Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad: Fiftieth Annual Schoolmen's Week Proceedings [Reprint 2016 ed.] 9781512802979

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Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad

University of Pennsylvania Schoolmen s Week

Schoolmen s Week Meeting October 10-13, 1962

Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad Fiftieth

Annual

Schoolmen s Week

Proceedings

Edited b y

HELEN HUUS

Philadelphia UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS

© 1963 by the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania Published in Great Britain, India, and Pakistan by the Oxford University Press London, Bombay, and Karachi Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 61-311

7429 Printed in the United States of America

Editor's Preface of interest in education today, as evidenced in the public press and other media of communication, the legislative debates, and the ever-increasing college enrollments, is heartening to those who have chosen education as their profession, but it is not without its accompanying difficulties. Over the years, the public has been quick to criticize, less quick to praise, but underneath has remained an abiding faith, characteristic of Americans, that education will provide the answers. And as the current issues loom large on the horizon, it seems that education once again must shoulder much of the burden and begin with five-year-olds to solve problems that adults find difficult, if not impossible. This is, in part, a tribute to the contributions that schools have made in the past and an acceptance of the need for an enlightened citizenry to cope with the future. It is within this context of public concern for education that the Fiftieth Schoolmen's Week was held at the University of Pennsylvania from October 10-13, 1962, with its general theme of "Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad." These Proceedings contain but a few of the papers that were presented at that time. The complete program, however, is presented in the Appendix, a practice that was discontinued for a time but which is being resumed with the present volume. The Introduction contains two brief reports of the history of Schoolmen's Week during its first fifty years. The recurring problems sound familiar, and the chronology parallels the development of education. The first section of the body of the report includes two papers on the conference theme, one of which emphasizes the changes wrought by science and technology and points out the problems that have resulted, while the other indicates the acute need for acquiring enough competent teachers to staff the urban schools. The second section, devoted to "Comparative Education," contains 5 T H E UPSURGE

6

EDITOR'S

PREFACE

a description and analysis of education in Australia, an examination of the criticisms made of the Soviet schools by their own writers and educators, and a report on technical and vocational education in four areas—the U.S.S.R., Libya, the Andes, and the Pacific Islands. Section III is composed of two papers on the philosophy of education by Dr. Hobert W. Burns of Syracuse University, who traces the development from a priori rationalism to modern empiricism in one paper and, in the other, points out four common fallacies in interpreting the philosophy of education. The fourth section, entitled "Recent Developments," contains two papers that treat organization and methods which have been introduced fairly recently into the schools and are still currently in the news. One mentions ways of organizing the school, and the other gives some examples of outstanding programs already under way across the country. Section V, "Of General Concern," deals with topics of continuing interest that have come to the forefront with increased emphasis during the last year. Much has recently been written and spoken, and research studies are in progress to define and analyze the elusive quality of "creativity." The first paper in this section discusses the nature of creativity and the conditions that foster its development, and though it is written from the point of view of the young child, the general principles should be applicable at all levels. The second delineates the content and scope of social studies and presents a tentative curriculum for the elementary grades. The last section, on speech and language, contains two papers. One describes changing speech patterns and points out the ten distinct dialects of English spoken in the United States. The final paper, a fitting ending, is a spirited defense of Latin as a "living language," to be spoken and used in written communication—at table, in correspondence, and for conversation! A program that contains over 100 sessions is necessarily not the work of one alone, but many. Those who have contributed so generously of their time, ideas, and financial resources are listed in the Appendix. However, several individuals deserve special commendation for their part in the success of the undertaking. Among these are:

Editor's Preface

7

the program coordinators, Dr. Eleanor M. Dillinger, formerly Assistant Professor of Education at the University of Pennsylvania and now Associate Professor of Education, Miami University, Miami, Florida, and Dr. Albert I. Oliver, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania, who were responsible for the elementary and secondary programs, respectively; the executive secretary, Dr. Richard S. Heisler, who cared for the many details involved in arranging the exhibits and in providing adequate space for the meetings; the administrative assistant, Mrs. Alice Lavelle, who faithfully and accurately met the problems that arose and maintained order in the midst of confusion; and Mrs. Eleanor Bennett, who expertly typed the final manuscript and aided immeasurably with her careful checking. A special word of thanks must also be given to Provost David R. Goddard and those professors who so kindly co-operated in making last-minute room changes so that Schoolmen's Week audiences might be accommodated; their help is greatly appreciated. Finally, all who participated in the Fiftieth Schoolmen's Week, whether or not their manuscripts have been included herein, deserve praise for their thoughtful contributions that made the conference memorable. We are grateful for such continued support, and trust that the returns are of benefit individually and collectively. HELEN HUUS Associate Professor of Education General Chairman of Schoolmen's Week University of Pennsylvania February, 1963

Contents Editor's Preface Introduction Schoolmen's Week in Retrospect—Helen Huus, Richard S. Heisler

I

94 109

119 140

Recent Developments

Organizing for Team Teaching—Philip Rothman Team Teaching in Action—Philip Rothman

V

79

The Philosophy of Education

The Rise of Modern Empiricism in Philosophy of Education— Hobert W. Burns Abderian Laughter in the Ivory Tower: Some Common Fallacies in Philosophy of Education—Hobert W. Burns

IV

23 39

Comparative Education

Education in Australia—Margaret B. Parke The Soviet School Through the Soviet Looking Glass— William W. Brickman Technical and Vocational Education Abroad—Lane C. Ash

ΙΠ

11

Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad

Current Issues in a Changing World—Gerald Wendt Teachers for the Schools in Our Big Cities—Harry N. Rivlin

Π

5

159 174

Of General Concern

The Nature of the Creative Process—Lorrene Love Ort Improving the Elementary Social Studies Program—Dorothy McClure Fraser 9

193 212

10

VI

CONTENTS

Speech and Language

Our Changing Speech Patterns—Jon Eisenson De Lingua Latina Viva—Goodwin B. Beach

229 246

Appendix—Schoolmen's

263

Week Committees

and Program, 1962

Introduction Schoolmen's Week in Retrospect HELEN HUUS * is the Fiftieth Schoolmen's Week, it is strictly not an "anniversary." Since the first meetings were held in 1914, the fiftieth series would ordinarily fall in 1963. However, two conferences were held in 1956, one in the spring and the other in the autumn, so that this year we have assiduously avoided using the word "anniversary" in connection with this, our golden milestone. Schoolmen's Week was originally designed to "advance the cause of education in Pennsylvania and neighboring states," and over the years its purpose has not varied greatly. It began "auspiciously," with twenty-four programs and a registration of 200 educators. Until 1941, accurate records of registration and attendance at all meetings were kept. These show that in the second year, registration rose to 785. By 1919 there were 1,240 registrants, and by 1921, the number reached nearly 2,000. In 1928, over 3,000 were registered; by 1932 the number had reached 4,000, and by 1937 it was over 5,000, where it remained with only slight fluctuations until 1941. Last year, 1961, 8,535 persons registered, and we can only estimate the number who attended without registering. The history of Schoolmen's Week is the history of education in America during the last half century. The speakers who have appeared on its programs form an educational Who's Who, and the issues they discussed reveal the concerns of the day. Though the topics have changed with the times, many still have a familiar ring. THOUGH THIS

* Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania.

11

12 THE SECOND SCHOOLMEN'S W E E K ,

INTRODUCTION

1915

In 1915, for example, the general sessions were devoted to "Rural School and Rural Life," "More Money for the Public Schools," and "The Teacher's Vocation." Smaller conferences considered standards in teacher training, problems of rural and city administration, and problems in teaching school subjects—history, modern languages, physics and chemistry, mathematics, biology, English, geography, Greek and Latin, and social studies. These subject conferences were conducted by professors of the University of Pennsylvania in the departments concerned. Speakers included Nicholas Murray Butler and Thomas A. Briggs of Columbia University, and Charles A. Wagner, Commissioner of Education in Delaware. Each noon the University furnished luncheons for all its guests, and on Thursday and Friday served supper when the conferences extended until close to the time of the evening meeting. Numbers of visitors attended the classes of the University, which were conducted as usual, and there was a competition on Thursday and Friday on the college entrance examination for high school seniors, with the first prize a full scholarship to the University.

THE T E N T H SCHOOLMEN'S W E E K ,

1923

The Tenth Annual Schoolmen's Week in 1923 presented "An Educational Program for America" at one of the general sessions, and an "Address on School and Law Enforcement" by the Hon. Gifford Pinchot, Governor of Pennsylvania. Such topics as ability grouping in elementary and secondary schools, state financial programs, rearrangement of school districts, teacher training, articulation at the junior high school, continuation schools, the working children of Philadelphia, and health education were discussed. A demonstration in teaching social studies in the junior high school was given by J. H. Minnick, and other participants were Harold O. Rugg of Lincoln School, and Frank Aydelotte, president of Swarthmore.

Introduction THE 1 9 3 3

13

CONFERENCE

The Twentieth Annual Conference in 1933, at the depth of the depression, reflected the concern with the economic situation. Charles Hubbard Judd presented addresses on "The School and the General Social Order" and "Social and Educational Trends in the United States." W. H. Kilpatrick spoke on "Education and International Relations." The findings of the National Survey of Secondary Education were reviewed and discussed, and problems of budget, financing, and legislation were prominent. "Can We Afford Free Public Education for All?" was the title of an address by Harold S. Clarke, and a report comparing American and English secondary education was given by George A. Walton, Chairman of the Committee of the George School. Home assignments, standardized tests, lesson plans, motivation, the Contract Plan, and extra credit were other topics. Among the well-known speakers were B. Lamar Johnson, Paul R. Mort, Francis B. Haas, Francis T. Spaulding, H. B. Alberty, W. A. Brownell, and James H. S. Bossard.

A DECADE LATER, 1 9 4 3

In 1943, the Thirtieth Annual Schoolmen's Week had as its theme, "Challenges to Education, War and Postwar." Critical issues were those of school support, a minimum education plan for Pennsylvania, the size of the administrative unit, the need for more school buildings, the improvement of communities through school efforts, and work experience for youth. Education in India, China, Nigeria, and West Africa were described by educators from these countries, thus indicating the continuing interest in international education. Elementary education sections included the development of understanding in mathematics; May Hill Arbuthnot and Hughes Mearas spoke on creative expression, and Emmett A. Betts on locating specific reading needs. Secondary education emphasized physical fitness and cooperative work opportunities, and Stella S. Center pointed out the

14

INTRODUCTION

need for teaching high school students to read. Other speakers included I. L. Kandel, Hollis S. Caswell, Ε. T. McSwain, Ralph W. Tyler, and two who are here this year, Laura Hooper and Leonard M. Miller. THE FORTIETH CONFERENCE,

1953

The Fortieth Schoolmen's Week in 1953 dealt with leadership responsibilities of the State Department, education in Egypt and the Middle East, the air age in the elementary school, and spiritual values. George S. Counts spoke on "The Moral Foundations of American Civilization," Roma Gans and Roy Kress on reading, Ben Seultz on arithmetic, and Carleton Washburne on "Promotion vs. Non-Promotion." Secondary educators held a session on Bulletin # 3 1 1 , the new State Curriculum, and education in America was compared with that in Germany. The future of trade and industrial education in Pennsylvania was reviewed, which continued an interest that has been apparent throughout all the conferences. THE GOLDEN MILESTONE,

1962

This Fiftieth Conference of Schoolmen's Week emphasizes "Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad"—educational, cultural, economic, and political—and highlights education in Australia, Africa, and the Soviet Union. Special workshops are offered in art, science, music, special education, and programing, and tours of the University Museum and Commercial Museum have been planned. In addition, nearly every subject taught in elementary and secondary schools will be discussed at sectional meetings (formerly called "conferences"), and on Saturday morning, high school students will participate in the program on "The Role of the United States in the Atlantic Community." ADMINISTRATION AND SUPPORT

Since its beginning, Schoolmen's Week has had but seven General Chairmen: Harlan Updegraff, from 1914 through 1923; Arthur J.

15

Introduction

Jones from 1924 until 1942, with the exception of 1937, when Francis M. Garver acted in his place; E. D. Grizzell, from 1942 until 1950; William E. Arnold, from 1950 until 1956; Frederick C. Gruber, from 1956 until 1960; and Helen Huus, from 1960 to the present. Recent executive secretaries have included LeRoy A. King, Theodore L. Relier, William B. Castetter, and currently Richard S. Heisler. From 1926 until into the fifties, Schoolmen's Week was sponsored in co-operation with the Southeastern Convention District of the Pennsylvania State Education Association. Beginning in 1935, Drexel Institute, the Philadelphia Teachers Association, and twelve suburban schools joined the rank of sponsors, and today it is with the continued co-operation of these groups plus four other organizations, some forty-two additional school districts, and approximately eighty exhibitors that a program of such scope can be presented. In his History of Pennsylvania 1740-1940, Cheyney describes Schoolmen's Week as "a great success from the beginning. . . . According to good testimony the discussions, although on questions vital to the school superintendents and teachers, have remained free, open and unbiased—a good instance of the kind of help the University from its nonpartisan position is able to offer the community." 1 We hope this Fiftieth Schoolmen's Week will be both enjoyable and profitable, even though it is not the fiftieth "anniversary"!

RICHARD S. HEISLER* Schoolmen's Week had its first audience in some 200 educators who gathered on this campus in the spring of 1914, just forty-nine meetings ago. The Proceedings were first published in 1916 by the University of Pennsylvania as an issue of the Sixteenth Series of the University Bulletins. This third annual session (1916) was held from 1

Edward Potts Cheyney, History of the University of Pennsylvania 1740-1940 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1940), p. 404. * Assistant to the Dean, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania.

16

INTRODUCTION

Wednesday, April 12, to Saturday, April 15, thus anticipating a pattern of activities which was to last to the present day. THE FIRST PROCEEDINGS,

1916

A prefatory note appended to those first Proceedings states that "Some twenty-five hundred persons were in attendance at the lectures and conferences, and the total registration was 932." 1 The program consisted of general sessions, departmental meetings, and conferences for teachers. The conferences were designed on one hand for elementary school teachers, and on the other for university and secondary school teachers. Educators from all parts of Pennsylvania were represented. The tenor of the times was reflected in "Nationalism and the War," an address by William E. Lingelbach, Professor of History at the University of Pennsylvania, and another, "Education for Citizenship," delivered by James E. Russell, Dean of Teachers College, Columbia University. Those venerable guideposts "The Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education" had not yet been enunciated. However, a clue to the pre-eminent concerns of the school is contained in a general conference on "The New Admission Requirements of the University and Co-operation with Secondary Schools in Their Administration." The welcoming address to the conference was delivered by Josiah H. Penniman, Vice-Provost of the University, whose name is perpetuated in one of the largest pedagogical libraries in existence, and the closing address was presented by Provost Edgar Fahs Smith, whose statue commands that pleasant collegiate walk which beckons to those of you who would return to the Palestra. One of the programs devoted to mathematics was presided over by John Harrison Minnick, Fellow in Education, who was destined to become Dean of the School of Education. 1

University of Pennsylvania Schoolmen's Week, April 12-15, 1916 (The University Bulletins, Sixteenth Series, No. 6, Part 4; Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania, 1916), p. 11.

Introduction

17

SCHOOLMEN'S WEEK IN

1926

The passage of ten years brought new problems. The concerns of the Jazz Age—and so it was characterized by one of the participants in 1926—were brought to a focus in the "Changing Mind of Man—A Survey of Post-Bellum Tendencies in Thought and Life," by that popularizer of science Edwin G. Slosson, and "Education and Crime in Europe and America" by W. C. Bagley, a leading exponent of essentialism in education. Other programs were devoted to individualized instruction, high school failures, the junior high school, teacher supply, school finance, and larger units of administration in Pennsylvania. THE 1 9 3 6

CONFERENCE

In 1936, amid halting recovery from the Great Depression and the rise of competing political ideologies, Professor I. L. Kandel of Teachers College, Columbia University, elucidated the "Basic Principles of Liberal Educational Philosophy," and Paul E. Dengler, Director of the Austro-American Institute of Education in Vienna, spoke on "Basic Principles of the Fascist Philosophy of Education." Domestic policies were examined in a "Resumé of National Youth Administration Work" and "The Educational Program of the C.C.C. Camp." Child psychology, mental health, guidance, pupil adjustment, creative expression, the child-centered school, functionalism in teaching, and the unit plan of instruction were but a part of the lexicon of "Educational Programs for Today and Tomorrow," the conference theme. A DECADE LATER,

1946

"Education in a Developing Democracy" became the leitmotiv of the Schoolmen's Week meetings just ten years later. "The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: A Critique" by

18

INTRODUCTION

Harold Benjamin and "The University and International Co-operation Today" by Stephen Duggan heralded a new postwar era. Veterans' education, the improvement of reading, released time for religious instruction, science and mathematics in the elementary school, and socialized medicine had become the issues of the day. The Report of the Harvard Committee, General Education in a Free Society, and the bulletin Planning for American Youth by the National Association of Secondary School Principals had just been published during the previous year. General education, common learnings, and the core curriculum were in the ascendancy—and in the titles of the programs. THE

1956

MEETINGS

Passage of the National Science Foundation Act and the National Defense Education Act during the fifties was symptomatic of a growing national concern for the product of our schools, and international rivalries had generated a widespread demand for excellence in education. In his address "Education in a Free Society," Robert Saudek sounded the battle cry when he said, "I must reply that the destiny of a nation must not be hitched to a fireplug. The laggards will be cheered forward only by those who are prepared to run the race with all their strength." "Technical Education in Russia and Its Implications for American Civilization," by Dennis Mobley, "Leadership at the National Level," by James E. Nancarrow, "The Hallmarks of Scholarship and Research," by Carter V. Good, and "The Gifted Student as Future Scientist," by Paul Brandwein, reiterated the call to excellence. THE FIFTIETH

CONFERENCE

And now, with a lapse of almost a half century, we find ourselves on a new threshold, hopefully seeking a better solution of affairs than that which faced the world two generations ago. The gap between the American Expeditionary Force and the Peace Corps has more than temporal significance, for it exemplifies profound changes in our

Introduction

19

society and in our attitudes toward other cultures. During this conference, there are opportunities to examine education in Australia, Africa, and the Soviet Union, to hear from a distinguished speaker whose title symbolizes the marriage of science and international cooperation, and to listen to the words of a distinguished teacher of teachers who addresses himself to the theme of this conference, and to programs like "Education Abroad," "Our New Geographical Horizons," and "The Role of the United Nations in the North Atlantic Community"—all of which promise to contribute further to our understanding of "Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad."

I Contemporary Issues Here and Abroad

Current Issues in a Changing

World

GERALD WENDT* that I wish to discuss are current only in the sense that they are deep and prevailing. They are not political; they are not military; and in any direct sense, they are not even educational, because I do not, after all, consider myself an educator. I am a scientist. It may seem odd to you that a scientist is asked to discuss contemporary issues, but it seems to me that most basic of all, fundamental nearly to all others, is the fact that we live in a very rapidly changing world, and that the pace of change is ever increasing. Furthermore, the primary cause of all these changes is the scientific research of the past century—some of it, of course, of the past decade. So long as the pace of scientific research increases and we have an increasing flow of not only new things but concepts, too, our society will continue to change. It is from this vantage point that a man who has devoted his life to science has, perhaps, a somewhat broader and deeper view than others do. THE ISSUES

CHANGES IN SOCIETY

In a recent article in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,1 Professor Boulding, who is the codirector of the Center for Research on Conflict Resolution at the University of Michigan, points out that there have been only two great changes in the whole structure of society and the nature of man's living on this earth. About 5,000 years ago the first civilization with written records was developed. The first * Former Director of Science Education, UNESCO. Kenneth E. Boulding, "After Civilization What?" Bulletin of the Scientists, XVIII (October, 1962), 2-6. 23

1

Atomic

24

CONTEMPORARY

ISSUES

HERE

AND

ABROAD

great change depended in part upon the invention and development of agriculture, which enabled tribes to free themselves from the constant job of hunting and fishing, from a nomadic life, and to settle in villages. With the progress of agriculture a privileged few became free from the farm, too, and were enabled to live in cities. This was the beginning of what we call "civilization," the word coming from the Latin civitas, meaning "city." Urban life is civilized; life before that was not. This is one of the two great changes, and civilization, as we know it, is based essentially on a small number of people living very privileged lives, and a very large number providing this smaller group with the necessities of life, especially food. Normally, in Greek times, about 20 per cent of the people lived in cities; in Rome it was 25 per cent. It seldom went higher than that until the last few decades. Now suddenly there is a great change. In this country, at least, it is now perfectly possible for 10 per cent of our population to raise all the food necessary for the other 90 per cent. This is what Boulding calls the second revolution—a "postcivilization" that follows civilization. As I read his article, it occurred to me that this should be called (and I say it rather facetiously) "geolization"—not life based on the city, but on the whole earth— coming from geos, the Greek word for "earth." So this is really about "geolization" and our adaptation to it. Present civilization is based on cities, but rapid change is transforming cities so that they no longer mean the kind of units they previously did. In our country, the great area from Washington, D.C. to Boston is an autonomous region, very similar throughout and with problems of its own which are quite different from those of the rest of the country. Boulding points out that, in this world, there is a great similarity among the advanced stages of many cultures and cities. For instance, wherever you go on earth, the airports look alike! Some are newer than others, but all the new ones are so much alike that you would not know whether you were in Brussels or Paris or Idlewild or Friendship or San Francisco. Until you get away from the airport, you find an impressive uniformity of structure and function. This Boulding takes as a sign that any changes in architecture will take place all over the world.

Current Issues in a Changing World

25

Another point he makes is that war is obsolete. War is a means for keeping the peace within limited areas of large states or nations. War does not now do that. War, of course, is suicide. Both the Soviet Union and the United States are keeping as far away as psychology permits from the feeling that war is inevitable. Both sides know very well that, if war comes, there will be nothing left of their civilizations. The fact that war is obsolete means, in a very large sense, that nation-states no longer have the same task. Just as our regional cities are made up of many counties, some of them from several states, so the new regions of the Common Market in Europe, the old LatinAmerican culture, the Arab world, and the African world are composed of national units that have become obsolete. These new units are today of outstanding importance, for instance, in the United Nations. This factor is difficult to understand, but unless it is grasped there is real danger of our not keeping up with current changes and becoming obsolete ourselves. In school life, it is particularly easy to become obsolete, but it is important to remember that a nineteenth century education, such as I had and such as many members of the boards of education had, is no preparation at all for life in the twenty-first century; and that is only thirty-eight years away. Most of the children that are born this year have at least an even chance of living seventy-one years, until 2033, and they will be in the prime of their lives when the twentyfirst century begins. It is, of course, the function of a good education not just to indoctrinate the principles and loyalties and facts of the past but to prepare children for the world in which they will live. This is important for educators, because the principles and precepts of the nineteenth century can easily become obsolete. But many people with white hair do not yet appreciate this fact. THE IMPACT OF THE SPACE AGE

Let us look first at the great recent impact of space travel, space research, and space concepts. This has lifted our hearts; it has given us pride. It has given us, perhaps, too much pride, because we think it most important to keep up with the Russians, which may not be

26

CONTEMPORARY

ISSUES

HERE

AND

ABROAD

the case. But the consequences to us are beyond all foretelling. I do not say that we shall travel to the moon—I do not think any but a few young men will. Within a year or two somebody, probably a Russian, will go and will not come back. But within two or three years, we shall send a team of two or three, maybe more, of our young men, who will get off on the moon and make an exploration, collect samples, give us the whole story, and then come back safely. There will be other such expeditions before the century is over. As a result, as you can see from the welcome our present astronauts got after their few trips around the earth, we shall become increasingly cosmic-minded. Even those of us who have white hair, will achieve a cosmic, rather than a terrestrial, point of view. The youngsters have it now, and there is much to be said for watching what they are seeing on television and knowing just what they are thinking of in this fantastic space age. The younger they are, the more they respond to imagination. I hope, however, none of them are seriously counting on moving to the moon to live some day, though we shall certainly continue to explore not only the moon but the other planets as well. One of our spacecraft, Mariner 2, is now broadcasting to us from seven million miles away.2 It still has about twenty million miles more to go before it reaches the vicinity of Venus, but this shows what can be done. Such electronic messengers can penetrate the dense cloud cover of Venus some day, and tell us what is underneath it, whether desert or ocean. These devices can withstand much higher temperatures than human beings can. They can go much closer to the sun than any living thing possibly could, and yet come back and tell us the story. We shall explore personally neither the solar system nor the universe, but we shall explore them in detail by means of these electronic instruments that observe and report what they find, that are slaves to us, that obey commands by radio, and that can do more than any man can do, except possibly dig a mine or something of that sort. They are a tremendous extension of our feeble senses. 'John W. Finney, "Mariner 2 Data Disclose A Constant Solar Wind," New York Times, October 11, 1962, p. 15.

Current Issues in a Changing World

27

All of this means that the earth has shrunk. It means that we now fully realize that the earth is only a speck circulating about one sun in the Milky Way, and that the Milky Way has at least a hundred billion suns. It reduces our scale of living in that sense, but vastly increases our imagination. We have never thought of the distances to the stars, the speeds with which these missiles and satellites, and the earth itself, for that matter, travel. In the last few minutes we have traveled several hundred miles eastward, just by the rotation of the earth. We are not aware of that, but the youngsters are. The concepts of time and space and speed are now changing. The cosmic point of view has one effect which was first featured by the Russians. Some time ago they made the rather startling statement that none of their Sputniks, no matter how long they had been aloft nor how far they had gone, had ever encountered an angel, had never had any sight of the pearly gates. This is undoubtedly true. The Russians went on to say that this proves there is no heaven, which of course is nonsense. It does no such thing. But this is what the youngsters are reading and hearing. If we keep telling them that heaven is in the sky and if they know perfectly well that there is no sky, then the most natural conclusion to make for the boy or girl with any brains at all is that if there is no sky, and that is where heaven is, then there is no heaven either. We all, I am sure, realize that heaven is not a geographical place. Yet a few months ago when I spoke at a college, one of the girls, a senior, came up after the lecture, and she was literally weeping with relief. She had not been able to sleep nights, for months, thinking of these brilliant, handsome, strong, young astronauts climbing into their space ships and sailing off into space and leaving God behind. This was a terrific shock to me, because I had never thought of God as being an earthly creature. She apparently had. The great paintings of the Vatican and the great museums of the earth so often show the good Lord looking down through a hole in the clouds, watching the sparrows fall. These are ancient, sacred, beautiful myths and traditions. But if we are to maintain what is within us all, a really deep religious spirit, we must redefine them; we must realize that the Lord of the universe is Lord of the universe and not of some

28

CONTEMPORARY

ISSUES

HERE

AND

ABROAD

particular mountain or area or tribe on this small planet. We must realize that religion is a deep psychological impulse and needs, of course, its rituals and symbols, but that it cannot any longer claim that heaven has a particular celestial location. We must realize that there is not just this planet to consider but undoubtedly something like a billion other planets that are inhabited by living beings, possibly by intelligent beings, possibly beings with souls, if you like. Heaven must be big enough to contain not only our earth's small population, but the billions of others from billions of other planets. If this stretches your mind at all, this is what I mean by obsolescence. We do not have a Milton today. We do not have a Raphael or Leonardo da Vinci to paint the paintings that are needed for our present visions. We are going through an enormous change in our whole civilization and outlook which includes the necessity for our poets and musicians and painters and novelists to realize what this is all about and to create the kind of spiritual world that is fitting to this modern age. I am not sure about music, though, for it seems to me that the musicians, especially with the twelve-tone scale, are really getting out into the abstract of empty space. This may be the beginning, and so may abstract art be the beginning of a new art form that fits the age. THE ATOMIC

CHALLENGE

This space challenge is very, very big. It is also related to the atomic challenge. We now know that you can not only go outward into space indefinitely, but that you can also do the same thing inwardly. In chemistry and physics we certainly know that within these crystals of metal are the molecules, within them the atoms, and within them the nucleus. The nucleus was unheard of when I was in college; I remember discussing it with your great president, Edgar Fahs Smith, when he was about my present age and I was very young. We used to think the atom was the ultimate building block of all matter; now no one would think of saying that, even of the nucleus, because there are somewhat more than thirty different particles within the nucleus —incredibly small as it is. I would not be able to give you the

Current Issues in a Changing World

29

number of zeros following the decimal point to express their minute size. Some of them last less than a billionth of a second before they change into something else, a different form of matter. This infinitely small world is fully as inspiring as the infinity which extends outwards. Both are the new universe to which we must adjust. THE SHRINKING EARTH

Let us now get down to our earth itself. It is shrinking in a very practical sense. Planes are now on the drawing boards, which it is said will be commercially available by 1970, that will carry 100 to 150 passengers at the rate of 3,000 miles an hour. This means then that no place on earth will be farther from your airport than the county seat was from your grandfather's farm in the days of the horse and buggy. Thus has the earth shrunk. Furthermore, we already have Telstar in the sky. This is a preliminary test, with a satellite not very far up that circles the earth in 18 hours and is visible from any one spot for only a matter of minutes. It is not in general use for television because it is not within range long enough to be scheduled easily. But the next stage, already authorized by Congressional action, is a new corporation to put satellites into the sky, not 300 miles up, but 22,000 miles up. These will go around the earth much more slowly, because the farther up the satellite is, the weaker gravity is; the weaker gravity is, the less speed a satellite needs to maintain itself against gravity by centrifugal force. At an altitude of 22,000 miles, the velocity of a satellite is such that it goes around the earth once in 24 hours, and if its speed is exactly adjusted, it can be placed precisely above any spot you like, preferably on the Equator. It will remain there practically forever, because it goes around once every 24 hours, at the same speed as the earth rotates on its axis. With three of them, properly spaced, every point on earth will be in continuous touch with every other point on earth. Here, then, is another way in which the earth has shrunk. Have you thought ahead as to what will come from that? We shall look into homes and meetings in other countries; we shall see

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and hear what is going on anywhere on earth at almost any time of day; we shall truly be the neighbors of the people of other continents. Combined with the ease of travel, it will mean not 500,000 American tourists traveling in Europe each summer, but many millions traveling to and from all nations. It will mean intimate contact between all peoples. Not only that. It will mean that, as atomic power is also gradually developed, industries and wealth will grow in Asia, South America, and Africa. This may be ten or more years off, but when it comes, those people, too, will have the wealth to travel, and we shall have to prepare not for the 34,000 foreign students that are in this country now, but for hundreds of thousands of tourists and probably, also, of students studying in our universities. At present, a book published annually by UNESCO, Study Abroad, lists more than 100,000 fellowships and scholarships which are open to students of all foreign countries for study in all countries. Soon it will be as common for students to study abroad as it now is to go to another state. In another ten years, this will be quite a different world. For one thing, we shall hear as many languages on our streets as we now hear commonly every day on Fifth Avenue in New York, brought there by the delegations of a hundred nations to the United Nations. There will also be much more international trade, and the new Trade Act enables us to keep up not only with the Common Market, but with developments in the rest of the world. One of the Russians at the UN recently spoke of the fact that, by the year 2000, every country will have salesmen in every other country, and salesmen who cannot speak the language of the country to which they go will be out of luck. "And it won't be us," said the Russian—meaning that it would be us. Because the Russian educational ssytem, excellent in many ways, is primarily aimed at vocational training, I hesitate to call it "education" at all. They take youngsters at the age of five into the ballet schools, individuals who dedicate their lives to ballet. It is a strict, very strict, vocational discipline. The same happens in music, in chemistry and physics, and in languages. Youngsters are chosen as servants of the state, to be sure, to learn not

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just French and English and German and Spanish, but Greek, Portuguese, Finnish, Urdu, Arabic, Tamil, Telugu, Gujarati, Hindi, Bengali, Hausa, Swahili, and many other languages most Americans have never heard of. And yet there is not a language mentioned above that is not spoken by many millions of people. This is the world in which we are now living and my sole function is to stimulate your thoughts in your own fields of specialization. THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM OF COMMUNISM

In recent talks and conferences, most recently the "Congress of Scientists on Survival," the prevailing impression is that we could eventually, not quickly, solve the problem of relations with the Soviet Union if we would—in our minds, in our propaganda, in our speeches, and especially in our messages abroad—distinguish between the economic system of communism, and the political and military policies of aggression. If we expressed as forcefully as we can our permanent hostility to any form of aggression, of efforts to control the rest of the world, we would have the sympathy of all other countries. If we hide that purpose by calling our enemy "communism," we cannot get the sympathy of most of the countries that are not committed, because they feel that the Soviet economic system works for backward countries. I am not here to plead the cause of communism, but I can truly say that if communism were only an economic system, we could get along with it perfectly well. ITiere is no problem of coexistence, because coexistence involves competition, and at that we are certainly expert. The word "communism" sounds like a religion and it means a religion. If we lump together all aspects of the Soviet Union under the word "communism," it is like the old words of the Crusades— "infidels," who do not deserve to live. In religion this conflict has long since died out, because religions have now found that they can live together quite well, provided none tries to suppress or annihilate another. So it is with the religion of communism. We can live with the economic aspect but we must make it quite clear that we will not in any case tolerate aggression or conquest. This is the great sin in

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this new world, in this new "geolization," as I call it. This is a wo world community, and conquest, yes even authoritarian governments, v>, will pass, but to think of communism as a religion and to hate the ne religion rather than the realities involves the real danger of war. T H E FUNCTION OF THE U N I T E D

NATIONS

In the United Nations we have the beginnings of a world communiunity. To develop it is a very big job, and the major task at present see seems to be to educate in political habits and wisdom those countries wh which have had none, or not enough. We have had disaster and trageagedy in the past because large countries like Germany and Japan did lid not realize that they could be happier and wealthier if they used scieicience to develop their resources, that they did not need to conquer m< more land. Look what West Germany has done, with less land and fevfewer people than Germany had before the two great wars. She is ve very prosperous, and all Germans who died in those wars died in va vain because war is obsolete. In this modern world, wealth is created ed by research; it is not attained by conquest. Almost the same could be said of Japan. It was a lack of of the modern point of view, it was the eighteenth century point of vie view, that drove both these countries to war at a time when war could rid not possibly do any good. This is true now for the smaller countries too. Many of them m are still at the level of a tribal civilization where no men, except a va very few, have ever had time to think, or for that matter were allowlowed to think. They come from authoritarian tribes, and they have hadiad to adjust, not only to the world we call "civilization," but also to co our modern "geolization." They go not from the bullock to the horse ce cart to the buggy to the model "T"; they have to jump from the oxcoxcart right to the jet airplane. The pressure of doing so is politically w very dangerous, especially since the majority of members of the UniJnited Nations now are in that category and have not yet begun to cat catch up with the twentieth century. This may be disastrous. But it the biggest function of the United Nations today, and one of the greateatest issues before it, is whether we can support its educational workork—

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first to educate the aggressive nations in parliamentary procedure, and in the wisdom of not using force, and second to educate the backward countries to visualize what education and democracy can do for them. THE SPECIALIZED

AGENCIES

There are, of course, other United Nations agencies, and I rather regret that so much of the talk about the United Nations deals with its political aspects rather than with the work of the specialized agencies. They do the actual, effective work; just as we get much more from the Department of Agriculture, the Bureau of Mines, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and the other departments of our national government than we do from the debates in the Senate and the House. Yet it is the political debates that fill the newspapers. We do not appreciate the work of the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, which is introducing atomic power throughout the world; the World Health Organization in Geneva, which has practically eliminated a large number of diseases; the Food and Agriculture Organization in Rome which, as its current "Freedom from Hunger" campaign attests, deals with agriculture and nutrition and is fighting starvation. The World Health Organization has, ironically, done some harm by eliminating disease and cutting the death rate from 40 to 10 per 100,000, while leaving the birth rate at 40. The result is the "population explosion," which is an enormous burden in undeveloped countries. But let us^ not condemn South America or India for their lack of birth control} the United States has a higher birth rate than India. This increase in population should have been foreseen in the work of the World Health Organization. Its purpose is to prolong life, but before this century is up something must also be done to curb the birth rate or the population of the earth—and of the United States— will double in less than thirty-five years. It should not be by legislation; it should not be by force; and it need not be a scientific trick. It is basically, as every minister will agree, a question of morals. I suspect that within ten years in this country, it will not be respectable

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to have more than two children. Within twenty years, it will be considered immoral, if I am right, because by that time we shall not be walking down our sidewalks but elbowing our way through crowds. We shall make desperate efforts to get away from crowds, because our environment in the cities is people, people, people. The major problem of the United States, as of all other countries, will be crowding. This can be solved by inspired foresight from the clergy, writers, physicians, and teachers. Large families belong to past centuries. Once this is understood, once it becomes part of our culture, then the problem is easy enough to solve. Because if it is immoral to have more than two or three children, then people will not have more than that; whereas otherwise I am afraid they will. THE WORK OF

UNESCO

I must say a few words about the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris, commonly called UNESCO. As the education department of the United Nations, it faces the challenge to organize the educational world. Since you are in that world, perhaps I can remind you of a few facts. According to the latest World Survey of Education, published by UNESCO, 45 per cent of all the children in the world do not go to any school. The illiteracy in the world as a whole is equally shocking—44 per cent of the adults of the world cannot read. In Africa, 85 per cent cannot read; in Asia, 65 per cent; in Latin America, 44 per cent; whereas in North America and Europe, as a whole, it is only 4 per cent. What is more, if the 85 per cent in Africa could read, they would not have anything to read. This is one of the basic functions of UNESCO—to bring education and the modern world to the backward countries. Until Africa has more educated men, it will be a handicap to all of us in the councils of the world. In this country and Canada, there are 1,800 students in colleges for every 100,000 population. The average for Europe is 400, less than one-fourth as many. In Japan it is 500, a little more than Europe. In Afghanistan, it is four students per 100,000. In Nigeria, there is less than one student per 100,000 population and in some

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of the emerging African nations there are no college graduates at all. So the setting up of an educational system throughout the world is a very large challenge that the agencies of the United Nations must and do accept. CHALLENGES OF THE F U T U R E

I now return to our own country. You know what has happened here. First of all, we have the highest productivity in the world. In 1900 our gross national product, which might as well be called our national income, although it is not quite the same thing, was 50 billion dollars; in 1950 it was 250 billion dollars. In that year, President Truman predicted that it would reach 1,000 billion, or a trillion, by the year 2000. What has happened since 1950? In 1955, President Eisenhower predicted that our national income would be 500 billion by the year 1965. He was just as wrong as President Truman, because our income in 1961 was over 520 billion —six years from Eisenhower's prediction, ten years from Truman's. Now our economists are predicting that our national income will be 1,000 billion dollars by 1975. Why so much all of a sudden? Automation is the answer. We now have factories to make almost anything, automatically. This is production of wealth. If an automobile, nylon stockings, or bread is produced automatically we shall have problems of employment. But it will not be a problem of wealth, because these machines produce real wealth in goods, not dollars. Nobody should starve because we have too much real wealth. The automatic production of wealth is now accepted, but a much better way to express it is: the production of automatic wealth. The greatest problem our youngsters are going to have to face within ten years, and then for a long time afterwards, is automatic wealth. It is almost impossile to stop the increase of automation, nor should we do so. All this wealth is good, if we know how to use it. We shall have a surplus of things, just as we already have a tremendous surplus of agricultural goods with no idea of what to do with it. We spend millions of dollars just to keep it stored in warehouses, but once in a while we relent and send some of it to starving peoples

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far away. So, if we keep our factories going full time, some day we shall have to build great warehouses to put our industrial products in. Or we shall realize that we have productive capacity for far more than our country can possibly consume. This is familiar to the economist, but the obligations and the challenge which result from owning so much wealth are an important issue. When you have that much wealth in the form of things, you get over being materialistic. We are accused of being materialistic, but we are not. We do not much care; we waste a lot of materials. We buy a necktie and then give it away or throw it away. We junk our automobiles while they are still useful. We tear down skyscrapers only because they are not air-conditioned. We do not consider material things at all sacred. But people who have lived in other countries do not waste food. It is the people who are starving that are the materialists for food; it is practically everybody in the world who is starving for material goods. We are at a point where we can pass from materialism into a new age, for the automatic factories will supply us with enough automatic wealth so that nobody needs to worry about staying alive or staying well. This involves a great many political factors which will become issues in their day, for the things of which I speak are fundamentals. THE CHALLENGE OF

TIME

Another consequence of automation is that we do not need so many people to make the goods. What becomes of the farmers when mechanized farming does it all? They move to cities and get jobs in factories. Then what becomes of the factory workers when the factory becomes automatic? Here are problems for the political campaigns of the future, or even for this year. We shall have to divide the work and the income with a system of economics that is based on modern conditions. We cannot long continue to adhere to ancient laws and principles, so that an economist is likely to lose his job or even be deported if he advocates a new economic theory, while we in science can wander among the distant stars; we can penetrate the depth of the atom to develop power; perhaps in another few years we will

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even be able to create life. What do we get for it? The Nobel Prize; good jobs; much money. Every possible reward is given for scientific discoveries and new ideas; in fact the more revolutionary, the greater the reward. Our world is divided, because in all other fields than science, we do not like revolutions; we do not like new ideas. We are psychologically not adjusted to quick change. Perhaps we have been indoctrinated as children with the idea that things are pretty good; let them stay like this. But the one thing that is sure now is that this cannot be. Above all else children should learn that this is a world of rapid change. So with respect to time, we have to have a shorter working week; how short, I do not know. It has been said that a working week of ten hours would do—including teachers, incidentally. However, a working week of thirty-two hours seems imminent. Now, there are one hundred twelve waking hours in a week; if you work just thirty-two hours a week, that leaves eighty hours a week—for what? Eighty hours to spend time. Eighty hours to live. If our education is focused on what we do in those thirty-two working hours and forgets about the other eighty, it is inadequate. Today life is not just earning a living; we have time to live. So education cannot be merely vocational. The next generation must learn to live and live richly. It is the first generation to have that privilege. THE

CHALLENGE

OF

CHANGE

This community here, descended from the worthy Quakers, from the very industrious Pennsylvania Dutch, like the early settlers of New England who came from Puritan ancestry, does not take to these new ideas very well. When I was growing up the commonly accepted philosophy was that work is the highest duty of man. "The one thing we're on earth for," said my father, "is work." I was allowed to play with the other boys only from two to four on Sundays, and at no other time. We had plenty of money; I did not have to work, but it was good for my soul. I did not believe it then; I do not believe it now. If work were a primary Christian virtue, as my father tried to

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tell me, then every one of these magnificent automatic machines and automatic factories, every one of them, should go to heaven when they wear out. This may sound like blasphemy, but it is a matter of definition. What a machine can do cannot be a Christian virtue. Indeed, anything that a machine can do is beneath the dignity of a man. "Let 'em have it," say I. "Let the machines do it—even do my thinking for me!" CONCLUSION

No, we cannot go by many of the ancient principles. These are the fundamental issues which you as educators must ponder at least now and then. What you do with them is your business. What the politicians and economists do with these problems will be very interesting to watch. But the trend cannot be changed, and the twenty-first century is nearer than you think.

Teachers for the Schools in Our Big Cities HARRY N. RIVLIN * a teachers' strike in New York this year that lasted one day and was headline news everywhere. Relatively little is said, however, about a more subtle teachers' strike that has been going on for years, that is nationwide in scope, and that cannot be ended by a court injunction. Every one of the large cities all across the country has schools in depressed areas that are not adequately staffed with competent teachers despite intensive recruitment efforts. Many young teachers do not accept appointments to city school systems for fear that they will be assigned to the schools they regard as difficult, and some of the teachers who have been appointed there seek transfers to other schools or leave teaching at the first opportunity. Finding ways of recruiting, preparing, and retaining the thousands of teachers our cities must have is clearly one of the most pressing needs of contemporary American education. THERE WAS

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRESENT SITUATION

Today, there is such great population mobility in the United States that the westward migration we studied in high school looks like an overnight Boy Scout hike. There is a tremendous population movement to the West, to the North, to the new space age centers in the South, and, all across the country, from the cities to the suburbs. Each of these movements presents educational problems of sizable dimensions. A distorted picture of schools in the big cities is obtained if they * Dean of Teacher Education, The City University of New York. 39

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are envisioned as being schools for only the in-migrants and the educationally handicapped. Simply because the big cities are so big, they have more of everything: they have many exceedingly capable teachers; they have a great teacher shortage; they have tremendous variations among their students; they have many highly motivated students; they have many who are seemingly indifferent to learning; they have many talented children; they have many emotionally disturbed children; and they have many in-migrant children. In fact, they have so many more of every kind of child that they have many more problems to solve and, also, many more opportunities to devise special programs for solving them. In a sense, the problems which our big cities are facing are not new. The cities have long been the first settling place for immigrants who came to America. In turn, the immigrants made these cities great. What would New York be without the contributions of its Chinatown, its Negro Harlem, its Jewish East Side, its German Yorkville, its Little Italy, its Little Hungary, and its little every other nationality in the world? What would any of our big cities be without its immigrants and the descendants of immigrants? Even the difficulties that confront teachers working with recently arrived southern Negroes or Puerto Ricans sound familiar. As each new wave of immigrants came to this country, those Americans who were already living here often remarked that the new immigrants were not so easily assimilated as were the ones who had come earlier. Yet there are differences that are sometimes so great that they make the whole picture seem like a new one.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EDUCATIONAL

PROBLEMS

PRESENTED BY THE IN-MIGRANTS AND THE EARLIER

IMMIGRANTS

Our new population today consists not so much of strangers coming from an alien country as of American citizens whose families have been American citizens for generations. Because they are Americans 1

A n in-migrant is a person w h o has m o v e d into an area f r o m another part of the United States or from Puerto Rico.

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who can vote, the ballot gives them a political power which immigrants did not have. There is an unwillingness, moreover, to wait the number of years it took to acculturate the earlier immigrant; now an attempt is made to achieve in months the kind of assimilation process which takes years. When large numbers of immigrants were arriving years ago, the schools opened their doors to all who wanted to attend. Taking advantage of the educational opportunities which were provided, many immigrant children became leaders in our learned professions and in every other aspect of American life. Even then, however, there were slow learners; there were reluctant learners; and there were those who were not interested in learning anything the school was ready to teach. For these children, permission to go to work was available in early adolescence. Today, by contrast, young adolescents are not permitted to leave school, and the youth who is legally old enough to go to work finds that there are few openings for the uneducated and the unskilled. Unlike the immigrant of old who tended to settle among his kinsmen and then stayed in that community for years before moving to other parts of the city and then to the suburbs, today's in-migrants are much more mobile. It is the rare in-migrant youngster who stays in a single elementary school until he is graduated. There are elementary schools in which the rate of pupil turnover is more than 100 per cent in the course of a school year, so that the teacher who greets the class at the beginning of the school year may not see any of these youngsters at the end of the year. One of the consequences of such rapid pupil turnover is that the very children who need the security of a stable school environment are denied it, and teachers lose contact with the youngster just as they are beginning to understand him. This mobility, moreover, makes it difficult for in-migrant neighborhoods to develop the indigenous leadership and the various patterns of self-help that played so important a role in the acculturation of the immigrants. The increasing opposition to de jacto segregation in the city schools means that virtually all of the city schools, rather than only some of them, now have to deal with the education of the in-

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migrant as well as with that of the others in the community. In fact, as suburban communities increasingly become integrated communities, they, too, will have to face the educational problems that now concern the cities. School integration should lead to raising the educational sights of in-migrants and not to lowering the ambitions of other pupils. Today, the schools have more students and must teach them more than ever before, and accomplish this while the schools have fewer teachers and less money than necessary. Moreover, the rate at which knowledge is becoming obsolete is increasing steadily so that students must be able to continue learning after their school days are over. The schools, therefore, have a manifold assignment: while they are making appropriate provision for students who need a more demanding and a more stimulating curriculum, they must also take care of the slow and the reluctant learners. The schools in virtually every large city are handicapped by financial difficulties. The city treasury is often so hard pressed to meet the needs for urban renewal and for the increased social welfare costs of dealing with large numbers of families who need help that there is not enough money available to expand the school facilities to the extent that is necessary. THE STEREOTYPE OF T H E

IN-MIGRANT

In-migrants are often discussed as though they were all alike. They are expected to fit into the stereotype of a southern Negro who is illiterate and uninterested in education and who comes from a broken home which offers little parental guidance or love and practically no encouragement to attend to his school studies. Like all stereotypes, this one, too, is inadequate and fallacious. With reference to virtually every trait that has been identified, there is great variation within the in-migrant group, and there is considerable overlapping with the traits of the older residents. For example, there are a great many southern Negroes among the inmigrants, but the in-migrant group also includes southern whites and Puerto Ricans—and there are many southern Negroes, southern

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whites, and Puerto Ricans in our schools who are not recently arrived in-migrants. Some in-migrant children do come from families where there is little parental supervision and little encouragement for the youngster's interest in academic activities, but these conditions are also found among some middle-class white families. On the other hand, there are many in-migrant families where parental supervision and encouragement is higher than is common among the middle-class white group. Many in-migrant children have a potential ability that remains undiscovered because their scores on standardized intelligence and achievement tests are spuriously low as a result of language difficulties or lack of experience with standardized tests, but there are also other instances where the low scores indicate that these specific children are, in fact, dull and unsuccessful in school. It is erroneous, also, to assume that these youngsters are all culturally handicapped, when it would sometimes be more accurate to say that they are culturally different. It is hard to convince a proud Puerto Rican, for example, of his cultural deficiency. If a Puerto Rican youngster is in truth culturally handicapped, it is because he has not taken advantage, or has not been able to take advantage, of the opportunities for becoming familiar with the rich cultural heritage of Puerto Ricans. In this respect, he is just as handicapped culturally as is any other urban child who has never been outside the confines of his own neighborhood and who sees a newspaper as consisting only of comics and of news about sports and crime. While it is helpful to know that some attitudes, values, and behavior characteristics are seen more frequently among in-migrants than among other children, teachers must be fully aware of the wide variation among in-migrants and of the overlapping with other children. The teacher has to know the characteristics and the background of in-migrant children so that he may understand them better. Such insight is essential because so many teachers, coming from a different social background, are almost wholly unfamiliar with the kind of life their pupils live and are, therefore, in no position to understand why their pupils react as they do or to find ways of inspiring them to do better. The United States will be enriched by developing a pluralistic approach to differences in culture more than

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it will be by accepting the concept of a standardized American culture which can be developed only by erasing every trait that an individual has which is different from the average. T H E SCHOOL'S

ROLE

The schools have to enrich the background of in-migrant children, just as they have to enrich the background of all other children, by indicating how much advantage can be taken of the resources of the community in which they live. This enrichment must be accomplished, however, without the humiliating implications that a deficiency which is almost congenital is being corrected. To be sure, the acculturation of the in-migrant raises questions which are too complex to be answered by the school alone. There are matters of housing, of economics, of health, of welfare services, and so many others that the school becomes only one of the major social agencies which are involved. There is, however, a distinct contribution that the school can make in addition to everything else it does in co-operation with other governmental and private agencies. The major function of the school is to educate its students—a goal that is so important in itself that any school which educates in-migrants well is helping them tremendously. Moreover, the school can be the one place where all children find security in a stable environment, where they get the encouragement that comes from living in an emotionally healthful climate which stimulates personal development, where they have first-hand contact with enlightened and sympathetic adults who are ready to accept and respect them as individuals, where the questions asked by adults are designed to help rather than to cross-examine or intimidate, and where the errors made by the children and their parents are viewed as opportunities for improvement rather than as offenses to be punished. The school can either play a major role in helping these children and their parents see the infinite possibilities for advancement which education opens up before them, or it can corroborate the feeling some of them have that compulsory education is an unreasonable

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governmental requirement that stands between them and what they want to do. For the past few years, the superintendents and the boards of education of most of the largest cities in the United States have been working cooperatively through the Research Council of the Great Cities Program for School Improvement2 to solve some of the more pressing problems of urban education. Many promising experiments are under way and more are being planned. Because numerous reports on these efforts are available, what the schools should do in order to educate in-migrant children better will not be discussed here. It is clear, however, that even the most imaginative superintendent and the most co-operative board of education cannot solve the problems of urban education until the schools get an adequate supply of skilled and understanding teachers, and then make optimum use of these teachers' abilities. All children need good teachers, but the in-migrant children need good teachers desperately, for most of these youngsters do not have access to the kind of family and community resources which can compensate in some measure for any inadequacies in the educational opportunities offered by the schools. A

PLAN FOR OBTAINING TEACHERS

That our cities have been successful in operating their schools is a tribute to their professional staff and to the colleges and universities which have been engaged in teacher education. Working together, they have succeeded in getting thousands of new teachers each year and in raising the professional competence of present personnel. Despite all their efforts, however, there is still an acute need for good teachers who are ready to serve in urban schools. This condition needs more than the continuance of present practices or the introduction of the halfway measures that are sometimes suggested as devices for getting new teachers quickly. Our existing practices and these halfway measures have proved inadequate or ineffective— "The Great Cities Program for School Improvement includes Baltimore, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Houston, Milwaukee, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.

