in more than half of Scotland's local authorities for some time. As well as the external evaluation being undertaken as part of the NOF training, the SCOTIA Consortium programme is under constant evaluation by the Consortium's own evaluation team by means of short questionnaires and site visits to training groups. The training model The feedback from librarians is positive in terms of the nature and content of the training programme itself. They see the relevance of the skills to their own work and all who have begun the programme have completed or are intent on completing the core activities. For some, this programme is providing a chance to consolidate the skills they have already been developing and applying within their library, a chance to exchange ideas with others, and an opportunity to focus and reflect on the successes and opportunities which ICT may offer in their school. For others who have had less access to ICT, in particular the Internet, in their libraries until the recent NOF initiatives, the programme appears to be providing the necessary opportunity to examine the range of resources available, and to learn from the experience of their peers. Indeed, in a small number of cases, the training programme has been used by librarians as a lever in seeking support within their school for more access to the Internet within the library.

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Despite the fact that the NOF training specification stressed the importance of providing for distance learning within the programme, school librarians have consistently highlighted the value of the fece to face elements within the SCOTIA programme. The workshop elements are seen by trainees and tutors alike as crucial in helping to keep the momentum going, and to help to overcome the sense of professional isolation which many school library staff experience on a day to day basis within their own schools. The workshops, as well as the online discussion forum, allow important opportunities to exchange ideas and discuss issues. Feedback also shows the value of the workshops in providing focussed time to examine and evaluate ICT resources, something which can be extremely difficult in a busy working day. It is to be doubted whether a programme of this scope run on a purely distance learning basis would have been so successful with school librarians. The Personal Development Plans which are emerging show clear evidence that librarians are attempting to identify strategies for furthering their own skills and knowledge in relation to the development of ICT in their school. In one local authority the individual Personal Development Plans have also been supplemented by a joint plan in which groups of librarians are identifying common targets for the development of ICT based resources and facilities which can be shared between SLRCs. In this sense, this training appears to be succeeding, at least in the short term, in encouraging an ongoing commitment to CPD. However, the feedback from librarians throughout the training is also highlighting a number of issues which are of interest within the wider context of future CPD for school librarians. These tend to be interrelated and hinge to a great extent on the perceived status and professional isolation which many school librarians continue to feel. Development time NOF training requires a time commitment (estimated as approximately 2 hours a week outwith workshops for core activities) from participants, and school librarians consistently express concerns in evaluation feedback sheets about this problem. They find that there is not enough time during the working day to complete the training and therefore have to give up personal time. This may also explain the fact that very few of the more skilled librarians have chosen to move on to the extension activities which, though more demanding, would also stretch them further. This issue of lack of time is more complex than it at first appears. It hinges to some extent on the perceived status of school librarians and for some, perhaps, a sense of vulnerability should they attempt to argue a case for setting time aside which might result in an unacceptable reduction of services or even temporary closure of the library. Most see the need to prioritise services to students within their working day, and those who are the sole staff in the SLRC find it difficult if not impossible to identify time to devote to anything other than running the library. The issue also raises the eternal question of disparity of terms and conditions for qualified professionals working in the school sector. Under a recently negotiated agreement5, teachers across Scotland are now beginning to have an allocation of time for CPD, which in many cases will be used for the NOF ICT training, although most teachers will inevitably also put an element of their personal time into the training. This agreement does not cover librarians and, while all head teachers are involved in the decisions about NOF ICT training for their library staff, it would appear that no such CPD allowance is automatically made for library staff. Equally it also appears

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that librarians do not generally attempt to initiate discussion with their line managers (usually the Head Teacher or a Depute Head) or Head Teacher about the possibility of regular time allowance for their own professional development apart from specific events such as workshops and professional meetings. Iftaken to its logical conclusion this approach is not conducive to the kind of reflection, evaluation and development in quality provision which is expected now under the new evaluation frameworks for school libraries (see Figure 1 above). If ICT is to be a lever to ensure that the SLRC is fully integrated into the learning and teaching process, there will be a need to ensure that development time continues to be built into the regular planning of the work of the librarian. It will be interesting to see whether, and to what extent, the Personal Development Plans, which include timescales and priorities, are indeed followed through, particularly in those authorities where there is a less strongly developed central Schools Library Service to help monitor and support individual librarians. Motivation There is no doubt that the majority of librarians view the content of the SCOTIA Consortium training as interesting and relevant to the development of their understanding of ICT within the school library context. However, the inevitable need to commit to a programme of self study, and the difficulties expressed in finding time to do so, raise questions about the wider motivation for professional development in a career where there are few if any prospects for career progression. The emphasis throughout the SCOTIA training is on self reflection and self evaluation to enable individuals to take responsibility for their own professional development. This is important for a professional group with no formal career path and where the management structures within which they operate differ from authority to authority and can differ from school to school. For example, in Scottish schools, while the librarian is primarily responsible to the school, there can be varying levels of input or involvement with the public library depending on the management models put in place following the last local government reorganisation. Continuing professional development must take into account the requirements of the authority, the local working environment and the needs for that particular establishment and the individual. However, it is the very lack of career progression which is likely to be a factor militating against any serious attempt to commit regular time to planning future CPD. This again has implications for the whole role and development of the SLRC in a school environment in which the need for effective information and ICT support is being increasingly recognised by the teaching profession. Roles The outline of the SCOTIA training, and indeed the original Expected Outcomes of the NOF training, represents the range of skills and knowledge required not only to be able to use ICT but to maintain the school librarian roles of resource management, and ICT/Information literacy support for teacher and student. This suite of skills and knowledge is extremely broad and has proved challenging in terms of providing coverage of skills within a reasonable timescale for trainees. If this has presented challenges for training providers and trainees alike, does this also signify a problem with the roles required of a school librarian, i.e. are they being expected to take on too much? Should there be serious consideration to the question of whether a librarian's

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role is one of resource manager and information provider or whether it is also one of providing support for skills development? Despite many years of curriculum development which stresses a skills based approach, it is not at all clear that the hoped for levels of information literacy are fully being achieved. Evidence from recent research into the impact of the SLRC on learning highlighted the lack of planning for library and information related goals within curriculum tasks in the case study schools. If librarians find the task of planning and evaluating in relation to quality of learning outcomes challenging, the evidence from that study indicated that teachers also find it difficult to integrate specific information and library goals into their curriculum planning. With greater access to the Internet and the stress this tends to place on critical thinking and evaluation of sources, librarians continue to see it as vital that they take a lead in developing information skills programmes. The need for information literate students has never been greater, yet success in this area requires the kind of integrated planning between teachers an librarians which is not yet taking place in many schools. Unless librarians can find the time to develop their own skills and knowledge base to allow them to provide innovative solutions to the delivery of these skills and to work closely with teachers in their planning, there may be little prospect of progress in this area. CONCLUSIONS This paper has examined the ICT skills and knowledge needs of school librarians if they are to achieve the kind of integrated support for teachers and learners which is envisaged. This case study of the SCOTIA Consortium's training programme has been used to examine some of the challenges and issues for librarians and for those seeking to provide professional training which will stimulate longer term self development and CPD for school librarians. The experience of the SCOTIA programme to date suggests that there is a willingness amongst librarians to embrace change and to develop new skills and practices, and that they appreciate the opportunities provided by this training model to focus on their ICT development and to exchange ideas and experience with others. The elements of self reflection and Personal Development Planning appear to be successful in helping to knitting the training outcomes into the work of the school, and ensuring that this kind of training is seen as the starting point for further development rather than a one off event. However, feedback also throws up ongoing issues which are much wider than this particular training initiative and which have implications for the effective future development of the school library profession. There are still major concerns about the difficulties most librarians express in being able to plan regular time commitments for their own professional development within the busy working week within a school library, whether in practice due to lack of support staff or to an element of demotivation where the prospect of career progression is seen to be limited. Further issues relate to their concerns of a perceived lack of equality in CPD provision for librarians and teachers in schools. The sense of professional isolation within their own schools comes across strongly in the responses to the training opportunities provided. While librarians see the training programme as helping overcome some of that professional isolation, it is also clear that it is likely to continue to be a factor which will act as a barrier to their own ability or willingness to seek support for CPD. The NOF ICT training for school librarians and teachers will continue until 2003. It is too early yet to be sure what the true impact will be on schools. Nevertheless, for school librarians it continues to provide an opportunity to ensure

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that they are not only fully skilled to support current developments but that they are in a position to continue to learn and develop. Given the current focus on ICT developments in teaching and learning, It is hard to envisage a better opportunity for school librarians to call attention to the skills and qualities they have to offer. However, there is also a need to establish the mechanisms and attitudes which will support their ongoing professional development in a rapidly changing educational environment. The profession cannot afford to fail to learn how to learn professionally, if the SLRC is to become more integrated into the teaching and learning process of the school. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Louisa Coles, Caroline Wavell and Caroline Whitehead for their input to the preparation of this article. REFERENCES 1

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DfEE. [Department for Education and Employment]. Excellence in Schools homepage. Available from: http://www.dfee.gov.U.K/wpaper/mindex.htm Accessed 25 January 2002. Scottish Office. Targeting Excellence - Modernising Scotland's Schools. Edinburgh: The Stationery Office, 1999. HMI Audit Unit. How Good is Our School? Self Evaluation Using Performance Indicators. Edinburgh: SOEID, 1996, p. 43. SOEID/SCCC/SLA/SLIC. Taking a Closer Look at the School Library Resource Centre Self-Evaluation Using Performance Indicators. Edinburgh: SOEID/SCCC/SLA/SLIC, 1999. Scottish Executive. A Teaching Profession for the 21s' Century. Agreement Reached Following Recommendations Made in the McCrone Report. 2001. Available from: http ://www. scotland.gov.uk/Iibrary3/education/tp. 21 a_00asp Accessed 2 February 2002. Williams, D. and C. Wavell. The Impact of the School Library Resource Centre on Learning. Aberdeen: The Robert Gordon University for Resource: The Council for Museums, Archives and Libraries. Library and Information Commission Research Report 112. (The Robert Gordon University School of Information and Media Research Report 9). Aberdeen: The Robert Gordon University, 2001. Available from: http ://www2. rgu. ac.uk/~sim/research/SLRCreport.pdf

INFORMATION LITERACY FOR 'MERE MORTALS' Susie Andretta Senior Lecturer in Information Management University of North London England Abstract:

The paper outlines the Information Literacy syllabus developed and implemented for first year undergraduate students studying at the Faculty of Environmental and Social Studies at the University of North London. The definition of Information Literacy for this purpose is that developed by the American Library Association: "the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information". The paper examines strategies used to develop searching and evaluative skills through the use of web based and printed learning resources. In particular it explores the approach used to contextualise the syllabus and the assessment of the module for a range of disciplines. The impact of the module is explored through a detailed examination of students' engagement with the issues related to Information Literacy, their interaction with the learning resources and their performance at the point of assessment. The module was piloted with first year Law students in 2000/1 and results show the nature of difficulties that these students had in developing searching and evaluative skills. The paper concentrates on the strategies adopted to address these difficulties with the aim of identifying successful approaches that can be used when teaching Information Literacy skills to students that do not have an information background.

INTRODUCTION Information Literacy (IL) defines the skills claimed by the information profession as falling within the domain of their expertise. However, thanks to rapid developments in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) the 'ordinary users', or mere mortals, now have almost unfettered access to information without any intervention from the Information Professional. Do mere mortals, such as undergraduate students, have the IL skills required to take advantage of all this digital information? The simple answer is that most of them do not and this is the reason for the momentum of Information Literacy in academic circles around the world. This paper attempts to examine some problems associated with IL provision at the undergraduate level at the University of North London. Initiatives introduced to ensure the establishment of a student centred learning environment designed to encourage the development of the independent learning skills associated with IL will also be evaluated. This paper aims to provide background information on the impact of the IL module on students' performance. The correlation between students' level of IL skills at the beginning of the module and summative assessment results is used to measure the module's impact on students' IL competence. The outcome of this analysis will be presented at the conference. During the development of the Information Literacy module, discussion was held at university level to explore the option of university wide provision in this area. After much deliberation two of the four faculties decided to implement the IL module,

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while the remaining two faculties wanted to continue delivering a general ICT module, which, in their view, allows greater integration of ICT skills within their disciplinary context. As a result the Faculty of Environmental and Social Studies (E&SS) and the Humanities and Education (H&E) Faculty have introduced an Information Literacy module based on the 'integrated approach' \ This initiative involved the development of a comprehensive set of IL skills at the subject level, through relevant exercises and assessments, and at programme level, through the compulsory status of the module in the first year of the degree. The module was consequently piloted during the academic year of 2000/1 by both faculties and full provision was implemented in the current academic year. Although the IL module is taught in both faculties, this paper examines the issues relevant to the IL module in E&SS as this syllabus concentrates on the development of searching and evaluative skills, while the H&E implementation focuses on the evaluation and presentation of information through the use of authoring software.

FROM HANDLING INFORMATION TO INFORMATION LITERACY Three years ago ES&S decided to update its generic Handling Information module, delivered to all its undergraduate students. Research in this area showed that provision in other institutions, mainly in the United States and Australia, focused on Information Literacy. The definition of IL, provided by the American Library Association (ALA), was the starting point of the IL module at the University. According to the ALA, the information literate person is able to: "recognise when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information ... Ultimately, information literate people are those who have learned how to learn." 2. Although, as noted by Webber and Johnston, "most definitions, [of Information Literacy] in fact, circle around these stages of need recognition, search formulation, source selection and interrogation, information evaluation and information synthesis and use" 3, the definition by the ALA not only provides a clear interpretation of IL, but also, by associating IL with the ability to learn how to learn, promotes one of the 'key skills' identified by the Dearing Report.4 This links IL to lifelong learning through the development of transferable skills such as critical thinking and problem solving that the University aimed to include in all its undergraduate provision. The new Information Literacy module had to address a number of issues that pointed to the need to develop IL skills at the undergraduate level. These issues are identified in the literature as: the rapid growth in students number and, in particular, an increase in non traditional students with poorly developed IL skills s ; technological developments which have led to an increased amount of electronic information sources available 6 and the move towards student centred learning in HE characterised by problem based and resource based approaches 7. INFORMATION LITERACY MODULE: STRUCTURE AND SYLLABUS The 'Information Literacy Blueprint' 8 developed by Griffiths University in Australia summarises the main principles that need to be taken into account when developing an Information Literacy programme. The IL module developed at the

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University of North London addresses all of these points, even though this Blueprint was not known at the time. The Blueprint states that the IL programme should: 1. Aim to cater appropriately for all kinds of learner at all the various levels of learning. 2. Have clear aims and be based on sound pedagogic foundations. 3. Have quality and feedback mechanisms built in. 4. Attempt to measure initial and exit competence, and can thus demonstrate impact. 5. Be managed effectively and delivered cost-effectively. 6. Make valid use of new technology and other innovations. In the following sections these principles are cross-referenced to the main features of the IL module by referring to the number order in which they are listed above. Aims and learning objectives of the IL module The aims of the IL module promote the development of IL skills as defined by the ALA. These aims were expressed in the documentation produced for faculty approval as follows: to enhance the academic performance of learners by developing skills that will allow students to locate, manipulate, retrieve, evaluate and present information through effective interaction with ICT resources available at the University. The module aims to cover not only the development of basic IT skills required to access learning resources, but also to develop evaluative skills required to use the information effectively once it has been retrieved, and document presentation skills appropriate to E&SS subjects (principles 2 and 6) These aims are reflected in the module's learning outcomes, whereby at the end of the module students should be able to: 1. Use essential features of the University's ICT facilities effectively and appropriately. 2. Integrate the skills of locating, evaluating, processing and presenting information, using both printed and online formats. 3. Apply basic research and document authoring methods to communicate some social and ethical issues associated with the impact of computers. 4. Develop basic ICT skills in the context of European Computer Driving Licence1 (ECDL) standards. These learning outcomes are mapped onto three assessment components, comprising a portfolio of ICT tasks, evidence of email correspondence with the tutor reflecting the discussion and approval of the topic researched (students are required to choose from a list of issues concerned with information ethics), a written evaluation of the effectiveness of the search strategy adopted using a search engine and of the quality of the information found on the topic chosen.

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Syllabus The syllabus of the IL module covers most of the issues included in programmes of a similar nature and these have been widely documented in the literature". Examples of IL curricula are also provided by a range of online resources developed by academic institutions particularly in the United States and in Australia"1. The programme of the IL module covers: • • •

•

Familiarisation with the University's IT systems to access the University facilities. ECDL. Students will be able to access training materials covering the whole syllabus, although modules S or 6 are not assessed. Information ethics and social responsibility. The social and ethical implications of computer usage are explored, for example copyright and web publishing, electronic surveillance, data protection, and information overload. Search strategies and the evaluation of information. These include the ability to interact with a variety of information systems, such as OP AC, subject-based electronic resources and search engines, and the evaluation of factors such as currency, reliability and relevance of the information gathered for subject specific topics.

The module is supported by a range of learning resources including a website, handbook, and digital handouts containing examples of exercises and the Intranet version of ECDL. It must be stressed that the IL module was developed with two main objectives in mind: to establish the full credential of IL skills within the University and to ensure that these are fully contextualised in the social science disciplines. The first point challenges the myth of perceiving IL just in the context of ICT skills 9 , a view that was, and still is, held by some at the University. The second point was addressed by encouraging students to explore issues of Information Ethics that are relevant to their disciplines'v

FLEXIBLE DELIVERY: AN ESSENTIAL ASPECT OF INFORMATION LITERACY The need to cater for a wide range of learners, especially within a large cohort of students, requires a structure that offers flexibility in terms of delivery. IL provision at the University has shown that flexible delivery offers customised support that satisfies the learners' needs in the most cost effective way (principle 5). In addition this offers the advantage of encouraging students to take responsibility for their learning through self assessment of their learning needs (principle 4) in order to generate the appropriate level of motivation required to engage with the learning resources at the level and pace that will meet these needs. Experience with the previous module, Handling Information, had shown that compulsory attendance and tutor-centred delivery were too inflexible to address the wide-ranging learning needs of students located at the two extremes of the learning

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spectrum and that this resulted in lack of engagement with the syllabus and a high failure rate. Students on the IL module were informed that attendance was optional as the learning resources could be accessed remotely and at any time. Overall their response has been positive, as it has ensured that students who attend the lab sessions are highly motivated because they are driven by the need to address the gap in their knowledge. Whether this method of optional attendance is effective in reaching the weaker students is an issue addressed by the evaluation questionnaire that will be distributed to the students at the end of the module". Flexible delivery, in this case, relies on the use of a diagnostic questionnaire distributed at the beginning of the module. When the Information Literacy programme was piloted in 2000/2001 the diagnostic questionnaire, used to assess students' skills at the beginning of the module, was distributed in paper based format and focused on ICT and searching skills without making the distinction between these two explicit. The problem with this approach arose when the tutor collated the results in order to profile the ICT skills of the students into novice, intermediate and advanced categories, which were then used to allocate lab support. This profile was communicated to the students through a list which indicated the ICT category they belonged to and the lab sessions they could attend. This categorisation generated a false sense of security in the students who had scored high in ICT and who were consequently placed in the advanced and intermediate groups. They felt that their ICT proficiency was sufficient to pass the module, underestimated the complexity of searching and evaluation skills required to complete the assignments and, as a result, gained a higher percentage of fails in the search assessment than the novice group 10. To avoid this problem the diagnostic questionnaire used in the current IL module was delivered in a web based version, which not only scored the answers automatically but, in addition, was able to produce feedback in which the scoring for each of the IL skills categories (ICT, searching and evaluation) was clearly identified. The scores were then linked with advice concerning the areas of the module on which the students should concentrate, specifically those sections where they had achieved a low score. The results from the questionnaires illustrated different patterns between ICT skills, where only a small number of students claimed little or no knowledge, and the more complex searching and evaluation skills where the majority of students were classified as novice users. The profile for these three categories is summarised as follows: •

Computer usage: of the 144 students who attended the module 92% claimed some knowledge of computer usage and the remaining 8% came under the category of not knowing how to use a computer. These findings confirm claims by Hepworth11 that students lack complex IL skills but show at least a basic knowledge of ΓΓ skills at the point of entry to an undergraduate degree. • Software usage: 91% of the respondents stated that they could use a wordprocessing package and a large number of students claimed knowledge of email, with 52% of the total rating their skills as good and 27% as average. In terms of using a web browser the majority of students showed familiarity with navigation skills, 73% of the total rated these skills as good or average, and 61% claimed the ability to use a search engine, which also ranged from average to good. Curiously, however, a staggering 70% of students had poor or non-existent knowledge of how to create bookmarks and 77% could not edit these. This last point highlights student's lack of skills in the management of online resources.

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•

•

Searching Skills using a search engine . 84% of students rated their skills as good or average when using simple keyword search and 63% could conduct a phrase search. However, when asked to rate their skills using more complex searching strategies, such as Boolean, 71% of students selected the 'don't know' option, thus highlighting their lack of skills in sophisticated searchingvl. Evaluation Skillsresults here showed that students' rating of their evaluation skills as good or average was higher when using criteria such as 'relevance' and 'accuracy', which were rated at 60% and 55% respectively, but that a large number of students claimed little or no skills of 'currency' and 'reliability' as evaluation criteria. 57% and 51% of students respectively came under these categories

The breakdown of students' skills into three distinct categories1"11 had the intended outcome of making students aware of their lack of competence in the subjects of searching and evaluation and prompt them to engage fully in the relevant exercises in these areas, even if they had been classified as advanced users in the ICT category. DEEP LEARNING APPROACH INFORMATION LITERACY SKILLS

AND

TRANSFERABILITY

OF

The flexibility of the IL module promotes the idea of exposing students to a "deep approach" 12 to learning, as advocated by Entwistle, which requires students to interpret the material in a personally meaningful way and not simply by regurgitating the information provided by the lecturer, which Entwistle defines as the "surface approach" 13. This strategy requires the establishment of a more interactive learning environment where the student is at the centre of the learning process and engages with learning resources in an active and reflective way. Within this student centred environment the tutor becomes a "guide on the side" 14 as opposed to the "sage on the stage" 15 removing the perception of the tutor as "an infallible source of information" 16 and encouraging students to find their own answers. Webber and Johnston 17 also advocate the use of a deep learning approach to support IL provision, emphasising the transferable skills aspect of IL and where learning and teaching strategies encourage students' reflection. Similarly, Mutch warns that IL programs need to focus on the development of reflective skills related to the issues of definition and meaning and not just be concerned with knowledge transmission. "The lack of such reflective processes has been held to prevent a person from being able to respond to changed circumstances with new approaches. This suggests that a key to the effective use of information is not only a conscious recognition of the relationship with knowledge but also a critical awareness of the factors surrounding knowledge production" 18 Testing whether the IL module develops transferable skills goes beyond the scope of this paper as evaluation of this aspect can only occur through a longitudinal study assessing how the students make use of EL skills throughout their academic career. Here the focus is on the method used to ensure that the transferability aspect of IL skills is embedded in the learning process. This shift towards the transferability of ICT skills is advocated by Selwyn's "knowledge adaptness" 19 whereby computer expertise should cover broad domains of transferable skills so that, for example, a CV produced in Microsoft Word does not constitute computer expertise per se, but the skills used to produce the CV must be translated into the ability to communicate data

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on text-handling applications in general. He quotes the study by Dreyfus and Dreyfus'" to support this point where competent use of a computer is contextdependent and is based on: "experience-based holistic recognition of similarity which allows deep situational understanding" 20. This promotes a model of progression of computer expertise from "rule guided 'know that' to experienced based 'know how'"21. To achieve transferability the emphasis needs to shift from the completion of the task to the accomplishment of the process underpinning the task. An example of this shift can be seen in the changes made to one of the assessment components of the IL module in response to the feedback from the students involved in the pilot. Initially ICT skills were assessed by asking the students to complete the online tests provided by the ECDL tutorial. Printouts of these tests illustrating an 80% pass rate for all the ECDL units specified were submitted as the first assessment of the module. Although students were complimentary about the ECDL tutorial and reported a high degree of reflection through interaction with this courseware, they also reported that the assignment to test these skills should be of a more practical nature. In response to this, it was agreed to replace the existing assessment with one consisting of a portfolio of ICT tasks where students were required to use the skills learned through ECDL in a practical application. The implementation of a deep learning approach based on the development of critical thinking and independent learning skills faces serious challenges when dealing with first year undergraduates who expect to be taught through a spoon feeding approach characterised by heavy reliance on the tutor for guidance in the exploration of the subject knowledge. Students' reactions to the independent learning mode promoted by the IL module has ranged widely from a deep sense of confusion to a full appreciation and use of its flexibility. Students who are capable independent learners have engaged easily with the learning resources, contacting tutors only when they had queries on the assignments. By contrast, the sense of confusion felt by the majority of students was characterised by the 'what do I do now?' attitude they assumed during the beginning of the module. A programme of study was introduced to provide these students with weekly targets to be achieved through the completion of structured exercises. Students were encouraged to consult this programme every time they queried the tutor on what they should do next. This was seen as a compromise between plunging students into the deep waters of independent learning and the adoption of the spoon-feeding approach they expected. The results have been positive as the 'what do I do now?' syndrome seems to have been replaced by active and continuous consultation with the targets set on a weekly basis. In addition, the programme of study has also proved useful for students who enrolled late because it gave them the opportunity to catch up in a structured and systematic way and minimised their anxiety of being left behind. The impact of the spoon feeding factor is linked by Hepworth to the inability of the students to formulate appropriate searching strategies as they are more used to "situations where the nature of the problem is carefully defined by the teacher or lecturer, and also where clear guidelines are given for the answer" Students' lack of critical thinking skills compounds this problem and, as shown by example searches chosen by students on the IL module, the difficulties are associated with the following tasks: •

Defining the focus of the topic. When a student expressed the intention of researching the topic: 'Danger for young people in chat rooms' it was clear that

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•

•

she needed to clarify the focus of her research. After some discussion with the tutor, it transpired that the initial topic did not reflect the students' intended aim and that she wanted to gather information on the problem of paedophiles alluring young children into face-to-face contact through the use of chat-rooms. Using appropriate terminology. Another topic selected explored the impact of technologies on students at universities. Here the student was really interested in the impact of web learning on undergraduate students, but did not know the appropriate keywords or the process needed to acquire these. Using effective search strategies. Practice on searching strategies produced some unusual combinations of Boolean logic and phrase searching. For example a student who was interested in finding out about Irish castles formulated the following search 'Ireland AND castles' instead of using the original keywords as a phrase search. The fact that he could not understand why his search did not produce any relevant information illustrates a clear lack of understanding of how these two strategies operate.

This inability to formulate a search effectively has been widely documented in previous studies. Hepworth, for example, describes how students at the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore experienced difficulties when looking for information in the formulation of the search and "tended to make a very literal interpretation of the question and started looking for material that mentioned those words listed in the question" 23. The difficulty here is caused by the need to implement a multiplicity of strategies that require critical and lateral thinking and lead to multiple outcomes. According to Mellon, undergraduate students, operate in a dualist mode of cognition where they have "little patience with alternative search strategies" 24 The pilot has shown that first year undergraduate students operate in this dualist mode as they "expect a right or wrong answer to each question they come across" 25. Evidence of this is shown by the improved performance where the IL task consisted of a single search strategy leading to only one right answer, as in the example of searching legal databases, such as Current Legal Information, to find specific legal cases. The problems faced by first year undergraduate students when they attempt to develop IL skills are confirmed by SCONUL. In a paper on Information Skills in Higher Education, SCONUL promotes an IL model composed of seven IL skills, or pillars, ranging from the basic "ability to recognise a need for information", the first pillar of this model, to the most sophisticated skills involving: "the ability to synthesise and build upon existing information, contributing to the creation of new knowledge" 26 defined as the seventh and most advanced stage of EL expertise. These pillars demonstrate a progression from competent to expert use of the IL skills, and clear distinction is made between the level of IL expertise achieved by postgraduate and research students compared with the limited cognitive abilities of first year undergraduate students "The progression from novice to expert [in IL skills] is indicated by an arrow. First year undergraduates will largely be at the bottom of the arrow, perhaps only practising the first four skills, whilst postgraduate and research students will aim to be towards the expert end and will be aspiring to the seventh" 27. The challenges of delivering an IL programme at undergraduate level cannot be underestimated, and the IL module delivered at the University of North London is attempting to address these through the use of structured learning resources and tutorial support on a one-to-one basis. Students who do not have an information background are not familiar with its language and, to compound this problem, the

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majority of students come to higher education equipped with low level independent study and critical thinking skills required to achieve EL competence. One way of addressing these problems is not to limit provision of IL to the first year of the degree, but to adopt what Hepworth defines a "Staged approach to imparting Information Literacy" . Here the development of IL skills at first year level must be followed by practice at advanced level to ensure the consolidation and integration of IL skills throughout the degree. This approach would also offer the opportunity to match the development of IL skills with the appropriate cognitive ability of the students, thus ensuring the degree of progression advocated by SCONUL. One obvious route to accomplish IL provision through a staged approach would be to incorporate IL skills in research and dissertation modules across the disciplines to emphasise the link between IL and academic activities and increasing the usefulness of IL in students' perception. CONCLUSION Speculations about future technological advances stress the need to develop IL skills in Higher Education. Susan Blackmore29, for example, conveys a picture of the web where eventually users will be able to retrieve information through the power of thought. "Now imagine you had such fast access that you could retrieve things as easily from the web as you can from your own hard disk.... This much is already feasible, but now imagine another development - perhaps not impossible this century a technology such that if you could think a question clearly enough in your mind, the answer would go straight from the web to your brain. ... Now the whole of the web would seem to be part of your own mind, and it would seem that way to everyone else too. What would education be like in a world of such expanded minds?" The question that remains to be addressed is not whether technology will eventually evolve to such a level but whether the merely mortal users of the future, current undergraduate students included, will be able to formulate appropriate questions that satisfy their information needs. NOTES ' The ECDL courseware used is produced by Educational Multimedia Corporation, version VI.I, 2000. The ECDL is a qualification recognised throughout the European Union. Its syllabus covers key practical Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills and the tutorial is based on Microsoft Office software. The ECDL syllabus consists of seven modules and these cover: basic concepts of Information Technology (IT); using the computer and managing files; word processing; spreadsheets; database; presentation; information and communication. " Webber and Johnston 2000, Hepworth 2000, Lawson 1999, Doherty et al 1999, to name a few (see references below). III See BigBlue site Blue, available from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bigblue/litreview.htm for an overview on these and Webber and Johnston's website for IL resources used in UK available from: http://dis.shef.ac.uk/literacy/. Both sites were accessed: 5 November 2001. IV For example, some Politics students selected the impact of the Data Protection Act; Health Studies students chose issues on Ergonomics and health risks of

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Internet use and Mass Communication students focused on e-commerce and globalisation. v Results of the evaluation questionnaire will also be presented at the conference. ™ A similar pattern emerged in the pilot study where 68% of the cohort, 220 students in total, did not know how to use Boolean operators (Andretta, S. "Legal Information Literacy: a Pilot Study" New Library World, 102, No.7/8 (2001): 261. v

" The evaluation criteria used in the questionnaire were taken from the Internet Detective online tutorial. Available from: http://sosig.ac.uk/desire/InternetDetective.html "" Computer and software usage listed above come under the general term of ICT skills. " Dreyfus, S. and H. Dreyfus. Mind Over Machine. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986. REFERENCES 1 Hepworth, M. "Approaches to Providing Information Literacy Training in Higher Education: Challenges for Librarians." The New Review of Academic Librarianship, 2000: 27. 2 American Library Association 1995. Presidential Committee on Information Literacy. Available from: gopher://alai.ala.org:70/00/alagophiv/50417007. 3 Webber, S and B. Johnston. "Information Literacy: New Perspectives and Implications." Journal of Information Science, 26, 6 (2000): 382. 4 Information Skills in Higher Education: a SCONUL Position Paper: 3. Available from: http://www.sconul.ac.uk/publications/99104Revl.doc. Accessed 11 November 2001. 5 Ray, K. and J. Day. "Student Attitudes Towards Electronic Information Resources." Information Research, 4 (2) 1998: 1-17. Available from: http://www.shef.ac.uk/~is/publications/infres/paper54.html. Accessed 5 November 2001. 6 Ibid 7 Lawson, M. D. "Assessment of a College Freshman Course in Information Resources." Library Review, 48, 2 (1999): 73-78. 8 Information Skills in Higher Education: a SCONUL Position Paper: 9-10. Available from: http://www.sconul.ac.uk/publications/99104Revl.doc. Accessed 5 November 2001. 9 Webber, S. "Myths and Opportunities." Library Association Record, 103, 9 (2001): 549. 10 Andretta, S. "Legal Information Literacy: a Pilot Study." New Library World, 102, 7/8 (2001): 262. 11 Hepworth (2000), op. cit., pp. 21 -34 . 12 Entwistle, N. 'Teaching And The Quality of Learning': Seminar Held By The Society For Research Into Higher Education & The Committee Of ViceChancellors And Principals Of The Universities Of The United Kingdom, 23 November. London: SRHE, 1993: 10

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Doherty J. J., M. A. Hansen and Κ. K. Kaya . "Teaching Information Skills in the Information Age: the Need for Critical Thinking." Library Philosophy and Practice, 1, 2 (1999): 1-12. Ibid. Ibid. Webber and Johnston, op. cit., pp. 381-397. Mutch, A. "Information Literacy: an Exploration." International Journal of Information Management, 17, 5 (1997): 386. Selwyn, N. "Assessing Student's Ability to Use Computers: Theoretical Considerations for Practical Research." British Educational Research Journal, 23, 1 (1997): 47-59. Ibid. Ibid. Hepworth, M. "A study of undergraduate information literacy and skills: the inclusion of information literacy and skills in the undergraduate curriculum." Conference Proceedings, 65th IFLA Council and General Conference, 20-28 August 1999. Available from: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla65/papers/107124e.htm. Ibid. Mellon, C. "Information Problem Solving: a Developmental Approach to Library Instruction." In Oberman, C. and K. Strauch. (Eds.). Theories of Bibliographic Education. New York: Bowker, 1998, 80. Andretta, op. cit., p. 258. Information Skills in Higher Education: a SCONUL Position Paper: 6. Available from: http://www.sconul.ac.uk/publications/99104Revl.doc. Accessed 5 November 2001. Ibid, p. 8. Hepworth (1999), op. cit. Blackmore, S. "...Think The Web Will Alter Human Evolution." The Times Higher Education Supplement, November 9 (2001): 14.

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INFORMATION LITERACY: HELPING LIBRARIANS APPLY THE RESEARCH TO TEACHING INFORMATION SKILLS TO PATRONS: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HUMAN INTERFACE David V. Loertscher and Blanche Woolls San Jose State University USA Abstract:

The paper traces the use of the term 'information literacy' from 1974 noting that a variety of definitions have been attached to the term. Many activities carried out in the past have been subsumed under information literacy. Collections have grown in size and complexity as a result of technological sophistication. The authors have carried out extensive research into the use of information in basic education and comment on research in the school setting but which has value to all librarians especially those working in public libraries with children. Focussing on how more adults can become information literate they draw upon the literature and personal experience to identify 10 approaches which can assist this process, and comment on the role of continuing education providers.

INTRODUCTION The term, 'information literacy', was first used in 1974 by Paul Zurkowski, then president of the Information Industry Association, in a proposal he submitted to the U.S. Government. He suggested that information literates were "people trained in the application of information resources to their work.. .They have learned techniques and skills for utilizing the wide range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding information-solutions to their problems."1 Between 1974 and the present, a variety of definitions have been attached to this term, and many activities conducted in libraries in the past under other names such as teaching the card catalogue, bibliographic instruction, library skills, have been subsumed under 'information literacy'. Certainly it has been the role of the librarian in all libraries to teach patrons how to apply information resources to their work, whether writing school reports or finding out the cost of shipping materials to another country. Librarians, beginning in elementary school and continuing through higher education, and through the public library, have taught the techniques and skills to use a wide range of information tools to solve problems. What has happened in recent years has been the change in information tools available. In most developed countries, libraries and information systems were quite predicable at least until a decade ago. Librarians offered their patrons a collection of printed books, a print reference collection, and an indexed periodical collection, in the US, indexed by the H.W. Wilson Company. The major difference between libraries was not the indexing systems used, but the size of the collection available. Learning Wilson's Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature opened not only access to the few periodicals owned locally, but the same index could be used in the school, public, academic, and special library. Library skills taught to students of all ages consisted mostly of acquaintance with classification and periodical index searching. With the arrival of the Internet, online databases, and digitised information, collections not only grew exponentially, but also in complexity. At the same time,

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patron access became unpredictable because of the technological sophistication needed to access information both locally and beyond. Collection development became 'not what you owned', but 'what you provided access to'. Suddenly reference librarians changed from intellectual sleuths into computer searching troubleshooters. Equally as suddenly, librarians who had been educated before 1980 had little expertise in a technology rich environment. Neither did teachers of young people or adults. As high tech information systems were installed, everyone was reduced to being novices. And as time has passed, many have never gained sufficient expertise to cope, either as a user of information systems or as a teacher of information systems. It has been the responsibility of continuing education providers to help bridge the gap between librarian as novice and the technologies available, and to help them become able to share this knowledge with their patrons. The technologies continue to change and make it even more difficult to 'keep up'. Speaking of technological connectivity, the National Geographic recently reported that "The Internet drives demand. International telephone calls continue to increase, but phone use can't keep up with Internet traffic, which doubles every year. The volume of data transmitted on U.S. long distance lines should exceed voice traffic within a year [2002]; world crossover will follow soon. Predictably, most traffic flows between countries with the best technological infrastructures. More than 96 percent of computers connected to the Internet are in the wealthiest nations, home to IS percent of the world's population."2 From the poorest to the wealthiest nation, implementing the concept of information literacy moves the librarian from helping patrons find information, to helping them sort through the available information and use it to problem solve. The continuing education provider plans the programs to move the novice into the mainstream of helping patrons become information literate. Understanding and using the research on information literacy helps the provider and the librarian as student, and ultimately the patron in the best possible environment to succeed. Well planned continuing education experiences improve the librarian as human interface with patrons who are putting information literacy skills into practice. MESSAGES FROM THE RESEARCH Because the authors have done extensive research on the development and use of information literacy instruction in basic education, the research reported here is more often directed to the school setting. However, the points made are applicable to all types of librarians, but particularly to librarians working in public libraries with children. The essential nature of a human interface in an information rich environment with librarian as a coach and a guide, presumes that there are many adults who are already competent in the new information world, and already possess superior skills of locating and sorting information and only children need to be taught. This is not true. Tallman and Henderson3 wondered about the adults in children's lives, questioning whether adults had the mental models adequate to deal with the far reaches of the online world. In their study, when adults discovered that their mental models were incorrect or needed to shift, some made a successful transition mentally, but others did not. The information guides and coaches for children needed training and retraining themselves to function effectively. This research points to the need for school librarians to work closely with teachers.