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otherwise the shortage would have been ended by now. If America's large cities are to get the teachers who are needed, the possibilities of change in both the schools and the universities must be explored, and current efforts must be expanded and improved. Eleven suggestions are presented herewith. USING LABORATORY SCHOOLS AND AFFILIATED SCHOOLS AS LABORATORIES FOR URBAN TEACHER

EDUCATION

The schools of education which are concerned with urban education ought to conduct laboratory schools which are, in truth, laboratories in which educators look for optimum ways of educating the inmigrants and the other students, while at the same time seeking answers to the perennial questions of what to teach, how to teach it, and to whom it should be taught. Those who draw the analogy between teaching and medicine as professions often refer to the laboratory school as being similar to the teaching hospital which is attached to a medical school, but there is a world of difference between the laboratory school and the teaching hospital. Except where a teaching hospital also serves as a community hospital or provides emergency service for people in the area, the teaching hospital rarely sees simple medical cases. Instead, it reserves its facilities for those whose ailments are so complex or so unusual as to challenge the professors and the students to perfect their methods of diagnosis and treatment. The usual laboratory school, however, tends to avoid the difficult. In all too many instances, the laboratory school is filled by children of the university faculty and by a selected few from the community at large. The laboratory school is not likely to have many in-migrant children, or to focus its attention on the group of children who present the greatest challenge to education today. Why are not the laboratory schools being used to discover techniques by which the classroom teacher can deal with the problems presented by inadequate motivation, by hostility, and by aggression? Why are not these centers experimenting with promising ways of overcoming the language handicaps and the reading problems that

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are such formidable obstacles to learning? Why are not the teacher education institutions focusing more of their research efforts on finding ways of dealing with the behavior and the learning problems of the in-migrants? Why are they not encouraging their psychologists to devise better ways of discovering the intellectual potential of those children for whom our usual intelligence tests have proved to be inadequate? In short, why are not the laboratory schools serving as laboratories for educational experimentation rather than as demonstration schools in which to show how much can be done for model students under model circumstances? Some universities are now shifting their emphasis from campus schools to affiliated schools, which are part of the regular school system. These schools, which have a specially selected staff and added resources, seek to discover what can be done with underprivileged children when the school has the personnel and the material resources needed. This practice must be followed much more widely before the laboratory school can be compared with the teaching hospital. POINTING TEACHER EDUCATION TOWARDS URBAN

TEACHING

Fear is the major reason why many young teachers do not accept appointments to city schools. They are afraid they will be trapped in a "blackboard jungle"; they are afraid of possible physical attack; they are afraid that they cannot deal with the situations they will meet in the schools; and they are afraid that they will have to spend their days being policemen rather than teachers. All too often, universities have assumed that if the college student has been prepared to be a good teacher in a suburban school, he can function effectively in any school—an assumption that is not valid in most instances. When prospective teachers are prepared for urban teaching and when they have engaged in carefully graduated and carefully supervised experiences in urban schools, they not only accept appointments to these schools but are successful as teachers. At the City University of New York, for example, between 75 and 80 per cent of the graduates who meet the requirements for certification accept appointments

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to the New York City schools. Moreover, a follow up study conducted five years after graduation revealed that the percentage of graduates who remained in teaching was just about the same for those who were teaching in schools with large percentages of in-migrant children as for those in the other city and suburban schools. An experiment in staffing urban schools. One of the colleges of The City University of New York assumed the responsibility for helping staff one of the most difficult junior high schools in the city. "Most difficult" was defined as the school with the greatest percentage of teaching positions not filled by permanently appointed staff members. When students were asked to volunteer to be assigned to this school as student teachers, they were assured that the college would provide additional student teaching supervision, that those students who passed in the regular Board of Education examinations and who so wished would be appointed to this school, and that the college would continue to help them after they had been appointed as teachers. The college also provided a special community orientation program which helped the teachers understand the children and their families. A second college conducted a similar program with elementary schools. With both the elementary school and the junior high school projects, the colleges will focus attention on these schools for as many years as may be necessary to attract enough teachers to these schools. Once the percentage of fully qualified and regularly appointed teachers at these schools reaches the city-wide average, the colleges will shift their attention to other schools with more serious shortages. These prospective teachers responded so well to this approach that not only did they become successful and enthusiastic teachers in a school which had always had difficulty in attracting qualified faculty members, but they became such effective recruiters for that school that the colleges were able to expand the program to include several other schools of the same sort. One of the encouraging lessons learned from these experiments is that when students have had experience in working in such schools and have the comforting reassurance that the college is not abandon-

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ing them, they are much less reluctant to be appointed there. They now know how much satisfaction awaits the teacher who knows that he can deal with the situations he faces and who sees so dramatically how eagerly underprivileged children react to a sympathetic, skilled, and understanding teacher. Successful as these projects are (and more and more students are volunteering to participate in them), it must be noted that the per student-teacher cost to the college is much greater than that of conventional student-teacher supervision. The increased cost may seem negligible from a long-range point of view, but colleges are ordinarily unable to maintain such programs to the extent to which they are needed unless additional sources of financial support are made available. Teacher education institutions cannot and should not go to the other extreme and focus all of their attention on the most difficult schools they can find. For one thing, there are teachers who can be successful in suburban schools but not in city schools, and there are teachers who are far more effective with an advanced placement class in a college preparatory program than with a class of nonreaders—and suburban children and gifted children also deserve good instruction. When the teacher education program uses the wide array of schools in the metropolitan area as its sources for illustrations and applications, the graduates are better prepared to teach no matter where the school is. If they go to a suburban school, they will be better able to help the slow learner and the reluctant learners they will find there as well as in the cities. On the other hand, if they go to a school in a depressed area, they will have had firsthand experience with other schools in which the high percentage of collegebound students influences the educational environment for all. Though it is tempting to waive requirements for certification in order to staff schools that have great difficulty in attracting the instructional personnel, it is the teachers in these schools who need more rather than less preparation; and they need this preparation before their first day of assuming full responsibility for a class. The

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problems which confront a new teacher on his first day will not wait for their solution until the teacher has gained the knowledge, the skills, and the insight he needs in order to solve them. The college background of urban teachers.3 In some respects, the preparation of the urban teacher or of the urban teacher who will be working with in-migrant children resembles that of all other teachers. All teachers must be well-educated people who are scholars capable of raising the intellectual sights of their students. Similarly, all teachers must know how to work with children and adolescents and how to stimulate and guide learning. The prospective urban teacher needs, therefore, both carefully planned college courses and equally well-planned experiences in the schools. Because of the complexity of urban civilization and the diversity of the persons and situations with which he will have to deal, the urban teacher needs an especially rich background both in the liberal arts and in professional studies. Thus, he must have an adequate background in the behavioral sciences so that he can understand the varied children he will teach. How can a teacher in an underprivileged area be effective unless he understands and knows enough about sociology, anthropology, and psychology to have some insight into the values and the goals of his children and their families? Similarly one may ask, how can a teacher with a middle-income background work effectively with the children in an extremely prosperous community unless he understands how different is the life of his wealthy students from that which he himself lives? To be sure, teachers should be sympathetic and ready to accept their students as individuals, regardless of socio-economic level, but sympathy without understanding may be nothing more than sentimentality, and sentimentality alone is inadequate preparation for teaching. If such studies help the teacher understand himself better, he is less likely to use the classroom as a place for solving his own emotional problems. The urban teacher has to be a skilled practitioner since it obviously takes skill to teach children who have become discouraged about their ability to learn and who are not highly motivated by homes ' See also the recommendations under the section, "Devising New Patterns of Teacher Education for Urban Schools," which follows.

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that are rich in intellectual resources. At the same time, he must be ready to whet and to satisfy the intellectual appetites of those who are capable of going far beyond the limits of the conventional course of study. He cannot afford to make mistakes in teaching, and he must be a master of the mechanics of class management lest ineptitude lead to inattention, disorder, and chaos. Because of the wide variety of educational needs which the urban teacher must meet, he must not only know how to teach, but he must also be able to select what he will teach these children and know why he chooses it. And in making these decisions he will be under pressure from various groups. The selection of appropriate curricular goals. There are educators who believe that a major obstacle arises from the fact that the curriculum in urban schools, having been planned in terms of a middle-class population, is inappropriate for a different group of students whose home background often provides little basis for comprehending what is read in textbooks or discussed in class and whose personal ambitions may not lie along academic lines. It has been suggested, for example, that more time be spent with the basic skills, that the junior and even the senior high school be viewed largely as upward extensions of the elementary school rather than as preparation for college, and that the textbook materials draw heavily on the experiences which are common among children from lower socio-economic groups who live in congested parts of the city. On the other hand, in keeping with the spirit of the times, there is public pressure for raising educational standards as part of the toughening up process for the nation. While little can be said in defense of merely making education more difficult, it is undoubtedly true that many children are not achieving so much as they could during the years that they spend in school. Certainly among the millions of children in urban schools there are many who can accomplish more than they do and in less time. It is when attention is focused on a large school system which deals with all of its children that both positions seem defensible—and indefensible. So far as educationally handicapped in-migrant children are concerned, it is worse than futile to speak of raising the traditional standards of the elementary or secondary schools since

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these children have difficulty enough reaching even the present standards, and any greater tightening of requirements will simply add to the discouragement these youngsters already feel. On the other hand, to assume that standards have to be lowered for in-migrant children and that these lowered standards should become the dominant ones for the entire school system is to rob all children of the quality of education they deserve. While much has been said of the importance of the student's level of aspiration, it must be remembered that the teacher's level of aspiration is at least equally important. The teacher must never forget that even when he is dealing with the least capable of inmigrant children, he has a higher goal for the child than that he remain forever merely the least capable in-migrant child. If the in-migrant youngster is treated as one who cannot ever learn anything, it is unlikely that teachers will ever teach him anything worth learning. In a large school system, therefore, the teachers must be able to work with a varied curriculum as they help the in-migrant child learn, and even more important, learn how to learn, and want to learn, so that he can then move up the educational ladder and with it the social ladder, too. As plans are made for the education of the children in a big city, it is important that each student develop in ways that are best for him and for society. The educational ambitions of children and their parents must be stirred, but adequate provision must also be made for those youngsters who as adults will make their greatest contributions in areas in which college education is not essential. DEVISING NEW PATTERNS OF TEACHER

EDUCATION

FOR URBAN SCHOOLS

When school systems and universities see teacher education as a joint responsibility, they may be able to design new patterns of teacher education aimed specifically at the preparation of teachers for urban schools. Team teaching as a pattern for teacher education. It is unrealistic and uneconomical to assume that all teachers—the most expert and

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the least prepared, the most experienced and the least skilled—should have identical assignments. It is equally unrealistic to assume that inexperienced teachers can be assigned at random to fill vacancies in schools which present difficulties enough to challenge the most skilled and experienced. Both aspects of the problem must be tackled together. The schools must be organized in such a way as to take maximum advantage of the varied abilities of their staff, and the new faculty members must be adequately prepared so that they will be, and will be confident that they are, able to deal with the problems they face. The prospective teacher needs the classroom experience he can get only in the schools but, if teaching is to be more than a skilled trade to be mastered by serving as an apprentice, he also needs the knowledge and the insight to be gained from appropriate college courses. If team teaching is to be used as a major pattern for the education of teachers, it must be organized with this purpose in mind. It must, therefore, prepare the prospective teacher, at each stage of his progress through the program, to assume the responsibilities appropriate at that stage and enable him to improve his professional skills so that he may discharge these responsibilities better and be ready to assume those that are appropriate at the next higher stage. Thus, the assignment of assistant teachers and interns should be determined primarily in terms of helping them develop their professional skills. Similarly, the selection of the teachers who will head the team should be governed chiefly by their ability to guide beginning teachers. Because the interests of the children are of prime importance, team teaching must not jeopardize the quality of the school's educational program. Properly used, team teaching can have many values for urban schools: (1) By pooling the resources of the schools and the universities, it can provide a steady supply of new teachers who are adequately and realistically prepared for urban teaching and who have the professional background that will enable them to accelerate the improvement of education in the big cities. (2) It may reduce the exhausting burden the classroom teacher shoulders by providing him with additional assistance. Such assistance should also lessen the

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emotional drain caused by the frustration a conscientious teacher feels when he cannot achieve the educational goals he wants to reach. (3) Team teaching may enable urban schools to retain experienced classroom teachers by opening avenues of promotion that do not lead them away from the classroom. There is motivational value, too, in letting experienced teachers see that the insight and the skill they have gained are being recognized by the assignment to work with inexperienced teachers. When team teaching is used as a basis for the preservice and inservice preparation of teachers, all of the members of the teaching team, except the regular classroom teachers, must be selected and their teaching assignments must be formulated in terms of membership both on a school faculty and in the academic community at the affiliated university. A proposed plan for using team teaching to prepare prospective teachers. College juniors who are enrolled in an approved teacher education program, having had two years of Uberai arts courses including studies in the behavioral sciences, should be appointed to serve for one semester as school aides and for one semester as community-service aides. As a school aide, the student is to be at a specific school for six hours a week, visiting classes and other school activities and performing such duties as may be assigned him by the principal. As a community-service aide, he will be assigned to a specific community agency which serves children and youth in the school neighborhood. Here, he is to work under the direction of a staff member in such a capacity as, for example, being the assistant club leader of a youth club. At college, he will participate in the orientation program for prospective teachers, but will spend most of his time pursuing the courses required for his degree. College seniors who are enrolled in the teacher education program, having served as school aides and community-service aides, should be appointed as assistant teachers for a full year. Assigned to a regularly appointed teacher for three hours a day, they should assist the teacher by performing such clerical and instructional tasks as are assigned and, as the year progresses, should assume increasing responsibility for teaching. As a college student, each should participate

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in the seminars and classes that are planned for the assistant teachers enrolled in the program and may also take other courses toward his college degree. Because his duties as an assistant teacher include experience as a student teacher for which college credit is generally given, he should receive appropriate college credit for this activity. The college student who invests so much time in his duties as school aide, community-service aide, and assistant teacher will necessarily not be able to carry the full program of college courses that will lead to a baccalaureate degree at the end of four years. He has three courses of action open to him: he may attend summer sessions; if his college record is sufficiently good, he may be given permission to take a heavier college program than is usual; or he may delay getting his degree until after he has completed the internship as described below. Those who have served as assistant teachers should be appointed as interns, provided that they are enrolled either as undergraduate or graduate students in the teacher education program at the co-operating university. As interns they should be assigned full time to a school under the direction of the head teacher, but with the understanding that they are to have the responsibility for carrying about half of the program of a full-time teacher. As university students, they will be enrolled in the seminars planned for interns and may, if the university authorities think it appropriate, also take a limited number of courses toward the baccalaureate or graduate degree. Upon completion of the internship, they should be appointed as regular teachers and receive a full year's experience credit for salary purposes. The regular classroom members of the teaching team should meet the same requirements and receive the same salary as the other teachers in the school system. The head teacher, who heads the team and supervises the work of its members, serves in the dual capacity of being a member of the school staff and of the university faculty. His selection must, therefore, be approved both by the school and the university authorities, and he should be paid by both. As a member of the school staff, he should receive the salary of a regular teacher with similar qualifications and experience. As a member of the university faculty supervising students who are serving as assistant

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teachers and interns, he should receive a supplementary salary from the university for that service and be required to participate in such conferences, seminars, and other activities as the university requests. The supplementary university stipend for the head teacher can be computed as being 75 per cent of the present per capita cost of supervising student teachers and interns at the institution. The remaining 25 per cent of the cost of supervision should be retained by the university in order to enable it to supervise the work of the head teachers and to organize such seminars and conferences as may be necessary in order to guide the head teachers as they work with prospective teachers. Even though it is customary to pay prospective teachers only when they reach the internship stage, there are many reasons why it may be desirable to pay the college juniors and the college seniors in the program. A great many college students have part-time jobs, but these are jobs which usually have little educational value and are unrelated to the student's later career. Why not encourage students to earn their money on an assignment that may be the basis for selecting their profession? The money they receive need not be considered a subsidy, for they will be rendering services for the payment received. That the payments will make it easier to recruit prospective teachers for city schools is obvious, especially since the proposed plan means that the teachers are not to receive the full salary of a teacher until after five years of preparation instead of after the more usual four years. The merit of team teaching as a major pattern for preparing teachers for city schools does not hinge on payments to its undergraduate participants, though its appeal to students certainly will be affected. If the various participants are to be paid, the initial salary of a beginning teacher can be used as a base. Thus, the school aides and community aides may receive 10 per cent of this salary; the assistant teachers can be paid at the rate of 20 per cent of the beginning teacher's salary; and interns may be given between 50 and 70 per cent of that salary, depending upon the responsibilities they assume and the school's financial ability. This plan has been explained in detail in order to indicate one way

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in which team teaching can be used as a procedure for preparing teachers, but it is certainly not the only way, nor is team teaching the only new plan that can be used. Let schools and colleges work together, and they will develop other patterns of teacher education which are better for them because they are specially designed to take advantage of their distinctive assets and to meet their individual needs. PREPARING LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE GRADUATES FOR URBAN TEACHING

Experience has shown that a major source of new teachers is to be found among graduates of liberal arts colleges who have been out of school for a while and who did not prepare themselves to teach while they were undergraduate students. There is experimental evidence which demonstrates that if these people are adequately prepared, they do stay in the classroom for a longer period of time than do younger graduates, who often leave teaching soon after graduation either to bring up their own children or to enter other careers. On the other hand, liberal arts college graduates who are not well prepared for teaching in the big cities leave the classroom at a disappointingly high rate. A great many mature and capable teachers can be obtained if aggressive recruiting campaigns are aimed at college graduates who are ready for a new career and if they are prepared well for urban teaching. Many institutions conduct programs that prepare liberal arts college graduates for teaching. If the college graduate enrolls in the usual preservice teacher education program, he may be required to take courses that are inappropriate for him because they were planned for younger students who have not had the experiences he has had. The graduate, moreover, is often reluctant to extend his period of preparation over the number of semesters required of undergraduate students who are pursuing a program leading to the baccalaureate degree. A number of institutions are conducting Master of Arts in Teaching programs for college graduates, but these programs are ordinarily not focused on the needs of urban schools.

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While all of these programs do help relieve the situation by drawing upon liberal arts college graduates as a promising source of teachers, there is still a need to devise programs that will appeal to adults who have to start earning money fast, but yet need considerable preparation before they are ready to teach in the city schools which need them most. Because these liberal arts graduates constitute a highly varied group so far as their background and experience are concerned, they have to have specially tailored programs. For example, some prospective mathematics teachers may have been engaged in occupations which kept their subject matter up to date, while others have not used any of the higher mathematics they studied at college and are unfamiliar with recent developments in mathematics. The first step in working with liberal arts college graduates is to screen them for their promise as prospective teachers in city schools. The mere fact that the adult is unhappy in his present job does not necessarily offer any promise that he will be better adjusted in a classroom. These prospective teachers should be treated for what they are, namely, only prospective teachers who should be evaluated with respect to such qualities as their present intellectual and scholastic ability, the likelihood of their being able to get along well with children and adults, their health, and their ability to speak and write effectively. Where remediable deficiencies become apparent, an appropriate program should be undertaken before these people are permitted to teach. Thus, some of them may need to take additional courses in the field of specialization in which they were once proficient, but are now no longer ready to teach either because they have forgotten what they once knew or because the field has developed so much since they were students. If there are any who seem to be clearly unfit to become teachers, they should not be admitted to a teacher preparation program no matter how praiseworthy their academic record might be. The program for college graduates should usually last two semesters, with a preparatory summer if needed to bring the subject matter competence up to date. During the first semester, the teaching recruit should take such college courses as are needed to improve his subject-

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matter background. In addition, he should be appointed as an assistant teacher as described above and should be enrolled in special seminars offered in conjunction with his assistant teaching. Whether assistant teachers will be paid for this service depends upon the policy that is agreed upon in connection with all other assistant teachers. Because he has not served as a school aide and because his service as an assistant teacher will last only one semester, the seminars planned for him will have to be different from those planned for the other assistant teachers who will serve in that capacity for a full year. Since assistant teachers will be paying the regular tuition fees for all courses taken at college, a grant to cover the tuition fees will increase the appeal of the program. During the second semester, this teaching recruit should be appointed as an intern and should receive the same salary as the other interns. He should be required to participate in such special seminars as are arranged for interns, but here, too, these will have to be different from the seminars that are organized for interns who will be serving for a full year. Whether or not he will also be required to take other academic or professional courses will depend upon the program that was planned for him as being most appropriate and upon his performance in the classroom. At the end of the year, he will have had experience as an assistant teacher, service as an intern, the seminars that accompany his assistant teaching and his internship, and the academic courses he needs in order to bring his subject area competence up to par. At this time, he should be ready for appointment as a regular teacher at the second step of the salary schedule. ENCOURAGING MORE IN-MIGRANT YOUTH TO GO TO COLLEGE TO PREPARE FOR TEACHING

Many of America's teachers have come in the past from the rural population and from the upward mobile members of the upper-lower and the lower-middle classes. Historically, the normal schools, the state teachers colleges, and the state colleges provided the avenues by which the bright student with little money could rise above his

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family's socio-economic level and enter a profession. Among the underlying causes of our teacher shortage are the decline in the size of the rural population and the increase in the number of other opportunities now open not only to the decreasing number of rural youth but also to all bright and ambitious members of the lower and middle classes. The in-migrants constitute a large potential source of teachers for urban schools if we raise their educational sights and achievements so that their percentage of college-bound youth approximates that of the rest of the population and if those who do go to college are encouraged to enter teaching. Every procedure employed by the schools and the universities to provide better educational programs and more effective guidance services for in-migrants may contribute to the amelioration of the teacher shortage in urban schools. It is to be expected that when more in-migrants and children of in-migrants enter teaching there will be more teachers who understand the background and the problems of the in-migrant school population. These teachers, by serving as living illustrations of what in-migrants can achieve by education, may increase the educational ambitions of other in-migrants who see little to be gained by going to school. If we are to make optimum use of in-migrants as teachers, assuming that our existing and the new procedures succeed in increasing the number who may wish to teach, a number of cautions should be kept in mind: (1) In-migrants who become teachers should be treated as teachers, and not as former in-migrants, and should be eligible for assignment to schools throughout the school system just as are all other teachers. (2) While in-migrant students should get all the encouragement and help we can give them, those who are to enter teaching should meet the same standards as do all other candidates for appointment lest we fall into the trap of developing a second-class faculty. (3) As every immigrant group went through the Americanization process, some members of the group retained their identity and sympathy with their kinsmen and were eager to help more recently arrived immigrants adjust to their new social environment. Other members of the group, however, seemed to resent

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being reminded of their immigrant origin and tried to cut every possible tie with their fellow immigrants. Similarly, one adult who came to a big city years ago as an in-migrant may be eager to help other in-migrants, while another former in-migrant may resent being treated as a former in-migrant and may have little patience with in-migrants who persist in following practices which he has long discarded. It cannot be assumed, therefore, that every in-migrant who becomes a teacher will automatically be sympathetic and understanding as a teacher of in-migrant children. Regardless of whether in-migrants who become teachers will teach in-migrants or not, they will help the schools serve in-migrant youngsters. If they teach in a school with many in-migrants, their contribution is obvious; and if they are assigned to other schools, they may help correct the fallacious picture which some teachers and children have of the characteristics of the in-migrant group. MAKING OPTIMUM USE OF NEW INSTRUCTIONAL

MEDIA

Teachers in the city schools are handicapped unnecessarily if they are limited to conventional teaching procedures when they face teaching situations that were unheard of when these procedures were being developed. The urban schools and the universities will have to be both daring and courageous if they are to make optimum use of such new media of instruction as educational television and programed instructional materials. It takes daring to try out a new procedure, and it takes courage to resist public pressure for jumping on a band wagon before one knows where the parade is headed. The schools will have to learn how these new procedures can be employed best, and the universities will have to teach their students how to use them. Few innovations in education have been promoted so aggressively and for so many reasons—some valid and some invalid—and few innovations have been resisted so aggressively for so many reasons— some valid and some invalid. When the dust stirred up by this fight settles, we shall find that educational television and programed instruction are neither panaceas for all educational ills nor the invention

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of enemies of public education. Instead, we shall treat them for what they are: usable procedures that can be helpful if employed in the right way at the right time by the right people for the right students. These new media hold such promise of helping to ease some of the problems of urban education that the schools must experiment in order to see how to make optimum use of new procedures, and the universities must prepare the teachers if the experiments are to be successful. Teachers who use only the traditional methods of teaching have to meet almost impossible demands upon their time and energy. How can a single teacher working with a normal size class personally provide all the remedial teaching that is needed and also get the abler students going ahead with advanced work, while at the same time making certain that every member of the class is so busy with productive and satisfying work that there are no disciplinary difficulties to disrupt everything? When all pupils are working on their individual programed materials, moreover, the slow child is not humiliated by having his classmates see him working with the teacher on reading materials at the second grade level instead of at fifth grade level with the rest of the class. There is an additional advantage in the fact that the teacher who is freed from the routine presentation of routine material now has the time available for helping individual children and for doing the kind of teaching that cannot be done by programed textbooks and teaching machines. Similarly, educational television can be used effectively, especially in a big city where the great numbers of children involved makes special television programs economically feasible, because of the opportunity it provides for making wider use of the city's rich cultural and educational resources. Here, too, the wide variation in the students' abilities and interests adds to the value of educational television as a way of enriching the resources that are available for each child, but it also presents added difficulties. A television program makes no concessions to individual differences in ability. Once the program has been started, it stops for no one, regardless of whether or not any child is confused by what he has just seen. Educational television, therefore, can be used best in a big city when the role of

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the classroom teacher in a television-taught class is made a little clearer than it sometimes is at the present time. The importance of motivation as a factor affecting the efficiency of learning is well known. Both educational television and programed instruction can whet the child's desire to learn. Obviously the television teacher, with time to prepare and with technical resources that no classroom teacher ever has, can make lessons much more interesting than many classroom teachers do. Programed instruction, with the procedures it has for stimulating learning by letting the child see his progress at once and by informing him immediately of the correctness or error of his response, uses the well-known psychological principle that knowledge of success is an effective incentive for learning. Motivation, however, does not come simply from the material that is learned; it is affected in powerful yet subtle ways by the personality, the background, and the interests of the individual child. The new media must be used, therefore, to take full advantage of the opportunities for motivation which they offer, and yet the interest that can be aroused only by a teacher who understands and sympathizes with the individual child and who can adjust to the youngster's ability to progress must also be provided. Promising though these new media are, their limitations must be realized if they are to make their greatest contribution to urban education. There are some phases of schooling that can be handled at least as effectively by television as by a classroom teacher, and there are some kinds of teaching that can be done as well, or better, by a programed textbook as by a teacher. The danger arises from the possibility that if educational television and programed instructional materials become the only means, or even the major means, of teaching, they may become the de facto dictators of curricular procedures, since more programs will be developed in those areas where programing and television are successful than in areas in which they are not successful. If this happens, there is the danger that a machine will dictate what the curriculum should be, instead of the curriculum planners telling the machine what it is to do. While programing does make it possible to adjust the rate of in-

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struction, it overlooks the possibility that individual differences may be so great as to warrant changes in curriculum rather than merely in rate. Sometimes children need not merely bigger spoons or smaller spoons but rather a different educational diet. As with all new techniques, the adequate implementation of a new idea takes time. Programed instructional material is of little use unless the programing is not only sound technically but is also educationally appropriate for the specific youngster and for the specific subject matter to be learned. At present, there are many important areas in which good programing has not yet been developed, and using poor programs is worse than not using programed instruction at all. Where teaching machines are employed, there is yet another difficulty since at the present time each machine uses only its own type of programed material. Schools always find it advisable to examine the books put out by various publishers before adopting textbooks for general use. Thus, an elementary school may be using the arithmetic series published by one company, a reading series published by a second company, a social studies series from yet another company, and so on. Once a big city has invested the tremendous sums involved in the purchase of teaching machines for its large pupil population, however, it cannot use the programed materials prepared for other machines even when such programing is better in certain areas than is the material prepared by the company which manufactures the machines the school has purchased. Experience with textbooks has shown that the most successful instructional materials are often those which are prepared by teachers for their own classes. Thus, the experience chart in a reading class has values that cannot be gained from even the best published series of reading books. Teachers must learn, therefore, not only how to use programed materials but also how to construct them. Not every teacher will be able to prepare a program that merits wide distribution any more than every teacher is able to prepare an experience chart that warrants publication. As schools become more familiar with programed instruction, it is likely that they will use both published and teacher-made programed material.

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Fortunately, the principles of teaching that are employed when programed materials are prepared are also the very principles which are employed in good classroom teaching. Thus, the teacher who prepares the programed material for a specific arithmetic skill has to know the various component parts of the skill. He has to know how to analyze these parts and to arrange them in an order of difficulty. He has to provide for pupil activity by having the children perform certain operations in a series of small but carefully graduated steps. He has to reinforce the learning by letting the child know at once whether he is correct. Built into a good program are appropriate methods of testing and of reviewing. Any teacher should become a better teacher as he analyzes his conventional procedures as though he were preparing a program. In short, educational television and programed instruction have much to offer to the teachers in the big city as they strive to meet the many and varied problems they face daily. But this contribution can be made only when television and programed instruction are viewed as ways of improving the effectiveness of the educational process. It is clear that these new media are not inexpensive. They cannot be introduced as short cuts to economy in education, if we measure economy in terms of current expenditures. They can, however, make a significant contribution to the economy of education if economy is measured in the much more important terms of how much children are gaining from their work in school. Used properly, these may yet help us solve some of our problems, but only if the schools and the teacher-preparing institutions work together to make certain that teachers know how to use these media most effectively. FOSTERING GREATER COOPERATION B E T W E E N AND

SCHOOLS

UNIVERSITIES

One of the least defensible of the schisms in education is that between the school systems and the universities which prepare teachers for them. Even though the school systems and the colleges do work together, their relationships are sometimes less than perfect. School people often feel that current teacher education programs do not

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prepare students to deal with the classroom situations in urban schools and that the universities present the city schools in such an unfavorable light that recent college graduates are unwilling to accept appointment to the city schools. On the other hand, teacher education faculties may see their responsibility as being primarily to their students and to education in general, rather than to the schools of a specific city. This is not the kind of split which can be healed by inspirational talks. Instead, the opportunities must be increased by which college faculties can become ever more familiar with the city schools and develop an even greater feeling of personal commitment to the advancement of urban education. If the big cities are to get the professional staff they need, the superintendents must help the college professors become thoroughly conversant not only with the difficulties which the city schools face, but also with the professional opportunities they offer to teachers. One way of developing this understanding is to have key people in the university teacher education program sit down for a long enough period of concentrated thought with key people in the school system to discuss the problems of urban education and the related ones of teacher education—and these initial meetings must be followed up by other regularly scheduled conferences. To be successful, these sessions must not become part of the crowded daily schedule of busy people. They cannot be held, therefore, during the normal working day or in offices where prolonged thought is impossible because of distracting telephone calls. Because the best way of becoming familiar with a situation is actually to work in it, provision should be made for the exchange of personnel between the school system and the universities. Thus, the universities should select from among the teachers and administrators in the school system those who should be appointed to the university faculty for a semester or a year as active participants in the teacher education program, with the superintendent's permission, of course. Similarly, the school system should be encouraged to select from among the members of the teacher education faculty those who should be invited to serve the school system on either a part-time or, for a

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while, a full-time basis. It is encouraging to be able to report that the City University of New York and the school systems in the metropolitan area have been using this exchange system effectively for about twenty years. The schools have to take advantage of every opportunity to familiarize university students with the opportunities that urban teachers have of finding personal and professional satisfaction in their work. Urban schools cannot hope to change the unfavorable image they think university students have of the city schools unless the school doors are opened wide to visitors from the universities, whether they come as observers, participants, or student teachers. For example, instead of complaining that college students use the facilities of the city schools for student teaching but then accept teaching apointments out of town, the urban schools should welcome as many student teachers as they can possibly accommodate. There is no better way of selecting prospective teachers than by seeing how these prospective teachers perform in the classroom as student teachers. Moreover, what better way is there of demonstrating to student teachers how false is the image which so many of them have of the perils and the difficulties of urban teaching than by having them spend a semester or a year in the school as a student teacher, seeing for themselves how rich the schools are not only in problems but also in satisfactions and in services which help the teachers and the children? MODIFYING THE PROCEDURES FOR APPOINTING TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS TO URBAN SCHOOLS

In a laudable attempt to keep appointments to the school system from being regarded as part of political patronage, the big cities often use either published examinations or specially constructed tests as a basis for selecting teachers and administrators. Though the examination system has been successful as a means of ensuring that merit is the only factor to be considered in the appointment of teachers and principals, it has some undesirable results. For example, the big cities are at a disadvantage when it comes to competing for new teachers if superintendents from suburban areas can make a definite offer of a

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job as soon as the student is graduated from college, and all that the superintendent of a big city can offer is an application for an examination. Where principals are chosen on the basis of local competitive examinations, moreover, the examination system virtually rules out the possibility of attracting principals from other school systems who have demonstrated their ability to head a school. As a result, the principals in the big cities are drawn almost exclusively from among the ranks of those who entered as teachers in that same city. Though such nearly complete inbreeding would always be open to question, the results are even more serious when the sources for appointment as principals are limited to teachers selected by an examination process that unnecessarily frightens away some who might be most successful in the classroom. The examination process is not only a selective factor, but also one that influences what people think they must do in order to be eligible for appointment or promotion. Thus, if the examination for the principalship is one that stresses items that can be tested objectively in a written examination, it may unintentionally belittle the qualities that make for educational leadership, qualities that are not easily tested by multiple choice questions. In order to indicate what kind of plan can be devised for selecting staff members that will maintain the high fence that separates the schools from political patronage and yet actively attract the people who are needed and wanted, the following proposal is suggested as an illustration of other ways of determining who should be appointed. So far as new teachers are concerned, all graduates of an approved teacher education program who have had their student teaching or internship experience in one of the schools in that city and who meet the requirements for certification should be regarded as eligible for appointment, provided that the application for appointment is approved by the principal of the school in which the student teaching was done and by the superintendent of the district. Such teachers should be granted a provisional appointment, valid for no more than three years. During that three-year period and before they are granted a permanent appointment, their performance in the classroom should

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be evaluated by the officers of the school system who ordinarily conduct the examinations for teachers. All other applications for appointment, that is, applications from those who have not done their student teaching in the schools in that city, should be filled by examination, but one that is conducted so early in the school year that college seniors can learn long before they are graduated whether or not they will be offered an appointment in the city. Appointment as a principal should be limited to those who have served either as an assistant principal or as principal. The examination for the principalship should consist essentially of an evaluation of the candidate's performance as an educational administrator. Provision should be made for judging the competence of administrators in out-of-town schools who are interested in joining a city school system. For all principals, there should be a re-evaluation of their performance on the job by the usual examining body before tenure is granted. Selecting the assistant principals raises other questions since there is no way of knowing which teachers in the entire school system are best suited for administrative assignments. If the assistant principalships are limited to evaluation of performance on the job by those who have filled these positions in a substitute or "acting" capacity, there is no way of making certain that those who select an acting assistant principal are making their choice solely in professional terms, influenced by unjustified personal likes and dislikes. For these reasons, the assistant principals should continue to be chosen by examination, but the examination should be of the performance rather than the verbal type. Thus, the prospective assistant principal can be asked to deal with the kinds of situations which assistant principals actually face. Some of these simulated techniques, such as the In-Basket, which have been used by universities as one of the bases for selecting students for enrollment in programs for the preparation of administrators, can be adapted for use as part of the examination process for prospective assistant principals. The use of such procedures, moreover, will indicate to prospective assistant principals what it is the Board of Education looks for in an assistant principal.

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There is no justification for handicapping the urban schools in their search for capable men and women who can solve the difficult problems of urban education. Ways of overcoming this handicap must be found, but without introducing the evils of favoritism, discrimination, and political patronage. H E L P I N G THE INEXPERIENCED URBAN

TEACHER

No matter how well prepared the newly appointed teacher may be, he is often overwhelmed when he assumes the full-time responsibilities of a regular teacher but without the comforting presence of the cooperating teacher and the college supervisor with whose assistance he was so impatient to dispense when he was a student teacher. Face to face with physical aggression, with hostility, and sometimes with what he regards as vulgarity in speech and conduct, he may feel so shocked and so discouraged by his inability to cope with them that he regards himself as a failure and is ready to resign. That even his best-planned lessons either fall flat, or do not get off the ground at all, corroborates his growing conviction that he just was not meant to be a teacher. The beginning teacher is not ready to assume all of the responsibilities of a full-time teacher in a class that has more than its quota of educational, psychological, and social problems. He needs help, and it is a wise school system that provides it for the beginning teacher without getting him to feel inadequate. The beginning teacher needs an orientation program, but he also needs continued support and guidance for his first year or two. The most important professors of education, if we judge importance in terms of their effect on the professional careers of the teachers, are sometimes to be found in the schools. The beginner's first principal can do much to shape the teacher's thinking. The young teacher who is told to forget everything he learned in college is not likely to be the one who looks for ways of achieving everything he learned at college. Schools are often called "problem schools" when it would be more appropriate to speak of "problem principals," because the principal

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can do so much to change a discouraging school situation into a challenging and satisfying one. Fortunately, most principals are eager to help teachers, but all too often the principal has too little time to spend on this effort. To a degree, the assistance which the recent appointee needs is sometimes provided by the follow-up programs conducted by the institution from which he was graduated. Sometimes, he can get much help from the graduate program in which he is enrolled. Nevertheless, the schools themselves have a major responsibility for working with new teachers, regardless of how much the universities do for their graduates and graduate students. IMPROVING TEACHER MORALE I N URBAN SCHOOLS

Teaching is difficult, and not only because of the problems of discipline or the pressures of clerical work, great though these problems and pressures may be. What makes teaching difficult is that the teacher dares try to influence how people think, how they act, even how they speak. Teaching involves far more than just telling people what to do, for the teacher must get them to understand what he has said and make it part of themselves. The teacher faces problems unlike those which confront any other professional person. The dentist is not expected to treat the patient who does not open his mouth, and no psychiatrist can help the neurotic who will not speak to him. Yet the teacher must teach those who are eager to learn and those who see no value in anything the school has to teach. He must win the respect of those who see education as the avenue by which they will achieve their ambition, and he must gain the respect of those who respect no one, not even themselves. Teachers in an underprivileged area in a large city face particularly great difficulties. As college students who were majoring in an academic discipline, some of them saw secondary school teaching as a way of presenting their subject to adolescents. The English teacher, for example, is likely to feel disappointed and to think that he is not making adequate use of his college background when he finds that

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he is conducting classes in remedial reading rather than teaching creative writing. As the teacher learns about his pupils, he feels emotionally exhausted by his sensitive reaction to the conditions under which some of them live. He may even feel guilty that he cannot singlehandedly solve all the emotional and behavior problems he encounters in his class. To make matters even worse, he feels he is a failure because his students are not learning what the course or grade syllabus sets forth as the content for his class. He also feels just plain tired because the short attention span of his children and their apparent inability to work independently and without close supervision allows him very few moments of rest from one end of the day to the other. All in all, the conscientious beginning teacher sees himself as being far from the understanding, loving and beloved, successful teacher he hoped he would be. The purely routine teacher is not troubled much by any of the various concerns which affect the conscientious and idealistic teacher—all he knows is that he is tired at the end of the day, and he is eager for any teaching assignment in another school which requires less expenditure of energy. When we realize that schools in low socio-economic areas are likely to be at some distance from the teacher's home, with considerable time spent traveling between home and school, it is easy to see why both the conscientious and the unconscientious are ready to accept appointments to other schools. It is a common fallacy to believe that there is no educational problem which could not be solved if we had more money. Of course, morale is affected by the size of the teacher's salary, and the morale of city teachers is not heightened when their salaries are lower than those of the teachers in the more prosperous suburban communities. But even salary increases, badly needed though they are, will not guarantee high morale. For high morale, teachers need a feeling of achievement, of success in the accomplishment of the task they regard as all important. It is difficult to enjoy this feeling of achievement, however, if the teacher is expected to raise his class to unrealistic goals and if his pupils' behavior and learning difficulties are regarded as measures of the

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teacher's incompetence. Teachers need the professional resources to which they can turn for help when they encounter serious adjustment problems in their class. They need adequate instructional materials and assistance from administrators and supervisors. They need relief from time-consuming clerical and housekeeping chores that can be performed by others. They need good working conditions, including opportunity for a breathing spell in the course of a long and strenuous day. Above all, they want to feel that their superintendent and principal respect them as people and treat them as fellow-professionals. No amount of preaching about the importance of teaching means much to the young person who is treated as a hired hand by a petty bureaucrat, regardless of whether the pettiness is shown by a principal, by a supervisor, or by a clerk in the superintendent's office. If teachers are to feel that they are professional colleagues, they must be treated as professional colleagues. A great deal has been said about the "dedicated teacher"—and there are many of them but there are not enough dedicated teachers any more than there are dedicated physicians. If the only physicians in practice were the dedicated ones, most of us would have been dead a long time ago. Dedicated teachers and physicians should be honored, but the schools and the hospitals will have to rely on the capable and conscientious teachers and physicians and see that they get the conditions and the equipment they need in order to work effectively. It has been noted that whereas big cities are likely to have good media of mass communications by which a leader can address his followers, there are usually no equally effective channels through which the followers can communicate with the leader. Thus, in a big city school system, a superintendent may speak with his entire staff by radio or television, but it is not nearly so easy for the teachers and principals to get to the superintendent. It is readily apparent, therefore, why so many superintendents of large schools systems, and even principals of big schools, are devoting so much of their time to opening up two-way channels of communication in order to raise teacher morale.

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EDUCATION

Like the members of all other professions, teachers have to keep studying as long as they practice their profession. For teachers, such continued study is essential because of the changes in subject matter content, the developments in educational procedures, and the shifts in the population of the schools. Nevertheless, many in-service programs rest on the insulting assumption that teachers will not study unless they are required to take courses, or unless their salary increases depend upon the number of course certificates they accumulate. The first step in developing an effective program of in-service education is that of creating in the schools the professional climate that makes the teacher's growth possible and satisfying. Unless there is this basis for professional growth, there is no superintendent who is so ingenious that he can develop a pattern of in-service education that cannot be outwitted. If he requires that courses be taken, they will be taken; but he cannot order teachers to profit from them. If the only courses which are accepted are those labeled "graduate," the teachers can take a graduate course that means little to them and avoid the undergraduate or the noncredit course they need and from which they can profit because it deals with the subject matter they must teach. If he insists that his teachers work toward advanced degrees, some of them may shop around until they find an institution that has a quick and cheap degree which does not require too much work and that offers courses on convenient days, at convenient hours, and at convenient places. Urban teaching is so demanding that in-service programs are basic to success, but these programs cannot be effective if they consist of nothing more than arbitrary requirements checked in a routine way by clerks. A skilled teacher rarely relies upon his marking book as the major basis for stimulating his students' intellectual growth. How many principals and superintendents would be willing to have their educational leadership measured by seeing how many of their teachers would continue studying if the administrator dropped his

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in-service education requirements or stopped having his clerks examine teachers' course records? CONCLUSION

When we think of the difficulties which urban communities encounter as schools try to educate all the children, and when we see the obstacles which stand in the way of getting the teachers without whose help the schools cannot accomplish their mission, it is easy to feel sorry for ourselves. Such self-pity is neither necessary nor desirable. To be sure, the schools have problems, but they also have tremendous opportunities. The in-migrants who have moved into urban centers have taken a great stride forward by uprooting themselves from surroundings that offered them little, and moving to other communities that held the promise of a better life. The children of these in-migrants can become a valued national asset if they can be helped to contribute to the development of our nation as did the children of the immigrants of previous generations, or they can create a persistent social problem that saps the strength of the community they should be enriching. Though the schools will not be the only social agency that will determine the future of these children, what happens to these children when they enroll in our schools is certain to be a most important factor. As an added gain, schools which learn how to deal with inmigrants will also become more skillful in dealing with those children of older residents who have been unsuccessful in our present schools and who enter so often into our discussions of school failure, truancy, dropouts, and delinquency. It is only natural that educators should be disturbed by the severity and the extensiveness with which the schools are being attacked in the press and on the air. It is understandable, too, that educators should be annoyed by baseless charges and by hastily conceived proposals for changes. The public criticism of education, though often unpleasant, is not without an encouraging aspect. Clearly, the articulate part of America wants good education and is ready for change

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in educational practices if necessary. Given good leadership, there is now the public interest that is essential for progress. In the United States, such public support is particularly important because it is the boards of education that appoint the superintendents and the teachers and approve the curricula—and boards of education in our country consist of laymen and not of professionals. If educators can provide effective leadership, and if the schools and the universities co-operate in working out solutions for the problems, the public schools in our big cities should be able to recruit and retain capable teachers who, in turn, will enable in-migrants to join the other children in the schools in becoming the future builders of the nation.

II Comparative Education

Education in Australia MARGARET B. PARKE * AUSTRALIA, the island country "down under," came to our attention most dramatically during the epic space flight of John Glenn when the 420,000 people in Perth signaled to him by burning their lights all night. This gesture seems truly symbolic of the ties that exist between Australia and the United States—partners in the South East Asia Treaty Organization.

BACKGROUND AND CHARACTERISTICS

The earliest settlers in these two English-speaking countries came from the British Isles. When the British could no longer ship convicts to the American colonies after the American Revolution, they were sent to colonize and claim Australia. Settlers on each continent found inhabitants of another race—the Indians in North America and the Aborigines in Australia. On opposite sides of the earth and in different hemispheres, these sturdy colonists resolved to promote the rights of man. But, in each place, democracy flourished in its own way. The American colonists fought for independence and realized it in 1776. The six Australian colonies got their freedom without a war in 1901 and chose to retain membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations. By that time, the American democracy was 125 years old, and the Australians had a chance to study American history both from the British and the American points of view. The Australian leaders made basic decisions to bar slavery, to restrict * Professor of Education, Brooklyn College, City University of N e w York; Fulbright Lecturer, University of Sydney, 1960. 79

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immigration with respect to race, and to use the secret ballot but to make voting compulsory. These acts in themselves portray a few of the characteristics of the Australian attitude. Because of the great expanse of desert land, the isolation of the country from the rest of the world—particularly European civilization—the expense of transporting needed goods and equipment, and the limited population and funds, Australia developed slowly. However, huge projects are now underway to bring water to the desert and to supply power for industrialization by diverting the rivers. Jets, radio, television, and other advancements have contributed much to breaking down the barriers of isolation today. Still, Australia is lacking in manpower. Despite the fact that the mainland of Australia is almost as large as the mainland of the United States, there are eighteen times as many people in the United States. Actually, the population of Australia is barely larger than that of New Y o r k City alone. To meet the need for more people, the government subsidizes the family for each child. In addition, from 100,000 to 150,000 immigrants are brought from European countries each year on chartered ships. Two-thirds of the ten million people live in cities and towns along the coast, because one-third of the country has been almost uninhabitable and another third has a low rainfall that permits only sparse settlement. Families living on the great plains are widely scattered. A single "station," as a huge sheep or cattle ranch is called, may be larger than one of our states. About 33,000 children in Australia are too widely scattered to be taught in regular classrooms and must be instructed in other ways. Standards of living and health are among the highest in the world, but problems of inflation are pronounced. Prices have risen 66 per cent within the last twenty years. The cost of labor and production is high, and new Australians cannot be exploited for cheap labor. Approximately 25 per cent of the people are on government payrolls of some kind, and exports need to be increased by 50 per cent. Naturally, there is at present concern about England's relation to the European Common Market.

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SYSTEM

ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL

When the Commonwealth of Australia was organized, education was recognized to be a state function as it is in the United States, and strong state rights were retained in each of the six states. Control of education has continued to be highly centralized in each state—more like that in New York City than in New York State. Although the states are much larger in area than those in the United States, state administrative officials control the finances, the placement of teachers anywhere within the state, the curriculum, and other weighty matters. The concentration of so many people in capital cities and the slow penetration of inland areas have, no doubt, been contributing causes. State governments have been striving constantly for efficiency in school management. It is to their credit that they insist on staffing rural schools just as competently as city schools. Teachers, however, undergo considerable hardships in being shifted about anywhere within a state. Uniform policy is set by administrators at the top, and inspectors are responsible for enforcing the policy. Local school boards have no place in the system, but local parent groups contribute to raising money for school equipment and supplies when the state does not provide adequately. The Commonwealth Office of Education, which came into existence in 1945, is largely concerned with external relations, broadcasting, financial assistance to universities and students, and the education of immigrants as well as education in the territories and armed forces. It performs some of the same functions as our Office of Education in Washington.

THE EDUCATIONAL

"LADDER"

The Commonwealth Government runs a model preschool research and demonstration center in each capital city. Other centers for

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young children are mainly conducted by private individuals, churches, and voluntary organizations. Radio has brought a form of preschool education within the reach of most preschool children in Australia. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of six and fourteen, fifteen, or sixteen depending upon the state. Correspondence education is provided for those in places too remote for school attendance and is reinforced by radio instruction. Tuition in government schools is free at the primary level and, except for one state, at the secondary level also. Competitive government scholarships provide assistance towards fees payable at some non-government schools. Immigrants are given English instruction on ships before their arrival, and special provision is made for them at the elementary, secondary, and adult levels. Approximately one Australian child in four attends a non-government school, most often administered by a religious organization. About 80 per cent of privately educated children attend Catholic schools. Although they are not responsible for the administration and financing of private schools, several of the states reserve the right to inspect them with regard to the conditions and standards of teaching. The infants' schools contain classes much like kindergarten, first, and second grades in the United States. At seven or eight most children pass into the primary school proper, where they usually spend four or five years. At this time the transfer is made to a secondary school, such as a high school, junior technical school, agricultural school, or a school which specializes in home science or commercial subjects. In most states, students may matriculate in the University by taking the Leaving Certificate Examination, much as students in New York State take the Regents' Examination. At the tertiary level, students have access to ten universities, and to technical colleges, agricultural colleges, and other institutions such as the Forestry School in Canberra and conservatories of music in four cities. There does not appear to be a great yearning among many high school students to go to college or university. Some who are in college frankly admit that they would not be there if they did not receive their government check regularly and are surprised to hear how some youths in America struggle for an education. A general

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feeling seems to exist that a little education is good for all, but that only a few need much education. However, those few must be held to extremely high standards. For advanced degrees, students commonly attend universities in England and the United States. They carry back ideas to be incorporated into Australian education, but the task of introducing new ideas is not easy. Australians are not given to theorizing about education as much as Americans are. Rather, they tend to say, "Let's get on with the job." Nor are they strongly inclined to promote many professional or community organizations. CONTRASTING APPROACHES TO THE CRITICISM OF AUSTRALIAN EDUCATION

British and American educators have been highly critical of Australian education. Even before World War II, critics urged that elements of flexibility be introduced within the highly centralized framework of each Australian state and that district inspectors be given another name, such as "education officers," with more responsibility for developing educational policies suited to their own districts. More recently, Dent, the editor of the Times Educational Supplement and writer on British education, referred to Australian education as lacking in vitality and adaptation to its own environment.1 The student of comparative education should find two criticisms of Australian education most enlightening. Butts of Columbia University, a highly trained observer and a Fulbright Research Scholar associated with the Australian Council for Educational Research in 1954, wrote a searching analysis of Australian education.2 In a systematic way, he dealt with the administration and control of education, the educational program, the methods of instruction, and the teaching profession. He concerned himself with the assumptions, values, conflicts, and uncertainties in Australian education and presented supporting evidence for his statements. Without involving other 'Cited in R. Freeman Butts, Assumptions Underlying Australian ( N e w York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955), p. ix. 3 Ibid.

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countries of the world, he attempted to help Australians think through and act upon their problems in their own way. Toward this end, he used extreme care in analyzing his own background and ideology in an opening chapter so that the Australians might more readily accept or reject his arguments than if they did not know his philosophy. His method was to say, "Since you do this, you obviously believe that." Butts called attention to the need to decentralize and bring the Australian schools closer to the people, to bring about changes in attitudes of people, to move faster in making changes than had previously been done, to plan on a national scale, to recognize dangers in the dual system of government and nongovernment schools, to encourage originality and initiative, to break down the hierarchy of schools and subjects, and to educate girls as effectively as boys. He emphasized the need to examine the great reliance placed on the acquisition of organized knowledge to pass examinations, the memorization of facts in contrast to thinking and judgments, the keeping of neat and careful notebooks at the expense of free oral expression and discussion, the continuation of old methods without adequate attention to experimentation with new methods and materials, the rigid selectivity in secondary and higher education, and numerous other points. Gollan, a headmaster of a government secondary school in Sydney, dealt with some of the same weaknesses in Australian education from the Communist point of view. 3 He made an attempt to make damaging charges at other countries, using the United States as the chief target. He denounced the Australian, British, and American ways of life without recognizing anything good in them, and exalted Russian life and education without admitting to any of the faults. Truths and half truths were stated and combined or deliberately omitted to suit his purposes. Philosophic statements were interspersed throughout the document to support the cause of communism. He pointed out that Australian education had no national planning and no opportunity for talented young people to reach their potential. He stated that teacher qualifications were being reduced "W. E. Gollan, Education Book Distributors, 1959).

in Crisis

and the Way Forward

(Sydney: Current

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and that because of the rate of failures "coaching colleges" were springing up. He recognized that the Wyndham Report4 on secondary education was progressive, but criticized it because it was based on current United States educational thought. He praised the efforts of the U.S.S.R. for its cultural establishments and youth clubs that emphasized peaceful coexistence and international co-operation. The document containing his criticisms was less expensive and more easily obtained than was the Butts report. EVIDENCES OF PROGRESS

Records from the Commonwealth Office of Education6 showed clearly that the expenditure on education by State Ministers for Education rose significantly between the years 1950 and 1960, from 46 million to over 162 million pounds, and that a concentrated effort was being made to improve secondary schools and universities, international relations in education, teacher education, the status of independent schools, and research. Huge building programs at the university level provided evidence of the government's determination to extend the program of higher education and to implement the Report of the Murray Committee.® In 1960 at Sydney University, the education department moved into a spacious new building with an area set aside for Australia's first University Curriculum Laboratory. At Queensland University, local government men were considering ways of raising funds to promote higher education in their state. At Canberra University, engineers were assembled to discuss engineering problems peculiar to Australia. In Annidale, adult education groups were hard at work at the University of New England arranging for local institutes where resource people were brought together to help communities and fanners re* H. S. Wyndham (ch.), Report of the Committee Appointed to Survey Secondary Education in New South Wales (Sydney: Department of Education, New South Wales, 1957). 5 Australian Commonwealth Office of Education, Education News, VIII, No. 3 (Sydney: Government Printing Office, 1961). "Sir Keith Murray (ch.), Report of the Committee on Australian Universities (Canberra: Government Printer, 1957).

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solve their pressing problems. These and similar activities elsewhere were evidences that higher education was showing its concern for the development of leadership, citizenship training, and service projects as well as for pure intellectual activity. Within three years, the University of Sydney had made drastic changes in education courses both at the undergraduate and graduate levels in an attempt to vitalize the curriculum and work on problems of adaptation to Australian needs. Staff members became involved in writing a text for their college classes, scripts for radio broadcasts, and educational television programs. The improvement of school administration, the school curriculum, and work with the handicapped —physically, mentally, and in language—were chief concerns. Marked progress seemed to have been made in the cooperation between the Teachers College and the University in setting up a broad course for secondary education majors. In true Australian fashion, each member was respected for what he could contribute by way of lecture. He served as a resource person to acquaint all other lecturers and seminar leaders involved in the course with his particular field and as a guide in directing their reading. Students had the advantage of the best available lecturers, but they also participated in discussion sessions—an innovation in Australian education at this level. When more space was made available, plans were set in motion for increasing discussion time. Students were concerned with the philosophical, psychological, and sociological implications of education in general and in relation to Australian education. Thirty-four Asian students in that group were there because of Australia's cooperation in the Colombo Plan. They were part of the 5,441 overseas students registered in institutions of higher learning in Australia in 1960. They brought new problems to the class, attended special tutoring sessions, and engaged in a program of visitation set up to meet their needs as adequately as possible. Evaluation of this undergraduate course dealt primarily with Bloom and Krathwohl's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,'1 a book from the United States. Excellent techniques were used for assuring each Benjamin S. Bloom and D. R. Krathwohl, Taxonomy jectives ( N e w Y o r k : McKay, 1956). 7

of

Educational

Ob-

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student a fair grade in a course where more then twenty instructors participated in some way in teaching the 300 students. The graduate course in Curriculum Construction and Theory, which I also assisted in teaching, was one of four major courses taken by students who are candidates for a Master's degree. The course extended over the full college year of three terms, and students were involved in examining the philosophical, psychological, and sociological bases of curriculum in great depth as well as dealing with other topics that appear in good curriculum texts. After considering developments in England and the United States, students discussed the Australian point of view and the application of the theories to Australia. Much credit for the success of the course is due Professor William Connell and Dr. Joyce Wylie. PERSONAL

EXPERIENCES

Overcrowded schedules leave little time for university professors to become involved with the field activities of their students, but student after student provided me with introductions to widely diverse avenues of education. The first young man to lead me away from the ivory towers of the great University was concerned with technical and engineering education. Through him, I met leaders in the Post Master-General's Department government training schools who were vitally concerned with problems of the selection of personnel and an evaluation of their educational efforts, particularly in relation to telephone service and other forms of communication. Men were being trained in an outdoor area to lay the cable for television between Sydney and Melbourne. How carefully the teachers demonstrated the difference between a German method and one used in the United States! Although the German method was then being used, they assured me that the men would need a knowledge of the other method for later use. As time went on, it became apparent that a comparative study of this type is made again and again before action is taken. In new ventures, Australians like to discover what has worked best elsewhere before they make a move.