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Another problem with teachers is their awareness level of potential electronic information sources even when a school librarian is present. Thomas4 found that vocational education teachers in four comprehensive high schools were not often familiar with major databases and spent little time in planning to incorporate information literacy skills. The mere installation of an extensive information rich environment did not yield immediate results even when the faculty had been involved in the planning. Yitzhaki and Bibi5 found that senior high school students in Israel preparing their final major research paper received very little guidance from adults in doing the project, and almost no instruction in the use of library resources. Perhaps they were being left alone to see how sophisticated they were as they were about to graduate, but the researchers were not impressed by these students' reported use of information sources, technology, or libraries. Thus, the human interface may be present, but does the learner take advantage of it? In an interesting Australian study, Henri6 asked 91 teachers who were taking a foundation course to become a library media specialist, to track their progress through a major research project. To gather the data, he used questionnaires, self efficacy rating, diaries, drafts, thinking logs, and think aloud protocols. Henri concludes: "The study indicates that teachers demonstrate much of the impoverished information behaviour shown by senior school students that has been identified by other studies. On the other hand, teachers do demonstrate a more robust use of higher order thinking skills than portrayed by senior students. The study confirms the reliability of Kuhlthau's ISP particularly in terms of the affective cycle of uncertainty through certainty. The study also demonstrated that teachers are vague on issues of focus and closure. Like students, teachers see the information task as one of finding the right answer rather than one of finding a good answer. The study suggests that caution should be taken in expectations that teacher librarians are equipped to role model good informing practice and act as role models for class teachers. It suggests that in writing about the role of the teacher librarian in developing an information literate school community it is important to distinguish between qualified and unqualified teacher librarians. What this study demonstrates is that unqualified teacher librarians are no better equipped to employ an information model than are their classroom colleagues. Whether or not qualified teacher librarians are equipped to act as informing mentors remains to be tested" (pp. 127-28). Moore's7 Australian study observed teachers attempting to teach information literacy skills without a school librarian. She watched children in various stages of the research process and then mused that children's understanding of the task at hand was a function of how well the teacher explained the task. "Teachers were surprised by the sophistication of children's thinking in some cases and dismayed by lack of skills in others, but all emerged with a clear understanding of the need to address information problem solving skills explicitly in the classroom... The most compelling aspect of the study for some

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of the teachers was the change they observed in children's learning outcomes" (p. 131). Yet Moore was not impressed with the ability of any of the teachers who had had an inservice about information literacy to deliver good instruction. Wolfram, Spink, Jansen, and Saracevic 8 after studying Web searching for several years reported at various stages. They examined information searching behaviour on the EXCITE Web search engine by users of all ages. Most users did extremely simple searches or multiple simple searches with almost no use of Boolean logic or other more sophisticated search strategies. Instant gratification rather than persistence was the obvious strategy. WHAT IS TO BE DONE? The question of how all types of librarians can prepare and encourage more adults to be information literate, and able to educate the next generation of information users, is an interesting one. It remains as much a state of mind as it is a set of tool skills that keep evolving as information systems evolve. It is up to the continuing education provider to ensure that staffs have the proper state of mind and keep up with the evolving set of tool skills. The ideas here have been encountered in the literature as well as through the experience of the authors: 1

Do Little or Nothing. Expect that both children and adults will naturally learn many ways of dealing with information systems as they encounter them and practice. Most children, teens, and adults who are connected to the Internet use common search engines. Through trial and error and through suggestions from friends or colleagues, they bumble through, finding as much by serendipity as actual skill. They develop bad habits, to be sure, but for many, their ignorance and inefficiency if often viewed as a pesky irritation rather than an awareness of lack of skill. The general population comes to information systems with a wide diversity of critical thinking skills and information organisational abilities. These will sharpen naturally as they try to navigate their way through various information systems - call it the survivor instinct at work. Thus, professionals will encounter within the general population a wide variety of sophistication in information location and information handling. They will encounter the self taught expert beside the novice interspersed with the bumbler. After all, some children and even adults can learn to ride a bicycle even if no help manual is available. For others, the mere pointing to the manual or to the self help portion of a computer program or information system is all that is needed. These self starters will actually do some reading of the screen, using help menus, and may even consult a training video or short course. Such people may be motivated by a major project they are confronting or their simple desire to know and understand. The problem with this approach, of course, is that many patrons build bad habits and have an inflated sense of their expertise simply because they don't know what they don't know.

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2

Purchase and implement information systems that are more intuitive and have excellent built in help menus, tutorials, quick assists, wizards, or other self help features. Search engines get better and better over time as competition for the library dollar drives vendors to make improvements. Meta search engines, for example, might replace the need to search thirty databases separately by doing one search through many databases. Vendors need librarians to provide feedback from users as these new technological features are implemented. When continuing education providers teach librarians about information systems, the group process can be used to share information.

3

Create brief help guides. Librarians need to learn how to create help menus or tutorial systems when they are lacking. Continuing education providers must teach how create guides for all ages. They can encourage librarians to ask an information literate person to work with them in creating these guides. Some examples of brief help guides might include:

a.

Helpful bookmarks available near searching terminals or as clicks off the library home page

b.

Instruction sheets both print and electronic

c.

Brief manuals or how-to tutorials either print or electronic Often the mere necessity of creating a tip sheet or directions manual requires the preparer to gain enough expertise to teach someone else.

4

Encourage librarians to teach alongside another adult in the role of a colleague and an information coach. Librarians have many opportunities, particularly school and public librarians to jointly teach learners of any age. Building an information skill into the teaching forces both teaching partners to increase their expertise as they assist others.

5

Ask librarians to create a new information literacy model after comparing and contrasting a number of published models. Developing understanding of information literacy can be enhanced quickly when a group of adults who don't understand the concept suddenly have to compare and contrast already published information literacy models. During their comparison, group members participate both first in sense making and then in creativity as they adopt other's ideas to make them their own. Such an activity with groups of 4 to 6 usually take about an hour and provide a strong base for advanced thinking about and application of information literacy principles. To merely give a group of adults a copy of an information literacy model with a brief introduction does not guarantee true understanding. Only when adults take an active roll in model development do they begin to grasp the meaningful concepts.

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6

Lead librarians through a simulated or actual research project having them apply an information literacy model as they progress. They can then work with adults to replicate this. When a group of librarians must pursue for themselves a typical problem solving task they expect of others, they might learn more about the pitfalls of the tasks they assign to others. A teacher who expects students to do research on topics for which there is little or no information in the library will suddenly realise the folly of the assignment. On a different task, library administrators who make impossible demands on their staff might learn how to design tasks/assignments better if they suddenly have to experience what they require.

7

Teach librarians in both school and public libraries how to help teachers integrate information literacy models into process models of their own disciplines. A little probing of various disciplines can reveal a wide variety of teaching strategies that mirror the goals of an information literacy model. By integrating these, both the librarian and the teacher may find 'marriages made in heaven.'9

8

Learn how to integrate an information literacy model into curriculum or governmental standards of a particular discipline. Teachers who are faced with 'standards' or testing mandates benefit greatly when they help integrate information literacy principles into their own agendas. The very act of integration will require the librarian and the teacher to internalise both sets of goals so that as teaching activities develop, a natural integration emerges.

9

Integrate an information literacy model into technology standards or goals to teach process and technology expertise simultaneously to library patrons. As new hardware, software, networking, and other technological advances become available in schools and libraries, librarians and patrons, realising the potential of the new devices, use these new opportunities to further the agendas of both librarians and patrons.

10

Ask librarians, after a training session, to analyse their information literacy teaching for a month. What steps of the information literacy model are covered regularly? Rarely? Almost never? Librarians tend to concentrate their teaching on the finding and location of information, ignoring or assuming that learners already have expertise. Some librarians regularly teach their favourite topics such as web-site evaluation or plagiarism. Yet other critical pieces of the information literacy model go wanting. Such an analysis can lead the trainer and the librarian to a discussion of how to teach tough topics such as synthesis of gathered information.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS As librarians respond more and more to the Internet and to other digital information sources, they must discover ways to provide high quality subsets of information rather than just turning users loose on the chaos of the Internet. However, 131

the complexity of the new information systems requires quantum leaps in both connectivity and in searching skill across many varied information systems and searching engines. Librarians are being left behind if they do nothing to upgrade both their connectivity and their information literacy skills. Continuing education providers must help them understand the research and apply it helping their patrons. While librarians could, as this paper suggests, allow both adults and children to founder in an ocean of information, the better strategy is to take a leadership position, first by becoming more and more information literate themselves, and then employing strategies to help the patrons in our organisations to increase their sophistication. The power of information systems keeps improving without an equal gain in the sophistication of users. While it is possible that information systems will become more and more user friendly and assistive, it appears that the human interface, the librarian, will be needed for some time. It is up to continuing educator providers to make it possible for them to learn the best methods, based upon the research, to become the best human interface possible. REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

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Zurkowski, Paul G. The Information Service Environment Relationships and Priorities. Washington, D.C.: National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, p. 6. Allen, Thomas B. "The Future is Calling." National Geographic, 200, 6 (2001): 80. Tallman, Julie I. and Lyn Henderson. "Constructing Mental Model Paradigms for Teaching Electronic Resources." School Library Media Research Online, 2 (1999). Available from: http://www.ala.org/aasl/SLMR/vol2/mental.html) Thomas, Margie Jean Klink. School Library Media Services and the Integration of the Vocational Education and Academic Curricula in Three Florida High Schools: A Comparative Case Study. Ph.D. dissertation, The Florida State University, 2000. (DAI-A61/07, p. 2503, Jan 2001) Yitzhaki, Moshe and Mihal Bibi. "Patterns of Information Seeking Among Israeli 12th Grad High School Students Writing Final Research Papers." In: Inspiring Connections: Learning, Libraries & Literacy: Proceedings of the Fifth International Forum on Research in School Librarianship, 30fh Annual Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship, Auckland New Zealand, 9-12 July 2001. Seattle Washington, IASL, 2001, pp. 248-65. Available from: http://www.lmcsource.com Henri, James. "Thinking and Informing: A Reality-Check on Class Teachers and Teacher Librarians." In: Inspiring Connections: Learning, Libraries & Literacy: Proceedings of the Fifth International Forum on Research in School Librarianship, 30*h Annual Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship, Auckland, New Zealand, 9-12 July 2001, Seattle Washington, IASL, 2001, pp. 119-128. Available from: http ://www. lmcsource.com Moore, Penny. "Primary School Children's Interaction with Library Media: Information Literacy in Practice." In Shoham, Snunith and Moshe Yitzhaki (Eds). Education for All: Culture, Reading and Information: 27th International Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship, Ramat-

Gart, Israel, July 5-10, 1998, pp. 121-131. Available from: http://www.lmcsource.com Wolfram, Dietmar, Amanda Spink, Bernard J. Jansen and Tefko Saracevic. "Vox Populi: The Public Searching of the Web." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52, 12 (2001): 1073-1074. Also: Spink, Amanda, Dietmar Wolfram, Bernard J. Jansen and Tefko Saracevic. "Searching the Web: The Public and Their Queries." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52, 3 (2001): 226234. Examples of this may be found in Loertscher, David V. and Blanche Woolls. Irrformation Literacy: A Review of the Research, 2nd ed. San Jose, CA: Hi Willow Research and Publishing, 2001.

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EAST-WEST COOPERATION BIO-MEDICAL UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES: INFORMATION SKILLS FOR ALBANIAN LIBRARIANS Elisabetta Marinoni, Pierangela Mamón, Maurizio Tiziano Moretto Biblioteca Biologico-Medica Ά . Vallisneri' University of Padua Italy Abstract:

The University of Padua Α.Vallisneri Bio-medical Library and the University of Paris 7 Lariboisiere Saint Louis Faculty of Medicine Library were involved in a Tempus program as consultants for the planning and organisation of the new Tirana Faculty of Medicine Library. The paper provides an overview of the issues encountered during the project to transfer knowledge and experience in order to modernise the library in a developing country. (Albania is the European country with both the lowest gross national product and the lowest per capita income). The opportunity for collaboration among librarians coming from different work realities and with different backgrounds has been extremely positive and opened up new perspectives for future European collaboration in the management of university libraries.

INTRODUCTION The University of Padua A.Vallisneri Bio-medical Library and the University of Paris 7 Lariboisiere Saint Louis Faculty of Medicine Library collaborated in a Tempus program as consultants for the planning and organisation of the new Tirana Faculty of Medicine Library. The objectives of the S-Jep-11004-96-Klinik-Alba Project were: to reorganise the second series courses in medicine; to train lecturers in various specialities; to develop teaching laboratories; and, last but not least, to modernise the Faculty's library. The reorganisation of the library is a strategic aspect of the overall project because access to up to date and pertinent documentary resources are an essential part of the training of future doctors. The Tirana library, moreover, is Albania's only medical library, and is the primary documentary resource for both hospital doctors and physicians. The library reorganisation project commenced in 1997 with preliminary meetings held in Padua and Paris for managers and colleagues from the three medical libraries. As a result of these meetings, it was decided to proceed in two stages: 1) 2)

training the Tirana Faculty of Medicine library staff; developing and implementing the Albanian medical reorganisation and modernisation project.

library

This program was adopted in order to provide the Albanian librarians with the means to understand the new tools available to them, and to provide opportunities for

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reflection on the evolution of their professional practices, and on the design of the future medical library. STAFF TRAINING Training the library staff involved four one month training courses for two people, held at the Paris and Padua libraries. In addition to basic training, the following aspects were particularly emphasised: computer training, use of library management programs, the querying of electronic databases, and use of the Internet. The training program consisted of four phases: •

January 1997. Two Albanian librarians began training at the Lariboisiere Saint Louis Faculty of Medicine library. The first session concentrated on the updating and skilling of general knowledge in documentary techniques. It included theoretical education, a practical training course and visits to various libraries in Paris. The topics included document classification, fund management, document processing, catalogues, reader classification, front office organisation, interlibraiy loans and specialised bibliographies.

•

September 22 to October 10 1997. Two Albanian librarians came to the A. Vallisneri library in Padua to take a training course. This enabled them to reexamine, in a new context, some of the topics previously presented in Paris (reader classification, services available, document supply service). In addition the following topics were examined in more detail: computerised searching (on CD ROM), and searching using a local network and the Internet. This session also included a visit to several libraries in Rome and a three day training course on 'library users' (efficiency and effectiveness in resource and service management, quality assessment, statistics, reference service and marketing). Finally, an analysis of the organisation of the Tirana Faculty of Medicine library was carried out in order to optimise the use of existing library space.

•

March-April 1999. At the Paris and Padua libraries, Albanian colleagues took two courses, more specific than the previous ones, each lasting approximately one month. In Paris, the course dealt with the following topics: the problems associated with the organisation of space; making the service available to the public by means of the preparation of a small reader's guide; and services relating to information circulation. In Padua, the Albanians took introductory courses (given by an interdepartmental computer expert) in the use of Windows, Word and Excel, learned to use library tools (such as the Journal Citation Report) and expanded their knowledge of the most widely used bibliographical databases (such as Medline, Embase and Current Contents). With the help of library tools, and on the basis of their users' requirements, they rewrote the list of periodicals and treatises they considered to be indispensable.

REORGANISATION AND MODERNISATION The program was developed taking the major aspects of modern library operations into account: the work to be undertaken, the equipment and furnishings 135

required, including computers, and printed documents such as books and journals. Modernisation focused on the following: • • •

the organisation of documents in an open access system and reorganisation of the workrooms; the reorganisation and development of the computerised information retrieval system; the updating of databases and the development of collections.

Development of documentary collections It was decided to equip the Tirana library with basic medical texts (taken from the Brandon list) and to subscribe, for three years, to a relatively limited number (55) of titles of international journals, on the basis of requests made by the Tirana Faculty of Medicine, and chosen from the Brandon List and the Journal Citation Report. The decision to limit the number of periodicals was determined by the need to guarantee a minimal level of continuity to the future library's documentary assets after the conclusion of the Klinik-Alba project. In order to ensure the safe arrival of the journals, it was necessary to place a contract with a supplier able to guarantee courier delivery, since the Albanian postal service is completely unreliable and extremely slow. This resulted in an increase in related costs. Cataloguing In order to ensure the best possible use of the material, it was also decided to install cataloguing software (UNESCO's CDS Isis) which, in addition to handling normal cataloguing functions, periodical and loans management, etc., also facilitates the production of hard copy cards. The catalogues in the Tirana Medical Library are currently hand written. A changeover to a completely computerised catalogue was considered to be too severe a transition at the present time. Such a choice would also have necessitated the allocation of too many computers to library users. Workspaces It was then decided, in agreement with the Albanian librarians, to make the documentary areas freely accessible. It therefore became necessary to equip the library with an antitheft system. Internet and electronic resources The organisation of computerised documentary research was the most critical part of the entire project. In Western countries computer infrastructures and tools are readily available and are now used on a daily basis. Every choice is rendered problematic by the difficulties encountered when attempting to organise efficient documentary research with limited means, and without reliable connections. Unlike the situation in Italy, access to the Internet is completely in the hands of commercial operators, which results in relatively high costs. This therefore prohibits the use of all the tools which are available online for libraries (free databanks, 136

electronic catalogues, etc.) which would have made possible a rapid and simple modernisation of the Tirana library. Use of the Internet is further discouraged by unreliable connectivity. The availability of a commercial supplier, notwithstanding, these negative factors also present considerable obstacles to the proposal to linkup to data bases on the University of Padua servers (thus permitting direct consultation of those resources). We therefore consider that access to databanks in stand alone mode will continue, for some time, to be the only practicable choice for this library. Access to journals in electronic format, many of which are free or freely supply abstracts and tables of contents, is also difficult in practical terms. This is particularly serious because many of the journals to which we have subscribed in hard copy form supply the electronic format versions free of charge, and much earlier than the printed versions. In order to help doctors and lecturers in the clinical area update more easily, and to facilitate their sharing of evidence based medicine, we made contact with the Cochrane Collaboration so as to gain access to the Cochrane Library on CD ROM. This database supplies selected protocols, full text articles on the effects of drugs and therapies, and guidelines for the treatment of numerous pathologies. The fact that it is impossible to count on reliable technical assistance led to opting for the choice of using the Library's computers (two reserved for users and one for internal management) in stand alone mode, postponing a local Internet connection until a future opportunity arises. The first step which must be taken in order to expand user options is to create a small LAN, using network cards in the PCs, which will enable users to share resources such as disks and printers and, above all, databases, thus making possible their use of material already available (on CD ROM) from all positions. The second step would be to install a server (even simply Windows NT) which could manage the modems, thus permitting remote access to the hospital or teaching institutions (schools, universities) scattered throughout Albania. This would enable information to be made available to the largest possible number of users, taking into consideration the fact that the Tirana Faculty of Medicine library is, as already noted, the only medical library in Albania. It is clear that this type of evolution depends on the allocation of sufficient funds, and on the preparation of computer infrastructures capable of supporting the initiative. In the absence of appropriate external economic support (European funds, etc.), the local situation is such as to render any development inconceivable. The most crucial aspect of the problem is the practicability, reliability and affordability of Internet access: scientific information has prioritised this means of communication. There are an ever increasing number of scientific journals available in electronic format and, at the same time; the number of journals and documents available only in electronic format is growing. Potential solutions to the problems of Internet connectivity noted above could be: to make an agreement with the state telephone company to guarantee Internet access at a reasonably low cost; to wire the University structure contextually, possibly then putting all the available systems online (this option would require, however, a substantial economic investment); to establish Internet access by means of a satellite line (which would exclude any form whatsoever of intervention in the field and which, from the purely economic point of view, would be even more costly).

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The current cost of access to local providers has been partially reduced but remains objectively very high in relation to the library's economic possibilities. The Tirana library is therefore the result of a compromise between what we would have liked to accomplish and what was possible. We would have liked a library without walls, accessible, that is, to the entire University of Tirana and to all of Albania. What we were able to achieve was the creation of a library equipped with comfortable spaces, where it is possible to study and to update knowledge in the field of medicine, and where basic, indispensable tools are available to lecturers, students and doctors. CONCLUDING REMARKS The major problem that all the librarians involved in the TEMPUS project had to face concerned the different levels of library organisation in their various home countries. On one hand, this obliged librarians from the West to find the easiest and most efficient ways to explain and transfer their knowledge to their colleagues from the East, and, on the other hand, obliged the Albanian librarians to learn in a few months what librarians from the West had learned and absorbed over a period of more than ten years. Moreover, librarians from the West had to choose which of the technologies they usually applied would be most suitable for the Tirana Library, in order both to improve the quality of the facilities and to avoid a stressful change in work organisation. The rapid growth of the Internet and the globalisation of information have led to the widespread idea that both knowledge and the tools that govern access to it are available to everyone, and to developing countries in particular. This enlightened vision of progress is contradicted by reality: paradoxically, the ease and speed of the availability of information and knowledge further marginalises populations which have not developed the infrastructures necessary for access to that very information. This opportunity for cooperation among librarians from varying professional situations and with varying backgrounds has been extremely positive and has opened up new horizons for future European cooperation and integration in the management of university libraries.

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LOCAL TOUCH, GLOBAL REACH: TRANSBORDER CPE IN TEXAS-MEXICO Prof. Barbara Immroth Graduate School of Library and Information Science University of Texas at Austin USA Abstract:

Exchange of CPE across national borders with different cultures and languages involved can present enormous challenges and rewards. Factors including the long border between Mexico and the United States, English and Spanish languages and different professional expectations present such a challenge. The Texas Library Association (TLA) with more than 9600 conference attendees has taken as a project of its Texas-Mexico Relations Committee an active two-way exchange program with Mexican colleagues. Outstanding LIS students from Mexican LIS schools were funded to attend a TLA conference to see over 400 vendors in the exhibits, attend conference programs and social events and tour local libraries. Individual exchanges of librarians from Texas to Mexico and from Mexico to Texas are an on going activity, as are groups travelling to the Monterrey Book Fair and seminars with Mexican publishers and vendors. Mutual challenges and cooperative ventures are discussed during these activities. Texas librarians support the development of a strong Mexican professional association. This paper is a case study of an international CPE experience in North America.

INTRODUCTION Along the US Mexican border there is a long history of interaction both institutional and personal. During the European settlement of the Western Hemisphere Spain, as witnessed by place names such as Santa Fe and San Antonio, claimed much of the territory. While much of the library literature is framed in the US Latin American construct, US Mexican relations are taking on increasing importance because of NAFTA and the proximity of the two countries. The American Library Association (ALA) has been involved with Latin American libraries since the 1920's. According to Sullivan1 ALA's Committee on Library Cooperation with Hispanic Peoples made its first report in 1921. Three years later, Mrs. Maud Sullivan, a member of the ALA Committee, from the El Paso (Texas) Public Library was quoted "the American Library Association might render service by aiding libraries of Hispanic American countries, and especially those of Mexico, in securing more effective organization". In 1942 ALA sponsored the Benjamin Franklin Library in Mexico City. The library provided free circulation of materials about the US as well as cultural programs. In 1990 the ALA International Relations Committee formed a US Mexico Libraries subcommittee that furthered interaction with Mexican libraries. Cooperation and interaction of librarians across the US Mexico border that originated in Texas also go back decades, as these examples demonstrate. "In the early 1920's, the Texas State Library invited the newly created Library Department of Mexico's Education Bureau to attend meetings to organize the Southwest Library Association".2 The Third Transborder Library Forum 'Libraries and Education in the Americas' was held in El Paso, Texas in 1993. One in a series of FORO, these 139

meetings promote multinational cooperation (Canada, Mexico, United States) and improve library services in the region. TEXAS LIBRARY ASSOCIATION The Texas Library Association (TLA) was established in 1902 and has become the largest state library association in the United States. In 2001 over 9600 attendees were at the TLA annual conference. With more than 400 vendors in the conference exhibits TLA is the second largest library trade show after the American Library Association Annual Conference. Texas librarians have become increasingly aware of the need for more interactions with their Mexican colleagues. Due to the shared border with Mexico and the increasingly large percentage of its population being of Hispanic heritage, Texas librarians look for exchanges for professional purposes such as collection development and ways to better serve the MexicanAmerican population of the state. Academic librarians took the lead in US Mexico librarian exchanges when in 1994 the TLA College and University Texas Mexico Relations Subcommittee began to sponsor brief visits by Mexican librarians to the United States for library visits and CPE3. Mexican librarians have studied at US LIS schools. The University of Texas at Austin and the University of Denver have both had programs for Latin American librarianship. The University of Texas at Austin Graduate School of Library and Information Science (GSLIS) collaborated to design a web-based masters program for librarians at Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) begun in Spring 19994. GSLIS faculty provided content for courses and ITESM provided delivery through the ITESM Virtual University. Lisa Katzenstein, an assistant branch manager at the Dallas Public Library, spent two-weeks in Guadalajara in an exchange funded by the US Mexico Fund for Culture and sponsored by the Texas Mexico Relations Committee of the Texas Library Association5. Ms. Katzenstein's goals were to visit as many Mexican libraries as she could to learn about Mexican librarianship, learn the Spanish library vocabulary and the expectations that Mexican patrons have about library use. She also aimed to learn more about Mexican culture and collect ideas for programming for the population in her home library. She found that while some libraries were automated others were just beginning to acquire equipment, set up networks and become automated. She developed recommendations for welcoming and serving Mexican immigrants in public libraries with emphasis on using Spanish language promotional materials and explanations in Spanish for working with these patrons. She advocates classes in English as a Second Language in the libraries and recognising the cultural differences, for instance, Mexicans entering a library expecting to buy books rather than borrow them because the name 'libreria' in Spanish means 'bookstore'. She felt that she benefited immensely from the experience and encouraged others to apply for an exchange. The Texas Mexico Relations Committee of TLA under the leadership of Nancy Cunningham was very active during my term as TLA president in 1997/98. The committee invited the president of the AMBAC (Asociación Mexicana de Bibliotecarios, A.C.) to attend the July 1997 TLA Annual Assembly (annual business meeting) to leam how TLA operates and to discuss long term cooperative agreements. Ms. Ramirez expressed some of the problems that AMBAC faced such as increasing the participation of Mexican librarians in the professional association and gaining recognition for the profession by the wider society. She participated fully in the

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discussions and was impressed with the TLA cooperative spirit6. In the fall of 1997 TLA sponsored a group of librarians and library supporters to attend the Eighth International Book Fair of Monterrey (IBFM).7· Fifty five Texans attended the nine day book fair with an estimated attendance of over 150,000. They bought Spanish language books, visited libraries and discussed issues with Mexican librarians during their stay in Monterrey9. TLA had a booth that promoted reading, literacy and the value of libraries by distributing bookmarks with quotations about reading from Mexican authors and collecting comments in a guest book from book fair attendees. Teenage girls flocked to the booth to see the ALA 'Read' poster of the Lawrence Brothers, TV stars, and competed to be the first at the booth on the last day to win the poster. The most frequently asked questions were if people in Monterrey would be permitted to have access to US libraries and how Mexican students could attend US institutions of higher education. Although the booth was not set up as an information centre, the staff managed to answer many of the questions they were asked.10 The 1998 TLA Annual Conference was another opportunity for CPE for Mexican and U.S. librarians. In an exciting new development, TLA worked with the San Antonio International Business Office to bring Mexican publishers and distributors to the exhibits. Texas librarians were able to examine Spanish language materials that were appropriate for their patrons and to share information with Mexican librarians and book people11. A round table forum 'Abriendo Fronteras: Encuentro Bibliotecario y Proveedor/Opening Borders: Librarians and Booksellers Encounter' attended by representatives of Mexican and Texas libraries, presidents of ALA, AMBAC and TLA, Mexican and US publishing executives, vendors and IBFM representatives. Discussions facilitated by simultaneous translations worked toward the goals of bringing high quality Spanish language materials to Texas libraries and creating marketing opportunities for publishers 2. Another project of the TLA Texas Mexico Relations Committee that reached fruition at the 1998 TLA Annual Conference was bringing an outstanding student from each of the Mexican library schools to San Antonio to participate in a conference within a conference. The students were able to attend conference meetings and social events and they also toured outstanding local libraries and were able to interact with Texas librarians. CONCLUSION The Texas Library Association's Texas Mexico Relations Committee, has extended and enhanced a long history of interaction and cooperation between Mexican and United States libraries and librarians by recent projects and programs. The TLA committee has taken into consideration such factors as proximity across a long border, increased need for Spanish language materials and understanding of cultural differences in order to better serve a growing Hispanic population. The TLA's program of librarian exchanges, sponsored trips to the IBFM, bringing more Spanish language materials to exhibits at the Annual Conference, bringing Mexican students and librarians to conferences for CPE and discussions with colleagues, enriches the professional life and work of everyone involved.

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REFERENCES 1 Sullivan, P. "The International Relations Program of the American Library Association." Library Trends, 20, 3: 1972. 577-591. 2 Seal, R. A. "Mexican and U.S. Library Relations." In Irene Godden (Ed.). Advances in Librarianship, Vol. 20. San Diego: Academic Press, 1996, pp. 69121. 3 4

5

6 7

8

9 10 11 12

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Ibid Rice-Lively, M. L. "Borderless Education at UT-Austin GSLIS." Texas Library Journal, 76, 2 (2000): 58-60. Katzenstein, L. "Lessons Learned by an Exchange in Guadalajara." Texas Library Journal, 75, 2(1999): 74-79. Cunningham, N. "Global reach." Texas Library Journal, 73, 2 (1997): 108-110. Cunningham, N. "Get on the bus: Texas librarians go to Monterrey." Texas Library Journal, 74, 4 (1997): 166-169. Meraz, G. "Bookmarks, the Lawrence Brothers, and the Cuban Connection: TLA in Mexico." Texas Library Journal, 74, 4 (1998): 156-161. Cunningham, "Get on the bus", op. cit. Meraz, op. cit. Immroth, Β. "President's Perspective." Texas Library Journal, 74, 1 (1998): 6. Meraz, G. op. cit.

PROMOTION OF THE INFORMATION SCIENCE RESEARCH IN THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA: DISSAnet 1998-2000 IN A SOCIAL AND INTERCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Prof. Irene Wormell Swedish School of Library and Information Studies Borâs Sweden Abstract:

The DISSAnet project was initiated by Danish information scientists in cooperation with academics from South Africa, and received financial support from DANIDA during the period 1998 to 2000. The aim was to provide cooperation and support for those LIS departments who want to offer a high level education and research programme for staff, MA and Ph.D. students, but whose present resources do not enable them to launch this kind of programme themselves. The participants coined their own name, DISSAnet, which stands for Developments in Information Science in South Africa. The network aimed to function as a platform to support professional development and internationalisation in the LIS field. The paper explores the subtle role played by cultural and other social issues in academic development projects. A better understanding of these issues, it is argued, can potentially enhance our planning and improve the outcomes of academic projects and support developments in LIS scholarship in a global perspective.

BACKGROUND TO THE DISSAnet PROJECT During the recent démocratisation and development processes in South Africa, considerable help has been given to the libraries and LIS schools in the form of computers and other materials, supported with some training in the use of these tools. But a more advanced use of these tools was seriously hampered by the lack of competence and knowledge in the management of information resources among the library staff, and the information professionals in general. Therefore, this project aimed to meet the great need for creating a platform for a nationwide effort and cooperation for fostering the modern LIS professionals - educated and trained at an advanced level to meet the demands of the new RSA. The project was initiated by Danish information scientists in cooperation with academics from South Africa, and received financial support from DANIDA during the period 1998 to 2000. In February 1997, at the invitation of the Human Sciences Research Council in Pretoria (HSRC), two Danish professors from the Royal School of Library and Information Science, Peter Ingwersen and Irene Wormell, provided a series of lectures and seminars at various universities. The programme was also combined with workshops on curriculum developments and issues relevant for the new professional roles and functions within the LIS field. During the meetings and workshops the problems of professional developments were discussed in depth and the prevailing conditions in the South African universities described. Most of the existing 13 LIS schools were small having only a few professional staff members and no resources for the development of higher level programmes for Ph.D. students and researchers. The

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teaching staff of the former 'black universities' as well as the former 'white' ones have strongly emphasised the great need to create a platform for nationwide cooperation to foster modern LIS professionals. We noted a great interest and willingness by all parties to support the existing political and social developments in the country and to find new ways to improve the conditions for LIS professionals. This positive atmosphere and the spirit of good professional cooperation initiated the idea of the establishment of a national education and research network, based on the concept of the NordisNet programme developed within the Nordic countries and supported by NorF A (Nordic Academy for Advanced Study). THE NORDIC MODEL In the five Nordic countries, there are several (16) LIS institutions offering MA and PhD programmes, but most of them are small with a limited number of qualified staff. This makes it difficult to provide a proper, high level education programme for PhD students at the local level. Therefore, in order to foster a future research generation the Nordic Academy for Advanced Study (NorF A) has launched a programme to promote cooperation between institutions in the delivery of Ph.D. courses and the exchange of researchers. In practical terms it means that the professors at the Nordic LIS institutions can apply for funds to arrange a high level Ph.D. course at their site for approximately 20 Nordic Ph.D. students, selected from all the Nordic countries. A well prepared, solid application to the Board of the Nordisnet programme can result in funds which make it possible to arrange courses on attractive and requested topics based on the needs of the Ph.D. students. The leader of the course can invite the best experts from the Nordic countries to teach as well as those from other universities. The costs for accommodation and travel for the participating (external) students are also covered by the funds. The length of a course can be S to 10 days in two periods of time. There are also shorter programmes, which are called Workshops. The applications to Nordisnet are examined in a competitive environment: applications for course programmes coming from the LIS institutions are competing with those from other subject areas. The successful applications are examined in the terms of the 'usual' academic qualities, where, naturally, the weightiness and the international reputation of the professors applying have a strong influence. The students apply for participation on a written form, where the topics, qualifications, and level of research are the main criteria for selection. This has been a successful model in the Nordic countries practised since 1989 to develop research fields in subject areas where the institutions are small and have difficulties in meeting the demand of Ph.D. students for a modern and up to date course programme. Cooperation and networking, with the use of many good and progressive academic efforts, are the only way to offer a high quality research study programme at today's LIS institutions where budget cuts, contracts and other regulations have almost taken away all of the spirit of academic work. The shared use of resources, and learning to live with this situation is another 'mantra' which this model trains academics in the Nordic countries to survive in the Nordic academic settings. After the dissolution of the communistic block in Eastern Europe, the European Union is giving considerable help and support for the development of a new democratic order in these countries. Because of the historical relations and the geographic proximity, within the framework of this programme, the Nordic countries

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have a special responsibility for helping the Baltic countries. Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. Thus, the NorFA programme extends to include Ph.D. students and researchers from these countries. In the Nordic Baltic academic cooperation the level or kind of skills and technology are often different, as well as the language, traditions and the socioculturel background of the students and researchers. Therefore, to learn to handle these intercultural issues is one important part of the programme. It is a task today which European professionals as well as African and others are facing today and have to learn to live with. Therefore, networking in the academic field is a complex issue: it involves a great potential for inspiration and synergy, but also the need for courage, patience, openness, and respect for the 'different'. OUTLINE OF THE DISSAnet PROJECT After several months' intensive work and lobbying activities at the start of 1998 the project finally received financial support from DANIDA, the Danish International Development Agency.1 The aim was to provide support for those LIS departments who want to offer a high level education and research programme for staff, MA and Ph.D. students, but whose local resources, at the present time, do not make it possible to launch this kind of programme themselves. The course was planned to accommodate 20 PhD or Master students from the various LIS departments in the country. The 20 selected participants were committed to follow the whole six weeks course programme during three years, and all costs were paid. They received a per diem for hotel accommodation and daily expenses, as well as travel costs. Course materials (books, photocopies) were also covered by the network via central acquisition. The six courses (each lasting one week) have been delivered in various settings, close to universities where the participants had their affiliations. A Standing Committee, with two local and two international professors, had the mandate to decide the content of the courses as well as the identification of lecturers (who were both international and local experts in the LIS research field). Each year the students had to prepare an essay on a given topic related to their field of research. The two best essays received an award, a travel scholarship, to pursue their research work at universities other than their own. The award covered the travel costs, per diem and hotel costs for a one week study visit for two students. In addition to lectures the participants also received advice and coaching in the preparation of articles for publishing in international journals or conference proceedings and for applications for funds. The University of Pretoria, Centre for Information Development, was selected to administer and organise the programme. The participants coined their own name as DISSAnet which stands for 'Developments in Information Science in South Africa'. It indicates that this group of professionals aims to exist after the end of the project, and they want to be the driving force for future developments in information science within the Southern region of Africa. The network aims to function as a platform to support professional development and internationalisation in the LIS field.

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OUTCOMES OF THE PROJECT The results achieved can be readily seen among the participants in the form of developments in their professional skills and growth in their research capabilities. Some of them achieved so well that the results of their research have been published in core international LIS journals (Scientometrics, IP&M, Libri, Electronic Library) or presentations accepted at leading international research conferences. Two participants have also completed their doctorates, and two their Masters theses during the DISSAnet programme The project also created a social platform where professionals from various cultures and traditions mingled and, during the three year period of time, developed a positive, cheerful and stimulating spirit of co-operation. Most of the 20 participants did not know each other at the beginning of the programme, thus, this project offered a current national platform for LIS professionals with research interests to get together and learn about each other, both as professionals and individuals. The social spirit of the group has throughout been very positive, cheerful and has had a stimulating effect on most of the students. It was not easy to maintain their commitments for the three year programme and, in addition to their full time jobs, to follow the courses and develop their research. Except for two students, all of them succeeded in completing the programme. It is an important outcome that many of the participants gained valuable experience in how to carry out research and how to present it at an international forum. These are essentials which help the staff members and researchers at the LIS institutions to build up their self confidence and professional identity. Through the international and cross cultural communication activities both the teachers and the students have learned many useful things from each other and generated knowledge and experience for personal development, as well as for professional networking in modern societies. The students had active participation, both in the planning and management of the final event, the First Biannual DISSAnet Conference. This regional conference attracted more than 130 participants and was held with great success at the University of Pretoria, Department of Information Science 26-27 October 2000. As a research conference it was presented in co-operation with LIAS A (the new joint library association of the RSA) and had ProLISSA as logo, indicating the aim and the ambition of the network: Progress in Library and Information Science in Southern Africa. The proceedings (which have been widely distributed free of charge) also provide a short history of the project in short .2 The project is continuing as a result of the efforts and enthusiasm of the ProLISSA participants, and they are planning for the second DISSAnet conference to be held in the Fall 2002. On April 17, 2002 at the biennial SCECSAL conference (Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern African Libraries) a workshop is being arranged to discuss the topic of 'Networking for Information Professionals'. In addition to DISSAnet some other projects and courses for promoting networking as a communication and managerial skill for modern professionals will be presented. DANIDA has evaluated the project and it has been adopted as a 'model' for other future regional development programmes.

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INTERCULTURAL ISSUES It should be emphasised that the initiative and the spirit - to promote the development of the modern information professionals globally - are related to those contacts and activities which grew within the FID/Education and Training community in the last decade, where for 8 years the author functioned as the Chair of the FID/ET Committee and Editor of the International Clearinghouse and Newsletter. One of the main ideas behind the project was to create an open, trustful and encouraging environment where the participants could learn and practice their professional and social interactions in a relaxed way. The tactic was that instead of talks and discussions, by positive experiences to move their attention from the race problems to their professional and individual characteristics and the international researchers with whom they interacted. In the planning of the DISSAnet programme, intercultural issues were not formally factored into the academic programme; however, these issues were addressed in several ways. The Standing Committee was of the opinion that the structure of the programme and its life span (six advanced research education courses with invited experts as teachers) did not allow time for deeper verbal explorations of the current social, political and cultural issues in the country and in the given learning environment. The selection of venues for the workshops (these places were undoubtedly some of South Africa's finest cultural heritage sites), including the food (some dishes were authentically South African) and the cultural activities engaged in by all participants (e.g. hiking, sightseeing, singing and other entertainment activities) all aimed to enhance the learning environment and improve the social skills for communication in an international professional team. The twenty students who were selected to participate in the programme were a diverse group in terms of culture, ethnicity, race, religion, language, socioeconomic status and age. Only three of the participants were male. (This may be a reflection of the gender distribution in the profession.) All of them were South African citizens who grew up and were raised in the South Africa that was characterised by the policy of apartheid. Even library and information services, including the training and education of the LIS professionals, developed and were practised along racial lines until the early 1990's. Matters have fortunately normalised to a large extent since the first democratic elections of 1994. Without any sort of preparation, this group of students found themselves (for some, for the first time in their lives), having to work and coexist for six or seven days at a time with people they had hardly ever interacted with. The students had to attend lectures, work in groups, share meals, share accommodation and socialise in a way that was not 'common' for them. One can assume that each student brought with them their own system of beliefs and expectations based on their own cultural and social background. Given these cultural and social environments that were deliberately woven into the programme, even without explicit articulation, it may be assumed that they contributed to the teaching and learning that took place. How these issues affected the learning outcomes and to what extent, is only known in the short term perspective of the programme (3 years). However, the real effects of these social, cultural and training experiences must be seen in a much longer perspective. (It would be desirable to follow up individually the 20 participants in S to 10 years and carry out an

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evaluation of the programme from the perspective of their own individual professional development). The diversity in cultural, social, educational, gender and other areas was such that in most cases it challenged the participants' sense of themselves. The success or failure of the programme was influenced by how well the participants (both lecturers and students) were able to manage this diversity. Those who were threatened and discomforted by it had a difficult time coping, and the opposite was the case for those who managed it well. It is clear that the cross cultural experiences such as those provided by the DISSAnet project have had a strong impact on students. Those who were openly acknowledged and strategically incorporated into the learning plans could challenge accepted beliefs and consider themselves in relation to the ideas, values, aspirations and prejudices of people who are very different from them. It helped them to build up self confidence and personal integrity. For those students who had to deal with many negative experiences and feelings in their social baggage, found that during the courses there were certainly moments when they felt mistrust, anxiety, and frustration. We know also from other environments that the effect and impact of 'learning activities' and 'cross cultural experiences' varies among individuals. To liberate people from these deep seated negative feelings, naturally, need much more than a six week research course programme. But, one hopes that in the long term these experiences contribute to their personal growth, and will serve as links to use when in need of contacts and help in their future professional development. The following list indicates some of the strategies that were identified as being used by the students to cope with social and cultural issues at the individual level: Negative strategies that were observed include the following: • Tolerance and disengagement from the situation; • Pretending that the situation is not occurring; • Ignoring the situation instead of acknowledging it and dealing with it; • Avoiding the situation or the individuals perceived to cause the situation. Positive strategies that were observed include the following: • Sharing the experience with other students; • Seeking clarification and support from colleagues; • Talking to the teachers and soliciting understanding and support. As it was stated at the beginning of the paper, the Standing Committee of the project did not planned to discuss the racial, social and cultural issues of the country, but rather focus on the scientific, research and international aspects of the professional development. By the end of the project, however, one of the committee members pointed out that in her viewpoint this has negatively influenced the DISSAnet programme. This is not the opinion of the rest of the committee and the participants, but we publish her suggestion that "In the future it may be helpful to incorporate into the programme a component that addresses cultural and social issues of students". Nevertheless, it might be evident that this academic program could have attained a deeper social dimension by formally factoring intercultural issues into the project but, it is doubtful that the outcomes, in terms of individual research competence as well as in the development of a regional LIS research network in the Republic of South Africa, would be better. Since time and resources were not endless, the incorporation 148

of the proposed component into the programme would naturally take away resources from the research topics - which was not desired. The improvement of research skills and professional competencies was the focus at this time, based on a serious effort to generate positive experiences for removing the traditions of apartheid within the LIS professionals. CONCLUSION Knowing that stories abound concerning development projects which commenced with a lot of enthusiasm and much excitement, but whose life span came to a crushing halt once the funding ran out, or the foreign facilitators left, we were very conscious of the need to give competencies, strength and confidence to the members of the DISSAnet to continue their personal and professional development, and continue to be the driving force for Progress in Library and Information Science in Southern Africa (ProLISSA). Since there are concerns about laments of the failures and efforts geared to LIS development on the African continent for the past forty years, this project was a challenge for all of us to avoid the traditional mistakes and try to target the individual competence and excellence as the basis for networking and professional development. 3 ' 4 While the ProLISSA project may not readily be classified as a development project as such, it contained most of the elements of foreign aid. Since in most cases, sustainability becomes a cliché rather than a reality, this paper is intended to explore the subtle role played by cultural and other social issues in academic development projects. A better understanding of these issues, it is argued, can potentially enhance planning and improve outcomes of such academic projects, resulting in the attainment of sustainability and real development of scholarship in a global perspective. REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

Wormell, I. "Establishment of a LIS Research and Education Network in the Republic of South Africa - a Project With Its Roots in the FID/ET Committee Work." Education for Information, 16, 3 (1998): 253-254. Wormell, I. (Ed). Southern Africa LIS Research in Progress. ProLISSA: Progress in Library and Information Science in Southern Africa. Proceedings of the First Biannual DISSA-net Conference, 25-27 October 2000, Pretoria. Pretoria: Centre for Information Development and the University of Pretoria, 2000. Sturges, P. and R. Neill. The Quiet Struggle: Information and Libraries for the People of Africa. 2nd Ed. London: Mansell, 1998. Marton, B. A. Revitalizing African Libraries: the Challenge of a Quiet Crisis. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, 2000.

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SPECIAL LIBRARIES ASSOCIATION'S GLOBAL 2000 CONFERENCE LEADS TO CREATION OF A COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRY LIBRARIANS: A CASE STUDY Sue O'Neill Johnson Consultant Potomac USA

Abstract.

Judith J. Field Wayne State University USA

Global 2000 was conceived as a new international direction for SLA, but no funding was provided to support attendance for librarians from developing countries. However, the D.C. Chapter began a project to create a competition and raise funds to identify, mentor, and support a group of librarians to attend this Conference. Emphasis was on finding highly motivated and productive special librarians who had not had opportunity to realise their potential because of their economic circumstances. Over 400 librarians applied, and enough money was raised to name 25 Global 2000 Fellowship winners from 22 countries. All winners became members of SLA. These librarians changed the course of the Conference, raising awareness of their issues through presentations and papers, and creating regional groups and projects. A listserv and web site disseminates news among the group and regional Chapters are being established. The World Bank and UN Dag Hammarskjold Library collaborated in creating a web site containing high quality, free training materials, depository library collections, and grant information for librarians in developing countries. The SLA David Bender Fund to support international library education has been created, and another international conference is planned for 2003.

INTRODUCTION How can a professional association attract members from developing countries who want to take advantage of continuing education, and are willing to share this knowledge with other professionals? The cost of membership in a professional association, such as Special Libraries Association (SLA), is too high for the majority of information professionals from developing countries. While association members want to help professionals in developing countries, the association is not a charity, and must be careful to stay within planned spending guidelines if it is to survive in the competitive business of association management. The association also must be fair to its paying members, many of whom are straining to maintain their memberships. How does an association meet these seemingly contradictory needs? SLA has been trying to find a solution. This paper is a case study of their approach to meeting these needs.

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GLOBAL 2000 FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM The Global 2000 (G2K) Conference was conceived as a new international direction for SLA. However, no funding was provided to support attendance for librarians from developing countries who could otherwise not afford to come. The Washington D.C. Chapter became an unexpected catalyst toward this end, and by bringing awareness of librarians from developing countries, has changed the Association. The Chapter began a project to create a competition and raise funds to identify, mentor, and support a group of librarians to attend this Conference, held in Brighton England in October 2000. Over 400 librarians applied, and enough money was raised (US$83,000) from Association members, Chapters and Divisions to name twenty five Global 2000 (G2K) Fellowship winners from twenty two countries. Twenty two of the winners were able to attend the Conference, and all twenty five became members of SLA for one year. Each was assigned a mentor who attended the Conference and many continue these relationships today. These librarians changed the course of the Conference, raising awareness of their issues through over a dozen presentations and papers, speaking out emphatically in discussions to remind attendees of their different circumstances. They were flexible, collaborating with each other in presentations, interacting graciously in English with new colleagues, and adapting to the technology available. They came together into regional groups, and were joined by a few others from developing countries who were able to attend, and SLA members who are interested in them. The regional groups outlined major needs in their regions on which to focus their attention, and on which communicate through email upon returning home. REACTIVIATION OF EXCHANGE CAUCUS

THE

INTERNATIONAL

INFORMATION

During the months after the Conference, members of the Washington D.C. Chapter, Marcelle Saint Arnaud, and Becky Milton, Co Chairs of the International Projects Committee, took the lead by building a web site, which contained results of the discussions by the regional groups. Responding to the need to centralise this information for the Association, and move it out of the Chapter web site, Ms. Saint Arnaud then reactivated the SLA International Information Exchange Caucus (KIIE). Nearly defunct, the Caucus was revived into a central clearinghouse of information on all international activities in the Association. The web site for the Global 2000 Fellows was incorporated into the KIIE web site. The KIIE web site now provides a vehicle for those SLA members who are involved or interested in efforts to promote networking between SLA members internationally. Working in cooperation with the International Relations Committee, this Caucus provides the broadest possible opportunity for members to participate in and discuss international library information activities. The KIIE web site 1 contains: •

•

A section on 'Global Fellows' with o Achievements of Global Fellows since the Conference o Regional reports from the Global 2000 Fellows from the Africa and East Asia regions. The discussion list 2 in which the Global 2000 Fellows, mentors, and any other interested members of SLA are subscribed, and exchange information on free 151

•

training opportunities, travel grants, relevant discussion lists, free databases or full text information, and the like. Links to excellent resources on grants, training materials, library collections, relevant to developing country information professionals 3 .

Success of G2K Fellows Many of the G2K Fellows who acted on information sent to them have been able to take advantage of continuing education opportunities. Their efforts at professional development have led to major successes and breakthroughs in their careers. Some examples are: •

• •

•

Mr. Muhammad Chaudry, Pakistan, was selected to attend, all expenses paid, the Summer University in Budapest, Hungary on 'Digital Literacy'. He was the only participant from outside Eastern Europe and the former Soviet bloc. Mr Aguinaldo Marcelino, Brazil, won a travel grant to attend the IFLA Conference in Boston, MA, August, 2001 Mr Widharto Widharto, Indonesia, has applied for several research awards, including one which would enable him to spend 6 months at the National Agricultural Library in Washington, D. C. Ms. Xumei Wang, China, received a Teaching Assistantship at the University of Texas School of Library and Information Science in Austin, and has begun her doctoral studies.

ACTIONS OF THE SLA BOARD WHICH CHANGED RELATIONSHIPS Since the G2K Conference the Association's Board has taken serious action indicating its interest in having members from developing countries. Dealing with the issues of the inability of many of these librarians to pay resulted in several creative experiments to continue to have these librarians active in SLA. Some examples are: •

The Africa regional group, with strong support from their mentors, was a catalyst for the creation of a SubSaharan Africa Chapter. The SLA Board approved the recommendation to form the SLA SubSaharan Africa provisional Chapter through 2003 4 There are currently 17 members of this Chapter, including two G2K Fellows, from Swaziland and Senegal, who joined after their one year membership expired.

•

The SLA Board voted to initiate a program entitled the 'Virtual subscription' 5 . With this subscription the G2K Fellows, will be given a free two-year subscription upon their request (a savings of US$65 per year). Through Internet access G2K Fellows can communicate with the 14,000 plus SLA members in 76 countries The majority of the web based resources available to SLA members are included as follows:

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o

Information Outlook, SLA's monthly magazine, on the web

o

Access to the 'member only' section of the association's web site

o

A listing in and access to the web version of the Association's Who's Who in Special Libraries,

o

Participation in a virtual subscriber discussion list

o SLA.COMimmicate, with current trends in the profession, and career-long learning o

Access to SLA's Information Resources Center

o

Selected discounts to publications and elearning opportunities

•

The SLA Board voted to establish a special purpose fund, The David Bender Endowment Fund for International Development, to honour the Executive Director at his retirement 6. The endowment will grow over the years and eventually be available to support SLA's expanding international agenda, including fellowships, conferences, and membership benefits such as foreign language pages on the web site. The balance of the fund at the end of2001 was approximately US$200,000.

•

The Board's International Relations Committee was called upon to take a new, important role in the association by writing a long-range plan and a policy paper for the Association7 The plan will include: o providing guidance and direction to the Board for its role in international library/information associations; o

promoting forums;

international cooperation, exchange visits, and

o

facilitating an international understanding and knowledge of information issues;

o

fostering participation in appropriate international conferences such as IFLA;

o

facilitating the communication of SLA's international directives and initiatives;

o

working integrally with SLA units on Association-wide initiatives;

o

drafting position statements reflecting SLA's viewpoints on vital international information issues.

PUBLICATIONS LEAD TO RESULTS FOR GLOBAL 2000 FELLOWS Through SLA staff, Chapters, Divisions, and individual members many G2K Fellows have taken advantage of opportunities to publish. This publishing activity has helped many of them develop their resumes and their reputations, and has impacted their careers. Examples of results are:

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•

•

•

• • •

•

P. Κ. Jain has acted upon opportunities to publish through SLA, and the American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIST). He has kept his management at the Indian Institute of Economics, Delhi, informed of his publishing activities, and has won increasing approval and support from his management. He now has the go-ahead for a new library automation system, an accomplishment not considered possible at the time of G2K. Ms. Jadranka Stojanovski, Croatia, and Mr. Widharto Widharto, Indonesia, won two year memberships to ASIST for being selected in the top six papers in the ASIST International Digital Library and Information Science and Technology Competition, 2001. Both papers will be published in the Bulletin of ASIST in 2002. Ms. Ozy Oiji, Nigeria, won an InfoShare Grant of a one year membership to ASIST for excellent papers submitted to two ASIST competitions, with expected publication in the Academic Press journal, International Information and Library Review June 2002. The SLA Library Management Division published articles by Muhammad Chaudry, Pakistan and Widharto Widharto, Indonesia in Library Management Quarterly 8 The DC Chapter's Chapter Notes Newsletter published articles by Ozi Oiji, Nigeria and Aguinaldo Marcelino, Brazil 9 . Collection of slides, presentations, handouts, and related material, presented by the G2K Fellows at or about the Global 2000 Conference. G2K Fellows represented in this collection are: Damodar Adhikiari, Nepal, Muhammad Chaudhary, Pakistan, Paiki Muswazi, Swaziland, Ozi Oiji, Nigeria, Jadranka Stojanovski, Croatia, Ziumei Wang, China, and Widharto Widharto, Indonesia 10 Articles by Widharto Widharto, Indonesia, Jocelyn Jaca, Philippines, the late Patricia O. Idahosa, Nigeria, Muhammad Chaudhary, Pakistan and P.K. Jain, India11.

SUPPORT ACTIONS CHAPTERS

TAKEN

BY

INDIVIDUALS,

DIVISIONS

AND

Other initiatives are taking place at the grass roots level to press for involvement of developing country librarians to be part of SLA. • Dr Judith Field, Professor of Library and Information Science, Wayne State University, at the request of G2K Fellow Damodar Adhikari from Nepal, presented a three day formal seminar to the network of librarians from international organisations, travelling at her own expense in March, 2001. Dr Field showed that librarians from more advanced academic programs can provide valuable assistance to others in difficult circumstances. She would encourage others to conduct formal courses to similar groups. • The Washington D.C. Chapter initiated a 'Twinning Program', approved by the Executive Director Roberta Shaffer at the beginning of 200212. This program is directed toward all 58 Chapters and 25 Divisions, as well as individual members, (who can also have the benefit of a tax deduction) to select someone from a developing country, and support their membership for two years, with ten percent payment coming from the recipient. All G2K Fellows who could not añord to rejoin SLA after their one year membership, and who have been involved with SLA and taken advantage of opportunities are suggested for sponsorship.

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•

•

The Physics, Astronomy and Mathematics (PAM) Division applied for and received US$3,000 from the Board to award a two-year membership and a travel grant to the Los Angeles Annual Conference in June 2002. The recipient must be from a developing country13. The Science/Technology Division held a competition to award conference registration and airfare to a SLA member who works and resides outside the US or Canada, preferably in the science and technology area14.

CONCLUSION Finding continuing education opportunities for librarians in developing countries, where money is scarce, is heavily dependent on successful networking and marketing by the individual librarian. SLA and its members have provided opportunities for librarians to build upon the intensive networking that took place at the Global 2000 Conference. Those individual librarians who are taking advantage of grant opportunities, publishing opportunities, entering professional paper competition, taking free or low cost online training, participating in discussion lists, signing up for the virtual subscription are moving ahead of their peers. Competition is fierce and opportunities are limited. Perseverance is paying off for those mentioned in this paper who have taken on the challenge. SLA and its members are providing opportunities for the G2K Fellows to be members of their professional community. Continuing education opportunities become available for those who interact within that community, and become known as professionals who are interested in learning and doing their best to develop their professional skills. As of December 2001 seven of the G2K Fellows have been able to find the money to continue membership in the Association, no small accomplishment in organisations with severe budget limits. Others will be encouraged to take the Virtual subscription option. 'Twinning' opportunities will move forward for the most active G2K Fellows as that program develops. REFERENCES 1 2 3 4

5

6

7

8

9 10

Available from: http://www.sla.org/caucus/kiee/FellowsAchiev.htm [email protected] Available from: http://www. sia, org/caucus/kiie/resources.htm Special Libraries Association. Board Document AOI-74. Washington, D C. : SLA, 2001. Special Libraries Association. Board Document AO 1-39. Washington, D.C. : SLA, 2001. Special Libraries Association. Board Document AO 1-72. Washington, DC. : SLA, 2001. Special Libraries Association. Board Document AO 1-71. Washington, DC.: SLA, 2001. See Library Management Quarterly, [SLA Library Management Division], 24, 3 (2000). 8-10. See Chapter Notes, [DC SLA Chapter], 61, 1 and 2 (2001). Available from: http://www.sla.org/content/Events/global/fellowspres.cfm

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See INSPEL, [official organ of the IFLA Division of Special Libraries], 34, 3 and 4 (2000) and 35,1 (2001). Available from: http://www.sla.org/content/chdiv/chapters/chapter.cfin Special Libraries Association. Board Document A02-15. Washington, D.C.: SLA, 2001. Available from: http://www.sla.org/division/dst

GLOBAL CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION VIA THE WEB: THE CHALLENGE OF INTERNATIONALISATION Anna H. Perrault and Vicki L. Gregory School of Library and Information Science University of South Florida Tampa USA

Abstract:

Many universities use web courseware, digital libraries, and on-line chat to enable distance learners to access and participate in electronic course délivery. But are courses truly designed for global delivery? The majority of the literature on globalisation is written for the corporate e-commerce audience. But the globalisation/localisation issue is germane to academe as well as business. Delivering a course via the web does not necessarily make it global in concept. In many disciplines, including library and information science, electronic course delivery must include course content and also provide access to an array of electronic information resources for students who have scant local research resources. The School of Library and Information Science at the University of South Florida is actively negotiating to internationalise its programme with course offerings for both degree seeking and continuing education students and is revising course content for this purpose. This paper addresses cultural and language barriers for continuing professional education in a global environment. Technical issues for providing content, content integration, portals and intelligence solutions, customisation and personalisation are explored for their suitability in the electronic delivery of continuing professional education. Government information policy and policies regarding transnational border information flow as it can affect access to electronic resources are also considered.

INTRODUCTION At the outset, the phrase 'continuing professional education' needs to be defined in the context of this paper for an international audience. Continuing education can be either earning an advanced degree, or simply taking course work to update or keep current with the fast changing fields of information science and information technology. This paper regards continuing education to cover both degree and non degree students, but addresses the topic more from the viewpoint of single courses rather than a programme to earn a degree. While the paper has globalisation as its focus, many of the cultural and language aspects addressed in this paper apply to students in the United States whose first language is not English. SLIS has under development an international curriculum for an ALA accredited MA degree, the same as that currently offered by the School in the US. But the possibility exists that courses will be taken by students for the purpose of continuing education without earning a degree. There are many countries in which an ALA accredited Masters' degree is not required or even especially valued, but the skills and

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competencies to be gained through separate course work will enhance the employability of workers. Mason defines five elements which characterise global education but says he has not found any institutions which meet all criteria: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

students in more than two continents of the world able to communicate with each other and the teacher; an express aim on the part of the teacher or institution to attract international participation; course content devised specifically for transnational participation; support structures - both institutional and technological - to tutor and administer to a global student body; operations on a scale of more than one programme and more than one curriculum area, with more than 100 students.1

Mason admits that "these S attributes represent a significant advance on mere international activity" and that "by analogy with the business sector, the words multinational or transnational might be more accurate."2 These five characteristics do represent an ideal, comprehensive global education programme. This paper concentrates on the communications, content and delivery aspects of the five. Globally there are more than 84 million students enrolled in some form of higher education and the demand is growing more rapidly than the ability of colleges and universities to supply it, particularly in areas other than Western Europe, United States and Canada. Pease states that "One way of bridging the gap between supply and demand is to use distance education, on line education, or technology enhanced education."3 At the University of South Florida (USF) we have bought into this argument and have been working to make the majority (but not all) of our classes available in a web based format. Our students at distance sites (and our Tampa based students) are generally non traditional students who are working, either full or part time, and cannot move. This mode of instruction allows them to take classes without totally disrupting their personal lives. ELECTRONIC RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTION AND RESEARCH: VIRTUAL LIBRARIES, WEB PORTALS In many ways the existence of the web and the web based nature of many of our electronic resources makes global educational efforts much easier for both instructors and students. In the past students had to be on campuses of well endowed institutions of higher education to be able to access the vast number of library resources and archival materials required for graduate education. As Martha Peach states: "Now, with the new technologies of information diffiision, a 'democratization' of these resources has occurred. The effect has been in two directions. Resources that were once available to only a few are now available to a much larger population, and resources that once required, for their use, preliminary skills development are

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now user-friendly and can be introduced earlier into the educational process."4 For example, students taking classes from the USF, no matter where they are located in the world, have full access to our Virtual Library (http://www.lib.usf.edu/virtual/index.html) which contains a large number of commercial databases, many of which contain fulltext articles. Therefore, instructors know what students have access to - which has always been a difficulty when teaching off campus or for off campus students taking web based classes. Trying to find where resources are located and negotiating access for USF students is no longer necessary. Through email and chat, distance students have access to reference functions as well as to the electronic collections. There are even provisions for sending materials that are not in electronic form directly to students. All class materials can be made available through the web, and sometimes even textbooks, may be available in electronic form from the USF Virtual Library through licensing agreements with ebook providers. SLIS web based classes generally make use of the Blackboard course management software which from January 2002 has offered a portal to students that allows them to access not only to their courses, but also to other personal information in our web based student records and registration systems and to the USF Virtual Library. There is, thus, one entry point for all the university related information and their classes. In other settings, many libraries in higher education now may offer customisable 'My Library' Web sites in which a student has an account and can view their own library circulation records and access databases, digitised reserve reading material and hyperlink to the universities student services or the courses in which they are presently enrolled. The USF Virtual Library provides students with the opportunity to set up 'My Virtual Library' (http://www.lib.usf.edu/virtual/personalize/) so that they can have easy access to those materials and services that they most often use. The use of either web portals or 'My Library' options facilitate access to library and university services for campus students and students at a distance. GOVERNMENT INFORMATION POLICY Many countries have firewalls to block Western web sites which are seen as pernicious to religious and political views held by the country's government. China, Vietnam and other Asian governments have installed nationwide firewalls, or electronic filters that keep Internet users from connecting to web sites that the regimes consider politically, religiously or sexually offensive. China uses its firewall to block all manner of sites, including Western media outlets, human rights organisations, and dissident political movements. Exemptions have been granted in some countries to multinational corporations headquartered in office parks which are electronically outside the firewall.3 In many instances international education courses are not exempted from a country's firewall, making it difficult for courses in library and information science in which students need to access resources from a virtual library or web portal. Other countries such as Singapore require Internet providers to use proxy servers. This can be a challenge to a student wishing to use our Virtual Library as many of the licensed commercial databases and services require the use of a USF proxy to authenticate the user as a USF student. Using dual proxies is not possible - at least at this time - so the use of the first internal to the particular country proxy becomes a barrier to the student seeking to use the USF

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databases which also require a proxy. PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES: CUSTOMISATION AND PERSONALISATION In recent years many commercial entities have developed successful models for the internationalisation of their products and services. However, in situations where intellectual property is concerned, as well as in development and training models, it has been a more difficult task to repackage content in order to adapt successfully to the international or export market. If USF is to succeed in its mission to be an active partner in an international educational programme, there must be a willingness to internationalise the curriculum and mode of delivery in order to make our curriculum content accessible not only to English speakers but also logically to Spanish speakers, an increasing component of USF's core constituency. Since it is reasonable to assume that initially web based instruction is most likely to appeal to those students who already have an educational advantage they must necessarily have access to the World Wide Web, Masons list of the characteristics of a typical global student body seem appropriate: "...they will be highly motivated and relatively good at self-pacing; they will be in employment and perhaps looking to change careers; they will probably already have computer skills and will be curious about learning in a technology-mediated environment."6 In designing course work for an international, multicultural programme in the information science realm, it is assumed that the students will fit Mason's characterisation. Intercultural and multicultural issues offer a challenge to educators, but realisation of the potential will assuredly make for a richer learning environment for all students. The challenges presented by these issues are necessarily multiplied when students and faculty have different linguistic backgrounds. Intercultural students typically will enjoy varying levels of Englishcompetence and will often be familiar with different types of English, for example, United States English and British English. In reference to the mix of students from the country of the institution and international students, Gundara states that "A major challenge for higher education institutions is to build upon the different linguistic repertoires, knowledge systems and intellectual understandings that both categories of students bring."7 The possibilities for enrichment of the educational experience for all students, however, are tremendous. It is vitally important for instructors not to construe differences caused by language competencies as deficiencies in the students' prior education. Although the students may have studied and be able to speak the English language in a way more than adequate for their day to day needs, they may not necessarily have developed the vocabulary needed to function well in a technical, jargon riddled field such as library and information science. The USF SLIS plans to develop a course in 'English for Library and Information Science' for international programme students to take as a first course. The basic vocabulary of the field would be taught and, as a corollary, the basic concepts of the discipline. Differences in teaching and learning styles must also be considered. In the West, questioning and dissent are the mode of instruction. But in non Western countries, the political climate is more likely to have fostered an attitude of 'teacher knows best.' Students are not

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comfortable arguing with the instructor and are more comfortable with what is now considered an 'old style' or traditional mode of instruction, the lecture method. While in the West, teaching via the Web has been painted as very different from the methods of face to face instruction, and that teachers who are very good in the traditional mode may not be successful in Web based instruction, in fact, those are the very people non Western students may be more comfortable with. Non Western students may prefer to have the subject matter 'poured into them'. These cultural differences may be experienced in almost any Western country now with the multicultural diversity of many Western countries. For instance, the active learning strategies now so prevalent in higher education in the United States may, or may not, be familiar to international students depending upon their backgrounds and the universities that they have previously attended. Gundara states that: "They [the teachers] must also be aware of the varying cultural endowments their students bring to the classroom, be willing to welcome unfamiliar interpretations, and be read to question their own. In this way teaching can become a cooperative pedagogical exercise which may generate new insights and give both teachers and students an enriched understanding of the society they live in".8 It should be added that to do so will undoubtedly enrich their own understanding of their chosen professionalfieldand chosen career. Turning to factors to be considered in regard to web based course offerings; there are a number of factors reflective of differences among cultures that need to be considered when preparing a course website. Perrault and Gregory prepared a list of basic advice on making an accessible, understandable, and culturally sensitive website.9 It is important to remember the simple differences as well as the major ones. For example, in a course syllabus, when giving due dates for projects, it is important to remember the little detail that many countries use different numerical formats for dates. Does 1/5/02 represent January 5, 2002 or May 1, 2002? Simply spelling out the month can help avoid the confusion that may be caused by different numerical formats (as we discovered first hand after hiring a visiting faculty member from the United Kingdom). Also, consider your choice of words. Avoid words with multiple meanings. Try to use simpler wording rather than the more convoluted words that will convey your meaning. Use the active rather than the passive voice for verbs; sentences with active verbs are generally less likely to be misunderstood by those whose native language is not English. The use of icons or graphical material can also help make a website and the material in the site more user friendly and language neutral for an international audience. These are just a few examples of the formatting and language considerations for a course website. Additional care also needs to be taken in the selection of textbooks and readings for the course to ensure that the materials are not too US centred to be useful to international students. A case in point is Richard E. Rubin's Foundations of Library and Information Science.10 While Rubin's text offers excellent chapters which are broad and international in scope such as those dealing with information infrastructure, information science, and historical perspectives, most examples and case studies cited deal exclusively with the United States. Documents reproduced in the appendix to support discussions of information policy and ethics are from the US government or organisations based in the United States. For example, the traditional

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'Foundations of Library and Information Science' course typically focuses on issues of censorship, copyright, and the history and practice of librarianship in the United States. With only moderate revisions, this course could be used for an international programme enrolling students from North American, Commonwealth, and other mainly Western democracies. The main topics of the course, however, would need to be radically changed for other international cultures in which central governments exercise more control over the rights of free speech and unfettered publication. To participate in the global education arena, one must take into account the many cultural differences among students. Mason states that "Much of the promise of the globalisation movement in education depends on how successfully cultural differences are addressed... There has been very little real engagement with the cultural issues of global education - how to give equal voice to local cultures, institutions and educational approaches".11 At the present time the majority of the global courses are in English, mainly because Western universities and corporations have been at the forefront in developing courses for an international market. Whether or not this continues to be the case remains to be seen. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE WEB BASED CLASSROOM What steps can be taken to ensure that language will not be a barrier for the international student who studies at a US university through a distance education programme? For the student who has had limited exposure to the Internet, it is well to remember that there are conventions related to websites which should be explained in brief, simple instructions rather than left for the user to deduce through experimentation. Peterson12 cites as an example the consistent use of colours for visited and unvisited links. He also cautions that any symbols or icons used should be intuitive. Perhaps his most important recommendation is that learners should have access to on screen help links. When the target population includes students, whose native language is not English, these help links could be designed to address a language deficit as well as lack of familiarity with the cultural or historical context of a given document. There have been many studies in the literature of second language acquisition that assess the use and efficacy of online helps, typically online dictionaries. De Ridder's13 study of Dutch students, who were learning French, found that the number of links followed increased significantly when the links were highlighted with the conventional blue text. Furthermore, a post test confirmed better retention and assimilation of the highlighted items. These short term gains have important implications for designers of educational web sites. Further considerations are apparent from a study of Taiwanese students who were learning English. Liou u found that for both weak learners and good learners, the primary source of errors came from the failure to select the correct definition for words with multiple meanings. It is evident, then, that the availability of bilingual dictionary or glossary does not suffice. Hyperlinks must be contextually determined and edited for exact meaning. A second major problem for students who are reading a foreign language text for content is the lack of background knowledge. Again, hypertext links could be provided to aid the student in understanding, for example, a discussion on censorship which in the United States, inevitably, may contain multiple reference to the First Amendment which US students generally understand and therefore do not need extensive explanations. However, international students may not have any, or very little, understanding of these concepts. Having links to web documents that supply

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background materials on such issues will significantly increase the understanding of such concepts by a global student body. Taking all these considerations into account in developing web based classes can help reduce the risks of conducting a class over the web, one that is fraught with many perils in addition to those typically encountered in the traditional classroom. However, the use of the web as the medium for course delivery also brings great advantages for both the institution and the students. WEB BASED DELIVERY OF GRADUATE COURSE WORK One of the biggest advantages of web based instruction is theflexibilitythat it offers to the instructor and to the student, and this is especially true for international students who may want to earn an ALA accredited degree, but be unable to leave their country to attend a US or Canadian university. Palloff and Pratt state that: "It is widely acknowledged that non traditional students (that is, working adults returning to school or students who are unable to attend classes on campus for other reasons) make up a rapidly growing population in education today. Their educational needs and demands are different from those of traditional students and it is these students to whom online distance education is geared."15 Often graduate students in library and information science are non traditional students as they may be starting a second career while working fulltime Web based course work allows them to schedule their time to allow for both study and work. Although we have had international students take leave from their positions to come to Tampa to take course work, either by doing it in several summers or by taking a two year leave of absence, it is obviously a hardship and replete with personal difficulties. By utilising the web, we have theflexibilityto bring a few courses to a local site and provide the rest of the course work online. Graduate students also tend to be more self directed than the typical traditional age undergraduate. Obviously, students in a web based class environment have to be able to get the class work done without the motivating factor of having to appear in a classroom every week. The ability to schedule your own time for study does open the possibility of letting other immediate concerns consume your time. We always have a few graduate students who fell into this trap, but they are a small minority compared to the ones that possess the required self motivation to keep up with an online class, logging on regularly to follow the class discussion on the threaded discussion board, and to read announcements from their instructors. The rather basic question then emerges is whether online learning is as effective as traditional fece to fece classroom learning in terms of achievement of required learning outcomes. Over the past two years the SLIS faculty have been involved in rewriting our School's goals and objectives so that they are outcomes based, rather than process based. We have developed a set of learning outcomes measures for students as well as outcomes measures for research and service.16 We are beginning to measure our success in several ways, including student exit surveys, performance on the comprehensive examination and the Florida Teacher Certification Examination for school media specialists, employer surveys, and focus groups with graduates and employers. We have become increasingly involved in web based education over the past four

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years. We are pleased to report that during that time period we have experienced essentially no difference in performance between our on campus students and our distance students in terms of success rate on exit examinations or in terms of feedback from graduates or employers. This finding is generally in agreement with most of the current research on distance education.17 However, we are not a totally web based programme; we have a minimum of two courses in the required curriculum which the faculty feel must be taught face to face, so all our students do take at least two face to faces classes, and often more than two. This is also the model that we are proposing to follow in our international efforts, that is, a combination of web and face to face classes. In the case of international locations, we hope to include at least two courses taught by local library and information science practitioners as adjuncts or by partnering with library and information science educators in the local (or nearby in the case of the Caribbean) country. Whether a class is taught face to face in a classroom or via the web, interactivity between the faculty member and the students is what is vitally important. Effective learning requires both interaction and engagement. Farrington sums up our experience with interactivity in web-based classes: "[T]hose who have experienced Web-based teaching will attest that in many instances e-mail interaction is more personal and intimate than live interaction. It gives the student and teacher more time for thoughtful reflection and can help lower the natural barriers that exist between expert and novice".1* Less extroverted students tend to contribute much more in a discussion board than in the typical traditional classroom; and for those who prefer to reflect upon their answers, the discussion does not pass them by. Students can always go back to the message that sparked their interest and respond. Most of our current web based classes run on Blackboard software19. This software features a threaded discussion board, a whiteboard, a chat function, group pages, and individual student home pages, which provide a number of means for communication in addition to the materials uploaded by the instructor. Students can work on group projects, holding meetings in the chat room and building their work by means of the group pages. Being distant from each other does not have to mean that they do not forgo the chance to interact with their peers on group assignments. Watching students make contacts through the open general forum (as opposed to the discussion forum) in order to 'meet' in the chat room is very similar to overhearing the conversations in the halls or after class of groups of students trying to get together to work on group projects - except sometimes it is easier in cyberspace! PallofF and Pratt refer to a 'web of learning'20 in the establishment of an online learning community where learning is viewed as interactions among multiple players: the student, the student's peers, the instructor, the technology, and the content, including textbooks, readings, instructor-generated content, etc. Each player is connected to every player in the course. It takes all the elements to make a successful web based course. It is not a tutorial between the instructor and a single student, although there may be elements of this kind of behaviour at times, but rather a multifaceted learning environment where students learn from the instructor, students learn from each other, students learn from the content provided, and the element of technology must be present in order to facilitate each of these interactions.

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Mason sums up the USF SLIS position on distance education quite weil: "The Web is the archetypal medium of choice and transfer of initiative to the learner. The Web is the main technology to which all the others are converging, and it success derives from the fact that it can be 'all things to all people.'.... There will continue to be a place for 'lower tech' systems such as computer conferencing and electronic mail... Equally, there will continue to be a place for distance taught courses, operating globally, but not using any form of computer or telecommunications technology".21 However, in library and information science, computers and telecommunications will be necessary even for site based classes as they are now integral parts of the librarian's toolkit. CONCLUSION There are multiple factors that must be taken into consideration when delivering a programme of study internationally whether it is a full degree programme or courses for continuing education. Some of these we have identified in this paper and there are probably many more that we will encounter as we move along. The rapidly developing globalisation of many enterprises, both commercial and educational, made increasingly possible by the World Wide Web, is opening up many new vistas in higher education. The possibilities for partnerships in new educational initiatives that span traditional borders are exciting as they offer the possibility of bringing educational opportunities in both general education and specialities to a much broader audience. REFERENCES 1

2 3

4

5 6 7

8 9

Mason, Robin. Globalising Education: Trends and Applications. London: Routledge, 1998, p. 11. Ibid, p. 15. Pease, Pamela. "Trends in Transnational Education". In Transnational Education and the New Economy: Delivery and Quality. Bucharest: UNESCO, 2001, p. 81. Peach, Martha. "The Librarian: An Essential Link in Programme and Curriculum Development" in Transnational Education ami the New Economy: Delivery and Quality. Bucharest: UNESCO, 2001, p. 39. McDonald, Mark. The Tampa Tribune, Sunday, August 26, 2001, sec. A p.21. Mason, op. cit., p. 55. Gundara, Jagdish S. Interculturalism, Education and Inclusion. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd., 2000, p. 92. Ibid., pp. 124-125. Perrault, Anna H. and Vicki. L. Gregory. "Think Global, Act Local: The Challenges of Taking the Website Global." INSPEL: Official Organ of the IFLA Division of Special Libraries, 34, 3 / 4 (2000): 227-237.

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Rubin, Richard. Foundations of Library Information Science. New York: Neal-Schuman, 2000.