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An inspector of schools introduced me to secondary education by taking me to a boys' school, a school for girls, and a coeducational school. There I met interesting governing bodies of students, known as "prefects," and saw a special room equipped by a local organization to promote Pacific Studies. I heard of a project that was soon to be underway—the building of a swimming pool to serve the children of the school. This is one way in which community interest is shown in educational pursuits. In all secondary schools, there was concern over the newly published Wyndham Report of the committee appointed to survey secondary education in New South Wales. Principals met to discuss the advisability of proposals for comprehensive high schools, the certification requirements to accompany a new 4-2 plan, and ways of implementing the proposals in the years ahead. The New Education Fellowship held open meetings involving the public as well as educators in debating the issues at stake. At special institutes, conducted by the inspector, problems of slow learners were considered, as well as curriculum adaptations to meet their needs. Similarly, in afternoon and evening sessions, problems in teaching mathematics and other subjects were discussed. It was a delightful surprise to have a chance to participate in meetings where problems were handled democratically. The first impressive one concerned a recent examination given to students who were working for the Leaving Certificate. The moderator of the meeting was the university professor who was chairman of the committee responsible for the preparation of the examination. In turn, representatives of government and nongovernment schools presented their views, as well as parent groups. In a most considerate and democratic way, conclusions were reached not only concerning that particular examination but also relating to future tests. I learned that the Australian public can exercise an influence on educational procedures just as we can. One highlight in curriculum construction occurred in the field of physical education at a week-end camp, a popular meeting place in Australia. Physical education leaders and teachers were assembled from the State of New South Wales. They were involved in curriculum

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development that should eventuate in courses of study as impressive as their widely used tennis courts and sports ovals. Various headmistresses and headmasters invited me to their primary schools. These were demonstration schools and schools run by leaders who were definitely interested in experimental practices. Interesting assembly programs focused on music and on illustrating proper ways of using the telephone. In one situation, the parents, school staff, and teachers were preparing for a bazaar to earn money for school equipment. Reading machines were in use by children in the hall. Much effort was directed toward individualization of instruction in the "3 R's." Classes used well-developed school libraries freely and had access to good radio programs and audiovisual materials of all kinds. Through these leaders and a group of inspectors I learned about the International Reading Association and was given a chance to speak at their first annual meeting. In addition, I attended a meeting of the Federation of Teachers, to which all teachers belong, and was made an honorary member. One member of the class concerned with curriculum development in the New South Wales Research Bureau arranged for a visit to the spelling committee, a most enthusiastic group that demonstrated how classroom teachers exert an influence on curriculum development. Another student arranged for a visit to the Audio-Visual Bureau, the Blackfriars Correspondence School, and the ABC Broadcasting Studios. Then I was taken to the home of a sick child to see the program co-ordinated with respect to the instruction given to the mother as well as to the child. Surely, Australians have been inventive and creative in these areas of education. For their progress in radio and correspondence education they are recognized by other nations of the world. A priest from Annidale came hundreds of miles each week to attend the graduate class. It was he who arranged visits to rural schools outside of Annidale so that I might understand how meticulously the government aims to provide as good education outside the city areas as in them, even though teachers must be sent great distances from home in order to meet these needs. There I visited schools at all levels, including private schools run by the different churches. Stu-

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dents with whom I spoke expressed a deep desire to return to the "outback" upon the completion of their school work. Another graduate student who was connected with the Commonwealth government made arrangements for my visit to New Guinea, where every effort was made to have me taken to schools of all kinds. In some, children sat on crude benches with their feet dangling to the ground. In other places, children enjoyed the most modern primary, secondary, and technical schools. One native landowner who appeared at a school proudly told of his contribution of land for a preschool center. Nurses were busy putting patches on open sores on the children. Native teachers as well as Australians conducted the classroom sessions. Administrators were concerned about the shortage of teachers—about having 900 teachers when 12,000 more are needed. They feel the burden of much to be done in educating followers as well as leaders in this territory entrusted to Australia by the United Nations. I was interested in the background of knowledge the boys in the secondary schools had about other parts of the world, particularly the United States, and in the quality of technical education that was being given. Occasionally, my introduction to an important educational activity came in the course of my travels. I particularly enjoyed such introductions because they allowed me to appreciate more fully what was told to me in a central office. For instance, on a bus I met a woman who lived far from Sydney. She described with great enthusiasm a course which she and others were taking by correspondence from Sydney University to help them provide leadership in community discussions. In that particular week they were working on the topic of "Assimilation of the Australian Aborigines." On a trip to the Snowy Mountain Project, where a visit is certain to help one feel Australia pushing forward by leaps and bounds in building tunnels, dams, and power plants to conquer the desert and provide electricity for power, I found a guide who had been trained by correspondence to teach English as a second language. His intelligent responses to all of my questions about methods and materials sent me to the Commonwealth Office of Education in search of more information concerning ways of teaching English as a second lan-

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guage. Since then I have discovered that Australian experience in this field is being used increasingly overseas. In Melbourne, I was concerned with two activities. The first was the Australian Council of Educational Research, which was established in 1930 by a generous endowment from the Carnegie Foundation of New York. It is now financially assisted by all State and Commonwealth Governments in Australia without being under their control. It sponsors and conducts research, provides information and consulting services to students and research workers, prepares and distributes tests, and publishes accounts of research and studies in education. My second concern was the Australian College of Education, which was established in 1959 and has three purposes, namely, to form a fellowship of leaders in education, to work toward raising the status of the profession in its own eyes and in the eyes of the community, and to establish and proclaim desirable educational values. What a promising step forward! One of the most thrilling adventures was that in Alice Springs— the original home of the School of the Air, Australia's unique contribution to education. By means of the facilities of the Flying Doctor Service, a creative venture in the medical field, two-way communication is possible between a teacher and her invisible pupils who are scattered widely around the countryside, some as far as 500 miles away. For children whose only instruction comes to them by the mailman, a chance to talk with a live teacher who can explain what they cannot figure out for themselves is a real advantage. This program is in its infancy, but its implications may be really great in a world that is moving fast in the direction of automation in education. PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

It is evident that Australian educators are facing up to the problems before them. Some of these problems and issues are ours as well as theirs; the following lists several of them briefly: ( 1 ) What proportion of the national budget and of state budgets shall a nation invest in education?

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(2) Shall a nation have a clear-cut statement of national objectives in education? If so, who shall be responsible for formulating it and how shall it be used? (3) Shall educational planning start with the universities and work downwards, start with the mass education and work upwards, or involve people at all levels of the educational system? (4) When states control education, what is the role of the federal government? Is a Federal Board or Council needed to give leadership and stimulus on a nationwide basis? If so, how shall such a Board be selected? What shall be its functions? (5) Can the best interests of a democracy be fostered by a dual educational system where government and non-government schools operate side by side? If so, how? (6) To provide equal educational facilities for all children throughout an educational system, to what extent must there be a uniform policy for all schools? (7) If a uniform policy is desirable, can it be achieved best by having a relatively few people make the basic decisions? What role shall teachers on tenure play in decision making, and how? (8) What is good discipline in a school? To what extent shall schools accept responsibility for the emotional and personality development of individuals? For character development? For citizenship education? What procedures have been found to be most effective? What standards of evaluation are to be applied? (9) How can creativity and initiative be fostered without promoting class stratification unduly? (10) What proportion of an educational budget shall be invested in research? On what basis shall priority be established? When shall a teacher be free to experiment? How much experimentation shall be carried on before practice is changed on a widespread basis? (11) Shall secondary schools be selective or comprehensive? Shall there be four years of secondary education leading to a School Certificate on the basis of an external examination followed by a two-year course leading to a Higher School Certificate Examination for students who wish to matriculate at the university? (12) How can the needed engineers, teachers, and other pro-

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fessional workers be selected and educated most effectively for this age of technology and automation? How shall technicians be selected and trained? (13) What educational policies and procedures are or can be most effective in assimilating the Aborigines and the new migrants to Australia? (14) What kind of education is needed by Asian students brought to Australia under the Colombo Plan? How is this related to the problems these leaders will face when they return to their countries and to the materials with which they will work? (15) How can new developments in television and programed instruction be interrelated with face-to-face classroom procedures in a dynamic way to raise the level of instruction in city and rural schools? What will be the influence of these new developments on school by mail and air? (16) What languages shall be taught? Why? How? When? Where? With what speed? (17) How can the people of the nation, through education at all levels, be led to accept most rapidly the role that Australia can and should play in the emerging world society? CONCLUSION

Australia, not the youngest of nations but still relatively young, cannot afford to import ready-made answers in developing an educational system. No longer merely an outpost of Britain far from home, she has reflected a new self-image in the ANZUS Pact, SEATO, the Colombo Plan, relationships with Great Britain and the United States, and in dealings with New Guinea and Papua. In addition to making fundamental changes in education to suit domestic affairs during a period of increasing immigration and rapid industrialization, the outstanding problem of developing an outlook of international-minded citizenship will have to be met through education.

The Soviet School Through the Soviet Looking

Glass

WILLIAM W. BRICKMAN * IT IS A well-recognized and widely accepted fact that the widespread American interest in, and concern about, Soviet education can be dated from October 4, 1957, when Sputnik began to soar. This is not to say that there was a universal ignorance in the United States about the Soviet school system prior to that date. In point of fact, the specialists in what is now called Sovietology were well aware of the existence of education in the U.S.S.R. Moreover, they were also familiar with the fact that there was a history of education, long if not wide or deep, in Russia prior to the Revolution. EARLY

REPORTS

The U.S. Bureau (Office) of Education began to publish accounts of education in Russia not long after its establishment in 1867. Within two years after the Revolution, it published Theresa Bach's report on Educational Changes in Russia (1919). During the 1920's there appeared reports of travelers and other studies, such as Scott Nearing's Education in Soviet Russia (1926), Lucy L. W. Wilson's The New Schools of New Russia (1928), and John Dewey's Impressions of Soviet Russia and the Revolutionary World ( 1 9 2 9 ) . Perhaps the most systematic, consistent, and prolific writer on Soviet education from the 1930's to the present has been George S. Counts, whose significant contributions include The Soviet Challenge to America ( 1 9 3 1 ) , The Country of the Blind (1949), and The Chal* Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania. 94

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lenge of Soviet Education (1957). Among the other enlightening works one might mention Thomas Woody's New Minds: New Men? (1932) and Nicholas De Witt's Education and Professional Employment in the U.S.S.R. (1961). In short, it is obvious that there has been a lively American interest in Russian and Soviet education, but mainly on the part of specialists or of experts in comparative education such as I. L. Kandel. CURRENT REPORTS BY AMERICANS

The newer literature on Soviet education, since 1957, is varied, of course, but one detects a definite tendency for Americans to praise the Soviet schools with little or no reservation at the same time that they criticize American schools with little or no reservation. Among those who have spoken up in this vein, more or less, have been Vice-Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, Dr. Robert M. Hutchins, Mr. William Benton, Mr. Adlai Stevenson, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Professor Arthur E. Bestor, and others. 1 All too often, such commentators have proved to be as uninformed and unobjective with respect to the American as to the Soviet system of education. The tradition of American criticism of American education has been a long and honorable one, and it certainly did not arise during the past decade or so. But it is odd that this critical facility has not been extended, except by relatively few persons, to the analysis of Soviet education. The shock of Sputnik has been such that many have prepared themselves to concede the superiority of the Soviet school not merely in a specialized branch of applied technology but also in all aspects of education. Thus, in the words of the neo-comparative educationist who reads but one language and depends on others for his information, Admiral Rickover, "Rightly Sputnik has been seen as a triumph of Russian education." There have also been some minority voices who have not joined in the general paeans of praise of Soviet pedagogy. More skeptical 1

William W. Brickman, "Misconceptions about Soviet Education," Forum, X X V I (November, 1961), 43-52.

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travelers who have observed Soviet schools at close range, as well as close readers of Soviet educational writings, have raised specific questions about the alleged educational excellence in the U.S.S.R. For example, one well-known reporter of long standing on the Soviet scene, found that the teaching of foreign languages in the Soviet schools was as "incompetent" as in their American counterparts. He stated that, in all his travels in the U.S.S.R., he "never met a high school graduate who could carry on a simple conversation in English without making most elementary blunders." 2 This contrasts sharply with Rickover's conclusion—prior to his visit to the Soviet Union—that the Soviet pupil "masters the subject thoroughly and it is his for life." Another experienced reporter of Soviet life, the New York Times correspondent, Harrison E. Salisbury, recently noted that the problem of the persistence of religion has become very important for the Soviet leaders. In spite of the fact that, for some forty-five years, the Communist power has had a clear field to weaken and eradicate religion, it has failed to do so. Its dogmatists to the contrary notwithstanding, Soviet Russia is "still far from being the godless, atheistic, materialistic society" 3 envisioned in the early years of the Revolution. As a matter of actual fact, since World War II, there has been "a resurgence of religious strength," 4 not only within the Russian Orthodox Church, but also within the smaller faiths, especially the Baptists. With Komsomolskaya Pravda and other newspapers and periodicals carrying complaints about the religious revival, with new books and magazines being issued on the subject of "science and religion," and with a renewed emphasis in the schools on the "principles" of science, it is clear that the long campaign to discourage religion through force and through atheistic indoctrination has fallen far short of its goal. Hence, it would not be too much to say that, to a certain extent at least, the Soviet educators have failed in the achievement of a major educational objective. 2

Maurice Hindus, House without a Roof: Russia after Forty-three Years of Revolution (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), pp. 52-53. Harrison E. Salisbury, A New Russia? ( N e w York: Harper & Row, 1962), p. 76.

8

Ibid.

The Soviet School Through the Soviet Looking Glass R E P O R T S BY THE

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SOVIETS

It is possible, of course, to analyze Soviet education in a critical manner on the basis of the observations of specialists and other qualified persons. However objective they might try to be, there is a lingering suspicion in the minds of some readers that critics of the Soviet school system may be somewhat less than objective. To such individuals, one can be objective when he reports without discussion or analysis only. Others think of objectivity only when the Soviet system is praised. Be that as it may, there is still another approach to an evaluation of what the Soviets are doing in their schools —and that is their own analyses of their work. The reader of the general and pedagogical press of the Soviet Union is familiar with the fact that the Soviets are not at all happy with what is going on in their schools. While they are flattered and pleased by the American adulation of their school system, they are painfully aware of many shortcomings in the programs and achievements of their schools. By airing their dissatisfactions in their literature, they hope that they may yet overcome the weaknesses of their educational system. SOURCES IN

ENGLISH

For the most part, the Soviet criticism of its own school system has been known only to those who read Russian. During the past halfdozen years or so, there has been made available an increasing number of materials in English translation, so that there is less of an excuse for ignorance of how the Soviet educators see their own schools. For some time, School and Society has published several illuminating educational documents of criticism in English versions by Professor Ivan D. London of Brooklyn College and by Mrs. Ina Schlesinger, editor of Soviet Society and other publications on Soviet education and life. Beginning with the fall of 1958, the International Arts and Sciences Press issued the monthly Sovetskaya Pedagogika in full in English as Soviet Education, but later modified its policy to include translations from other periodicals, such as Narodnoye Obrazovanie, Nachcdnaya Shkola, and others.

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Of great importance for those who wished to know how the Soviet school looks in the Soviet looking glass is the study, Soviet Criticisms of Soviet Education, by Richard Lee Renfield, a staff member of the Educational Policies Commission. Qualified by training and by linguistic competence, Renfield explored, in the words of the subtitle, "some Soviet attitudes on aspects of the ten-year school which certain Americans have praised." This mimeographed, 109-page study cites frequently the self-criticism found in the Soviet periodicals already mentioned, plus that published in the Teachers' Newspaper ( Uchitelskaya Gazeta) and other publications. Thus, he quotes the comment in Inostrannie Yazyki ν Shkole (Foreign Languages in the School) in 1958 that "the unsatisfactory state of foreign-language teaching in our secondary schools has long been a source of concern to Soviet society." 6

THE TEN-YEAR

SCHOOL

It is interesting to take note of Renfield's conclusion to the effect that "the authorities who control Soviet education are highly critical" β of those aspects of their school system which have been highly praised by Americans: the academic emphasis, the long hours of study, and the stress by teachers on subject matter rather than on teaching methods. "Though Soviet professional educational periodicals show a flattered awareness of American praise of Soviet education, they provide much evidence of Soviet disagreement with the details of that praise." 7 Ironically, the ten-year school, which had been so lavishly lauded by Americans during 1957-1958, was roundly criticized by Soviet educators. The Khrushchev School Reform, which went into effect with the enactment of the law of December 24, 1958, abolished the ten-year school. "While Americans have praised it, the Soviets have abolished it." 8 From the professional educational journals in the U.S.S.R. it is clear that Soviet pedagogues have be° Quoted in Richard L. Renfield, Soviet ington: T h e Author, 1 9 5 9 ) , p. 77. 'Ibid., p. 104. ' Ibid., p. 106. 'Ibid., p. 107.

Criticisms

of Soviet

Education

(Wash-

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come convinced that good teaching requires more than the presentation of subject matter; the passing of courses does not necessarily indicate the mastery of the subject matter, especially in view of the variability and subjectivity in grading; hard work does not imply good motivation; and a unified, intellectual curriculum for all pupils does not help most young people adjust themselves adequately in society. Just how do the Soviet educators view their work? No doubt, they have felt a great deal of satisfaction with some of the results. At the same time, they cannot but feel pleased at the worldwide attention and praise which has been heaped upon Soviet education, particularly the teaching of science and technology. Yet, there are areas where, they are convinced, they do not come anywhere near their objectives. SECONDARY EDUCATION

In reviewing the results of the admission of secondary school graduates into higher educational institutions in 1955, the Ministry of Education of the R.S.F.S.R. noted that, for the most part, there was some improvement in the level of learning of the graduates as compared to the level of preceding years. On the other hand, "the entrance examinations disclosed serious deficiencies in the level of their training. A proportion of them did not pass the examinations. Many exhibited a lack of correspondence between factual knowledge and those grades which were registered on their graduating diplomas." 9 The officials took note of the fact, by way of example, that only 86 out of 367 secondary school graduates were able to solve the two problems in physics on the entrance examination of the University of Moscow. At the Gorky Pedagogical Institute, the results of the entrance examination revealed that, out of 63 who had received the grade of "excellent" in secondary school in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, only 6 were able to attain an "excellent" " "On the Admission of Secondary School Graduates into Soviet Higher Educational Institutions in 1955," Sovetskaya Pedagogika, XX (April, 1956), 4, as translated by Ivan D. London, "Documents from the U.S.S.R.," School and Society, LXXXVm (October 22, 1960), 387.

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in mathematics, while 20 were awarded "good," 26 "satisfactory," and 11 "unsatisfactory." The authorities in the R.S.F.S.R. Ministry were appalled by "the most serious deficiencies" disclosed by the entrance tests in the knowledge of the Russian language and literature possessed by the graduates of 1955. Specifically, they observed "low syntactical and stylistic competence, absence of necessary habits and skills in presenting thoughts with logical correctness, in a number of instances poor spelling. . . . The majority of submitted compositions displayed typical defects such as sketchiness, triteness, monotony of style, a surfeit of generalities, and inability to set up a composition outline." 10 Nor were they able to derive more satisfaction from some of the other subjects. In mathematics, many graduates do not know how to handle with sufficient skill inverse trigonometric functions, operations with inequalities, numerical series and their limits, logarithmic theory, and problems involving construction and demonstration. In physics, many have only a weak knowledge and understanding of experiments, are not able to establish functional relationships, draw diagrams, sketches, and graphs as well as to solve problems, particularly of a practical character. They have insufficient knowledge of rotary motion, centrifugal and centripetal forces, oscillatory motion, electromagnetic induction, interference of light, etc. In foreign languages, the graduates have both poor knowledge of reading and incorrect articulation, placement of pauses, accents in words and sentences. They commit gross errors in the translation of foreign material into the Russian language and do not know how to use a dictionary. 11

From the subsequent reports in the Soviet pedagogical literature, it is evident that these complaints were not unique. Both officials and professional educators continued to express themselves in similar, if not identical, terms in the years to come. In addition, there were revelations of serious shortcomings in the lower grades of the elevenyear school and in the higher educational institutions themselves. 10 u

Ibid. Ibid., p. 388.

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Even more, there was much dissatisfaction with the pedagogical preparation and the professional performance of many teachers. In 1959, for example, an editorial in the Teachers' Newspaper pointed out the existence of massive deficiencies in the quality of knowledge in many schools. . . . The U.S.S.R. Ministry of Higher Education was forced to register the fact that the general level of knowledge in secondary school graduates does not meet the requirements of the higher educational institutions and that a considerable proportion of those who did enter them disclosed serious gaps in their knowledge. The state of knowledge in mathematics and physics arouses especial concern since its level in a number of cases proved to be lower than in the preceding year. 12

Special note was taken by this widely read newspaper of the "disquieting results" announced by the Department of Inspection of the Ministry of Education of the R.S.F.S.R. Thus, in Sverdlovsk Province, nearly half of the pupils of the fifth and sixth grades of the schools in Alpaevsk received unsatisfactory grades in the testing program in mathematics. Only 10 per cent of the students in grade ten in the Krasnoufimsk District were able to do the mathematics problems which the inspectors had expected them to solve with efficiency. The editorial also called attention to the "extremely unsatisfactory state of affairs" in the Russian language ability of the pupils in twenty-six schools in Astrakhansk Province in the R.S.F.S.R. According to a survey by the Ministry of Education, twenty-two out of twenty-seven pupils in the tenth grade of the Zamiansk secondary school received "negative ratings" on the Ministry test. If one reads between the lines, it is possible to infer that the teachers' grades must have been far above those obtained on the official examinations. On the positive side, the editorial indicates that the basic cause for the poor results, ineffective teaching, can be eradicated through assistance to the teachers by a methodological specialist in the school. Later in the year, the Teachers' Newspaper published a report from the Ministry of Education of the R.S.F.S.R. indicating that the level of u

"Unabated Attention to Quality of Knowledge," Uchitelskaya Gazeta, February 26, 1959, as translated by London, op. cit., p. 382.

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teaching can be raised by professional correspondence courses and by the enforcement of the government decrees on the "rights and allowances" for teachers in rural schools.13 HIGHER

EDUCATION

Toward the end of 1959, a report from the University of Moscow revealed the persistence of complaints regarding the quality of entering students. There was criticism of "the level of speech" and punctuation, especially in the schools for the working and rural youth. "There are even cases where diplomas are given to fully illiterate individuals. . . . Out of 159 who applied to the department of journalism from schools for the working youth, 84 received unsatisfactory grades in composition." 14 With regard to mathematics and physics, the criticism was relatively mild. However, the foreign language situation showed no signs of improvement. As a rule, those who took the foreign language examination received grades lower than those recorded on their secondary school diplomas. In individual cases examiners were forced to give unsatisfactory grades to individuals who had "excellent" recorded on their diploma. Those who applied to the university after even a little interruption in their studies displayed a much lower command of foreign language than those who had just finished secondary school this year. Among the deficiencies that can be enumerated are weakness in reading, incorrect pronunciation, inability to use a dictionary, lack of formal knowledge of grammar, and absence of elementary habits of oral expression. . . . 1 5

All this evidence raises serious questions about the competence of the Americans whose admiration for the Soviet school system knew no bounds. Let us recall once more Rickover's judgment that Sputnik represented "a triumph of Russian education." Or his conclusion that 11

"In the Russian Republic Ministry of Education," Uchitclskaya Gazeta, October 27, 1959, as translated by London, op. cit., p. 392. " G. Vovchenko and I. Saltanov, "Grades on the Diploma and Entrance Examinations," Uchitelskaya Gazeta, December 8, 1959, as translated by London, op. cit., p. 385. * Ibid., p. 386.

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the Soviet pupil "masters the subject thoroughly and it is his for life." Or his dogmatic statement that Russia "has no substandard teachers." We can also call into question the thesis of Professor Arthur S. Trace, Jr., of John Carroll University, that the Soviet schools are not only superior with respect to the teaching of science and mathematics, but also with respect to the humanities and the social studies.16 It is not at all difficult to see why the opinions of Rickover, Trace, and their confreres are held in high esteem by the Soviet educators and leaders. It is also easy to see why the Soviets dismiss foreign criticisms of their own education as slanderous lies. Many a time during my three trips to the Soviet Union, in 1957, 1958, and 1960, I have been asked why I do not share the views on Soviet education held by my enlightened and "objective" countrymen. Significantly, the Soviets have no objection to criticism, furthermore, even if it is expressed by a foreigner, provided it is oral and not printed. This I found out to be true after my critique of the instruction of the social studies and the foreign languages was praised as "reasonable and objective" in September, 1958, when I presented it in person to the leaders of the Educational and Scientific Workers' Union of the U.S.S.R. in Moscow, but was condemned as slanderous when it appeared two years later in The Changing Soviet School (edited by George Z. F. Bereday, William W. Brickman, and Gerald H. Read, and published by Houghton Mifflin). The terminology of Soviet counter-criticism is anything but objective and reasonable. It would be illuminating to take notice of what the Soviet leaders have been saying in the past two years. Writing at the beginning of the third year of the Khrushchev School Reform, A. M. Arsen'ev, director of the Research Institute of General and Polytechnical Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences in the R.S.F.S.R., called attention to the problem of "numerous cases of pupils dropping out of school." There are many reasons for this situation, among them "the systematic failure" of pupils and the widespread repetition of the same grade. Moreover, the level of knowledge of the pupils in general education "still falls short" of the requirements of the "Arthur S. Trace, Jr., What Ivan Knows That Johnny Doesn't (New York: Random House, 1961).

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17

school programs. Arsen'ev then went on to cite a joint study by the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, the departments of public education, and the Teacher Training Institute of ten regions of the R.S.F.S.R. which confirmed the existence of "serious shortcomings" in the general and polytechnical training of the pupils in the eightyear schools and in the secondary grades. Furthermore, in the area of mathematics and in the subjects based on it, "there has been a decline in the level of knowledge as compared with previous years." 18 What appeared to be very painful to the Soviet authorities was the disclosure that, in spite of the recent concentration upon the improvement in the pupils' skill in the solution of arithmetical and other mathematical problems, "the results achieved are still insignificant." 19 ELEMENTARY

EDUCATION

In a later section in his article, Arsen'ev summed up the situation with reference to "the relatively low level" of the pupils' competence in the Russian language. There are still some "serious shortcomings" in spelling, punctuation, and speech habits, even if there has been "some improvement" since 1949. In grades five through seven, less than 50 per cent of the pupils (only 39.6 per cent in grade seven) "do well in the Russian language." 20 Finally, the mathematics tests show that, during 1961-1962, the grade five pupils answered correctly 58 per cent of the questions; the grade six pupils were successful in 51 per cent of the arithmetic problems and 62 per cent of the algebra problems; and the seventh graders gave proper responses to 54 per cent of the geometry and 42 per cent of the algebra questions. 21 To Arsen'ev, such results constitute "evidence of the serious gaps" " A. M. Arsen'ev, "More Concern about the Quality of the Pupils' Knowledge," Sovetskaya Pedagogika (August, 1961), as translated in Soviet Education, IV (January, 1962), 20. 18 Ibid. "Ibid., p. 21. " Ibid., p. 22. a Ibid., pp. 25-26.

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in the mathematical competence possessed by the pupils of the eightyear schools. However, he brushes aside the allegations that these deficiencies are traceable to the increase in the amount of time given, in accordance with the Khrushchev School Reform, to the work training program and to the pupils' socially useful labor. His rebuttal is focused on the fact that studies of mathematical knowledge in 1951 and 1956 yielded "similar results." 22 Moreover, he stressed the point that the new eleven-year school sets aside more time for the study of mathematics in grades five to eight than did the ten-year school. Why, then, do the unsatisfactory results persist? The answer, according to Arsen'ev, is the lack of skill on the part of the teachers, and most of the mathematical errors are derived from "the abstract and theoretical nature" of the instruction and the underestimation on the part of the teachers of the difficulty of the development of skill in calculation, measurement, and drafting. His concluding remark is that the prime task of the third year of the Khrushchev School Law is the achievement of "a radical improvement in the pupils' knowledge, and first of all in the Russian language and mathematics." 23 GENERAL

CRITICISMS

An examination of other writings by Soviet educators will show the presence of similar reports. Space and time will not permit consideration of all the pertinent sources of data on the Soviets' image of their own school system. A thoughtful reconsideration and reappraisal of the problems of Soviet education was made recently by the principal of the Pavlyshkaya Secondary School, Kirovograd Region, Ukrainian S.S.R., and a Corresponding Member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the R.S.F.S.R. This educator sees as "the biggest and most glaring contradiction" in Soviet education "the poor quality of knowledge" and non-promotion at a time when society demands "the all-round development and high cultural level of the "Ibid., p. 26. "Ibid.

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24

New Man." He tells us of his shock at meeting "a healthy young man of 19 who proved to be absolutely illiterate . . . an anachronism in our day." 25 Acknowledging that this case is "an exception," the writer goes on to ask how many pupils leave school at the end of grades three, four, and five. It is a poor consolation to hope that the "many thousands" of dropouts will complete their education at a later time in the evening schools or by means of correspondence study. Soviet society cannot develop with any degree of success if it consists "even partially of half-taught, semi-literate people." 2 6 At the root of the trouble, believes Sukhomlinskii, is not inadequate teaching methods, or an overloaded program of study, but rather the fact that "the spirit of our community ideal" does not as yet infuse the theory and practice of education. 27 Other Soviet educators, while not overlooking the importance of Communist ideology, point to more than one cause for the dropout problem and other weaknesses in their system of education: the repeater phenomenon; the overloaded curriculum; the ineffective teaching of the Russian language, mathematics, and foreign languages; the ineffectiveness of ideological training and the inability to cope with the persistence of religion among young persons. They ascribe to these conditions such reasons as unco-ordinated syllabi; overcrowded schools, the rapid population growth, the lag in school construction, and the multiple shifts in the schools; bad teaching resulting from poor methods; inadequate and insufficient equipment; unfavorable conditions in the homes of the pupils; lack of pupil interest; and the presence of children with physical defects in the classrooms. The reader who desires to keep up to date with the Soviets' evaluations of their school system can do so, briefly and conveniently, by consulting Soviet Society.28 For translations of full documents, he can 21

V. Sukhomlinskii, "Urgent Problems of the Theory and Practice of Education," Narodnoye Obrazovanie (October, 1961), as translated in Soviet Education, IV (May, 1962), 3. * Ibid. " Ibid., p. 4. " Ibid. 28 See, for example, II (September, 1962), 3-4, 8, 17-18. This bibliographical quarterly, published in White Plains, N.Y., by the Slavic Languages Research Institute, is under the editorship of Anita Navon and Ina Schlesinger. Each

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do no better than to read Soviet Education, which selects and translates in full articles from Soviet pedagogical journals.29 As already stated, the Soviets are not too pleased when we call attention in print to the shortcomings of their schools, even if we quote the Soviet educators themselves. No doubt, should this paper be read in Moscow, there will be published in one of the periodicals an attack upon myself as a tool of Wall Street, a hireling of the Pentagon, an enemy of the working class and of the Soviet people, a spokesman for the ecclesiastical interests of America, a warmonger, etc. This has been done on at least three occasions during the past four years,30 and will no doubt be repeated. CONCLUSION

As a people, we Americans have ignored what was happening in Soviet education, in spite of the warnings of Counts and others about the "challenge" of the Soviet school to our way of life. After Sputnik began to soar, we awoke and discovered that the Soviets had a fully developed system of education. All of a sudden, our publicists and politicians drew conclusions as to the excellence of Soviet education, and indeed its superiority. Just as we ignored, so to speak, the existence of the Soviet school, we also overlooked the Soviet educators' criticisms of their own school system. We appeared to go from one extreme to another. issue carries informative abstracts of articles in Soviet journals on education, sociology, ideology and philosophy, public administration, and non-governmental institutions (Communist party, trade unions, etc.). "Soviet Education, edited by Myron E. Sharpe, is published monthly by the International Arts and Sciences Press, New York, N.Y. *°The perennial critic of American education and educators, Professor M. S. Bernshtein, added my name, in an article in Sovetskaya Pedagogika (February, 1958), to those he had been attacking since World War Π. In the April, 1962, issue of Narodnoye Obrazovanie ("The People's Education") he devotes a five-page article, "Nesostoyatolnaya Pretenziya Vilyama Brikmana" ("The Unsubstantiated Arguments of William Brickman"), to what he calls my propaganda and distortions. Another critique was published in the Teachers' Newspaper: Zoya Malkova, "An Open Letter to America: Be Objective, Colleagues!" Uchitelskaya Gazeta (October 4, 1960), 4, as translated by Harold Noah, Comparative Education Review, V (June, 1961), 69-72. See reply by William W. Brickman, "The Objectivity of a Soviet Educator," ibid., pp. 72-73.

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Soviet education is neither as good nor is American education as weak as we think it is. Certainly, the Soviets have found fault with results of their teaching in such fields as the Russian language, foreign languages, communism, anti-religion—and even science and mathematics. This is all too evident to those who visit the Soviet schools and read what the Soviet educators write about their own schools. As American educators, we owe it to ourselves to be as well informed as possible as to the status of education in the U.S.S.R. It is also our duty to call the attention of the public both to the achievements and the weaknesses of Soviet education. Let us not rely upon the snap judgments of our mass media, but rather let us study the Soviet school on the basis of objective observations by qualified non-Soviet visitors and the various writings by the Soviet educators themselves. Only by a dispassionate approach can we gain a realistic view of the Soviet school, a very interesting development in modern education.

Technical and Vocational Education

Abroad

LANE C. ASH * WE ARE living in a rapidly shrinking world. Modern developments in communications and in transportation have made possible the transmission of news and information to every far away spot on earth, and have made less remote even the most primitive lands about which very little was known only a decade ago. Knowledge of the better things of life has been gained by the peoples of all parts of the globe. As a consequence most nations have raised their sights and now want their inhabitants to share in the good things of modern civilization. Rapidly increasing scientific discovery and technological developments underlie much of this. Technical and vocational education is an important function of the national system of education in all countries which would accommodate themselves to the beneficial outcomes of research and development. When technical and vocational education abroad are discussed, it is necessary that these terms be defined, because they do not always have the same meaning in other countries as they do here. In the language of the international agencies, technical and vocational education are taken to mean "all forms of education and training for employment, ranging from the development of the simplest hand skills to instruction at the highest technical and professional levels provided by the engineering faculties of the great universities of the world." For purposes of this discussion, definitions will be those which are more common in our usage: thus vocational education means what the law says it is, namely, "preparation for useful employment in industry, on the farm, in distribution and elsewhere"; whereas * Assistant Director, Division of Vocational and Technical Education, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 109

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technical education connotes "that form of education and training which would prepare a person whose level of knowledge and skill lies somewhere between that of the skilled worker and the professionally trained engineer." Technical and vocational education are essential components of overall plans for technical assistance in underdeveloped countries. They are fundamental to national progress, even to existence, in view of the technological changes that have taken place and are now occurring at an even more rapid pace than formerly. They are a function of manpower development and employment. They are essential elements of programs of financial aid to countries under both bilateral and multilateral plans for technical and economic assistance, whatever their objectives may be. The widely discussed European Common Market recognizes that a high level of education and training for all groups of workers is the most important source of wealth of nations. Vocational training plays an important role in a society which is set on achieving an accelerating economic, social, and technical progress. Such programs have a wide variety of objectives and offerings depending upon national needs and traditional practices.

PROGRAMS IN THE

U.S.S.R.

In the U.S.S.R. great emphasis is placed upon preparation for work at all levels in the systems of education and training. An extensive network of vocational schools exists to supply labor reserves for industry. There are more than one hundred such schools in the city of Moscow. One of these is located on the grounds of a large automobile assembly plant and one of the occupations taught here is "lathe operation." In the Soviet Union, the mechanical trades are fragmented into small parts of the total occupations as we conceive them. In the two-year course, about 80 per cent of instruction time is devoted to applied skill and related subjects, and the remainder to a few general academic subjects, political indoctrination courses, and physical education. The plant sends engineers and shop supervisors to the school regularly to inform students of production meth-

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ods and goals, and thus to acquaint them with the type of work situation into which they will later be employed. Students are taken on frequent organized tours of the plant to develop an understanding of the relationship between instruction they are receiving and the job requirements of the factory. Students for this school are recruited at about the age of fourteen from all over the Soviet Union and assigned to any training program desired by the government. They are housed, clothed, and fed at the school, and they receive some small compensation from the sale or distribution of products made. Upon satisfactory completion of the curriculum, students are employed in the main assembly plant. Here, if they prove to be effective as skilled workers, they may be selected by the State for further schooling in order to increase their capacity to produce. Such additional educational opportunity is opened to them—free. The next step in the educational ladder is the technicum. This corresponds roughly to the technical institute in the United States. The technicum at this factory is organized to prepare automotive technicians. Here the student enrolls for a three- or three-and-a-half-year program. The institution is housed in a building adjacent to the vocational school and thus is actually a part of the automobile assembly plant. The student may pursue his studies in any one of three different ways: full time in residence; part time, that is, four hours a night for several nights a week; or by correspondence. The graduate of the technicum is considered to be equally qualified no matter which of these ways he pursued his course of studies. Once again employed in the plant the student becomes an automotive technician. If he continues to be an effective employee and shows capacity for further growth, he may be selected by the State to become an engineer—an automotive engineer. The engineering institute or college also is located on the grounds of the plant. Here again the college program may be pursued in any one of the three aforementioned ways. Thus the Soviet government, through technical and vocational education, makes possible the optimum growth and development of every person in the interest of the further development of industry in the socialist State.

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ASSISTANCE FOR LIBYA

A different set of circumstances is to be found in Libya, a new desert country in North Africa. This country achieved its independence in 1951, at which time there was no industry there at all. Almost everyone is engaged in an agricultural pursuit, receiving just enough to sustain himself and his family. The rate of illiteracy is very high, and the national education system does not provide opportunities for very many citizens. In fact, in 1952 there were only thirteen citizens who had any college education whatsoever, and none of these was schooled in the field of agriculture. The national economy was based upon this, and 85 per cent of the more than one million people there engaged in fanning as a livelihood. The United States government provided funds and specialized personnel to assist the government of Libya, at its request, to promote technical improvements which would raise social and economic levels of the people. One of the fields for improvement was vocational agricultural education. A teacher from the United States was employed to help in the establishment of a Vocational Agricultural Training Center where farming methods would be taught to young people who would become agriculture teachers, extension workers, and specialists to serve in the government's Department of Agriculture. Some students with high intelligence and ability would be sent abroad on scholarship for study in higher educational institutions and be expected to bring back to that country advanced knowledge and skills to promote improvements in the local economy. Difficulties of the most unusual sort beset this vocational instructor from the very start. The customs of the people destroyed the incentive of the younger generation to engage in agriculture. Prior to marriage, and some times even afterward, young men were required to give to their fathers all money earned from labor or individual enterprise. All property, livestock, and crop produce belonged to the father. Agricultural credit did not exist. Credit that involved payment of interest was generally forbidden by religious law. Any rate of

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interest was considered usurious. Credit did exist in the form of barter or trade, and the merchants controlled this for the essential necessities of life and the tools of agricultural production. Unfortunately the merchants kept the books, and the prices charged the farmer were always to the merchant's advantage. Not infrequently, the whole wool or lamb crop was turned over in payment of the debt. This was considered to be good business management. Agricultural co-operatives were unknown. In fact, the word "cooperative" was most difficult to translate into the language of this country. The people had a basic distrust of their fellow man. Thus the farmer paid high prices for everything he had to buy and received low prices for everything he had to sell. A 60-acre farm was procured for school purposes. There were no irrigation facilities on the land; the buildings, designed for other purposes, were in a bad state of repair; and there was no plumbing or electricity. Permanent irrigation distribution systems were constructed on 10 acres of field crop and orchard land. A new well was drilled, a water reservoir constructed, and underground pipe laid to permit development of 15 acres of irrigated pasturage for livestock. Seasonal irrigation for 10 acres of cereal crops became possible. Students were selected on the basis of such factors as intelligence, farm background, experience, willingness to work, personality, good health, sixth-grade education, and an age limitation of fourteen to nineteen years. They were assigned individual projects in field crops and vegetable gardening, and each was given a small plot which was considered as his own property. Seed and fertilizer were given him in accordance with crop needs, and each student managed his crops according to practices learned in the classroom. This included plowing, planting, fertilizing, irrigating, cultivating, harvesting, and marketing of crops. Students kept records of receipts and expenditures, and at the close of each year, the profit was calculated. None had ever earned a profit on anything before. Some returned this to their fathers as was the ancient custom. The majority retained the money for their own welfare. This represented not only progress to-

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ward elimination of a custom which had hindered agricultural development for centuries, but it proved valuable in changing the practice of paying students stipends to attend school. The concept that every individual must earn his own way in life was quite distinct from the old idea that certain individuals are granted privileges by virtue of their positions. After four years of attendance, twenty-two students were graduated. Five became junior agricultural instructors in rural schools. Five became Assistant Agricultural Extension Advisors, and six became Specialists in the Department of Agriculture. Six graduates were sent to Agricultural Colleges in the United States, where each pursued a different specialty in agriculture, viz., education, extension, engineering, agronomy, livestock, and horticulture. Upon completion of their prescribed studies, they returned to Libya to assume direction of these various divisions in the Department of Agriculture.

THE

INDIANS OF THE

ANDES

Some of the international agencies support programs which are effective in aiding underdeveloped countries through technical and vocational education. The International Labor Organization supports an "Andean Indian Program" in the high plateau regions of South America. This is aimed at the economic and social integration of large numbers of people who Uve in extreme poverty, are exploited, and almost completely lack social protection. These aboriginal peoples have been shut out of the national life of their countries, although they are often not only citizens but also the direct descendants of the original inhabitants. Demonstration workshops have been established where students can be given a primary education, adults can learn to read and write, young people can begin to acquire a trade, and girls can take courses in homemaking, nursing, or midwifery. Practical courses are given to instruct farmers how to improve their crops and livestock. Here technical and vocational education is part of an organized effort to protect and integrate the tribal and semitribal populations into the national communities of which they form a part.

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T H E PACIFIC ISLANDS

The South Pacific Commission is an international agency whose purpose is to advise the participating governments on ways of improving the well-being of the people of the Pacific Island territories. A vocational program supported by this commission includes a boatbuilding school at one of the small islands. In a little over a year, the director of the school molded twenty-four Pacific islanders enrolled from six territories into a first-class boat-building team. They completed three 26-foot auxiliary cutters in about fifteen months. This is considered quite good progress for a training program of this kind. Every trainee assisted in the erection of the workshop and in the installation of all necessary power machinery. This workshop was a structure capable of accommodating four large cutters under construction at one time. Students next were taught the principles involved in sawing timber from logs, and they cut all of the necessary timber for the various sections of the vessels. They lofted all the necessary lines from drawings supplied by the architect and made the required templates. Finally they built three 26-foot cutters, completely, and rigged the vessels. The training here is based purely on practical instruction. There are no preliminary courses or instruction in theory. On the very first day of this course, the trainee actually began to build a boat. As the vessel grew, even the obstacle of three different native languages was quickly overcome as the trainees assisted each other in the common language of boat building. It was reported that the success of this school was promoted by the driving enthusiasm of the trainees and the instructor for small wooden boats. Each day provided another chance to learn more about the art of boat building, and nothing would be tolerated that stood in the way of this desire. Each trainee was willing and anxious to share his knowledge with his teammates, and inferior work was severely censured. The trainees, all away from home, had to be accommodated at the school. They became self-sustaining and were able with the guidance of the instructor to care for their own home and living needs. Properly sponsored, directed, and equipped, more

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vocational schools of this kind would prove a real value in providing the skilled craftsmen, as well as the additional general-purpose small vessels so badly needed in most of the territories of that area. CONCLUSION

Technical and vocational education have become major weapons in the struggle for economic growth. Nations which sustain their own programs are anticipating occupational trends and designing education and training which will keep pace with present and prospective technological needs. The developing countries are seeking assistance from many sources, which could hasten the process of economic viability. The United States government has huge investments in this form of technical assistance, in support of both bilateral programs, where only this and one other country are involved, and in the multilateral programs of the international agencies. The Congress has declared: "It is the policy of the United States to aid the efforts of the peoples of economically underdeveloped areas to develop their resources and improve their working and living conditions by encouraging the exchange of technical knowledge and skills. . . ." Many of our colleagues in technical and vocational education have joined hands with the leaders in foreign countries in furtherance of this policy. Hopefully, this effort will lead to the achievement of lasting peace in our time.

III The Philosophy of Education

The Rise of Modern Empiricism in Philosophy of Education1 HOBERT W. BURNS * is and what has been the philosophy of education? In the search for definition, a simple sense of logic suggested some elementary considerations. First, without a discipline of education there could be no philosophy of education; for what would it mean to have a philosophy of a non-existent discipline? Presumably education did, and does, have some kind of subject matter, for that which has none cannot be taught, and since courses in education are being taught there was and is, hopefully, some reason to suspect the existence of an educational subject matter. But what is it, and how did it emerge? And how is it related to philosophy of education? WHAT

FIFTY YEARS A G O

To answer these questions let me go back to 1912, exactly fifty years ago. That date, 1912, is remarkably significant in the recent history of education, as well as in the development of philosophy of education as a subject of study, even though it is not so recorded in the standard textbook treatment. Due to the lack of proper tools and skills, it is all but impossible to conduct an intellectual postmortem to set the exact time and * Associate Professor of Education, Syracuse University. In the preparation of this manuscript I drew extensively upon the research done by Professor Charles J. Brauner, of the University of British Columbia, for the U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. See, in particular, Education as a Subject of Study (Project N o . 2457140), December, 1959. My reliance hereon is evident and acknowledged. 119 1

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place of the death of an idea or an ideology, for ideas—even the full-grown, full-blown ideas we call philosophies—seem to fade away, as old soldiers, rather than lie down and die a nice, decent, clean-cut death. Even so, a little intellectual surgery performed on the corpus of philosophy of education reveals that the year 1912 heard the death rattle of a priori rationalism as the élan vital of education and philosophy of education in America. The immediate cause of death, the final blow, can be seen in the thought of five men and the work they published in that historic year, namely: Edward Thorndike, William Ruediger, Chester Parker, Paul Monroe, and John Dewey. In that year these men contributed to the University of Chicago's School Review Monograph series2 contributions of such import that volume two of those monographs may truly be said to mark the transition from rationalism to empiricism both in education and philosophy of education. In addition, and in the same year, Monroe published the middle volume of his monumental and remarkable Cyclopedia of Education,3 a Janus-like series which looked back on centuries of philosophic rationalism in education and forward to the empirical, if uncertain, future of education. It was also in 1912 that Dewey wrote two short commentaries which, in 1916, grew into his most famous educational work, Democracy and Education.4 The first of these, entitled "Philosophy Is the General Theory of Education," appeared in Monore's Cyclopedia and contained the now-famous phrase which encapsulates his philosophy of education;5 the second of these is one of his most neglected but most important books, Interest and Effort in Education,e ' The School Review Monographs, Vol. Π (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1912). "Paul Monroe (ed.), A Cyclopedia of Education (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1911-1913). ' J o h n Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1916). "John Dewey, "Philosophy Is the General Theory of Education," Cyclopedia of Education, Paul Monroe, ed. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1913), IV, 699-700. "John Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1913).

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RATIONALISM

To help appreciate the import of educational developments which came to a head in 1912, let me recapitulate briefly the rationalistic philosophies of Johann Pestalozzi, which led to the educational practices called "object teaching" or "object lessons," and Johann Herbart, whose work led to the so-called "Five Formal Steps" in teaching practices, as well as the "child study" movement of G. Stanley Hall, which served as intervener or mediator between traditional rationalism and modern empiricism in education. Pestalozzi, on the philosophic assumption that the metaphysical universe consists primarily of objects and the psychological assumption that learning about that world was dependent upon the mind, built his "object teaching" theories on rational principles taken to be self-evident. His own words illustrate this approach to education: I am trying to psychologize the instruction of mankind; I am trying to bring it in harmony with the nature of my mind, with that of my circumstances and my relations to others. I start from no positive form of teaching, as such, but simply ask myself:—"What would you do, if you wished to give a single child all the knowledge and practical skill he needs, so that by wise care of his best opportunities, he might reach inner content?" 7 As that passage indicates, Pestalozzi relied more on reason than on experience to construct his philosophy and practices of education. Before this audience of schoolmen it is not necessary to explain "object teaching"; it is sufficient to remind you of Edward Sheldon and the famous Oswego and Utica experiments which, coming at the time when both normal schools and the National Teachers Association were growing, exerted a powerful influence on education. So powerful, in fact, that some of my colleagues who teach methods courses instruct their students in "object teaching" never knowing that it is "object teaching," that it is Pestalozzian, that it is based on outmoded psycho-philosophic principles. 7

Johann Pestalozzi, How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, trans. Lucy Holland and Francis Turner (Syracuse, N.Y.: C. W. Bardeen Co., 1915), p. 199.

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Herbart, one of the few trained philosophers since the time of Plato to give serious attention to education, rebelled at the attempts of Comenius and Pestalozzi to "practicalize" education. Spurred by this motivation, Herbart attempted to raise the level of philosophy of education to a scholarly discipline. To achieve this end, he took as his first premise the belief that mind is the material of education and concluded that a philosophy of education is little more than a theory of mental processes. Once given an understanding of mental processes, Herbart thought, educational programs and practices designed to develop the mind would follow as night follows day. Out of this rationalism Herbart constructed his "Five Formal Steps" of education, a theory to guide practice which, by infecting teachers of education in the normal schools, quickly spread throughout the educational system until it was endemic. For the first and only time in its history, the National Education Association officially endorsed a methodology: Herbartianism; and the National Herbart Society evolved into the still influential National Society for the Study of Education. This was powerful medicine, and the dosage still courses through many educational systems; and, as before, some of my methodological colleagues are Herbartians, although they know it not. They wrongly think they are progressives, in the Dewey tradition. Thus, prior to the "child study" movement, and even during and shortly after it, philosophy of education was marked by a priori rationalism. But in the closing decade of the last century, led by G. Stanley Hall and others, some philosophers and educators rebelled against rationalism and intemperately suggested that we might learn something about children by studying and observing what they are in fact like, rather than by speculating about their human natures and legislating what they should be like. This radical idea—that science and its methods could be brought to bear on education and its problems—attracted such as Colonel Francis Parker, William James, John Dewey, and others who laid the foundation for what we now call educational psychology, and thus prompted changes in philosophy of education. Such were the antecedents of 1912. What, then, was philosophy

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of education as a subject of study in that year? The best answer I can give is that, apparently, it was anything and everything—if we are to judge by what was taught in the normal schools and departments of education. Let me quote Ruediger, who had then just finished an analysis of philosophy of education as a subject of study in 1912. He reported that Restricting ourselves [to research in the content of] college courses in the principles of education, it appears to be true that all conceivable topics in educational theory are hopelessly intermingled in them. If the title, "Principles of Education," is meant to stand for some definite and coherent phase of educational theory, these outlines of courses certainly do not show it. Apparently this title is still used by many teachers of education as a blanket phrase. Save that the material is educational, no uniform principle of selection is apparent. . . . In this list [of courses] there are apparently as many different courses in respect to content as there are persons giving them. This shows a greater primitiveness in the organization of educational theory, if not the content as well, than one would have reason to expect.8 If Ruediger was unspecific and uncharitable, Chester Parker was both more specific and more gentle when he showed in detail how Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel had constructed their philosophies of education on rational principles and went on to demonstrate that, as he put it, "Such traditional a-priori principles constitute the largest part of contemporary principles of method [of teaching]." 9 In 1912, for the most part, philosophy of education viewed as a subject matter to be studied—as an intellectual product—consisted primarily of a study of what such philosophers as Plato, Augustine, Aquinas, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, Herbart, and others had to say about education, plus a study of what such educators as Aurelius, Quintilian, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Mann, Barnard, and others had to say about educational theory. When viewed as a process or "William C. Ruediger, "The Present Status of Education as a Science: The Principles of Education," The School Review Monographs, op. cit., p. 102. "S. Chester Parker, "The Present Status of Education as a Science: Educational Methods," ibid., p. 139.

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activity, rather than a product, philosophy of education involved the "logical or rational" derivation of educational practices and policies from systematic bodies of philosophic or theological thought. In either case, philosophy of education in 1912 was basically rationalistic, based on a priori conceptions of man, God, and the universe, and their mutual relations. This definition of philosophy of education as a subject of study is illustrated by Henry Jones who, in his preface to John Adams' 1912 book, The Evolution of Educational Theory, said: It is intended that the series shall c o m p r i s e : ( a ) T h e History of Greek P h i l o s o p h y as o n e c o n t i n u o u s development. ( b ) T h e History of M o d e r n P h i l o s o p h y in parallel m o v e m e n t s f r o m Descartes to Kant, and f r o m H o b b e s t o R e i d ; and f r o m K a n t through his Idealist successors o n the o n e side, and through his Naturalist successors o n the other. ( c ) T h e Application of P h i l o s o p h y ( 1 ) in Educational T h e o r y . . , 1 0

If the subject matter of philosophy of education was thus almost strictly rationalistic, the subject matter of education itself—again as taught in the educational courses of the time—was almost strictly practicalistic, albeit larded with untested and untestable generalizations. Or, to put it more simply even if bluntly, courses in pedagogy consisted of a series of practical principles or rules of thumb which were drawn from uncriticized teaching experience on the one hand and unverifiable metaphysics on the other hand. These rules of thumb were not guided by any unifying theory, and the main source of such practical, do-it-yourself methods was common pedagogical experience rather than scientific observation and generalization. This is to say that, prior to the "child study" movement, there was precious little that might be called a science of education; so the subject matter of education was yet to be satisfactorily defined. 10

John Adams, The Evolution and Company, 1912), p. vii.

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THE EMPIRICAL REVOLUTION

The "child study" movement, however, opened the empirical factfinding revolution in education which, in 1912, not only laid the cold hand of intellectual death of rationalistic a priorism in both education and philosophy of education, but pumped the breath of life into what is now known as "the scientific movement in education." So it was that in 1912 Monroe, Ruediger, and Parker noted that the disciplines called "education" and "philosophy of education" were based on unscientific beliefs about nature, human nature, and super-nature which could not be either verified or refuted. Joining with such as James, Thorndike, and Dewey they called for a crash program of experimental inquiry, a scientific program which would supply sufficient factual data upon which a science of education could be built. Ruediger expressed the rationale for such a program when he declared that "What is true in the professions generally, is true also in the profession of teaching. So far as teaching has a theoretical aspect, this aspect is represented by a group of applied sciences, and these in turn are closely related to a group of pure sciences." 11 Parker was even more optimistic, for he thought that the discipline of education, as based on science, was an established fact by 1912, for in that year he insisted that "Even if we follow Thorndike, and eliminate from a possible 'science of educational methods' the [a priori, we can still use experimental and statistical methods] to demonstrate that such a science [of education] has 'arrived' and is with us. . . ." 12 Proleptic as Parker may have been, and he was, it is true that the "child study" movement initiated by Hall was the first step in the empirical revolution in education—and a long stride it was, too, for it stepped over centuries of education based on rationalistic philosophy and put its foot down hard on educational theories and pracu 11

Ruediger, op. cit., p. 90. Parker, op. cit., p. 150.