Mason, op. cit., p. 139. Peterson, Mark "Creating Hypermedia Learning Environments: Guidelines for Designers." Computer Assisted Language Learning, 11, February (1998): 115-124. De Ridder, Isabelle. "Are We Conditioned to Follow Links? Highlights in CALL Materials and Their Impact on the Reading Process." Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13 April (2000): 183-195. Liou, Hsein-Chin. "Assessing Learner Strategies Using Computers: New Insights and limitations. Computer Assisted Language Learning" 13, February (2000): 65-78. Palloff, Rena M. and Keith Pratt, Lessonsfromthe Cyberspace Classroom: The Realities of Online Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001, p. 3. Carey, James O., Anna H. Perrault and Vicki L. Gregory, "Linking Outcomes Assessment with Teaching Effectiveness and Professional Accreditation." Academic Exchange Quarterly 5, 1 (2001): 79-86. See, for example, Phillips, Ronald and Jamie Merisotis, What's the Difference: Review of Contemporary Research on the Effectiveness of Distance Education in Higher Education. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Higher Education Policy, 1999. Farrington, Gregory. "The Future of Residential Undergraduate Education " In Richard N. Katz and Associates (Eds ). Dancing with the Devil: Information Technology and the New Competition in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999, pp. 78-79. For those unfamiliar with the software, see Blackboard's website at: http://www.blackboard.com for more information about their product. Palloff and Pratt, op. cit., pp. 6,132. Mason, op. cit., p. 37.

CONTINUING EDUCATION FOR U S PROFESSIONALS IN CANADA Fiona A. Black Judy Dunn Rhonda Miller School of Library and Information Studies Dalhousie University Canada Abstract:

Stan Skrzeszewski Principal ASM Advanced Strategic Management London Canada

A literature review revealed the need for a systematic study regarding the availability of, and needs for, continuing education (CE) for information professionals in Canada. The goals of the larger study, of which this paper forms a part, are to describe and analyse both trends and issues in the current provision of CE across Canada and the needs and aspirations of professionals in all types of information settings. Development of criteria for matching CE resources with needs will accrue from the results of this research and will aid in policy making at the national, local and institutional levels. Our study builds on, and is informed by: the trends in LIS education delineated in the international KALIPER Report on Educating Library and Information Science Professionals for a New Century; recent focus group discussions in which Canadian Library Association members identified continuing education as one of their principal concerns; and, professional competencies outlined by Céline Gendron in her recent research on information management specialists in libraries, archives and records management.

INTRODUCTION The regular occurrence of world conferences on continuing education in Library and Information Studies (LIS) is testament to the perceived importance of this topic to those who prepare research papers for such events. These individuals tend to be LIS faculty members who know, in theory if not always in practice, the vital importance of continuing education.1 The pilot study reported here tested two perceptions or assumptions of LIS faculty: that LIS practitioners desire ongoing professional development opportunities; and that, in Canada, such a desire is not satisfied fully by current professional development offerings. The survey questionnaire, described in our Methodology section, elicited responses that both confirm the validity of these perceptions and indicate preferred themes, subjects and modes of delivery of continuing education for practitioners. A SUPERFLUITY OF SURVEYS? Continuing education is a hot topic amongst LIS professionals and educators in Canada - certainly so when the plethora of recent surveys addressing this topic are considered. These include surveys by and from the Association of Canadian Archivists', the Saskatchewan Library Association 2, the Canadian Association of Special Libraries and Information Services - Atlantic Canadian and Ottawa Chapters (separate surveys for each) 3 ' 4 We examined both the content and the design of these

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and other surveys during the planning stages for this study. In addition, in 1999 the Executive Council of the Canadian Library Association (CLA) established a special commission to examine the association's future. The Commission carried out a general survey of CLA members and identified four priorities in the area of "empowering the CLA member" - one of these is continuing education. The Commission found that nearly half of the survey respondents "identified continuing education as an important issue" 5. Surveys from outside North America can also provide helpful insights when planning questionnaires. The recent work in Slovenia by Manuela Hari and colleagues offered the following seven 'categories of knowledge and skills': general knowledge, management, technology, users, information resources, organisation of information and, other special knowledge and skills 6 . The categories differ from those developed from our discussions with practitioners and from our focus group meeting (described below), although there is some overlap. In addition, the Slovenian study asked respondents to answer on behalf of all information professionals. Our study avoided such an approach and asked only for responses relating to the individual's own views for herself or himself. Other research projects of relevance when planning continuing education needs include those investigating particular skills and techniques required by information professionals in particular contexts. Linda Ashcroft has described her investigation of the skills required by those who are involved in the varied aspects surrounding management of electronic resources in academic libraries in the UK and in North America . Ashcroft refers to several topics and specific skills, that are either clearly technology and/or management related, or that show a marked similarity to specific workshops desired by the respondents to the Dalhousie study. These include communication skills. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY The overall objective of the survey was to examine several themes related to continuing education for LIS practitioners in Canada. The principal themes addressed are summarised in Table 1. These themes and topics were examined by a variety of questions, some closed, some open.

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Table 1. Selected themes and topics addressed in the survey

Themes

Related Factors (when relevant)

Respondents' opinions on the importance of continuing education for themselves Participation in formal continuing education • type of offering (e.g., workshops, lectures, over the past year credit courses, etc.)] • mode of delivery (e.g., face to face, web, video conference, etc.) • broad subject category (e.g., technology, management, etc.) • provider (e.g., association, university, workplace, etc.) • source of funding (e.g., self, employer, association, etc.) Interest in continuing education over the next • types of offering preferred 1-2 years • modes of delivery preferred • general categories and specific topics preferred Respondents' opinions on factors affecting • relevance of topic participation in continuing education • cost • time • geographic accessibility

In addition to focussing on themes deemed important to practitioners, relative speed and ease of completion were related objectives for this survey. Figure 1, 'Sample Screen Capture from Interactive Questionnaire' illustrates one of the question screens completed by participants. The questionnaire was interactive and the total number of questions answered by each respondent varied between thirteen and twenty four. Text boxes were offered in several questions to permit explanation and further detail by respondents, should they wish to offer such information. The final questions invited general comments on continuing education and comments on the questionnaire itself. This last question related to our final goal which was to measure the perception of our questionnaire as an effective instrument and to gather information which might aid us in refining it for future applications. The comments regarding the questionnaire were overwhelmingly supportive (clarity of layout, speed of responding, relevance of questions, availability of text boxes for further input, etc.) with one or two technical suggestions that we plan to incorporate in our longer term comparative study (of practitioners in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom).

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SCHOOL Of U8RARY AND INFORMATION STUDIES Continuing Education Questionnaire - Autumn 2001

16. Wh« genere! categories do you consider Important for yourself In the next 1 to 2 years? Please check all that apply: C Management Γ

Marketing

Γ

Core library competencies (cataloguing, reference resources, e t c . )

Γ

Behavioural competencies (interpersonal skills, communication, e t c . )

p Technology Γ

Instructional skills

Γ: Other

please describe

~~

Copyright O 2 0 0 1

m

University, School of Ubr»ry e n d I n f o r m a t i o n Studi**

Figure I. Sample screen capture from interactive questionnaire During the autumn of 2001, an online questionnaire was administered to a sample of alumni of Dalhousie University's School of Library and Information Studies (SLIS). SLIS maintains a database of alumni and this was the source for information on potential respondents. The languages used in designing and administering the questionnaire included Cold Fusion, Java Script, HTML, CSS and Perl. MS Access software was used for the database. SLIS alumni work in a wide array of information settings in all provinces and territories in Canada and other countries. The questionnaire content was developed by the authors with input from a focus group of Halifax area non SLIS alumni professionals from public, academic and special libraries and with an array of experience (from two years to twenty five years). The questionnaire was then pretested among a group of non alumni professionals across Canada. Their input, both technical and content-related, resulted in some changes to the questionnaire.

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The survey sample consisted of every individual in the School's alumni database for whom a valid email address was present and whose mailing address indicated that they live and work in Canada. The total sample size was 368. Two email messages were sent to all 368 individuals, the first to explain the project and invite participation via a URL with embedded individual passwords, and the second (five days later) to remind alumni of the survey and again invite participation. The response rate to the questionnaire was 55%. Participants were assured of the anonymity of their responses. These responses are used here in aggregate form, with selected unattributed comments from some of the text boxes. RESULTS Description of respondents Using an online questionnaire format necessarily precluded some alumni from our sample. Our respondents had to have an email account, we had to know of it, and they had to have access to the Internet and feel comfortable in a Web environment. The design of the questionnaire was deliberately clear and unambiguous and, for at least one respondent, this was their first experience of completing an online survey. Thus our sample is composed of practitioners who could demonstrate at least the basic technological knowledge and competence recommended strongly for all incoming students to Dalhousie's SLIS. Table 2. Types of information settinefsi worked during the oast 10 years % of responses')*

Setting Academic library

26.4

Government library

16.6

Public library

16.6

Special library government]

[non 11.7

Consulting, self employed

6.5

Other [details supplied]

6.2

Private sector ΓΓ

4.6

School library

3.9

Archives

3.4

Information centre

1.8

Library consortium/network

0.8

Total

100.0

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t The percentage of responses does not equate with the percentage of respondents, as many respondents had worked in more than one setting over the past decade. Responses to several demographic questions aid us in understanding the make up of the respondent group. Table 2 indicates the information settings respondents have worked in over the past ten years. This illustrates the wide variety of types of employment that SLIS graduates enter and this variety underscores the challenge of providing continuing education opportunities that will meet, adequately, the needs of this varied clientele. In terms of involvement in continuing education and its perceived importance: 59% stated that they had taken part in some form of formal continuing education in the last year (41% said they had not done so - this latter group were then taken directly to the questions dealing with their preferences for future offerings). No respondent said that continuing education is "not important" to them. 47% said it is "very important" and 42% said "important, with 11% saying "somewhat important." Categories of continuing education content Several questions dealt with continuing education categories desired by SLIS alumni and these may be analysed across a variety of factors. We may consider, for example, any differences in category preferences between experienced and relatively new professionals. Question 2 asked "How long have you been working as an information professional?" Using the responses from those who selected "2-5 years" and those who selected "More than 10 years" and the responses from Question 16 (see Figure 1), we note a marked similarity of preferences for the two categories of technology and management. Respondents could select more than one category. Of the 109 respondents who have been information professionals for more than 10 years, 83% selected technology and 70% selected management. Of the 42 individuals who have 2-5 years' experience as information professionals, 90% selected technology and 64% selected management.

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Continuing Education Cours·« by General Category

Figure 2. Continuing education courses bv general category Figure 2 illustrates the relative proportions of the general categories reflected in the continuing education courses taken in the past year (by all respondents) compared with those categories desired in the next two years. Instructional skills and marketing show the greatest proportional differences between what was taken and what is desired for the future. Of potential significance is the apparent drop in interest in the general category of core library competencies (described in the questionnaire as including cataloguing, reference resources, etc.). Further research is required to determine all of the factors that may be involved in this finding. Relative future preferences for all of these general categories might have been assumed, and it is helpful, for potential continuing education planning by SLIS, to have confirmation from this pilot study and to have information on particular topics that respondents would like to see offered. This latter information is provided by the responses to a question asking for specific desired topics, and which allowed space for up to eight separate responses from each respondent. A close reading of the responses suggests that only a very few of the respondents did not have a clear understanding of the breadth of topics possible under the general categories presented. For example, one respondent did not select "Behavioural competencies" but, rather, selected "Other" and explained that they wanted continuing education on the topic of "communication strategies." Two respondents who did not select "Management," but did select "Other" and requested continuing education offerings on various aspects of "assessment."

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Type of offering Table 3. Preferred type of offering compared with recent attendance Type of offering

% of respondents % of respondents by by preference attendance in past year

Workshop

46.2

29.4

Post-Masters Certificate

20.8

0.9

Non Credit Course

13.2

13.1

Credit Course (University or college)

8.1

4.9

Conference Session

5 .1

26.0

Lecture

3.0

19.0

Other

3.6

6.7

Total

100.0 100.0 The figures in Table 3 are of interest as they stand. Such results from this pilot study will help to define the emphases and the structure of the survey for our broader project. In the meantime, it would be feasible to analyse these differences between preference and attendance in detail only after considerable further research. It would be simplistic to state that, while conference sessions are clearly not the preferred mode (5.1%), they are generally available in most regions over the course of a year (26%). The small proportion of respondents who took part in a post-masters certificate might be due to the availability (low) and cost (relatively high) of such certificate programmes and to the availability of relatively large numbers of non credit workshops provided by associations, private sector training providers and even post secondary institutions. Indeed non credit offerings by the 43 reporting LIS programmes accredited by the American Library Association (ALA) attracted considerable numbers of attendees (26,661) in the last reporting year (1999-2000) 8 McGill Graduate School of Library and Information Studies currently offers both a Graduate Certificate and a Graduate Diploma in Library and Information Studies; both as new continuing education options 9. A rather different model of certificate programme is that offered by the School of Library, Archival and Information Studies at the University of British Columbia. There, the Certificate of Advanced Study offers particular 'concentrations', several within each of the two streams of LIS or Archival Studies 10. Of particular interest, due to the challenge in interpreting the results and the inherent importance of their meaning, is the information gleaned from the query "Does your workplace encourage continuing education? 85.9% of the respondents said "yes" to this question and yet a preliminary analysis of the optional accompanying comments indicates that this might not be so in some cases, or at best should be qualified. For example, one "yes" respondent commented "for computer courses only," while others said "it is encouraged, but no effort is made by [the] supervisor to identify the skills that I need and [to] direct me towards the best possible

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opportunities" and "it is my own responsibility to find opportunities to do this..." Further research to investigate 'proactive' behaviour on the part of practitioners' involvement in continuing education may shed more light on this important and arguably under researched issue. On a much more positive note, several "yes" responses included optional comments which indicated genuine support, ranging from morale support and mentoring, to adequate funding and educational leave, and careful annual planning of continuing education in terms of performance appraisal exercises. Overall however, the survey results reveal little evidence of systematic continuing education planning either by institutions or by individuals. Rather, continuing education appears, from this survey, to be rather hit and miss: practitioners attend a conference or attend a local continuing education session, on a more or less ad hoc basis, rather than planning for their needs. Further textual analysis will aid in a more complete assessment of these responses. Cost is an important issue in all professional development and our survey included some closed and open questions relating to this. Results for the query "Who paid?" concerning any formal continuing education taken in the past year, were 59.2% employer, 21.8% self, 7.8% professional associations, and 11.2% for "other" or "a combination." The results of this and related queries indicate that although the institutions and the individuals value the concept of continuing education, neither group seems to be strongly committed to continuing education or lifelong learning, in terms of willingness to pay for it. From the institution's perspective, as reflected in the responses from staff members, possibly only formal and planned continuing education or training is deemed appropriate and feasible to manage. There is little evidence that any of the workplaces represented by the respondents have planned, formal continuing education policies. If this is true, there is a serious training problem/deficit in these information workplaces. Based on the present survey, these are speculations which require further research to confirm or refute. On a brighter note, some professional associations, such as the Canadian Association of College and University Libraries (CACUL) offer 'workshop incentive grants' n . These are specifically to promote continuing education across the country, though the demand for these grants has not been high in recent years (possibly due to lack of awareness).11 Atlantic Canadian perspectives Canadian researchers often subdivide the country by region for pragmatic reasons. Continuing education offerings are often advertised by region, such as workshops offered by the Canadian Association of Special Libraries and Information Services (CASLIS) Atlantic Canada Chapter. Table 4 indicates the percentage of respondents currently working in the different regions of Canada.

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Table 4. Regional spread of survey respondents Region Atlantic Central Western Territories

Provinces or Territories New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland & Labrador Ontario, Quebec

% of respondents 62.4%

British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba Northwest Territories, Yukon, Nunavut

13 .2%

23.4%

1.0%

It is no surprise that the largest percentage of Dalhousie SLIS alumni work in Atlantic Canada. In support of proposed continuing education initiatives by the Atlantic Provinces Library Association (APLA), we have analysed responses to selected questions from alumni working in Atlantic Canada. 46% of Atlantic Canadian respondents indicate a preference for workshops and the topics of most interest are instruction skills, management (many elements including evaluation), and technology skills (including virtual library design and development). In addition, some respondents wish workshops on larger themes such as "evolution of the public's right to information" and the "expanded role of the public library." Those desiring either credit courses or non-credit courses include 22% of the Atlantic Canadian respondents. Technology, management and instruction figure prominently as topic preferences with this respondent group. Larger themes desired include "adult education - theory rather than practical" and the "future for public libraries." Of additional importance are the 20% of responses relating to a Postmasters Certifícate, with desired topics falling heavily into the two subjects of technology (42%) and management (38%). The remaining preferences were for information literacy instruction (methods and research) or archives. Management topics and numerous technology topics and applications (from e-commerce to the design of online distance education modules) are clear preferences amongst the Atlantic Canadian respondents to this questionnaire. Such preferences are in evidence in the various continuing education offerings at the Atlantic Provinces Library Association conferences and in regional workshops offered by various professional associations12. Broader and innovative suggestions As respondents to any questionnaire may tend to reply in terms with which they are familiar, it is very important to examine some of the minority, but arguably more innovative, responses. For example, some of our respondents recommended that an interactive database that would aid in matching mentors and potential 'continuing education clients' might provide an alternative continuing education delivery method. A further interesting suggestion, albeit one which would require considerable licensing negotiations, is to permit alumni of Canadian LIS schools to have access to the same LIS journals online that current SLIS students can access. Access to the recent literature of our field can all too easily be taken for granted by those living near large academic library collections. Alumni who live in less urbanised parts of Canada are at a disadvantage in terms of self-education through current awareness. Such

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current awareness would include the recent literature discussing larger issues in Canadian information provision such as information policy development and the importance of public libraries for community economic development. Some of these large issues were also referred to by respondents as desiderata for continuing education topics and themes (although by far the majority referred to particular aspects of technology or management or instructional skills). The range of responses in the text boxes deserve further systematic analysis and this is planned as a part of a larger comparative study which will be analysed using qualitative analysis software (QSR Nudist). DISCUSSION - A CANADIAN SAMPLE IN A BROADER CONTEXT As one of us recently stated, with an optimism laced with pragmatic awareness of the implications, "I feel like a hybridised librarian." Practitioners in the LIS field in 2002 cannot rely on the knowledge and skills learned two, five, ten or more years ago during a formal degree programme if they are to remain effective professionals. This conclusion is amply supported by the responses to this pilot study. The replies to a question on "specific topics you would be interested in the next 1 to 2 years" proved revealing. Up to eight entries per respondent were permitted by the questionnaire design and a very wide range of topics was identified. Information technology, management, knowledge management, and topics such as fund raising all appear with regularity. The descriptors of the topics are so varied that careful textual analysis is required to categorise them. As expected, these topics do not tend to fall within any traditional 'core library competencies' although some of them may evolve into such core competencies - which may be perceived as a form of 'hybrid' development. While many questions offered the standard "other" option in which any text could be entered, one respondent offered the heartfelt comment that they were surprised at the "lack of options...on issues and substance" (certainly not an intent of the authors). This respondent suggested that issues of censorship, privacy, intellectual property rights, community development, youth at risk, corporate responsibility, and so much more" need to be considered. Other respondents typed in some of these same topics within their selection of eight items they might wish to pursue in the next two years. Intellectually challenging issues and themes, as well as more easily digested skills, are of critical importance for the development and maintenance of proactive practitioners. Canada currently does not have a direct equivalent to the United Kingdom organisation, the Information Services National Training Organisation (isNTO), which has a nation-wide mandate to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of education and training in the archives, libraries and records management sectors. However, a recent Canadian initiative relating to all of these sectors is the "competency profile of information management specialists" 13. This profile relates to such specialists at either the professional or technical level and this may be one reason why the competencies generally relate to specific skills. However, the broader goal is one that might provide a model for collaborative planning for continuing education. The goal is to use the competency framework "to help identify where there appear to be gaps or weaknesses in the current training, in access to training, and in the relevance of the training that is available" 14 A desideratum is flexible availability of continuing education in a variety of locations on a range of topics, especially those relating to technology, management (in its broadest application and including some of the large issues mentioned above) and instruction. In Canada, there are six English-language LIS schools,1" and the results

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of this pilot project suggest that collaboration in continuing education delivery, via both face to face (crucial) and distance education methods, might be an appropriate model to pursue if the schools take a leadership role in this area. Using Dalhousie's School as an example, the range of expertise available for customised training sessions indicates appropriate coverage not only of the most desired areas of technology, management and instruction, but also of other areas noted by our survey respondents such as public library service and collection management Marketing such custom offerings by all Schools that are interested in providing this type of training is essential if they are to be taken up by and to benefit practitioners. In addition, Dalhousie's School is unique in being situated within a Faculty of Management and thus has the ready availability of specialised management knowledge and skills, for potential continuing education offerings, in both the School of Business Administration and the School of Public Administration. It would seem timely and necessary, for the purposes of continuing education, to pool interests and specialised knowledge and research across the Schools in suth areas as information policy, community development, libraries as agents of social cohesion, etc. The challenge of providing training by means of the preferred mode of face to face delivery needs to be addressed by collaborative planning across Canadian Schools and amongst interested stakeholders in each geographic location. A recent, highly successful, collaborative continuing education event in Nova Scotia involved the Provincial Library of Nova Scotia, Dalhousie University Libraries and SLIS. The event was a full day workshop by Chuck McClure on performance measures for public library networked services. The desire for continuing education, in a face to face workshop format, on a topic of high relevance - a desire illustrated by the results of our survey - was further confirmed by the attendance of about 75 practitioners at the McClure workshop, some of whom had driven considerable distances to attend. This proved to be an excellent example of the effective fulfilling of Guideline 11 from IFLA relating to roles for library and information educational programmes: "In order to assist practising librarians and information specialists to maintain competence in a changing society and to keep educators aware of issues and trends in practice, the programme should either conduct suitable workshops, [etc.,] or partner with other agencies in doing so."16 At the national level, the principal stakeholder might be the Canadian Library Association (CLA). A recent report, commissioned by the Association, offers two specific recommendations relating to a partnering and coordinating role for the Association in relation to continuing education for its members and others. For example, Recommendation 6 reads: "The Association should work diligently to develop effective partnering relationships with provincial, regional and sectoral associations and organisations to deliver relevant, affordable and accessible continuing education opportunities to their memberships as well as interested non-members" . The CLA, working in conjunction with LIS schools and other institutions and organisations might be able to provide a helpful coordinating role.

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The literature on, and experiences of, distance education, is vast. Several North American LIS programmes, including one in -which one of the authors has taught (University of South Florida) offer extensive course options via distance delivery. In Canada, online LIS continuing education courses are offered by the Faculty of Information Studies (FIS) at the University of Toronto, in an innovative, entirely self-supporting environment 18 ' 19 . As might be expected, online registrants are by no means limited to southern Ontario. Analysis of one particular online course (Mastering Web Searching) indicates that almost half of the registrants were in provinces other than Ontario and 14% of registrants were from another country 20. Any development of distance continuing education offerings must take into account that the market is potentially very small in Canada, if the results of this survey prove to be representative. However, if distance delivery is to be one option amongst several, effective marketing might alter some assumptions and perceptions about distance delivery methods. Furthermore, LIS research projects focussing on distance delivery of training, such as that by Lucy Tedd, will provide potentially very useful information21. Of special interest in the case of Toronto's FIS is that none of the Faculty's academic staff take part in instruction within the continuing education programme. The majority of the instructors are adjunct and, of crucial significance, current practitioners. As Canadian LIS schools traditionally have small numbers of tenured or tenure track faculty members, this is a pragmatic solution to the dilemma of who will instruct continuing education courses. Utilising the skills of proactive practitioners as instructors may prove vital for the long term maintenance, and pertinence, of many continuing education offerings. Practitioners have long formed a core resource for informal 'continuing learning' as differentiated from formal 'continuing education 22. Other organisations and institutions that already do, or could, offer continuing education include professional associations and private enterprises. CONCLUSION Canadian libraries have evolved by means of various collaborative efforts and a collaborative ethic is required for continuing education provision, if the perceived needs of practitioners are to be met effectively and efficiently. Possible models for achieving this are the subject for a future paper and include a cooperative agency for continuing professional studies. In the meantime, this pilot study offers useful insights both for the current perceptions of a sample of Canadian practitioners and for the development and delivery of our larger project. Statistical information from this pilot, along with results of the textual analysis, will be available in more detail than has been presented in this brief paper, at the web site of Dalhousie's School of Library and Information Studies 23. The crucial topic of continuing education for LIS professionals is alive and well and under scrutiny in Canada - with the intent to learn more and to apply what we learn for the benefit of practitioners. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study was enabled by funding received from Dalhousie University's Faculty of Management and Faculty of Graduate Studies. Fiona A. Black is a faculty member in the School of Library and Information Studies, Dalhousie University. Judy Dunn is Graduate Coordinator in the School. Stan Skrzeszewski is principal of ASM

179

Advanced Strategie Management in London Ontario and immediate past-President of the Canadian Library Association. Rhonda Miller, a student in the MLIS programme, is Dr Black's research assistant. NOTES '

ii iii

Some recent faculty position announcements for North American LIS schools include the phrase "interest in post-master's professional development is desirable." An example is Dominican University. Graduate School of Library and Information Science. "Dominican GSLIS Seeks Two Faculty." Posting to JESSE by Prudence W. Dalrymple, 14 December 2001. Stephen Sloan. "Re: Query regarding CACUL Workshop Incentive Grants." E-mail to Fiona Black, 19 April 2001. In addition to Dalhousie University in Halifax, these schools are within the University of British Columbia (Vancouver), the University of Alberta (Edmonton), the University of Toronto, the University of Western Ontario (London) and McGill University (Montreal).

REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

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Association of Canadian Archivists. "Survey Questionnaire." Questionnaire Posting to ARCAN-L discussion list, 22 October 2001 by Dave Pascal, Executive Director, ACA. Saskatchewan Library Association. "Urgent SLA Survey." Posting to SLA Regina by Judith Silverthome [Executive Director, SLA], 20 October 2001. Canadian Association of Special Libraries and Information Services. CASUS Atlantic Membership Survey. Available from: http://www.caslisatlantic.ca Canadian Association of Special Libraries and Information Services. Ottawa Chapter. CASLIS 2001 Survey. Report Prepared by Margaret Sampson Under Contract to CASLIS Ottawa Chapter. [2001] Available from: http://www.caslisottawa.on.ca Writing the Future: Shaping the Canadian Library Association for the 21s' Century. Report to the Executive Council of the Canadian Library Association by its Commission, March 2001. [Document available in pdf from: www.cla.ca] Hari, Manuela et al. "Competencies of the Future Librarian." Paper presented at the conference HUM@N BEINGS and Information Specialists, Portoroz, Slovenia, 28-30 January 2002. Abstract for paper available from the BOBCATSSS conference web site: www.bobcatsss.de/ Ashcroft, Linda. "Information Specialists - Future Skills." Paper presented at the conference HUM@N BEINGS and Information Specialists, Portoroz, Slovenia, 28-30 January 2002. Abstract for paper available from the BOBCATSSS conference web site: www.bobcatsss.de/ Varlejs, Jana. "Continuing Professional Education," in: Association for Library and Information Science Education. Library and Information Science Education Statistical Report 2001. Available from: http://ils.unc.edu/ALISE/2001/CE. Table V-2, Summary of Non-Credit

Continuing Education Events in Reporting ALA Schools by Type of Activity, 1999-2000. McGill Graduate School of Library and Information Studies. Programs Offered. Available from: http://www.gslis.mcgil1.ca/program.htm University of British Columbia. School of Library, Archival and Information Studies. Certificate of Advanced Study. Available from: http://www.slais.ubc.ca/prospective/portfolio/cas.htm Canadian Association of College and University Libraries. CACUL Grants. Available from: www.cla.ca/divisions/CACUL/caculgrn.htm APLA Bulletin, 65, 1 (2001), especially pages 10, 21-2. Gendron, Céline. "Competency Profile of Information Management Specialists in Archives, Libraries and Records Management: A Comprehensive Cross-Sectoral Competency Analysis." Available from: www.cla.ca/resources/trends.htm Accessed 18 April 2001. A condensed version has been printed in Feliciter, 46, 3 (2000). Ibid. Dalhousie University. School of Library and Information Studies. "Custom Training." Available from: www.mgmt.dal.ca/slis/ContinuingEd/training.html International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Educational Programs - 2000. Available from: www.ifla.org/Vn/s23/bulletin/guidelines.htm. Writing the Future..., op. cit. University of Toronto. Faculty of Information Studies. "Continuing Education." Available from: http://ce.fis.utoronto.ca/aboutce/index.htm Varlejs, Jana. "Toronto's Continuing Education Program: A Profile in Innovation." Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 41, 3 (2000): 230-232. Melville, Karen. "Online Continuing Education." E-mail to Fiona Black, 11 December 2001. [Melville is Director of Professional Development at the Faculty of Information Studies, University of Toronto.] Tedd, Lucy A. "Distance Learning and the Training of Information Specialists in New Skills: Some Experiences from Wales and Slovakia." Paper presented at the conference HUM@N BEINGS and Information Specialists, Portoroz, Slovenia, 28-30 January 2002. Abstract for paper available from the BOBCATSSS conference web site: www.bobcatsss.de/ Medical Library Association. "Continuum of Learning," in: The Educational Policy Statement of the Medical Library Association. Available from: http://www.mlanet.org/education/platform/learn.html Dalhousie University. School of Library and Information Studies. Available from: www.mgmt.dal.ca/slis/

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SUCCESSFUL FACULTY PARTICIPATION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION: WHAT RESEARCH AND EXPERIENCE CAN TEACH US Dr. Pamela P. Barron Department of Library and Information Studies The University of North Carolina at Greensboro USA Abstract .

As more and more technology has been incorporated into the delivery of continuing education, new issues and challenges have arisen. Many of these directly impact on the role of the instructor. No matter what type of technology or mode of delivery; there are some common threads. The paper presents the instructor's perspective on techniques for successful management of instruction and on choosing the correct technology for the delivery of instruction.

INTRODUCTION Distance education is not a new phenomenon, but computer and telecommunication technology has changed how we now define the term. As defined by the United States Distance Learning Association 1 distance education is "the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at a distance." These technologies can be organised into four categories: Voice - Instructional audio tools include the interactive technologies of telephone, audioconferencing, and short wave radio. Passive (i.e., one way) audio tools include tapes and radio. Video - Instructional video tools include still images such as slides, preproduced moving images (e.g., film, videotape), and real time moving images combined with audioconferencing (one way or two way video with two way audio). Data - Computers send and receive information electronically. For this reason, the term 'data' is used to describe this broad category of instructional tools. Computer applications for distance education are varied and include: • Computer assisted instruction (CAI) - uses the computer as a selfcontained teaching machine to present individual lessons. • Computer managed instruction (CMI) - uses the computer to organise instruction and track student records and progress. The instruction itself need not be delivered via a computer, although CAI is often combined with CMI. • Computer mediated education (CME) - describes computer applications that facilitate the delivery of instruction. Examples include: electronic mail, fax, real time computer conferencing, and World Wide Web applications.

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Print - is a foundational element of distance education programs and the basis from which all other delivery systems have evolved. Various print formats are available including: textbooks, study guides, workbooks, course syllabi, and case studies.2 This array of technology has also made possible three modes of course delivery. Each classification has been defined by Bourne et al cited in Caviedes as: 1. Local: same place at the same time (e.g. traditional classroom) 2. Synchronous: different places at the same time 3. Asynchronous: different places at different times.3 Even though the definition of distance education has broadened, technologies have advanced, delivery methods have expanded and students have become more diversified, one key element has remained constant in this teaching and learner process. Ultimately the success of any distance education effort rests squarely on the shoulders of the faculty. Olcott and Wright 4 indicate that the responsibility for instructional quality and control, the improvement of learning and the aggregate effectiveness of distance education still rest with the faculty. How can faculty members be assured that their distance education efforts will be successful? Are there any research findings available? Does experience make a difference? An early article by Beaudoin5 is much quoted in the professional literature. He describes the changing role of faculty: "Those faculty accustomed to more conventional teaching modes will have to acquire new skills to assume expanded roles not only to teach distance learners, but also to organise instructional resources suitable in content and format for independent study." He elaborates, "the teaching function is not becoming obsolete, but the role is being transformed dramatically. In addition to being adept at both content and process, faculty must recognise the role of instructional technology as a learning resource." Beaudoin's words have proven to be prophetic and were confirmed in an article by Schoenfeld-Tacher and Persichitte4. They conducted a literature search and a study which analysed the differential skills and competencies required of faculty teaching distance delivered courses within distance learning programs. Their literature search revealed that "teaching a distance education course requires faculty to: become proficient in the use of the chosen delivery technology, design lessons that are more student centred, adapt to teaching in the absence of nonverbal feedback from students, and develop methods of communicating their content without lecturing." For their study, they surveyed six faculty members teaching DE courses at a Doctoral I institution in Northeastern Colorado about their experiences teaching in this manner and how those experiences differed from face to face teaching. All six used the World Wide Web as the primary delivery system, but each differed in (a) the use of synchronous and asynchronous tools, and (b) who was responsible for the design, development, and delivery of the course (e.g., supported by private online vendor, individual faculty). They found that faculty perceptions of the skills and competencies they had to acquire as a result of teaching in this medium varied greatly and were found to be primarily influenced by their prior knowledge of instructional design strategies and distance education theories. Another survey of faculty was conducted by Rockwell, Schauer, and Fritz.7 Two-hundred seven faculty teaching academic courses and 30 administrators in two colleges in a mid-west university were surveyed to study the type of education, assistance, and support faculty feel they need to develop educational materials for distance delivery. They found that "overall faculty feel it is very important to obtain

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further education about, assistance with, or support for (a) developing interaction, (b) developing instructional materials, and (c) applying selected technologies. They also feel it is very important to have assistance with 'marketing a course.' Personal incentives, such as increase in pay, were comparatively not as important as support issues." Thus, one challenge is to prepare faculty for the distance teaching experience. What suggestions do the professional literature offer? A review of the literature provided the following guidelines and suggestions: •

Without exception, effective distance education programs begin with careful planning and a focused understanding of course requirements and student needs. Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.8

•

Good distance teaching practices are fundamentally identical to good traditional teaching practices and "those factors which influence good instruction may be generally universal across different environments and populations."9

•

Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes, not the technology of delivery. The key to effective distance education is focusing on the needs of the learners, the requirements of the content, and the constraints faced by the teacher, before selecting a delivery system. Typically, this systematic approach will result in a mix of media, each serving a specific purpose.10

•

Extensive pre-planning and formative evaluation is necessary. Teachers cannot "wing it". Distance learners value instructors who are well prepared and organised. Learners benefit significantly from a well-designed syllabus and presentation outlines.11

•

Teachers must be properly trained both in the use of equipment and in those techniques proven effective in the distance education environment. Learners get more from the courses when the instructor seems comfortable with the technology, maintains eye contact with the camera, repeats questions, and possesses a sense of humor.12

•

Special challenges confront those teaching at a distance. For example, the instructor must: 1) Develop an understanding of the characteristics and needs of distant students with little first-hand experience and limited, if any, fece to face contact. 2) Adapt teaching styles taking into consideration the needs and expectations of multiple, often diverse, audiences. 3) Develop a working understanding of delivery technology, while remaining focused on their teaching role. 4) Function effectively as a skilled facilitator as well as content provider.13

•

Many distant learners require support and guidance to make the most of their distance learning experiences.14

•

Learners value timely feedback regarding course assignments, exams, and projects.15

•

Learners benefit significantly from their involvement in small learning groups. These groups provide support and encouragement along with extra feedback on

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course assignments. Most importantly, the groups foster the feeling that if help is needed it is readily available. Given these guidelines, few will argue that offering courses at a distance requires a great deal more work on the part of the instructor. This has also been documented by the research. 17 I have been involved in distance education since 1979 and during a university teaching career of more than twenty years, I have seen and experienced first hand many of the concerns expressed in the research and described in this paper. I have had the opportunity to utilise all of the technologies described. What has my experience taught me? What are some of the things I have learned? Throughout my career, many of my classes have been very large, and in the time frame of weekly classes, not all of my students have participated. With the shift to online course delivery, students, who did not speak out in class, are participating in on-line bulletin boards. Technology has given them a voice and they are using technology to reflect before they speak. This security offers them the opportunity to rewrite before sending comments, their self-esteem is bolstered, and new networks and friendships are being developed. Group projects are more productive because students who normally could not work together because of distance can share information electronically. Web sites have taken the place of handouts. Power point presentations can be downloaded or accessed for farther study. I can update my course and share new information with my students as the need arises. My students are experiencing the very technology that they will be teaching their users to utilise. In the course of my experience utilising video as a delivery mechanism, I have found that the use of cameras and other technologies has not replaced the need for the dynamic relationship which develops between the faculty member and the student. In fact, when reflecting upon the student evaluations I have received of my teaching, I get high marks for enthusiasm. That inner excitement which can be displayed outwardly as animation (i.e. facial alertness, smiles, inquisitiveness, eye contact with students, etc.) A second element crucial to success is organisation, the structuring of the course to be clear and understandable to the students. A clear, detailed syllabus with information on the instructor, contact information, the class, the weekly assignments, their due dates and grading criteria needs to be developed and should be provided during the first week of class. Many distance students are juggling family, job and school responsibilities. They need to be able to plan accordingly. A third critical element for successful distance education experiences is commitment to student interaction. Students need to feel like they are part of the class even though they are not in the same room with you. There are many ways to build an ongoing interaction with the students at the remote sites. Fourth among the critical elements is technical knowledge on the faculty member's part regarding the optimum utilisation of the technology. Talking Head lectures should be avoided at all costs. Take advantage of the unique capabilities of the medium to make your lectures more meaningful and interactive. Distance education via television offers advantages over the conventional classroom in several areas. Teaching in a video studio allows the instructor to employ a variety of visual effects. The cameras are capable of zooming in and out for showing interesting details during demonstrations and for enlarging textbook pictures, graphs, and diagrams.

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CONCLUSION Research comparing distance education to traditional face to face instruction indicates that teaching and studying at a distance can be as effective as traditional instruction, when the method and technologies used are appropriate to the instructional tasks, there is student to student interaction, and when there is timely teacher-to- student feedback. Distance education is more work for the faculty member because it requires a high degree of instructor enthusiasm, organisation, commitment to student interaction, and an understanding of the technical media. To be a success, just remember, 'High tech, high touch.' It may be a cliché, but my years of distance education teaching experience and the research findings have proven its worth. Despite all our advances in technology, students still want to know that there is a faculty member present who cares about them. REFERENCES 1

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10 11

12 13

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United States Distance Learning Association (1998). Distance Learning Definition. Available from: http://www.usdla.org Willis, B. Distance Education: a Practical Guide. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1993. Caviedes, J. "A Technological Perspective of Anytime, Anywhere Education." ALN Magazine, 2, 1 (1998). Available from: www.aln.org/alnweb/magazine/vol2_issuel/jorge.htm. Olcott, D. Jr. and S. J.Wright. "An Institutional Support Framework for Increasing Faculty Participation in Postsecondary Distance Education." The American Journal of Distance Education, 9, 3 (1995): 5-17. Beaudoin, Michael. "The Instructor's Changing Role in Distance Education." The American Journal of Distance Education, 4,2(1990): 21-29. Schoenfeld, Tacher and Kay A. Persichitte. "Differential Skills and Competencies Required of Faculty Teaching Distance Education Courses." International Journal of Technology, July (2000). Rockwell, S. K., J. Schauer, and S. Fritz. "Faculty Education, Assistance and Support Needed to Deliver Education via Distance." Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 3, 2, (2000). Available from: www.westga.edti/~distance/rockwell32. Html Willis, op. cit. Wilkes, C.W. and B. R. Burnham. "Adult Learner Motivations and Electronics Distance Education". The American Journal of Distance Education, 5, 1 (1991): 43-50. 10. Willis, op. cit. Egan, M.W., J. Sebastian and M. Welch. "Effective Television Teaching: Perceptions of Those Who Count Most...Distance Learners." In Reaching Our Potential: Rural Education in the 90's. Conference Proceedings, Rural Education Symposium, Nashville, TN, 1991. (ED 342 579) Ibid. Willis, op. cit.

Threlkeld, R. and K. Brzoska. "Research in Distance Education." In B. Willis (Ed.), Distance Education: Strategies and Tools. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Inc., 1994. Egan, Sebastian and Welch, op. cit. Willis, op. cit. Rockwell, Schauer and Fritz, op. cit.

OTHER SOURCES Barron, Pamela Petrick. "Electronic Outreach: Quality Control of a Library Science Telecourse, A Case Study." Issues in Higher Education, 19, October 21-23 (1985): 43-48. Barron, Pamela Petrick. "Production of a Telecourse in Library and Information Science." Journalof Educationfor Library and Information Science, 27, 4(1987): 247-256. Barron, Pamela Petrick. "Jump Over the Moon: The Development of a Telecourse in Children's Literature." Top of the News, Winter (1984): 141-145. Clark, T. "Attitudes of Higher Education Faculty Toward Distance Education: A National Survey." The American Journal of Distance Education, 7,2 (1993): 19-33. Crumpacker, Norman. "Faculty Pedagogical Approach, Skill, and Motivation in Today's Distance Education Milieu." Online Journal of Distance Education, 4, 4 (2001). Available from: www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter44/crumpacker44.html Dillon, Connie L. and Stephen M. Walsh. "Faculty: The Neglected Resource in Distance Education." The American Journal of Distance Education, 6, 3, (1992): 5-21. "Distance Education: More Work, Same Pay for Faculty." Distance Education Report, July 15, (2000): 1 & 5. Fann, Nancy J. and Stephen D. Lewis. "Is Online Education the Solution?" Business Education Forum, April (2001): 46-48. Hillesheim, Gwen. "Distance Learning: Barriers and Strategies For Students and Faculty." The Internet and Higher Education, 1,1 (1998): 31-44. McKenzie, Β. Κ. "Needs, Concerns and Practices of Online Instructors." Online Journal of Distance Education Administration, Fall (2000). Available from.http://www. westga.edu/~distance/oidla/fall33/mckenzie33.html Wilson, Carol. "Concerns of Instructors Delivering Distance Learning Via the WWW." Online Journal of Distance Education Administration, 1, 3 (1998). Available from: www.westga.edu/~distance/wilson 13. html Zukowski, Angela Ann. "A Teacher's Primer for Distance Education: Facilitation and Preparation." Momentum, November/December (2000): 74-75.

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DEVELOPING A MODEL FOR WEB ENHANCED CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS FOR LIS PROFESSIONALS Urna Kanjilal Faculty of Library and Information Science Indira Gandhi National Open University New Delhi India

Abstract:

Most of the library schools in India follow a traditional curriculum that does not address the present needs of the information society. Continuing education programs for LIS professionals are sporadic and follow traditional modes of delivery. Though web based education is becoming popular throughout the world, it has so far not been adopted for imparting LIS education in India. This paper proposes a model for developing web enhanced training programs based on the existing facilities available in the country.

INTRODUCTION In India there are more than 130 universities and institutions providing LIS courses at various levels. But these courses are traditional in nature and do not sufficiently address the current needs of the information society. The proliferation of information and communication technology applications in libraries and information centres has brought about a profound change in the process of information handling and retrieval. This makes it pertinent for the library and information professionals to upgrade their skills to meet the changing needs. The need for short-term CPE programs that can help the information professionals to upgrade their skills and knowledge is being strongly felt. The conventional mode of education is not sufficiently geared to tackle the growing demand for such programs. The distance education system is gradually becoming an important mode for the delivery of LIS courses in the country. This is being considered as being the most viable and cost effective method of reaching large numbers of professionals throughout the country. Though web based CPE programs are becoming popular all over the world; this has yet to be tested for LIS professionals in the country This paper tries to identify the areas for imparting hands on training programs for information professionals in the country and suggests a model for the delivery of web enhanced training programs. STATUS OF LIS EDUCATION IN INDIA After independence in 1947 the LIS schools proliferated at a fast rate in India. At present there are more than 130 universities and institutions providing LIS courses at various levels. There are about 98 universities and other institutions providing BLIS courses, 76 providing MLIS courses, 16 providing M. Phil courses and 52 offering a PhD. in Library and Information Science.1 Apart from these there are Associateship courses in Information Science (considered as equivalent to the MLIS), offered by the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC), New Delhi and Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC), Bangalore. The

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library associations, polytechnics, among others, offer the certificate and diploma level courses. Table 1. Educational framework of library and information science education in India Course Titk• Certificate

Type of Institutions Library Associations, university affiliated colleges and institutions library Diploma : fi Polytechnics, associations Jipi"! University departments, colleges and other academic institutions affiliated to universities MLIS ":- § -doM. Phil University departments Unffi-aOBX&v PhD D -do-

Duration « Two to six months

Basic Qualification 10+2 (School leaving examination)

One to two years

;τ

One to three years

Bachelors degree

One to two years One to two years

-do-

.l i t

¡¡MÈI

MLIS or M. Phil.

The distance education system is now playing a major role in providing LIS education in the country. This is being looked upon as being the most viable method of reaching out to a vast population spread over the country. At present there are 6 open universities and 30 correspondence directorates providing LIS education at various levels. Most of the LIS courses offered by both conventional and distance education systems have a traditional curriculum, which is inadequate to meet the demands of the fast changing information society. The existing curriculum of most of the universities are based on the recommendation of the Ranganathan Committee and the Committee set up by the University Grants Commission (UGC) in 1978. The recommendations made by these committees were mainly for the Bachelors level courses which are quite outdated and irrelevant in the present day context. In order to restructure the curriculum and bring about a uniform national pattern of LIS education in India, the University Grants (UGC) appointed a Curriculum Development Committee (CDC) in 1990. The Report 2 prepared by the CDC was found to be unsatisfactory and was not adopted by most of the universities. Again a new committee has been constituted to suggest a new curriculum and strategies to meet the challenges of present day needs. The report of the current committee is still awaited. A close scrutiny of the curriculum of most of the universities/institutions reveals a general pattern. Though the nomenclature of course titles may vary in different universities and institutions, the broad outline of courses found at BLIS and MLIS levels are as follows:

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BLIS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Library and Society Library management/ administration Library classification: theory and practice Library cataloguing: theory and practice Reference sources and services

M LIS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Universe of knowledge Depth classification Advanced cataloguing System analysis and design Information storage and retrieval Special/ academic/ public library system Research methodology Computer application Dissertation

Though information and communication technologies have become part and parcel of most of the libraries and information centres, these aspects have not been incorporated in the curriculum of many of the library schools. Regarding the delivery of courses, the conventional universities use classroom based teaching methods. In some cases audio video course materials are used to supplement the classroom lectures. The courses offered by the correspondence directorates are purely based on printed course materials supplemented with counselling sessions. The open universities are however using multi mode delivery mechanisms. Most of these institutions use self instructional course materials, audio and vidéocassettes, radio and television for delivery of courses supported with counselling sessions in the study centres. Interactive methods such as phone in radio counselling and satellite/cable based video conferencing methods are also being used in some of these institutions. The recent trend is towards providing courses through the web. This method has so far not been adopted for imparting LIS education in the countiy. CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMMES FOR LIS PROFESSIONALS As a result of wide range application of information and communication technologies, the nature of information work has undergone a wide change over the last two decades. In the changing scenario, information organisation, dissemination and management are getting more emphasis. There is a distinct change in the role of information professionals as compared to the traditional roles and responsibilities of the librarians. For providing effective services, the modern information professionals need to acquire knowledge and skills of different professions viz. the computer and software specialist, database manager, publisher, media specialist etc. There is a growing demand for a new kind of information worker adept in skills of various professions. With information work becoming multifunctional in nature, it has become essential to develop and implement short term skills based continuing education programs for information professionals.

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There is no set policy for continuing education programs for LIS professionals in the country. Though the CDC report recommends short term refresher courses for LIS teachers, orientation programs in library automation and ICT applications etc., nothing much has happened as yet. The major effort in the provision of continuing education programs has been taken up by the institutions such as the National Information System for Science and Technology (NISSAT), the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) and the Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC). The courses offered by these institutions include topics such as: application of computers and information communication technologies in libraries, hands on training on CDS/ ISIS and library automation software packages, bibliographic standards and formats, digital library systems, total quality management etc. The DRTC and INSDOC have been offering continuing education programs in the form of summer schools, workshops, seminars etc. for LIS teachers and professionals. The library associations in the country viz. the Indian Library Association (ILA), India Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres (IASLIC) and Society for Information Science (SIS) contribute a great deal in this direction through annual conferences, seminars, workshops, study circles etc. Apart from these activities, it has become a regular feature for some of the library schools to provide summer schools and refresher courses for LIS teachers and working librarians. In the recent years a number of private organisations have also offered short term courses in computer and IT applications in libraries and information centres. Though there is a steady rise in the number of continuing education programs in the recent years these are not yet able to cater satisfactorily to the needs of the LIS professionals. Most of these programs are of a short duration, informal and not very extensive in nature. Moreover, barring a few, most of these programs lack the adequate infrastructure facilities required for hands on training, and have been developed with meagre financial support. The continuing education system for LIS professionals therefore urgently needs to be institutionalised in order to effectively cater to the growing demand for such training programs. The distance education system, which is found to be most suitable for continuing education programs, has not been utilised to date for imparting continuing education programs. The possibility of using distance education methods for hands on training needs to be explored to develop a well planned LIS continuing education program in the country. SUGGESTED MODEL FOR A WEB ENHANCED LIS CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAM Cutting edge digital technologies are now enabling universities to implement needs based distance education programs by reaching out to a diverse population and providing teaching and learning environments 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. Online delivery of courses is now gaining popularity all over the world. Technology enables the universities to offer courses virtually, simulating the classroom environment. Web based courses have a great potential to enhance academic programs beyond the walls of the classroom, or on campus to facilitate lifelong and just in time learning. The advantages of web based continuing education programs are that: •

courses can be tailor made to suit the requirements of the learners;

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• • • • •

study material are always readily available; standardised course material prepared by the best available experts can be provided; the learner can undertake courses at their own pace, time and place; a high level of interaction for the learner with the teacher and peer group is possible through emails, discussion groups, chat sessions, web conferencing etc. the learner can pursue these courses alongside their normal job.

The major problem involved in delivery of online courses in India is the low percentage of Internet access. The country has a population of more than a billion, but only around four million Internet users 3, and this means that it is difficult to deliver web based courses. Delivery of such courses requires a thorough planning for an infrastructural facility to be provided at the learner's end. Though web based short courses are becoming popular throughout the world; no initiative has been taken to date for LIS courses. With the growing demand for short term continuing education programs for LIS professionals, it is pertinent to take into account the relevance of web enhanced delivery in the present circumstances and to use it effectively. Keeping in view the availability of the infra-structural facilities and the present scenario, the following model is suggested for developing and implementing web enhanced short term courses for LIS professionals: Topics for short term courses In a fast changing society it may not be possible for any generalist curriculum to take account of all aspects of information work. It is therefore, imperative to develop short-term courses to meet the requirements of society today. These short-term courses can be provided at two levels: • •

IT training for traditional work in libraries and information centres; skills and knowledge in the emerging fields.

The basic training in IT skills for the traditional work should cover the following topics: • • • • • • • •

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Creation of databases and handling of CD and online databases. Handling of library automation packages. Use of electronic formats of classification schemes. Computerised SDI and other current awareness services. Packaging and repackaging of information in different formats. Multimedia and web based content development. Handling of electronic sources viz. ebooks, ejournals, ereference sources etc. Online reference and information services.

Training for skills and knowledge in the emerging fields should focus on the following areas: • • • • • •

Designing of interfaces for online information sources and services. Developing digital library systems. Knowledge management. Total Quality Management. Decision support systems. Copyright, intellectual property rights, censorship and information legislation aspects.

For effective implementation of short courses on the topics illustrated above, it would be essential to focus on the hands on training aspects. The duration of these courses may vary from one week to one month, depending on the coverage of the course content. Essential infrastructural facilities, such as computers and Internet connectivity, must be made available to learners if they are to receive thorough hands on training. Consortium for web based continuing education The distance education system functions at three levels in India: • • •

National Open University (Indira Gandhi National Open University). State Open Universities. Correspondence directorates at the conventional universities.

Most of the open universities have an extensive network of regional and study centres spread all over the Country. Collaboration and networking between these distance education institutions in the country can provide an effective platform for delivery of web based courses. The idea of developing a consortium for virtual courses has already been mooted. Once this is operational the backbone can be utilised for developing a consortium for continuing education programs for LIS professionals. This will help in the sharing of courses and other resources and in avoiding unnecessary duplication and wastage of resources. Delivery model The delivery model needs to be planned at three levels: • learning resources; • interaction; • evaluation. The learning resources must include reading materials in text and graphic formats, multimedia digital presentations, slide shows and electronic tutors, assignments/activities, a calendar of activities and links to other related reading materials. Since access to Internet is still limited in India it will be necessary to adopt a dual mode of delivery that is offline in CD ROM format and online through the web.

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The learning resources must be rich in content to make the process of self learning effective. The interaction of the learner with the tutor and the peer group must be facilitated with the help of synchronous modes such as real time chat sessions and a web based video conferencing and asynchronous facility e.g. email and bulletin boards. For the purpose of evaluation the online submission of assignments can be adopted. Other innovative techniques like online collaborative activities and peer assessment can also be used. The framework developed for the purpose of web based programs must be scalable, modifiable and reusable so as to make it possible to use for any number of courses and cater to large number learners in the long run. It should be extendable and upgradable to other training requirements in the future. It is also essential to adopt a modular approach in designing the courses so that a certain degree of flexibility is there to repackage the training programs to meet changing needs. Student support services To facilitate equitable access to learning materials it would be essential to establish telelearning centres throughout the country. The open universities in the country already have an extensive network of study centres spread over the country. For delivering continuing education programs for LIS professionals, centres can be identified which have the necessary infrastructure for the delivery of web-based courses. In addition collaborative arrangements can be made with the libraries and information centres in the country, which already have the required infrastructure. The telelearning centres must have the following facilities: • • • •

laboratories for practical hands on training in IT applications; Internet access; library resources; the infrastructure for using computer based training material.

In a country like India where the computer penetration is very low and Internet access limited, it becomes essential to facilitate the development of learning resource centres for the equitable distribution and implementation of web based courses. SUMMARY The ability, and the inability, of the profession to adjust to the changing needs of the society will decide its continued utility. It is therefore essential to ensure that concerted efforts are made to provide continuing education programs for LIS professionals. In a vast country like India the virtual mode of delivery can be a viable and cost effective solution for imparting continuing education programs. The web enhanced delivery model can help in creation of a repository of value added learning resources. The focus should be to develop a scalable, highly interactive model for need based training in future. The availability of a network of distance education institutions, with an infrastructure in place, can be utilised to initiate extensive continuing education programs for the LIS professionals in the country.

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REFERENCES 1

2

3

Association of Indian Universities. Handbook ort Library and Information Science. New Delhi: AIU, 1997 University Grants Commission, India. Report of the Curriculum Development Centre in Library and Information Science. UGC: New Delhi, 1992. Available from: http ://cyberatlas. internet. com/big_picture/demographics/article/0,1323,5911 30 9751,00.html

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LEARNING TO TEACH IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD Lynne Rudasill University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign USA Abstract:

The learning curve for information professionals in the modern academic library has become very steep in the last five years. Although the library has been on the leading edge of automation since the 1970's, those employed as professional librarians for more than ten years have rarely had the opportunity to develop and sharpen the skills required to deliver instruction through electronic means for those in need of information on how to use the library. The development of WYSIWYG HTML editors and the development of classroom packages such as WebCT and Blackboard make the task easier. This paper discusses the results of a survey of instruction librarians, mostly in the United States, concerning their use of these packages as well as other means by which they have developed skills in the electronic dissemination of information to students. In addition, it discusses the pros and cons of the most popular software used to deliver information to the classroom. In looking at the specific aspects of the various programs, we seek to determine those that will provide the greatest benefit to the information professional at the least cost in time and effort on the individual's part. Continuing professional education cannot always be done in the traditional manner, and this paper provides some alternatives to expand instructional skills.

INTRODUCTION A new universe is forming and expanding. The new universe is populated by entities with such names as Flash, DreamWeaver, and Arachnophilia. It is a virtual world, not naturally occurring but man-made, the result of the intersection between possibility and pragmatism. The library is actively engaged with this universe as a result of the librarian's commitment to various publics to help them better understand and use the resources available to them. Librarians are becoming more technologically savvy in their interactions with this universe, called the World Wide Web, and the tools available there. The growth of distance education and the attempt to reach individuals with a variety of learning styles is providing an impetus for even greater exploitation of this new and expanding world. What are librarians using to provide virtual content for their users? How well prepared for this adventure are today's librarians? How can librarians learn more about the many packages that are available to them? This paper explores these questions to provide an understanding that there are many librarians seeking to attain mastery of this universe and they have much to share with one another.

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HISTORY OF THE NEW WORLD Instructional technology provides the core to this universe. Broadly speaking the field of instructional technology began to develop in the 1940's as a way to train large numbers of service men and women as quickly as possible. Films, slide shows and training manuals proliferated in an attempt to provide individuals with as much information as possible in the shortest time possible. The 1950's and I960's saw the emphasis in instruction shiñ from what is referred to as norm-referenced educational measurement to criterion-referenced learning. Bloom's Taxonomy, published during this time period, continues to provide a basis for educational outcomes research and teaching.1 In the 1970's cognitive psychology began providing educators with information on the ways students learn. At the same time that the theory of education was changing, the delivery of education was being transformed. Never was this transformation more rapid than in the 1980's and 1990's. The introduction of the use of microcomputers in the classroom was an event that has continuing repercussions. Two excellent histories of the development of instructional technology can be found in works by Anglin2 and Seels and Richey.3 The first view of the use of technology in education was simple in comparison to that of today. Instructors needed to master only a few techniques to provide materials for computer assisted instruction. The users of instructional slide shows, movies, and the media of the day, for the most part, presented those materials provided for them. Further, the media were used in conjunction with the curriculum, but were not an essential part of it. Instructors, whether in the classroom or the library, needed only to know which materials to choose and how to run the equipment necessary for the information to be viewed by students. This has changed greatly. For librarians involved in instruction, responsibility for the content of programs continues, but there is an additional responsibility for the design and creation of the tools used to deliver instruction to classes. Whether creating interactive tutorial, static or dynamic web pages, or traditional guides in electronic format, the librarian has the charge to consider and organise the information provided for students, and to consider, organise, and create electronic access to this information. Further, librarians are being pushed to create appealing presentations not only by colleagues and competitors, but by the very students they are trying to teach. Along with the development of a variety of instructional tools, came the recognition of various learning styles. Diversity in the student population has been recognised, not only on the basis of ethnicity, gender, social status, and intelligence, but also in relationship to the various modes by which individuals learn. Everyone does not learn in the same way. Some are very good at listening to a lecture, taking notes, and absorbing the information presented. Others learn more effectively when presented with specific tasks to be completed, when they are actively involved in the learning process. Students today are generally characterised as being kinetic learners.4 That is; they want to learn by active involvement in the process. They prefer quick, visually stimulating presentation of the materials being taught. Whether this is a result of exposure to the various media and games they play is a question for others to answer, the fact remains that the nature of learning has changed and librarians are doing a great deal to keep ahead of this change.

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LIBRARIANS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD Librarians are not strangers in a strange land however. Even a cursory look at the college and university web sites proliferating in the United States provides a feel for the types of tools librarians are mounting on the World Wide Web. From simple electronic representations of the traditional guide and pathfinder to the interactive tutorial and beyond, librarians have shown a strong interest in using those electronic tools that will provide both access and understanding. This interest has been growing and changing since before the 1980's when Gratch asked if computer-assisted instruction was just "the glamorous educational technology of the 1980's, likely to fade into the background as certain audiovisual technologies have done?"3 Although her reference to computer-assisted instruction sounds quite quaint today, this type of work laid the foundation for much of what the librarian does today. Engle indicated the direction this instruction would take when he stated, "The virtual world offers librarians an opportunity to use a combination of new software and more powerful hardware to extend services beyond the reference desk and the classroom and reach an audience not limited by physical proximity."6 Clearly librarians were aware of many of the possibilities for distance education at a very early stage of the game. What software programs are librarians using, and how are they learning to use these programs in the development of resources for the instruction of various audiences, as well as various learning styles? A survey of medical librarians in Tennessee in 1996 indicated that learning was occurring in a variety of ways depending upon whether the new skill related to software and CD ROMs or online services. Those surveyed expressed a desire to receive more training as well as to have the time necessary to learn new program skills and, generally, more support for this training from their institutions.7 It might be interesting to expand and update some of the information gathered in this survey. METHODOLOGY An email survey of the members of two listservs was chosen as the most efficient means of obtaining answers to the questions posed here. A mailing went to the BI-L listserv which consists of members of the American Library Association who are involved in bibliographic instruction. A second request for response was sent to the RUSA listserv which is populated by American Library Association members engaged in reference work. Both groups are involved in answering the questions of users and assisting users to learn about the library and the research process. And, most importantly, both groups frequently create resources to be mounted on web pages to provide information to users. FINDINGS The first question in the survey concerned the year the individual received his or her degree in library science. The median year respondents received their library degree was 1990, with the earliest respondent receiving a degree in 1967 and the most current degree being received in 2001. Knowing what we do about the advent of educational technology, it is assumed that these individuals have had to maintain a high degree of flexibility and a positive attitude toward the acquisition of new skills.

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The respondents indicate that seventy five percent received what they considered to be technology training during their coursework. The wording of this question was left intentionally vague regarding the type of technology training offered in order to gauge the definition by respondents. The assumption here is that many types of instruction are indeed useful technology training. Comments indicated that some considered it to be training involving networking and the basics of HTML coding. Others indicated that they were trained to use command language for searching OCLC and DIALOG. It is proposed that much learning that surrounds training in the realm of technology is constructivist. According to a literature study done by Dimock and Boethel concerning this educational theory, "Learning is adaptive, a process of building functional understanding rather than of uncovering fixed truths;... learning is an active process controlled by the learner; and that learning and the context for learning are deeply intertwined."8 Just as the law trains one to think in a certain way, training for technology revolves more around a way of thinking about the task rather than a specific set of skills. Those who have received training in BASIC programming can see the logic in HTML, XML, or SQL code. Those who have learned to do complicated and elegant searching in DIALOG can understand quite readily the ways in which search engines do their jobs. In both instances there is a basic understanding of what is required in the many types of technology encountered in the library. The ability to break component parts out of the whole and to reform them in a step by step protocol is essential to using technology effectively and efficiently. The comments received concerning training, including those of respondents receiving degrees prior to 1990, show this to be an valid assumption for most that is done in the way of electronic delivery of library instruction. One response to an increasing understanding of diverse learning styles has been to diversify the delivery of instruction. Active learning is often emphasised as an alternative to the talking heads lecture and the World Wide Web is an ideal vehicle for such delivery. The next section of the survey involved questions regarding the development of electronic resources for the delivery of instruction, and the software being used to create these tools. Respondents were first asked to indicate whether or not they had created an online tutorial and, if so, the software used. The second question asked whether they had created WebPages to accompany a classroom presentation, and, if so, the software used. The third question in this group asked whether the respondent had created pathfinders or bibliographic guides for web access by patrons, and, if so, what software they had used. Prior to these questions, a list of software programs appeared indicating that individuals could respond to the question by indicating software not found on the list. The original list of suggested software titles more than tripled to a total of thirty-seven software programs used by respondents. Different tools were used for different tasks. The most popular resources for creating tutorials were standard HTML code, DreamWeaver, and Photoshop, in that order. FrontPage and PowerPoint were also quite popular for this purpose. The creation of web pages to support instruction was done most often using DreamWeaver, HTML code, and FrontPage, respectively. Bibliographic guides were most often developed using DreamWeaver, HTML code, and FrontPage with the long established 'control/print page' screen capture and Adobe editors in the second tier of responses. All three of the most popular programs imply the ability to understand, at least in some small way, HTML coding methodology.

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DreamWeaver and FrontPage provide the ability to see the pages while they are being built which standard HTML code does not, usually a plus for novice creators. DreamWeaver is the newest product of the three. It offers the advantage of using cascading style sheets. FrontPage has been available for some time. One of the complaints concerning this program which was expressed several times in comments about the software is that it adds superfluous code to the pages. Some computing systems offices that support libraries are willing to deal with this problem, while others are not. Of the three routes to creating materials for the World Wide Web, HTML code has the steepest learning curve, but it underlies most of what is done in the virtual world by librarians involved with instruction. Respondents indicate some variation in the type of materials they provide electronically. Table 1 shows the diversity of presentations.

The vast majority of respondents were involved in more than one method of delivery with most having some experience in creating bibliographic helps in electronic format and mounting these guides on the World Wide Web. The development of courseware providing an entire suite of resources is the most recent in the field. Programs such as WebCT, BlackBoard, and Jenzabar allow faculty to create a wide variety of tools for students that are available at all times on the web. These programs facilitate the student's access to syllabi, class lecture notes, tutorials, quizzes, and general help pages. Originally created for the teaching faculty, librarians now use these programs in many ways. Guides, class related web pages, and competency testing are frequently found on these sites. In addition, many offer the option of access to class related listservs or threaded discussion lists where individuals can enter questions and receive answers concerning the material being taught. The choice of courseware is often a matter that the librarian has little or no control over for it is frequently a decision made by computing services or the faculty member teaching a class. Getty, Burd, Bums and Piele published an overview of four courseware packages, and the opportunities they provide that would no doubt be of assistance to the librarian getting started in this area.9 If the librarian does have a choice in the matter, there are many features that should be considered in the choice of the courseware suite. As with other software packages there are pluses and minuses to each of the programs. Some questions to 200

ask include does the package allow for easy student login? How easy is it to create quizzes? Is there a grade book included in the program? How difficult is it to update or add news items, and in what order will they appear? Is chat available? Is there a threaded discussion list? A final question should be how might future developments will the material found on the courseware pages. The advantage to using one of these software suites is the very low investment one needs make in learning how to develop materials in electronic format. The next series of questions asked respondents about the ways in which they had learned to use the software mentioned for the development of the various electronic resources they have created. This question was asked for each type of resource mentioned previously - tutorials, web pages, and guides. The overwhelming answer was that librarians are primarily self taught in these areas of expertise. Table 2 displays the results of this question. Table 2. - How did you learn to use this software?

Β Tutorials • Pages • Guides

The next several questions asked individuals to rate themselves in the use of technology, the manner by which they would like to receive instruction in the future, and the degree of expertise they would desire in the area. In assessing themselves as users, individuals were asked to chose expert, very good, average, could use some help, or poor. The results are shown in Table 3.

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Table 3. How would you rat» yourself? 60 imi^^mmsi^smmms^^ím^m^mmsmmmsm

expert

very good

average

need help

poor

The next question asked the respondent the manner in which they would like to receive instruction. A majority chose the workshop of one day or less as the preferred means of receiving future training with one on one instruction as a somewhat distant second. The online tutorial and a multi day workshop also had several followers. Sixty two percent of the respondents indicated the option stating "I want to be the expert" when asked to describe their attitudes about software skills they would prefer to have. The second option, "Just show me what I need to know," was chosen by thirty five percent of the respondents. The third option, "The learning curve is just too steep," was not chosen by any of the respondents, and only three percent indicated "Maybe I can find a student to do it" was their preferred alternative. These questions on self assessment, training, and degree of competence taken together received a large number of comments. The most interesting concept, echoed by several individuals, was that there are definite disadvantages to being the expert. It not only requires the time spent on learning the software, but additional time when this expertise is recognised and called upon by others. A particularly interesting result involves the top six percent who rated themselves as experts in the technology they use. This same cohort also indicated a desire to develop a high degree of expertise in any future programs they are involved with, and, interestingly, most of them were self taught. This group indicated a workshop of one day or less as their favoured manner in which to learn new programs. The largest cohort was composed of individuals who rated themselves as "very good." This group included sixty-seven percent who wanted to be the "expert" and only twenty three percent happy with the "show me what I need" option. This group chose no other responses. The "very good" group also indicated a preference for workshop learning, but more of them also chose one on one as an alternative method of learning. The next group, individuals rating themselves as "average" in the use of the related programs made up thirty three percent of the whole. They were slightly more interested in the choice "show me what I need" than in being "the expert." The small group, seven percent, indicating they could use some help also wanted to be shown only what they need to know by a slight majority. This group was markedly less interested in being experts. Finally, the three percent choosing the "poor" rating for themselves contained the only response for the "Maybe I can find a student to do it." For all cohorts, the workshop appeared to be favoured as a learning opportunity. 202

Respondents claiming to have learned to use programs by themselves, either by trial and error or with the use of books, represented forty three percent of the whole. The next most prevalent manner of learning was the one day or less workshop, followed by those being trained by a colleague. Only seven percent of respondents would choose the online tutorial, an interesting turn of events considering the number of respondents who create tutorials. Finally, the survey dealt with the monetary resources being used to train librarians in technology. Respondents were asked to estimate the amount of money they had spent in the last five years for technology training, as well as the amount spent on them by their institutions. Individuals spent an average of US$103 for training. This included books, workshops, and other resources to help them better use and understand software. The estimated institutional expenditure was US$357 in the course of the last five years. This amount is probably very low, since many respondents indicated that much of the training offered to them is through in-house programs supported by their institutions. AN EVER EXPANDING UNIVERSE... Librarians can only expect the virtual universe to continue to grow and expand with new software being developed and new avenues for reaching the 'kinetic' learner. Courseware packages will no doubt become both more complex in delivery options and more intuitive in their use. One movement currently afoot in many of the universities and colleges in the United States is that of the college for teachers. Many institutions are recognising the need to inform new teachers about the delivery of instruction in the virtual world and to assist current teachers in retooling their delivery methods. In many cases, librarians are active both as teachers and as students in these learning communities. The proliferation of real time and asynchronous distance learning opportunities has only just begun. The delivery of instruction, as well as instructional materials, will continue to depend upon the expertise of those versed in the development of web tools. This study points to several concepts that need to be emphasised for continuing professional education of librarians and classroom faculty as well. First, the most useful knowledge is that which is most basic. A strong foundation in understanding the logic of software is essential. For example, an comprehension of HTML code allows those developing virtual tools to better understand the underlying tenets of WYSIWYG programs such as FrontPage and DreamWeaver, to check the capture capabilities of Snag-It and to create exciting resources by using PhotoShop. Second, training in the use of web based software needs to be done in a variety of ways. Just as our students evince differing learning styles, so do librarians. Time constraints, budget constraints, and learning style preclude many from learning via workshops. Online tutorials, one on one consultations, and self help books should also be made available to individuals attempting to improve their virtual skills. Some institutions support help lines to provide consultation to individuals encountering computer-related problems. Perhaps some of this support might be expanded to assist individuals to better understand the software tools they wish to use. Listservs can be helpful to those desiring a "just show me what I need to know" type of training experience. More of these need to come into existence for the short, simple answers they can provide. Finally, colleges and universities need to provide more monetary support to those involved in learning new tools for the classroom. Many of the respondents to the survey indicated they would do more if only they could be

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supported by their institution in both time and money. Many institutions do in-house training, or offer some type of support for attendance at conferences and workshops, but most do not. As an alternative, it would be suggested that consortial agreements could be made to provide intensive workshops on particular topics, just as these types of agreements are used in collection development. This study visited a small corner of an expanding virtual universe in order to provide answers to questions concerning librarian instructional development, training, and learning. This small corner was found to be populated by individuals who understand and use technology in a variety of ways to provide instruction in the mysteries of the library. These individuals are primarily self taught, and frequently exemplify the ideal of the life long learner. Continuing professional education for this world needs to be improved. Workshops, support for training materials, and oneon-one expert assistance are the most desirable ways by which life in this virtual world may be sustained and, indeed, flourish.

REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

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Bloom, B. S. et al (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Anglin, Gary. Instructional Technology: Past, Present, and Future. 2nd ed. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1995. Seels, Barbara B. and Richey, Rita C. Instructional Technology: The Definition and Domains of the Field. Washington, D C. : Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 1994. Alexander, Laurie, Joy Cichewicz and Debbie Tenofsky. New Learning Environments. Ann Arbor, MI.: Pierian Press, 2001. Gratch, Bonnie. "Computer Assisted Instruction: An Unfulfilled Promise." Wilson Library Bulletin, 61, 4 (1986): 20-22. Engle, Michel O. "Using World Wide Web Software for Reference and Instruction." Internet Reference Services Quarterly, 1, 2 (1996): 7-15. Kahan, Roberta. "Attitudes of East Tennessee Medical Librarians About Evolving Computer Information Technology." Tennessee Librarian, 49, 1 (1997): 19-26. Dimock, K. Victoria and Martha Boethel. Constructing Knowledge With Technology. Austin, TX.: Southwest Educational Development Lab., 1999. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 431 398. Getty, Nancy, Barbara Burd, Sarah K. Burns and Linda Piele. "Using Courseware to Deliver Library Instruction Via the Web: Four Examples." Reference Services Review, 28, 4 (2000): 349-359.

WEB BASED LIS EDUCATION: POTENTIALS AND FEASIBILITY OF REGIONAL MODELS Kornelija Petr, Radovan Vrana, Tatjana Aparac Departments of Library and Information Science University of Osijek and University of Zagreb Croatia Abstract:

Distance education has been attracting the attention of library associations and educators for more than 60 years, and even more since the advent of the Internet. With its rapid expansion in the 1990s, distance education has new ways in which it can be delivered. In Croatia the Internet is becoming more accessible at many access points. One access point is the Croatian Academic and Research Network (CAKNet) that supports distance education in several ways. There are many topics and issues in relation to the concept of distance education that can be accomplished in an electronic environment. This is also valid for the LIS Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in Croatia and the wider region. The paper offers a review of the challenges and possible models of LIS web based CPD in Croatia, as well as plans for further cooperation among countries in the wider region.

INTRODUCTION Distance Education (DE) is a prominent topic amongst the academic community. It has been also attracting attention of library associations and educators for more than 60 years, and even more so since the advent of the Internet and introduction of web based education. Although it is difficult to predict future developments in relation to web based LIS education, it is obvious that in some developed countries (e.g. US and Canada) online LIS education is almost entirely focused on degree courses, both in technical and Masters programs.1 There is no doubt that the new information and communication technologies (ICT) and the Internet have contributed significantly in the area of distance education. However, at the beginning, distance education supported by ICT was little more than an extension of the traditional classroom.2 Early models of distance education generally consisted of a teacher delivering lectures to a number of remote locations simultaneously. Distance education design was based partially on the prevailing concept of classroom lectures, but it was also determined by the technology available, which was expensive and limited mostly to one way transmission. Although those first efforts succeeded in extending academic opportunities to more students, they also had some disadvantages, especially with regard to the quality and frequency of interactions among students and teachers. The limitations of the first centralised broadcast models of distance education resulted in student and teacher frustrations: students were unable to ask questions, to offer their insights or to interact with their classmates in real time discussions; teachers were deprived of the opportunity to do the informal assessments inherent in face to face interactions, or to use more individualised teaching methods than the standard lecture for delivery and objective test for assessment. Therefore, even though distance education provided some benefits, it was of little threat to the traditional classroom education because it was not

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using all the advantages of the ICT. Today's models for distance education move partially, if not totally, out of the traditional classroom into cyberspace.3 The Internet, as a distributed intelligence network where millions of individual computers and computer networks are interconnected, by its very structure assumes interaction and fosters collaboration. There are already hundreds of exciting and dynamic online projects; some created by enterprising teachers, others as commercial products and services involving thousands of schools, such as the GalapagosQuest online adventure (www.classrom.comV It is no longer limited to one way broadcasts but can include any electronically mediated educational transaction that overcomes a distance limitation. Thus, it is quite natural that these challenges and possibilities in relation to degree based education as well as to CPE programs has attracted LIS educators worldwide. In the US and Canada there is evidence of an increase in delivered Masters' degree courses via the Internet and online workshops over recent years, but that is still small fraction of the total CPE activities. Outside of the university based programs, there does not appear to be any other online LIS CPE directed at the profession in general.4 In Europe and other parts of the World there are ongoing projects delivering LIS Web based education at both undergraduate and postgraduate level, as well as CPD projects (See reports published in the proceedings of IFLA CPERT's World Conferences on CPE and in journals devoted to LIS DE and CPE). MODELS OF DISTANCE DISADVANTAGES

EDUCATION:

ADVANTAGES

AND

There are several models of distance education that can be found in the literature that relate to the undergraduate level of education in general, as well as to LIS education related projects. Lawton 9 compares two existing models (that by Kember 6 and Billings 7 ) that focus mainly on the prevention of the drop out of distance learning students. These models address issues related to students and courses that were chosen, but they do not address the nature of the support that could be offered through the student tutor relationship to increase the effectiveness of the learning programme. Lawton therefore suggests a new model of supportive learning, which would create an effective learning environment. It consists of five variables (student-tutor, student, student-student, tutor, course content) and has three phases: meeting, guiding and moving on. One of the main factors that has to be developed during these phases is the trust between the student and the tutor. Reeve, Hardwick, Kemp, Ploszajska 8 also recognise the importance of support, calling it 'pedagogic distance' which implies the interaction intensity between the teacher and student. They draw attention to a paradoxical situation where distance learning students seem often to benefit from more frequent one to one contact with tutors, via email messages for instance, than do conventional students sitting in great numbers in lecture halls. However, online undergraduate courses, as well as short workshops, are labour intensive to prepare and the delivery process demands a major investment in infrastructure. A number of obstacles have to be overcome, especially in less developed countries, e.g. students do not have access to the Internet, and possess no or insufficient IT knowledge and skills. This leads to the fear of technology, especially if the participants are mature part-time students. There is also a question of quality control that has to be taken seriously during the planning and evaluating process. However, Web based instruction has become, in many counties, an effective and equitable means of providing distance learning for those who need it.