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tices which could not justify their existence empirically. As a result of this, which led into and harmonized with the work of Thorndike, the "survey movement" in education got underway in 1912 and in the years to come the "hard data" about education grew from a molehill of information into a mountain of facts. With this empirical shift in the subject matter of education, or at least a shift in the methodology of determining what the subject matter of education was to be, there came a concomitant shift in the subject matter of philosophy of education—or, again, at least, a shift in the methodology of determining what the subject matter of the philosophy of education was to be. No longer was educational content to consist of unverifiable rules of thumb distilled from gross teaching behavior, and no longer was philosophy of education to consist of rationalistic principles from which educational policies were somehow mysteriously deduced. Now, with a solid basis of fact, it would be possible to construct, slowly and painstakingly, a unified science of education; and philosophy of education was to become the experience-centered partner of this educational science—if, indeed, philosophy would be needed at all once we have a science of education. Gone was the need for and support of the block universes of Idealism, Realism, and Scholasticism; gone were the a priori truths about a non-material thing called "mind," a spiritual entity called "soul," the logical compartmentalism of nature into two basic categories and the division of human nature into separate and unequal faculties; gone were the traditional metaphysics of transcendental realities. And in their place came the dynamic, pulsating, open universe of Experimentalism; came the hard test of a posteriori truth; came the wondrously complex human animal called "the child," who was visibly indivisible, logically or physiologically; and came the new metaphysic of human experience writ large for society and small for the individual. Philosophy of education was no longer the study of what should be, as based on the classical, authoritarian theories of metaphysical reality; it was the factual analysis of what is, and what could be, as based on what was scientifically real and possible, and on what should be, as based on a democratic sound philosophy.

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DEVELOPMENT TOWARD EXPERIMENTALISM FACTUALISM

Factualism had arrived. Anteceded by Hall's study of children in 1893, Rice's study of group performance of spelling in 1895, and Thorndike's early quantitative work, the search for facts, facts, and more facts began in earnest. And here again we can refer to the mesmeric year of 1912, for it was then that Lewis Terman revised and Americanized the BinetSimon IQ measure—and gave factualism its most popular tool. But factualism had a fatal defect: facts do not speak for themselves, and so they cannot tell their meaning. They stand mute in the world, clear evidence of something which they themselves cannot reveal. Cold facts stand naked and shivering, useless until they are warmed by the protective blanket of interpretation. The Achilles of factualism was indeed strong and sturdy, but its heel was exposed, for facts are unmanageable and unenlightening unless systematically interpreted, related, catalogued, and tested. No sooner had factualism evolved than the need for a philosophic criterion emerged—a criterion that fact alone could not provide. As early as 1916, Dewey offered such a criterion when he endeavored "to detect and state the ideas implied in a democratic society and to apply these ideas to the problems of the enterprise of education" 13 in his book, Democracy and Education. Here was an attempt to solve the criterial problem of factualism, for as Dewey said, the philosophy stated in this book connects the growth of democracy with the development of the experimental method in the sciences, evolutionary ideas in the biological sciences, . . . and is concerned to point out the changes in subject matter and method of education indicated by these developments. 14 18

Dewey, Democracy and Education, op. cit., p. v. "Ibid.

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Dewey therefore offered criteria to both education and philosophy of education. To education, then in the throes of "sheer factualism," he took from social philosophy and offered the criterion of democracy by suggesting that educational science should gear its search, selection, and use of facts to make possible and create the kind of education uniquely required by an open, democratic society. To philosophy of education, then in the throes of vacuity since factualism had greatly depreciated, if not destroyed, its rationalistic methodology, Dewey took from science and offered the criterion of experimental methodology and social growth by suggesting that philosophy of education should reconstruct itself in the image of science and democracy, so that science would be the invaluable tool of society; and society, through the new education, would grow on and with science. But the factualists did not hear Dewey in 1916. Nor did they hear R. Bruce Raup when he loudly protested the excesses of factualism and said, ". . . We are coming to realize that human thought eventually forges out its beliefs and decisions, not in the coolers of exact science, but in the crucible of vital, interacting human desires and preferences." 15 Nor did they hear George S. Counts when he shouted out that Many prominent educators seem even to believe that there is no educational problem which is incapable of objective solution. . . . They consequently demand facts, and yet more facts; . . . They, however, never define very clearly just what they mean by facts, and how facts are to be distinguished from ideas . . . [They] thus hope to make Education an exact science and remove its problem from the realm of dispute.16 Counts wisely noted that, in so hoping, the factualists hoped for what never was and never will be. Yet the factualists heard not because they were too busy building and exploring their mountain of facts, their stream of information, their continent filled with educa" Quoted in Francis E. Peterson, Philosophies of Education Current in the Preparation of Teachers in the United States, Contributions to Education, N o . 528 ( N e w York: Teachers College, C o l u m b i a University, 1 9 3 3 ) , p. 34. See also Brauner, op. cit., pp. 239-240. " Ibid., p. 32.

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tional practices to be observed, measured, and recorded, searching for a science—for the science—of education. But they found it not, first because it became clear that education was not a single discipline and therefore could not be based on a single science; education was a series of disciplines, in some way united by their mutual focus on the social institution of the school. There was no, and could be no, single science of education. The factualists had not found the scientific needle in the educational haystack because the needle was not there in the first place—only the straws of fact were there, at which they had futilely grasped. DEWEY'S CONTRIBUTION

As their search failed their hearing improved, and the factualists finally heard the message contained in Dewey's little whisper of a book, The Sources of a Science of Education, published in 1929.1T Where the factualists had blithely assumed that there was a science of education, and that they had only to look long enough and hard enough to find it, the more systematic Dewey opened his inquiry by asking three related questions: "Is there a science of education? And still more fundamentally, Can there be a science of education? Are the procedures and aims of education such that it is possible to reduce them to anything properly called a science?" 18 Dewey answered all three questions with a flat, final "No," much to the disappointment of factualists, who finally realized that taken alone the facts of education cannot constitute a science of education, much less yield the "oughts" to guide education; and equally disappointed were teachers, who hoped for a science of education which would at once regularize, routinize, and simplify as well as ensure success for their teaching activities. A science of education was impossible. In the next breath, however, Dewey went on to show that education can be conducted on a scientific basis. This seeming paradox is cleared " John Dewey, The Sources of a Science of Education Liveright, 1929). 19 Ibid., p. 7.

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up by a short quotation from Dewey: "There is no more a special independent science of education than there is of bridge making. [For] material drawn from other sciences furnishes the content of educational science when it is focused on the problems that arise in education." 19 Education in itself, then, is not a science; it is, rather, an art—a practical art, or an art that is practiced. But it is an art that can be and should be based on the sciences which facilitate the practice of that art—the sciences of biology, psychology, psychiatry, and sociology, all of which are united or related by philosophy of education so as to yield the ends and means of the practical art of education. To those factualists who failed to grasp Dewey's integration of science and art through philosophy, he pointed out that these are not independent activities but supplemental, that while there is a distinction between science and art there is no opposition between them. On this score, listen to Dewey: Engineering is, in actual practice, an art. But it is an art that progressively incorporates more and more of science into itself, more of mathematics, physics and chemistry. It is the kind of art it is precisely because of a content of scientific subject-matter which guides it as a practical operation. 20

In that sense engineering is an art based on the physical sciences; and, analogically, education is an art based on the human sciences. But neither art nor science alone tell us whether we should build a bridge, or where the bridge should lead to. Physical science will tell how to build the bridge, and artistic use of engineering will produce a functional bridge, but only our values—social, political, and esthetic —will tell us what gulf we should bridge and how the bridge should look. Similarly, human science will reveal how we can educate, and artistry in teaching will help us educate, but only our values will tell us who and why we should educate, and what education should be like and for. In this way Dewey saved education from those factualists who 19

Ibid., pp. 35-36. "Ibid., p. 13.

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sneered at philosophy as impractical, as well as from those philosophers who sneered at mere facts. By uniting what had been torn asunder, by uniting science and philosophy, by merging fact with value in education, Dewey helped it move into an empiricism beyond mere factualism. By 1929 education, as a discipline, had a solid subject matter based on the sciences and arts pertinent to it. FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

The philosophy of education as a subject of study, consequently, shifted at last in the direction suggested much earlier. Clearly, the sources of a science of education were basic and foundational both to the study and practice of education, and he who was ignorant of these foundational sciences could not intelligently use them to guide and improve the artistry of teaching; rather he would wander blindly about, knowing neither where he was going or where he could or should go, much less how to get there or anywhere. To avoid such blind chance behavior in education, an understanding of the foundations of education was, and is, manifestly required of educators. Hence the foundations of education came from the sciences pertinent to education. Those sciences pertinent to the individual (such as biology, psychology, psychiatry, etc.) and those pertinent to society (such as sociology, history, economics, etc.) were united or related by philosophy of education which embraced both the individual and the social, just as education itself unites and relates both the individual and the social. By the early nineteen thirties, philosophy of education as a subject of study had grown either to include, or to oversee, what was then and is still often called the "foundations of education." No longer was its subject matter restricted to the practical wit of educators and the metaphysical wisdom of philosophers; now it was drawn from many and multiple sources, but particularly from the goal and ideal of the democratic society—to propose ends and suggest means not only for realizing a good society tomorrow but for making today's society a better one.

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EXPERIMENTALISE!

With allowances for Scholasticism, which was firmly entrenched as the official philosophy of education in the Catholic parochial schools, and other unreconstructed rationalists who clung to the traditional metaphysics of philosophic Idealism and Realism, it is probably accurate to say that in the thirties and forties the study of philosophy of education—especially in the teacher training institutions of the nation—was oriented to the humanistic philosophy of Experimentalism as represented by the foundational approach to education. Of course, Experimentalism enjoyed no monopoly over the study of philosophy of education, for the classical philosophies were still studied—now often as "horrible examples" to be avoided at all costs, or as historical curiosities and remnants of the prescientific age of education. In addition there were spats, schisms, and lover's quarrels in the philosophic family of Experimentalism. In the mid nineteen thirties, for instance, when the nation was in the middle of the Great Depression and there was much social discontent with the bitter fruits of the tree of Capitalism, one group of Experimentalists, called Social Reconstructionists, called upon education to change the social order. 21 Another group replied that such was impossible, even if desirable, but the ensuing debate was cut short by the outbreak of World War II and following the war, as we all so well remember, the philosophy of education became a public subject of study and debate, more of debate than study. More important, however, is the fact that although Experimentalism "captured" the teacher training institutions and thus the concepts of democracy and experimental methodology became central in the study of philosophy of education, the public schools were not in fact greatly or even significantly changed by the philosophic empiricism of the day. They were influenced, of course, especially the elementary school, 11

See, for example, issues of The Social Frontier, especially articles by George S. Counts and Theodore Brameld.

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but those changes that came were more a result of changes in the society in which the school existed rather than the deliberate application of the new philosophy of education to the schools. Factualism rather than empiricism influenced most such changes, but since educators had picked up the terminology of Experimentalism, if not the theory and practice of it, what is known as "progressive education with a small 'p' " came into being. (I hasten to add that "Progressive Education," with capitals, stands for the rather rigorous, intellectually demanding education that grew organically out of Experimentalism, while the small "p" stands for that popular bastardization whose father was ignorance, whose mother was expediency, whose god is constant physical activity, whose high priests are the philosophically uninformed and naive professors of education, and whose blind worshippers are teachers and administrators who never bothered to read the words of the philosophic Experimentalists and who cannot read the statistics of the educational experimenters. And this unfortunate result came about because, as George Axtelle put it, "professors of education are themselves commonly illiterate philosophically, and command little more than the gross oversimplifications they communicate to their students." 22 )

A CONTEMPORARY APPROACH

At any rate, the next and still most recent development in philosophy of education came partially as a result of the popular substitution, in educational circles, of the mouthing of "progressive" clichés for philosophic thought, and of the confusion of platitudes with inquiry. But it would be an inaccurate oversimplification to say that a failure of philosophic nerve on the part of educators led to recent developments in philosophy of education, for it is more true to say that radical changes in the nature of philosophy led to equally radical innovations in the philosophy of education. "George Axtelle, "Philosophy in American Education," Harvard Review, XXVI (Spring, 1956), 185.

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Without going into historical detail, suffice it to say that an approach to philosophy called logical positivism or logical empiricism, or more simply, linguistic analysis or analytic philosophy, became increasingly popular in philosophic circles in the nineteen forties and fifties and promises to dominate the future, at least in the nineteen sixties. Briefly described, analytic philosophy defines the function of philosophy as the process of linguistic analysis—the logical analysis of terms and concepts. At first it was applied to the language of physical science, then to the conceptual framework of the behavioral sciences, and it has recently turned its attention to the language of education and found an embarrassment of riches, for educational terminology has an infinite supply of words, concepts, and beliefs which can stand a little intellectual fumigation since many of them are smelling up the house of intellect. Time does not permit an adequate description of this latest development in the philosophy of education as a subject of study, but let me try to give a taste of its flavor by excerpting a review of one of the influential books 23 expressing the analytic point of view in philosophy of education. (For those of you who recognize that it is my own review, let me justify this self-plagiarism by quoting George Bernard Shaw, who once said "I often quote myself; it adds spice to my conversation!") The review reads thus: Although most educators, including many who are professors in teacher education institutions, do not know it, a quiet revolution is underway in educational philosophy. It is a revolution waged mainly in philosophic circles, financed by an intellectual fund of techniques drawn from contemporary analytic philosophy, and, for the most part, led by younger philosophers of education. This new movement is revolutionary in the sense that the rebels are changing the rules of the game of philosophizing about education and, by so doing, they are altering the standards of eligibility, participation, officiating, and scoring. 23

Israel Scheffler, The Language of Education Thomas, Publisher, 1960).

(Springfield, Π1.: Charles C.

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Israel Scheffler's newest book, The Language of Education, carries forward this quiet revolution by completely ignoring the normal conception of educational philosophy as the construction of grandiose systems purporting to explain the "true" nature of man and his universe, and by concentrating exclusively on the language man uses in his discourse about his educational world. For him, and for other analytic philosophers of education, philosophy of education can no longer serve the purpose of giving guidance to education in terms of "schools"—idealism, realism, Thomism, pragmatism. Philosophy is reduced to the logical analysis of language, and educational philosophy becomes the inspection of terms used in the language of education. Thus, according to the new rules of the game, educational philosophy involves ". . . the logical evaluation of assertions—the examination of ideas from the standpoint of clarity . . . and validity." Educational philosophers should be ". . . interested fundamentally in the clarification of basic notions and modes of argument rather than in synthesizing available beliefs into some total outlook, in thoroughly appraising root ideas rather than in painting suggestive but vague portraits. . . ." (p. 7). Because analytic philosophy is yet but a lusty youth in the intellectual life of education, one is tempted to provide a case study of the growth, development, and future prospects of this hard-nosed, cool-headed mode of philosophy, rather than to review Scheffler's book as an example of this quiet revolution. Still, some insight into the nature of the movement can be gained by noting that the clearly evident intention of the author of the Language of Education is to provide an object lesson on how the contemporary philosophic methods of logical and linguistic analysis can be applied to educational subject matter; or, more precisely, to the language used by those who speak of education. Scheffler's book could be subtitled Danger: Philosopher at Work, for working is exactly what he is doing and the results of his labors may well be dangerous for those who feel at home with pedaguese. He is working for clean speech, unmuddled by vagueness or vacuity; he has stripped top hat and tails from philosophy and dressed it in the overalls of labor; he is, in fine, philosophizing. He is merely talking about talk in education, but the word "merely" should not be misleading. Although that is all he is doing, it is a

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difficult and important undertaking, even if the quiet revolutionaries are w r o n g and analysis is not the whole of philosophy. His hope, and the nominal purpose o f the entire book, is to help create a strategy of appraisal for the language of education. Such a strategy is clearly needed, since all educational programs and platforms are carried in linguistic vehicles. Such programs and platforms whether expressed in the esoteric language of a Plato or a D e w e y or in the intellectual four-letterisms of a Bestor or a Rickover, need to be examined both as language and vehicle. This is what analytic philosophers propose as the most urgent, if not the only, task of philosophy of education. . . . T h e flavor of both book and movement can be had by summarizing an example of philosophic analysis in education. For the case in point consider the "growth metaphor," which is often used by teachers and administrators to explain "just what teaching is" to curious parents. Obviously there is some kind of similarity between the growing child and the growing plant, between the child's teacher and the plant's gardener, between the kinds of fertilizer used to help each develop its potentials. T o o , child and plant both pass through recognizable developmental p h a s e s — p h a s e s which m a y be helped or hindered b y teacher or gardener and, consequently, it seems perfectly obvious that teachers and gardeners can d o better if they understand the laws of development pertinent to growth. In addition, both child and plant will g r o w . . . without teacher o r gardener, as the child does after he leaves school and as the plant does in the wilderness; even so, the organism flourishes best when it has the help of its caretaker. Just as the gardener helps the flower unfold in all its potential splendor, so, too, does the teacher help the child realize all his inherent capacities. W h e n the philosopher goes to w o r k on such educational analogies he looks first f o r the place where it breaks d o w n — a n d it must break d o w n somewhere, for the child is not a plant. T h a t is, given any two things, they are similar in some respects, but no t w o things can be similar in all respects, else w e should then have but one thing. W h e r e , then, does the growth metaphor fall short? T h e answer is found in a moral question, " W h a t is the end of growth?" In Scheffler's terms,

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If we once ask, however, how these capacities are to be exercised, toward what [end] the temperamental energy of the child is to be directed, what sorts of conduct and what types of sensitivity are to be fostered, we begin to see the limits of the growth metaphor. The sequence of physical and temperamental stages is, in fact, quite compatible with any number of conflicting answers to these questions. . . . That is why, with regard to these aspects, it makes no literal sense to say, "Let us develop all of the potentialities of every child." They conflict and so cannot all be developed. To develop some is to thwart others [and] responsibility for such decision cannot be evaded (p. 50).

When, therefore, an educator explains teaching, or a curriculum pattern, or a theory of education in terms of such a metaphor he is literally talking nonsense. He is unjustified in his language, and his philosophy (if that be philosophy) is pseudo. The quiet revolution goes on, and those who would support or suppress it should indeed read The Language of Education. Educators will continue to talk, and analysis will continue to talk about talk; but if this new approach to old problems has any "trickledown" value, then talk about education will become more meaningful.24 SPECULATION ABOUT THE FUTURE

I cannot end without indulging slightly in that philosophic activity called speculation. I trust you will forgive me, for it is likely my speculations will be wrong; being wrong is not only an occupational hazard of the philosopher of education, it is more often a characteristic stance. I cannot help but believe that experimental science rather than the analytic philosopher will come to the rescue of education. While it is true that clarity should begin at home, and our intellectual home is education, it is also true that man can neither Uve nor learn by words alone—no matter how clear and meaningful those words may be. So I put my faith in science to solve the major problem in educaM

Hobert W. Burns, "Educational Philosophy," The Journal of Teacher Education, ΧΠ (March, 1961), 115-116.

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tion, which is: How do we learn? When we answer that question we shall see a breakthrough not only in education but in philosophy of education. It seems to me that, whatever the answer may be, the question will be answered not by philosophy but by science—and my speculation is that physiological psychology, coupled with physics, will provide the needed answer. The evidence for this psycho-physicalism, for the belief that learning is neurological and centered in the brain and its correlative nervous system, and that for every so-called "psychological state" there is an underlying and causative "physiological state," is not yet overwhelming or even convincing, but it has been recently forthcoming in some degree. If and when we discover how we learn, then philosophy of education as a subject of study can be more firmly than ever anchored to the rock of experience; and it will be more crucial than ever before, since the discovery of how we learn will clearly imply how we should teach. With the technological success of the teaching-learning process assured, it will be vital that a fully developed democratic philosophy of education guide our educational enterprises—all of them, public or private. To do less would be not only to reduce teaching and learning to an educational mechanism, it would be to run the risk of letting education lead us into one of the old, or some new, authoritarianism. CONCLUSION

On this view, philosophy of education as a subject of study in the past half century can be humorously but fairly described as a series of hairbreadth escapes. Prior to 1912 it barely escaped being completely engulfed by the dogmatism of absolute metaphysics and theology; after 1912 it only just escaped the scientistic clutches of factualism; after 1929 it barely escaped being suffocated by the wellmeaning but stifling embrace of progressive education (with a small "p"); today it appears it will escape the heavy dosage of verbal prophylaxis being administered by the analytic movement; and, hope-

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fully, it will escape today and tomorrow from both foreign and domestic authoritarianism in philosophy and education. If it does, it will be thanks not so much to philosophers or philosophers of education as to teachers and administrators who take the time and trouble to study philosophy of education and their efforts to implement in their schools an empirical, democratic philosophy of education.

Abderian Laughter in the Ivory Tower: Some Common Fallacies in Philosophy of Education HOBERT W. BURNS * you will remember from your sophomore courses in Greek history and mythology, were an ancient Thracian people noted for their stupidity. It was a happy stupidity, evidently based on the theory that ignorance is bliss, for theirs was the delightful laughter of ignorance of the fallacies which permeated their way of life. Perhaps they were both ignorant and happy, because they had no ivory towers to produce wisdom and the sense of tragedy that often accompanies wisdom. But we in professional education have ivory towers, we have a little wisdom and a great deal of ignorance, and we have our little pleasures and painful moments. We also have laughter, two kinds of it: the Pollyannish laughter of those happy philosophers in education who are blissfully ignorant of the serious problems in contemporary educational thought, and the sardonic laughter of those philosophers outside of education who are amused at the fallacies in educational thought. The comments which follow are for and about our educational Abderians and some of the more common fallacies they subscribe to in philosophy of education. Thus this paper is neither substantive nor analytic. It is not substantive because it is not a painstakingly researched scholarly document, bristling with quotations and studded with footnotes; it is not analytic because it does not offer a cool, clear, calm, and clever linguistic analysis of some hazy pedagogical concept, written with a T H E ABDERIANS,

* Associate Professor of Education, Syracuse University. 140

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logical flair and complete with symbolic notation. Let me admit that I was tempted to write a substantive paper, advancing, defending, and documenting the proposition that educators cannot truly hope to improve education until they grasp the nature of the organic relationship that exists between education and politics, and then organize for political action. Let me also admit an equal temptation to undertake a philosophic analysis of the concept and usage of the term "creativity" in education, a word being used with increasing frequency and investment by educators and one that I strongly suspect requires close logical scrutiny. But this is neither, because it was suggested that I write a paper in philosophy of education that would at one and the same time (1) bear significantly on education and be of interest to professional educators, (2) be slanted toward philosophy and treated with philosophic techniques so as to be of interest to professional philosophers, and (3) carry an informative message to graduate students in philosophy of education. A substantive, scholarly paper might have been pleasing to educators; a technical, analytic paper might have been pleasing to philosophers; but nothing can be pleasing to graduate students, whatever their field, and especially graduate students in philosophy of education who are probably wondering just what their field is. So this will be about the discipline of philosophy of education, rather than using that discipline either to produce a scholarly paper or to make an analysis. What I have to say, then, is a polemic. It is a polemic in which I try to catch some of the fallacies in the philosophy of education and hold them up for inspection. T H E LOGICAL

FALLACY

The first of the fallacies can be called "the logical fallacy." It is the fallacy which, generally stated, holds that specific methodological directives and concrete policy statements for education can be logically deduced from abstract philosophic premises. More particularly, those deceived by this fallacy mistakenly believe that particular metaphysical, axiological, or epistemologica! positions logically entail par-

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ticular educational policies and methodologies and, additionally, that different philosophies logically yield different educational practices due to their metaphysical, axiological, or epistemological differences. This fallacy is widespread, for it is an unexamined assumption underlying much instruction in introductory courses in philosophy of education. That is, while many teachers of philosophy of education do not explicitly state their belief that directives for educational policies and practices can be logically derived from abstract, grandiose philosophic systems, many courses are based on this untenable assumption, for we often find essay or examination questions of the nature, "Trace the implications of Pragmatism for school administration," or "What are the logical implications of Neo-Thomism for educational measurement?" or "Describe the discipline policies implied by Reconstructionism." Indeed, this is an understandable and attractive fallacy. It is understandable because, unless one is sophisticated in logic, it does seem reasonable that the organic connection between "philosophy" and "education" in philosophy of education is a deductive connection such that one's philosophy logically implies the educational policies and practices one should follow; it is attractive because it links the esoteric and abstract realm of philosophy with the exoteric and practical realm of teaching, giving the latter some of the glory of philosophy and the former some of the power of education, while making the philosopher of education an intellectual middleman who partakes both of the power and the glory. It is attractive enough; but it is also fallacious. This fallacious nature can be demonstrated in either of two ways: first, by an appeal to experience, and second, by an appeal to logic. The former is the easier and more convincing, but the latter has more intellectual appeal; so let me use two paragraphs for the former and more than that for the latter. A P P E A L TO

EXPERIENCE

The empirical demonstration is short and simple: proponents of the "general philosophy logically implies specific educational practices"

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fallacy have yet to show us how this is done. They say it can be done, but they have not done so. With the man from Missouri, we have the right to be shown the appropriate logical notation before we will believe. Thus, there is no empirical justification for the position, and we can fairly label it fallacious. Κ it were true, let us consider an intriguing empirical consequence. If general philosophy logically entailed directives for specific educational practices, then we could simplify our teacher-training curricula greatly. We would need only some good, stiff courses in metaphysics, axiology, epistemology, and of course logic; then teachers in training could sit down in a "methods laboratory"—which need consist only of comfortable chairs, tables, paper, and pencils—and logically deduce from philosophy proper educational policies and practices. How economical this would be! How simple! How intellectual—no more need for methods courses! But we do not train teachers this way, fiscally and intellectually economic as it would be, because it is empirically impossible. APPEAL TO LOGIC

The logical demonstration of the fallacy is longer and more complex; so it cannot herein be developed in detail, although I have tried to do so elsewhere. The key to the logical refutation of the fallacy lies in the analysis of the concept of "implication," especially where reference is made to "logical implication" or "deductive implication"; so an efficient way to open the analysis is to examine, briefly, the way this concept is used. Many educators, and some philosophers of education, use the term "logical implication" quite loosely, without any clear rules of usage. In this kind of loose use, the word "logic" loses all its formal powers and what is "logical" becomes whatever the user says is logical, without reference to intersubjective definitional systems. A "logical implication" of this type thus becomes whatever one so chooses to say is logically implicated; and, on these grounds, who is to say nay? Without rules of usage anything goes, and one man's Q . E . D . is another man's R.A.A.

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On this view it could be said, as it has been said, that Dewey's epistemological position logically implies Kilpatrick's project method; or that Aquinas' axiology logically implies strict disciplinary tactics in the classroom; or that Plato's metaphysics logically implies the dialectic method of instruction. These things can be and have been said because anything can and does "logically imply" anything else where there are no rules to define and guide the making of implications. Thus, without such rules, it can be said that Pragmatism logically implies teacher-pupil planning, that Neo-Thomism logically implies rote memorization, or that Idealistic Personalism logically implies the use of automated instruction—but it can also be said with equal "logical" force and justification, that Pragmatism implies the teacher-determination of the curriculum, that Neo-Thomism implies client-centered therapy, or Idealistic Personalism implies frequent field trips in the second grade. Thus, when the concept of "logical implication" is used at will and without any rules of usage, not only does philosophy contain logical implications for educational practice, but it also contains an infinite and therefore contradictory set of logical implications so that from any given philosophic position any- and everything is "logically implied." That is really an embarrassment of logical riches, and this wealth of possible meanings of "logical implication" leads to intellectual poverty—for that which means anything to any man cannot mean the same thing to every man, and hence fruitful logical discourse is inhibited and the philosophy of education becomes a wild, ruleless game of intellectual catch-as-catch-can among cultural cavemen possessed of Spartan intellects. A rule is therefore needed to govern usage of the term "logical implication." However complex the rule may have to be, it must incorporate the concepts of necessity and dependency if the unhappy consequences described above are to be avoided. We need the concept of necessity when we talk about implication, for when we say "this" logically implies "that," we seem to mean some kind of necessary connection between "this" and "that." We need the concept of dependency, for again when we say "this" implies "that," we seem

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to mean that the one is somehow dependent upon the other. Thus, by "logical implication," we do seem to be involved with concepts of necessity and dependence in a way such that one thing is presupposed by another or is conditional upon another. Given these intuitive criteria, what is their import for a definition of logical implication? On the one hand, such a definition could signify that the word "implies" means a necessary condition such that the fulfillment of one condition is utterly dependent upon the fulfillment of the other condition. Here it might be said, to illustrate the meaning of logical implication as so defined, that being a philosopher of education necessarily implies that one know something of Plato's Theaetetus; or that being a student teacher necessarily implies that one be enrolled in a teacher training institution; or that being a plumber necessarily implies that one can stop awkward leakages in homes. On this definition, to say that "P implies Q" is to say that Ρ necessarily presupposes or requires Q, or that Ρ is dependent upon Q; and, therefore, by modus tollendo tollens, if not Q then not P. Thus, if one knew nothing of the Theaetetus one could not possibly be a philosopher of education; if one is not enrolled in a teacher training institution, one could not possibly be a student teacher; if one could not stop those smelly leakages in a home, one could not possibly be a plumber. When this mode of usage is inspected, the meaning of "implication" is that the denial of Q is adequate warrant for the denial of P, but the affirmation of Q is insufficient warrant for the assertion of P. Since it is the consequent which is presupposed by the premise, the premise cannot be affirmed unless the consequent is valid; so in this usage the meaning of "logical implication" is one of strictly formal, deductive logic, to which all the specific rules of derivation must apply. In this definition of "logical implication," then, it is wrongheaded and in fact illogical to say that the relationship of abstract philosophy to concrete educational practice is as the relationship of premise to conclusion, where the one is necessarily dependent upon the other. The meaning of this is sufficient in itself to strike down the claim

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of those who assume that certain sets of educational practices are logically entailed by certain sets of metaphysical, axiological, or epistemological beliefs. While there is an organic connection between philosophy and education, a connection such that we can justifiably assert that one guides the other, this organic connection is not deductive, it is not logically formalized, it is not strictly logical. So much for "the deductive fallacy," which erroneously holds that we can logically derive specific directives for the conduct of education from general, abstract philosophic premises. We cannot. T H E PSYCHOLOGICAL

FALLACY

The second error can be called "the psychological fallacy." It is the fallacy which, generally stated, holds that philosophical thought is isomorphic to psychological thought. More particularly, those deceived by this fallacy mistakenly believe that certain philosophical schools of thought are appositional to certain psychological schools of thought and, from this fallacious premise, conclude, for example, that philosophic Pragmatism is structurally akin to psychological field-theorism, that philosophic Realism is similarly akin to psychological behaviorism, that philosophic Existentialism is likewise akin to what has been called existential psychology, or that philosophic Thomism is functionally akin to what has been called faculty psychology. The most widespread example of this fallacy to be found in educational theory is the mistaken assumption that Dewey's philosophic thought is structurally harmonious with Lewin's psychological thought, that Pragmatism is functionally complementary to Gestalttheorie, and that both Pragmatism and Gestalt-theorie point toward similar educational practices and policies due to this psycho-philosophic isomorphism. EXPLANATION OF HUMAN

BEHAVIOR

Many philosophers of education who, by self-identification, are "Pragmatiste," assert that human behavior is best explained in terms

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of psychological field theorism [ß = f(PJE)], as opposed to explanation in terms of modern psychological behaviorism [Λ = j(S,0)]. These Pragmatists—and in my judgment they should be called "ersatz" Pragmatists—object to the modern behaviorist's concept and usage of a stimulus-response model in psychological theorizing. They sense, in the behaviorist's stimulus-variable, some kind of ontological assumption which they are prone to call "the realistic fallacy." That is, when the psychologist wants to explain human behavior in terms of stimulus, organism, and response, and when by "stimulus" is meant the objective social and physical conditions that obtain in an environment, many Pragmatists equate the stimulus with some sort of objective, external, independent reality. Thus they see in modern behaviorism a division of experience into antecedently existing objects and subsequently behaving subjects; they see the integrity of the continuum of experience violated; they see the "twin born-ness" of subject and object torn asunder; they see the transactional character of experience sacrificed on the altar of interaction. Thinking they see such un-Pragmatic activities, many Pragmatists conclude that psychological behaviorism smacks of philosophic Realism; and if this be the case, they reason, it is sufficient ground to reject a behavioral approach to psychological science. But where he may be likely to reject behaviorism, the Pragmatist is equally likely to embrace Gestalt-theorie. The use of the term "field" in the phenomenological approach to psychology seems conceptually similar to the Pragmatisti use of the term in philosophy; it seems to imply, and be implied by, such other pragmatically cherished concepts as relativity, interdependence, continuity, and holism. When the Gestalter insists that ¿»-variables are relative to and dependent upon the psychological subject and are therefore to be reduced to Λ-variables, the Pragmatist thinks he hears someone saying, "An object of knowledge cannot exist without a knower"; he also thinks he hears someone saying, "The act of cognition inevitably influences the object cognized." When the Gestalter says environmental S-conditions are an integral part of an individual's psychological or phenomenological field and cannot be considered or understood apart from that field, the Pragmatist thinks he hears someone saying, "Every

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object of knowledge is relative to, and contingent upon, a specified frame of reference." The Pragmatist hears, in short, what he takes to be some highly intelligent epistemological and ontological comments, and he is inclined to look upon Gestalters as pretty bright fellows, for psychologists. Thus, while psychologists quarrel amongst themselves about the proper formula for explaining human behavior and when the alternatives offered are explanations in terms of modern psychological behaviorism or psychological field theorism, the Pragmatic philosopher lends his moral support to the field theorist. But it should be noted that in supporting one psychological alternative at the expense of the other, the Pragmatist makes his choice on philosophical rather than psychological grounds, for his reasoning apparently goes something like this : Human behavior can be explained either in terms of modern behaviorism or field theorism. Behaviorism in psychology is akin to mechanism in physics, and therefore implies a fixed, final, closed, and determined universe. This is contrary both to recent physical knowledge and the philosophic position of Pragmatism, and therefore behaviorism is unacceptable. Field theorism in psychology, however, is akin to field theory in physics, and therefore implies an open, creative, indeterminate universe where each phenomenon is relative to, and dependent upon, other phenomena. This is in accord with modern theoretical physics as well as with Pragmatic philosophy, and therefore field theorism in psychology is acceptable. T o their shame, it must be said that some Gestalters have not been hesitant to build upon this kind of faulty, analogical reasoning. They have not been hesitant to suggest that psychological field theorism is similar in nature to the physical field theorism of Einstein, and, similarly, to suggest that psychological behaviorism is mechanical and therefore just as antiquated and outmoded as are mechanistic theories in physics. Thus, to a significant degree, the Pragmatist prefers a field theoretic explanation of psychological phenomena, because a field theoretic explanation of physical phenomena has been so successful. Yet, just as the Social Darwinists made the analogical mistake of basing their sociology on a biological model, so too are Pragmatiste making the

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error of basing their preference for field theorism in psychology upon a physical model. Let us see if this is a false analogy, by examining the assumption that field theory in psychology is similar to field theory in physics. MEANINGS OF "FIELD THEORY"

In a general sense the term "field," whether used by the psychologist or the physicist, is used to identify a system or systems of interaction. "Field theory," it would seem to follow, refers to an explanatory system which is based on this principle of interaction. But this commonsense meaning of the term "field theory" is not the only meaning given it by physical scientists; they have a much more specialized, particular meaning in mind, for in physics "field theory" refers to theories that work with continuously spread physical media and, on that account, uses the appropriate mathematics, which involves partial differential equations. With that distinction, it becomes clear that there is some difference in meaning between "field theory" as used by psychologists and "field theory" as used by physicists. There are at least two meanings of the term: the first is a general meaning, referring simply to the principle of interaction; the second is a particular meaning, referring to the use —and the appropriateness of the use—of particular modes of mathematical analysis. Clearly physics is field theoretic in both meanings of the term, for physical theory is of course based on the principle of interaction, and modern physical theory must, can, and does use partial differential equations. Equally obvious is the fact that psychology is field theoretic only in the first sense, and even the behavioristic formulation of the human equation is based on this principle of interaction. But psychology is not field theoretic in the second sense, as even a limited acquaintance with mathematics and psychology will promptly reveal. What, then, does this inability to employ those mathematical techniques which are characteristic of physical field theory mean for psychology? It means that psychological field theories are field theories only in the first, general sense—and this is no great, important ac-

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complishment, for every science is field theoretic in this simple, general sense. Every science is based on the principle of interaction because a change in any one variable at time t may alter all other conditions at time h . Thus the Gestalt theorists are either unaware of, or have perhaps chosen to blur, the crucial distinction between the broadly general and narrowly specific meanings of the term "field theory." And Pragmatists, who claim to be linguistically sophisticated, analytically competent, and oriented toward science and the scientific method, have not called attention to this error on the part of some Gestalt theorists and are therefore guilty of a major intellectual error: they have supported Gestalt-theorie and decried modern behaviorism without bothering to analyze the language, meanings, theories, and data involved. In less polite company such behavior would be called prejudicial and perhaps even superstitious. The fact of the matter is that psychologists—field theorists or behaviorists—do not and cannot use mathematical formulae that resemble the formulae used in physical field equations; there is not one true field equation to be found in the literature published by psychological field theorists. By the same token, behavioral psychologists do not use mathematical equations that are characteristic of Newtonian physics or that characterize any mechanical theory (i.e., particles with attracting forces). What can be concluded from these facts? It can be concluded that in psychological theorizing there is no such dichotomy as obtains in physics between mechanism and field theory. It can be concluded that the Gestalter's claim that psychological field theorism is akin to physical field theorism is therefore inaccurate in the technical sense of the term "field theory," and specious in the general meaning of that term, since in that meaning, all modern psychological theories are field theories. It can be concluded that Pragmatism is not structurally akin to Gestalt-theorie, nor is Realism structurally akin to behaviorism. And on that basis, it can be concluded that any attempt to link any psychological theory or "school" with any philosophical position or "school" is just an intellectual gymnastic, strengthening neither the mind of theory nor the muscle of philosophy in education.

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So much for "the psychological fallacy," which erroneously holds that philosophical thought is isomorphic to psychological thought. It is not.

THE

INDEPENDENCE

FALLACY

The third misconception can be called "the independence fallacy." It is the fallacy which, generally stated, holds that philosophy of education is an independent discipline. More particularly, those deceived by this fallacy mistakenly believe that philosophy of education is, or should be, an independent discipline because it can, and should, be based on an independent science of education. (It should be noted that the rebels who proclaim this doctrine of independence for philosophy of education do not mean it is a strictly autonomous discipline, sufficient unto itself, but that it is independent of all disciplines other than education itself.) This "independence fallacy," in a certain respect, is the antithesis of "the logical fallacy" which, when carried to extremes, asserts that philosophy of education is completely and thoroughly dependent upon general philosophy, and is therefore the semi-intellectual handmaiden of general philosophy. "The independence fallacy," quite to the contrary, claims that philosophy of education has emerged from that period of intellectual underdevelopment when it was an academic colony of the empire of pure philosophy. The chains of disciplinary colonialism which bound philosophy of education to general philosophy have been broken by the advance of science in general, which emancipated science from philosophy, and by the development of the science of education in particular, which has in turn freed philosophy of education from being dependent upon philosophy in the "grand tradition" for its substance. The rationale of the independence movement goes something like this: With the rise of empiricism and the scientific movement in education, we are no longer dependent upon philosophic speculation for educational guidance, since there is now a wealth of facts about the educative process; these facts provide a substantive basis for an independent science of education, and the practice of education can

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be guided by such facts alone; thus philosophy of education, if it is to keep pace with these developments, is to be inferred from what goes on in education; and insofar as what goes on in education is based on the independent science of education, then the philosophy of education is clearly an independent discipline drawing its sum and substance from education alone. This is, indeed, an intriguing fallacy. It would at one sweep wash away the intellectual inferiority complex that philosophers of education have vis-à-vis general philosophy; it would make us masters of our own house, secure in our own scientific backyard, and warm and snuggly in our own academic double bed—which we need share only with our mistress, the science of education. But, as with most intriguing propositions, it is immoral. The basis of that immorality will be discussed later, but let it be noted here that it takes no great logician to perceive that this claim of independence on behalf of philosophy of education, or the claim that philosophy of education is now dependent only on an independent science of education, stands or falls on the one crucial question of whether education is an independent science or not. RELATION OF " i s " TO "OUGHT"

I submit that education is not, and cannot be, an independent science; and, therefore, philosophy of education is not, and cannot be, an independent discipline as claimed. There is a short analysis sufficient to refute the argument that education is an independent science, and it goes something like this: On close inspection of the argument for independence, when that argument is made along the lines outlined above, we note the implicit and illicit assumption that whatever is being done in education is what should be done. That is, if philosophy of education is still to be concerned with the moral dimension of education (and some would deny even that) and if philosophy of education is to be built upon or inferred from educational activities alone, then it follows that an identification of all the "is's" in education will automatically include all the "oughts" of education. This is

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more than a confusion of "is" with "ought," or of fact with value; it is the restriction of what ought to be done in education to the realm of what is now being done in education. Let me enlarge upon this verbalization with a pertinent example. Some years ago, in order to identify the success-criteria of "good" school administration, the Kellogg Fund granted a large sum of money to educational administrators. The primary purpose of this Co-operative Project in Educational Administration was to identify the criteria of a "good" principal, a "good" superintendent, a "good" school board member. The investigative technique adopted in many of the research projects sponsored by the CPEA is known as the critical incident technique, which is an observational, inductive method wherein researchers watch subjects perform their jobs, and on that basis, inductively arrive at the critical requirements for the successful performance of that job. This technique was used previously to identify the critical requirements of flying an airplane by watching what successful and unsuccessful pilot-trainees did; it was used to identify the success-criteria of shoe salesmanship by observing the behavior of good and bad shoe salesmen; and it was used to develop the criteria of success for dental technicians by observing the good ones and the bad ones, and inferring the criteria of successful behavior in that kind of job. It was this strictly empirical technique that school administrators used in many CPEA studies designed to find out what "good" educational administration is. But now let me call your attention to a gross fault in their selection of technique: In flying airplanes, selling shoes, or working on teeth we know in advance how to recognize successful behavior; there is no doubt about success or failure when we see it. Thus, a successful pilot flies while the unsuccessful one does not; the successful shoe salesman makes more profits than the unsuccessful one; the successful dental technician cleans teeth well, but the unsuccessful technician does not. In each instance the results are directly observable. But are the ends of educational administration as clearcut? Are the results of administration, or teaching, directly and conclusively observable? Do we know in advance how to recognize sue-

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cessful administration and teaching? It seems to me, unhappily, that the answers are negative. But, negative or positive, note the implicit assumption in such researches that by observing what is currently being done it is possible to identify what should be done in the future. The full import of that assumption is that it eliminates the possibility that perhaps we should be doing something we are not doing at the present time; it rules out of consideration the possibility that we may not be doing at all what we should be doing; it assumes that all the possible "oughts" are "is's," and we need only discover what is in order to determine what should be. This confusion of "is" with "ought" is not only foolish but dangerous. It is foolish because it locates the future in the past or present and is therefore unthinkingly conservative; it is foolish not because it is conservative, but because it is unthinkingly so. It is dangerous because it does not provide an adequate intellectual basis for change, much less progress, and therefore it condemns us to relive, over and over, the past. And all this due to the attempt to found philosophy of education on an independent science of education, drawn from observational facts about education alone. EDUCATION AS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY

STUDY

That there is no such independent science of education is easily established. But, even so, education can be conducted on a scientific basis—a basis given to it by virtue of the fact that the practice of the art of education is based on those sciences such as biology, psychology, sociology, and physiology, which undergird it. Thus education is not an independent science, but an interdisciplinary art based on multidisciplinary sciences. This is a strength rather than a weakness, for it means the art of education can draw from all the physical and behavioral sciences; it is the one practical art that can incorporate into itself, substantially and procedurally, the fruits of science and scientific method. Thus, even though education is not a science in and of itself, neither is it a narrowly conceived, limited, parochial art; the basis of education is

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much wider than education alone, and it need not feed off itself as the declarers of independence would have it do. All this is proleptic to the main point that philosophy of education is not an independent discipline based on an independent science of education because, as shown, education is simply not an independent science. And insofar as philosophy of education claims to be based on the practice of education, it must then depend upon those sciences which contribute to the art of education and make it possible to conduct the educational enterprise in a scientific manner. The import of that is twofold. First, philosophy of education is at least the intellectual glue which unites the practical art of education with those sciences which do in fact underwrite it. Second, philosophy of education is therefore not a free-willed, free-flown discipline, but is dependent upon the limitations and potentialities of the art of education and its supporting sciences. In oversimplified language, it might be said that the sciences can tell us where we are and where we could be, but that philosophy of education is the related discipline which inspects the "is" and the "could be," and by importing philosophical criteria, yields a "should" by telling us where we ought to go, what we ought to do. And in all of this, education is the crucial, practical art which relates ends to means. At this point, were the analysis to continue, we should have to return to the problem concerning the moral basis of education. Previously it was suggested that intellectual intercourse between the practice of education and an independent science of education would not issue in a philosophy of education. That is true; such an affair, even if possible, would be barren. But it is not possible, and this raises the question as to where and how a moral basis for the guidance of education is established. I propose to beg that question, although it is answerable, on the grounds that my task herein has been only to demonstrate that an independent science of education is impossible, and therefore, philosophy of education is not an independent discipline. So much for "the independence fallacy," which erroneously holds that philosophy of education is an independent discipline because it is based on an independent science of education. It is not.

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T H E ANTISEPTIC FALLACY

There are other fallacies which prompt Abderian laughter in the ivory tower, but only one more will be identified here. It might well be called "the antiseptic fallacy." It is the fallacy which, generally stated, holds that recent intellectual explorations have disemboweled the body of philosophy of all content, leaving it but a procedural skeleton whose sole function is the linguistic analysis of language. More particularly, those deceived by this fallacy believe that, inasmuch as the sole function of philosophy is the analysis of terms and concepts, philosophy of education is thereby reduced to the logical and linguistic analysis of terms and concepts in education. From this view, philosophy of education is the "listerine" of education, specifically designed to wash the mouth of educational language with the soap of conceptual analysis and by so doing to kill on contact the bad bacteria of language which threatens the tongue, thus removing the intellectual halitosis of those who speak and write about education. That it is fallacious seems suggested by the fact that many analysts have confused the tool with the work, language with action, and means with end. There is no doubt but that linguistic analysis is a valuable tool—perhaps even an invaluable tool—but it is a tool to help education do its work, and there are other tools as well; there is no doubt but that language and action are significantly related, but to clean up the language is not automatically to spruce up the action. Thus, while it is clear that the development of analytic philosophy is of significant value to education and that no philosopher of education can afford to be without some competence in the use of this powerful new tool, it is also clear that analysis is not the end-all and be-all of philosophy of education—and to think so is to think fallaciously. And now the Abderians must be sent back to their ivory towers. Hopefully their laughter will dim as they get to work reconstructing their way of life, this time free of the fallacies of stupidity.

IV Recent Developments

Organizing for Team Teaching PHILIP ROTHMAN * T H E DEVELOPMENT OF T E A M TEACHING

IN THE continuing gamesmanship of educational circles, it is quite clear that there is one readily available way to be "in." The superintendent of schools who wishes to demonstrate his ability to keep up with the latest trends in education has merely to mention that his schools are engaged in team teaching, and it is possible he will not even have to defend the record of his football teams. And if he wishes to attain in the epitome of oneupmanship he has only to suggest that one of his newer buildings has been designed and constructed to facilitate staff utilization. There have been few innovations in American education that have met with the general acceptance that has been accorded team teaching. While various early antecedents have been claimed for team teaching, it is quite clear that the term today refers to a type of school activity that had its beginning a mere five years ago. The first recorded project in team teaching was begun in 1957 in Lexington, Massachusetts. This was one of a number of experimental programs initiated by Harvard University under its special "School and University Program for Research and Development," popularly known as SUPRAD. The major stimulus since then has undoubtedly been provided by the Commission on the Experimental Study of the Utilization of the Staff in the Secondary School, which has initials that cannot be made to form a pronounceable combination so that it is usually identified as the "Trump Plan" after J. Lloyd Trump, who was director of the commission that made the report. * Chairman, Department of Education, Antioch College. 159

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Mention must also be made of the continuing interest of the Ford Foundation, which has provided financial and promotional support to a large proportion of the workers in these vineyards. Today the vineyards stretch from border to border, and it is impossible to get even a roughly accurate estimate of the number of team teaching projects now underway. These projects are to be found in large cities such as Pittsburgh, New York, and Baltimore; in towns and suburbs such as Newton, Massachusetts, Palm Springs, California, and Evanston Township, Illinois; and in more rural areas such as Montgomery County, Maryland, and Jefferson County, Colorado. Such projects are linked with universities such as Harvard, Stanford, and Wisconsin. They may be found in laboratory schools, as in the University of Chicago Laboratory School or the Antioch School of Antioch College. They may be elementary schools, junior high, or senior high school programs, and they may be available to uppermiddle-class children, as in Weston, Massachusetts, or to "culturally deprived" children, as in the Hill District schools of Pittsburgh. Thus, despite the general opinion that "cultural lag" in education— the period between the development of a new concept and its wide acceptance—usually takes about fifty years, team teaching has taken only about five years to achieve acceptance. The question that must be asked, of course, is whether the success of the idea is due to its intrinsic merit or to its successful promotion by powerful elements of our educational leadership. No attempt will be made to answer that question here, but it is necessary to acknowledge its existence. One hypothesis might be that neither of these forces really explains the success of the idea, but that its real merit lies in its congruence with the sociological pressures analyzed by Riesman in The Lonely Crowd. The conventional single teacher in his classroom, autonomous and responsible primarily to self, requires a quality of "inner-directedness" which Riesman considers to be fading from our society, while the "other-directed" individual, who is Riesman's modern man, would just naturally become a member of a team. 1 Regardless of the reason, it is clear that becoming a member of a 1

David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing Character ( N e w Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950).

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team or introducing team teaching into a school seems highly desirable. Most of you are perhaps about to take such a step, are thinking about taking such a step, or may be resisting the taking of such a step. Where may this step lead and what guides are there along the way? T E A M TEACHING D E F I N E D

It is important first to know what we are discussing. Like all popular innovations, team teaching has taken on a variety of meanings. Because it is not a simple, single, rigidly limited type of operation, it has been easy for the definition to expand so as to encompass a broad variety of activities. While the name is not the thing, it is always surprising to find how many members of society never look beyond the name to see what the thing actually is. So the term "team teaching" is being applied to a variety of activities—lending its high degree of public acceptance to little- or ill-considered projects of school boards or administrators, to pet ideas which were rejected when offered under another name, to devices for attaining specific and sometimes specious ends, and to already existing programs refurbished by new titles. WHAT TEAM TEACHING IS NOT

The following activities, which may have considerable merit of their own, should not be considered team teaching: Use of teacher aides or clerical helpers—the provision of one or more, or of part-time, non-professional aides or clerks to work with a teacher in the performance of non-teaching tasks. Departmentalization—the separation of subject matter into specific areas taught by separate teachers, as usually done in secondary school. This would include such variations as the dual-progress plan, the introduction of correlation between subject fields through the use of related materials, and teacher conferences for the purpose of checking progress in the development of subject matter. Lecture series—regularly scheduled, or for that matter irregularly

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scheduled, large group meetings to hear a series of lectures or watch a television presentation or go on field trips. WHAT TEAM TEACHING IS

Though these activities are often associated with team teaching they lack essential characteristics of team teaching. Team teaching should be considered as an organizational concept and an emerging pattern of personnel utilization rather than as a particular model of structure. Anderson describes a teaching team as " . . . a group of several teachers (usually between three and six) jointly responsible for planning, carrying out, and evaluating an education program for a group of children." 2 The Claremont College concept of a team is an instructional unit within a school, combining a distinct student group, a small faculty group, and assisting persons. 3 Writing in the Saturday Review, Shaplin described team teaching as "an effort to improve instruction by the reorganization of personnel in teaching. Two or more teachers are given responsibility, working together, for all, or a significant part of the instruction of the same group of students." 4 Singer defines team teaching as "An arrangement whereby two or more teachers with or without teacher aides plan, instruct, and evaluate cooperatively one or more class groups during a given period(s) in order to take advantage of their respective special competencies." 5 Dean and Witherspoon, of the U.S. Office of Education, have attempted to get beyond the organizational details to a description of the basic concept. They characterize team teaching this way: "Robert H. Anderson, "Team Teaching," ΝΕΑ Journal, L (March, 1961), 52. 'Dorsey Baynham, "Selected Staff Utilization Projects in California, Georgia, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan, and New York," Part I, Chapter II, Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, XLVI (January, 1962), 16-18. 'Judson T. Shaplin, "Team Teaching," Saturday Review, XLIV (May 20, 1961), 54. • I r a J. Singer, "Survey of Staff Utilization Practices in Six States," Part I, Chapter I, Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, XLVI (January, 1962), 4.

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The heart of the concept of team teaching lies not in details of structure and organization but more in the essential spirit of cooperative planning, constant collaboration, close unity, unrestrained communication, and sincere sharing. It is reflected not in a group of individuals articulating together but rather in a group which is a single, unified team. Inherent in the plan is an increased degree of flexibility for teacher responsibility, grouping policies and practices, and size of groups and an invigorating spirit of freedom and opportunity to revamp programs to meet the educational needs of children.® Leaving out the adjectives and judgments, team teaching can be described as an arrangement in which two or more teachers share the responsibility for the instruction of a group of children, with an opportunity for flexibility in procedures and arrangements. ADVANTAGES OF TEAM TEACHING

The idea that "everyone's doing it" is, of course, not sufficient grounds for entering into a new activity—especially one which might be far-reaching in its effects. Though American education has often been compared to the Light Brigade in its failure to know the "reason why," this criticism has been more often leveled against the continuance of prevailing practices rather than the innovation of new ones. Just why should a school system embark on a program of team teaching, especially if its present organization seems quite satisfactory? Some of the factors to be considered in making this decision are discussed in the sections that follow. COST

One of the first considerations of all school boards is costs. As an attempt has been made to provide a larger proportion of the population with a higher quality of education, the costs of education have •Stuart E. Dean and Clinette F. Witherspoon, "Team Teaching in the Elementary School," Education Briefs, No. 38 (January, 1962), 4. (Washington, D.C.:U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare; Office of Education, Elementary Schools Section.)