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EUROPEAN APPROACHES TO DISTANCE EDUCATION It is widely known that distance secondary and higher education in European countries have evolved since 1970's. In the mid 1990's these programs were strengthened by the wide range of possibilities introduced by the use of ICT. The use of ICT and web based education were seen as being an important means to fight back against tight budgets, busy staff and large distances between the facilities. Distance education has its application today mainly in the areas of continuing professional education 9, part-time education 10 and undergraduate education 11. This also applies to LIS education. Most distance learning programmes are national, but there are also transnatipnal12 and international ones. 1 They face additional problems of cultural differences ', content localisation " and language problems'". There are several approaches to these issues: (1) the 'tough luck' solution, which is characteristic for the current situation in which it is expected that students all over the world will read textbooks that are authored in a particular country; (2) 'localisation of global source materials'. At present there are modules of post graduate geographical instruction authored in the UK, but disseminated to overseas universities which are encouraged to alter them by eliminating some parts and adding local material. Some sites also translate the materials into their own languages. Although a costly process, it does provide a localised product; (3) the third solution is to take advantage of emerging web technologies" to establish web clearinghouses that will contain 'educational objects' which can be used to form courses appropriate to specific teachers' needs. Since international distance learning is only at its take off stage it is impossible to know where developments will lead. One of the possible directions of development is the creation of a 'World Geography' course model. If this model emerged, it would enrol thousands of students and could afford to pay the most eminent scientists from the area to create the learning materials. A media company, rather than a conventional higher education establishment, may own such a dominant course, at least in part. Education would be more thoroughly commoditised than it is at present. Another, completely different model would be a 'Decentralised Educational Model'. This model is based on the fact that new learning technologies provide a potential for the greater démocratisation of learning.v There could be an open market for education. Anybody with anything worthwhile to say could submit their material for evaluation and, if acceptable, have it released via a web clearinghouse. In Europe, an entire programme was set up in order to develop a European cultural identity at the level of its citizens.14 The way to do this is through mobility: mobility of people (with the goal of familiarising every European citizen with the cultures of the various EU nations, and providing the possibility to freely live and work in countries other than the home country), in combination with the mobility of communication and of goods, services, and 'know how'.*1 The 'Virtual Student Mobility Model' is a new model of Open and Distance Learning."1 It is a combination of conventional teaching in the 'home' university, together with international course activities mediated by technology shared web resources, videoconferenced lectures,

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email exchange and even transnational collaborative papers prepared specifically as part of the programme. "" The issue of distance education is also interesting for libraries. One of the recent concerns involves the electronic databases to which the universities subscribe today, and the subscription which is managed by the library. Distance education students are located away from the main campus and distance education faculty often operate at other locations, therefore it is vital to define the access to those electronic databases in terms of who the users are in terms of their affiliation, rather than where they are based geographically when they log on. 13 WEB BASED DISTANCE EDUCATION: A CROATIAN PERSPECTIVE The latest developments in information technology enable the use of the Internet for many demanding tasks such as video conferencing and multimedia on demand. With its rapid expansion in the 1990's, distance education had new ways to deliver courses. In Croatia the Internet is becoming accessible at many access points. One such point is the Croatian Academic and Research Network (CARNet), that supports distance education in several ways and there are many topic and issues in relation to the concept of distance education that can be accomplished in the electronic environment. The first one has been introduced recently (December 2001). CARNet is offering its expertise and equipment to all members of the Croatian academic community who want to use the network as a medium for distance education. It provides two basic groups of accessible services: • •

Support for end users: access to remote lectures, events and meetings. Support for member institutions (of CARNet): building a videoconferencing (VC) system, education in the use of VC systems, the support of CARNet professionals in educating the users of VC systems and the loan of necessary equipment (www.carnet.hr).

At the CARNet Users Conference (www.carnet.hr/cuc) in September 2001 CARNet presented another project: Media on Demand (MoD). With this project CARNet aims to offer the tools, research and knowledge necessary for using multimedia in research and education. It will offer support for all kinds of media products that can be organised, stored and finally used by anyone accessing the MoD server on CARNet. So far, there is little content; however, there is a potential for many types of interactive content exchange by the use of well known formats like RealMedia, Apple QuickTime, MS Windows Media etc. Any member of the Croatian academic community can participate with his or her own idea and content. CARNet serves also as a distribution point for different software packages (e.g. Mathematica etc.), which are in use at various Croatian universities. The distribution of software packages is not the only its only task as it is necessary to educate those who will train students (Train the Trainers programme) as well as students themselves in the use of the software packages available. To achieve this, CARNet established reference centres for different types of software, or the application of a certain technology, where such use is specific in some way (e.g. a reference centre for compression of data). At such centres, users can learn the basics, and then apply this acquired knowledge for their own purpose. Some of these web

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sites are pilot projects or projects to apply information technology, which are part of the ongoing effort to enhance the Croatian web space. During the past few years the Internet has become an almost ideal environment for creation of educational material. Such material can be prepared in many ways and can be presented in as many forms as the World Wide Web permits it. One such tool for the creation of ready made educational material on the web is a well known software package WebCT. WebCT has been présent in Croatia for at least three years since its presentation to the Croatian public at the first CARNet users conference in September 1999. However, although WebCT has been present in Croatia for over three years now, the CARNet team itself had not had any experience with this distance education software. Therefore, they decided to organise two Training the Trainer courses in Osijek and Rijeka in April 2001. Since CARNet's headquarters are in Zagreb this was a perfect opportunity for them to try the WebCT. Their Training the Trainer course consisted of two parts: a pre course operated via the Internet by WebCT, selected for the purpose, and the real course, which took place in the two towns. Although it was the first attempt to organise distance education, this was a valuable experience for all those involved, both organisers and participants. Organisers learned that it is extremely important to create good and understandable learning materials, to provide as many self-check questions as possible (what they offered was insufficient for most of the participants) and to provide good and reliable tutor/student and student/student feedback. The experience CARNet drew from this project enabled it to offer support for teaching staff at those universities which decide to prepare their lectures for an online environment but who do not know how to use WebCT. The other important issue that relates to the introduction and use of DE in general is the existence and development of relevant portals. Although portals are accepted as access points to various information resources on the Internet, Croatia does not have many of them, especially not those which are oriented towards the academic community. The Virtual University at http://www.mzt.hr/virtus was presented at the Information Technology Fair in November 2001. This portal introduces many forms of content, but one of the most interesting is a section dedicated to online courses offered at universities in Croatia. Each professor can apply for space on this portal and then provide some basic information about his or her course which should be available online for students and use some of the advantages of web technology to enhance its interactivity. The Virtual University will collect all the addresses of online lectures that already exist and probably initiate the advent of new ones. There are about 30 lectures online at this time available at http://www.mzt.hr/virtus/pregled.asp. There is also a new electronic journal available on CARNet which covers topics about education. It can be reached at http://edupoint.carnet.hr/ . Its aim is to promote research and to introduce information technology into the teaching process by publishing articles by those authors who actively participate in the creation of online educational tools and content. So far, only the first issue is available since the journal has just been started. It is expected that members of academic community will participate dynamically in the creation of content that will enrich the Croatian educational Web space. In addition to all of the services noted above, there is also a significant number of individual's web pages (students, professors, assistants) who maintain their own web space covering various topics like telecommunication fundamentals, research of constellations (astronomy), principles of human genetics - online textbook, Croatian

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sign language on the Internet, real time oceanographic data from automatic stations etc. WEB BASED LIS EDUCATION IN CROATIA: CHALLENGES AND POSSIBLE MODELS In Croatia there have been attempts to utilise the advantages of the new technology in the area of library and information science. The best examples are the web pages of the Ruder Boskovic Institute Library, seminars of the System of Scientific Information (www.nippur.irb) and the international seminar 'Libraries in the Digital Age' (LIDA - www ffzg.hr/infoz/lida) organised annually in Dubrovnik, which attempts to disseminate information to as wide audience of librarians (not necessarily only Croatian since all material is available in English) as possible with the help of new IT. There are also some projects in progress that are to emerge in the Spring and Summer 2002. ai Web based part-time undergraduate course The Faculty of Education in Osijek, Department of LIS, organises a course of study in LIS for part-time students in Zadar. Both teachers and students are geographically scattered and this offers a good opportunity to use the advantages of WebCT software, providing, of course, that all the students have access to the Internet and possess basic IT knowledge and skills. At the beginning it is planned that only one course will be offered online, as web based. It will consist of the following parts: • •

Learning materials - self study with self check questions, possibility to interact with a tutor. Online test - time limited.

•

Group work on a project - student/student and tutor/student interaction.

The timing of this web based course has been carefully planned. The stages are: • One week - familiarisation with the WebCT tool (supported by the staff in the Zadar City Library and conducted at the Library's multimedia room). • Two weeks - work on the learning materials. • Three days - online test. • Two weeks - project work. • Three days - questionnaire. Student assessment would be carried out on the basis of the frequency of their logging in and visiting the web site, the number and quality of their interaction with the tutor and other students, their score on the online test and the score of the group project. Students should also be given the opportunity to assess this form of education, and what is more, the quality of their interaction with the teacher in the form of an anonymous questionnaire. Prior to the whole course, all the participants should meet with the teacher, get to know each other and the teacher should carefully explain the concept behind this type of instruction and students should be strongly encouraged to ask questions at the meeting. It should be also made clear to them that they may ask questions later as well (by email, phone) and that all the questions would be answered. 210

Another formal meeting should be organised at the end of the course where teacher and students might exchange impressions and feelings about this kind of work, and when those dissatisfied with this 'impersonal* way of teaching might have the possibility to take a traditional written or oral exam and maybe improve their grade. b) Web based LIS CPE A web based tutorial related to collection management is also in progress. The basic instructional material (available in the Croatian language) was prepared and put onto the web page fwww.szi.hr/seminar/aparac.ppty Since there are two courses planned in the Spring and Summer of 2002, the possibility of using this material for further communication between teacher and participants, as well as of examination materials online, has been examined. The partners involved are several public and academic libraries that will offer the use of their computer and network facilities and C ARNet as provider and facilitator of the necessary software. CONCLUSION When introducing web based education in Croatia one can count on a higher degree of interest among students and other participants in years to come, since most of technical problems (e.g. necessary equipment, information and communication infrastructure) and basic skills (often required as prerequisites) are going to be less problematical than in previous years. Even so, there are still obstacles to be overcome that call for cooperation and the sharing of experience and resources. The availability of the essential personnel resources is among the problems that could be solved by regional and international cooperation. This is especially important when the language issue is concerned. Although it is widely accepted that the English language is the modern lingua franca, for most European countries there is an urge to develop professional terminology, and to ease access to educational material in their own language or in languages other than English, throughout schools. This calls for regional cooperation among those counties that are basically oriented to some other language than English (e.g. the Croatian language can also be understood in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia, the German language could be of use not only in German speaking countries, but also in undergraduate LIS education in Croatia and Slovenia). LIS professionals all over the World have an urgent need for short term CPE programs and the web based programs seem to be the most useful solution today. Thus, the development and evaluation of pilot web based LIS undergraduate and CPE projects and their feasibility in the context of regional cooperation, might contribute to the future planning of LIS education in the region. NOTES 1

A British distance learning student was caused a great distress because an exercise had used the hash mark (#) to mean 'number' and she was not familiar with this American usage. If cultures as similar as those in Britain and the USA have differences in understanding each other's messages, than it is definitely wrong to assume that students all over the world will be 'like us but a bit different' (Reeve, Hardwick, Kemp and Ploszajska 8).

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Does 'social geography' mean the same thing in different cultural and educational traditions? Which term to use: 'Zip code' or 'Post code'? (Reeve, Hardwick, Kemp and Ploszajska 8). Many European business people and citizens prefer the lingua franca to the EU model, and many Open and Distance Learning projects hover between a political language policy and the lingua franca (Van den Branden and Lambert

SSuch as those being developed by the Instructional Management

Systems project rwvvw.imsproject.org) Many scholars have so far proved remarkably altruistic in their willingness to publish their materials on the Web e.g. the Virtual Geography Department' (www.utexas.edu/depts/grg/virtdept/contents.htmn To prepare future citizens, an education programme was developed envisaging 'mobility' as one of the key issues in planning for European integration via learning. According to many, the ERASMUS programme (premised on student mobility across the EU) is one of the greatest outcomes of EU policy. Mobility, embedded in education, is used to foster a standardisation of norms, regulations, expectations and goals - culture (Van den Branden and Lambert Open and Distance Learning was initiated in Europe during the I960's by the British Open University which intended to offer a second chance to mature students. In its original context 'open' refers to openness of access and 'distance teaching' to the possibility students had to mix their study, often part-time, with work. For an example see the Euroliterature project (www.euroliterature.uib.no/index.html')

REFERENCES 1

2

3

4 5

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Varlejs, Jana. "North American Models of Internet Delivered Continuing Professional Education: Are They Exportable?" In B. Woolls and Β. E. Sheldon (EdsJ Delivering Lifelong Continuing Professional Education Across Space and Time: The Fourth World Conference on Continuing Professional Education... München: Κ. G. Saur, 2001, pp. 9-15. Kinnaman, D. E. "The Death of Distance." Curriculum Administrator, 35, 2 (1999) MasterFILE Premier on-line EBSCO Publishing http://epnet.com/ehost/login.html Accessed 17 December 2001. Woolls, Blanche. "Building a Plan to Deliver Lifelong Continuing Professional Education Across Space and Time." In B. Woolls and Β. E. Sheldon (Eds.) Delivering Lifelong Continuing Professional Education Across Space and Time: The Fourth World Conference on Continuing Professional Education... München: Saur, 2001, pp. 16-25. Varlejs, op. cit. Lawton, S. "Supportive Learning in Distance Education." Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25 (1997): 1076-1083. Kember, D. "An illustration, With Case Studies of a Linear Process Model of Drop Out From Distance Education." Distance Education, 10, 2 (1989): 196212.

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Billings, D. "A Conceptual Model of Correspondence Course Completion." American Journal of Distance Education, 2, 2 (1988): 23-35. Reeve, D., S. Hardwick, K. Kemp, and T. Ploszajska. "Delivering Geography Courses Internationally." Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 24 (2000). MasterFILE Premier on-line EBSCO Publishing http://epnet.com/ehost/login.html Accessed 17 December 2001. Hartley, R. "Area Health Services as Learning Organisations: the Rural Experience." Australian Journal of Rural Health, 8(2000): 77-80. Lawton, op. cit. Reeve, D., S. Hardwick, K. Kemp, and T. Ploszajska, op. cit. Van den Branden, J. and J. Lambert. "Cultural Issues Related to Transnational Open and Distance Learning in Universities: a European Problem?" British Journal of Educational Technology 30, 3 (1999). MasterFILE Premier online EBSCO Publishing http://epnet.com/ehost/login.html Accessed 17 December 2001. Reeve, D., S. Hardwick, K. Kemp, and T. Ploszajska, op. cit. Van den Branden and Lambert, op. cit. Luther, J. "Distance Learning and the Digital Library." Educom Review, 33, 4 (1998). MasterFTI.F. Premier on-line EBSCO Publishing http://epnet.com/ebost/login.html Accessed 17 December 2001.

DIGITAL PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION FOR DIGITAL LIBRARIANS Alastair G. Smith School of Information Management Victoria University of Wellington New Zealand Abstract:

This paper draws on experiences with teaching an online course in digital library issues. The course is offered as part of an MLIS programme, but is available to practitioners as a form of Continuing Professional Education (CPE). The paper will explore student reactions to the online learning environment, which has been delivered using the commercial products WebCT and Blackboard. Results of surveys show the student reactions to issues such as the use of both synchronous and asynchronous teaching, participating in virtual group projects, delivery of course materials online rather than in print, technical constraints, etc. The paper compares the use of WebCT and Blackboard for delivery of CPE programmes, and suggests criteria for the evaluation of online learning environments. The learning requirements for Library and Information Management professionals in the area of digital libraries will be investigated.

INTRODUCTION This paper describes the development of an online course addressing issues in digital libraries, and examines the issues of online course delivery and continuing professional education (CPE). The course, LIBR547 Digital Libraries, is offered as part of Victoria University of Wellington's Master of Library and Information Studies (MLIS) programme, but is also taken by a number of practitioners undertaking CPE. Weingand 1 observes that the shelf life of a degree is "three years and declining", and so continuing education is essential in order to maintain competence and knowledge. This seems to have been the motivation of several of the qualified LIM practitioners who undertook LIBR547 as a form of CPE. The MLIS is delivered on campus and by distance learning throughout New Zealand. Distance learning delivery in the MLIS has traditionally been through printed materials and weekly audioconference seminars. When LIBR547 was introduced in 1999, I decided that it would be appropriate to deliver it digitally. This follows the thinking of Dowlin and Loertscher2 who argue that virtual libraries require virtual librarians produced by "virtual library schools". Main3 also suggests that with information seeking increasingly taking place in the virtual world, it is vital that LIM graduates have experience of taking at least one course in a virtual classroom, even if their education is primarily on campus. While static websites and email discussion groups had been used in MLIS courses before, for LIBR547 I decided to use a web based learning environment (WBLE). WBLEs are software applications that provide a range of tools for delivery of online courses, usually comprising: • password controlled access • course notes, readings etc. • asynchronous web based discussion forums • synchronous 'chat' forums • online tests and recording of grades

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WBLEs are 'shells' that a teacher can fill with content; they are designed so that a teacher can develop a course with minimal technical knowledge. For the first two iterations (1999 and 2000) LIBR547 was delivered using the WebCT (http://www.webct.com/) WBLE, but in the most recent iteration (2001), Blackboard (http://www.blackboard.com/) was used. WEB BASED TEACHING: THE LITERATURE There is significant recent educational technology and LIM education literature on the subject of web based teaching. For example, Illinois University's Graduate School of Library and Information Science has been a leader in web-based teaching. Estabrook4 describes its LEEP programme (http://alexia.lis.uiuc.edu/gslis/degrees/leep.html) which provides a library degree through web-based education with minimal requirements for on campus learning. Herther5 conducted a survey of LIM email discussion lists on student reactions to distance and web based teaching, finding both enthusiasm for the convenience of learning, but also concerns with the level of involvement with instructors, and the degree of technology competence required of students and instructors. Hooke6 points out that web based education provides a good way of integrating web based resources (increasingly, information relevant to LIM is available on the web) into an information management programme. The Blackboard WBLE was used by Bentham7 for an international relations course which made use of the web as an information resource as well as using virtual group spaces, synchronous and asynchronous discussion, and electronic submission of assignments. However institutions are still developing reliable support for the technology of distance education. Gillham and Hall8 evaluated a web based business information sources course at Queen Margaret University College, Edinburgh. While the web based facilities were viewed positively, the evaluation highlighted that students valued face to face contact with staff and peers, and that access to computing resources was an issue. Manuel9 in reporting on a web-based undergraduate course in information literacy, found that students did not have the technology skills to participate readily in the class, and the "medium interfered with the message": learning in the online environment is a skill that needs to be acquired. Tallman and Benson10 in investigating an online library media course, found that students needed to develop new mental models of learning, based on self discovery and independent learning. A common misconception, particularly on the part of administrators, is that web based teaching leads to more economic use of teaching resources. However practical experience indicates otherwise. For example Martin, Kerrisk and Richards11 found that web based teaching in a graduate level information management programme was more labour intensive than traditional teaching. Brabazon12 is concerned that online teaching is seen as a way of reducing costs and stretching teaching resources, when in fact online teaching requires extra time and effort on the part of teachers. Effective web based teaching requires active involvement of teaching staff. For example Kochtanek and Hein13 emphasise the importance of instructor involvement in the use of an asynchronous web based course in LIM at the University of Missouri. Bagherian and Thorngate 14 investigated the use of newsgroups in courses, finding that active involvement of instructors in the groups was important. However if managed properly, web based teaching helps students and teachers create a virtual learning community, which in the case of distance or part time students may not be possible. Kazmer13, in investigating the needs of students in the

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LEEP programme mentioned previously, emphasises the need for structures to encourage community building in the distance learning environment. Collaborative project work can be a good vehicle for online involvement in online courses. Ruhleder and Twidale16 use the analogy of the music master class to illustrate how interaction can be enhanced in the virtual environment. This describes the use of collaborative iteration in online discussion and development of student's web pages, in an online course in interface design. Dresang and Robbins17 used web based communication to enable the internship section of a LIM programme to be completed by distance students. A potential benefit of web based education, particularly in fields such as LIM which are practice based, is the involvement of experts in the programme. Schneider18 describes her involvement in an Internet based youth and children's services course delivered as part of the LEEP programme. Overall, the advantages of web based teaching include: • ease of access and involvement for distance students, and part time students who can't easily attend scheduled on campus classes; • access to course materials online: from any Internet connected computer, at any time; • rapid updating of course materials and distribution to students; • ability to re-use course materials; • provides the experience of working in a digital environment; • marketing of courses to a wider student body, such as practitioners undertaking CPE, overseas students, etc. • ease of administration of online tests, with fast feedback to students. • • •

However, concerns include: more time required by teachers to prepare material, guide student discussion, and answer queries; participation requires access to appropriate computers and network connections; students and teachers need IT skills (including basics such as touch typing), and to adapt long established mental models of teaching and learning.

'DIGITAL LIBRARIES' AS A SUBJECT One of the issues in designing LIBR547 was to define the topic of 'digital libraries'. While the course had an undeniably 'sexy' course title, it was important to identify a curriculum relevant to graduate students and to practitioners undertaking CPE Spink and Cool19 surveyed courses internationally that were taught as 'digital libraries'. They identified a range of emphases, from computer science to library and information management. There seemed to be little agreement on the definition of a digital library. Spink and Cool suggest key curriculum areas in the topic of Digital Libraries: • theoretical and historical foundations • technical infrastructure • knowledge organisation • collection development and maintenance • information access and utilisation • social, economic and policy issues

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professional issues.

LIBR547 discusses the range of digital libraries, from the 'hybrid library' through dedicated digital collections, to the concept of the Internet as a 'virtual library'. The aim of the course is to equip students to operate as library and information managers in an increasingly digital environment. The course does not teach technical skills per se, but since coursework is web based, students hone their skills in navigating the Internet and creating web based resources. Since all libraries now have a digital dimension, it is arguable that core LIM courses must cover digital library topics, and a separate 'digital libraries' course is redundant. In practice LIBR547 plays two roles: • by concentrating on digital library issues, it provides a convenient route for professionals to update their core knowledge as part of CPE; • topics developed initially for LIBR547 are eventually moved to the core courses. For instance in 2001 LIBR547 included a module on virtual reference service. In 2002 this module will be offered as part of the core reference course. WEB BASED TEACHING m LIBR547 Earlier a number of issues with the use of web based teaching were identified. How were these addressed in LIBR547? The use of web based teaching has clear advantages where students are not able to come on campus. LIBR547 had approximately two thirds of its students studying by distance, but one third on campus. Managing a hybrid (distance and on campus) mode of delivery raises the question of the role of face to face classes. In 1999 the on campus students attended a weekly face to face class, as well as participating in the web based teaching environment. In 2000 I decided to teach entirely online, with an optional face to face class that in practice few students attended. In 20011 reverted to holding face to face classes for the on campus students. One might have expected that those students undertaking the course for CPE would favour the virtual environment, but in practice several of the CPE students chose to attend face to face classes, valuing the opportunity for closer contact with teachers and fellow students. The freedom to undertake online learning from any Internet connected location was an advantage to students. Although the course was only offered within NZ, several students who had started study in NZ participated from overseas; for example from Perth (Western Australia), Kuala Lumpur, and Beijing. One student participated in the evenings from a cybercafé in Queenstown, while spending his days as an Ore in the Lord of the Rings film production. One clear lesson from the literature on web based teaching is that it must be more than just placing course notes on a web page; that it must provide a way for teachers and students to communicate and interact. A fundamental decision is the mix of asynchronous communication (e.g. bulletin boards where messages are posted at different times) versus synchronous communication (e.g. real time chat seminars). In 1999 the class communicated through a synchronous web based bulletin board, but in 2000 and 2001 I also used the 'virtual classroom' facility provided by both WebCT and Blackboard, where communication is by real time chat, with a shared whiteboard facility for displaying PowerPoint-style slides, diagrams, etc. In practice both forms of virtual communication performed a valuable role. Asynchronous bulletin boards:

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• free participants from time constraints; • allow longer, considered responses than in the virtual class; • enable an ongoing discussion to be viewed in different orders: by topic, author, time, etc.; • allow posting of attachments, such as images, to augment the discussion. In contrast, synchronous virtual classroom sessions create a greater feeling of involvement because of the 'real time' nature of the discussion, and can be a closer simulation of a face to face class. Compared with a face to face class, the virtual class: • is dependent on typing skills; • is carried on at a slower pace; • lacks the extra communication channels of voice tone, gestures, etc.; • requires a strong structure to the session (in LIBR547 an agenda was published in advance, and displayed on the whiteboard during the session, with a moving pointer indicating the current item); • frees students from the need to travel to a specific location; • provides log files as a permanent record; • enables students to contribute at any point in a discussion, without waiting for a 'gap'. This last point appeared to be important. While in face to face classes (and in audioconferences which the MLIS programme uses in its conventional distance teaching) a third of the students might contribute in any one session, almost all students participating in a virtual class would contribute at least once. As part of the development of the course, in 2000 and 2001 I carried out a survey of student reactions to LIBR547's online teaching. Students responded to statements about online learning on a S point scale, with 1 being most positive, and S being most negative. In 2001 both the asynchronous discussion board and the synchronous virtual class were seen as valuable aids to learning (average response 1.8 and 1.7 respectively). In 2000 the students were less positive about these features (average response 2.4 and 2.5 respectively), probably because technical problems had arisen with these features. Interestingly, when the distance students were asked to compare the asynchronous bulletin board discussions with the audioconference seminars used in their other courses, the response was bipolar, with one group strongly favouring online discussions, another equally strongly preferring the traditional audioconference. A frequent theme in the literature are the time demands on teachers involved in web based teaching. These derive from: • the time required to prepare materials; • the time spent on communication: answering emails, contributing to bulletin boards, etc. Preparing materials for online delivery is more time consuming than for a face to face class (where a few PowerPoint slides and some jotted notes may suffice), however any distance teaching involves the preparation of learning materials. My experience was that preparing materials for a WBLE was no more time consuming than for print delivery. A proprietary WBLE such as WebCT or Blackboard relieves the teacher from the navigation and formatting aspects of web based production (although experienced web designers may find themselves constrained by the WBLE environment). A benefit was that materials could be recycled each year, minimising

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the preparation in the second and third years (although in a topic such as digital libraries, significant revision was required each year). Another benefit is that material prepared for a regular teaching course could be reformatted for use in one day CPE seminars. Time spent on communication in online teaching can be significant, and needs to be carefully controlled. I set aside a specific time each day for reading contributions to the bulletin board, and responding to email queries. While answering a student query by email takes longer than face to face or by phone, a benefit is that the response can be distributed to the group as a whole, forestalling repetitive enquiries, and ensuring consistent advice. In practice most of us print documents of any size in order to read them. When course readings are made available online, rather than distributed to students in print, the burden of print production is being shifted to students. Williams20 in describing the development of web based teaching using WebCT at the City University, London, found that students perceived web based delivery as shifting printing costs from the institution to the students. In the first year of LIBR547 this issue was raised, partly because a component of the first module was to discuss the differences between digital and print delivery of knowledge! However as it became accepted that the course was about digital information, and that the course readings were tightly linked to online discussions, external websites, etc, digital delivery became accepted. By 2001 students were moderately positive about the benefits of online delivery of course notes compared with print (an average of 2.6 on the 5 point scale). In delivering course notes online, teachers need to be clear about whether there are benefits to students, and to consider whether the print delivery may be the most appropriate way. With the increasing availability of journal articles through full text subscription services such as ProQuest and InfoTrac, it is possible to integrate these into the WBLE. In LIBR547, reading lists include hypertext links to the articles, if they are available through a full text service that VUW subscribes to. A complexity arising from this was that distance students in some cases could not access these readings, required passwords, or needed to use a different URL. One of the strongest benefits of a WBLE is that it provides an environment in which students can cooperate on group projects. In LIBR547 students worked in groups of 3 to 5 to create a demonstration digital library. Blackboard and WebCT provide virtual group spaces in which a project group can have their own discussion board, and a common directory for sharing files. This is particularly useful for geographically distributed groups - in several cases LIBR547 project groups had members in different cities, and indeed countries. The experience of the group project was welcomed by CPE students, who in several cases used it to develop a project for their work environment. Degree students welcomed the chance to be involved in a 'real' problem. In the student survey contribution of group work to learning was seen very positively, averaging 2.2 in 2000 and 2.1 in 2001 on the S point scale. A potential benefit of WBLEs is the ability to conduct online tests, which, at least for multiple choice questions, can be marked automatically. In practice this feature has not been used for assessment in LIBR547, since the issues dealt with are not susceptible to a multiple choice approach. However each module included a short multiple choice self test, the results of which were not recorded, but which was valued by students for the feedback on their learning that it gave. All assignment work was 'submitted' in the form of websites, marking was done online, and feedback given by email. For the teacher this poses challenges - to refer to a point on a website requires a little more effort than jotting a note in the margin of a printed essay. On the other

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hand there is the potential for developing a 'library' of standard responses to common issues, and pasting these into the feedback as required. It is also important to manage online marking so that OOS does not become a problem. Students were very positive about the value to their learning of submitting work as web sites, with an average response of 1.8 in 2000 and 1.5 in 2001 on the 5 point scale. While web building skills were not a specific aim of LIBR547, students certainly saw it as an opportunity to practice and demonstrate web building. Clearly the digital divide is an issue for students participating in web based learning. This should be less of a problem for LIM professionals, who generally have access to computers and network connections in their workplace, if not in their homes. A requirement for studying LIBR547, as with other MLIS courses, was access to an Internet connected personal computer. On campus students had access to a well equipped computer laboratory. In general, access to technology has not been a problem in LIBR547, although three areas arise: • Web based teaching implies that a significant part of a student's study time is spent online, and students need access to the Internet for up to 10 to IS hours a week in a course such as LIBR547. This may be difficult if the student is relying on a workplace computer, or a phone line shared with other members of a household. • The firewalls in many workplaces make it difficult to use WBLEs. A prohibition on JavaScript programmes prevented use of the virtual classroom from some workplaces. Some firewalls disallowed FTP, used for transferring files to the web server for the digital library project. • Students, particularly CPE students in fulltime work, tend to study at weekends. Technicians who support servers and networks take well earned breaks at weekends, and may not be available to restore services when they go down. Professionals undertaking web based CPE, and teachers offering it, need to take these factors into account. In 2001 the overall experience of web based learning was seen as more helpful to learning than traditional MLIS distance courses which used print and audioconference delivery (average response 1.7 on the 5 point scale for the 2001 survey). However the 2000 students were less positive (average response 3.1 on the 5 point scale), probably due technical problems during this course. On campus students were neutral about whether the overall experience of web based learning was more helpful to their learning than on campus delivery: average responses were 2.8 in 2001 and 3.1 in 2000. This underlines the view that while online teaching is a valuable method of delivering distance education, it is not a substitute for on campus education. Online education may, however, be a valuable supplement to face-to-face classes in an on campus course. EVALUATING ONLINE TEACHING ENVIRONMENTS Teaching LIBR547 with two different WBLEs has raised a number of criteria that should be taken into account in choosing a WBLE. • Overall compatibility with the institution's computing environment. In 1999 the Unix version of WebCT was used, and ran reliably. In 2000 the Windows NT version of WebCT was used, since the School had decided to standardise on this operating system. However this proved to be unstable with the specific version of NT being used on the server, resulting in the loss of bulletin board 220

and virtual class facilities at several points in the course. In 2001 the School decided to adopt Blackboard, and provided a dedicated server and technical support, resulting in a good level of reliability. • User account and enrolment features. A student needs to have an identity within the WBLE in order to participate in bulletin boards, submit work online, etc. Teachers and institutions want to ensure that course notes and other copyright materials are only accessible to students enrolled in the course. These requirements mean that students must log on using an account name and password. Both WBLEs enable class lists to be uploaded in spreadsheet format so that student accounts do not have to be created individually. An advantage of Blackboard in the VUW environment was that it could be integrated more readily with the university's student information system. • Asynchronous communication features. These are generally in the form of a bulletin board, allowing messages to be posted with attachments and links to web sites being discussed. It is valuable if the messages can be viewed in different ways (by topic, by date, only unread messages showing, etc) and searched by keywords or authors. Blackboard provided the ability to send email to students using their conventional email addresses; WebCT used an internal email system which some students did not access. • Synchronous communication features. Both WBLEs provided a 'virtual classroom' with a chat type text interface for discussions, and a 'whiteboard' which can display text and diagrams, and which members of the class can contribute to. A useful feature in WebCT was the ability to send a private message to an individual student during a class - for instance a prompt to contribute, or to get back to the topic. Blackboard provided a sophisticated range of privilege levels to control what resources each student had access to. • Content display features. Both WBLEs enable course materials to be organised and displayed in a hierarchical way: chapters, sections, subsections, etc. The default format is plain text or HTML, but Microsoft Word documents, PDF files, PowerPoint presentations, etc can be uploaded. WebCT allows documents to be reorganised after uploading. WebCT also allows a student to combine several documents into a single HTML page for printing or downloading. Content also includes course outlines, schedules, assignment requirements, etc. It can be useful if these informational materials are differentiated so that 'guest' users can access them without an account and password. • Grading and administration features. Teachers can enter marks into the WBLE in a spreadsheet format, together with marks generated automatically from tests taken in the WBLE. Students can access their marks, and view overall statistics such as the average mark for an assignment. This ability is viewed positively by students. The marks can be downloaded in a spreadsheet format. An advantage of WebCT was the ability to upload marks from a spreadsheet. Both WBLEs provided a range of testing features: multiple choice, multiple answer, matched answers, free text, etc. • Overall navigation and appearance. Both WBLEs provided teachers with a choice of colour schemes, logos, etc; and control over which features of the WBLE students could access. WebCT provided more freedom for the teacher to design their own 'look and feel', however the result can be confusing for the students. Blackboard provided less freedom to the teacher, but ensured a greater level of consistency between courses. 221

Overall both WebCT and Blackboard provide a wide range of features for supporting online learning. A key factor for adoption of a specific WBLE is whether it can be reliably supported in the teaching institution. Having a wide range of features is of little use if the server is down just before an assessment deadline, and the only technician who can support the software has taken a long weekend at the beach with her cellphone turned off! CONCLUSION Web based learning provides a flexible way to deliver CPE. Students can study when and how they wish. This flexibility comes at a cost: students need access to appropriate computers, software, and network connections. An additional cost for students is the need to adapt their study methods to the online environment, learning to read efficiently online, and to know when to print materials for reading. This can be an issue for CPE students, who may have last undertaken formal studies in a traditional lecture format. Teachers have increased flexibility to incorporate online materials into their courses, and to utilise connections between materials. Courses that might not be viable in a specific city can be offered globally. However institutions offering web based teaching need to invest in strong technical and course design support. In teaching an IT related topic, such as digital libraries, in a web based environment, the message is reinforced by the medium: the web based environment gives practical examples of the issues that confront digital librarians. For CPE in the information professions, familiarity with online learning is a bonus. Increasingly information work involves virtual relationships with team members, clients, and suppliers. Professionals who pursue CPE through web based learning will not just be learning specific skills, but will be experiencing the information management environment of the 2181 century. REFERENCES 1

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Weingand, D. E. "Describing the Elephant: What is Continuing Professional Education?" IFLA Journal, 26, 3 (2000): 198-202 Dowlin, Kenneth E. and David Loertscher. "Web-based Instruction for Continuing Education Students: a Report on the San Jose State University Virtual Library School Program and its potential for web-based instruction for Continuing Education." In Proceedings 65th IFLA Council and General Conference; Bangkok, Thailand, August 20 - August 28, J999, 1999. Available from http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla65/papers/101-104e.htm. Accessed 13 December 2001. Main, L. "Web Based Virtual Classrooms: a Model for LIS Education." Education for Information, 16, 4 (1998): 333-340 Estabrook, L. "LEEP3 at the University of Illinois." Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 38, 2 (1997): 157-160 Herther, Ν. K. "Education Over the Web Distance Learning and the Information Professional." Online, 21, 5 (1997): 63-6, 68-70, 7 Hooke, J. "Distance Education, the Perils of the Virtual Student in Cyberspace." JEP: the Journal of Electronic Publishing, 5, 1 (1999). Available from

http://www.press.uimch.edu/jep/05-01/hooke.html. Accessed 13 December 2001 Bentham, M. "Web Learning: Threat, Panacea, or Enrichment?" Library Association Record, 103, 5 (2001): 294-295 Gillham, Mark, and Hazel Hall. "Evaluating a Business Information Sources Online Course." EContent, Oct/Nov. (2000): 55-63 Manuel, Kate. "Teaching an Online Information Literacy Course." Reference Services Review, 29, 3 (2001): 219-228. Tallman, Julie I. and Angela D. Benson. "Mental Models and Web Based Learning: Examining the Change in Personal Learning Models of Graduate Students Enrolled in an Online Library Media Course." Journal ofEducation for Library and Information Science, 41, 3 (2000): 207-223. Martin, W. J., J. Kerrisk, and D. Richards. "Digital Directions: Widening the Educational Net for Information Professionals." Education for Information, 17, 4(1999): 281-294 Brabazon, Tara. "Internet Teaching and the Administration of Knowledge." First Monday, 6, 6 (2001). Available from http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_6/brabazon/. Accessed 13 December 2001 Kochtanek, T R. and K. K. Hein. "Creating and Nurturing Distributed Asynchronous Learning Environments." Online Information Review, 24, 4 (2000): 280-293 Bagherian, F. and W. Thomgate. "Horses to Water: Student Use of Course Newsgroups." First Monday, 5, 8 (2000). Available from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_8/thorngate/index.html. Accessed 13 December 2001 Kazmer, M. M. "Coping in a Distance Environment: Sitcoms, Chocolate Cake, and Dinner With a Friend." First Monday, 5, 9 (2000). Available from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_9/kazmer/. Accessed 13 December 2001 Ruhleder, K. and M. Twidale. "Reflective Collaborative Learning on the Web: Drawing on the Master Class." First Monday, 5, 5 (2000). Available from http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue5_5/ruhleder. Accessed 13 December 2001 Dresang, E. T. and J. B. Robbins. "Preparing Students for Information Organizations in the Twentyfirst Century - Web based Management and Practice of Field Experience." Journal of Educationfor Library & Information Science, 40, 4 (1999): 218-231 Schneider, Karen G . " A Giant LEEP Forward." American Libraries, 29, 2 (1998): 64 Spink, A. and C. Cool. "Education for Digital Libraries." D-Lib Magazine, May 1999. Available from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may99/05spink.html. Accessed 13 December 2001 Williams, P. "Learning Area Network: Information Dissemination and Online Discussion in an Education Environment: the Capabil-IT-y Project." Aslib Proceedings, 53, 3 (2001): 99-107

CPE ANYWHERE ANYTIME: ONLINE RESOURCES FOR THE INFORMATION SOCIETY Lesley Moyo Pennsylvania State University Libraries USA Abstract:

The Continuing Professional Education (CPE) of information professionals has been an issue of active discussion in recent years. One of the reasons it is being actively discussed is because of the technological developments and changes in the information marketplace, bringing about the need for new skills and competencies among information professionals. This paper considers some of the characteristics of the emerging information society and the implications they have on the continuing professional education of information professionals. The paper promotes the 'anytime anywhere' trend brought about by the online/web based programs that allow professionals to participate in training programs globally without necessarily leaving their physical location. The paper addresses some of the issues associated with online CPE, and includes a list of some online resources for continuing professional education of librarians.