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been increasing at a rate that has put a great strain on the public pocketbook. Looking ahead, the prospect of continued expansion and continued demand for higher quality can cause shudders. It is no surprise, then, that many, in and out of education, should raise questions of productivity. They see that our farmers and our industry have managed to lower unit costs by increased productivity—by mechanization and automation, by specialization and delegation of less demanding tasks to less qualified personnel, and by careful organization and selection of the right man and the right tool to do a specific job. Turning to the classroom, they wonder if some of these techniques could not be applied successfully there, but generally they find that the organization of teachers and classrooms tends to limit such possibilities. Team teaching organization does oiïer a promise of a chance to explore the possibilities. Let me hasten to say that I sincerely hope whatever savings might be found possible will be used for the purpose of improving the product rather than attempting to lower the cost. The record of programs already underway is quite favorable in this respect. TEACHER

ACCEPTANCE

A second consideration in any school innovation is the probable effect on the teacher. The problem of attracting and holding good teachers has not been solved, and any contribution to a solution must be eagerly welcomed. It is generally held that there are three basic factors in keeping a man on the job—money, status, and job satisfaction, with the general principle being that a person must feel adequately rewarded in at least two out of the three categories and not too greatly deprived in the third. Through the introduction of status differentiations in the form of team leader and teacher aides, the team organization offers an opportunity for advancement with enhanced prestige and with higher salary. Without having to leave the classroom entirely, it would be possible for an experienced, capable teacher to achieve a position of recognized higher status in the school and community and to receive a salary increase commensurate with his position. Many observers of

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our schools believe that the greatest problems of teacher morale lie in the area of job satisfaction, and it is to this problem that the team seems to offer some very viable solutions. Some of the opportunities made available are as follows: ( 1 ) Freedom from clerical and janitorial tasks through the presence on the team of teacher aides. It has been estimated that from one-third to one-half of a teacher's time is devoted to non-instructional tasks. Though it is not always easy to separate the non-instructional task from instruction, there is a great deal of classroom and school work that can be delegated to non-professional helpers. These tasks are often the ones the teachers find most irksome. ( 2 ) Provision of time and opportunity for planning. All teachers know that the quality of their teaching reflects directly the thought and care invested in the planning of the program and of each lesson. However, the harassed teacher rarely finds the time for such planning. A team teaching program requires that such planning be an integral part of the teacher's schedule. (3) Stimulation from colleagues. It is very easy for the teacher to get shut off from contact with her colleagues. The contact with her class of children can be so all pervasive that her perspective gets slightly out of focus. The sharing of ideas, co-operation in planning, stimulation of others' thinking, observation of others working can all serve to keep a teacher interested and alert. (4) A chance to specialize or to perform functions in which one has special ability. The team will provide for its members a chance to follow special interests or develop special skills which can then be used to enhance the activities of the team as a whole. Thus, the Civil War buff might find an opportunity to lead during the treatment of that period; the teacher with a special interest in poetry could share that interest with her colleagues, so that students and all involved would benefit from the specializations without being overwhelmed by them. (5) Opportunities for in-service education. Teachers can learn new skills by observing more skilled colleagues at work; they can benefit from constructive criticism of their own efforts; they can share sources of materials and information; and through informal or planned pro-

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grams, much improvement of teaching can result. An especially fine opportunity for inducting new teachers into the school and classroom is available through a team, as well as a very desirable answer to one persistent problem—the instruction of a student teacher in the classroom. ( 6 ) Increased cooperation among teachers and improvement of faculty morale. Unfortunately all too often teachers see themselves as competitors, sometimes with unfortunate results. The team will foster a feeling of mutual interdependence and a realization of common goals that will help teachers become willing coworkers. The sense of being involved in a cooperative project will enhance their enthusiasms, and the opportunity to get to know each other better through working together will result in a closer relationship. E F F E C T ON

STUDENTS

The effect on the student is probably the most important of all, though the indirect effects of better community support and increased teacher satisfaction and development will undoubtedly touch him as well. Students should benefit directly in the following ways: ( 1 ) Better teaching-—as a result of more opportunity for teachers to plan, to have a chance to use special skills and knowledge, and to devote more time to instruction. The organization of the day into large group meetings, small group meetings, and individualized work will allow teachers more appropriate use of various teaching techniques, including lectures, discussions, and research activities. ( 2 ) Opportunities for contact and relationship with more than one adult. While most team teaching arrangements will still maintain one teacher as the key teacher in a student's program, there will be other teachers available to him. It will be possible for a student to respond to or be stimulated by the personalities or interests of several different adults. As a result, several adult models will be available to help him in his developing concept of himself and others. (3) More and better use of audio-visual and other aids. Better facilities, more widespread use, and more carefully planned use of aids to teaching should be possible. Equipment that could not be pro-

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vided for separate classrooms can be made available for team use. A plan for the use of such equipment and the available personnel for operating it, in the form of a professional team member or aide, should help make the use of such equipment an asset to the program rather than the liability it often turns out to be in the classroom. (4) Greater availability of guest lecturers or consultants. Many worthwhile guests can be invited to share their special backgrounds or knowledge with the students. In many cases, such speakers might not be able to afford the time to come to several small classes, or they might feel that the effort to prepare the talk or demonstration and to arrange for freeing themselves of their regular responsibilities was not warranted for a small group, but would be worth doing for a larger group. (5) More opportunities for field trips and visits. The necessity for arranging schedules as well as the problems of transportation and guides for a small group often discourage field trips. These can be much more easily arranged in a team schedule. (6) Broader association with classmates. Patterns of association and friendship can be maintained beyond the limits of the small class, as students will spend some parts of the school day in association with the many other children who are parts of their team. (7) Opportunities for specialized groupings. Students can be grouped in ways which will make maximum use of their abilities or will provide special opportunities for dealing with their problems or deficiencies. Without being conspicuous, the slow and the gifted can be given opportunities to work with others at their own level in a group, which should provide a challenge and an opportunity, with a teacher who can give her full attention to them. In summation of this consideration of the "whys" of team teaching, let me point out that the clarification of objectives can be the most important step towards having a successful team teaching project. Careful deliberation at this stage of decision making will save many missteps later. All of those to be involved in a team teaching project should give careful consideration to objectives. When agreed upon, these should be written out and used as regular guidelines for the decisions that follow.

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A rather favorable picture of the results to be obtained from a team teaching project has been presented here. Let me now backtrack and say that these are results that might be obtained. There is nothing guaranteed. Let me also suggest that all of the results implied could be obtained by alternative procedures. In either case, the real problems still remain. The argument for team teaching is that it presents a very useful approach to dealing with the problems, one which, in my opinion, may enhance the probabilities of success. S T E P S IN GENERAL

ORGANIZATION

PREPARATION

The first step, of course, is to sell the idea to the administrators. Assuming that they have been reading the proper journals and attending the proper meetings—here "proper" means those suitable to principals and superintendents—the job will be easy. Probably they have been worrying as to just how they were going to get such a project underway. Next comes the period of research and development. The school staff, the school board, and the community need to be informed, to form opinions and discuss them, and to evolve guidelines. Such books as Focus on Change—Guide to Better Schools, by J. Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, 7 and Arthur D. Morse's Schools of Tomorrow —TODAY! 8 should be circulated. The film "And No Bells Ring" is probably available from your local film library, and if not, it can be secured from the National Association of Secondary School Principals for a small rental fee. This could be shown at a P.T.A. meeting. Speakers from schools involved in projects already underway can be invited, and faculty members as well as interested members of the community would benefit greatly from visits to such projects. At this stage someone will probably suggest that you can get a 7

J. Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Focus on Change—Guide to Better Schools (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1961). 'Arthur D. Morse, Schools of Tomorrow—TODAY! (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1960).

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large sum of money from the Ford Foundation or some similar organization if you embark on a staff utilization project. I hate to be the one to have to tell you—but you are probably too late. My guess is that such funds will only be available for very special projects, and that the funds will be available for research and evaluation, rather than for the costs of underwriting the program. However, if you have a good research man, and if you do not mind a certain amount of red tape—go ahead and try. There is a genuine need for good research as to just what does happen, and I, for one, would be glad to see more programs which include a careful research design as part of their plan. ORGANIZATION OF TEAMS

Next, those to be directly involved in the project should be selected, and the teams organized. Which teachers, which students, how many of each, what physical facilities can be provided, what additional personnel should be included—these are the decisions to be made. There are absolutely no rules to guide these discussions—they are a matter of judgment for each individual situation. It is probably desirable to start in a small way with interested and able people. The teachers involved must feel a commitment to the idea and must be capable of dedicated work. They must have a spirit of co-operation and be free from excessive ego involvement or professional jealousies. As the team becomes organized, careful attention must be paid to clarifying the respective status relationships and the allocation of responsibilities. A new step in the relative status positions within the school has been introduced, and unless the role expectations of each job are accepted by all involved, there is likely to be some clashing and gnashing of teeth. The principal may find himself resenting what seems to be a usurpation of some of his decision making. The team leader may be unsure of what are his responsibilities and what are the prerogatives of the other team members. There might be some hesitation about calling on the teacher aides to perform certain tasks. From the beginning, careful job descriptions and allocation of responsibilities should be developed and put in writing. It is my opinion

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that whenever a team consists of more than two teachers, there should be a designated team leader selected for his maturity, general competence as a teacher, and his skill in human relationships. This teacher should receive extra salary. A team should also have a teacher aide who can perform non-instructional tasks including such things as operating audio-visual equipment, checking out and distributing books and material, running ditto machines and doing general housekeeping chores. It is also desirable to have a student teacher or teaching intern attached to a team and to delegate to such a person gradually increasing responsibility. SURVEYING FACILITIES AND

RESOURCES

It is necessary, in setting up a team, to do an inspection of physical facilities and to select those which lend themselves to team operation. An ideal arrangement, of course, would be connecting rooms which can be changed from small separate rooms into one large room. However, this will probably rarely be available. In most schools, the auditorium is used for the large group meetings, but there is a general consensus that this is not wholly satisfactory. The band room has been an excellent resource for many teams—though I must admit that I am not sure how the band teacher feels about this. In choosing the rooms to be used, it must be remembered that the object is flexibility and ease of movement. If this cannot be attained, it may be necessary to search for an alternative organization and give up the team idea. A good supply of audio-visual equipment will help take advantage of the opportunities provided by the team organization. Readily available projection equipment for movies and slides for the large group meeting is obviously necessary. The overhead projector has proved to be a valuable and versatile device, and many teams consider it their most valuable piece of equipment. Smaller groups find themselves making good use of tape recorders, slide viewers and models, and prepared exhibits. My preference is also to use small groups for watching television, though in many places this is a large group activity. Individual study is greatly enhanced by readily available library materials; the tape recorder with earphones has been used to great advantage; and here is the opportunity for using programed materials.

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A survey of community resources and personnel will suggest many kinds of enrichment through field trips, guest consultants and speakers, and available demonstrations and models or samples that can be incorporated into the program. SCHEDULING OF TIME

Scheduling of student and teacher time can be quite complex. However, the original scheduling can be quite easily handled. Basically, a block of time commensurate with the proportion of the curriculum to be handled by the team is assigned to a team of teachers and a team of children. The team must plan its distribution of personnel and resources within this block. The assignment of children to subgroupings and the distribution of responsibilities to members of the team will require careful organization. The distribution of student and teacher time among large groups, small groups, and individual activities has to be kept in balance. In most cases this can be done best on a weekly basis. While a newly organized team would probably want to arrange a tentative schedule for teachers and children for at least the first month, it will soon be found necessary to start modifying and adjusting. Some parts of the schedule may become quite regular and fixed, but other parts will vary from week to week and from day to day. The importance of providing the teaching team with regularly scheduled planning time cannot be overemphasized. A weekly plan sheet can be devised on which teacher and pupil assignments can be blocked out. Younger children will need to be directed by their teachers to their various assignments, intermediate children can follow a daily outline, and the older children can direct themselves through a weekly schedule. This sounds very complicated. It is somewhat complex, but it operates with a fair degree of ease, and the mixups are relatively infrequent once the general pattern has been set. IN-SERVICE

IMPROVEMENT

Teachers who are being asked or who have volunteered to work in a team are being placed in a position requiring many new and dif-

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ferent activities from those to which they have been accustomed. In order to facilitate some of the changes, organize some of the new materials needed, and develop new skills to be used, teachers should have a period of preplanning and preparation. Many schools start a year ahead with regular in-serviced workshop meetings. Others have provided workshops during the summer. Nearby universities have co-operated with school districts in offering such workshops. In some cases, team members have gone back to school to develop certain skills or specialties that would be useful to the team. Some of the special skills needed are presented here. One, the operation of the team as a close unit, involves attention to the dynamics of the small group. The need for the team leader especially, but for all team members as well, to be skillful in group participation, to contribute to planning, to accept and reject ideas, to be flexible and yet be able to make a contribution in such a way that others can accept it are other skills basic to the success of the team operation. The lecture and demonstration skills which are needed for large class presentations and the use of audio-visual equipment in such presentations must be enhanced. Actually these skills do not differ greatly from much of what a teacher ordinarily does in the classroom, and with a little practice many teachers have found themselves quite adept. Surprisingly enough the skills which seem to be most difficult to attain and with which teams have been having the most difficulty are the small-group discussion skills. This would seem to say that our present class size of thirty to forty is actually in the large-class range, and teachers have developed large-class rather than small-class skills. The small group gives the teacher the opportunity and responsibility for leading discussion, for evaluating student progress from observed behavior in the group, for detecting the need for more stimulation than is available, for detecting the need for remedial work, for helping initiate projects, for reviewing children's work and assuring the understanding of principles, and for fostering human relationships among group members. Many teachers are already quite skillful at working with individuals, while for others this is a brand new activity. Skills have to

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be developed in attaining a one-to-one relationship, in helping the children through remedial work or through enrichment materials, in performing guidance functions, and in the evaluation of student progress. CONCLUSION

It may be felt by some that team teaching is a burdensome and complicated approach to the problems of education. Team teaching is not a panacea for the educational ills of our time; it is not a magic hat from which trick solutions can be pulled; it does not solve the crucial problems in instruction and curriculum that face our schools. However, with caution and moderation, team teaching offers a form of school organization that is responsive to our current problems; it lends itself to a serious effort to improve instruction; it fosters attention to curriculum; and it can help focus the efforts of the school and of the teacher on the growth and development of the child. Finally, it is an active start in the direction of useful innovation at a time when it is quite clear that our present program is inadequate. If we enter with clear vision and objective evaluation we must come to a better program, and whether that program will be team teaching or not does not really matter.

Team Teaching in Action PHILIP ROTHMAN * TEAM TEACHING is a new idea in American education. As such, it has caught both the popular and professional imagination. It is true that in the past there have been other attempts at school organization that resemble the present team. In fact, it has been suggested that the Lancastrian system, which used as monitors abler students who received their lessons from the master and then taught small groups of fellow students, should qualify as an early prototype. This system was in wide use in the United States in the early nineteenth century. Another and more recent example of this type of school organization occurred just twenty years ago when I served as an intern with a group of teachers who were organized to teach a common core of objectives and content and who worked with a group of children. The group consisted of teachers of English, social studies, science, mathematics, and art, and children who were in the seventh grade, and who continued with the same teachers and organization through the eighth grade. Some of you may remember the program if I tell you that it was the core curriculum program at Radnor (Pa.) Junior High School. GROWTH OF INTEREST IN T E A M

TEACHING

Many of the features which are considered a part of team teaching were part of our program then, though there have been some significant changes and variations. The really new part is, of course, the title. Neither the Dictionary of Education nor the Encyclopedia of Educational Research contains the heading "Team Teaching." Check* Chairman, Department of Education, Antioch College. 174

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ing the Education Index to see what articles have been written on the subject of team teaching reveals the following interesting information. In Volume 10, covering June, 1955, to May, 1957, the only heading in which the word "team" appears is "Team Selection for Physical Education." There are no references under the heading "Staff Utilization," which some of you will recognize as the more sophisticated designation for team teaching. In Volume 11 of the Education Index, covering June, 1957, to June, 1959, there are eight references to "team teaching" and thirty-three references to "staff utilization." This remarkable rise in importance may be attributed to the impetus given team teaching by The Ford Foundation and its Fund for the Advancement of Education, and by the co-operation of Harvard University and the National Association of SecondarySchool Principals with its "Trump Plan." In Volume 12, covering July, 1959, to June, 1961, there are seventy-two references to "team teaching" and forty-four to "staff utilization." This is a record of unusual growth of interest and is an accurate indication of an actual growth in activity. Team teaching is not an abstract idea; it is a reality which is in action all over the country, at every grade level, in all subject fields, and in public and private schools. Those who would like to find the names of schools involved in such activities should start by consulting the January issues of the Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals for the last several years. PATTERNS FOR T E A M

TEACHING

Unfortunately for this presentation, though fortunately for American education, there is no such thing as a way to have team teaching. It is difficult to find two examples of team teaching which are really alike. The diversity of practice and the variety of organizational models seem boundless. The common element is the effort to use teachers and children in groupings which may go against long-held ideas about class size and pupil-teacher ratios, but does so in such a way as to make the best use of available talent and physical facilities.

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To give some idea of the patterns being used, four programs that seem to represent the variety of programs will be described briefly. THE ANTIOCH

SCHOOL

The Antioch School, Yellow Springs, Ohio, is the laboratory school of the education department of Antioch College. The team teaching project here is a marginal project insofar as team teaching is concerned. It involves two quite small groups of children, consisting of first grade and kindergarten children. A first grade teacher, a kindergarten teacher, and a college student who serves as a teaching assistant comprise the teaching team. The first grades meet with the first grade teacher each morning. Four afternoons a week they are joined by the kindergarten children, the kindergarten teacher, and the teaching assistant. One afternoon each week the kindergarten children meet separately with their teacher and the assistant. The best description I can give you of the operation is to report a couple of conversations I have had about it. I asked the teachers whether the children saw them as co-teachers or teachers and assistants or just how, and they said, "Why don't you ask Alex!" (Alex happens to be my son who is in the first grade.) So, I asked him. He said, "Miss Lay is my teacher, but in the afternoon Mrs. Turner is my teacher, too, and Miss Nancy helps them." On further questioning, I found that for some activities Mrs. Turner takes charge of all of the children, that individualized work might be done with any of the three adults, that Alex plays at recess mostly with the other first graders, but sometimes with a kindergartner, and that the same is also true of projects in school. This program was started last year, and it is too early for any real evaluation to be made. The teachers seem pleased with the plan, with the progress the children are making, and with the opportunity to associate with, and learn from, each other. They are dubious about whether they would want to have this pattern if they had to have a larger number of children in the group than they regularly have. One special feature, which is also found in other teams, is the multigrade combination. This of course can be accomplished with-

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out the team—in fact in the middle grades of our laboratory school it is—but the team does offer a good opportunity to move into such a program. The opportunity to have smooth articulation between grades and to regroup children when this is indicated by their special abilities or needs is very valuable. Last year one little girl who started in the afternoon kindergarten group soon showed her advanced academic and social abilities; because of this she gradually started coming in the mornings as well. She is now in the second grade without ever having had to make the readjustment that usually accompanies acceleration. This is a very modest program and is of course very special in that it deals with a relatively small group of children in a specially advantageous situation.

SCHOOLS IN

PITTSBURGH

The second description, therefore, will be quite an opposite one. The city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, has an extensive team teaching program in several schools. These schools are in a congested area close to the downtown business section, and many of the children they serve would be considered culturally deprived. A typical team in this plan would consist of one leader, four team teachers, one teacher intern, and one team mother. The children would be all the children of a grade level, for example 144 pupils of a third grade. These children are assigned to a homeroom on the basis of reading ability and receive most of their instruction from the same homeroom teacher. They may be assigned to other teachers for large group instruction, special remedial help, or advanced work. For most of the children, about one-fourth of their time will be spent in "teaming"; the rest of the time they will be in the homeroom group. This figure can increase or decrease according to the needs of the child and the available resources. The team leader is a specially selected teacher chosen for superior instructional competence and excellence in personal relationships. In addition to his teaching duties, he calls team meetings at least once

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a week, co-ordinates the program of the team, meets with the administration and other team leaders on matters of school policy, space, and equipment, sets up schedules based on team decisions, supports less experienced members of the team, and plans the work of the teacher intern and the team mother. The teachers are assigned according to their interests and abilities. As nearly as possible the teaching load is divided equally among all the teachers; however, the teacher who is adept in giving remedial reading instruction may be assigned to a small group of pupils needing help in phonics, while another teacher may be working with another small group in oral expression, and still another teacher may be reading a story to a large group. A small part of the teacher's time will be given to large groups, more time will be available to work with small groups, and some time will be available for working with individuals or for planning either individually or with other team members. The teacher intern is a senior from a local university. He participates in the team for a full term, and his assignments are matched to his ability and experience. By the end of the term he will have had an opportunity to work with small groups, instruct large groups, conduct field trips, tutor individual students, and share in the planning sessions. The team mother is selected from the community served by the school. In workshops conducted by the supervisors she learns how to handle audio-visual aids, to duplicate materials, to care for bulletin boards, and to care for and distribute supplies. She handles the non-instructional duties of the team, thus freeing the time of the teachers from such tasks. In a particular period, the following pattern might be found. The team leader and a regular teacher are in a large classroom giving a lesson in language arts to 107 pupils. The team mother is with them and operates any audio-visual equipment that might be desired in the lesson. One teacher is working with eleven pupils on a project in creative writing. The teacher intern, in another room, has a group of thirteen working on oral expression. Another teacher is reviewing some of the essentials of sentence structure, for a small group of

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eight, while five pupils are receiving remedial work in phonetic analysis from the remaining teacher. This may sound somewhat complicated, but it is only taking place for a part of each day. In practice, the operation is surprisingly smooth and efficient. One of the welcome but unexpected outcomes of this has been the desire of interns to become regular members of the teams with which they have served. In schools which have had some difficulties in recruiting new teachers, this is both desirable and a genuine compliment to the team operation. The Pittsburgh schools started the team program in 1960 in just five schools. Since that time, they have expanded the number of schools and also the grade levels included; they now involve more pupils and teachers in team teaching than any other school system in the country. KENMORE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Kenmore Junior High School in a suburb of Buffalo, New York, has tried team teaching for just one year. In this case, the impetus seems to have come primarily from within the school and is a small and modest venture involving a limited number of classes. Three teams have been formed: a seventh grade team of two classes in language arts and social studies, an eighth grade team of three classes in language arts and social studies, and a ninth grade team of two classes in algebra. The teachers have chosen to work in teams. They do not have any aides and are operating within the framework of the regular school day, but have managed to schedule their classes within blocks of time. They use the available time in a flexible manner, having large-group instruction, small-group instruction, and individualized work where it seems desirable or necessary. The teachers share the teaching responsibilities, each teacher handling large-group presentations in areas in which he feels most capable. They plan their subject units in ways that provide opportunities to interrelate the disciplines. In a report made in the spring, the teachers recognized the existence of some problems, but felt that the advantages were more significant. They have chosen to continue the program for another year.

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EVANSTON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL

One of the most extensive uses of team teaching is in the Evanston Township High School, Evanston, Illinois. They report using teams consisting of from two to ten teachers in almost all subjects and grade levels. Most of the teams have secretarial or clerical help, and some have additional help for the preparation of teaching materials. One of their teams is in eleventh grade English; it consists of 395 students and seven teachers. These students are assigned to fifteen sections. Five sections meet simultaneously in each of three class periods. About once a week, the five sections meet in one large room for films, demonstrations, lectures, note-taking, examinations, or writing. Audio-visual aids are used extensively and include a built-in high-fidelity unit, closed-circuit television, and projection equipment which includes an overhead projector. Usually one teacher makes a large-group presentation, but occasionally several team members will form a panel. On the other days, the students meet in individual sections, each section with its own teacher, for discussion, amplification, and review. Each student is the responsibility of his section teacher, who knows his progress, corrects his papers, and assigns him his grades. A CHILD'S DAY

Before leaving this descriptive stage I would like to take a look at a team teaching pattern as it occurs in a child's day. The following account is taken from a publication by the parents of a P.T.A. committee of the Fox Run School in Norwalk, Connecticut. YOU ARE THERE A Day with Jimmy—2nd Grader (As observed February 3, 1961, by two Fox Run Mothers, Mrs. I. G. and Mrs. E.B.K.) Jimmy and his classmates chose these names for some of the groups into which the second grade is divided. Depending on his ability and performance in reading-language and arithmetic, a pupil

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may be a Clown, Acrobat, Lion Tamer or Ringmaster. On the same basis, he may be either a Fortune Teller or a Strong Man in spelling. He becomes a Saxophone or Trumpet merely by random selection as the music class is grouped heterogeneously. Jimmy's school day begins at 9:00 A.M. He joins his sixty-two classmates and Mrs. Deutsch, the Team Leader, in the workroom (the Home Room for the entire second grade) for a ten-minute discussion of current news items reported by the pupils. Following the weather forecast of "Snow Again," there is a five-minute spelling quiz. Jimmy, a Fortune Teller, has the more extensive list of words. After the quiz, Mrs. Deutsch explains the special assignment for each of the four reading-language groups. Today these assignments are written on the blackboard, but they are usually taken from a taped lesson. At 9:25 the groups are redeployed. Quietly and efficiently some of the pupils move in groups to classes in other rooms. Jimmy, a Clown in reading-language, remains in the workroom writing Act 3 of a play script based on a story his group has been reading. At 10:05 there is a "snack break." Jimmy is not hungry and prefers to read a book from the Library Shelf in the room. At 10:10 Jimmy and the other eighteen Acrobats in his arithmetic group go to Mrs. Smith's room for drill in subtraction facts and the intricacies of changing a dollar. They grasp the latter quickly! Jimmy is one of sixteen Clowns in his reading class at 11:00. Mrs. Deutsch asks different pupils to read what they have written for the third act of the play. From the line-by-line suggestions, she writes the best script on the blackboard. The pupils volunteer to try out for parts in the play, which is to be given as a puppet show, by reading from the story in their book. After very democratic voting, Jimmy is chosen to play the part of the fox—"because he has the best whisper." At 11:45 the children go to eat lunch in the gym and spend the rest of the hour at play. The afternoon session begins with a fifteen-minute handwriting lesson for the entire second grade. Mrs. Deutsch uses an overhead projector in teaching this subject. At 1:00 Jimmy and the other reading-language Clowns and Acrobats meet for a French lesson with Mrs. Smith, whose bilingual background makes this possible. Twice a week each of these groups

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has its own conversation lesson but on Friday the groups are combined to sing French songs. All the children appear delighted with this experience. At 1:30 Jimmy and the other Saxophones move to the music room where they gather around the piano and learn Valentine songs under the direction of Mrs. Freitag. The Trumpets have their turn at another time. All sixteen Clowns assemble for a dictionary lesson at 2:00. Mrs. Deutsch teaches this class once a week as part of the reading curriculum. Jimmy and the other children are compiling their own dictionaries. One child defines "twinkle" as "a star-shaped cereal I like very much." The last period of the day is devoted to art for the entire second grade. Although the art class meets only once a week, an effort is made to relate art to all second grade subject matter. The lesson for today is to invent a machine which can move a huge pile of rocks from a potential homesite. One child comments, "We just had that problem." 1 QUESTIONS AND CRITICISMS

The fact that in almost every case those who have embarked on a team teaching project have continued and expanded their efforts and that team teaching plans have been adopted so widely would seem to indicate fairly strongly the success of the idea. However, some critics have appeared. They wonder whether we are not really involved here in a fad, the novelty appeal of which has been enhanced by clever and powerful promotional appeals. After all, the hula hoop was an even faster-spreading activity in American life, and where is it now? Seriously speaking, these criticisms need careful attention. American education is somewhat prone to fadism, and in the past decade, we have been exhorted to do something to such an extent that just a little squeak is enough to make us jump. Let us look at the record of team teaching. 1

" 'You Are There'—A Day with Jimmie, 2nd Grader," Team Teaching al the Fox Run Elementary School, A Parents' Report (Norwalk, Conn.: PTA, Fox Run Elementary School, 1961), pp. 37-38.

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COST

What about costs? Here, the picture is fairly clear. The costs of team teaching have run from the same as that for regular teaching to much more. I have not been able to find a single instance in which team teaching has cost less. It is true that in many cases the extra expenses are due to elaborate experimental procedures, or to extra administrators added for the transitional period, or for the accomplishment of expanded objectives—and some of the projects are anticipating a time when costs will be less—but so far this is only a gleam in the taxpayer's eye. I cannot recommend team teaching as an approach to reducing the budget. THE TEACHERS

How about the effects on teachers? Again the consensus is clear. Teachers like team teaching. In practically every case teachers have expressed their enjoyment of team teaching and, when given a choice, have continued as part of a team. They have felt able to do a better job; they have learned from their colleagues; they are grateful for the relief given from housekeeping tasks; they like the opportunity to do some specializing; and they appreciate an opportunity for advancement while remaining a teacher. Some of them have enjoyed the opportunity to earn a higher salary. Many of them felt that there was an opportunity to be creative and to try out some pet ideas. Student teachers and new teachers have been highly pleased by the opportunity to associate with more experienced teachers and to develop skills in the protected environment of the team. In some cases the team organization has been the source of some uneasiness, especially in the absence of precise specification of the functions of the various team positions. Where careful planning has preceded the organization of the team, criteria for selection of team members have been explicit, and role definitions have been carefully stated, these problems have not been bothersome. Whether a wide-

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scale expansion would cause additional problems because of a lack of good team leaders, or whether there are many teachers who are not capable of becoming members of a team are speculations for which you will have to find your own answers. There is also a probability that a large percentage of the teachers responded favorably because they were involved in a project—and like the workers in the Hawthorne factory who responded favorably to all changes in the lighting of their shop, whether the lights were brightened or dimmed—the teachers were responding to their own heightened sense of worth in being involved in an activity that enhanced their status and focused attention upon them. It is interesting to note that one of the few adverse reports, though not completely adverse, for the project was continued, came from the University of Chicago Laboratory School where the other projects under way had more status in the eyes of the school staff then did the team teaching project. THE PUPILS

What about pupil achievement? By this time it is quite clear that any experimental procedure is usually rewarded by satisfactory, if not unusual, pupil achievement. Experiments involving a variety of factors such as class size, techniques of teaching, teaching in person vs. teaching by machine or television or projector, independent study, and so on, all show a pattern of results which is duplicated in team teaching. In the words of one researcher, team teaching has been shown to be "not disadvantageous" to the children.2 Some of the projects report improvements in measured achievement; none of them reports any significant lowering of achievement. Two facts must be faced here. First, our schools are not research laboratories; they are concerned with daily operation. Thus, one critic says, "Few of the projects on staff utilization have embodied the basic rationale, research design, and techniques of evaluation that yield convincing evidence." Those projects connected with university schools of education such as Harvard, the University of Chicago, Stanford, and Claremont have instituted elaborate research procedures. The re* Robert H. Anderson, "Team Teaching," ΝΕΑ Journal, L (March, 1961), 53.

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suits, still tentative, are favorable. Secondly, we still do not know enough about learning or about the process of personality development to make any useful generalizations about school organization. One critic complains of the lack of theory in team teaching, claiming that it is merely an organizational procedure. It seems to me that there can be no such thing as a theory of team teaching. To clarify what I mean I would suggest, by way of analogy, that there is no such thing as a theory of rocketry. Rocketry is a group of engineering techniques which derive from the basic Newtonian theories of mechanics. Unfortunately our theories of society and personality do not yet have the precision of Newton's theories. This does not mean to say that we do not have useful generalizations or worthwhile tentative theories in these areas; I believe we do. But there is nothing inherent in team teaching which would violate these; in fact, as it has been practised so far, there has been a considered attempt to conform to what is known about learning and about child growth and development, and the evidence, though admittedly sparse, is favorable. And we might note in passing that rocketry has achieved its best results through a form of teaming rockets in stages and is contemplating further teaming in the form of clusters. LARGE-GROUP

INSTRUCTION

Much of the objection to teaming relates to its use of large groups. For teachers who have long held that large groups are deleterious to good teaching, it is somewhat sacrilegious to accept large groups voluntarily. The children in teams are not assigned to a large class. They are always assigned to a regular-sized or smaller group with a teacher who accepts responsibility for them and has much opportunity, probably more than usual, to get to know them and to establish rapport. Some of the instruction will take place in a large group, and there are innumerable research studies to show that such instruction produces good results—as good as is attained by the usual alternative methods. In this case, there is reason to hope that the additional resources available and the time provided for the teacher to plan his presentation will result in better learning. At this

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point someone usually talks about Mark Hopkins at one end of a log and a student at the other. However, just to set the record straight, the original quotation really had Mark Hopkins at one end of a bench in the log cabin, and the fact of the matter is that Mark Hopkins was a college philosophy professor and did most of his teaching by lecturing. He was noted for the inspirational qualities in his lectures, and he passed along some advice that we might well heed. He said, "It is far easier . . . to generalize a class and give it a lesson to get by rote and hear it said and let it pass than it is to watch the progress of the individual mind and awaken interest and answer objections and explore tendencies." 3 A team can be successful as long as it maintains as a primary goal the process of inquiry. The function of the large class is to foster the spirit of inquiry which can then be further developed in the discussion group and in the individual study. This can result from careful planning of large group presentation, from the identification of those content and skill areas which lend themselves to large group presentation, and from the development of instructional techniques appropriate to large groups. The children in the large groups are not spectators, as at an assembly program, but must be active participants. They must observe such things as graphs, charts, pictures, samples of work, development of outlines, and models of operations to foster skills; they must listen to carefully organized lectures, to panels, to debates; they must write—taking notes, filling in outlines, finishing skill sheets, completing maps, charts, and graphs; and they must answer questions, sometimes directly, sometimes rhetorically, sometimes in choral response, sometimes in writing and sometimes later in discussion or through research. Finally, there is no set percentage of time to be allotted to the large group. The Trump Plan suggested that 40 per cent of the team's time might be allotted to such activity. Most of the teams in action are spending less time than that, probably closer to 25 to 30 per cent of the pupil's time, and my ' Quoted by Leverett Wilson Spring, "Socratic Yankee," Great Teachers Portrayed by Those Who Studied under Them, ed. Houston Peterson ( N e w Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1946), p. 89.

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own feeling is that this is a better proportion, but the exact amount needs to be fixed by each team in relationship to the children, the teachers, the subjects, and the available facilities. SMALL-GROUP INSTRUCTION

While teachers have generally rejected the idea of large classes, the prospect of a really small group has been very attractive. Would you be surprised if I then told you that, on the whole, the large groups seem to be going very well, but the small groups have been much less satisfactory? Where the small group has been organized and used for skill development, especially in the primary grades, it has gone very well, but it has not been functioning well as a discussion group. It may be that teachers are really not prepared and have had little chance to develop discussion skills. The general practice of assignment-recitation that often passes for discussion in our classes is carried into the small group, but little opportunity for interaction and exchange of views seems to occur. Many of the teams are trying to improve in this area. There was a famous professor at the University of Pennsylvania, portrayed by Scott Nearing, one of his students. Nearing reports "that a graduate student who had done work in several of the leading universities of the United States and of Europe . . . said of him 'He is the Prince of Teachers. His ability to evoke thought is without parallel.' " 4 Of the professor's ability in discussion, Nearing writes, "He lived on ideas. Discussion was his meat and drink," 5 and ". . . he welcomed a question as a thirsty traveler welcomes water. He had been working and waiting for this very result. It aroused and inspired him because it showed he was stirring thought, and it indicated the kind of thought that he had stimulated." 8 It seems to me that this attitude, held by Simon Nelson Patten, is what we still need in our discussion leaders. I do not know if we can agree with another attitude of his in which he ad' Scott Nearing, "A Prince among Paupers," ibid., p. 165. 'ibid., p. 158. 'Ibid., p. 157.

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vised his students about the problems of Philadelphia: "Wait! wait! . . . What we need above everything else in Philadelphia is a number of first class funerals, and in time they will come." 7 INDIVIDUALIZED STUDY

The idea of individualized study is not new to the classroom. Certainly the study hall, the work period in the class, and homework are examples of this activity, though I know many parents will question how individualized the homework actually is. TTiere is every reason to believe that more and better use can be made of individualized work if careful attention is paid to it. Research in the field shows that student achievement does not suffer, and sometimes is enhanced, by the opportunity to work individually when such work has been appropriately designed and when the opportunity for consultation is provided. Again, there is a useful example in the story of the famous biologist, Agassiz, who is reported to have handed a student a fish and said, "Study it," and then left him alone for a hundred hours. He then returned and said, "Tell me," and listened for an hour while the student recounted his observations. He said, "That's wrong," and went away for another hundred hours, and returned and said "Tell me," and listened for an hour and then said, "Oh!" and discussed the observation and findings at length. This may be extreme, but it has a useful direction. After all, our objective is to have the child become self-directing in his learning, and he must be given the opportunity to learn how. But remember that Agassiz listened, and he also discussed.

PHYSICAL

FACILITIES

There is one last factor that has been noted by teams. They have found it possible to work in a variety of situations, but the physical facilities have made a difference. The use of the auditorium for large groups is common, but has not been fully satisfactory. Well set up and easily available audio-visual aids have been considered im7

Ibid., p. 162.

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portant. The relation of the library to the team has been a significant factor. In any planning for team work, the general physical facilities, the audio-visual program, and the library need to be given considerable attention, and the persons responsible for them must be involved in the planning. Any new buildings being planned should certainly be designed with team possibilities in mind. Many useful suggestions are available from the Educational Facilities Laboratory, which has been doing much research in the planning of school facilities and buildings. CONCLUSION

In conclusion let me say that I see team teaching as being a decided "plus" for the teacher, and a probable "plus" for the student. It still has to achieve its real potential. I would encourage experimentation; I would caution against too hurried or rash a plunge into team teaching; and I would hope for more research that can provide useful guidelines to action. Whether we like it or not, I believe that team teaching is becoming a significant part of American education, and it will leave its imprint, though its exact shape may be still obscure.

ν Of General Concern

The Nature of the Creative Process1 LORRENE LOVE ORT * creativity is not unlike the bewildered old woman's magical porridge pot. It seems that all she had to say was, "Little pot, boil, boil!" and the ambitious little pot would proceed to produce bubbly porridge until its activities were arrested with the command, "Little pot, stop, stop!" This simple arrangement seemed to be working splendidly for the little old woman until that calamitous day when she forgot the magical words which would terminate the pot's amazing productivity. Then, to her utter dismay, the porridge in the pot boiled and bubbled, spewed and spouted, gushed and gurgled, and sent its farinaceous contents out of the pot, over the stove, through the cottage, across the threshold, down the lane, and higgledy-piggledy it ran both this way and that through an amazed village. Meanwhile, the agitated old woman frantically wrung her hands and futilely cried out, "Desist! Halt!" as well as issuing all manner of other expletives save that one which would curb the pot's peculiar penchant for producing further porridge. I N SOME RESPECTS

INITIATION

So, too, the human porridge pot. Man's creative yeast seeks to interact with that which will call it from its dormancy and lethargy with * Associate Professor of Education, Bowling Green ( O h i o ) State University. A l s o published by Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development as a booklet entitled A Matter of Fences (Washington: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development of the National Education Association, 1963).

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a unique summons to grow and produce—even as the old woman ordered her small porridge pot to "Boil, boil!" ENCOURAGEMENT

Today there is no lack of summons. Indeed, there seems everywhere to be nagging for children to hasten and chasten the creative spirit. Little "pots" are being pressured to "Boil!"—to boil excellently, to boil rigorously, to boil soon and fast, and to boil with undoubted quality. Unfortunately, however, this is an age of extreme realism, and children are no longer charmed into precast action by spells, elixirs, or even mere commands. Fairy godmothers (wands, silvery laughs, sundry accoutrements, and all) were relegated long ago to the happy realm of books; television is now snugly ensconced where once abided the magic mirror of the mind; centuries of the very best abracadabra have been left quietly somewhere between the asafetida bag and the needle of stark reality; and today only the very, very young ever find wishing pebbles or magic beans. Test tubes, statistics, and automation now produce much of the magic, and if a child is to be transformed he must be his own frog prince. Further, today's little porridge pot is so filled to the brim with accumulated, concentrated, dehydrated, shaken-down, and well-fortified knowledge—albeit, sometimes a trifle hodge-podgy—that there is often very little room left for the expansiveness of bubbling creativity. What to do? Well, time was when the sorcerer or his apprentice could disappear into the musky dankness of a dungeon and do a clever bit of cogitating which would ultimately lead to a sequence of magic. The magician might brew together a heady draft, consisting of such ingenious ingredients as newts' tails, wizards' gizzards, the eye of a cyclone, and the wake of a wraith. If he muttered darkly into this murky mixture as he stirred it once, twice, and finally thrice and if he left it corked and bottled to age for three, seven, or twentyone years, the chances were rather likely that something particularly powerful would transpire. But then, all that was foolish, and forgotten childhoods ago. In contrast, many of today's adults seem

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to think that they can say, in a rather flat and disenchanted manner, "Boil," and in a perfunctory way the job will be done. And done, mind you, not in three, seven, or twenty-one years but now! Not so. If the child is to get all steamed up, if he is to set the yeast into constructive commotion, if he is to become the pursuer and the quester for knowledge, then this process—this boiling and bubbling, this internal combustion—will commence only when a child has been caught in the magical talons of wonder and ponder and has been sharply pricked by the subtle spindle of true involvement. Then, and only then, will the child commence to boil. Merely to stuff the child with the dry forage of knowledge is to treat him as if he were a mechanical complex—a thing. INVOLVEMENT

It is too bad that so many seem to forget that the human vessel must provide space not only for the staggering accretions of knowledge but for an expanding self as well. Learning, real learning, hearkens back to that old, old song that children have sung and danced and played for years. Remember? "I put my whole self in; I put my whole self out; I give my whole self a shake, shake, shake, and turn myself about!" Knowledge is not knowledge until it synthesizes with the self. The creative learning process demands that not just the snippets and taggle-tail remnants of the self be put into the pot to fuse with knowledge, but it reaches out and snatches and shakes the self to its very vitals. It turns the person not only round about but inside out as well, and it finally demands the singular commitment of the whole self. A half-hearted process? Never! ENVIRONMENT

Children are the testers true, for they hold the mirror up to teacher, and in their emerging personalities the teacher can see himself reflected. The child mirrors a teacher's values, his moods, his enthusiasms, his radiance of knowledge, his woes and limitations, his questings and his shining moments, too. This reflective process was

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illustrated so vividly a few springs ago when a young kindergarten teacher received her engagement ring. To say the least, she radiated in a very special and joyous way, and on the following Monday morning she showed the children clustered about her the twinkling ring and told them in a very simple way what the shining circlet represented. She need never have doubted if those five-year-olds understood her explanation, for after the morning play period outside, all twenty-three of her diminutive moppets came skipping into the room wearing dandelion engagement rings! "Look, teacher!" they pridefully exclaimed. "We're engaged, too. Just like you!" And each wore a wreath of happiness to match the teacher's own. Would that all learning could know such sincere radiance! The resistant teacher who values rigidity will find that the children surrounding him will tend to be rigid and inflexible personalities too —at least, to him. On the other hand, if the teacher is flexible—if he is supple and warm to the moment—this, too, will be evident in the easy grace of his students. It is the flexible teacher, the resilient one, who allows himself and his students to be tempted by curiosity and to respond to the "Nibble, nibble, mousie, who's nibbling at my housie?" quest about which all who are in tune with a world that holds doors yet unopened know. Such teachers do not allow their worlds to come clitter-clattering down around their ears when quest sets the organism into a commotion that disturbs the placidity of constancy and the status quo. Rather, such teachers know that the human yeast is only of value when it is set into motion—yes, even commotion, but constructive commotion. And it is the teacher whose classroom yeast is a-brewing and a-bubbling who is usually a creative teacher. Such educators do not attempt to preserve the knowledge of the culture by pickling the learning process in the classroom. Rather, they seek to provide a climate wherein the culture will thrive and flourish and change—wherein a child may aspire, question, explore, investigate, and grow. The teacher who provides such a verdant setting is himself growing and seeking and questing. For him, the fifth point of the old Chinese compass—the place where he stands at the moment—provides him with the key. As teacher grows and knows and shares, so, too, will children.

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COMMENCEMENT

Becoming a creative person involves many of the same problems that arise in becoming anything of worth, and perhaps one of the largest aspects of the problem is getting started. Mechanical ignition is sometimes hampered by too muchness—flooding the motor; by too soon-ness—a cold motor; by inadequacies—insufficient, poor, or frozen fuel; by poor timing; or by a lack of spark. Human ignition is susceptible to many of these same deterrents, but, fortunately, human ignition has a self starter—a call within. Perhaps this might be thought of as a rather ambiguous call, for although its tones are bugle clear to the person who catches its trumpeting, its clarion notes are lost to others. Again, maybe the human spark is that to which Walt Whitman's perceptive child responded visually. Thus, it is really to see, to look upon a thing and perceive it uniquely, and, in the perceiving, to experience it and make it a part of self, that is the quickening, the awakening to awareness, the response, the identification, and, ultimately, the synthesis. And so the process unfolds. Hence in becoming, a man is fulfilling his destiny in that he is able to anticipate, to aspire, to envision, to realize, to transform and be transformed, to evaluate, and then to spur himself on to further doors yet unopened in his continued state of creative development. But creativity is not synonymous with Elysian fields. Rather, when man was fashioned in the likeness of his Creator, there were placed in his path those many agents which would nudge and goad and prod and push him but which, most of all, would transform him into something other than his everyday, boiled-cabbage self. Challenge is such a catalyst. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGE

Several years ago a teacher stood on the remote doorstep of a new and wonderful experience—one that had its setting on a pinpoint

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island in the South Pacific. Each morning as she greeted the Samoan students and teachers she did so with a "Good morning, Iutita" or a "Good morning, Matea"—or whatever the student's name might be. To the very young first graders, who as yet spoke no English, she accompanied each child's name with the soft Samoan greeting, "Talofa lava!" From one child, however, this brought no response of greeting and no answering smile. Instead, as young Simi walked past the teacher, his countenance mirrored unhappiness, and his lips were pouted with trouble. The teacher turned to an older student and asked, "Please tell me, what did I do to offend Simi?" "Oh, Simi!" the student smiled understanding^. "Why he wants that you should—should—" and here she searched despairingly through her verbal attic, "—should do this to him." And with the words came a forward thrust of her hands. "Push?" questioned the teacher wonderingly. "Yes, push!" nodded the student. "You push him. Say, 'Good morning, Simi!' Then he push self and learn English." The next morning the gauntlet—the challenge—the invigorating push—was flung down. "Good morning, Simi!" was the greeting given. A smile and a bow were returned with a dignified, "Talofa lava!" "So?" mused the teacher. "Won't he accept the challenge?" A few mornings later, as the teacher was concentrating on early morning work at her desk, she suddenly felt a soft finger stroke her cheek. There stood Simi—barefoot and briefly clothed in a lava lava, but carrying with him the regal air of one who has donned the purple vestments of the elect. He gravely bowed in response to the teacher's smile, and then he said in clear, soft tones, "Good morning, Teacher." 2 The nudge without and the challenge within—what prime movers are these! Yes, challenge is the king maker, the do-something-about-it prodder, the now-is-the-time instigator, and its command is grow, prove yourself, and rise. Thus, when the human yeast responds to the invitation of challenge, it expects to be worked, kneaded, pum"Lorrene Love Ort was director of the Feleti Memorial Teacher Training and Demonstration School in Pago Pago, American Samoa, for two years.

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meled, and transfigured, and it must surely know that it will never again be the same. This is work with direction, significance, and consequence. It is sustained effort toward an ideal. For the creator, this means that he must subject himself to the rough and arduous work of a growing discipline—a self-discipline. Now is the time when the "little pot"—the self—must prove whether its container is firm enough and large enough to hold that which it creates, or whether its swell will break the walls and overflow in a state of undisciplined spewing forth. Unless the creator can sustain and contain that which is created, the act of creativity itself becomes messy and runny, not unlike the sorry porridge. At this point, the unrestricted gushing merely dissipates into nothingness, and well might the cry be raised to desist and to halt. Conversely, how thrilling can be the result when the creator's boiling point is captured in resplendent containment. For the child or youth, this means that as he fulfills himself he will be able to see or hear or explore a produced part of self in a more objective manner. Thus, to discover through containment a growing and creative self is to gratify personal aspirations with the "more stately mansions" the self constantly seeks. The genius that was Mozart gave brilliant containment to that which was created. Here was an artist who could conceive whole movements of a symphony in an exultant flash, but Mozart's most trying discipline—his challenge—was that of holding in mental abeyance the sweeping passages of musical complexity which had so quickly engulfed him while he feverishly but tediously and meticulously wrote the impatient measures by hand. Thus, man is sometimes allowed the glory of a perceived magnificence, but he is also chastened by being charged to become the servant of his own perceptions—to record ever so menially but ever so truthfully the glimmer of greatness that, for a moment, was his. Creativity is such a disarming deceiver. In giving himself to the art, in yielding to the exacting demands and challenges of the most arduous discipline, and in finding exultation in identification, then, at last, does the artist—whatever his passion—realize his one and true great aim. At this point of supreme fusion, art and artist finally

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merge into one, and in this unity is produced the exciting but humbling deception of effortless and radiant simplicity. When experienced at this pinnacle, creativity is passion transfigured. Again, those who "do" but who are never in true atonement— in a state of at-oneness—with the art form, must forever appear to be attempting to wrest from a resistant medium that which represents itself to be rigid, reluctant, and unyielding. Such expression is tiring and trying, for though it has discovered the measurements of the art it has not identified with the spirit therein—the joie de vivre. The everyday experiences in classroom living can and should yield exciting challenges to young minds. They can and should yield more than the incessancy of mere doing. When wonder prods with its penetrating questioning, when projected consequences pose their varied probabilities, when mistakes are allowed to stimulate rather than stifle, and when the expansiveness of conceptual valuing and thinking burst the bounds of restrictive minutiae, then the simmering that is the prelude to the boiling—the challenge—has commenced its functioning. The guise of challenge is manifold. One finds it as a spirited and joyous quest; another views it as a troublesome gnat—a tormentor —which disturbs the laze of placidity; another sees it as a refreshing stimulant; others discover it in a state of discontent, loneliness, frustration, or failure; and some look upon it as a constant companion, a good master, or a quiet persuader. Challenge, in whatever cloak, has an irresistible presence—one which, when clamoring to be released, will announce itself again and again as it seeks a chink or crannied crevice through which it can be released to fulfill its aspired goal. Conversely, hyperbole, braggadocio, wishful thinking, and the transient aspirations of a Walter Mitty are not challenge, though they sometimes masque themselves thusly. Many are they who say they would do almost incredible feats or meet herculean summits in order that they might behave at peak creative levels, but Up service produces few artists. Consider, for example, the story of a dazzled concertgoer who rushed up to Fritz Kreisler after he had given a brilliant performance. Beaming radiantly she gushed, "Oh, Mr. Kreisler, I'd give my life to play as you do!"

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To which the violinist quietly replied, "Madame, I did." No, challenge is not for the weak, the lackadaisical, the procrastinator, or the sometimes doer. The world's great in the Hall of Fame, as well as the hometown greats that are hailed by name, did not gain their cubits by chance. They caused themselves to be, by meeting small challenges in a great way, by conquering the glass mountains of daily living uniquely, and by constantly persevering and perspiring (if the Edison formula has merit) toward a goal, an aim, an ideal. When children wheedle and whine to have their work approved with, "Is it good enough?", "Is it all right?", "Will it do?", and when teachers, parents and other adults grant half-hearted affirmation with complacent indulgence, the dry rot of indifferent mediocrity has set in. Children need to raise their sights—not lower them—and children need to answer their own disturbing challenges. When a child queries, "Is it good enough?", he is admitting that he knows the answer is less than positive, but he wants someone else to relieve him of the challenge to improve. Each time adults assume the position of imposing the problem, setting the standards, inflicting the pressures, or resolving the answer they have cheated the child of his responsibility to grow creatively. How much better to challenge the child's "good enough" questions with a matching parry, "Well, is it?" To face the challenge of the self—self-ignition, self-involvement, and self-appraisal—is to meet head on the realization that creativity's triumphs are uniquely and very individually achieved. They are not mass ordained, mass attained, or mass acclaimed. The challenge of creativity is to walk "a far piece" down a lonely road, unafraid. SPONTANEITY

He who in the spring has delighted to the stiff-legged leaping and nimble cavorting of a young goat on a tolerant hillside has seen the shape of spontaneity, and he who has stood unobserved listening to an adolescent drummer wildly beating out his crescent soul to some unseen muse has heard a dimension of spontaneity. Children's speech is often characterized by what wonderfully unexpected quality. The three-year-old on her first visit to the zoo was

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all big-eyed with the wonder of it all, and her rapture spilled over when she spied a new bird. "Look! Look" she thrilled. "Chickie with the flowers in back!" The dictionary calls it "peacock" for want of a better name. The terseness of modern jargon has spontaneity also. The big high school junior listening raptly in sprawled silence to a teacher's quiet reading of Stevenson's "Requiem" suddenly bursts his depth of reverie with, "Man! Death sure didn't bug him!" The spontaneity of the unexpected imparts the overtones and the finesse of the creator. Hence, the composer alerts the complacent ear with the sharpness and tang of a biting harmonic progression, the painter startles the calloused eye with a new perspective, the architect defies the prudery of space with vaulting freshness, and scientists amaze the complacent babblings of an old world with the beepings from a nursery of little worlds. Nature defies tedium with dramatic spontaneity—the storm, the tidal wave, the prairie fire, the blizzard, and so forth. In these colossi of force are found the extremes of tempi, dynamics, and contrast. To live daily with such tympanic reverberations would be singularly exhausting, but to be shaken from a drifting lethargy by these startling stimuli is to be charged anew with an energizing force. At a very plebeian level, consider the appearance of a mushroom ring and the penchant this plant has for springing into being following a storm. Mushrooms are to the plant world as ideas are to man. For children and youth, ideas sprout in endless spontaneity. For some, ideas appear in clustered shyness; for others, they pop up in gregarious bunches; and for a few, ideas seem to spring unbidden in magical rings which expand and expand and expand ad infinitum. This is that "I've got an idea!" surge that begs to be nurtured and cherished. With it children of all ages stretch toward the challenge of that projected thought which penetrates to realms dreamed of but as yet unknown. How thrilling to discover that an idea is the true missile that ultimately penetrates the impenetrable—and spontaneity is the spark that explodes the power which sets the turbines of the mind into whirring productivity. It was the spontaneous impact of a teacher's words that hastened

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young Hall of Oberlin to commence his experiments with aluminum. It was the spontaneous joy of seeing a battle-brave flag at early dawn that challenged Francis Scott Key's pen to write "The Star-Spangled Banner." It was the spontaneity of bird flight that gave one Leonardo the idea for a human flight machine. And so it is daily with children. Teachers need to capture that shine in a child's eyes, that "Listen to this!" enthusiasm and that "Wait! I've got it! I've got it!" type of spontaneous combustion that makes children the exciting people they so truly are. It is the squashing, squelching, and silencing of youthful spontaneity that dulls and chills sensitivities and sensibilities. Conversely, it is only as we cultivate these fragmentary glimmerings of expanding and exploding thought that we firm the child's creative force into a dynamically functioning reservoir of power. INSPIRATION

Inspiration is a force that touches off an excitement of aspiration in people. It was the image of Faust that inspired Goethe, the infinite itself excited Einstein, those struggling for life beckoned Schweitzer and Jane Addams, a sunflower commanded the brush of Van Gogh, and a plebeian peanut gave Carver a lifetime of research. Or watch a group of first graders when the first snowfall arrives. If it comes during classtime, all else is forgotten, and why not? It is of itself a miracle. Capitalize on the inspired moments, the creative moments, and let children dance them, or paint them, or express them at the time. It is the here-ness of things, the gift of unexpectedness, that is so important. Tomorrow it may be used up in entirety, for creative periods and inspired moments are not determined by the clock or the calendar any more than are birdsong or snowflakes. Sometimes it is the commonest thing that puts inspiration into motion. See the little fellow coming down the hall? He's wearing new shoes today, and with new shoes—why! a fellow can do almost anything. Inspiration is often a chain reactor. One person gets an idea, and in a rush of comprehension a group catches a whole bevy of touchedoff ideas. They are off on a creative chase, and the going is thrilling.

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Nearly everyone has had a laying-on of hands at some birthday anniversary, but remember the final well-felt pinch which was accompanied by the expression, "And one to grow on"? Well, children need many pinches on which to grow—objective pinches of greatness —things to thrill them, things to broaden their inner and outer vision, things to give them new insights into an old, old world, things to give them room for added growth. Things? What things? Who knows really, for, as the poet observed, "The world is so full of a number of things. . . . " 3 Lynne comes to mind as this is being written. Lynne was in a group of elementary children who were listening to the "Scherzo" from Mendelssohn's A Midsummer Night's Dream. The children were trying to think how they would re-create the fairy world that the music narrated, but the ideas expressed were stereotyped and moth-eaten. Children flapped their arms in wing movement and skipped about aimlessly. The effect was flat. "Let's listen once again," suggested the teacher, "and this time think of yourself as a very particular fairy in a lovely big woods." Again, the music and, again, the thinking period. Then, in that reflective atmosphere, Lynne became a little figure enchanted, "Oh!" she exclaimed softly, "I know what I'd do! I'd dust off the cobwebs and sweep down the moss!" And her eyes shone with all the radiance of a diminutive Titania. Children seek the plumage of greatness— fine feathers and all. They dream of such worlds, they long for such stature, and they look for ways to fulfill their ambitions. AVAILABILITY AND FLEXIBILITY

Teachers might well remember that there must be availability, flexibility, and enoughness if creativity is to succeed, for it is the warmth of these that hasten the action of the human yeast. Some summers ago, when he was teaching at the Ohio State University, Leland B. Jacobs acquired a class which should have num* Robert Louis Stevenson, "Happy Thought," A Child's (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905), p. 34.

Garden

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bered about fifty but which blossomed into a full centum of eager individuals. The assigned room was none too ample, the class was of sideboard dimensions, and the weather was panting. As the walls closed in and the feelings pushed out, there was an exchange of irate looks. The atmosphere in that cramped environment plainly announced friction. And then the professor ambled in. As he took a wry look at the wall-to-wall market of minds, he spread out his hands in a gesture of unmistakable hospitality and with a smile as broad as Texas greeted that group with, "Well, if I had known you were coming, I'd have baked a cake!" And with no more to do than that, the walls moved out and good feelings moved in; there was enough room, space, time, and teacher. Children have a great need for the thing that Robert Lawson wrote about in Rabbit Hill and The Tough Winter. There must be "enough for all"—enough teacher and enough care and enough encouragement and enough space and all the other "enoughs" to accommodate everyone. So often these are dimensions of the mind and heart rather than mere spatial measures. Flexibility and availability are in evidence in the classroom . . . —when a teacher remarks, "Let's look at this problem together." Not, "Didn't / tell you to do it this way?" —when a teacher nudges a person or a group but doesn't make a fool of anyone. —when a teacher cares enough to help children expect and give consistently the best part of themselves. —when a teacher has enough of himself to share with everyone and when his attitude implies that there is a sufficiency of time even unto the least. —when a teacher's acceptance is consistent and not erratic. —when there is room for whimsy and fun and the creative warmth of understanding laughter. —when a teacher respects a student's choices, suggestions, and ideas and does something constructive with the class about these.

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—when a teacher can frankly and candidly admit that he does not know all the answers and that knowledge for him and them is a continuing and reshaping process that goes on apace at all ages. —when a teacher can accommodate with grace to the unexpected and is able to modify and modulate interestingly and well. — a n d when a teacher helps children recognize and accept those important aspects of social life and living in a classroom. This last quality brings to mind the story of a little kindergarten child who was asked by a rather pompous matron if she attended that progressive school. Recognizing the child's non-comprehending expression the interrogator rephrased her question by needling with, "I suppose in your school you're allowed to do as you please!" "Oh no!" came the child's swift reply. "Our teacher says we may do as we please as long as it doesn't bump into other people's pleases." FRESHNESS OF NEW MEDIA

There are many avenues leading to creative learning and behaving. Sometimes creativity commences with the freshness of new media or a new experience with an old medium. When a third-grade teacher asked her pupils what they enjoyed most about school, one child instantly replied, "New things!" Children are not alone in their pure enjoyment of the new and the unusual. A few years ago at the national conference of ASCD in Washington, D.C., a snowstorm arrived with the shivering delegates. Those from snowy climes regarded the swirling flakes with indifference, resigned acceptance, or disgust. Southern delegates, however, greeted the snow as if manna had been personally leavened for them as a special preconference delight, and, as of one man, they descended to hotel dining rooms for soup and cereal bowls. After heaping their containers with mounds of snow, they laced this transient substance with vanilla, sugar, and cream. With true gourmet delight they savored every fanciful spoonful as if Epicurus himself had graced the scene. Late that night one delegate called home to

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Georgia to relate that the conference was, "Wonderful! Simply wonderful!" And then she added, "We had ice cream snow and a thrilling speaker, all in one day!" Sometimes newness involves a novel perception of an integrative relationship; sometimes it is the exciting discovery of a fresh and unexpected maximum within one's self. The possibilities are endless, and Revelations 3:8 turns the key in the lock with this disclosure: "Behold, I have set before thee an open door, and no man can shut it." This is, indeed, a wonderfully exhilarating world of new things, of open doors, of invitations to enter and explore and grow. No admonition is given as to how the door is to be entered or when, and no advice awaits the wayfarer when the threshold has been crossed. The door merely remains ajar for all those who wish to step across into the great unknown that is offered. In approaching the door, however, it is prudent to remember that there will be those who will arrive at a different time and at a varied gait, and, in their coming or in their lagging, those who are teachers have need to be patient, understanding, and compassionate of the differences. VARIATION ON A T H E M E

A none-too-botanically-minded friend once identified the plants flowering in his garden as Big Burpees, Little Burpees, and MiddleSized Burpees. In the kaleidoscopic garden of children there is an even greater variety of individuals and individuality, but a garden has room for them all if the gardener is mindful of what he knows about plants and their unique needs. Each plant (botanical or human) fills a need in a garden's beauty when the garden is tended by an imaginative gardener. Schools should do more to foster a garden compassion toward people of all ages who are growing therein. Institutionally speaking, there should not be the great cleavages—a junior high school here, and a senior high school there, and the little ones clustered way down there. Now and again, assorted ages of children and teachers

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need to work together, sing together, laugh and play and share together, if there is to be respect for the contribution each age has to offer. People of assorted ages need to spark each other. Hence, schools should remember their community-of-peoples obligation. Too often the tendency is to encourage stratification and isolationism. It is so convenient and easy to forget that no grade, like no man, "is an island, entire of itself." More and more man is coming into the sharply focused realization that he is not an island entity. He is beginning to understand that unless he wishes to hear the bell tolling, that this must be a unified world—a world sincerely, understandingly, and creatively concerned for all. A few years ago, the thrilling news was released that in the field of subatomic physics the once cherished law of parity had not only been challenged but smashed. In the overthrow of this law, previously held to be immutable, science accepted the fact that even the most minute particles of matter do not behave in a twinning or truly symmetrical manner. Each particle of matter has its own unique properties, and, in discovering this, science pushed open the gate to permit the unified field theory to enter in. Though teachers probably do not consider the influence of this discovery upon the pedagogical process, and even though the classroom teacher has probably never considered trying to solve the riddle of the human equation by such a complex mathematical formula, still the teaching profession has long recognized the developmental truth intrinsic in this recently disclosed mathematical concept. The truth, it now appears, is that even though each child in the classroom may closely resemble his classroom neighbors, he is, in reality, a uniquely created entity in himself, and can never be, in the truest sense, a twin. As an entity, however, he must become a vitally functioning part in the greater composition of Humanity's Unified Field, and, conversely, as a Field in and of himself he is the ultimate embodiment of a co-operative corporation of uniquely united elements all striving to produce a well-functioning and constantly energizing whole.

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Considered in this way, man serves a dual role. On the one hand, he is the lengthened shadow of the least of his elements, but on the other hand, he reaches out to others in a type of chain reaction and thus reflects the highest unity in the universe. It is, therefore, the teacher's creative role to assist the child to grow into the fullness of himself as self—as a unique being who has a distinctive and needed contribution to make, but it is also the teacher's creative role to help the child and groups of children learn how best to adjust and function as a whole. In the process, teachers and children have reason to learn that the human equation is best resolved through channels of love, co-operation, creative work, and a resilient approach to life and living. There are, of course, many obstacles in today's world which block this approach to living. Perhaps these should be identified as distractions. A few of them might be observed here: —the stultifying cries of "Give me!", "It's mine!", and "I want it now!" —the lamentable smothering of Too Muchness and Too Soonness. —the ruthless and relentless clawing of status competition. —the discordant wail of "Don't bother me!" and "Do I have to?" —the dulling and stupefying character of imitation, copycatting, and stereotyping. When too many distractions obstruct a child's vision, then his rhythm, his zest for inventiveness, his delight in observation, and his joy in imagination depart or become thwarted. In fact, when distractions distract, the child may be observed to be out of tune, to lack a buoyancy in his daily cadence, to have forfeited the luster of creativeness, to have narrowed the marrow of his outgoing nature, and to have lost the inner radiance of happiness. Thus, adults and institutions of this age have a real need to guard the values surrounding children lest the dulling and narrowing distractions engulf child life. Adults and institutions have a further and an even greater need to build in that unaffected happiness which results from the joy of

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experiencing truly esthetic learning and living. Herein abides the door through which the imprisoned glory that resides in each child may find release. SUMMATION

And so to round the cycle. True, the "little pots" should be set a-boiling and a-brewing and a-bubbling. And true, again, the process should be identified as having vigor and depth and excellence. But also is it true that the sum total of the human endeavor will have lost its élan vital if the joy of knowing and the zest for growing are abandoned as non-essential. Oh, all of this takes time, time, time . . . Time to know ourselves, and is not that a big order? Time to know others . . . Time to experience, and this takes forever, for we are continually making the internal external and then, as part of the never-ending cycle, making the external internal . . . It takes time to create and time to transform . . . And, yes, it takes a world of time to grow, but a little warmth and a pinch of sugar surely hasten the action marvelously. And you know, this thing everyone keeps calling "creativity"? Why, basically, it's the essence of the child's world! It engulfs him with "Why?" It taunts him with "Try!" And transforms him with "My!" Listen to him . . . "Why is the sky?" "Let me try! Let me try! Let me try!" and "Here, this is my work!" Creativity is a shining world. It radiates from the power of a light within—a "catching" light, one that would spark a world, your

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world, my world, and all the thrilling, related, and myriad worlds into a limitless glory. And the wonder of it all is this: Creativity is to all men given, for in His infinite wisdom and love and grace, the Great Giver knew that not one or some but "Every little soul must shine, shine, shine!" and creativity was His blessing.

Improving the Elementary Social Studies Program D O R O T H Y McCLURE FRASER * IT IS WELL known that the amount and quality of the social studies instruction to which children are exposed varies enormously from school to school and even from classroom to classroom in the same school. It is equally well known that social studies programs in both the elementary and secondary schools have been sharpy criticized for their content and for the manner in which that content is presented. Some of the criticisms have some validity in some schools, and we need to consider them and act to meet them where this is the case. CRITICISMS OF SOCIAL STUDIES

PROGRAMS

EMPHASIS ON ISOLATED FACTS

It is said, for example, that too much of social studies instruction emphasizes the learning of isolated facts, without helping children relate the facts so as to build concepts and generalizations. This points up the need to select a limited number of basic ideas or conceptual areas and treat them in a cumulative fashion from one school year to the next, throughout the program. By doing so, children can learn to relate facts to the ideas of which they are a part. One of the first things to be done is to identify those large ideas or conceptual areas which will provide the vertical structure for the kindergarten-to-grade-twelve program. Some efforts have been made in this direction. A committee of the National Council for the Social Studies, for example, has identified fourteen conceptual areas that might * Professor of Education, Hunter College, City University of N e w York. 212

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serve as the ideational structure for such a program. These are presented in a little volume entitled A Guide to Content in the Social Studies,1 The committee suggested that each of these conceptual areas should be developed from the kindergarten through the senior high school. A number of schools are experimenting with this approach, and further efforts of this kind are needed.

LACK OF SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT

A second and related criticism is that too many of our social studies programs fail to provide children with cumulative development of skills, concepts, and understanding from one school year to the next. That is, there is not adequate planning on a kindergarten-to-gradetwelve basis, and as a result there are unproductive and even harmful repetitions of some content and experiences on the one hand, and great gaps in the treatment of important skills, content, and concepts on the other. Repetition of content is a special problem in the three cycles of United States history that are usually presented in grades five, eight, and eleven. This problem has continued in spite of recommendations for solving it that were formulated almost twenty years ago.2 One of the great gaps in the content of the sequential program is the lack of attention to non-Western cultures that characterizes the social studies curriculum in many schools. Recently, however, progress has been made in introducing more study of the non-Western world. Many schools have been giving attention to grade placement of skills instruction and to getting a cumulative treatment of various skill areas from one school year to the next. This has been done especially in elementary schools, and it is very important to extend this effort through the secondary school. The 1963 yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies, entitled Skills in Social 1

Committee on Concepts and Values of the National Council for the Social Studies, A Guide to Content in the Social Studies (Washington, D.C.: The Council, 1957), pp. 83. (Duplicated.) 'See Edgar B. Wesley (director), American History in Schools and Colleges (New York: Macmillan, 1944).

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Studies, will provide help to curriculum committees that are working on this problem. 3 LACK OF SEPARATE

SUBJECTS

A third criticism made by some critics is that children do not study the social studies as separate "disciplines," i.e., separate subjects. They say children are not taught, as they should be, to understand history as history, geography as geography, and so on. In considering this criticism, we should remember that there are two major bases for organizing knowledge. One basis is problem-centered and interdisciplinary. This is the basis on which we organize knowledge to apply it in real life, whether we are dealing with a personal problem or a foreign policy decision. We take pertinent information from any discipline and organize it around the problem. The other basis for organizing knowledge is subject-centered, stressing the separate disciplines. This kind of organization is often useful for learning; it is invaluable for classifying knowledge and for further research in a given field. Students should have experience with both bases for organizing knowledge in the course of their social studies work. Many leaders in social studies education are convinced that young children should not begin with the separate subject organization, but with the interdisciplinary organization. They feel that this interdisciplinary approach has more meaning for children, and that it can be used to lead them toward effective study of separate disciplines in their more mature years. Indeed the later elementary program may contain some units that are chiefly history, chiefly economics, chiefly civics, or chiefly geography. Older students should have experience in the secondary school with both ways of learning and organizing knowledge. 'Helen McCracken Carpenter (ed.), Skills in Social Studies, Thirty-third Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies (a revision of the Council's Twenty-fourth Yearbook of the same title; Washington, D.C.: The National Council for the Social Studies, 1963).

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Finally, it is said that much of the content that is presented in our social studies programs is superficial, out of date, and stereotyped, and does not challenge today's children and youth. This criticism is made especially of the elementary program. The "expanding environment" plan that is usually followed in the grade level themes of our elementary social studies program has been especially criticized as unrealistic for today's children. GOALS OF SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHING

TO provide a setting for considering such criticisms, it is in order to recall our goals in teaching social studies to children. The overall goal remains essentially the same as it has been for at least a generation: namely, to develop informed, responsible citizens for our democratic America, and at the same time to help each child gain an understanding of his society that will enrich his life. In working toward this goal, the elementary social studies program must do three things: (1) help children begin to understand their society in its political, economic, and social aspects, and in its relation to the physical world in which it exists; (2) help children begin to develop the constructive attitudes that make for good citizenship and for personal realization; (3) help children begin to develop the skills that will enable them to learn about their society, and to function as good citizens—first in school, and later as adults in their local, state, and national communities. C O N T E N T OF E L E M E N T A R Y SOCIAL STUDIES

Keeping this complex of objectives in mind, let us examine the content of our elementary programs. Is this content inadequate? UP-TO-DATE

TEXTBOOKS

On the positive side, we can point to progress that has been made in updating the material used in elementary social studies, in avoid-

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ing stereotypes, and in reflecting present-day conditions in our society. For example, a review of recent text materials and curriculum bulletins indicates that when children study a transportation unit today they learn about railroads primarily as carriers of freight rather than as carriers of passengers. When they study about farms, they learn about modern farming methods and about large corporation farms as well as about the small family-sized farm that is playing a smaller and smaller part in our agricultural life. VARIETY OF CULTURAL PATTERNS PRESENTED

In the matter of stereotypes, many examples of improvement come to mind. For many years the only family described in the textbooks was the middle-class family that lived in a house with a yard around it, a family in which father is a white-collar worker and mother is a homemaker, where there are two or three children and a dog and a cat. Today curriculum bulletins and the better text materials provide for study of several patterns of family life—the home without a father, the home with a working mother, the home in an apartment or even a trailer, the home in which the father is a factory worker, and so on. The same basic ideas of the need for family members to work together, to plan how they spend their money, and so on, are still presented, but in several contexts so that the youngster who does not fit into the conventional middleclass pattern need not feel ashamed and left out. There has been a drive, which still continues, against stereotypes about peoples of other cultures. There are films and text materials available which present information about life in other lands as it is today, not as it was fifty years ago. We have, for the most part, rid ourselves of the wooden shoes of the Dutch and of the lazy Mexican asleep under his big hat, but there are more subtle stereotypes and misconceptions that we must continue to seek out and eliminate. In spite of this progress, there is considerable evidence that in many classrooms the social studies content is not adequate for today's youngster. The inadequacy takes quite different forms in the primary grades and the intermediate school years.

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INFORMATION

Several studies made in recent years have suggested that our primary grade programs are pitched too low for a generation of children that view television, travel more widely than children used to do, and are more generally stimulated by a variety of contacts with their social world. One study, for example, collected evidence about what seventy second graders living in a small city knew about farms before they studied them.4 The investigator discovered that most of these children already knew more about farms and the interdependence of farm and city than they would be exposed to in the farm unit they were scheduled to study. Ninety per cent of these children already had considerable information about the work of firemen and policemen, although a unit of study of each of these "community helpers" had been scheduled. Another recent study, in which the effects of television on children's vocabulary were examined, shows startling results.5 First grade children in areas served by television made scores on vocabulary tests that were 30 per cent higher than scores earned by first graders a quarter of a century ago. Young children today have been exposed to a wide range of information about politics, current affairs, and faraway regions of their own country and of the world—and some of it has rubbed off. True, children's understanding of much that they "learn" from the mass media, from travel, and from their other experiences is likely to be superficial. Nevertheless, they are coming to school with a broader acquaintance with the world, and with interests that extend far beyond their immediate physical environment. The broader background of experience children have today is one reason for 4

John D. McAulay, "What's Wrong with the Social Studies?", Social Education, XVI (December, 1952), 377-378. 5 Study summarized in Howardine Hoffman and Armen Sarafian, "Materials for Instruction—Instructional Resources," Social Studies in Elementary Schools, Thirty-second Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies (Washington, D.C.: The National Council for the Social Studies, 1962), pp. 229-230.

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re-examining the social studies content we offer them. It seems that the social studies content which is presented in many schools tends to hold primary grade children back in relation to their own experience, and to duplicate experiences from one grade to another. DISTRIBUTION

OF

LOAD

Another factor that has come forcibly to our attention is the enormous change of pace between grade three and grade four in the content load that is presented. In many schools, the "here and now" of the primary grades and the relatively low content load is suddenly replaced in the intermediate grades with many facts and relatively abstract content about places that are far away and unfamiliar. Frequently, so many topics are "covered" in the intermediate years that children do not have opportunity to go into any of them deeply. The result too often is an emphasis on retention of facts that are important but not fully understood, and an increasing dislike of social studies as children move toward the secondary school. We must also recognize that former conceptions of "readiness" for many aspects of social studies learning are being re-examined by psychologists. For example, we have concluded from the few available studies that children are not "ready" to develop space concepts in a systematic fashion until about the age of nine, and that understanding of time concepts depends on a level of maturation that is not reached by most children until about the age of eleven or twelve. Some psychologists have pointed out that these ideas about readiness were based on evidence of how children performed in the past, under conditions that prevailed at that time, in both the culture and the school program. They also grew out of a heavy emphasis on biological maturation as the central factor in readiness for most learning. This emphasis is questioned today. Some psychologists suggests that children can be helped to develop readiness for learning many things at an earlier age than was formerly believed possible, and that this can be done in a way which will have positive effects on the children's mental health and intellectual growth.

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THEMES

If we accept the conclusion that we do need to present more depth and breadth of content in the primary grade social studies program, and to select fewer topics for fuller treatment in the intermediate grade program, the next question must concern the "expanding environment" plan for establishing grade level themes for the program. Is the "pebble in the pond," or the expanding environment scheme which leads the child from home and school (kindergarten and grade one), into his neighborhood (grade two), then into his community (grade three), state (grade four), nation (grade five), and world (grade six), an outmoded framework for elementary social studies? My own conclusion is that this scheme remains the best available structure for the elementary school program in social studies, if two conditions prevail. First, the topics and content of the grade level themes must be handled with depth and breadth. Second, the social studies program in each school year should include both organized curriculum units and a variable segment which would be devoted to current affairs and to special interests that arise from the children's immediate experience. Special interests, including observance of holidays and other special events, would constitute a major part of the variable segment in the early school years and would receive decreasing attention as the child reaches the intermediate grades. Current affairs study would be a regular part of the social studies program from the first, but would be given inceasing attention and more systematic attention as the child grows older. This variable segment of the program should complement and supplement the organized curriculum units at each grade level.8 It should be handled flexibly, so that children are encouraged to react to the significant experiences they have which are not directly related to the curriculum unit they are studying " For discussion of the variable segment of the elementary social studies program, see Dorothy McClure Fraser, "Current Affairs, Special Events, and Civic Participation," Social Studies in Elementary Schools, ibid., pp. 131-149.

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at the moment. For example, the story and significance of the latest space flight deserves classroom attention in the first grade even though it has no direct connection with the unit that the children may be studying. In returning to the preplanned portion of the elementary social studies program—the organized units of study—it will be helpful to propose topics that can be used in each school year to give scope to the child's learning. Study of the suggested topics may be organized in various ways, and the number to be studied by a particular group of children must be determined by the teacher. Kindergarten-Grade 1: Theme: School Lije and Family Life in the Modern World. Topics such as those that follow may be used to develop the theme: Getting to know the school, the physical plant, and the school grounds (opportunity for simple map experiences that will introduce the idea of map symbols and scale in simple ways), and the personnel and their specialized jobs (opportunity to introduce the concept of specialization of labor). Schools today and long ago (opportunities to give readiness experience for understanding time and chronology, as well as to make comparisons between the modern age and the preindustrial age). Safety at school, on the way to and from school, and at home. Our families: Different family patterns in American life today— the large family, the single-child family, the three-generation family, the "broken" home, the family in which both parents work, and varying roles of family members in different families (specialized duties, and how those duties vary according to the responsibilities and needs of family members). Economic life of the family—earning a living, budgeting and spending the family income in an industrial, urbanized society (opportunity to introduce important economic concepts and develop them in some depth). Family recreation in today's world—factors influencing choices, such as what is available, costs, preferences of family members (opportunities to develop concepts relating to influence of technology on all aspects of life).

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A pioneer family of long ago, including comparisons with modern American families: how the roles of family members, economic life of the family, recreation, etc., differed in a rural, preindustrial society from those of today's industrialized, urbanized culture (opportunities again to give readiness experience for understanding time concepts, as well as bringing out the influence of technology on modern life). The life of a child in another culture today, his family and his school (opportunity to begin the development of a world perspective). Grade 2: Theme: Selected Functions of Living in the Neighborhood, with Appropriate Expansion to the Region, Nation, and World. In this school year, the neighborhood may be studied in terms of functions of living. These functions may be introduced through the people who provide for them in the local neighborhood; as each function is studied, comparisons may be made with an earlier time, and with a contrasting neighborhood in another region of the United States or in another part of the world. Such functions as the following will be included: protection (fire, police), health (doctor, nurse), getting food (supermarket personnel and sources of food poducts), communication (postmen and the postal system, with national and international aspects), transportation (bus, local and beyond, cars and service station), and service industries (laundry, shoe repair, television repair, etc.). As children study these various aspects of society, they may be helped to distinguish between those that are provided by the government, those that are provided by private industry that is regulated by the government, and those that individuals operate for themselves through their own work or through the channels of private business. In connection with their study of the neighborhood, children will begin systematic development of geographic concepts, as, for instance, relative size and directions, physical features, and cultural features of the landscape. By mapping the neighborhood, they will develop understanding of scale and of simple map symbols. They will construct and use simple maps.

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Grade 3: Theme: The Modern Community in Its Broader Setting, with Appropriate Comparisons to Communities That Are Removed in Space or Time. This year's work may begin with a study of the community's geographic features, physical and cultural—a continuation of systematic study of geographic concepts, rooted in direct experiences in "home geography." There should be attention given to how the physical environment of the community has been modified since the early days of settlement (opportunities to continue the beginning development of time concepts, as well as to show that man not only adapts to his physical environment but adapts the physical environment to his needs as well). The economic life of the community, with the ramifications that lead into the region, nation, and world, should be emphasized. Businesses that satisfy needs of the people of the community should be studied. Clothing, for example, may be studied intensively, tracing the cotton or woolen garment from the production of raw material, through manufacture, and to distribution to the consumer. Comparisons may be made with how this need was satisfied in pioneer days—the preindustrial period. One or more examples of the industries of the community may be studied intensively to point up economic understanding and the concept of interdependence in modern economic life. Comparisons should be made with the economic life of the preindustrialized period. The study of transportation will show how it ties the community to its region, the nation, and the world. This study will be focused on the movement of people and goods, by land, water, and air; on the effects of modern transportation on time-space relations; and on comparisons with the time of premechanical transportation, stressing the significance of the changes that have come about. The media of mass communication that operate within the community and that tie the community to its broader setting will furnish content for another block of study that may include television, radio and newspapers, and comparisons with communication in "pioneer days." Local government may be studied on a non-technical level, to develop understanding of the democratic process, of services pro-

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vided by government agencies, of the relation between taxes and services. One or more examples of local governmental functions, such as schools, recreational facilities, or street maintenance, can be taken up. The final unit of the year may be devoted to a modern community in another culture, with selected aspects studied for comparison with the home community. This will provide an opportunity to continue the development of world perspective. Grade 4: Theme: The Home State in Its National and World Setting. This year may be devoted to study of the home state, combined with comparative study of typical industries, such as agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, and commerce, as they are carried on in the home state, in other regions of the United States, and in other parts of the world. Man's interaction with his physical and cultural environment would be stressed to show, as James has so well said, that ". . . the significance to man of the features of the physical earth is a function of the attitudes, objectives, and technical abilities of man himself." 7 Systematic attention to basic concepts of physical geography, such as climate, land forms, rotation and revolution of the earth, continents, and oceans, will continue the development of a world perspective. Continued and more intensive attention to map-reading skills will grow naturally out of the content of the year's work. History of the home state in its national setting, with attention to the order of events—a simple but systematic treatment of chronology and time concepts—may be included. Grade 5: Theme: The Nation in Its World Setting. The story of the discovery, exploration, and colonization of the New World in the setting of the Atlantic Community, with attention to European backgrounds and the continuing influence of European culture on the development of new world societies, may be explored in reasonable depth. 7

Preston E. James, "American Geography at Mid-Century," New Viewpoints in Geography, Twenty-ninth Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies (Washington, D.C.: The National Council for the Social Studies, 1959), p. 16.

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A second part of the year's work should be a general treatment of the founding and growth of the nation, with considerable use of biographical material and with systematic attention to broad chronology and time concepts. Regional study of the United States may follow the historical survey. Historical, geographic, and economic elements should be combined in the regional study, and there should be continuing attention to the development of interdependence within the nation and the world. Emphasis on geographic concepts and map-reading skills will run through the year's work. Grade 6: Theme: Neighbors of the World, with Focus on the World outside the United States. Instead of attempting the coverage of the Eastern Hemisphere that is often tried at the sixth grade level, a limited number of units should be selected and pursued to reasonable depth. These might include the six proposed in the following paragraphs. World geography, emphasizing physical aspects and building on geographic concepts and skills developed in the earlier elementary years; land masses and their physical features, oceans, climate, and vegetation regions to be studied, with further development of mapreading skills. The development of civilization, presented through a case study of an early civilization. Chronology and time concepts would be stressed. A limited number (perhaps four) of area study units, each focused on a national group that is significant in the modern world. At least one should represent a non-Western culture. In the study of each area, there should be attention to the geography, history, economic life, and social institutions of the area, with a simplified treatment of patterns of government. SUMMARY

To improve the elementary school social studies curriculum, we need experimentation by schools with programs that provide for cumula-

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tive development of concepts, generalizations, and skills from the kindergarten through the secondary school. There is a special need for enriched content in the primary grades and for fuller study of fewer topics in the intermediate grades, as compared with the many social studies programs found in the schools today. Appropriate study of current affairs and special interests in each school year, combined with the organized curriculum units, is needed to help children relate their study of society to the contemporary world. The program which has been described represents one approach of the many that might be used as a basis for the needed experimentation.

VI Speech and Language

Our Changing Speech

Patterns

JON EISENSON * Two OF THE leading textbooks on the phonetics of our language make it clear in their titles that their authors are careful to limit their considerations to American English rather than to English in general. Thus, Bronstein's text is called The Pronunciation of American English,1 and Thomas' text is called An Introduction to the Phonetics of American English? The fact that Americans, those persons who are identified as citizens of one of the fifty of the United States, speak a variety of English at all deserves some special consideration. Therefore, this paper will begin with a brief historical review of the factors and forces that enabled the complex of linguistic habits we call English to be established. EARLY

HISTORY

The land masses we call the British Isles were occupied by people of many nations from the time of the ancient Romans until the fifteenth century. Each conquering people left traces of their influence on a language whose basic forms and structure were not determined until the eleventh century. The Romans, under Caesar, came to Britain in 55 B.c. and did not leave until about 400 A.D. The inhabitants who remained behind spoke a Celtic dialect but retained the use of Roman names for * Professor of Speech Pathology and Audiology, School of Medicine, Stanford University. "Arthur J. Bronstein, The Pronunciation of American English ( N e w York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1960). "Charles Kenneth Thomas, An Introduction to the Phonetics of American English (2d ed.; New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1958).

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roads and many geographic locations. In the middle of the fifth century Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began to invade Britain and drove the Celts westward into Wales and Cornwall and northward toward what is now Scotland. The term "English" is used for the Germanic speech of these groups of invaders and their descendants. It is important to appreciate, however, that the earlier inhabitants of Britain did not suddenly change their speech habits, and those who stayed behind and were not pushed west or north continued essentially to speak much as they had spoken, except that new linguistic forms—those of their conquerors—were incorporated and modified into their previous linguistic habits. Christianity came to Saxon England during the first half of the seventh century. With Christianity, Latin was introduced as the spoken and written language for religious and learned purposes. Between the eighth and eleventh centuries, Scandinavians, in increasing numbers, came to Britain, and with them came Scandinavian influences. The Scandinavians, for the most part Danes, also invaded and conquered the northeastern parts of France, and ultimately became the ruling aristocracy of Normandy. During this period of conquest, because the Scandinavians assumed Gallic ways and adopted French as their language, their own Germanic speech was lost. In the historically critical year 1066, the descendants of the Scandinavians, who now were Normans and who had become essentially French in culture and in language, invaded England under William the Conqueror and became the established power in England. French then became the language of the ruling class in England. The masses, however, continued to speak a Germanic language. In time the language of the Norman conquerors was reduced in influence and all but disappeared, at least as far as the speech of the common man was concerned. The English most people in England speak today and the American English most Americans speak are derived from the speech of the inhabitants of the London area from the time of William the Conqueror through the Elizabethan period or later. But England throughout its history has never been free of divergent dialects.

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The Germanic groups—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—came from different parts of the Continental lowlands. They spoke different dialects, settled in different parts of England, and left their linguistic influences where they settled. An interesting result is that the dialectal differences among the inhabitants of England today are greater and more divergent than those in the United States. A M E R I C A N AND BRITISH

SPEECH

It does not require an expert ear to discern differences between American and British speech, even assuming that the comparison is made between an educated Englishman who has lived most of his life in or near London and an educated American who has lived most of his life in or around Boston and is a Harvard graduate. These representative speakers have been chosen because the differences between upper-class Bostonian English and upper-class London English are fewest, yet differences do exist. They exist in idiom, in specific words to denote situations and events; they exist in word pronunciation and stress and in manner of articulation. Differences are also found in speech melody. The Londoner and the Bostonian are not likely to express their enthusiasm with the same choice of words or the same manner of vocal melody. "A bloody American mess" has different connotations from "a bloody English mess." The Bostonian gets about in "street cars" or "subway trains," while his London cousin gets about in "trams" and by way of the "underground." He leaves his car in a "garage" rather than in a "garage." He watches "T.V." rather than "video." The Boston law enforcer is a "policeman" or a "cop" rather than a "bobby"; the Bostonian is entertained at the "movies" rather than at the "cinema." The melody pattern of the Londoner, whether his utterance is intellectual or emotional, is likely to be characterized by wider inflectional changes than is that of the Bostonian. The sound [t] in an unstressed syllable, as in "pity," is likely to be more clearly and more lightly articulated by our English representative than it is by the American. Neither representative is likely to pronounce an [r] when it is in a final position in a word, as in "dear" or "hear," but

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the r would be articulated differently in words such as "very." Our Englishman pronounces "very" in a manner which phoneticians describe as a single-flapped sound. Americans may think of it as approximating the pronunciation "veddy" as in "veddy nice," which, of course, it is not, except to the ear of an American comic-strip artist trying to get a notion of English pronunciation across to an American comic-strip reader. About twenty-five years ago, London English was still taught as a standard for the American stage. A few of our older American actors still maintain this standard of pronunciation in their speech, despite the forces of radio, television, and the moving picture industry. THE

BEGINNING OF A M E R I C A N

ENGLISH

When may we say that American speech became sufficiently different from the English to give us the beginning of American English? What were the influences that produced and nurtured these differences? In what ways were they peculiarly a result of a new culture and new forces related to this culture? What forces, regardless of culture, continue to make for ever-changing speech patterns? These are the questions that will be considered, however briefly, in the second part of this paper. INFLUENTIAL

MEN

At the opening of the nineteenth century, the United States had its critics and deplorers who raised a hue and cry, asking "What is happening to our language?" They were referring to English and were warning Americans of the need to keep their language pure and free from new vulgarisms. John Witherspoon, a Scottish clergyman who came to the United States to become the president of Princeton, suffered considerable anguish at the thought of the development of an American language: In The American Language, Mencken cites Witherspoon as being pained by what he heard in "public and solemn discourses." Said Witherspoon:

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I have heard in this country, in the senate, at the bar, and from the pulpit, and see daily in dissertations from the press, errors in grammar, improprieties and vulgarisms which hardly any person of the same class in point of rank and literature would have fallen into in Great Britain.3

But persons such as Witherspoon, however great their prestige, were opposed by such Americans as John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Perhaps more realistically, Jefferson declared that the new circumstances called for new words and phrases, and for the transfer of old words to new objects. He "professed to believe that 'an American dialect will therefore be formed.' " 4 While the dispute between Americans for English English and those for American English was going on, Noah Webster was busily at work on his Grammatical

Institute of the English Language6

and,

perhaps more importantly, on his American Dictionary of the English Language,e Certainly, with the publication of the latter in 1828, American English had achieved status and recognition and became established as a major variant of the English language. ENVIRONMENTAL

INFLUENCES

Even a cursory review of the forces that established American English as an independent variant of the English language would reveal the following: American geography and physiography presented new features, new creatures, new ways of working for a livelihood, and with them the need for new words. Many of the words came from the Indians and had no competition from the mother tongue. In this way, words such as "skunk," "hickory," "H. L. Mencken, The American Language ( N e w York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946), p. 5. 'Letter from Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, August 12, 1801, quoted in ibid., p. 11. " N o a h Webster, Grammatical Institute of the English Language (Boston: Isaiah Thomas and Ebenezer T. Andrews, 1792). "Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: Converse, 1828).

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"moose," "opossum," and "persimmon," and "squash" came into our language. Place names, Mencken points out, also came from the Indians. So do articles of clothing and frequently used objects such as "tomahawk," "wigwam," "toboggan," and "mackinaw." 7 It would, of course, be erroneous to permit the impression that the spirit of rebellion and the influence of the Indians were the only forces that shaped American English. The early colonists, from the very beginning, were under the linguistic influence of a result of accretions from the languages of other colonizations. From the French came words such as "cache," "portage," and "voyageur" as well as "prairie," "bureau," and "gopher." From the Dutch in New Amsterdam, Mencken tells us, came such words as "cruller," "coleslaw," "cooky," "scow," "patroon," as well as "boss" and "Santa Claus." Many place names in the Hudson area such as "dorp," "kill," and "hook" are also directly from the Dutch. 8 The word "Yankee," according to Mencken, is "perhaps the most notable of all contributions of Knickerbocker Dutch . . . " 9 to the American language. Our South American and Caribbean neighbors are of late making considerable use of this term. Spanish influences came later, mostly after the Louisiana Purchase, when American English had become fairly well established and had taken form and direction as a variant of English speech. CREATION AND ABBREVIATION OF WORDS

The American colonists were ready borrowers of words from other languages, but they were also ready creators of words and phrases that were, to quote Mencken, "coined in English metal." 10 Some of these words were a product of the new circumstances and conditions in which the colonists found themselves, but others reveal an underlying way that people—any uninhibited and resourceful people—have with words. For a variety of reasons, words were in7

Mencken, op. cit., pp. 104-107. 'Ibid., pp. 108-109. 'Ibid., p. 110. 10 Ibid., p. 113.

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vented. One of the reasons is that inventing words is fun. It is a kind of pleasure in which we indulged ourselves as very young children and again as adolescents. Word inventing can be sheer delight, and our American colonists needed to be delighted. Mencken reminds us that The American, even in the Seventeenth Century, already showed many of the characteristics that were to set him off from the Englishman later on—his bold and somewhat grotesque imagination, his contempt for dignified authority, his lack of aesthetic sensitiveness, his extravagant humor.11 Not biased by grammatical awareness or a knowledge of the structure of their language and being largely illiterate, our uncouth and headstrong early colonists added words as occasions demanded. Thus nouns such as "cowhide" and "logroll," and adjectives and adverbs such as "no-account," "no-how," and "lickety-split" became terms to reckon with and by in the utterances of our seventeenth century Americans. They also introduced such compound words as "bullfrog," "hogwallow," and "hoecake"—all useful terms if one were busy working with or against the creatures and forces of nature in a new environment.12 A living language often shows the effects of a busy people. Americans were always a busy people and literally made short of many words and phrases. Leisurely parliamentarians may "lay a matter on the table" for future discussion; busier ones merely decide to "table the matter." We shall later consider, in some detail, other examples of abbreviatory processes that have us riding in "autos" or "cars" rather than in "automobiles," or watching "T.V." rather than "television." Early in our history the word "cent," a verbal invention of Governeur Morris, was substituted for the two-syllable English word "penny." "Dime" was a Jeffersonian coinage derived from the French dixième.13 u

ibid., pp. 113-114.

"Ibid., p. 114. "Ibid., p. 116.

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O N - G O I N G FORCES FOR CHANGE

Thus far we have traced the influences that created an American English, and some of the differences in linguistic forms between English English and American English. Now we shall consider someof the forces that make any living language a changing language, constantly, though slowly, yielding to human inclinations and changing verbal habits. SPEED AND MOBILITY

To begin with, we should appreciate the effects of our contemporary ability for speed of movement, and our general mobility as a nation on wheels or on wings. Washington and Julius Caesar went to be inaugurated in much the same kind of vehicles. Except for slight differences in styling and the addition of springs, all our presidents up to McKinley traveled this way, out of necessity rather than of choice. Our last four presidents were no longer earthbound and our last two are able to move about with the speed of sound. What influence President Kennedy will have on American speech, or on English speech throughout the English-speaking world, is a matter of conjecture which I hope can be made free from political considerations. COMMUNICATION MEDIA

In a recent dispatch from London, Drew Middleton observed that the Conservatives who are running the Macmillan government in England speak with the accents of the B.B.C, rather than the formerly familiar ones of Oxford and Eton. Both the forces of democracy and those of television—or more properly "video"—are partly responsible for this change in British speech. Comparable forces are, of course, exerting their influence in the United States. Despite the efforts of some of our early twentieth century teachers of elocution and diction, and despite the recom-

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mendation and hard work of the advocates of "American stage diction," which is, or was, remarkably like British "stage diction," as the recommended standard for all American diction, the people in the United States do not at all agree on a single standard in regard to their pronunciations or even in regard to favored idioms for expressing their common ideas. According to Thomas we have ten regional dialects in the United States.14 By "dialect" is meant a variety of language with a sufficient number of characteristic features to distinguish it from other varieties of the same language. Distinguishing features, more in regard to the pronunciation of vowels than of consonants, enable Thomas to distinguish the following regional dialects in the United States: Eastern New England, New York City, Middle Atlantic, the South, Southern Mountain States, the North Central Area, the Central Midland, the Northwest, the Southwest Coastal Area, and Western Pennsylvania. Lest we gain the impression that we Americans show a lack of unity in the way we speak, it should be re-emphasized that we have less variation within our nation than do speakers of English in the tight British Isles. Even differences in grammatical usage and vocabulary which tend to reflect social level, place and height of educational achievement, and economic status are fewer in the United States than in Great Britain, though the leveling process is rapidly exerting influence among the British. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES

In the continental United States, differences in pronunciation are most striking along the Atlantic Coast. As we move inland and westward, the differences, Thomas observes, ". . . become blurred. Over large areas, from the Connecticut valley to the Oregon Coast, for instance, differences are so slight that casual listeners rarely notice them at all." 15 Although differences are greatest along the Atlantic Coast, the merchant from Maine has no anxiety that he 11

Thomas, op. cit., pp. 216-241. " Ibid., p. 192.

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will not be readily understood if he speaks by telephone to a merchant from New York, or Maryland, or Florida. Most students of American dialects agree with Thomas that "the most striking difference between the various regional pronunciations, and the difference around which the most lively, though inconclusive, arguments have revolved, is the nature of the sounds which correspond to the letter r." 1β All regions have a common pronunciation of the r when it precedes a vowel in words such as "real," "bring," "bread," "three," and "frame." Most Americans, regardless of geographic area, pronounce an [r] when the letter r occurs between vowels in words such as "very" and "hurry." In some parts of the South, however, a lengthened vowel or a diphthong is produced and the [r] omitted so that "very" becomes ['ve:i] and "Carolina" approximates [kaea 'lama] or [kae: 'laina]. Real differences emerge when r comes at the end of a word, or before a consonant, as in "far," "part," and "heart." In the New York City area, these words are pronounced without a final [r]. Essentially the same pronunciations would be heard in Eastern New England and the South. In the rest of the United States, the pronunciations would include a final [r], so that most Americans would talk about [farmz] and [far] and have their [harts] in the right places. A word spelled with a final r which is in a sequence normally immediately followed by another word uttered without a pause as in "far away" or "butter on bread" is likely to be produced either with a distinctive [r] sound or with a vowel with distinctive [r] coloring. Essentially the same patterns of pronunciation are followed for the [r] colored midvowels in words such as "words," "heard," "mirth," and "murmur."

WHO DETERMINES STANDARDS OF USAGE?

At this point we might ask, "Who determines our pronunciations, and who determines when new words become respectable, and old words become acceptable in their emerging forms?" We have no " Ibid., p. 195.

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equivalent of a French Academy with members who meet together to make such decisions for all Americans. THE DICTIONARY

EDITORS

Our dictionary editors usually insist that they record what is established and current and are reluctant to accept the responsibility for establishing standards by virtue of printed and widely distributed publications. Harrison Piatt presents what is considered a fair view of the degree of responsibility and authority the editors of a respected dictionary cannot avoid. In his preface to The American College Dictionary Piatt says: What . . . is the role of a dictionary in settling questions of pronounciation or meaning or grammar? It is not a legislating authority on good English. It attempts to record what usage at any time actually is. Insofar as possible, it points out divided usage. It indicates regional variations of pronunciation or meaning wherever practical. It points out meanings and uses peculiar to a trade, profession, or special activity. It suggests the levels on which certain words or usages are appropriate. A dictionary . . . based on a realistic sampling of usage, furnishes the information necessary for a sound judgment of what is good English in a given situation. To this extent the dictionary is an authority, and beyond this authority should not go.17 In the light of the above, we may re-assess the significance of the entry on "ain't" in the recently published Webster's Third New International Dictionary. "Ain't," according to the entry on page 45, is a contraction of "are not," "is not," "am not," or "have not." Further, "ain't," ". . . though disapproved by many and more common in less educated speech, [is] used orally in most parts of the U.S. by many cultivated speakers esp. in the phrase ain't /." 18 Some "Harrison Piatt, Jr., "Guide to Usage: What Is Good Usage?" The American College Dictionary, ed. Clarence L. Barnhart (New York: Random House, 1948), p. xxxi. 18 Philip Babcock Gove (ed.), Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (3d ed.; Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1961), p. 45.

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critics of this dictionary have pointedly asked what is meant by "less educated speech" and imply that somewhere and somehow a comparison seems to be missing. On page 209, the dictionary states that the word "between" is no longer limited to an implication of two but may be used to suggest division or participation by two or more. The entry cites such usage by eminent scholars, including a linguist from Harvard University, and by Time Magazine. We could hardly ask for higher authority for accepted usage of a word. If Time and Harvard and Webster's Third New International Dictionary cannot make words respectable, then what powers can? CULTURED, EDUCATED PEOPLE

Kantner and West suggest an answer that citizens of a democracy should find moderately palatable. They state, "In speech those who set the style are the cultured, the traveled, the politically powerful, the educated, the wealthy, the socially influential, and the professional users of speech—preachers, teachers, actors, lecturers, radio and television speakers." 19 In the United States there is no lack of style-leaders in speech. A SINGLE FORCEFUL PERSON

The setting of speech style is rarely a conscious process, except by some of our rebellious and conformingly anticonformist adolescents. It sometimes takes generations for a new word to be accepted, or for a pronunciation to be changed so that it is recognized as widespread by dictionary editors. But some words come to life as the result of their usage by a single, forceful personality. Roosevelt's adviser and administrator, General Hugh S. Johnson, gave a new meaning to the word "chisel." Johnson used "chisel" to mean to evade compliance to the law by concealment or stealth. 20 The term "beatnik" is attributed to Herb Caen, a popular columnist for The " C l a u d e Edgar Kantner and Robert West, Phonetics Harper & Brothers, 1960), p. 283. " Mencken, op. cit., p. 567.

(rev. ed.; N e w York:

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San Francisco Chronicle. Walter Winchell, with his staccato manner of speech, has introduced numerous neologisms and linguistic truncations into our language. SCIENTISTS AND TECHNICIANS

A new force to be reckoned with as a molder of language is our scientists and technicians. These highly respected and highly paid professionals have literally brought the word "research" into the household. Kitchen products as well as medications are, Madison Avenue constantly informs us, "tested by research." Though we are not always informed of the specific results of the research, we are awed, and our respect for scientists who engage in research allow us to accept a product that has been researched as one fit for our use and consumption. We, of course, accept "technocracy," a word of recent coinage, as describing a way of life. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS

Our social scientists, too, have their influence on our language. About a year ago in his "Critic at Large" column in The New York Times, Brooks Atkinson deplored the tendency in so-called scientific writing to dehumanize our language. He complained of the current tendency to ". . . remove English prose from the arena of human beings and pass it through the laboratory, where knowledge can be sterilized." 21 As Atkinson points out when he quotes Steward and Shimkin, in this process of dehumanization such verbal products as the following emerge : " 'Our treatment of culture and its evolution rests upon nine heuristic concepts which constitute a mixture of hypothetical postulates and real but tentative observations.' " 2 2 Atkinson much prefers more prosaic Anglo-Saxon terminology, such as the one he cites from Pogo, who had to tell his friend the alligator, " 'Albert, you is took leave of your brain bone.' " 23 21

Brooks Atkinson, "Critic at Large," The New York Times, Sept. 1, 1961, p. 14. a Ibid., quoting Julian H. Steward and Demitri Β. Shimkin, "Some Mechanisms of Sociocultural Evolution," Daedalus, X C (Summer, 1961), 479. " Atkinson, op. cit.

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But perhaps Atkinson is overly concerned with what may be a passing phase in verbal habits. We can count on our Walt Kelly's today, as we were able to count on Mark Twain early in the century, to use language directly and forcefully and still think, write, and talk impressively. ADOLESCENTS

We can also count on our adolescents and their needs for expression to tell one another that they are "lame-brained," or "squares," or "jerks," or "weird." We perhaps should also be grateful for their reference to things or situations that are "super," or "smooth," or "drooly," or simply "way out." Perhaps it is no accident that many of these terms of affect, the near poetry of slang, are basically Anglo-Saxon. Whatever else these terms may be, they are certainly not dehumanized. Though yesterday's "boob" or "dope" may be today's "creep" or "goof" (or am I already behind the times?) the terms are short, and some of them may have sufficient lasting power to be included in the fourth edition of Webster's New International Dictionary.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

DETERMINANTS

A few psychological factors that determine choice of words and the effects of such choice on our patterns of verbal behavior will be discussed briefly. By and large the words we use are selected according to our needs as speakers. The words we select to be impressive depend upon the person we wish to impress. Not infrequently, this person may be the speaker himself rather than the listener. As speakers, we may have occasional need for a large mouthful of sounds and so speak polysyllabically and at length, in a manner which would make Freudian listeners click their tongues and nod their heads with weighty surmises. More frequently, however, other factors determine the words we select. One such factor is ease of pronunciation. With few exceptions, short words are easier to pronounce than long words; so,

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other things being equal, short words are likely to be chosen over long ones if they are equally effective in communicating our thoughts and feelings. It is no accident that the most frequently used words in our language are shorter than the words less frequently used. About twenty-five years ago, the psycholinguist Zipf demonstrated that frequency of word usage is related to length (shortness) of words and that words become shorter as spoken words with increased frequency of usage. Zipf wrote, "There are, however, copious examples of a decrease in the magnitude of a word which results, as far as one can judge, solely from an increase in the relative frequence of its occurrence, as estimated either from the speech of an individual in which the shortening may occur, or in the language of a minor group, or of the major speech-group." 24 Words are shortened by processes of assimilation, by truncation, and by abbreviatory substitution. All three processes, incidentally, also result in ease of pronunciation. As examples of assimilation we have changed "cupboard" from [kApbod] to [kAbod]. So also the word "handkerchief" is more likely to be pronounced as [haerjkat/if] rather than [haendk3t/if]. Even short phrases are made shorter; for example, the pronunciation of "I can go" as [aikiggo] and "goodbye" as [gobai]. Truncation can be exemplified by the change from "amperes" to "amps," "el" for "elevated," "telephone" to "phone" either as a verb or a noun, and "automobile" to "auto." In the San Francisco area the "Municipal Transportation System" is briefly referred to as "Muni." "T.V." for "television" is an example of truncation by abbreviation. Abbreviatory substitutions are exemplified by "car" for "automobile," "juice" for "electric current," and "prexy" for "president." The last two terms, to be sure, are usages within special groups, but the groups are large and influential. The word "cop" for "policeman" exemplifies the processes of truncation and abbreviation, from "copper" to "cop" as truncation, and "cop" for "policeman" as abbreviatory substitution. "George Kingsley Zipf, The Psycho-Biology of Language (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1935), p. 29.

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There are, however, counterforces which tend to prevent overfrequent use of the same words and with it the process of word shortening. The most potent of these forces is the human drive for variety of experience, including our experience with the words at our command. To avoid monotony, we use synonyms which may be less precise in meaning than would be successive uses of the same word. Early in our school careers, our teachers encourage us to avoid the repeated use of a word merely because repetition is considered undesirable. Partly because of the authority of our teachers and partly because of our drive for variety, we go out of our way to use several different words to communicate an idea that might well be semantically more precise had a previously used word been used—or shall I say "employed"—again. Taboos and superstitions are cultural forces which work against the use of some words—frequently short ones of Anglo-Saxon origin—for others which have better social status. So a speaker may refer to children who are born "out of wedlock" or "illegitimately" so that he may avoid a two-syllable term which he tends to use only when he does not really mean what the word denotes. Of late, there is less difference between the productive or functional vocabularies of men and of women in polite social circles, but some of our older citizens—or ought we to say our "senior citizens"—are shocked by hearing their daughters or granddaughters saying what their sons might say with impunity. So, we learn euphemisms and employ circumlocutions and say at length in an approximate way what we could say precisely in a brief way if manners and customs and mores did not prevent us from doing so. SUMMARY

These, briefly, are some of the forces and counterforces that have molded our language, influenced our verbal habits, and continue to modify our slow but ever-changing speech patterns. A living language is a growing language—one that changes forms, adds words, and drops others. Even in Israel, where Hebrew was just reborn, I heard parents complain that their children were speaking in a

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manner difficult for them to understand. The immigrant Israelis were concerned because the first generation of native-born Israelis was distorting their classic language. They wondered how their children understood one another. The children were using foreign words, and slurring and shortening Hebrew words. They were developing a slang and distorting the grammar. The older Israelis were, in effect, complaining that Hebrew had come alive as a contemporary, rather than a sacred, language. The younger Israelis, in keeping with the tempo of their new nation, were perhaps hastening the process of linguistic change, much as their elders hastened other achievements in establishing a nation that had its own language. American parents have wondered about their children's speech patterns for generations. Some of the children, with as much tolerance as they can muster, probably have wondered how parents can communicate at all with vocabularies that lack color and force and new words to fit new occasions. Together the forces of conservatism and change create a balance that keeps our language alive, everchanging, but not changing so rapidly that communication, for linguistic reasons at least, is impaired between successive generations.