INTRODUCTION The information society In recent years we have heard the buzzword 'Information Society'. There are many definitions of this phrase, with different definitions emphasising different dimensions of the concept. Depending on the perspective on which they are based, some definitions emphasise technological aspects of the information society, others emphasise the occupational aspects. Yet others stress the economic, or human aspects etc. Regardless of which definition one goes with, one thing seems to be central information has taken on a special significance and is at the core of the emerging information society. This has major implications for information professionals. They have to be skilled and competent to perform new roles and functions emerging in this information age. Within the context of rapidly changing technologies, and information dynamics, information professionals have to constantly retool and update themselves with current technology and issues affecting their work. This paper explores online CPE options for information professionals working within a context where information is at the core of all human endeavours, creating a heightened demand for skills and competencies that will enable them meet the needs of information users within the information society. Continuing professional education, therefore, is a vital part of the 'information professionals' agenda in the information age. Characteristics of the information society Rather than try to reconcile the different definitions of the information society, one can consider some of the characteristics of the information society, which provide a 224

better understanding of the environment within which information professionals will increasingly find themselves working: • • • •

• • •

Widespread use of information and communication technologies, pervading all areas of human endeavour. Rapid development of technology, requiring information professionals to keep up with information technology skills that will enable them leverage the capabilities of new technologies to offer quality services to their patrons. Unprecedented rate of proliferation of new digital products and services facilitated by technological developments. Information perceived as a rich resource, whereby agencies and institutions are willing to make major investments in setting up strategic information technology infrastructures to facilitate global access to information, in order to maintain competitive positions in the market. Information perceived by the corporate world as capital leading to success, where access to required information is expected to translate into profits/gains. There is momentum gained through digitisation of company operations and other strategic technology alignments. Emergence of new professional profiles/new forms of work resulting from new roles and functions of information professionals and other knowledge workers caused by the changing information marketplace.

The aggregate of all these characteristic conditions of the information society represents the conditions under which librarians and other information professionals will thrive. LIS within the information society Since information is at the core of the information society, information workers and other knowledge workers will be key players in this society. In order for information professionals to play their role effectively, they will have to be individually and collectively proactive in addressing the competency issues that enable them remain relevant in a dynamic environment. The rapid changes taking place in the information society are likely to bring about a 'mutation' of the information profession, both in terms of roles and functions, if it has to strategically position itself to meet the changing needs of the information marketplace. LIS CPE Skills and competencies of librarians and information professionals Developments and changes in information technologies that facilitate library and information work have necessitated corresponding changes in the skills and competencies of information professionals. This is evident from recent job postings. In is now common to see postings for 'Technology Initiatives Librarian', 'Internet Services Librarian', 'Electronic Services Librarian', 'Digital Initiatives Librarian', 'Information Technologies Librarian', 'Multimedia Services Librarian', etc. in professional job advertisements. Moreover, when one observes the required skills being bundled in these new designations, one notes that they are changing with time and are reflective of the technology trends in the information marketplace. 225

Bellanti 1 states that "in today's rapidly changing world it is crucial for us to master new skills and concepts to keep up to date. In this charged and competitive environment each of us is responsible for improving and expanding our knowledge not only so we can perform our jobs more effectively but also to become more valuable employees." More than ever, CPE is perceived as an integral aspect, and measure of, professional performance. Professional associations also have a key role to play in facilitating CPE for their membership. They may play a role in development of CPE programs as well as the role of endorsing programs that meet professional standards. "Given that new technologies are greatly impacting the field of librarianship and providing impetus for many changes, continuing education, a manifestation of the ideal of life-long learning that we so heartily embrace, is of great importance to professional librarians." 2 CPE ONLINE Technology capability has now made it possible for professionals to participate in online CPE programs globally. Some professions are ahead of others in embracing online CPE, for instance, the literature indicates that the accounting profession has taken a lead in online CPE. This is probably due to the professional requirements to complete a stipulated amount of continuing professional education regularly. Accounting associations have fully embraced online CPE and are reporting an increased demand for courses. McCausland 3 states that "Many accountants would never have succeeded in beating the year end deadline for fulfilling continuing professional education (CPE) without the around the clock availability of online CPE." Accounting associations are actively involved in assessing the quality and outcomes of online CPE and in exploring ways of implementing standards and benchmarks. Online CPE for information professionals is not yet a reality. However, on exploring web resources, one quickly notes that there is available, a world of potential CPE resources, particularly technology education and training resources relevant to information professionals. Advantages of online CPE According to Warbington 4 (quoting Cindy Mims) "the biggest advantage of online learning is the capability of working at your own pace at anytime." Zuckerman 5 further suggests that PC based CPE is cost effective and can save time and money. One does not have to travel or leave their location to access CPE programs. Continuous availability is another advantage, facilitating point of need training 24/7, or what has come to be popularly known as the 'anywhere anytime' training. Yet another advantage is the capability to make personal permutations of courses and programs from different sources, based on one's individual need. It is not uncommon for professionals to take several different courses offered by different institutions simultaneously. The downside of online CPE is that it may broaden the digital divide between the haves and have nots. Professionals who don't have access to the technology that facilitates online CPE would not be in a position to take advantage of the opportunities it avails. Also, those with access to low end technology may experience

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technical frustrations when trying to access CPE programs and resources that are packaged using sophisticated (high-end) technology. The trend of online CPE is growing. In the accounting profession, there is a surge in the demand. But the persistent question is whether the courses are hitting the right benchmarks of quality 6. As broadband becomes more abundant, the online CPE is likely to become more sophisticated with use of video and audio, and live interactive CPE presentations Self help The initiative to explore and undertake online continuing professional education has to come from the individual, and it often involves searching for the appropriate program or combination of courses. It comes from the individual's desire to keep up with requisite skills and competencies in the individual's work, often in an area where they feel they need to update their skill level. Numerous options are available, ranging from formal academic programs to short course modules, and from basic, through to advanced levels. Individuals can often pick and choose courses to make up a program of their choice based on their need. Some programs are free, while others are at a cost. Some programs are self-paced, while others have a set schedule. Some are interactive, while others are not. Leonard 7 (quoting Janice Dost, director for library human resources at the University of California/Berkeley,) states that "continuing education for professionals is their own responsibility, not their institution's". Previous IFLA/CPERT presentations have indicated that one of the key areas of need for CPE is in technology skills. There are numerous technology related online CPE courses available on a wide range of topics and skill levels. Issues surrounding online CPE • •

•

• •

•

Accreditation - not all online CPE programs are accredited by professional bodies. If one is looking for programs accredited by professional bodies, they may need to go through the professional associations to identify them. Availability of certificates and official transcripts - if CPE is required as a part of job performance, participants may need certificates and official transcripts. Participants have to take the responsibility to find out the availability of these before registering. Access to libraries and online information and research resources to support the teaching/learning process - CPE programs that require participants to do some reading and research make the assumption that participants will have access to information and research resources to support the CPE. Pedagogical issues, such as assessment, classroom interaction, best ways of presenting materials online, supporting the learning community, may not be easily translated from the traditional to the virtual classroom Assessment of learning outcomes is also harder in the virtual environment, Stimpson 8 outlines some examples and suggests measures that can be used as evidence of improved competence and performance for accountants taking online CPE. 'Commercialisation of education' - just because they have the technological capability to offer sophisticated online modules, some non-professional

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•

agencies are offering elaborate menus of online programs that are stripped of professional quality and content. Connectivity and technology issues - online CPE is based on availability of appropriate information technology infrastructures that support virtual delivery of content.

Information professionals should consider/address these issues when making choices on what online CPE program to follow. WEB RESOURCES FOR ONLINE CPE Balas 9 states that "Ongoing training is a necessity if today's libraries are to keep up with changing technology, and online training can be used effectively to train both patrons and staff. These resources can be used in conjunction with more traditional workshops or can be self-paced tutorials. With the variety of choices available, users should be able to find the training that best fits their needs." She recommends some web based Internet training resources that librarians and information professionals can use for CPE. There are numerous other web resources available to librarians and other information professionals (some of them free) for self improvement and CPE. Although the online resources below are not necessarily dedicated to librarianship and related disciplines, there are, nevertheless, many nuggets for librarians and information professionals that can be gleaned from the broad/general sites and technology resources that are listed here:

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Library and Information Science Resources - A Library of Congress Internet Resource Page at: http://lcweb.loc.gov/global/library/ is a general list of library related resources which would be useful as a starting place to gain background information and understanding prior to exploring online CPE. The Buley Library at Southern Connecticut state University offers similar resources at: http://library.scsu.ctstateu.edu/libbib.html

•

Nebraska Library Commission: Library Development Services site at: http://www.nlc.state.ne.us/libdev/onlinetraining.html offers continuing education online training courses incorporating basic skills training courses on organising library materials, and on public library administration, as well as mini courses that address topics and issues that library staff encounter in the daily operations of the library, such as using the Internet for reference, intellectual freedom and use of electronic resources. This site also includes an excellent directory to other free online library courses.

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Clearing House on Information and Technology provides an annotated list of internet resources for library media specialists and children's librarians at: http://www.ericit.org/digests/EDQ-IR-2000-09.shtml

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Texas State Library and Archives Commission offers continuing education resources for librarians at: http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/ld/workshops/index.html. Included on this site are some online tutorials on selected topics of interest to librarians.

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The Teacher Librarianship by Distance Learning site at: http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/tl-dl offers web based distance learning courses for teachers and teacher librarians by the University of Alberta, School of Library and Information Studies.

•

The Cyberlibrarians' Rest Stop at: http ://www. angelfire.com/in/virtuallibrarian/ contains helpful tools for searching the web, and for those involved in developing virtual library collections, web searching methodologies and a collection of resources for keeping current with web based resources. Includes a six-lesson web searching tutorial series.

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The Library Support Staff com site at: http://www.librarysupportstaff.com/ed4you.html lists online learning sites for librarians, including sites offering free online tutorials.

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Workshops and Training Three Rivers Library System at: http ://www. colosvs. net/three/training, htm offers tutorials targeted particularly at paraprofessionals, on basic library skills, reference and creation of web pages. Also includes Colorado continuing education calendar and events.

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Kovacs Consulting Internet and World Wide Web Training at: http ://www. kovacs. com/training, html offers workshops on a range of topics where participants can register online and follow either self-paced or scheduled programs.

•

Midnight at the Internet Café: Web Based Learning: Online Courses at: http ://www. cclsweb. org/MidnightFiles/Web%20Training/webonlco.htm has over twenty annotated links to distance education learning sites offering web based courses in various subjects and professions including library science programs, offered by sixteen agencies and institutions.

•

Midnight at the Internet Café: Web-Based Learning: Online Tutorials and Self-Directed Courses at: http://www.cclsweb.org/MidnightFiles/Web%20Training/webtutor.htm has a list of eighteen annotated links to online tutorials and self-directed courses, mainly on Internet, web and other technology topics. Many of the links are to directory sites listing further sites that offer web based tutorials and selfdirected courses.

•

Midnight at the Internet Café: Web Based Learning: Distance Learning General Sites at: http://www.cclsweb.org/MidnightFiles/Web%20Training/webgenl.htm is a list of guides to sites offering general distance education programs.

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University of South Carolina Beaufort Library Bare Bones 101 at: http://www.sc.edu/beaufort/librarv/bones. html is an 18 lesson tutorial on searching the web. Each lesson incorporates examples and links to other resources.

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BCK2SKOL lessons at: http://www. sc. edu/bck2skol/fall/fall.html is a free thirty lesson course on the Internet for librarians with little or no Internet experience. Includes practical assignments at the end of each lesson. Also has links to related web resources.

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The International Association of School Librarianship (IASL) offers resources for professional development on the Internet at: http://www.iaslslo. org/profdev. html

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Ontario Library Services lists online training resources for librarians at: http://www.librarv.on.ca/Profinfo/Training.html

The above list of online resources to support CPE of librarians and information professionals is in no way meant to be comprehensive, but to show the range of resources, some of which a freely available to librarians and information professionals wanting to keep up to date with skills in technology skills, management and other areas. As information professionals find themselves at the centre of the information society, resources like these above would prove invaluable. CONCLUSION The emerging information society, with information at its core has increased the pressure on librarians and other information professionals to undertake CPE to ensure that they have relevant skills and competencies to make them remain competitive in the information marketplace where there are many other players. Technology has brought about the capability to undertake CPE anywhere anytime through the numerous programs and courses online. Individuals should take responsibility and take the initiative to seek suitable online courses based on their individual needs. Some professions, like the accounting profession have embraced online CPE and are reporting some benefits. Needless to say, there will be need to address issues of concern such as standards and quality of online CPE programs and resources. REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

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Bellanti, Bob. "More Than One Way to Learn: a Leader's View." Information Outlook, 5, 6(2001): 31 "Librarians in the 21st Century: Continuing Education. Available from: http://istweb.syr.edu/21stcenlib/becoming/cont_ed.html McCausland, Richard. "Online CPE Explodes." Accounting Technology, 15, 2 (1999): 24-28. Warbington, Rachel. "The Advantages of Online Learning." Women in Business, 53, 6 (2001): 23. Zuckerman, Laurence K. "PC based CPE Saves Time and $." Accounting Technology, 10, 1 (1994): 29. Skillman, Brad. (2000) "Online CPE: Promises and Growing Pains." Accounting Technology, 16, 10(2000): 62-71. Leonard, Kniffel. (2001) "Delegates Plot Future for Continuing Professional Education." American Libraries, 32, 1 (2001): 42-43.

Stimpson, Jeff. (2000) "New School of CPE Thought." The Practical Accountant, 33, 5 (2000): 42-48. Balas, Janet. (1998) "Online Training Resources." Computers in Libraries, 18, 1 (1998): 36-38.

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QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Jana Varlejs Rutgers School of Communication, Information and Library Studies New Brunswick USA Abstract:

What constitutes 'quality' and 'quality control' in the context of continuing professional education (CPE)? What methods have CPE providers used to assure that learners can count on a 'quality' experience? Does quality assurance exist in the library and information science (LIS) field? What roles do professional associations play in improving CPE? The feasibility of developing best practice benchmarks is explored, and ways of encouraging wider familiarity with, and application of, quality assurance methods are proposed.

INTRODUCTION In 1980, the publication of Cyril Houle's Continuing Learning in the Professions crystallised an evolving concern about whether professionals were maintaining competence, even though this was a time that saw an upsurge of CPE offerings. In his preface, Houle predicted, "In the course of time it seems likely...that the various kinds of control and incentive systems, which now operate separately and sometimes at cross purposes, will be brought together into a concerted and highly developed effort to assure quality. In achieving this end, education will be used in a great variety of ways, being introduced at many places throughout the lifelong work of professionals. Movement toward this future synthesis is likely to be sporadic and evolutionary..." 1 Two decades later, these efforts remain sporadic in many professions, including the LIS field. DEFINITIONS Before discussing reasons for this lack of progress in assuring quality, definitions and caveats are in order. First the caveats: This paper is limited to formal continuing professional education (CPE) for librarians, and excludes staff development and informal workplace learning; discussion is based on the United States experience. The definitions must begin with 'quality.' In the context of professions, the word refers to the effectiveness of individuals, or of a profession as a whole, in carrying out their service to society. How that is articulated and measured varies by profession, and is not the primary concern in this paper. 'Quality' in continuing education (CE), which is the major focus here, usually is discussed in terms of criteria that programs should meet, generally in the areas of "needs assessment, objectives, design and presentation, timeliness, promotion, evaluation."2 Adhering to criteria such

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as these may be a prerequisite for a good educational offering, but is not a guarantee of a quality learning experience. The effectiveness of a given CE activity derives from the positive impact that it has on the practice of the individuals who attend. As Queeney states, "Ultimately...continuing education is successful only if it provides added value by benefiting one or more groups of a diverse clientele. This added value can take many forms, such as improved practice for professionals, more efficient workforce performance for employers, and enrichment for community members."3 'Quality control' in continuing education generally is seen to rest on the shoulders of the provider. For example: "Quality control relates to all aspects of the continuing education program/activity, beginning with identification of learning needs and continuing with establishment of intended learning outcomes, provision of appropriate learning experiences, systematic assessment of learner performance, and systematic, periodic evaluations of the elements in the program/activity as well as evaluation of the program activity as a whole."4 'Quality control' in the context of professions is often discussed in terms of credentialing individuals and/or institutions (educational or workplace).5 While Houle uses the term credentialing broadly to mean evidence of qualifications, the Medical Library Association (MLA) defines it more narrowly: "Credentialing differs from certification in that certification focuses on the attainment of minimum standards and measurable competencies whereas credentialing recognises the time and effort that is required for professional development. It also differs from licensure because licensure is a legal requirement for professionals in certain professions, such as medicine."6 Table 1 gives definitions and a simplified overview of credentials (in the broad sense) in US librarianship. Originally a means of controlling entry into an occupation, accreditation of institutions and licensure in many fields have become recurring controls. In the United States and Canada, for example, LIS master's programs are periodically reaccredited by the ALA. Most states in the US, however, award licenses to librarians for life. With some exceptions, neither professional associations nor governmental bodies in the US attempt to assure that librarians maintain qualifications after entry into the field. In those places where relicensure is legislated, it is generally tied to a certain number of hours of participation in professional development. Whereas there is general acceptance that an ALA accredited Master's degree is adequate assurance that the holder is basically qualified to be a librarian, there is no similar assurance that a person who is relicensed has attained the appropriate level of mastery. In essence, there is no uniform quality control in the LIS profession beyond that provided by ALA accreditation of a limited number of preservice programs.

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Table 1. Credentials in US Librarianship Type of credential Accreditation validates entry level education by professional association

Issued to a)MLIS programs; b)master's in school library media

Issued by

a) American Library Association (ALA); b) National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) Licensure Public & school State gives legal right librarians in government to practice by many states agencies state Certification - a) Medical a) Medical recognition of Library librarians*; b) individual's public Association; b) competence by librarians in Proposed professional future institute allied association with ALA

On what basis a) ALA standards b) Joint ALANCATE standards

Valid for how long a) 5-7 years b) 5 years

Educational credentials

Usually for life

a) Specified educational credentials + experience; b) MLIS + exam + 3 years experience

a) 5 years, renewal based on CE & professional accomplishment; b) 3 years, based on CE

•The Academy of Health Information Professionals' credentialing program does not lead to certification, but is otherwise similar. 'Quality control' or assurance in the context of CE in the professions does exist to various degrees, usually under the auspices of professional associations. The prevalent method of control has been through provider approval systems, whereby an association, governmental agency, or some other body given responsibility for monitoring compliance to standards, assures the consumer that a particular CE program meets 'quality' criteria. Perhaps the best known independent effort to create a generally applicable quality system for CE is that of the organisation now called the International Association for Continuing Education and Training (LACET). Originating as a task force in 1968, it evolved into the Council on the Continuing Education Unit (CEU) in 1977, and IACET in 1990.7 At the heart of the organisation's effort has been the development of quality criteria for the awarding of the CEU, which was created to be a uniform measure of participation in CE that meets the guidelines. In a nutshell, the CEU is defined as ten contact hours of participation in an organised continuing education experience under responsible sponsorship, capable direction, and qualified instruction. Providers can award CEUs if they meet the quality criteria, either on the honour system or on successfully undergoing a voluntary evaluation that earns them the right to advertise that they are an IACET approved provider. One might say that the former practice is quality assurance, while the latter is more like quality control. On the other hand, 'control' is a strong word, and does not really make sense as long as submission to an approval process is voluntary. 234

SOME APPROACHES TO QUALITY ASSURANCE Quality control in the LIS CPE field is very rare, if it exists at all. Some LIS CPE providers have adopted the CEU to serve as quality assurance as well as a measure of the extent of program activity. Professional LIS association providers such as the American Society for Information Science have used committees to oversee the quality of their CE offerings. The MLA perhaps has the most stringent procedure for developing and monitoring the courses in its roster of CE offerings, while awarding CEUs as well. In the case of the Special Libraries Association, there is a tradition of hiring staff with degrees and experience in training to head their professional development activities. Among other regular providers - such as ALA, consortia, LIS schools, state library agencies - the reputation of the organisation seems to serve as the guarantor of quality. The most problematic CE providers are the smaller professional organisations whose members take on the CE task for an organisation on a short term, volunteer basis. These individuals usually lack experience and training in CE and have a limited amount of time and resources to devote to planning and mounting a workshop, course, or conference program. Yet, no doubt more practitioners attend the events resulting from such volunteer efforts than they do those held under the auspices of well established CE providers who adhere to quality guidelines, simply because there are fewer of the latter. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND PROVIDER APPROVAL At one time, the LIS profession did attempt to set up formal, uniform CE quality assurance that could have evolved into a quality control system, given appropriate incentives. The origins of this effort lay in several studies headed by Elizabeth Stone, which established the need for improved CE for the profession and led to the foundation of the Continuing Library Education Network and Exchange (CLENE) in the mid seventies. CLENE created a Program for Quality in Continuing Education for Information, Library, and Media Personnel, which included criteria for quality and a CE provider approval system. Subsequently, when CLENE became a round table of the ALA, the criteria for quality were adapted to fit the format of ALA guidelines, and these were adopted by the ALA Council in 1988.8 These guidelines are still in effect, and available from the ALA. They are organised in five sections according to the type of CE: group programs and activities, individualised programs and activities, instructional materials and technologies, continuing education providers, and learning consultants for individualised continuing education programs. The criteria deal with needs assessment, objectives, design and presentation, timeliness, promotion, and evaluation. Under each criterion are listed questions to use for assessment. There is sufficient detail to permit the criteria to be applied in a formal provider approval process. In fact, the original criteria were used for a time by CLENE to assess providers who volunteered to be evaluated. Those who met the criteria were then able to use the CLENE approval logo on publicity as an indication of quality assurance. Unfortunately, the approval procedure seemed lengthy and cumbersome, and not very many providers chose to participate. For similar reasons, the same fate befell CLENE's voluntary recognition system, which provided a means of documenting an individual's continuing learning, whether formal or not.

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After a decade of quiescence, the quality of LIS CPE has once again become a topic of discussion in the US. In November 2000, the second Congress on Professional Education (COPE II) was held in Chicago, with the focus on continuing education. The first Congress had produced a number of recommendations that required further discussion, such as the relationship of credentialing to CE, coordination to assure quality, CE priorities, and so forth.9 COPE Π did produce more specific recommendations, but nothing resembling a coherent plan for quality assurance. Some of the suggestions, however, do point the way toward actions that could provide the foundation for a more systematised approach. Among these were a number of calls for better sharing of information and more coordination; and for identification of model programs, guidelines, evaluation methods, and benchmarking. The conference is discussed in greater detail elsewhere,10 but at this writing the ALA has not taken any action on the COPE Π recommendations. Meanwhile, however, the ALA Council has agreed to move ahead with a proposal for certification, which might eventually include provider approval among its procedures.11 QUALITY ASSURANCE VIA BENCHMARKING Guidelines already exist,12 and could be used to identify model programs. A new way to define quality in LIS CPE might be benchmarking. At its most basic, benchmarking is simply the collection of data that in some way measure performance. Benchmarks can be used to compare trends within an organisation or across organisations over time, allowing an evaluator to draw conclusions about lows, highs, and averages. For example, one could collect data from evaluation forms in order to establish norms for participant satisfaction with courses. The Association for Training and Development (ASTD) publishes an annual report on the state of the training industry that provides data on the amount spent on training, the percent of staff trained, the ratio of trainers to staff, training time, use of technology, etc.13 Results for the respondent pool are compared to those for 'training investment leaders', defined as the ten percent of organisations with the highest combined scores on investment, time, reach, and sophistication. Of particular usefulness is the finding that there is a positive relationship between investment in training and financial performance of publicly traded companies.14 Another example of benchmarking that is more directly applicable to CE in the professions also focuses primarily on the return on investment. In a brief article on financial benchmarks, Marsello provides very specific numbers on everything from the appropriate balance between promotional and instructional costs to the percentage of registrants who are repeat customers.15 The key data to collect are: 1. Total income I. Total registrations 3. Net or surplus 4. Total promotion costs 5. Total production costs 6. Average participants per class/event 7. Overall cancellation rate 8. Overall brochure : participant ratio 9. Top three performing divisions 10. Classes/events per person II. Average income per person

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Marsello goes on to say: "Gather the numbers, compare the numbers to budget and last year, ask why something was good or bad, and then develop an action".16 For his purpose, a 'good or bad' result relates mainly to the financial viability of the CE provider, but his benchmarks obviously can serve as an excellent tool for sound program management decisions. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CERTIFICATION The issue of post Master's certification has come to the fore within ALA, and the Association at its 2001annual conference approved a proposal to move forward with this. Participation is to be voluntary, procedures are to be administered by a separate body, and standards for professional practice are to be set by the appropriate ALA body. Initial certification would be based on having completed an accredited LIS Master's degree and three years of practice, plus passing an examination. Recertification would occur after three years, not on the basis of another test but on 'demonstrated continuing professional development'. A portfolio would be the means of demonstration. The Committee on Education's (COE's) document describing the proposed certification program spells out an alternative to the test based certification, which "...would be to require completion of appropriate coursework from a range of approved providers, which could include ALA and its divisions, other associations, LIS programs and independent trainers. COE has developed a list of criteria for the approval of providers. It would require initial development and ongoing maintenance and dissemination of a list of approved providers. Applicants would present proof that courses had been completed. Course providers would be expected to determine that the content had been learned".17 COE's provider approval criteria have not yet been published, but are said to be set. What evidence of learning will be required has not been decided at this time. The ML A's credentialing process includes a course, rather than provider approval process. The procedure is described in detail on the association's Web site, but a portion is quoted below in order to show what is entailed in maintaining a rigorous CE provider approval system. "The MLA Continuing Education Committee (CEC) authorises credit for educational and professional development opportunities which meet criteria ... respecting objectives, content, organisation, staffing, methods, evaluation, delivery and support. The CEC in conjunction with MLA Headquarters provides specific criteria or guidelines as needed to maintain the quality of educational or professional development programs. ...The administration of the process by which approval is granted is handled by the Professional Development (PD) staff of the MLA in Chicago who are charged with the responsibility for obtaining and reviewing documentation to support the approval of educational activities and instructors for MLA CE contact hours. Regulations, forms, and procedural documents used in the process of administering the award of contact hours must be approved in advance of their

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use by the CEC. The CEC should annually review the educational activities accredited by the PD staff and should provide explicit feedback on the success or failure of the process.... Approval for educational activities and instructors will be one in the same. Such approval shall be granted for one year from the time of approval for each educational opportunity. MLA PD staff are charged with maintaining a database of approved educational activities with instructors, the length of time the approval is in force, descriptions of the educational activity, and contact information for the instructor". * At the international level, Patricia Layzell Ward notes that the Australian Library and Information Association has a system of certification on the basis of continuing education, requiring 80 hours over a 3-year period, and goes on to describe the more complex system in the United Kingdom, where practitioners have to demonstrate their professional development achievements in several steps in order to receive recognition as senior members of the profession.19 Layzell Ward suggests that professional associations establish multi tiered programs of verifying professionals' entry level qualifications, certifying them on the basis of their CPE records, and recognising their further achievements through documented additional formal education and portfolios. A different model to consider is that developed by Quebec librarians, which includes both certification and licensure.20 THE ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS As is clear from the foregoing, professional associations have a vital role to play in any kind of formal quality assurance program. It is only through this type of organisation that standards and guidelines acceptable to the members of the profession can be developed and applied. The best known example in the US is the ALA's accreditation of Master's programs in LIS. In regard to continuing education, however, ALA has only recently accepted the idea of a certification procedure that would require CE participation for renewal. Historically, however, ALA has had a number of units concerned with CE, and it has adopted the quality guidelines mentioned above. The ethics statement on the obligation to maintain one's competence is printed on the membership card. There are units within ALA that have promulgated competency statements for various practice speciality areas that can be used for CPE needs assessments. Also, ALA and its units are themselves CPE providers through publications, conference programs, and workshops. With the exception of master's program accreditation (an expensive service so far delegated to the ALA), professional associations in general see themselves as vital to the maintenance of members' competence. Some, like the MLA, have quite elaborate quality assurance systems in place, and can serve as models for others interested in formalising recognition of continuing professional development. In summary, professional associations engage in a continuum of actions in regard to CPE, from moral persuasion to development of standards and guidelines to certification. RECENT TRENDS The rapid expansion of Internet delivered education has increased the demand for quality assurance, simply because of the nature of this delivery method. It is

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difficult to equate standard measures such as contact hours with time spent learning in an asynchronous environment, and it is not possible to state that an individual who registers for an online course actually has completed it successfully without testing of some sort.21 In a live workshop or course one may not be able to judge very well how much participants learned, but at least it is clear whether or not they were in attendance for the duration. The standard CEU record is not going to be adequate evidence to put into those portfolios that professionals are going to have to assemble in order to be recertified. Some kind of verification of learning may need to be developed. One approach is to build testing into the training, whether it is live or online. For example, workshop participants can be tested briefly on their familiarity with the topic at the outset and conclusion of the event.22 Each participant's gain in score could be included in the CEU certificate. In the online environment, software can record the pre- and post-test scores, and the student could print out the results upon concluding the course. This kind of assessment at the end of a learning activity does not guarantee, however, that the professional will actually apply the learning in practice. The currently preferred model in the corporate human resource development field is to tie performance measurement and training to corporate goals and objectives.23 This model is ideal for staff development, but does not easily lend itself to CPE external to a professional's workplace. The burden would fall on the individual to identify his or her own performance gaps in light of the employing institution's goals; to then find and complete an appropriate course; and to apply what has been learned in the workplace. This is a tall order, especially since it has been shown that there is a gap between what professionals think they need and what they actually need to improve performance24 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS While some models of quality assurance in LIS CPE do exist in the US, notably that of the MLA, the overall situation seems less than healthy. One cannot make any statements with certainty, because very little information is readily available on what is happening in the provision and evaluation of CE. The only data that we have that has been collected fairly consistently over a considerable period of time is confined to CE offered by schools with ALA accredited Master's programs. These data are reported in the annual statistics published by the Association for Library and Information Science Education, and they are not very useful for judging quality. The two indicators that are most helpful are the presence of a CPE director of some longevity and the awarding of CEUs.25 There are some instances where librarians are required to be relicensed, with the renewal being tied to evidence of participation in CPE. In one instance - in New Jersey, in the case of school library media specialists - the providers used for this purpose must be state approved. Some of the providers report that the approval process is perfunctory, and there is no requirement that librarians provide evidence of having learned anything. The ALA proposal on certification that calls for an initial examination and projects the development of a provider approval process will no doubt be more stringent, but it is not clear how it will be possible for the providers to assess learning. It seems that assurance of quality should rest on at least three criteria: First, the extent to which consumers' needs are met; second, how well do providers meet those

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needs; and third, how effectively does the profession's system of CPE advance its development. The ultimate goal is excellent service to the public. 'Consumer' in this model includes not only LIS professionals, but also their employing institutions. The educational needs of the individual professional encompass not only the maintenance and extension of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required for good job performance, but also the development of additional competencies that allow for career advancement. The needs of the institution can match the former, and to a lesser degree the latter. In addition, the employer may need to prepare staff to undertake new challenges as the environment changes. Because of these multiple demands upon CPE, there should be several parallel, regularly conducted needs assessments: Selfassessment on the part of the individual professional, performance appraisal in the workplace, and identification of competencies required for the various speciality practices by professional associations. 'Providers' in the context of formal CPE as discussed in this paper include professional associations, the training industry, educational institutions, and government agencies. When considering provider quality, inputs rather than outputs are the norm (see for example, the ALA CE quality guidelines).26 While evaluation of CE events is always included in quality criteria, there seldom is a requirement that the results show that participants learned what they were meant to learn. IACET has been concerned about this issue for some time, and published A Practical Handbook for Assessing Learning Outcomes in Continuing Education and Training in 1991.27 In an earlier publication, Principles of Good Practice in Continuing Education, the focus was not so much on how to determine what, if anything was learned, as on the value of clearly communicating the expected learning outcome to the consumer.28 Both publications, along with other IACET materials, are useful guides for providers interested in quality assurance. The latest thinking, however, suggests that it is important to go beyond traditional CPE evaluation methods in order to examine unintended as well as intended outcomes.29 CPE can play a significant role in the advancement of the profession as a whole only if all the stakeholders accept their responsibilities, as described above, in establishing and using systems that endorse principles of quality. Voluntary certification and provider approval should be considered as a means toward raising the level of awareness of standards and stimulating participation. IFLA can provide leadership by encouraging its member associations to adopt quality CE guidelines if they have not already done so, and to work toward implementing them in their own continuing education programs. After these initial efforts have shown their value, associations may wish to explore certification as a more formal means of advancing professional development. There are additional issues in planning for systematic improvement of CPE that are less frequently addressed. These include coordination, equity of access, progression in level of offerings from basic to advanced, choice of delivery and learning modes, and support services such as access to materials and assessment tools. The chief of these is equity of access to learning opportunities of high quality, and if we are thinking in global terms, it is this all encompassing issue that should be of major concern IFLA. REFERENCES 1

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Houle, Cyril O. Continuing Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: JosseyBass, 1980, p. x.

Stone, Elizabeth W. "The Search for Quality." In William G. Asp et al, Continuing Educationfor the Library and Information Professions. Hamden, CT: Shoe String Press, 1985, p. 88. Queeney, Donna S. Assessing Needs in Continuing Education: An Essential Toolfor Quality Improvement. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995, p. 9. Principles of Good Practice in Continuing Education. Silver Spring, MD: Council on the Continuing Education Unit, 1984, p. 25; see reference 7. Houle, op. cit, pp. 274-275. Medical Library Association. Academy of Health Information Professionals, January 2, 2001. Available from http://www.mlanet.org. Accessed 12 December 2001. International Association for Continuing Education and Training. 2001. Available from http ://www. iacet. org. Accessed 19 November 2001. Guidelines for Quality in Continuing Education for Information, Library and Media Personnel. Chicago: Continuing Education Subcommittee of the Standing Committee on Library Education (SCOLE), American Library Association, 1988. Varlejs, Jana. "The First Congress on Professional Education: An Agenda for Continuing Education." Journal of Educationfor Library and Information Science 41, 2 (2000): 143-146. Haycock, Ken. "Continuing Professional Education: Towards Evidence-Based Practice." In B. Woolls and B. E. Sheldon. Delivering Lifelong Continuing Professional Education Across Space and Time. The Fourth World Conference on Continuing Professional Educationfor the Library and Irrformation Science Professions München: Κ. G. Saur, 2001, pp. 1-8. American Library Association, Committee on Education. "Post Master's Certification: A Proposal to Establish the ALA Institute for Professional Practice." (Council Document #50.3, 2001 ALA Annual Conference). Guidelines for Quality in Continuing Education, op. cit. Van Buren, Mark E. State of the Industry Report 200.1 Alexandria, VA: ASTD, 2001.

Ibid, p. 27. Marsello, Greg. "Redesigning Your Lifelong Learning Program: Financial Benchmarks." Course Trends, March (1998): 12. Ibid American Library Association, Committee on Education, "Post-Master's Certification..., op. cit. Medical Library Association. CE Approval Process for Course Developers, January 2, 2001. Available from: http://www.mlanet.org. Accessed 12 December 2001. Layzell Ward, Patricia. "Fit to Practice? The Need for the Certification of Professional Knowledge and Competencies." In B. Woolls and B. E. Sheldon. Delivering Lifelong Continuing Professional Education Across Space and Time. The Fourth World Conference on Continuing Professional Educationfor the Library and Information Science Professions..., München: Κ. G. Saur, 2001, pp. 224-229.

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Kaatrude, Peter Β. "Librarian Certification and Licensing: A Brief Accounting." Public Libraries, 31, May/June (1992): 156. Hickman, Clark J. "Public Policy Implications Associated with Technology Assisted Distance Learning " Adult Learning, 10, Spring (1999): 17-20. Ligon, Jan. "Using Learning Outcomes to Strengthen Compulsory Continuing Education Programs." The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 48, Winter (2000): 20-23. Adams, Joan Duncan. "Reinterpreting Evaluation Classics in the Modern Age." The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 49, Spring (2001): 17. Queeney, op. cit., pp. 13-14. Varlejs, Jana. "Continuing Professional Education." In Evelyn H. Daniel and Jerry Saye (Eds.). Library and Information Science Education 2001 Statistical Report. Reston, VA: Association for Library and Information Science Education, 2001, pp. 285-292. Guidelinesfor Quality in Continuing Education, op. cit. A Practical Handbook for Assessing Learning Outcomes in Continuing Education and Training. Washington, D.C.: International Association for Continuing Education and Training, 1991. Principles of Good Practice in Continuing Education, op. cit. Ottoson, Judith M. "Evaluation of Continuing Professional Education: Toward a Theory of Our Own." In Vivian W. Mott and Barbara J. Daley (Eds.) Charting a Course for Continuing Professional Education: Reframing Professional Practice, New Directionsfor Adult and Continuing Education, no. 86. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Summer 2000, pp. 43-53.

CHASING CERTIFICATES: PROBLEMS FOR CPE ASSESSMENT AND QUALITY ASSURANCE WITHIN THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK Clare M. Walker Wartenweiler Library University of the Witwatersrand South Africa Abstract:

The author set out to describe the framework for education and training qualifications, at all levels and through diverse forms of delivery, that has developed in South Africa since 1995, and to extract a process which might offer a means to integrate continuing professional education, particularly short courses, into the framework. A national accreditation, assessment and certification system might emerge. Recent donor projects have offered significant opportunities for structured CPE and these seem obvious candidates for accreditation and recognition. However the conclusion is drawn that in the short to medium term future, no such accreditation for these or other similar, locally developed programmes, seems possible unless they are integrated, as credit bearing modules or part modules, into existing formal LIS qualifications. South Africa has developed a national framework of qualifications and quality management mechanisms without accommodation for short courses used for CPE in the professions. A detailed account of the framework and mechanisms is given which indicates why the original expectations cannot be met, although a complex process of assessment and quality management is already in place.