De Lingua Latina

Viva

GOODWIN Β. BEACH * I B E G A N Latin many years ago, I supposed that all teachers spoke the tongue; indeed, I thought teachers of any language whatsoever spoke the tongue that they professed. That ingenuous outlook may cause a smile today, but a hundred fifty or two hundred years ago if a boy wished to enter Harvard, he was examined viva voce in Latin and at the graduation ceremonies the Governor of Massachusetts and the President of Harvard addressed one another in Latin. That custom has now been given up, not because the President could not—indeed he could—but few Governors could. At that time, Goethe, the great German poet, said that he had learned Latin as he had German, French, and English, from use alone, rules and explanations being omitted. " . . . I skipped grammar as well as rhetoric; all seemed to me to come together naturally: I retained the words, their forms and inflexions, in my ear and mind, and used the language with ease in writing and in chattering." 1 About a hundred fifty or sixty years ago the pedants got control of the discipline and changed it in such wise that it became not a study for use but rather a mental adornment. In so doing, they dealt the discipline a staggering blow. The effects, however, were not immediately felt, so deeply was the idea entrenched in men's minds that to be educated one had to be well grounded in the classics. But as new disciplines came to the fore, their need and application to modern life were fomented by active claques, while the classicists looked on in sneering and dignified silence, thinking:

WHEN

* Lecturer in Latin, Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. J. W. von Goethe, Truth and Fiction: Relating to My Life, trans. John Oxenford (2 vols.; London: John C. Nimmo, Ltd., 1903), I, 256. 246

1

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"Surely these upstarts cannot replace us." Thus the classics were gradually shouldered aside. As the classicists in their haughty disdain did nothing to counteract this attack and to make the subject more relevant to the ever-faster-changing times, the claim of the new subjects to ever-greater consideration was actively fostered on the ground of greater usefulness and, consequently, became more popular as the difference between true education and mere training became blurred in the public mind. Yet notwithstanding the claques and the claims of the utilitarians and the desire on many sides to oust Latin completely, statistics show that among languages taught in school, Latin is, I believe, second only to Spanish in popularity. Yet do these statistics prove what we should like them to prove? I think not. Examine them more closely and you will find that great numbers of students take Latin for two years and then drop it. What these statistics do prove is that there is something wrong with the discipline. Youngsters, if interested, do not usually turn to something else. So let us see what they get: a drilling in declensions and verbs, for some the first conjugation alone, and some skimpy and wholly fatuous reading matter, in which there is an extraordinary amount of murder and mayhem. Siquis moritur, necatur. No matter how the poor wretch is done to death, necatur, never occiditur, never interficitur. Those words seem to be taboo because they belong to the third conjugation, and you know we have not reached that yet! Yet necare is the wrong word. It does not denote death by weapon but by poison or suffocation or other nonviolent means. Aside from that defect, the youngsters, because of all this murder and mayhem, get an altogether deformed view of Roman life and ideals, at least of the better class of Romans, and they get no idea of the usefulness of the language, and they have no idea that anyone can speak it. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary that they learn is useless for usual conversation. How often does our conversation concern itself with technical warfare? A boy in one of my classes who was struck with the artificiality of the Latin he was being taught, asked: "Did people ever really speak Latin?" There happened to

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hang on the wall a picture of a bevy of very lovely lasses descending steps from a temple, so I said: "If you happened to be on those steps and the lasses spoke naught but Latin, how long would it take you to speak that tongue?" Some years ago a little girl was brought me by her father. She, being conscientious, was almost in hysterics because she could not make head or tail of her Latin. I guessed, and rightly, that she did not know the reason for the cases. So I said, "Helen, you say: Ί saw him.' By the forms you know who was seen and who did the seeing, don't you?" "Yes." "Well if I say: Ί him saw,' is there any difference in meaning?" "No." "If I say: 'him I saw,' any difference?" "No." "Now although we do not say this, would there be any difference in meaning if you heard: 'him saw I'?" "No." "Good, now understand that every Latin word is equipped, as are our pronouns, so that the form of the word means everything and the position nothing." After one and one half hours of this she went back to school and achieved, instead of C's, A's and B's. At the year's end she came to me again, because she felt shaky in her verbs. I, in my innocence, drilled her again for an hour and a half on the four conjugations, till she had them cold. At the end she said, "You know we have had but two conjugations." Appalled I said, "Anyhow, you know now the four, but what dreadful pap you must have had to read! No wonder you youngsters get bored." Now such a course, such a lack of achievement is sheer nonsense, quin immo; it is almost criminal. Aye, it is worse than sheer nonsense. This boredom, engendered by lack of accomplishment, is what kills the desire to continue beyond two years, although I believe that the death of all desire is clinched by the deadly dull reading matter that bears no relation to anything in the student's

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experience. Only the hardiest would continue. The four conjugations could and should be taught at once. The personal endings in all the tenses, except the perfect, of all the conjugations are the same. The tense signs in all the conjugations, except the future, are the same, and the future of the first and second and of the third and fourth are alike. The only real difference is the connecting vowel. The subjunctive is even more alike in the second, third, and fourth and even in the first, except for the present. So why make such a mountain out of conjugating? I had, one year, only one boy beginning Latin. I made him take the indicative of all four conjugations together, and then we began reading some simple matter. One day I said, "Now we must have the subjunctive." I explained the peculiar constructions of each conjugation. He had them by the next day. Then one day I said that we must have the passive, and I told him the personal endings. Then I said, "I'll give you five minutes to learn them." That time up, I said, "Now give me the second person plural passive subjunctive of amare." He pondered a moment and said, "Amaremini." By April he was reading selected passages from Cicero at sight. The next year a boy who was in the same class asked if it was true that he had but one year. I said, "Yes." He said, "Why, he knows more Latin than we who have studied four and five years." "What," asked I, "did you do?" "Oh, we had Latin dinners and made òaZ/wiae." Now Latin dinners are all right, but the only Latin involved is dressing up in a toga, and perhaps eating lying down and crowning the crater. Ballistae may be a pleasant pastime for boys so gifted, but it is not learning Latin. Latin dinners and making ballistae are for diversion and the arousing of interest, but no one should think of them as a substitute for learning. If they relieve the boredom of declining and conjugating and of reading fatuous or dull material, there are better ways of achieving interest and shunning boredom. Let me illustrate one means of achieving this end. When my daughters began their Latin, each evening I would go to their

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room and ask to see their composition. When I saw a mistake I would say, "There is a mistake in that sentence; correct it." She would look at the sentence, find the mistake, and correct it herself. One evening I asked, "What today?" "Oh," in a despairing, woebegone voice, "I have to learn the perfect, the pluperfect, and the future perfect passive." "That is nothing," said I, "for you know them already." She seemed surprised. Then I said, "You know the adjective 'bonus,' don't you?" "Yes." "Well, the perfect participle is an adjective like that. You know also, don't you, the present, the imperfect, and the future of 'esse'?" "Yes." "Then put them together." She thought a moment and said, "Of course, I know them." It took five minutes and she knew them, instead of forty-five agonizing minutes learning eighteen meaningless forms. My point is: Why wasn't this done in school, so pupils could have moved on to something else and been so much ahead of the game? Another thing — I spoke Latin to my daughters at the table. They knew the names of the foods and condiments. When later they traveled in Greece with a girl guide, they chanced to pass a field that blazed with yellow plants. They asked what they were. The girl answered that she did not know the English name but that they called it sinapi. "Oh," said both daughters at once, "that's mustard!" Another amusing story may not be amiss, although perhaps not wholly relevant. Two of my daughters were in France during the war. Of course there was censorship. I would write them one week in English, the next in French, and the next in Latin. They told me later that invariably the Latin letter arrived first. Curious, they sought the cause. The censors, it seems, were priests who, as soon as they saw Latin, must have thought any one writing in Latin could not be hostile to France and passed it. Whatever the discipline in France, one daughter, anyway, retained what she had learned, could read the language which for her was not dead, and still can.

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Another case: about a year ago I had occasion to write a French physician. He had already written me in French. When I tried to reply in French, nothing came forth. "Aha," said I, "French physicians are well educated; I shall write in Latin." He answered and explained the case even more fully than if I had written in French and added, "Now you have renewed my youth." Quodnam est remedium huius tarditatis taediique? Beyond the few hints and examples already given for speeding the process of learning, there is the obstacle of unsuitable reading matter, i.e., unsuitable to the student's age and mental development. When, in the past, I have suggested that in the second and third years Caesar's commentaries and Cicero's orations be abandoned, some professors have countered by saying: "But I wish them to taste the best." A praiseworthy ideal indeed, but if you ask: "Do they get it?", there is a sad answer, "No." When I gave one of the main addresses at Avignon during the First International Congress for Living Latin, I suggested that material of greater interest and more adapted to the pupil's age be offered; that suitable stories could be found in Mediaeval Latin; and that if the language was very bad, the stories could be redacted into good Latin, or original stories could be written. That suggestion became one of the resolutions of the congress. There are now a number of such stories on the market, suited to the pupils' various ages. This is no doubt due to the resolutions of the congress. I suggest their use, if only as a pleasant tidbit in between doses of dreary reading matter. When it comes to the College Boards, the students who have thus learned to read, not just translate, will not have been left behind, for having learned to read with delight, they will know Latin and pass the examination. Another resolution of the congress at Avignon was that since many pupils will not go on in literature, having no taste for it, but will enter other fields as a major, they should be taught a simple precise Latin, shorn of all rhetorical adornments and figures, which could be of use to them presumably for writing and speaking. The introduction to, let us say, Cicero's magnificent rhetorical Latin

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should be reserved for those who wish to proceed in the field of literature. The Acta Congressuum would be well worthwhile for those who wish to study this field. Let us look at this now from a different angle, i.e., how we proceed in English. After an American child (and there is probably little difference in other lands) learns to read, simple stories are given—Mother Goose for instance, then fairy stories, and for boys, adventure stories. We hope of course that they will graduate into literature, but who is fatuous enough to believe that all will appreciate literature? Suppose, though, that instead of Mother Goose, fairy stories and adventure stories, we plied them with Churchill's History of the Second World War, or Eisenhower's, and then made them read Edmund Burke's speech on "Conciliation with America" and Daniel Webster's or William Jennings Bryan's speeches, can anyone believe that their appetite for literature would be whetted? Would they even guess that there exists delightful, informing, and elevating literature? By the same token, do they know from experience, or will they believe, that there is in Latin delightful, elevating, and cultural literature? I hope that you agree with me now that the pabulum offered in the first years of Latin is not only indigestible but wholly unsuited to the stage of mental development of most students and quenches any desire to continue what could be their most valuable study. Therefore, in order to make live for the students quodnam est remedium? Quaenam est recta et probabilis disciplina? Let us see what Erasmus, who was in his day held to be the greatest scholar in Europe and, although not German, was claimed by the Germans as decus Germaniae, has to say on this score. He says that the teacher—all teachers then were supposed to speak Latin—should first acquaint the pupils with the phrases and words that would serve them in class, at table, and at play; that he then should address them in the best Latin of which he is capable. As reading matter he then proposes Terence, quod sermo est tersus, purus et cotidiano proximus, because the language is terse, pure, and next to everyday speech. This is only common sense; let this, then, be our guide. Unfortunately, there is not time to elaborate on what other scholars

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of the day and great teachers had to say. Stolz has an excellent article on "Colloquial Latin," 2 in which he goes into the matter very fully. The scholars of that day spoke Latin unabashedly. Even the innkeepers had to learn it to care for guests unacquainted with the vernacular. The story is told of a traveler in Hungary whose Latin was a bit rusty. He came down in the morning, wishing to have eggs for breakfast. So he told the innkeeper, "Volo duas ovis." The innkeeper, astonished, countered, "Esne lupus?" Today, when our teachers of modern languages attend a convention, they forthwith seek out those who profess the same language and converse in it. They enjoy it; they yearn to speak the tongue. Usually, moreover, there are talks in the language. However, this is not the case when Latin teachers meet. Often if at lunch I approach a table, someone says, "You are not going to speak Latin, are you?". The answer to that is, of course, "Quippini? Vos velie Latine loqui oportet." But really, is not that question appalling—to dread hearing the language that one professes, professes not only to know but, we hope, to love? Does it not indicate that something is dead? And yet we know that the language still lives. How often at these meetings do we have a Latin speech? Of late years, I am happy to state, that in the meetings of The Classical Association of New England we have had talks and panel discussions in Latin. It may not be inappropriate here to tell of an experience I had in 1956 at Avignon, during the First International Congress for Living Latin. I first landed in Italy and was bidden as a guest to two Italian homes, for I had made friends with my hosts through correspondence in Latin. Ut in eorum ore nullum quidem erat vocabulum Anglicum, sic in meo parum linguae Italicae ad colloquendum. Therefore, all conversation was in Latin, which was in no wise inadequate for the occasion. When I reached Avignon, I let no one guess that I knew any other tongue. Scholars from twenty-three nations attended. Most Germans and Italians had little hesitation in speaking the language. Italians, in particular, seemed to enjoy it. Frenchmen, 'George Stolz, "Colloquial Latin," Classical Folia, XV (1961), 95-100.

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however, although ostensibly promoting spoken Latin, seemed reluctant to forego French. And many scholars of repute seemed embarrassed to begin, since they had never really spoken the language. In one committee meeting, a French member asked either in French or in Latin if I understood French. I answered: "Francogallice non intellego. Mecum Latine loqui necesse erit." He had to; he not only could, but was fluent. At Lyon it was so noticeable that there was no longer hesitancy in speaking, that it was mentioned in some reports of the congress. Everyone chatted freely. That should be the result as soon as one gets the idea, simul atque notio animo insederit, that one can use Latin. This year, the resuscitation of Latin has received a great lift through Pope John's encyclical entitled "Veterum Sapientia." 3 The text of it is given in full in the April, 1962, number of Latinitas. I suggest that everyone procure and read a copy. The first part of this encyclical is given over to clear and soundly based praise of Latin, and to its singular quality as the Church's own language. Then when His Holiness had declared his feelings in this matter clearly enough, "hac de re sensus, satis aperte, ut Nobis videtur, declaravimus"—those are the words. Unhappily, there are many who, taken unduly with the wonderful progress in the arts, take upon themselves to inhibit and restrain the study of Latin and other like disciplines. The circumstances being what they are, I think the opposite road should be followed. Since what is worthier of man's nature and dignity resides in the mind, that which nourishes and adorns the mind must be more ardently sought, lest unhappy mortals, like the machines they fabricate, exist cheerless, hardened, and loveless. Having examined, the encyclical continues, and weighed all these things carefully, with assured consciousness of our duty and on our authority we decree and enjoin—"statuimus atque praecipimus" are the words : 1. Bishops and heads of religious orders shall see to it that in 3

Mónita Ioannis Χ Χ Ι Π Pont. Max., "De Lingua Latina Excolenda," X (April, 1 9 6 2 ) , 87-94.

Latinitas,

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seminaries and schools in which young men are trained for the priesthood these injunctions are diligently obeyed. 2. The same shall see that no one under his jurisdiction desirous of change—"novarum rerum studiosus"—plays down and wrongly interprets the wish of the Holy See. 3. All students for Holy Orders, ere they undertake that study, shall be carefully instructed in Latin lest because of ignorance they cannot achieve full understanding of doctrine. 4. Here is prescribed a refreshment of traditional curriculum; if other things interfere, the course shall be lengthened or these other disciplines reserved for another time. 5. At the end of this section, if those professors are not capable of handling their subjects in Latin they are to be replaced by suitable men. 6. Since Latin is the Church's language, lingua viva, it must be set up to cope with today's needs and enriched with suitable words. We, therefore, charge, "mandamus," the Sacrum Consilium that has in its charge seminaries and universities, among other things mentioned, to set up an Academic Institute of Latin and in the manner of National Academies (I imagine that the famous Académie Française is the prototype) shall see that Latin fits the times and shall undertake, if need be, a Latin lexicon of words that take on the color and nature of Latin. This would be an extension of Cardinal Balli's valuable lexicon eorum vocabulorum quae difficilius Latine redduntur whose extension and amplification was sought in a resolution at Avignon. 8. The Sacrum Consilium is ordered—"mandamus"—to prepare a plan for teaching Latin. Finally "statuimus, decrevimus, ediximus, mandavimus" that all these things be firmly and unalterably established and "volumus et iubemus" on our Apostolic Authority that they remain so. This is plainly and specifically said. It is to be noted that in all this His Holiness uses the powerful words "praecipere, statuere, mandare, decernere, edicere, iubere" and that he uses them in ascending order of gravity. Now here, whether we belong to the Church of Rome or not, lies

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our opportunity. Many pupils are headed for the priesthood. They should have training in lingua Latina viva as soon as possible. Yet whether headed for the priesthood or not, whatever their chosen goal, they should have a training in the classics that is effective and will stick. Who can deny that in most cases it hardly gets beneath the surface and soon, like some matter that is purulently exuded, is soon shaken off? Let me say that the so-called reasons for taking Latin—it is good for your spelling; it is good for your English—are no better than weak excuses offered in the desperate hope of warding off Latin's demise. The aforementioned desirable fruits of the study, if Latin be taken for its cultural and other sound values, will sponte sua follow. With this extraordinary opportunity lying open are we going to lie back and not enter the open door—that Latin may be taught as lingua Latina viva? Thirty years ago when I first began attending meetings of classical associations, everybody stood around the bier of Latin weeping hot tears o'er its imminent demise. Of late years since this vigorous corpse has become more active, a different attitude—cheerfulness— has prevailed. All now should be smiles over the ammunition handed us to confute know-nothing administrators, advisers, and detractors in general. When I have been asked, on suggesting that Latin be taught as a living tongue, where we shall find the teachers, my answer is: "Train them." But who will train them? Quern ad modum ipse me loqui docui, sic vos idem potestis. If, indeed, I could teach myself to speak, you can certainly do the same. That of course requires a copia vocabulorum in primoribus labris, and Caesar's military word list is of little use. So as you walk or drive around, talk to yourselves in Latin about what you see. If you see an elm tree, let it be ulmus; if a cow, vacca; if an oak, quercus. O, quam amoen'st ilia quercus, quam patula, quam vetus! and let it sound: amoena'st. No Roman ever said "Amoena est ilia arbor" but rather "Amoena'st ill' arbor." The same "elisions," so-called, but better called "obscurations," were heard in daily speech as well as in poetry. Study and practice a natural pronunciation. Observe quan-

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tities carefully. I have been told that in some seminaries no attention is paid them. I recently read a tale of an Englishman in Poland in the sixteenth or seventeenth century. Latin served well, except that since the Poles neglected quantities, he had some difficulties. For example there is a world of difference between levis and levis; between malus and malus and between malus masculine and malus feminine. Try this one, si nimis edes, id portasse mox ëdes. As to my suggestion of talking to oneself in Latin about things seen, I myself have tried the procedure successfully. Some thirty or more years ago, I had to go to France alone. I had had, some twenty years previously, two years of French grammar and some reading. I had never spoken, but I remembered all the grammar. I engaged an excellent teacher, a Swiss, and with him I not only spoke French on every subject, but also offered some compositions. And as I rode around the countryside, I talked to myself continually about the things that I saw. At the end of three months when I went to France and was continually among French people, I was quite fluent. Hoc idem vos Latine potestis. Conamini. However, in order to have fluency and ease you must acquaint yourselves with the locutiones cotidianae—"hello," "thanks," "no thanks." "Thanks" is not gratias tibi ago—too formal—but benigne. You must learn the various ways of saying "how," "without," "all but," and many other such idioms. Practice your composition by writing friends that know Latin, in Latin. I make it a rule, with very few exceptions, of always writing such letters in Latin. Another thing: get over the idea that Latin must be translated. A year or so ago I received an advertisement for some discs. The first paragraph purported to be in Latin. If one of my boys had written it, he would have received a zero. The next paragraph began: "If you cannot translate this . . . " I took up my pen and wrote: "My advice to you is to withdraw this advertisement forthwith. I never saw worse Latin. If any teacher who really knows Latin sees it, he will have no faith in your records. Furthermore you say, 'If you cannot translate this. . . .' Please tell me why one should not read it and reading, understand it." They replied that they had engaged a professor, who I know speaks Latin fluently, as their future adviser.

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As I said, one should read and in reading, understand Latin. It should be heard and understood as Latin. I tell my boys: "Read through your assignment first in Latin and understand it as well as you can, then read it through for translation in class, then reread it when everything is clear and force yourselves to understand it as Latin. Ne plura: don't say that mensa means 'table' but that it designates that piece of furniture which we call a 'table.' In short, when you hear mensa or any other Latin word, force into your mind the picture that arises when you hear the corresponding word in English." Now from some of the things that I have stated here, you may have gained the impression that I am a detractor of Cicero and Caesar. I am not. Remember, please, that each time it was Cicero's orations that were in question. Were his De Amicitia or some other philosophical works used in the schools, my comments would have been different. So let me say that the only reason for using Cicero's orations is for the style, for his unusual ability to put his point across in a telling, effective fashion, and not for the content. That is why his works have survived the vicissitudes of the ages; that is why the Church, even when it deplored the reading of the pagan authors, wished to use him as the best material for training effective preachers. Yet at the usual age when the orations are read, the pupils are not in the least interested in style, but in a tale. Furthermore, they almost never hear it read with expression, nor are they made to read it thus themselves. They only translate. Sic tota res perit; it is a total loss. Those orations should not be given until one is not only appreciative of style, but can read them in Latin as Latin, preferably aloud, and in so reading, understand them. They then are magnificent and at this stage of one's development no author is superior to Cicero. I have heard, although I cannot substantiate it, that in the new curriculum to be promulgated by the Vatican, both Caesar and Cicero will be reserved for the fifth year. Quintilian, the great writer on education, advises for the orator's training: "Talk as often as you can; if there is no opportunity for speaking, then write; if no opportunity for writing, then read." Our

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chance for speaking is limited; so I advise writing. But seek the chance to speak. Both speaking and writing are active; reading is passive, merely receptive. If one struggles to write well and effectively, one appreciates the more what one reads, and recognizes the author's labors in achieving his effects. Today, too little that is new is read in Latin. Many, if not most, modern language teachers not only seize every opportunity of speaking, but take newspapers and read new books in the tongue professed. How many Latin teachers read aught outside the curriculum, new or old? How many have read Milton's Latin poetry? Addison's? Herbert's? Or any modern Latin? How many any Latin magazines? Finally for modern Latin, living Latin, for lingua Latina viva acquire copia vocabulorum—I mean words useful for writing and conversation. See that these vocabula utilia are in primoribus labris. Also acquire a stock of phrases useful in conversation, locutiones cotidianae. On that basis begin speaking. Remember Horace's saw: Dimidium facti qui coepit habet. In lieu of speaking, write. Remember, "Practice makes perfect." So write until you gain an easy, fluent, natural style. Write, thinking in Latin, not translating from English. Of course, one objection often brought up concerns new words. Every now and then someone with a gleam in his eye seems to say: "Aha, now I have you trapped. What do you do to express modern inventions?" Answer: "What do we do in English? Did you ever hear of anything named, ere it was born?" But this matter was covered both at Avignon and in Veterum Sapientia. Cicero also covers it in Académica Posteriora, Book I, chapter 7, saying: "That indeed is common to all arts; either new names must be made for new things or the names must be transferred from other things. If the Greeks who have dwelt in these fields so many centuries do it, how much more leeway must be granted us who now for the first time are treating these things." Lastly, subscribe to good magazines. In them are reviews of new books in Latin. In Classical Folia, 1962, Number 1, is an article on Neo-Latin prose and poetry contests and on new books. Buy these new books, read them, and get out of the rut in which Latin teachers

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have wallowed for over a century. Divest yourselves also of the Classical Fetish, to wit: that no Latin worthwhile or worth reading has been written since the Augustan age, barring perhaps Seneca, Juvenal, and Martial. Nor let anyone say that modern Latin is "made" Latin. That is arrant nonsense. Does it follow that because someone was not born 2,000 years ago, he cannot write Latin? Or that because someone was not born nor dwells in France, he cannot write French, only "made" French? There have been written and published of late many good books in Latin suitable for youngsters of various ages and stages of development. Get those and try them in your classes. For the sake of lingua Latina viva these precepts are, I believe, vital. You must realize that nobody ever spoke the language of Cicero's orations or of Caesar's Commentaries, any more than anyone ever spoke the English of Edmund Burke's great speech or of the speeches of any other great orator, or the language found in any history book. Read Terence, Plautus, and Cicero's letters. You will see the difference. You will find an easy, simple, unaffected, often slangy Latin, comparable in every wise to the English that we all speak among our friends. Read these and try speaking. After a short time you will gain ease and find it fun. So vivat lingua Latina viva. Facite ut vobis vivat. Id, potestis, si voltis. Dixi.

APPENDIX Schoolmen's Week Committees and Program, Ί962

Schoolmen's Week Committees, 1961 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS OF THE UNIVERSITY Gaylord P. Harnwell, President David R. Goddard, Provost; Carl C. Chambers, Vice-President for Engineering Affairs; I. S. Ravdin, Vice-President for Medical Affairs; Gene D. Gisburne, Vice-President for Student Affairs; John C. Hetherston, Secretary. GENERAL COMMITTEE FOR SCHOOLMEN'S WEEK Representing the University: Helen Huus, General Chairman, Associate Professor of Education Richard S. Heisler, Executive Secretary, Assistant to the Dean, Graduate School of Education William E. Arnold, Dean, Graduate School of Education W. Norman Brown, Professor of Sanskrit Robert Clappier, Director, Houston Hall Eleanor M. Dillinger, Assistant Professor of Education John M. Fogg, Jr., Director, Morris Arboretum Jeremiah Ford, II, Director, Intercollegiate Athletics Lee O. Garber, Professor of Education J. Frederick Hazel, Professor of Chemistry John H. Keyes, Director, Buildings and Grounds Charles Lee, Vice-Dean, Annenberg School of Communications Theresa S. Lynch, Dean, School of Nursing Roy F. Nichols, Vice-Provost Albert I. Oliver, Associate Professor of Education Froelich G. Rainey, Director, University Museum Donald T. Sheehan, Director of Public Relations Otto Springer, Dean of the College Ernest Whitworth, Registrar 263

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Members outside the University: Helen C. Bailey, Associate Superintendent, School District of Philadelphia Muriel Crosby, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington, Delaware Italo de Francesco, President, Kutztown State College, Kutztown, Pa. G. C. Galphin, Dean of Admissions, Drexel Institute of Technology, Philadelphia Webster C. Herzog, Superintendent of Schools, Chester County, West Chester, Pa. Gerald Hottenstein, Superintendent of Schools, Montgomery County, Norristown, Pa. Philip U. Koopman, Superintendent, Lower Merion Township School District, Ardmore, Pa. William G. Moser, Supervising Principal, Penn-Delco Union School District, Chester, Pa. George E. Raab, Superintendent of Schools, Bucks County, Doylestown, Pa. Donald Snively, Associate Superintendent, Darby Township School District, Glenolden, Pa. Maurice Strattan, Superintendent, Tredyffrin-Easttown-Paoli Joint School District, Berwyn, Pa. G. Baker Thompson, Superintendent of Schools, Delaware County, Media, Pa. PROGRAM COORDINATORS Eleanor M. Dillinger—Elementary Education Albert I. Oliver—Secondary Education

Schoolmen's Week

Program

FIFTIETH CONFERENCE OCTOBER 10-12, 1962 Schoolmen's Week is supported financially by, and planned cooperatively with, the University of Pennsylvania, Association for Childhood Education, Delaware Valley Reading Association, Drexel Institute of Technology, Philadelphia Principals Association, Philadelphia Suburban Elementary Principals Association, Philadelphia Teachers Association, Private School Teachers Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity, and the following school districts: Abington Township, Avon-Grove Area Jointure, Brandywine Area, Bristol Borough, Camden City, Central Bucks Jointure, Cheltenham Township, Chester City, Clifton Heights, Coatesville, Collingdale Borough, Conshohocken, Council Rock, Darby-Colwyn Jointure, Deep Run Valley Jointure, Delaware County, Downingtown Jointure, Haverford Township, Interboro, Kennett Consolidated, Lansdowne-Aldan Jointure, Lower Merion, Marple-Newtown Jointure, Media, Montgomery County, Narberth, Nether Providence, New Hope-Solebury Jointure, Norristown, North Penn Jointure, Octorara, Oxford Area Consolidated, Penn-Delco Union, Pennridge Jointure, Phoenixville, Pottstown, Quakertown Community Jointure, Radnor Township, Ridley Park, Ridley Township, Rose Tree Union, Sharon Hill, Springfield Township (Delaware County), Springfield Township (Montgomery County), SwarthmoreRutledge Union, Tredyffrin-Easttown-Paoli Area, Unionville-Chadds Ford, Upland Borough, Upper Darby Township, Upper Merion Township, West Chester, Wilmington, and Yeadon. PUBLISHING AND SUPPLY HOUSE EXHIBIT THE PALESTRA 33rd and CHANCELLOR STREETS The exhibits of the publishing and supply houses offer to teachers and school administrators an opportunity to evaluate the most recent of 265

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the commercially produced equipment and materials of instruction. Those attending Schoolmen's Week are urged to familiarize themselves with the great variety of available aids to teaching and learning represented in the display. Although Schoolmen's Week endeavors to encourage exhibits of academic merit, advocacy of specific materials or products is not implied. Exhibits will remain open as follows: Thursday, October 11, 9 A.M. to 5 P.M.; Friday, October 12, 9 A.M. to 4 P.M.

SCHOOLMEN'S WEEK 1963 The Fifty-first Consecutive Meeting of Schoolmen's Week will be held Wednesday, October 9, to Saturday, October 12, 1963. SCHOOLMEN'S WEEK PROCEEDINGS The Proceedings of Schoolmen's Week may be ordered at the Registration Desk, or by addressing the University of Pennsylvania Press, 3436 Walnut Street, Philadelphia 4, Pennsylvania. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Schoolmen's Week wishes to acknowledge its indebtedness to the following individuals and organizations for their co-operation in developing the 1962 program: CONTRIBUTING SPECIALISTS Administration—Lee O. Garber, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Creative Teaching—M. Louise Lowe, Director of Elementary Education, Springfield Township Schools (Montgomery County), Oreland, Pa.; Guidance—Roderic D. Matthews, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Health, Recreation, and Physical Education—Malvena Taiz, Assistant Professor of Physical Education for Women, University of Pennsylvania; Instruction—William C. Rogers, Principal, Fulton School, Philadelphia; Mental Health —David B. Bernhardt, Assistant Director, Mental Health Association of Southeastern Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Modern Foreign Language —Ruth Kroeger, President, Modern Language Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity, and Adeline Strouse, Teacher, Swarthmore High School, Swarthmore, Pa.; Music Education—Helen E. Martin, Assistant

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Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Nursery-Kindergarten—Mary M. Lang, Lecturer on Education, University of Pennsylvania; Philosophy of Education—Frederick C. Gruber, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Programs for the Gifted— Ross L. Bortner, Assistant County Superintendent, Chester County Schools, West Chester, Pa.; Reading—Rosemary G. Wilson, President, Delaware Valley Reading Association, Philadelphia; Science—J. Frederick Hazel, Professor of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, and Robert J. Chinnis, Lecturer on Education, University of Pennsylvania; Vocational Education and Practical Arts—Walter B. Jones, Director, Vocational Teacher Education, University of Pennsylvania. PLANNING COMMITTEE Edmund Amidon, Group Dynamics Center, Temple University, Philadelphia; Hazel Ashhurst, Chairman, Professional Educational Secretaries Association, Penn Treaty Junior High School, Philadelphia; Sydney August, President, School Librarians Association of Philadelphia; David B. Bernhardt, Assistant Director, Mental Health Association, Philadelphia; Ross L. Bortner, Assistant County Superintendent, Chester County Schools, West Chester, Pa.; Anna Braun, Chairman, Pennsylvania Home Economics Association, Southeastern District, Philadelphia; Norman Calhoun, Assistant County Superintendent, Delaware County Schools, Media, Pa.; Mary Carter, Principal, Radnor Senior High School, Radnor, Pa.; Adaline Chase, Associate Professor of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania; Robert J. Chinnis, Lecturer on Education, University of Pennsylvania; Robert H. Coates, President, Adult Education Council of Philadelphia; Mary E. Coleman, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Howard Conrad, Assistant to Associate Superintendent, School District of Philadelphia; Muriel Crosby, Assistant Superintendent of Elementary Education, Wilmington Public Schools, Wilmington, Del.; Ethel G. Encke, Southeastern Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Radnor, Pa.; Helen Faust, President, Personnel and Guidance Association, Philadelphia; T. Russell Frank, Principal, Glenside-Weldon Elementary School, Glenside, Pa.; Martha A. Gable, Director of Radio and Television Education, School District of Philadelphia; Lee O. Garber, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Harry Gilbert, Pennsylvania School Press Association, Boyertown, Pa.; Frank E. Groff, President, Pennsylvania School Administra-

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tors, Eastern Division, New Hope, Pa.; Janice Guiesinger, Supervisor of Art Education, Upper Darby Township Schools, Upper Darby, Pa.; A. C. Harman, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Montgomery County, Norristown, Pa.; E. Arlene Hershberger, Principal, Winfield S. Hancock School, Norristown, Pa.; David A. Horowitz, Associate Superintendent, School District of Philadelphia; Horace Hutchinson, President, Pennsylvania Music Educators Association, Southeastern District, Morrisville, Pa.; Walter B. Jones, Director, Vocational Teacher Education, University of Pennsylvania; Marjorie E. King, Springfield Township Public Schools, Chestnut Hill, Pa.; Clair LeCompte, Professional Chairman, Special Education Association, School District of Philadelphia; Doris LeSturgeon, The Pilot School, Wilmington, Del.; Florence Loose, Counselor, Wilmington High School, Wilmington, Del.; M. Louise Lowe, Director of Elementary Education, Springfield Township Schools, Montgomery County; Evelyn G. Marcantonio, Lecturer on Education, University of Pennsylvania; Helen E. Martin, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Roderic D. Matthews, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Jean Mesner, Reading Consultant, Norristown Public Schools, Norristown, Pa.; Ruth W. Miller, Executive Director, World Affairs Council of Philadelphia; Pearle S. Norris, Pennsylvania School Counselors Association, Philadelphia; Anne M. Osborne, Director of Curriculum, Upper Darby Township Schools, Upper Darby, Pa.; Eleanor Ottinger, President, The Philadelphia Home and School Council, Philadelphia; Elwood Prestwood, Assistant Superintendent, Lower Merion Township Schools, Ardmore, Pa.; Marjorie Rankin, Assistant Dean, College of Home Economics, Drexel Institute of Technology, Philadelphia; John V. Reilly, Principal, Valley Forge Elementary School, Wayne, Pa.; Mary C. Renner, Director, Audio-Visual Instruction, Upper Darby Township Schools, Upper Darby, Pa.; Edna M. Renouf, President, Education Alumni Association of the University of Pennsylvania, Springfield, Delaware County, Pa.; William C. Rogers, Philadelphia Elementary Principals Association; William Rothstein, Counselor, Phoenixville High School, Phoenixville, Pa.; Benjamin Schleifer, Central High School, Philadelphia; Clayton Shank, President, Southeastern District Council of Social Studies, Upper Darby, Pa.; Helen Shields, Assistant Professor of Education, Beaver College, Glenside, Pa.; C. Richard Snyder, Science Teacher, Radnor Township High School, Wayne, Pa.; Margaret E. Stauffer, Chairman, Pennsylvania Association

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of Deans of Women, Wyncote, Pa.; Robert M. Stewart, President, Philadelphia Elementary Principals Association; Chester G. Stocker, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania; Adeline Strouse, Swarthmore High School, Swarthmore, Pa.; Malvena F. Taiz, Assistant Professor, Physical Education for Women, University of Pennsylvania; Cleora Teffeau, Principal, Francis X. McGraw School, Camden, N.J.; Myrtle Townsend, Supervisor of Child Study, Camden County Schools, N.J.; Ella Travis, Specialist in Elementary Mathematics, West Chester, Pa.; Charles Twining, President, Philadelphia Teachers Association; Rosemary Wilson, President, Delaware Valley Reading Association, Philadelphia; Harold H. Wingerd, Assistant Superintendent, West Chester Public Schools, West Chester, Pa.; Peter Yacyk, President, Suburban Business Teachers, Folsom, Pa.; Marechal-Neil E. Young, Principal, Sulzberger Junior High School, Philadelphia. ORGANIZATIONS Adult Education Council of Philadelphia; Association for Childhood Education; Department of Elementary School Principals, Southeastern District; Educational Secretaries Association; Folk Dance Leaders Council of Philadelphia; Home Economics Association of Philadelphia; International Reading Association, Delaware Valley Branch; Kappa Delta Epsilon; Kappa Phi Kappa; Mental Health Association of Southeastern Pennsylvania; Modern Language Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity; Pennsylvania Association of Women Deans and Counselors; Pennsylvania Audio-Visual Association for Teacher Education; Pennsylvania Home Economics Association, Southeastern District; Pennsylvania Music Education Association, Southeastern District; Pennsylvania School Administrators Association, Eastern Division; Pennsylvania School Counselors Association; Pennsylvania School Press Association; Personnel and Guidance Association of Greater Philadelphia; Phi Delta Kappa; Philadelphia Home and School Council; Philadelphia Science Teachers Association; Philadelphia Teachers Association; Pi Lambda Theta; Education Alumni Association, University of Pennsylvania; School Librarians Association of Delaware, Montgomery, and Chester Counties; School Librarians Association of Greater Philadelphia and Vicinity; Southeastern District Council of Social Studies; Special Education Association; Suburban Philadelphia Business Teachers; World Affairs Council of Philadelphia.

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REGISTRATION AND ACCOMMODATIONS COMMITTEE Alice Lavelle, Administrative

Assistant PROGRAM

Wednesday, October 10, 10:00 A.M. 1—EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA Franklin Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: A N N E B. SPEIRS, Vice-Dean of Women, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: MARGARET B. PARKE, Professor of Education, Brooklyn College, New York City Wednesday, October 10, 2:00 P.M. 2—EDUCATION IN AFRICA Franklin Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: WILLIAM W. BRICKMAN, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Education in British West Africa Speaker: VICTOR E. KING, Deputy Director of Education, Freetown, Sierra Leone, Africa Education in British East A frica Speaker: C. ARNOLD ANDERSON, Director, Comparative Education Center, University of Chicago Wednesday, October 10, 4:00 P.M. 3—A LOOK AT EDUCATIONAL T R E N D S IN PENNSYLVANIA (In co-operation with Educational Secretaries Association of Philadelphia) Auditorium, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street Chairman: HAZEL M. ASHHURST, Senior Secretary, Penn Treaty Junior High School, Philadelphia Speaker: CATHLEEN CHAMPLIN, Director, Division of Examinations, School District of Philadelphia 4—PUTTING TO WORK WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT Y O U N G CHILDREN Room 100, Ulman Building, 3944 Walnut Street

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(Of particular interest to people working with nursery school and kindergarten children) Chairman: ALICE K. WATSON, Lecturer on Education, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: LAURA HOOPER, Program Co-ordinator, Association for Childhood Education International, Washington, D.C. Thursday, October 11, 9:30 A.M. 5—THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC : A DEMONSTRATION WITH RAPID LEARNERS IN THE CONTINUOUS PRIMARY PROGRAM (In co-operation with the Philadelphia Teachers Association) Henry C. Lea School, 47th and Locust Streets Chairman and Discussion Leader: GLADYS E. NIXON, Principal, John Hancock School, Philadelphia Demonstration Teacher: JOSEF WEINSTEIN, Teacher, Henry C. Lea School, Philadelphia Demonstration Teacher: MABLE MILLER, Teacher, Henry C. Lea School, Philadelphia 6—THE NATURE OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS: HOW IT FUNCTIONS IN THE CLASSROOM Irvine Auditorium, 3401 Spruce Street Chairman: MARY E. COLEMAN, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: LORRENE LOVE ORT, Associate Professor of Education, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 7—PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AS A FIELD OF PROFESSIONAL STUDY Bishop White Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: FREDERICK C. GRUBER, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: HOBERT W. BURNS, Associate Professor of Education, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. 8—SOVIETS LOOK AT THEIR OWN SCHOOLS lin Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street

Frank-

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Chairman: SAUL SACK, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: WILLIAM W. BRICKMAN, Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania 9—DEVELOPMENTS AND HUNCHES RELATING TO MACHINES AND PROGRAMED INSTRUCTION (Part I of a two-part sequence on programed instruction) Auditorium, Asbury Church 33rd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: DAVID GUERIN, Coordinator, Teaching Resources Center, University of Delaware, Newark, Del. Panel: CHARLES S. CAMPBELL, Pennsylvania Representative of TEMAC, Monroeville—Kinds of Programs: Their Use, Present and Future; WILLIAM E. HAWLEY, Supervisor, Educational Processes, Eastman Kodak Company—Kinds of Machines: Their Use and Future Design; H U G H M. SHAFER, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania—Unsolved Problems and Side Effects of Programed Instruction 10—EDUCATION OF THE GIFTED FOR T H E NEW ECONOMIC ERA 320 College Hall, 3440 Woodland Avenue Chairman: RICHARD CURRIER, Assistant Regional Superintendent in Charge of Secondary Education, Pennsbury Schools, Fallsington, Pa. Speaker: MERLE R. SUMPTION, Professor of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. 11—A TEACHER GUIDE FOR INTERGROUP EDUCATION W-51 (Alumni Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street (Presentation and discussion of the state-wide Guide in Human Relations Education for schools in Pennsylvania) Chairman: LOUIS R. BALLEN, Coordinator for Human Relations, School District of Philadelphia Panelists: RICHARD B. ANLIOT, Co-ordinating Secretary, Committee on Human Relations, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg; A N N E WRIGHT, Former Superintendent, District # 3 , School District of Philadelphia; DAVID B. BERNHARDT, Assistant Director, Mental Health Association of Southeastern Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; MARY CON-

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STANTINE, Associate Director, Philadelphia Fellowship Commission; BRUCE JACOBS, Principal, Hopkinson Elementary School, Philadelphia 12—THE TECHNIQUE OF EFFECTIVE PARENT-TEACHER INTERVIEWS (In co-operation with the Philadelphia Home and School Association) Auditorium, Drexel, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: RUTH EWING, President, Philadelphia Home and School Council Moderator: DAVID A. HOROWITZ, Associate Superintendent, SchoolCommunity Relations, School District of Philadelphia Panel: MARIE McCLUSKEY, Member of Executive Board of Philadelphia Home and School Council; CLAIRE RAVACON, Social Worker, Hillcrest School, Upper Darby; LYDIA MOORE, Teacher, Gotwals School, Norristown; REINHOLD W. GÖLL, Principal, Louis H. Farrell School, Philadelphia 13—TEACHING READING THROUGH A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SUBJECT: LITERATURE Auditorium, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street (A Demonstration Lesson) Chairman: GLADYS GALLAGHER, Secondary School Reading Teacher, Upper Merion School District Teacher: FRANCES CRAWFORD, Abington Junior High School, Abington Demonstration: Pupils from Huntingdon Junior High School, Abington 14—DEVELOPING AN INTEGRATED HEALTH PROGRAM IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Room 100, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street Chairman: JOHN J. KUSHMA, Supervising Principal, Clifton Heights School District Speaker: CARL E. WILLGOOSE, Professor of Health Education, Boston University, Boston, Mass. 15—ART WORKSHOP: EXPLORING WITH ART MEDIA Room 301, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street (Same theme as Program 74)

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Chairman: MARY C. RENNER, Director of Audio-Visual Instruction, Upper Darby Township Schools Director: JANE BETSEY WELLING, Emeritus Professor of Education, Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich. Associate: ALICE KALES HARTWICK, Artist and Sculptor, Grosse Point Farms, Mich. Assistant: LUCILLE W. CARLTON, Art Teacher, Highland Park School, Upper Darby Note: Only 40 persons can be accommodated. Cards of admission may be obtained by writing to Schoolmen's Week, Attention: Art Workshop, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4, Pa. Enclose a self-addressed, stamped envelope. 16—PROGRAMS IN DELAWARE VALLEY TO HELP UNDERACHIEVERS IN COLLEGE, SECONDARY, AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (In co-operation with the Personnel and Guidance Association of Greater Philadelphia) A-l, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: HELEN F. FAUST, Assistant Director, Division of Pupil Personnel and Counseling, School District of Philadelphia Moderator: LEONARD M. MILLER, Specialist, Counseling Techniques, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Panel: FLORENCE MELISSA BROWN, Dean of Students, Beaver College, Glenside; MARY H. CARTER, Principal, Radnor Senior High School, Radnor; LILLIAN C. HOMELSKY, Counseling Service Supervisor, School District of Philadelphia 17—STUDY HALLS: PARKING LOTS OR EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES? A-2, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: ROBERT MARTIN, Superintendent of Schools, Bristol Township, Delhaas, Pa. Panel: IRVIN KARAM, Assistant Principal, Abington Senior High School; EVERETT A. McDONALD, JR., Regional Superintendent, Centennial Joint Schools, Johnsville; HARRY G. STOULCUP, Teacher, Wilmington High School

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Appendix Thursday, October 11, 11:00 A.M. 18—First General Session.. . . Spruce Street Organ Prelude at 10:45 A.M. At the Curtis Memorial Organ

Irvine Auditorium, 3401 Christopher McCutcheon

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES HERE A N D ABROAD Chairman: W I L L I A M E. ARNOLD, Dean, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania Schoolmen's Week in Retrospect: HELEN HUUS, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Introduction of Speaker: G A Y L O R D P. HARNWELL, President, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: G E R A L D WENDT, Former Director of Science Education, UNESCO Thursday, October 11, 2:00 P.M. 19—UNIVERSITY MUSEUM TOURS: ( A ) L A T I N A M E R I C A N INDIANS, ( B ) MESOPOTAMIA University Museum, 33rd and Spruce Streets Leader: K E N N E T H D. MATTHEWS, JR., Assistant Curator, Education Department, University Museum Assistant—Tour A: JOHN C. BECKETT, Principal, Darby Township Junior High School Assistant—Tour B: PETER J. CADDEN, Principal, Glenwood Elementary School, Rose Tree Union School District Note: Each tour will be limited to 30 people. Tickets of admission and details can be obtained by writing to Schoolmen's Week, Attention: University Museum Tour, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4, Pa. Enclose a self-addressed, stamped envelope and indicate tour preference. 20—MODERN MATHEMATICS I N T H E JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AS A F O U N D A T I O N FOR FUTURE MATHEMATICIANS . Auditorium, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street ( A demonstration lesson) Chairman: RUDOLPH SUKONICK, Head of Mathematics Department, Edison High School, Philadelphia

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Teacher: MARGARET M. REILLY, Mathematics Teacher, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Philadelphia Demonstration: Pupils from Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Philadelphia 21—TEACHER-PUPIL INTERACTION PATTERNS IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: A REPORT ON RESEARCH Bishop White Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: DORIS LESTURGEON, Director, The Pilot School, Inc., Wilmington, Del. Speaker: E D M U N D AMIDON, Assistant Professor of Education, Group Dynamics Center, Temple University, Philadelphia 22—CLASSICAL LANGUAGES: LATIN AS A LINGUA VIVA . Franklin Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: PHILIP N. LOCKHART, Assistant Professor of Classical Studies, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: GOODWIN BEACH, Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. 23—WORKSHOP: OUR EXPERIENCE WITH PROGRAMING (Part II of a two-part sequence on programed instruction) Auditorium, Asbury Church, 33rd and Chestnut Streets Section A—Grades 1-6 Workshop Coordinator: N. DEAN EVANS, Assistant County Superintendent, Delaware County Schools Workshop Consultants: M A R G A R E T S. BRIDWELL, Teacher, Ardmore Avenue School, Lansdowne; RALPH BREGMAN, Teacher, Howe School, Philadelphia; JOSEPH B. DERRY, Principal, Lincoln School, Darby Township; ALICE ASHODIAN, Teacher, Charles Russell School, Marple-Newtown; H U G H M. SHAFER, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Section Β—Grades 7-9 Workshop Coordinator: CLAYTON E. BUELL, Assistant to Associate Superintendent, School District of Philadelphia Workshop Consultants: ROBERT LEWIS, Dean of Boys, Drexel Hill Junior High School; LELAGE GROSNER, Teacher, Spring House School; ALTON W. KNAUSS, Geography Teacher, Drexel Hill Junior High School;

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MARIAN S. CURRAY, Social Studies Teacher, Darby Township Schools; EDITH J. GARFIELD, Mathematics Teacher, Masterman Laboratory and Demonstration School—Junior High Division, Philadelphia Section C—Grades 10-12 Workshop Coordinator: MARCUS KONICK, Director, Bureau of Instructional Materials and Mass Media, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg Workshop Consultants: JOHN E. BENDER, English Teacher, South Philadelphia High School; GAYLE HOW, Mathematics Teacher, Lansdowne-Aldan High School, Lansdowne; JOHN J. FAHEY, English Teacher, Haverford High School, Havertown; REGINALD H. KENT, Vicar, St. Mary's Episcopal Church, Chester; JOAN SHOEMAKER, Teacher, Howe School, Philadelphia Section D—College and University Courses Workshop Coordinator: JOANNA P. WILLIAMS, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Workshop Consultants: THEODORE L. PURNELL, Director of Student Teaching, Pennsylvania Military College, Chester; JAMES B. KRAUSE, Associate Professor, Department of Biological Science, University of Delaware, Newark, Del.; JOHN B. HOUGH, Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Temple University, Philadelphia; JANET ABBEY, Teacher, Charles Russell School, Marple-Newtown School District, Broomall 24—LOOKING BACK AT HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH (In co-operation with the English Club of Philadelphia) 320 College Hall, 3440 Woodland Avenue Chairman: IVA BYERS, Teacher, Philadelphia High School for Girls Participants: JUDY CLAPPER, Public Relations Office, Snellenburg Store, Philadelphia; MICHAEL PESTRAK, Student, Drexel Institute of Technology, Philadelphia; RUSSELL STETLER, Student, Haverford College; SHIRLEY TURPIN, Student, Cheyney State College 25—THE LINGUISTIC APPROACH TO READING W-51 (Alumni Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street

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Chairman: MORTON BOTEL, Assistant County Superintendent, Bucks County Public Schools Speaker: LAVERNE STRONG, Education Director, Random House Publishing Company, New York City 26—CURRENT TRENDS IN METHODS OF TEACHING T H E SOCIAL STUDIES IN T H E ELEMENTARY SCHOOL E-8 (Daroff Lecture Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Chairman: HELEN SHIELDS, Assistant Professor of Education, Beaver College, Glenside Speaker: DOROTHY McCLURE FRASER, Professor of Education, City University of New York, New York City 27—THE EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED CHILD IN THE REGULAR SCHOOL (In co-operation with The Mental Health Association of Southeastern Pennsylvania) Picture Gallery, Drexel, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: DONALD L. CONRAD, Chairman, Department of Health and Physical Education, Abington Senior High School, Abington Panel: A N N E WRIGHT, Former Superintendent, District # 3 , School District of Philadelphia; WILLIAM BRODSKY, Principal, J. H. Taggart and A. S. Jenks Schools, Philadelphia; SOL GORDON, Mental Health Consultant, Philadelphia; ELLAMAE BEAL, Teacher of Experimental Class, A. S. Jenks School, Philadelphia; KATHERINE THOMAS, Counseling Teacher, Fell School, Philadelphia 28—ELEMENTARY SCHOOL MUSIC: ADVENTURES IN MUSIC LISTENING Auditorium, Drexel, 32nd and Chestnut Streets (A demonstration lesson) Chairman: HELEN E. MARTIN, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Teacher: MARY PUCKETT ASHER, Music Supervisor, District # 6 , School District of Philadelphia Demonstration: Third grade children from John Story Jenks School, Philadelphia—CLAIRE DAVIDSON, Teacher 29—PLUMBING T H E DEPTHS IN TEACHING L A N G U A G E ARTS IN T H E JUNIOR H I G H SCHOOL Student Activities Center, Drexel, Southwest Corner, 32nd and Chestnut Streets

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Chairman: HERMAN E. WESSEL, Area Supervisor, Intern Teaching Program for College Graduates, Temple University, Philadelphia (A demonstration of materials and methods.) Leader: WALTER MAST, Teacher, Souderton Joint Junior-Senior High School 30—SECONDARY SCHOOL ART EDUCATION: A PROBLEMS CLINIC Room 246 Α-B, Library Center, Drexel, 3243 Woodland Avenue (This meeting is planned for group discussion of mutual problems.) Chairman: WILLIAM LEE GERMAN, Radnor Senior High School, Radnor, Pa. Panel Consultants: BENTON SPRUANCE, Professor of Fine Arts, Beaver College, Glenside; ARTHUR R. YOUNG, Head of Art Education, Philadelphia Museum College of Art; EDWARD PLANICA, Head, Department of Art Education, Moore Institute of Arts, Science, and Industry, Philadelphia; EDWARD H. HERGELROTH, Chairman, Art Education Department, Tyler School of Fine Arts, Temple University, Elkins Park; MERLE C. YOUNG, Art Teacher, Upper Merion Senior High School, King of Prussia; PAUL BERNHARD, Art Teacher, Conestoga Senior High School, Berwyn; CHARLES KINTNER, Chairman, Art Department, North Penn High School, Lansdale; DOROTHY ANSELL, Parent, Bryn Mawr; GLORIA GUY, Parent, Bryn Mawr 31—ONE ASPECT OF MOTIVATION Auditorium, Institute of Local and State Government, 39th and Walnut Streets Chairman: DONALD J. DIFFENBAUGH, Assistant County Superintendent, Montgomery County Public Schools Speaker: VICTOR MANKIN, Vocational Counselor, Wilmington Public Schools, Wilmington, Del. 32—WORKSHOP IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SCIENCE Auditorium, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street Chairman: ROBERT J. CHINNIS, Lecturer on Education, University of Pennsylvania Assistants: MARGARET ANDERSON, Teacher, Cheltenham Township Schools; MITCHELL BATOFF, Graduate Student, University of Pennsylvania; ROBERT BLOUGH, Teacher, Darby Borough Schools; FRANCES DEAL, Teacher, Lower Merion Township Schools; HERBERT DOEM-

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LING, Teacher, Tinicum Township Schools; GRACE HAYS, Teacher, Cheltenham Township Schools; BERNARD NURRY, Science Supervisor, Haverford Township Schools; STANLEY ROBINSON, Science Teacher, Chestnut Hill Academy; LORETTA SCUDERI, Teacher, School District of Philadelphia Note: Only 54 persons can be accommodated. Cards of admission may be obtained by writing to Schoolmen's Week, Attention: Science Workshop, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4, Pa. Enclose a self-addressed, stamped envelope. 33—THE CHILD'S CURRICULUM Classroom 10, Law School, 200 S. 34th Street Chairman: CATHERINE J. CARLIN, Principal, Thomas Dunlap School, Philadelphia Speaker: G E O R G E W. BOND, Principal, The Campus School, State University of New York College, New Paltz, N.Y. 34—SHARING INFORMATION Medical Alumni Hall, Maloney Building, University of Pennsylvania Hospital, Spruce Street at 36th Street Moderator: ALMA GARSIDE, Nurse-Coordinator, School District of Philadelphia Panel: WALTER H. SCOTT, Principal, Warren G. Harding Junior High School, Philadelphia; JOHN BURISS, Guidance Counselor, Neshaminy High School, Langhome; PAULINE R. CARROLL, Director, School of Nursing, Abington Hospital; MAUDE ANGELL, Home and School Visitor, Upper Darby Township Schools; ELIZABETH McHOSE, Former Associate Professor, Physical Education Department, Temple University, Philadelphia 35—ORGANIZING FOR TEAM TEACHING Auditorium, University Museum, 33rd and Spruce Streets Chairman: DOROTHEA NOBLE PAUL, Elementary School Supervisor, Lansdowne-Aldan Joint School System Speaker: PHILIP ROTHMAN, Chairman, Department of Education, Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio 36—ELEMENTARY ENOUGH

ARITHMETIC: CONCEPTS ARE NOT 17 Logan Hall, 249 S. 36th Street

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Chairman: JOSEPH J. GOLDSTEIN, Principal, Masterman Laboratory and Demonstration School, Philadelphia Speaker: MARY E. COLEMAN, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania 37—HOW THE TEACHER, SUPERVISOR, AND ADMINISTRATOR WORK TOGETHER TO IMPROVE INSTRUCTION A-2, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: WILLIAM C. ROGERS, Principal, Robert Fulton School, Philadelphia Moderator: CARL L. FROMUTH, Superintendent, District # 1 , School District of Philadelphia Panel: HARRIETTE K. BESCOE, Art Supervisor, School District of Philadelphia; MYRL W. GREENE, Teacher, Leiperville School, Ridley Township; M. LOUISE LOWE, Director of Elementary Education, Springfield Township Schools, Montgomery County; MILDRED K. RUDOLPH, Collaborating Teacher, School District of Philadelphia; ROBERT M. STEWART, Principal, Lingelbach and Hill Schools, Philadelphia 38—CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF CHEMISTRY (Part I of a two-part sequence) A-4, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: JOSEPH SCHMUCKLER, Chemistry Teacher, Haverford Senior High School, Havertown Speaker: J. ARTHUR CAMPBELL, Head, Department of Chemistry, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, Calif. 39—LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN (In co-operation with the School Librarians Association of Delaware, Chester, and Montgomery Counties) Sheraton Motor Inn, 39th and Chestnut Streets Session 1: Story Telling for Children Chairman: ROSEMARY WEBER, Elementary School Librarian, Radnor Township School District Participants: GRACE M. ZAHN, Head, Central Children's Department, Free Library of Philadelphia Session 2: Book Talks Chairman: RONALD SHAFER, Librarian, Pottsgrove Junior and Senior High School

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Participants: SARA WOY, Young Adult Community Services Specialist, and Staff, Free Library of Philadelphia Thursday, October 11, 3:45 P.M. 40—USING T H E "VISION" IN SUPERVISION Auditorium, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: T. RUSSELL FRANK, Principal, Glenside-Weldon Elementary and Junior High School, Abington Township Speaker: LORRENE LOVE ORT, Associate Professor of Education, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 41—ABDERIAN LAUGHTER IN T H E IVY TOWER Bishop White Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: FRANCIS P. CLARKE, Professor of Philosophy, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: HOBERT W. BURNS, Associate Professor of Education, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. 42—SECONDARY SCHOOL EVALUATIONS AND T H E EVALUATIVE CRITERIA: A PROBLEMS CLINIC Franklin Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street (This meeting is designed to help persons who have questions about secondary school evaluation.) Chairman: ALBERT I. OLIVER, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Consultants: WILLIAM T. BEAN, Principal, Lower Merion Senior High School, Ardmore; VERY REVEREND JUSTIN E. DINY, Headmaster, Archmere Academy, Claymont, Del.; CLARENCE T. FULMER, Principal, Wilmington High School, Wilmington, Del.; IRA R. KRAYBILL, Educational Consultant, Jenkintown; NANCY C. SAWIN, Headmistress, Sanford Preparatory School, Hockessin, Del.; J. HARVEY SHUE, County Superintendent of Schools, Clayton, N.J.; RAYMOND STEKETEE, Principal, Ewing High School, Trenton, N.J. 43—ADVENTURE IN T H E ARTS: PAINTING A N D D A N C E W-l (Ballantyne Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Leaders: GLADYS BLOCK, Art Teacher, Philadelphia High School for Girls, and MAL VENA TAIZ, Assistant Professor of Physical Education for Women, University of Pennsylvania

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Art Exhibit and Dance Demonstration: Students from Philadelphia High School for Girls and students from the University of Pennsylvania 44—DEVELOPING BASIC READING SKILLS (In co-operation with the Delaware Valley Reading Association) W-51 (Alumni Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Chairman: ROSEMARY G. WILSON, Assistant Director, Curriculum Office, School District of Philadelphia Speaker: LAVERNE STRONG, Education Director, Random House Publishing Company, New York City 45—THE NORTH ATLANTIC COMMUNITY AND THE COMMON MARKET E-8 (Daroff Lecture Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Chairman: FRANZ B. GROSS, Visiting Professor of Political Science, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: JOHN C. RENNER, Office of Atlantic Political and Economic Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 46—CENTRALIZATION OF LIBRARY ACTIVmES (In cooperation with the School Librarians Association of Greater Philadelphia and Vicinity) Room 246 Α-B, Library Center, Drexel, 3243 Woodland Avenue Chairman: JUDITH MARCUS, Librarian, Masterman Laboratory and Demonstration School, Philadelphia Speaker: SIDNEY GALFAND, Supervisor of Centralized Cataloguing, School District of Philadelphia 47—TEACHING ABOUT THE HUMAN TARY SCHOOL Room Walnut Street Chairman: N E D HASSELQUIST, Principal, Upper Merion Township Speaker: CARL E. WILLGOOSE, Professor University, Boston, Mass.