INTRODUCTION The intention of this paper was to describe the framework for education and training qualifications, at all levels and through diverse forms of delivery, that has been developed in South Africa since 1995, and to extract from the complex structures and mechanisms being put in place a process which might offer a means of integration of continuing professional education (CPE), particularly short course CPE, into the framework in such a way that a national accreditation, assessment and certification system might be developed. The desire for this has been evident for years in local and national discussions on CPE development and delivery; a more formal need has been brought into prominence by recent legislation requiring all employer organisations to pay a 'skills levy' based on payroll, a proportion of which may be paid back as a 'reward' for staff training that is 'accredited' - that is, part of the national framework. In the field of library and information services (LIS), recent donor projects have offered significant opportunities for structured CPE, 1 and these seem obvious candidates for accreditation and recognition. Contrary to expectation, however, the conclusion that must be drawn from the contents of this paper is that at present, and certainly in the short to medium term future, no such accreditation for these or other

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similar, locally developed programmes, seems possible unless they are integrated, as credit bearing modules or part modules, into existing formal LIS qualifications. The finding of this paper is therefore that South Africa has developed a national framework of qualifications and quality management mechanisms without accommodation for short courses of the kind most commonly used for CPE in LIS (and other professions). As an alternative to not writing this paper at all, a detailed account of the framework and mechanisms is offered, showing why the original expectations of the proposal cannot be met, although a complex process of assessment and quality management is already in place. SOUTH AFRICAN LIS EDUCATION AND CPE Any account of certification in South Africa must begin with an overview of some aspects of past education and training practices in South Africa under apartheid. South Africa has a long history of bureaucracy within the public sector and in the education field, where respect for rank and authority, and assumption of expertise, have been linked closely to paper qualifications. Remuneration structures in the public sector have thus been closely tied to qualifications expressed in terms of the number of years post secondary school study required (e.g. M+l, M+2, M+3, M+4, where M=Matric, the school leaving University entrance qualification). Hence M+3 is the designation of a person who has completed the three-year National Diploma in LIS offered by the technikons (polytechnics) and M+4 is that of a 4-year 'professionally qualified' graduate in LIS, who has completed either a three-year general degree followed by a fourth year of graduate study in the form of a professional LIS diploma, or a four-year professional degree curriculum, or who has completed a fourth year of study after the three year National Diploma and obtained a four year Β Tech LIS degree. Postgraduate study, for Masters' or Doctoral degrees, is often referred to in terms of working for an 'M' or a 'D' rather than doing research in a particular field; the actual research topic sometimes seems to subordinate contents to methodology, particularly statistical and other quantifiable methodologies. Continuing education delivered through short courses at sporadic intervals by both academics and practitioners, or commercial suppliers of information products and systems, has never been systematically certificated and incorporated into this formal education structure, although at a number of institutions it has been possible to complete independent modules of a professional course without registering for the degree itself, which is an academic form of potential CPE but seldom designed as such with the needs of professional practitioners uppermost. In pre 1994 South Africa the opportunities for Black people (Africans, Asians and Coloured people (i.e. of mixed descent) ) were always heavily restricted by segregation and exceedingly unequal opportunities in education, in training, and in employment for skilled occupations. The result was that although the Black population comprised about 80% of the total South African population, numbers of Black graduates and professionals were far lower than those that a 'normal' society would have been expected to produce. The LIS profession is one in which the effects of this perpetuated a division between black (particularly African) and white librarians which is only now beginning to be reversed. The South African Library Association, SALA, was founded in 1930 on the model of the Library Association in Britain, complete with correspondence courses, vacation schools and professional examinations administered by the association. The responsibility for professional qualification by correspondence was in 1962 244

transferred from the SALA to the distance learning University of South Africa, and in the meantime a number of universities had established diploma, and then graduate and postgraduate degree, courses. The SALA remained the body that set the standards for professional recognition, although it was never a statutory body and thus had no legal authority over the qualification process, as did other professional councils (health, engineering, law etc). In 1962 the SALA took a fatal step (in pragmatic as much as ethical terms), following many years of debate and the report of a consultative committee, and by conference resolution introduced segregated membership, arguing that government regulations would in any case impose this in the near future. Black members of SALA, few in number, were assisted in 1964 to form a new African library association, which in 1972 became the African Library Association of South Africa, ALASA. Long after all other qualifications were transferred by the SALA to the Universities; training for Black non graduates was still administered by the SALA2. "The association also attempted to secure the recognition of the preliminary and secondary certificates of the South African Library Association for salary and promotion purposes. Local authorities were not always willing to recognise these certificates as they were held by persons without the matriculation certificate." 3 When in 1980 the SALA was disbanded and became a graduate professional body, the South African Institute for Library and Information Science (SAILIS), the requirement for full professional membership was a four year graduate qualification (as described above). This was perceived by most Black librarians as a continuation of segregated membership, as the new constitution excluded from eligibility all but a very small number of black librarians. When, in the late 1980s, South African technikons established three year diploma courses in LIS, protracted debates about the professional status of this qualification were held over many months, and finally led to the adoption of a resolution admitting holders of these diplomas to full professional membership of SAILIS. The effect on employers was similar to that quoted above in the case of Black non matriculant librarians: because SAILIS was not a statutory body, it could not insist that these 'professional' members of SAILIS should be employed at the same grade (i.e. M+4, as described above) as the four year graduate professionals, and they seldom were. The librarians who hold three year diplomas remain vociferously angry about this discrepancy in their status. When the new 'broad based' Library and Information Association of South Africa, LIASA, was established to much national and international professional acclaim in 1997, and the associations that represented the past, ALASA and SAILIS, disbanded in 1998-99 by prior consensus, it was no surprise that the verbal correlation between the terms 'professional' and 'graduate' fell away, although the debate over privileges of graduate status surfaces still. Though not a statutory body, LIASA has a membership of around 1500, and is accepted as a body with authority to speak for the profession in South Africa and internationally (and is the national representative association with IFLA membership). It has a national office with salaried executive and administrative officers, funded by a three year grant from the Carnegie Foundation4. LIASA also administers the South African Library Leadership Project, SALLP, a national CPE project funded by the Mellon Foundation through LIASA and the Mortenson Center at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign3. At the time of writing (December 2001) the SALLP is about to select the first nine candidates for

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phase one of the programme, a six week intensive leadership study and practical programme at the Mortenson Center in June and July 2002. The second goal of the SALLP, after 2003, is the establishment of a continuing professional education 'entity' located in the LIASA office, through which a nationally structured programme of CPE offerings (apart from formal degree qualifications) may be developed, coordinated and certificated. As indicated in 20016 the value of CPE is frequently viewed in South Africa by participants in very short courses in potentially material terms, as job opportunity enhancement, more than holistically as personal or professional lifelong development. The traditional providers of CPE for LIS (associations, graduate schools and libraries of individual academic institutions) offer CPE in the form of one day, two day or even half day 'workshops', which are more seminars than hands on experiences, and specialist or general conferences on a local, regional or national level. Academic library consortia, new players on the South African higher education libraries field since the mid 1990s, address training needs of staff within their member institutions with similar short courses. Many institutions of higher education offer courses or modules of courses for non examination purposes, or modify professional training contents to deliver income generating courses to LIS practitioners on the short course or winter school model.7 None of this CPE delivery is available on a nationally or even regionally coordinated basis, unless the contents is intended as training for implementation of a system or product acquired by a number of institutions. All such training events may however be statistically recorded by the employer institution and submitted to meet the requirements of Skills Development legislation8. In this way training is justified for inclusion as a component of the annual budget, and staff participation is thus in the interests of employers. With few exceptions in the LIS field, these activities are not assessed for certification by assessment although attendance certificates are valued by participants. Course providers are not explicitly accredited and neither are the courses themselves, because no mechanism yet exists for this (see below). Members of academic teaching departments are at present deemed to be accredited providers without further certification, but this does not apply to practitioners employed as staff members of library and information services, or independent private operators. No quality assurance allows the would be participant to select in advance a good course or provider from a bad one, except by word of mouth and inhouse post attendance evaluation on more or less subjective criteria (but see below the aim of short course recording). Nevertheless the provision of courses of this kind is seen as lucrative and providers multiply in private and public institutions. The South African Qualifications Authority, SAQA has put in place complex procedures for accreditation and quality assurance, described in detail below. At the time of writing (December 2001) none of these could be applied to the field of LIS CPE, except for formal educational qualifications submitted for accreditation by higher education institutions, and registered as such on an appropriate level within the National Qualifications Framework, NQF9. THE SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK

AUTHORITY/NATIONAL

Legislation establishing the SAQA/NQF was promulgated in 199510. All SAQA sources referred to in this paper, including numerous documents of criteria and

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guidelines for procedures and quality assurance, may be found on the comprehensive and continuously updated SAQA website at http://www.saqa.org.za. The SAQA is a statutory body appointed by the Minister of Education in consultation with the Minister of Labour, and is the authority responsible for overseeing the development and implementation of the NQF. Guided by the fundamental principles of "Integration, Relevance, Credibility, Coherence, Flexibility, Standards, Legitimacy, Access, Articulation, Progression, Portability, Recognition of prior learning (RPL) and Guidance of learners" n . The objectives of the NQF, as set out in the SAQA Act, are to: • • • •

create an integrated national framework for learning achievements; facilitate access to, and mobility and progression within education, training and career paths; accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities; and thereby contribute to the full personal development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large.12

To attain these objectives, a complex and bureaucratic structure of bodies, standards and guidelines has been and continues to be developed, as recorded on the SAQA web she. The essential work of the SAQA in establishing the NQF is managed through 12 National Standards Bodies, NSBs. These are the 12 organising fields into which the NQF has divided all education and training in South Africa , of which NSB 04, for the field of Communication Studies and Language, is the home of the Standards Generation Bodies (SGBs) for the sub fields o f Information and Library Studies, Archives and Records Management, and other sub fields of study, professional practice and occupational activity in communications, language and literature. The NSBs are "national stakeholder standards setting bodies with equitable representation through six stakeholder categories" of national interest groups: • • • • • •

the State (Government departments); organised labour organised business providers of education and training critical interest groups (such as professional associations) the community/learners

Each stakeholder group nominates representatives to serve on the NSB. Similarly, at the SGB level, 25 representatives are drawn from key education and training stakeholder interest groups within the sub-field addressed. Their responsibilities include •

issues o f productivity, fairness, public interest and international comparability for education and training in the sub-field;

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• • •

expertise and experience in the sub-field, and the support or backing of the nominating body; advocacy and mediation for the needs and interests of all levels within the subfield; committed to "a communication process between the SGB, the NSB and the constituency"14.

These requirements constitute a very particular South African view of quality assurance in the broad sense - not only technical quality but perceived legitimacy, through 'representivity', in establishing standards for quality. UNIT STANDARDS AND QUALIFICATIONS Three different kinds of standards generation are distinguished: • • •

qualifications based on exit level outcomes and assessment criteria; qualifications based on unit standards; and unit standards themselves15.

Unit standards are essentially the documents that describe in a consistent format what industry requires people to know and do, and the standard to which they are expected to perform1 . A unit standard document comprises: • • •

a coherent, meaningful, title specific outcome of learning or training, which may be broken down into smaller, more manageable outcomes, for formal recognition; the associated standard of performance used to assess whether the outcome has been met; and the context within which the individual is expected to perform17.

A unit standard is the smallest unit that can be credited to a learner18; standards are the 'building blocks' for qualifications and for the national outcomesbased education and training system which the NQF supports. Qualifications based on unit standards are made up of clusters of registered unit standards which meet the needs of industry, enterprises and institutions; their composition and design are determined by the various sectors19. The focus of S AQA in developing and implementing a National Qualifications Framework is however on qualifications, not unit standards in themselves, since it is qualifications that provide "the structural and social mobility which the NQF objectives promote" . In evaluating a qualification, therefore, the important points that SAQA seeks to establish are » •

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whether the qualification is likely to result in transformation and the critical cross field issues of responsible citizenship, cultural and aesthetic sensitivity, and effective use of science and technology; and whether the qualification both prepares a learner for a particular job and facilitates entry to a career path which opens up opportunities for lifelong learning.

The 'overarching question' to be asked is therefore "Will the achievement of this qualification contribute towards the full personal development of the learner and to the social and economic development of the nation at large?"21. It might reasonably be expected that that CPE would be readily accommodated to contribute to this goal. QUALITY ASSURANCE The standards setting process driven by the NSBs and SGBs is matched by a second set of structures and procedures for the provision of quality assurance. National stakeholder representation is similarly incorporated to ensure "public accountability, relevance and credibility".22 Whereas SGBs define service standards in terms of the specific outcomes required by SAQA, Education and Training Quality Assurance Bodies, ETQAs, provide for the quality audit and quality assurance: the assessment, moderation and accreditation criteria developed for each standard and qualification are the critical elements for quality assurance23. A third group, education and training "Providers" are "the productive units, the creators and constituent providers of the service".24 ETQAs are accountable to SAQA for standards of learning achievements and provision, assuring the quality of learning achievements within a specified context for registered standards. ETQA Bodies are established in one of three sectors: social, economic or education and training, which in turn have Sector Education and Training Authorities, SETAs. ETQAs are accredited in each sector by SAQA "for the purpose of monitoring and auditing achievements in terms of national standards or qualifications". An ETQA Body may also be accredited if it is identified, with or without legislative standing, as a nationally or internationally recognised body with assessment and quality assurance functions. It is possible that LIASA, though not a statutory body, may fit this definition sufficiently to apply to be accredited as the ETQA for Library and Information Studies25. ETQAs are required to conduct quality assurance in a way that interfaces with the standards setting processes. The two processes are however separated, and a clear distinction is made in the ETQA Regulations between accrediting, moderating and standards setting itself. ETQAs themselves, or individual members of these bodies, may participate in, initiate or even take the lead in establishing SGBs, but they may not alone be the SGB without input from other significant and critical stakeholder interest groups as described above. ETQAs also may not be accredited providers if they are accredited as quality assurance bodies26. Thus in due course LIASA may be represented on an SGB for LIS as a stakeholder among a number of others, and may be also be accredited as the ETQA for LIS. The document Quality management systems for ETQAs is available from the SAQA website http://www.saqa.org.za/html/publications/critguide/critguide.htm EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROVIDERS ETQAs are responsible both for registering assessors and accrediting providers. An education and training provider is defined in the SAQA Act as "a body which delivers learning programmes which culminate in specified National Qualification Framework standards and/or qualifications, and manages the assessment thereof' 27 . Providers are accountable to the ETQA in their area of primary focus; a manual Criteria and guidelines for the accreditation of providers and a guideline 249

document Quality management systems for education and training providers were published in 2001 and are on the SAQA web site http://www.saqa.org.za/html/publications/critguide/critguide.htm. Providers must satisfy a set of core minimum criteria for accreditation. These are: • • • • • • • •

a policy statement of aims, objectives and purposes; quality management systems that identify processes and procedures for QM within the provider organisation; review mechanisms for monitoring the implementation of these QM systems; an outline of programme delivery indicating how learning programmes would be developed, delivered and evaluated; staff policies for staff selection, appraisal and development; policies and procedures for the selection and support of learners; policies and procedures for forms of assessment and the management of assessment; an outline of financial, administrative and physical structures and resources of the provider organisation, as well as procedures of accountability within the organisation 8

No provider will be accredited if any of these core criteria are not met. In addition, the development of sector specific criteria is identified as an ongoing responsibility of ETQAs29. Potential CPE providers in LIS would have to satisfy the same criteria. SAQA/NQF AND POSTGRADUATE QUALIFICATION CPE may be identified in two distinct categories. If the 'P' for professional designates a first level professional qualification, then one type of CPE to be recognised is study towards and achievement of postgraduate qualifications in the professional academic field of LIS. Postgraduate degree certification by academic institutions is universal practice in higher education, and requirement by employers of such certification is common for appointment to senior positions in LIS, though higher degrees are far less frequently recognised through remuneration alone. At the time of writing (December 2001) a document for public comment had very recently been published proposing an adjustment to NQF levels which would result in a change in the structure for incorporation of all postgraduate qualifications ranging from the one year post basic degree level, normally referred to as an Honours degree or professional diploma, to a full doctoral level.30 The discussion is outside the scope of the present paper, but the point has been introduced here to illustrate that formal higher academic qualifications are within the implementation of the NQF and its principles. In fact these qualifications are the only 'certified' form of CPE for LIS recognised within a national framework. SHORT COURSES AND SAQA/NQF In the SAQA context a 'short course' is defined as a course which has an NQF credit value of less than 120 credits; courses with credit values of 120 credits or more will have already been registered on the NQF as a formal qualification. (A credit is equated to 10 'notional hours' of learning, where a notional hour is the time an 250

average learner would need to meet the outcomes defined). A short course is therefore approximately a course of less than 6 months' duration31. For many practitioners, however, delivery through 'short courses' that vary from half a day to occasionally a few weeks, is the familiar model. And in this area of delivery, the South African NQF is not particularly accommodating. A 'recording of short courses' process was initiated in response to the need expressed by short course providers 'for the establishment of a coherent and systematic process for bringing short course provisioning into the NQF system'. Providers of short courses were invited during 2000 to submit records on disk of their short courses, on a voluntary basis and with an accompanying payment of an amount approximately the equivalent of US$100 - $150 per disk. By inviting providers to record their short courses, SAQA obtains names and contact details of providers, information about learning outcomes and assessment processes associated with courses, and information about providers' quality management systems, including facilitators and any other recognition or accreditation already obtained from local or international organisations. As the relevant SAQA document points out, however, SAQA registers standards and qualifications, not courses or providers32. There is a detailed account in this document of how the information will be used: in addition to providing a means of verifying the names and contact details of providers, it is seen as providing valuable insight into the needs of the learners (including gaps in provision), and thus as input to SGBs for identifying and developing common standards from all recorded courses with similar scope and contents. In other words, the recorded input from providers of short courses is intended to enhance and extend the standards generating scope of the SGBs, and thus of the registered standards themselves. No quality assurance process will be conducted on the input from each provider. It is nevertheless the opinion of SAQA that this voluntary process of recording short courses indicates that a provider is committed to building the standards setting process in the NQF, and to engaging in quality assurance processes as they are established. The recording process is perceived as ensuring that the skills and knowledge addressed by providers in their own particular courses will be brought into the standards generating process and systematised. Each provider currently operating will thus be included in the 'quality loop', and the courses offered will in due course be considered by the relevant ETQA. The point is emphasised repeatedly that participating in recording short courses does not mean that: • • •

recorded courses are registered on the NQF; recorded courses are accredited by SAQA; the provider who records a course is registered or accredited by SAQA;

and providers are warned that advertising to this effect constitutes fraud and the deception of learners and society at large33. SAQA believes that misconceptions may exist concerning the pressure for registration and accreditation of courses. Provision exists in the Skills Development Levies Act34 for repayment to employer organisations of a percentage of the levy grant for staff training undertaken for, or based on, SAQA registered standards or qualifications. The recovery of the levy payment, however, will be a gradual process and no immediate pressure to register courses and providers therefore exists. SAQA nevertheless acknowledges that government has warned the public not to use

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providers without proof of registration and accreditation, and providers themselves wish to be accredited and registered, to satisfy their clients. The fact is, however, that, "there is currently no clear process whereby this can happen except in the case of Private Higher Education Institutions" (which are themselves already registered) 35. In reality this means that unless providers develop short courses as, or around, existing individual unit standards, which eventually might be registered on the NQF and be incorporated into qualifications, no formal accreditation or certification of CPE, nor of the provider, is possible, unless the CPE is incorporated into a much larger structured offering by a provider accredited with the appropriate ETQA. At present no ETQA exists, nor is an SGB registered, for the LIS sub field. Only those providers - in practice academic institutions - which offer short courses as clusters of registered unit standards within a formal qualifications framework, can be said to be able to certificate CPE for LIS in South Africa. During 2001 an independent consultant, Evolutions, was engaged to drive the short course process, and a report was given at the 20th Plenary meeting of NSB 04 in October 2001, essentially summarising the outcomes of the short course recording process as described above. At the time of writing (December 2001) no significant further developments had taken place36. CONCLUSION: A LONG ROAD AHEAD In March and June 2000 two meetings were held by concerned members of the LIS sector, predominantly from academic and public libraries, to discuss the formation of an interim Standards Generating Body and to appoint an interim Steering committee to drive this process forward. The present writer has been a member of this committee since it was first proposed. Despite a further third meeting at the annual LIASA conference in September 2000, no progress with nominating a fully representative committee was achieved (as required for SGB registration). During 2001 the process was transferred by the original convenors to the national office of LIASA; at the LIASA annual conference in September 2001 a further meeting was held and nominations from a more representative range of interested parties were obtained. The experience of applying to register an SGB within NSB 04 for the related sub field of Archives and Records management, as described to the meeting, illustrated the potential pitfalls in the process, although registration was eventually announced37. In October 2001, an application was sent to NSB 04 requesting recognition of an SGB for Library and Information Studies. Comments recorded in the minutes of the Plenary meeting indicate that the application was incomplete and the information supplied was vague. Concerns were also raised about the representivity of the membership of the SGB and its inclusion of comment from all stakeholders. The decision of NSB 04 was that the application should be referred back to the proposers for rectification and that the revised application would then be submitted to the SGB sub committee of the NSB through the Executive Committee38. At the time of writing (December 2001) the outcome of this has not been reported but by August 2002 the situation may look more positive. A mechanism for certification of LIS CPE short courses of less than six months' duration, within the national structures and processes described above, remains frustratingly elusive. LIASA as a national association has no statutory authority and a long debated National Council for LIS, though finally established by legislation during 2001, has yet to be constituted and become operational39. In the

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meantime, numerous private providers of untested quality, as well institutions and other bodies, continue to offer short course CPE that is perceived to be marketable. Until the SAQA database of recorded short courses becomes available for public consultation so that the extent of LIS material recorded is seen, and until application for recognition as an SGB for the LIS subfield is successful, CPE for LIS in South Africa will remain formally invisible.

REFERENCES 1

2

3 4

5 6 7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14 15

16

Walker, Clare M. "Janus in South Africa: Building for the Future While Keeping an Eye on the Past." In B. Woolls and B. E. Sheldon (Eds.) Delivering Lifelong Continuing Professional Education Across Space and Time. The Fourth World Conference on Continuing Professional Education for the Library and Information Science Professions. München: Κ. G. Saur, 2001, pp. 230-241. Musiker, Reuben. Companion to South African Libraries. Johannesburg: Donker, 1986, pp. 167-8. Musiker, op.cit., p. 169 "First Executive Director of LIASA Appointed." LIASA-in-Touch: Official Newsletter of the Library and Information Association of South Africa, 2, 1 (2001): 6. Walker, op.cit., pp.237-239. Walker, op.cit. University of Pretoria. Department of Information Science. Winter School 2001. Available from: http://www.up.ac.za/academic/information/winterschool South Africa (Republic). Skills Development Levies Act (Act 9 of 1999). Available at website http:// www.gov.za/docs/legislation/skills/act9-99.pdf South Africa (Republic). Council on Higher Education. Higher Education Qualifications. 2001. South Africa (Republic). South African Qualifications Authority Act (Act 58 of 1995). Available at website http://www.saqa.org.za/html/publications/legs-®s/acts/act58-95.html South African Qualifications Authority. Criteria for the Generation and Evaluation of Qualifications and Standards Within the National Qualifications Framework. Policy document SAQA 1430/00, 2000, p. 3. Available on the website List of Criteria and Guideline Documents at http ://www. saqa. org. za/html/publications/critguide/ critguide. htm South African Qualifications Authority The Development of Level Descriptors for the National Qualifications Framework: the Role of Level Descriptors and Qualification Descriptors in the NQF. Document for Public Comment 3 December 2001 to 28 February 2002. Pretoria: SAQA, December 2001: 8. South African Qualifications Authority. Standards Generating Body Manual: Fourth Draft, May 2000: SAQA Document 1230/00. Pretoria: SAQA, 2000, p. 8. Ibid, p. 10. South African Qualifications Authority. Criteria for Generation and Evaluation... op. cit.p.2. The Learning Network SA. About the NQF. [n.d 72000], p. 5.

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South African Qualifications Authority. Guidelines for the Assessment of NQF Registered Unit Standards and Qualifications. Pretoria: SAQA, [n.d.]? 2000, p. 27. Ibid, p. 49. Ibid., p. 27. South African Qualifications Authority. Criteria for Generation and Evaluation... op. cit., p. 3. Ibid., p.4. South African Qualifications Authority. Criteria and Guidelines for the Accreditation of ETQAs: Post Public Document, 20 April 2000, p. 7. Available from: List of Criteria and Guideline Documents at http ://www. saga, org. za/html/publications/critguide/critguide. htm Ibid. South African Qualifications Authority. Quality Management Systems for Education and Training Providers, 2001, p. 4. Available from: List of Criteria and Guideline Documents at http://vww.saqa.org.za/html/publications/critguide/critguide.htm South African Qualifications Authority. Criteria and Guidelines for the Accreditation ...op. cit., p. 11. Ibid., p.9. South African Qualifications Authority. Quality Management Systems for Education ...op. cit., p.2. Ibid, p.20. Ibid, p.21. South African Qualifications Authority. The Development of Level Descriptors ... op. cit. South African Qualifications Authority. The Recording of Short Courses, July 2000. Available from: http ://www. saqa. org. za/html/publications/pubs/shortcourses Ibid South African Qualifications Authority. The Recording of Short Courses. Brief item available from: http://www.saqa.org.za/html/publications/pubs/shortcourses Part 1) South Africa (Republic). Skills Development Levies Act..., op. cit. South African Qualifications Authority. The Recording of Short Courses. Brief item...op. cit. South African Qualifications Authority. Minutes of the 2&h NSB 04 Plenary Meeting Held at 10:00 on 24 & 25 October 2001 at the SAQA Offices, Brooklyn, Pretoria. October 2001. Available from: http ://www. saqa. org. za/html/nqf nsb/html/nsb4/mins1024. html South Africa (Republic). "Public Notice by NSB 04, Communication Studies and Language, of the Registration of an SGB for Archives and Records Management. Notice 727 of 2000." Government Gazette 416, 21372, 21 July (2000). South African Qualifications Authority. Minutes of the 2(fh NSB 04 Plenary Meeting ...op. cit.

South Africa (Republic). National Councilfor Library and Information Services Act (Act No. 6 of 2001). 2001.

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CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION AS AN ETHICAL ISSUE Prof. Jitka Hurych Science, Engineering and Business Department Northern Illinois University Libraries USA

You should keep on learning as long as there is something you do not know. (Seneca) Learning is not compulsory ...neither Is survival (W. Edwards Deming)

Abstract:

Professional knowledge, building on a theoretical basis, core competencies and professional values have been recognised as hallmarks of professions. Articulation of principles and practices should ensure that members of the profession function at the highest level of competence. Competence is achieved by proper preparation, starting with an appropriate degree and continuing with a lifelong commitment to learning and self-development. This paper places the library profession within the context of other professions by analysing the Codes of Ethics for their statements on continuing professional education.

LIBRAR1ANSHIP AND CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION When considering professional education for librarians, it is hard to avoid debates about the profession, its characteristics and its future. There have already been too many speculations about what the future of the library profession will be in the electronic, virtual or cyber library and librarians of the future have been called everything from 'knowledge workers' and 'knowledge managers' to 'informationists', 'access engineers' and 'cybrarians'. The great emphasis placed on information and knowledge by society, especially in the last quarter of the century, should have made the library profession indispensable and invaluable. However, in an environment of the proverbial information explosion, rapid developments in information technologies, increasingly diverse user populations, and increased demands for instant services, the library profession has been involved in a competition with other information professions for status and possibly also for control of the market. This competition does not have to be viewed negatively, as Danner1 explains in his article in the Law Library Journal·. "Because the environment in which all professionals work is continually changing as new professional groups emerge, new technologies are invented and the political environment in the workplace shifts, competition is inherent in professional life. In the long run, competition should be healthy for any profession because of the challenges it poses."

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Proclamations about the need for changes in the library profession in order to survive and stay relevant, have become almost a cliché. Many of them seem to focus on keeping up with new developments in technology. (There have even been voices predicting the demise of librarianship, luckily most of them coming from outside of the profession). Abbott 2 talks about a different type of change: "The major cultural force affecting librarianship is internal intellectual change - the production of new forms of knowledge that enable new forms of storage and retrieval of information". The enormous changes in society and in technology have affected every profession, and the need for change and for continuing education has been universally accepted. By now, every profession has probably adopted the concept of lifelong learning. In other words, education for contemporary professional does no longer end with diploma, if it ever did. It has been recognised that continuing education strengthens not only knowledge and skills necessary for competent performance but also values and attitudes necessary for the service orientation of a profession. Ideally, professionals should always live 'the life of mind'. As Parsons said so poignantly when discussing professions and education "The valuation of knowledge for its own sake is an integral part of the professional spirit". This thinking is definitely not foreign to librarians with their professional values and attitudes, and yet they have never been very successful in communicating to the society what they do, what they know, why their work should be considered professional, and especially how important it is for them to say current. Wayne Wiegand from the University of Wisconsin stated recently 4: "From its beginnings, however, continuing education in librarianship has had a particular emphasis. Mostly, it has focused on the 'how' question formulated to improve professional practice, not on the 'why' question that have greater potential to expand understanding of librarianship's role in a wider cultural context". Danner5 has defined functional characteristics of professions as 1) knowledge 2) skills or competence and 3) shared values. Librarianship has been seemingly more involved with practical training than with theory and that may be one of the reasons for the ongoing debate about its place among professions. Timo Airaksinen6 from the University of Helsinki, gives a definition of a professional in the Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics: "...a professional is a member of an exclusive group of individuals who possess a value-based service ideal, and an abstract knowledge of their own field. Professionalism is the relevant ideology with its behavioural and policy orientated counterparts". It is somewhat distressing to note that in his article on professional ethics, Airaksinen lists certified public accountants, physicians, teachers, lawyers, social workers, and psychologists as 'the classic professions' and mentions others such as nursing, engineering and various business jobs as a 'lower form' of professionalism. Librarianship is sadly missing from his list.

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In his article on professions and their ethical standards, Airaksinen presents a table in which he describes professions by their ideal values and goals, together with their function in society7. The author of this paper feels strongly that librarianship should be represented and she took the liberty of adding its value and function to this table* Table 1. Professions: their ideal values and 2oals and function in society

Profession

Value

Real Function (example)

Law Medicine Education Psychology Social Work Accounting and assets •Librarianship

Justice Health Human growth Autonomy Welfare Fairness

Utilisation of law Médicalisation of life Socialisation Social adjustment Stigmatisation Measurement of income

Knowledge

Managing information

Duncan Smith8, in his paper from one of the previous conferences on 'Continuing Professional Education' writes: "The profession is at a loss to define and describe itself'. He further states that individual librarians should be responsible for their continuing education but so should be the institutions for which they work by creating a nurturing and safe environment for professional development. It is nothing new then to state that all professions demand some form of continuing education to keep up with new developments in their field and usually also to maintain their license. Librarianship is - perhaps unfortunately - not a licensed profession, although some library educators have presented valid reasons for certification. According to Patricia Layzell Ward 9, there is now a greater need for broader theoretical background in librarianship, not only for obvious reasons such as updating competencies, due to rapid developments in communications and information technologies, but also because of the impact that other disciplines have on the library profession. To understand how adults learn, librarianship should study pedagogical theories; to deal with diverse populations, librarians should understand sociology of communities and psychology of individuals; to understand the political and economic climate in which libraries function, some background in political science and economics is necessary. There are also many legal implications of librarians' work, such as copyright and licensing of databases and software, which require learning about law. Finally, the need for managerial and leadership qualities has been emphasised already too many times. Professional competence, based on abstract knowledge together with the ideal of service and values, cannot be over emphasised in terms of professional education, whether it is 'basic' or continuing. As Abbott10 says: "Abstraction enables survival in the competitive system of professions and it is what sets the professions apart from other occupations. The techniques may be delegated to others but only a knowledge system governed by abstractions can redefine its problems and tasks". According to

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Danner11, librarianship should articulate the "theoretical basis for the professional tasks that librarians either perform or control in the workplace". PROFESSIONAL CODES OF ETHICS Most professions define their role, values and duties by the official codes of ethics. The library profession is no exception. However, many professions present a strong statement on continuing professional education to demonstrate to the public and to their members a strong moral obligation to stay current in their field. In other professions' codes of ethics, the statements on continuing education usually appear under a specific heading, such as 'Competence', 'Maintaining Competence', 'Specific professional responsibilities' or 'Continuing Education'. They use strong, assertive words, such as: have obligation, strive to increase, strive to maintain, must continue, requires commitment, should engage, and some even prescribe the possible ways to upgrade professional competence. Examples from ethical codes 1 of counselling, medicine, law, computing, nursing, psychology, social work, dentistry, and accounting follow: Counseling "Counselors recognize the need for continuing education to maintain a reasonable level of awareness of current scientific and professional information in their field of activity. Thev take steps to maintain competence in the skills they use, are open to new procedures, and keep current with the diverse and/or special populations with whom they work".13 Medicine "Physicians should strive to further their medical education throughout their careers, for only by participating in continuing medical education (CME) can they continue to serve patients to the best of their abilities and live up to professional standards of excellence".14 Law "To maintain requisite knowledge and skill, a lawyer should engage in continuing study and education. If a system of peer review has been established, the lawyer should consider making use of it.. ,".15 Computing "Excellence is perhaps the most important obligation of a professional... Excellence depends on individuals who take responsibility for acquiring and maintaining professional competence. Upgrading technical knowledge and competence can be achieved in several ways: doing independent study; attending seminars, conferences, or courses; and being involved in professional organizations".16 Nursing "The nurse must be aware of the need for continued professional learning and must assume personal responsibility for currency of knowledge and skills. Nurses must be willing to have their practice reviewed and evaluated by their peers".17

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Dentistry "The privilege of dentists to be accorded professional status rests primarily in the knowledge, skill and experience with which they serve their patients and society. All dentists, therefore, have the obligation of keeping their knowledge and skill current".18 Social Work "Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and skills and to apply them in practice. Social workers should aspire to contribute to the knowledge base of the profession". 19 Psychology "Psychologists strive to maintain high standards of competence in their work... They maintain knowledge or relevant scientific and professional information related to the services they render, and they recognize the need for ongoing education".20 Accounting "Competence is derived from a synthesis of education and experience... The maintenance of competence requires a commitment to learning and professional improvement and must continue throughout a member's professional life".21 These statements from the respective Codes of Ethics leave no doubts in the reader's mind that continuing professional education is taken seriously as an ethical issue. CODES OF ETHICS OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS In order to compare library profession's statements on continuing professional education with other professions, the author examined codes of ethics of four library associations of the English speaking world: the American Library Association, the British Library Association, the Canadian Library Association and the Australian Library and Information Association. The American Library Association's Code of Ethics

22

proclaims:

"We strive for excellence in the profession by maintaining and enhancing our own knowledge and skills, by encouraging the professional development of co-workers, and by fostering the aspirations of potential members of the profession". The (British) Library Association's Code of Professional Conduct23 states: "Members must be competent in their professional activities including the requirement to keep abreast of developments in librarianship in those branches

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of professional practice in which qualifications and experience entitle them to engage". It is interesting to note that the document does not make a difference between librarians and other library and information personnel. It is unclear what defines the library profession in some of these codes. The Australian Library and Information Association's Statement of Professional Ethics 24 includes both librarians and library technicians, and states that they: "...must maintain and enhance their professional knowledge and skills to ensure excellence in the profession by encouraging the professional development of co-workers and by fostering the aspirations of potential members of the profession". The statement is adopted from the American Library Association's Code of Ethics. The Canadian Library Association's Code of Ethics Position Statement (1976) does not address the issue of continuing education at all. However, its mission statement proclaims that:

25

"An informed and knowledgeable membership is central in achieving library and information policy goals" and "Our Association will ensure that its staff are provided with tools and training necessary for them to excel at their jobs". When continuing education and a need for currency is mentioned at all in these codes, it is usually an expression of hopes and aspirations, as in the case of American Library Association, rather than a clear guidance or mandate. However, the American Library Association recently published a brochure titled Education and Continuous Learning 26 which addresses a need for lifelong learning for librarians in their teaching role. It states the need for continuing education in somewhat stronger terms: "For librarians, continuous learning is critical to renewing the expertise and skills needed to teach and assist members of the public in the new information age". In many professions the need for continuing education is also driven by concerns for liability and malpractice. Although there have not been any known cases of liability in librarianship, the adequate preparation and keeping up to date should be an ethical obligation of every professional librarian. Many professions seek legal status for their members by licensure, which prevents those who have not met the education criteria from using the profession's title and from practising in a field for which they are not prepared. Librarianship has been for far too long a 'democratic' profession, allowing individuals without the appropriate diploma to use the title and practising in the field of their expertise. Does librarianship rely on a unique expertise and knowledge? Winter27 defines it as "the maintenance of culture through

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maintenance of access to knowledge records". And Estabrook28, from the University of Illinois, as "An understanding of collection, preservation, organisation and dissemination of information in he service of maintaining access to knowledge records". According to Abbott29, professions seek recognition from the society through claims for exclusive rights, or jurisdiction over specific areas of work. Danner30 states that professional knowledge is the intellectual component of professional work and it is essential for any group wishing to be recognised as a profession. What is the intellectual component of librarians' knowledge? According to Danner it is the "knowledge in the areas of information resources, information access, technology, management and research and the ability to use these areas of knowledge as a basis for providing library and information service". CONCLUSION In conclusion, it should be stressed again that professional continuing education and professional self-development in librarianship are important not only for adapting to continually changing technological and information environments but also as an obligation to one's profession and to society at large. If librarianship aims to be recognised as a more prestigious profession, its professional education, both the basic as well as continuing, needs to put more emphasis on the theoretical knowledge and intellectual content rather than strictly on training. And then perhaps we would not have to change our perfectly suitable professional title to something like the 'cybrarian' that brings up an image of an 'extraterrestrial being' rather than a respectful professional. Library associations should perhaps also strengthen their codes of ethics by including a stronger statement on continuing education as a value and obligation for their members. Further, it should be interesting to investigate codes of ethics of library associations from other countries, besides those included in this paper, and learn if and how they communicate to their members and to the general public the ethical value of professional continuing education. The concluding quote comes from a book by John Lawrence31 : "The strength of professional education, from an ethical justification viewpoint is that it tends to be concerned explicitly with values and skills, as well as knowledge. This is in contrast to education in non professional subjects where the focus is on analysis and description and possibly prediction". REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

Danner, R. A. "Redefining a Profession." Law Library Journal, 90, 3 (1998): 327. Abbott, A. "Professionalism and the Future of Librarianship." Library Trends, 46, 3 (1998): 437. Parsons, T. "Remarks on Education and Professions." International Journal of Ethics, 47, 3 (1937): 366. Wiegand. W. "This Month 31 Years Ago." American Libraries, 32, 9 (2001): 88.

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Danner, op. cit., p. 326. Airaksinen, T. "Professional Ethics". In Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics. Vol. 3. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998, p. 672. Ibid., p. 674. Smith, D. "The Greening of Librarianship. Charting a New Course for Continuing Library Education". In B. Woolls and B.E. Sheldon (Eds ), Continuing Professional Education and IFLA: Past, Present, and a Vision for the Future (pp. 11-21). München: Saur, 2001, pp. 253-265. Layzell Ward, P. "Fit to Practice? The Need for the Certification of Professional Knowledge and Competencies". In B. Woolls and Β. E. Sheldon (Eds.), Continuing Professional Education and IFLA: Past, Present, and a Vision for the Future. München: Saur, 2001, pp. 224-229. Abbott, A. The System of Professions: An Essay on Division of Expert Labor. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988, p. 327. Danner, op. cit., p. 324. Codes of Professional Responsibility. Ethics Standards in Business, Health, and Law. 4th Ed. Washington, DC.: The Bureau of National Affairs, 1999. Ibid, p. 427. Ibid., p. 404. Ibid, p. 671. Ibid, p. 95. Ibid, p. 501. Ibid, p. 284. Ibid., p. 543. Ibid, p. 467. Ibid, p. 23. American Library Association. Available from: www.ala.org. Library Association. Available from: www.la-hg.org.uk Australian Library and Information Association. Available from: www.alia.org.au. Canadian Library Association. Available from: www.cla.org. American Library Association, op. cit. Winter, M. The Culture and Control of Expertise. New York: Greenwood, 1988, p. 77. Estabrook, L. "The Growth of the Profession." College and Research Libraries, 50, 3 (1989): 291. Abbott, The System of Professions, op. cit., p. 59. Danner, op. cit., p. 326. Lawrence, J. Argument for Action: Ethics and Professional Conduct. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999, p. 152.

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