BODY IN THE ELEMEN100, Illman Building, 3944 Belmont Elementary School, of Health Education, Boston

48—EVALUATING TEACHING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Classroom 10, Law School, 200 S. 34th Street Chairman: HALL CUSHMAN, Head, Lower School, Germantown Friends School, Philadelphia Speaker: GEORGE W. BOND, Principal, The Campus School, State University of New York College, New Paltz, N.Y.

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49—A DISCUSSION OF THE STATE PROGRAMS FOR DIAGNOSIS AND REFERRAL OF EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED AND SOCIALLY MALADJUSTED CHILDREN (In co-operation with the Special Education Association) Auditorium (Room 23), Moore School of Electrical Engineering, 200 S. 33rd Street Chairman: CLAIR LECOMPTE, Teacher, Crispin School, Philadelphia Speaker: L. KATHRYN DICE, Director, Bureau of Special Services for Pupils, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg 50—TEAM TEACHING IN ACTION Auditorium, University Museum, 33 rd and Spruce Streets Chairman: JOHN V. REILLY, Principal, Valley Forge Elementary School, Tredyffrin-Easttown Joint School System, Wayne Speaker: PHILIP ROTHMAN, Chairman, Department of Education, Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio 51—SCIENCE OFFERINGS TO NON-COLLEGE STUDENTS (In co-operation with the Philadelphia Science Teachers Association) 17 Logan Hall, 249 S. 36th Street Chairman: C. RICHARD SNYDER, Chairman, Science Department, Radnor Senior High School, Radnor Panel: ARTHUR HERR, Science Teacher, Eisenhower Senior High School, Norristown; ELLIS E. HIRSHMAN, Science Teacher, Lower Merion Senior High School, Ardmore; MANUEL E. CARASCH, Coordinator of Science and Mathematics, Bok Vocational-Technical School, Philadelphia 52—THE YOUNG CHILD AND THE LEARNING PROCESS (In co-operation with the Association for Childhood Education, Philadelphia) A-2, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: FRANCES TALTAVULL, Teacher, Potter School, Philadelphia Speaker: ROBERT FLEMING, Assistant Commissioner of Education for New Jersey, Department of Education, Trenton Panel: FRANCES BECKER, Assistant Director of Child Care Centers, School District of Philadelphia; ROBERT BISPHAM, Head, Lower School, Episcopal Academy, Overbrook; MIRIAM E. JONES, Principal, The Friends School, Haverford; LOUISE T. STYLES, Supervisor of Child Study and Kindergarten Education, School District of Philadelphia

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53—EVALUATING OUR SUCCESS IN DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS (Part I of a two-part sequence—In co-operation with the Modern Language Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity) Campbell Auditorium, Basic Science Building, Drexel, Northwest Corner, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Moderator: RUTH KROEGER, Modern Language Instructor, Temple University, Ambler Campus Speaker: LEO BERNARDO, Supervisor of Foreign Languages, Junior High Division, Board of Education, New York City Thursday, October 11, 4:00 P.M. 54—NEWER TECHNIQUES IN AUDIO-VISUAL EDUCATION (In co-operation with the Home Economics Association of Philadelphia) Student Activities Center, Drexel, Southwest Corner, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: ADELE G. COLUMBIA, Head, Department of Home Economics Education, Drexel Institute of Technology The Looking, Listening, and Learning of Education (A seminar of audio-visual aids.) 55—LEADING ISSUES IN DISTRIBUTIVE EDUCATION A-4, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: KENNETH M. PFEIFFER, State Supervisor of Distributive Education, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg Speaker: JOHN A. BEAUMONT, Director, Distributive Education Branch, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Discussion Leader: SAMUEL W. CAPLAN, Director, Distributive Education Department, College of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia Friday, October 12, 8:30 A.M. 56—PENNSYLVANIA MUSIC EDUCATORS ASSOCIATION, SOUTHEASTERN DISTRICT Upper Merion High School, Crossfield Road, King of Prussia 8:30 A.M. PMEA Southeastern District Executive Committee Meeting 1 0 : 0 0 A.M.

Chairman: HORACE HUTCHINSON, Director of Music, Morrisville

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All-Philadelphia Junior Band—MICHAEL GIAMO, Conductor A Member of the State Department of Public Instruction Looks at the Future of Music in the Public Schools Speaker: M ARG ARETTA CAREY, Adviser in Music Education, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg Moderator: CLYDE DENGLER, Music Department, Upper Darby High School Panel: V A N E T T E LAWLER, Executive Secretary, MENC, Washington, D.C.; MARGARETTA CAREY, Adviser in Music Education, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg; WALTER E. LANDIS, President of Suburban Principals' Association; LOUIS WERSEN, Director of Music, School District of Philadelphia; ALAN FLOCK, President of PMEA 1 2 : 3 0 P.M.

Luncheon available in school cafeteria 1 : 4 5 P.M.

Band Music Reading Clinic Chairman: HORACE HUTCHINSON, Director of Music, Morrisville (Band made up of students in the Southeastern District Band.) Conductors: BRUCE BEACH, Lower Merion High School, Ardmore; CHESTER P. ACALEY, Penn Ridge High School, Perkasie; EDWARD IRWIN, North Brandywine Junior High School, Coatesville; PAUL M. STOUFFER, Springfield Township School District, Delaware County Choral Music Reading Clinic Chairman: WILLIAM IFERT, Downingtown Joint Senior High School, Downingtown (Audience will form the chorus.) Conductors: T H E L M A RICHARDS, Springfield Township High School, Delaware County; MARTIN HELENIC, Avon Grove High School, West Grove; CLYDE DENGLER, JR., Drexel Hill Junior High School; CHARLES SCHISLER, Interboro Junior High School, Folsom Elementary School Music Chairman: ROBERT VAUGHN, Director of Music, Chester City Schools An Approach to Part-Singing in the Elementary School Speaker: ANGELA SETTE, Teacher of Elementary School Music, Springfield Township School District, Delaware County Demonstration:

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New Material—Using children from Upper Merion Township Elementary Schools Finished Lesson—Using children from Springfield Township Schools, Delaware County Friday, October 12, 9:30 A.M. 57—COMMERCIAL MUSEUM TOUR: LEARNING ABOUT TEXTILES Commercial Museum, 34th and Convention Avenue Chairman: HERBERT DOEMLING, Graduate Student, University of Pennsylvania Co-Chairman: WILLIAM LOEB, Teacher, Plymouth Township Schools Speaker: HERBERT F. McCOLLOM, Curator of Education, Commercial Museum Note: Up to 100 persons can be accommodated but tickets of admission are necessary. Write for them to Schoolmen's Week, Attention: Commercial Museum Tour, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4, Pa. Enclose a self-addressed, stamped envelope. 58—AGRICULTURE (Joint Meeting of Agriculture Education Teachers of Bucks, Berks, Chester, Delaware, and Montgomery Counties) Longwood Gardens, Kennett Square Propagation, Care, and Use of Horticulture Plants Chairman: C. S. JACKSON, Adviser, Agriculture Education of Chester and Delaware Counties 59—LEARNING EXPERIENCES A N D MATERIALS FOR SLOWL E A R N I N G ADOLESCENTS Auditorium, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street (A two-session workshop, by application, chiefly for teachers at the secondary school level. Each of the four groups is limited to 20 members.) Cards of admission may be obtained by writing to Schoolmen's Week, Attention: Special Education Workshop, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4, Pa., not later than October 5, 1962. Please include a self-addressed, stamped envelope, specify workshop group desired, and enclose check for luncheon. General Chairman: L. KATHRYN DICE, Director, Bureau of Special Services for Pupils, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg

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Workshop 1-—Communications and Social Studies Coordinator-Recorder: MAY YOUNG, Supervisor of Special Education, School District of Philadelphia Consultants: MARIAN H. BAILLIE, Supervisor of Special Education, Delaware County Public Schools, Media; JOSEPH N. LANTZER, Special Education Teacher, Edward Hand Junior High School, Lancaster Workshop 2—Mathematics and Science Coordinator-Recorder: LOUIS SUSKIN, Supervisor of Special Education, School District of Philadelphia Consultants: ROBERT E. VIGNOVICH, Teacher, Coraopolis Junior High School; LESLIE SMALL, Teacher, Ardmore Junior High School, Lower Merion Township Workshop 3—Vocations and Homemaking Coordinator-Recorder: MARY R E M E N T E R , Supervisor of Special Education, School District of Philadelphia Consultants: LEWIS STAUFFER, Special Education Instructor, Danville Area Joint Schools, Danville; JEAN P. MUNNELL, Supervisor of Homemaking, Indiana County Public Schools, Indiana, Pa. Workshop 4—Leisure and Work-School Experiences Coordinator-Recorder: WARREN PERRY, Supervisor of Special Education, School District of Philadelphia Consultants: WILLIAM OHRTMAN, Director of Special Services, Harrisburg City Schools; WILLIAM K. KEELE, JR., Head Teacher of Special Education, Allegheny County, Carnegie Workshop Schedule: 9:30—10:00 Orientation 10:10—12:00 Workshops (four simultaneous groups) 12:15— 1:45 Luncheon—Rooms C, D, E—Christian Association, 3601 Locust Street—$2.00 2:00— 3:30 Workshops (four simultaneous groups continued) 60—DRIVER EDUCATION TEACHERS' ROLE IN T H E SAFETY

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PROGRAM Franklin Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: RAYMOND A. COLEMAN, Abington Senior High School Panel Discussion: The Role of Driver Education Teachers in Conducting Community Driver Improvement Schools Moderator: ALLEN C. HARMAN, Assistant County Superintendent, Montgomery County Schools Discussants: THOMAS CHILCOTE, Chairman, Driver Education Department, North Penn High School, Lansdale; ROBERT GRAINGER, Driver Education Instructor, Chester High School, Chester; HARRY VERDIER, Executive Director, Safety Council, Chamber of Commerce of Greater Philadelphia Area Trends in Safety Education throughout Pennsylvania Speaker: IVAN J. STEHMAN, Co-ordinator, Division of Highway Safety Education, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg 61—A SAMPLING OF CREATIVE APPROACHES TO TEACHING IN OUR CITY A N D SUBURBAN SCHOOLS Auditorium, Asbury Church, 33rd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: M. LOUISE LOWE, Director of Elementary Education, Springfield Township School District, Montgomery County Speakers: THEODORA WILBUR, Teacher, Merion Elementary School, Lower Merion Township—Creative Approaches to the Teaching of Language Arts; WILLIAM C. SEIBERLICH, JR., Social Studies-Science Collaborator, School District of Philadelphia—Creative Approaches to the Teaching of Social Studies; HELEN GERHARD, Teacher, Lynnewood Elementary School, Cheltenham Township—Creative Approaches to the Teaching of Mathematics 62—WORKSHOP ON T H E PREPARATION AND ACQUISITION OF OVERHEAD PROJECTUALS (In co-operation with the Pennsylvania Audio-Visual Association for Teacher Education—Part I of a two-part sequence on projectuals) Sunday School Room, Asbury Church, 33rd and Chestnut Streets 9 : 3 0 A . M . — 1 2 : 0 0 NOON

Chairman: RICHARD STRAYER, Professor, Audio-Visual Department, West Chester College, West Chester Participating Organizations:

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Ozalid Products Division, General Aniline and Film Corporation, Paoli; Educational Products Division, Radio Corporation of America, Cherry Hill, N. J.; Tecnifax Corporation, Pennsauken, N.J.; Thermo-Fax Sales Inc., Subsidiary of Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co., Philadelphia 63—IMPROVING T H E T E A C H I N G OF MATHEMATICS IN T H E E L E M E N T A R Y SCHOOLS Auditorium, Christian Association, 3601 Locust Street Chairman: STANLEY LANDIS, Assistant County Superintendent, Chester County Public Schools Speaker: J. F R E D WEAVER, Professor of Mathematics Education, Boston University, Boston, Mass. 64—DEVELOPING SPEECH ABILITIES O F ELEMENTARY SCHOOL C H I L D R E N Commercial Museum, 34th and Convention Avenue Chairman: MARY M. LANG, Lecturer on Education, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: JON EISENSON, Professor of Education, City University of New York, New York City 65—THE EDUCATION O F T H E CHILD O F LIMITED BACKG R O U N D : A PROGRESS A N D AN EVALUATION REPORT W-l (Ballantyne Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street (This project is part of the Great Cities School Improvement Program— an experimental program financed by the Ford Foundation and the School District of Philadelphia.) Moderator: LOUIS R. BALLEN, Co-ordinator for Human Relations, School District of Philadelphia Panel: DAVID A. HOROWITZ, Associate Superintendent, School-Community Relations, School District of Philadelphia; ALEDA E. DRUDING, Superintendent, District # 5 , School District of Philadelphia; IDA KRAVITZ, Supervisor of Elementary School Reading, School District of Philadelphia Discussants: SAMUEL P. BEARD, Principal, Harrison Elementary School, Philadelphia; DAVID KATZ, Principal, Ferguson Elementary School, Phila-

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delphia; MARCUS A. FOSTER, Principal, Dunbar Elementary School, Philadelphia 66—CURRICULUM TRENDS IN SECONDARY SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES W-51 (Alumni Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Chairman: CLAYTON K. SHENK, Head of Social Studies Department, Upper Darby High School Speaker: HOWARD H. CUMMINGS, Specialist for Social Science, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 67—IMPLEMENTING INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM E-8 (Daroff Lecture Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Chairman: JAMES VERMEYCHUK, Teacher, Chester Vocational School Speaker: C. THOMAS OLIVO, Director of Vocational Education, State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. 68—HOME ECONOMICS IN PENNSYLVANIA, 1963 Auditorium, Drexel, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: MARJORIE RANKIN, Assistant Dean, College of Home Economics, Drexel Institute of Technology Speaker: CLIO REINWALD, Co-ordinator, Family, Migrant, and Nursing Education, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg 69—EXPERIMENTAL READING PROGRAMS IN ACTION Student Activities Center, Drexel, Southwest Corner, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: JEAN MESNER, Reading Consultant, Norristown School District Panel: GEORGE W. BOND, Principal, The Campus School, State University of New York College, New Paltz, N.Y.; GLENN McCRACKEN, Director, New Castle Reading Experiment, New Castle School District, New Castle; LYNNE GOLDBERG, Teacher, Miquon School, Miquon 70—LOOKING AHEAD IN EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION Room 246 Α-B, Library Center, Drexel, 3243 Woodland Avenue Chairman: NEAL MUSMANNO, Deputy Superintendent, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg

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9 : 4 0 A . M . — 1 0 : 0 0 A.M.

Report on "Operation Alphabet" Speaker: ALEX SHEVLIN, Division of Radio and Television, School District of Philadelphia 1 0 : 0 0 A . M . — 1 0 : 3 0 A.M.

Report on Educational Television Research from NDEA Projects Speaker: WALTER STONE, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 1 0 : 3 0 A.M.—11:00 A.M.

Demonstration of Television Language Arts Lesson—VIRGINIA SHELLER, Division of Radio and Television, Philadelphia Public Schools Utilization—ELEANOR McCOOL and 6th grade pupils of Adaire School, Philadelphia 1 1 : 0 0 A . M . — 1 1 : 3 0 A.M.

Pennsylvania's Plan for Educational Television—Legislation, tVHYY Expansion, State Network, Regional Councils Speakers: R I C H A R D BURDICK, Manager, Station WHYY, Philadelphia; N. D E A N EVANS, Assistant County Superintendent, Delaware County Schools 71—SHOULD INVESTMENTS BE T A U G H T IN OUR SCHOOLS? (In co-operation with the Suburban Philadelphia Business Teachers Association) Annenberg School, 3623 Locust Street Chairman: PETER YACYK, Business Education Teacher, Ridley Township High School, Folsom Moderator: ALLEN O. FELIX, Director of Education, New York Stock Exchange Panel: WILLIAM M. POLISHOOK, Assistant Dean, College of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia; WILLIAM SELDEN, Business Education Consultant, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg; CONSTANCE DALLAS, Secretary, Investors Information Committee of Greater Philadelphia; ROYAL PLENTY, Financial Editor, The Philadelphia Inquirer 72—IMPROVING T H E E L E M E N T A R Y SCHOOL ART PROGRAM Auditorium, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street

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Chairman: ROBERT McKINNEY, Associate Professor of Art Education, West Chester State College, West Chester Speaker: MANUEL BARKAN, Professor of Art Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 73—EVALUATION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (In co-operation with the Modern Language Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity) Room 100, Dirnau Building, 3944 Walnut Street Chairman: ADELINE STROUSE, Teacher, Swarthmore High School, Swarthmore Moderator: HARRY WEINMANN, Teacher, Phoenixville High School, Phoenixville Panel: RALPH C. GEIGLE, Superintendent of Schools, Reading; HENRY F. HOFMANN, Director of Secondary Education, Rose Tree Union School District; HARRY W. KINGHAM, Superintendent of Schools, Swarthmore-Rutledge Union School District; JOSEPH MOORE, Director of Secondary Education, Paoli Area High School System 74—ART WORKSHOP: EXPLORING WITH ART MEDIA Room 301, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street (Same theme as Program IS) Chairman: MARY C. RENNER, Director of Audio-Visual Instruction, Upper Darby Township Schools Director: JANE BETSEY WELLING, Emeritus Professor of Education, Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich. Associate: ALICE KALES HARTWICK, Artist and Sculptor, Grosse Point Farms, Mich. Assistant: LUCILLE W. CARLTON, Art Teacher, Highland Park School, Upper Darby Note: Only 40 persons can be accommodated. Cards of admission may be obtained by writing to Schoolmen's Week, Attention: Art Workshop, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 4, Pa. Enclose a self-addressed, stamped envelope. 75—HOW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS CAN IMPROVE THEIR SCIENCE TEACHING Lecture Room C, Medical School, 36th and Hamilton Walk

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Chairman: E T H E L M. WILSON, Principal, Rowland Elementary School, Cheltenham School District Speaker: JOSEPH ZAFFORONI, Associate Professor of Education, Pennsylvania State University, University Park 7 6 — T E E N A G E ROADBLOCKS Medical Alumni Hall, Maloney Building, University of Pennsylvania Hospital, Spruce Street at 36th Street Chairman: ESTHER DEATERLY, School Nurse, Quakertown Community Joint Schools, Quakertown Speakers: D O N A L D J. OTTENBERG, Director of Case Detection, Philadelphia Tuberculosis and Health Association; JAMES MAESTRI, Public Health Supervisor, Philadelphia, U.S. Public Health Service 77—ADMISSIONS TO COLLEGE Auditorium (Room 23), Moore School of Electrical Engineering, 200 S. 33rd Street Chairman: LOIS G O U L D BREAM, Director of Guidance, Cheltenham High School, Wyncote Panel: C. KIRK GREER, Director of Admissions, Temple University, Philadelphia; T H E O D O R E P. VASSALLO, Director of Admissions, Temple University Technical Institute; SAMUEL L. CLAUSER, Director of Guidance, Conestoga High School, Berwyn 78—PHYSICAL EDUCATION A N D ATHLETICS (In co-operation with the Southeastern District for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation) Irvine Auditorium, 3401 Spruce Street Chairman: E T H E L G. ENCKE, Director of Girls' Physical Education and Athletics, Radnor Senior High School, Radnor The National Youth Fitness Program Speaker: SIMON McNEELY, Director of State and Federal Relations, President's Council on Youth Fitness, Washington, D.C. Panel Moderator: RUSSELL STURZEBECKER, Director, Health Education, West Chester State College, West Chester Youth Fitness Programs in Our Schools Today Panel Moderator: RUSSELL STURZEBECKER, Director, Health Education, West Chester State College, West Chester Discussants: MILLARD ROBINSON, Swarthmore-Rutledge High School, Swarth-

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more; KAY MARGERUM, Supervisor, Student Teaching, West Chester State College The speaker will be available for conferences following the meeting. 79—WAYS TO STRENGTHEN THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAM IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CLASSROOM A-2, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: HARRY R. HENLY, Assistant County Superintendent, Delaware County Schools Speaker: DOROTHY McCLURE FRASER, Professor of Education, City University of New York, New York City 80—THE CHEMICAL EDUCATION MATERIALS STUDY A-4, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: JOSEPH SCHMUCKLER, Chemistry Teacher, Haverford Senior High School, Havertown Speaker: J. ARTHUR CAMPBELL, Head, Department of Chemistry, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, Calif. Friday, October 12, 11:00 A.M. 81—Second General Session Spruce Street Organ Prelude at 10:45 A.M.

Irvine Auditorium, 3401 . . . Christopher McCutcheon At the Curtis Memorial Organ

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES HERE AND ABROAD Chairman: THOMAS E. McMULLIN, Vice-Dean, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania Schoolmen's Week in Retrospect: RICHARD S. HEISLER, Assistant to the Dean, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania Introduction of Speaker: DAVID R. GODDARD, Provost, University of Pennsylvania Speaker: HARRY N. RIVLIN, Dean of Teacher Education, The City University of New York, New York City Friday, October 12, 1:00 P.M. 82—SCHOOLMEN'S WEEK: ITS WORTH TO THE ELEMENTARY

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SCHOOL PRINCIPAL (In co-operation with the Department of Elementary School Principals, Southeastern Region) Sheraton Motor Inn, 39th and Chestnut Streets (A panel of elementary school principals discussing, reviewing, and evaluating five selected Schoolmen's Week sessions) Chairman: FRANCIS Ε. HANNEY, Principal, Paoli Elementary School, Tredyffrin-Easttown-Paoli Joint Schools Moderator: J. MAURICE STRATTAN, Superintendent of Schools, Tredyffrin-Easttown Elementary Schools and Paoli Area High School System, Berwyn Friday, October 12, 2:00 P.M. 83—THE TRAGEDY O F SCHOOL DROPOUTS Irvine Auditorium, 3401 Spruce Street Chairman: ROBERT C. TABER, Director, Pupil Personnel and Counseling, School District of Philadelphia Speaker: MARY C. KOHLER, Author, Lecturer, and Consultant, New York City 84—LEARNING EXPERIENCES A N D MATERIALS FOR SLOWLEARNING ADOLESCENTS Auditorium, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street A continuation of Program 59. Open only to those registered in morning session. 85—WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL JUNIOR H I G H SCHOOL STUDENT? Franklin Room, Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street (A report of a project at Furness Junior High School) Chairman: BERNARD G. KELNER, Principal, Furness Junior High School, Philadelphia Panel: JOHN DOLAN, Teacher, Furness Junior High School, Philadelphia; LILLIAN RUSSO, Graduate Student, Columbia University, New York City; JOHN STEVENS, Vice-Principal, Stoddart-Fleisher Junior High School, Philadelphia; DONALD TUMINI, Teacher, Furness Junior High School, Philadelphia; WILLIAM YOUNG, Assistant Professor of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia 86—WORKSHOP ON THE PREPARATION AND ACQUISITION O F OVERHEAD PROJECTUALS (In co-operation with the Penn-

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sylvania Audio-Visual Association for Teacher Education—Part Π of a two-part sequence on projectuals) Sunday School Room, Asbury Church, 33rd and Chestnut Streets Chairman: RICHARD P. WEAGLEY, Professor, Audio-Visual Department, West Chester State College, West Chester Participating Organizations: Ozalid Products Division, General Aniline and Film Corporation, Paoli; Radio Corporation of America, Educational Products Division, Cherry Hill, N.J.; Tecnifax Corporation, Pennsauken, N.J.; Thermo-Fax Sales Inc., Subsidiary of Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co., Philadelphia 87—CREATING GOOD BOOKS FOR CHILDREN Auditorium, Christian Association, 3601 Locust Street Chairman: HELEN HUUS, Associate Professor of Education, University of Pennsylvania Speakers: TASHA TUDOR, Author and Illustrator, Contoocook, N.H.; EDWIN TUNIS, Author and Illustrator, Reistertown, Md. Panel: BARBARA AGRE, Teacher, Aronimink School, Upper Darby; LINDA BERGER, Teacher, Highland Park School, Upper Darby; A N N E D. EMMONS, Student, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania 88—OUR CHANGING SPEECH PATTERNS Commercial Museum, 34th and Convention Avenue Chairman: THOMAS H. HAEFNER, Principal, Highland Park School, Upper Darby Speaker: JON EISENSON, Professor of Education, City University of New York, New York City 89—A

SEVEN-YEAR LOOK AT THE NEW MATHEMATICS W-l (Ballantyne Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Chairman: ELWOOD L. PRESTWOOD, Assistant Superintendent, Lower Merion Township Schools, Ardmore Speaker: ALBERT E. MEDER, Vice-Provost, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. 90—TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION (Alumni Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street

W-51

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Chairman: WILLIAM E. BRUNTON, Director, Vocational and Industrial Education, School District of Philadelphia Impact of Current Industrial Changes on Trade and Technical Education Speaker: C. THOMAS OLIVO, Director, Division of Industrial Education, State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. The Effects of Automation on Industrial Arts and Vocational-Technical Education Speaker: ERNEST O. KOHL, Superintendent, District # 6 , School District of Philadelphia 91—INNOVATIONS IN INDUSTRIAL ARTS E-8 (Daroff Lecture Hall), Dietrich Hall, 3620 Locust Street Chairman: E D W A R D KABAKJIAN, Industrial Arts Instructor, Octorara Junior High School, Atglen Co-Chairman: ROBERT RAPP, JR., Industrial Arts Instructor, Keith Junior High School, Horsham Creative Design in Industrial Arts Speaker: EARL M. WEBER, Associate Professor, Industrial Arts Education, Millers ville State College, Millersville Demonstrations: EARL F. BERNHARDT, Patterson Brothers, Trenton, N.J.—Aids and Devices in Teaching Electronics·, FRANCIS KAFKA, Associate Professor, Millersville State College, Millersville—Graphic Arts in Industry·, MICHAEL DILISIO, Technical Representative, Eutectic Welding Alloys Corporation, Middle Atlantic States Division, Philadelphia—Eutectic Welding 92—EVALUATING OUR SUCCESS IN DEVELOPING L A N G U A G E SKILLS (Part II of a two-part sequence—In co-operation with the Modern Language Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity) Student Activities Center, Drexel, Southwest Corner, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Moderator: H E L E N BLACK, Teacher, Abington Senior High School, Abington Panel: P A U L LAMORGIA, Cheltenham High School, Wyncote; H E R T A STEPHENSON, Head of Foreign Language Department, Booth School, Rosemont; JERRY CAPONIGRO, South Philadelphia High School, Philadelphia; A N N E T T E E M G A R T H , Modern Language Co-ordinator, State of Delaware

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93—DEVELOPMENTAL WRITING IN T H E SECONDARY SCHOOL Annenberg School 3623 Locust Street Chairman: FRANCES NYE, Head of English Department, MarpleNewtown Senior High School, Newtown Square Speaker: NELL MURPHY, Associate Professor of Secondary Education, Pennsylvania State University, University Park 94—DEVELOPING ART CONCEPTS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Auditorium, Illman Building, 3944 Walnut Street Chairman: H. JANICE GUIES INGER, Supervisor of Art, Upper Darby Township Schools Speaker: MANUEL BARKAN, Professor of Art Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 95—EMOTIONAL CONFLICTS AS REFLECTED IN TEACHING Classroom 10, Law School, 200 S. 34th Street Chairman: DAVID B. BERNHARDT, Assistant Director, Mental Health Association of Southeastern Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Speaker and Discussant: B. PERRY OTTENBERG, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania 96—IMPROVING T H E SCIENCE PROGRAM IN T H E ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Lecture Room C, Medical School, 36th and Hamilton Walk Chairman: ALFRED CASTALDI, Principal, Cynwyd Elementary School, Lower Merion Township Schools Speaker: JOSEPH ZAFFORONI, Professor of Education, Pennsylvania State University, University Park 97—WORKING WITH EMOTIONALLY HANDICAPPED CHILDREN IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Medical Alumni Hall, Maloney Building, University of Pennsylvania Hospital, Spruce Street at 36th Street (A report of two pilot projects supported by the Fels Foundation) Chairman: PEARLE S. NORRIS, Counseling Service Supervisor, School District of Philadelphia Moderator: ANNE WRIGHT, Former Superintendent, District # 3 , School District of Philadelphia Panel Participants: MORRIS BERKOWITZ, Principal, Key School, Philadelphia; WILLIAM

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BRODSKY, Principal, A. S. Jenks School, Philadelphia; CHARLES CICACE, Executive Director, St. Martha's House, Philadelphia 98—EDUCATION ABROAD Auditorium (Room 23), Moore School of Electrical Engineering, 200 S. 33rd Street Chairman: ROSEMARY L. KÖSTER, Elementary Consulting Teacher, District # 7 , School District of Philadelphia Discussants: SHIRLEY STEPHEN, Elementary Consulting Teacher, District # 5 , School District of Philadelphia; MARGARET G. McLAUGHLIN, Head, Department of English, Lansdowne-Aldan High School, Lansdowne Panel: Exchange teachers in the Philadelphia area 99—TEACHING BASIC CONCEPTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 17 Logan Hall, 249 S. 36th Street Chairman: VIOLA HILBERT, Principal, Aronimink School, Upper Darby Speaker: J. FRED WEAVER, Professor of Mathematics Education, Boston University, Boston, Mass. 100—OUR NEW GEOGRAPHICAL HORIZONS A-2, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: ROBERT L. GRIMM, Director of Elementary Education, Upper Darby Township Schools Speaker: DOROTHY McCLURE FRASER, Professor of Education, City University of New York, New York City 101—CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS FOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF CHEMISTRY (Part II of a two-part sequence) A-4, Physical Sciences Building, 33rd and Walnut Streets Chairman: JOSEPH SCHMUCKLER, Chemistry Teacher, Haverford Senior High School, Havertown Speaker: J. ARTHUR CAMPBELL, Head, Department of Chemistry, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, Calif. Saturday, October 13, 9:30 A.M. 102—THE ROLE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE ATLANTIC COMMUNITY (The World Affairs Council of Philadelphia in co-operation with the Philadelphia Board of Trade and Conventions)

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Ballroom, Commercial Museum, 34th and Convention Avenue (Interscholastic Senior High School Forum.) Moderator: CHARLES K. HAY, Auxiliary District Superintendent, School District of Philadelphia Speaker: DAVID W. MACEACHRON, Program Associate, Ford Foundation, New York City Participants: Approximately 400 students from over 100 public, private, and diocesan schools in the Delaware Valley area participate regularly in the series of Interscholastic Senior High School Forums, the first of which is scheduled as part of Schoolmen's Week. Note: The Forums are planned and managed by the students through their duly elected student councils, with the help of the Student Activities Department of the World Affairs Council and the faculty advisers at the schools. The purpose is to stimulate interest in foreign affairs, to provide opportunities for students to become well informed in the field, and to encourage civic responsibility for American foreign policy. The program serves to illustrate the contribution of a community agency towards enriched educational experience. Seats are available for spectators; teachers of social studies may find this meeting particularly valuable. LUNCHEONS AND DINNERS Wednesday, October 10, 6:00 P.M. 103—DINNER MEETING: GUIDANCE AND PERSONNEL WORKERS (In co-operation with the Personnel and Guidance Association of Greater Philadelphia) Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street Chairman: ALBERT A. BELL, District Executive Director, B'nai Brith Vocational Service, Philadelphia Guidance for the Underachiever with Superior Ability Speaker: LEONARD M. MILLER, Specialist, Counseling Techniques, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Reservations with check should be made not later than Friday, October 5, by addressing Mr. E. Bruce Kirk, 2503 Lombard Street, Philadelphia 46, Pa. Price—$2.50

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104—DINNER MEETING: EASTERN DIVISION, PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS ASSOCIATION Upper Merion Senior High School, King of Prussia Chairman: WILLIAM E. ARNOLD, Dean, Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania Problems Encountered in School District Reorganization Speaker: MERLE R. SUMPTION, Professor of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Reservations should be sent to Dr. Harold Martin, Superintendent, Upper Merion School District, King of Prussia, Pa., by October 1, 1962 (Telephone 265-1500). Price—$2.50 Thursday, October 11, 12:00 NOON 105—LUNCHEON MEETING: LIBRARIANS ASSOCIATION OF DELAWARE, CHESTER, AND MONTGOMERY COUNTIES Sheraton Motor Inn, 39th and Chestnut Streets Chairman: MARCIA Ζ. KRYSA, Librarian, Plymouth-Whitemarsh Junior-Senior High School, Plymouth Meeting Speaker: WILLIAM BONYUN, Folk Singer, Heirloom Records, Brookhaven, N.Y. Reservations, accompanied by check for $3.25 (gratuity and tax included) should be sent by October 8, 1962, to Mrs. Catherine Hand, Librarian, Upper Merion Senior High School, King of Prussia, Pa. Tickets will not be mailed. Reservations will be checked at the door. Friends and guests of Schoolmen's Week are welcome to attend the luncheon. 1:30 p.m.—2:00 P.M. Business Meeting and visits to exhibition rooms Meeting # 39 will follow the Business Meeting Thursday, October 11, 12:15 p.m. 106—EDUCATION ALUMNI ASSOCIATION LUNCHEON, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Egyptian Room, University Museum, 33rd and Spruce Streets Chairman: E D N A M. RENOUF, Elementary Supervisor, Springfield Township Schools, Delaware County The Foreseeable World of the Future Speaker: GERALD WENDT, Former Director of Science Education, UNESCO

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Presentation of Citation to James A. Mulhern, Emeritus Professor of Education Reservations accompanied by check for $2.80 payable to the Education Alumni Association should be sent by Thursday, October 4, to Eleanor D'Amelio, 102 North Drexel Avenue, Havertown, Pa. (Phone—Hilltop 6-9317). Tickets will not be mailed. Reservations will be checked at the door. Friends and guests of Schoolmen's Week are welcome to attend this luncheon. Thursday, October 11, 6:00 P.M. 107—DINNER MEETING: PENNSYLVANIA HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION, SOUTHEASTERN DISTRICT Ryder Club, Drexel, 32nd and Chestnut Streets International Congress of Home Economics, Paris, France, July, 1963 Chairman: ANNA K. BRAUN, Teacher, Philadelphia High School for Girls Speaker: DORIS MYERS, Professor of Home Economics, Margaret Morrison Carnegie College, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh Annual Business Meeting of the District Reservations should be sent to Anna K. Braun, 618A School Lane House, 5450 Wissahickon Avenue, Philadelphia 44, Pa., by October 5, 1962. 108—THE SEVENTY-FIVE CLUB Sheraton Motor Inn, 39th and Chestnut Streets Chairman: WILLIAM C. LADERER, Principal, Washington School, Mt. Lebanon Our Latin-American Neighbors Speaker: CLEMENT MOTTEN, Professor of History, Temple University, Philadelphia Reservations should be made through Allen C. Harman, Assistant County Superintendent, Montgomery County Schools, Court House, Norristown, Pa., by Monday, October 8, 1962. Thursday, October 11, 6:15 P.M. 109—PHI DELTA KAPPA AND PI LAMBDA THETA DINNER MEETING Memorial Hall, Christian Association, 3601 Locust Street Chairman: GEORGE W. HOEHLER, Administrative Assistant to the Superintendent, Upper Darby Township Schools

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Occupational Practice Programs Speaker: ROBERT W A Y N E CLARK, Principal, Thomas Edison High School, Philadelphia Presentation of Portrait of Dean Frank Pierrepont Graves by the President of the Eta Chapter, Pi Lambda Thêta: G E R A L D I N E KELSEY, Teacher, Hunter School, Philadelphia Acceptance for the University: D O N A L D K. ANGELL, Vice-President, Assistant to the President, University of Pennsylvania Informal dinner for all Pi Lambda Thetans and Phi Delta Kappans regardless of chapter, and guests. For reservations, write Phi Delta Kappa, 3812 Walnut Street, Philadelphia 4, Pa., by October 5, 1962. Price—$2.50 Friday, October 12, 12:00 NOON 110—LUNCHEON M E E T I N G : D E P A R T M E N T O F ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS, SOUTHEASTERN REGION, P.S.E.A. Sheraton Motor Inn, 39th and Chestnut Streets Meeting #82 will follow the luncheon. Please send reservations to Francis Hanney, Paoli Elementary School, Fennerton Road and Central Avenue, Paoli, Pa., by October 5, 1962. Price—$3.00 111—LUNCHEON (In co-operation with Pennsylvania School Counselors Association) Houston Hall, 3417 Spruce Street An opportunity to eat together is provided for school counselors and others interested in guidance services. No program. Reservations should be sent to R. D. Matthews, 3812 Walnut Street, Philadelphia 4, Pa., before Friday, October 5, 1962. Price—$1.65 112—LUNCHEON M E E T I N G : PENNSYLVANIA ASSOCIATION O F WOMEN'S DEANS A N D COUNSELORS Picture Gallery, Drexel, 32nd and Chestnut Streets Psychiatric Consultation and the Guidance Process Chairman: M A R G A R E T E. STAUFFER, Counselor, Thomas Williams Junior High School, Wyncote Speaker: THOMAS WRIGHT, Abington Clinic, Abington Hospital, Abington Please send reservations with check for $2.25 to Margaret E. Stauffer, Thomas Williams Junior High School, Wyncote, Pa., by October 5, 1962.

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Friday, October 12,12:30 P.M. 113—LUNCHEON: INDUSTRIAL ARTS AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Room A, Christian Association, 3601 Locust Street Send reservations to H. Halleck Singer, 3810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia 4, Pa., by October 5, 1962. Please specify fish or meat. Price—$1.75

Index ABC Broadcasting studios, 89 Aborigines, 79 Achievement tests, 43 Adams, John, 124 Advanced degrees, 83 African world, 25 Agassiz, Louis, 188 Agricultural schools, 113 Agriculture, 24; in Libya, 112 American English, beginnings, 232 Analytic Philosophy, 134 Anderson, Robert H., 162 "And N o Bells Ring" (film), 168 Antioch School, the, 176 Antiseptic fallacy, in educational philosophy, 156 A N ZU S pact, 193 Appendix, Schoolmen's Week Committees and Programs, 1962, 262 Appointing teachers, 67 Aquinas, St. Thomas, 123 Arab World, the, 25 Arbuthnot, May Hill, 13 Arnold, William E., 15 Arsen'ev, A. M., 103 Art, in a changing world, 28 Ash, Lane C., 109 Assimilation, of in-migrants, 41 Assistant principals, selection, 69 Atkinson, Brooks, 241 Atomic challenge, 28 Atomic power, 30 Audio-Visual Bureau, 89 Augustine, St., 123 Aurelius, Marcus, 123 Australia, characteristics, 80; education in, 79 Australian Council for Educational Research, 83, 91 Automation, 35

Avignon, 251 Aydelotte, Frank, 12 Babcock, Philip G., 239 Bach, Theresa, 94 Bagley, W. C „ 17 Baynham, Dorsey, 162, 168 Behaviorists, 150 Benton, William, 95 Benjamin, Harold, 18 Bereday, George Z. F., 103 Bernshtein, M. S., 107 Betts, Emmett Α., 13 Birth control, 33 Blackfriars Correspondence School, 89 Bloom, Benjamin S., 86 Boulding, Kenneth E., 23 Brandwein, Paul, 18 Brickman, William, 94 Briggs, Thomas Α., 12 Bronstein, Arthur J., 229 Burns, Hobert W., 119, 140 Butler, Nicholas Murray, 12 Butts, R. Freeman, 83 Caen, Herb, 240 Canberra University, 85 Carnegie Foundation, 91 Carpenter, Helen M., 214 Castetter, William B., 15 Center, Stella S., 13 Challenge, for creativity, 198, 200 Cheap degree, 74 Cheyney, Edward P., 15 Cicero, 258 Cities, 24; teachers, 39; teacher supply, 45 Civilization, 24 Clarke, Harold S., 13 Colombo Plan, 86, 93

Index Comenius, 122, 123 Common Market, 25, 110 Commonwealth Office of Education, 81 Communication, 73 Communism, 31 Compound words, 235 Congress of Scientists on Survival, 31 Conjugations, 248 Connell, William, 87 Cooperation Project in Educational Administration, 153 Correspondence schools, 82 Cosmic point of view, 27 Counts, George S., 14, 94, 128 Creative process, nature of, 193-211 Credit, 113 Criticism, of Russian education, 97, 102 Culturally handicapped, 43 Cultural patterns, 216 Current Affairs, 219 Curriculum construction, 88; in urban schools, 51 Dean, Stuart, E., 163 Deductive logic, 145 Democracy and Education, 127 Democracy, and education, 92 Demonstration schools, 89 Dengler, Paul E„ 17 Departmentalization, 161 Dewey, John, 94, 120, 122, 127 DeWitt, Nicholas, 95 Dialects, 237 Discipline, 92 Dropouts, in Russia, 106 Duggan, Stephen, 18 Economy in education, 65 Educational changes in Russia, 94 Educational Facilities Laboratory, 189 Educational leadership, 74 Educational Policies Commission, 98 Education, as art, 130; interdisciplinary, 154; foundations, 131; function, 25; national objectives, 92; planning, 92; philosophy, 119; problems of

307 cities, 40; Russian, 30; scientific movement, 125 Education in Soviet Russia, 94 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 95 Eisenson, Jon, 229 Empirical revolution, 125 Empiricism, 119 Entrance exams, in Russia, 102 Erasmus, 252 Evanston Township High School, 180 Examinations, for teachers, 68 Exchange system, 66, 67 Experimentalism, 132 Factualism, 127 Fallacies, of educational philosophy, 141 Field theory, 148, 149 Finney, John W„ 26 First International Congress for Living Latin, 251 Food and Agriculture Organization, 33 Ford Foundation, 160, 175 Foreign Language teaching, in Russia, 102 Forestry School, 82 Fox Run School, 180 Fraser, Dorothy M., 212 Froebel, Friedrich, 123 Gans, Roma, 14 Garver, Francis M., 15 Germany, 32 Gestalt theory, 147 Glenn, John, 79 Goethe, J. W. von, 246 Göll an, W. E„ 84 Good, Carter V., 18 Grade level themes, for social studies, 219 Great Cities Program for School Improvement, 45 Grizzell, E. D., 15 Grouping, 167 Growth, and development, 197 Growth metaphor, 136 Gruber, Frederick C., 15

308 Hall, G. Stanley, 121 Harvard Committee, 18 Heisler, Richard S., 15 Herbart, Johann, 121, 123 Hindus, Maurice, 96 Hoffman, Howardine, 217 Hooper, Laura, 14 Hutchins, Robert M., 95 Huus, Helen, 11, 15 Idealism, 126 Idiom, 231 Illiteracy, 34 In-Basket technique, 69 Independence fallacy, in philosophy of education, 151 Individual differences, 64 Individualized study, 188 Infants school, 82 In-migrant, 40-44; as teachers, 60; learning problems, 46 In-service Education, 74, 165; for preparation of teachers, 54 Inspiration, in creativity, 203 Instructional aides, 165, 166 Instructional media, 61 Intelligence tests, 43 International Atomic Energy Agency, 33 International Labor Organization, 114 International Reading Association, 89 International trade, 30 Interns, teaching, 55 Involvement, in creative learning, 195 Jacobs, Lei and B., 204 James, Preston E., 223 James, William, 122 Japan, 32 Jefferson, Thomas, 233 Job descriptions, 169 Johnson, Hugh S., 240 Jones, Arthur J., 15 Jones, Henry, 124 Judd, Charles Hubbard, 13 Junior technical school, 82 Kandel, J. L„ 17, 95

INDEX Kanter, Claude E„ 240 Kant, Immanuel, 123 Kellog Fund, 153 Kelly, Walt, 242 Kenmore Junior High School, 179 Khrushchev School Law, 105 Kilpatrick, W. H., 13 King, LeRoy Α., 15 Krathwohl, D. R„ 86 Kreisler, Fritz, 200 Kress, Roy, 14 Laboratory schools, 46 Lancastrian system, 174 Large-group instruction, 185 Latin, 246 Lawson, Robert, 205 Leadership, educational, 76 Learning climate, 196 Leaving Certificate Examination, 82 Liberal arts graduates, as teachers, 57 Libya, 112 Lingelbach, William E., 16 Locke, John, 123 Logic, 142 Logical implication, of a philosophy, 143 Logical positivism, 134 London, Ivan D., 97 McAulay, John S., 217 Mann, Horace, 123 Materialists, 36 Mariner, 2, 26 Mearns, Hughes, 13 Mencken, H. L„ 233 Melbourne Australia, 91 Middleton, Drew, 236 Miller, Leonard, 14 Ministry of Education, Russia, 101 Minnick, John H„ 12, 16 Monroe, Paul, 120 Mobley, Dennis, 18 Moral basis of education, 155 Morris, Gouverneur, 235 Morse, Arthur D., 168 Moscow, University of, 102 Motivation, 63

Index Mozart, 199 Murray Committee, 85 Nancarrow, James E., 18 National Association of Secondary School Principals, 18 National Council for the Social Studies, 212 National Defense Education Act, 18 National Science Foundation Act, 18 National Society for the Study of Education, 122 National Teachers Association, 121 Navon, Anita, 106 Ν. Ε. Α., 122 Nearing, Scott, 94,187 New Guinea, 90 New media, and creativity, 206 New South Wales, 88, 89 Noah, Harold, 107 Obsolence, of knowledge, 42 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 95 Ort, Lorrene Love, 193 Oswego experiment, 121 Pacific Islands, The, 115 Parke, Margaret B., 76 Parker, Chester, 120,123 Parker, Col. Francis, 122 Pay, for teaching interns, 56 Penniman, Josiah H., 16 Pestalozzi, Johann, 121,123 Peterson, Francis E., 128 Philosophy of Education, 119 Physical education, 88 Pittsburg program for team teaching, 177 Pinchot, Gifford, 12 Plato, 123 Piatt, Harrison, Jr., 239 Pope John ΧΧΙΠ, 254 Population mobility, 39 Pragmatism, 150 Preschool education, 82 Principal in city schools, 68; appointment, 69 Private schools, in Australia, 82

309 Professional climate, 74 Programed material, 61, 63, 65 Progressive Education, 133 Pronunciation, of Latin, 256 Provisional teachers, 68 Psychological Fallacy, of educational philosophy, 146 Psycho-physicalism, 138 Puerto Ricans, 42 Pupil turnover, 41 Pupil dropouts, in Russia, 103 Qu in tili an, 123, 258 Radnor (Pa.) Junior High School, 174 Rationalism, 120 Raup, R. Bruce, 128 Read, Gerald H., 103 Readiness, for social studies concepts, 218 Reading machines, 89 Realism, 126 Religion, in Russia, 96 Reiler, Theodore L., 15 Renfield, Richard Lee, 98 Rickover, Hyman G., 95 Riesman, David, 160 Rivlin, Harry N., 39 Rothman, Phillip, 159,174 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 123 Ruediger, William C., 120,123 Rugg, Harold O., 12 Russell, James E., 16 Russia, Ministry of Education, 101; preparation for college, 100; vocational schools, 110 Russian education, shortcomings, 100 Salisbury, Harrison E., 96 Saltanov, I., 102 Sarafin, Armen, 217 Saudek, Robert, 18 Scheffier, Israel, 134 Schlesinger, Ina, 97, 106 Scholasticism, 126, 133 School and Society, 97 Schoolmen's Week, 11-19 School of the Air, 91

310 SE ATO, 93 Segregation, 41 Selection of assistant principals, 69 Sequential development, 213 Seilitz, Ben, 14 Shaplin, Judson T., 162 Sharpe, Myron E., 107 Sheldon, Edward, 121 Shimkin, Demitri, 241 Singer, Ira J., 162 Slosson, Edwin G., 17 Small-group instruction, 187 Smith, Edgar Fahs, 16, 28 Social Reconstructionists, 132 Social Studies, content, 215; elementary, 212; goals, 215 South Pacific Commission, 115 Soviet Criticisms of Soviet Education, 98 Soviet Education, 97 Soviet schools, 94 Soviet Society, 106 Soviet Union, 25 Space age, impact of, 25 Space research, 25 Speech patterns, 229 Spontaneity, in creativity, 201 Spring, Leverett W„ 186 Sputnik, 94 Superintendent, of city schools, 66 S U P R A D , 159 Sukhomlinskii, V., 106 Staffing urban schools, 48 State control of education, 81 State Ministers f o r Education, Australia, 85 Stevenson, Adlai, 95 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 204 Steward, Julian H., 241 Stimulus, 147 Stoltz, George, 253 Strike, teachers', 39 Student teachers, 67 Sydney, University of, 86 Teacher aides, 161; appointment, 68; assistant, 53; dedicated, 73; education, 66; for urban schools, 49,

INDEX 52-57; inexperienced, 70; in-service training, 54; interns, 178; morale, 71, 166; preparation, 47; salary, effect on morale, 72; shortage, 60; specialization, 165; supply, f o r cities, 45 Teacher Training Institute, of Russia, 104 Teaching, difficulty of, 71; machines, 64; procedures, 61 Team teaching, 52, 159; advantages, 163; costs, 163, 183; criticisms, 182; defined, 170; effect on students, 166; facilities for, 170; organization, 168, 183; projects, 160; scheduling, 171; teacher education, 54; values of, 53, 54 Technical assistance, 116 Technical Education, in Russia, 111 Technological changes, 110 Television, educational, 61, 62 Telstar, 29 Tenure, 69 Terman, Lewis, 127 Textbooks, social studies, 215 The New Schools of New Russia, 94 Thomas, Charles Kenneth, 229 Thorndike, Edward, 120 Time, the challenge of, 36 Trace, Arthur S., 103 Trump plan, 159, 175, 186 Trump, J. Lloyd, 168 Underprivileged areas, 50 UNESCO, 30, 34 United Nations, 32 United States, 25 University-school cooperation, 65 Updegraff, Harlan, 14 Urban schools, difficulties, 75 U.S.S.R., 85 Utica experiment, 121 Values, 130 Venus, 26 Vocational education, 109 Vovchenko, G „ 102

311

Index Wagner, Charles Α., 12 Walton, George Α., 13 Washburae, Carleton, 14 Webster, Noah, 233 Wendt, Gerald, 23 Wesley, Edgar B„ 213 West Germany, 32 West, Robert, 240 Wilson, Lucy L. W„ 94 Winchell, Walter, 241

Witherspoon, Clinette, 163 Witherspoon, John, 232 Woody, Thomas, 95 Work, for adolescents, 41; value of, 38 World Health Organization, 33 Wylie, Joyce, 87 Wyndham Report, 85, 88 Zipf, George K„ 243