Constructing Shadows: Pergolas, Pavilions, Tents, Cables, and Plants 9783034610735, 9783034607148

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Constructing Shadows

Constructing Shadows Pergolas, Pavilions, Tents, Cables, and Plants Peter Petschek, Siegfried Gass (eds.)

Birkhäuser Basel

Contents Essays 7 8 12 22 44 50 54 58

Introduction Peter Petschek, Siegfried Gass Plants — Shadow Peter Petschek Constructive Design of Small Buildings: Handbook Fabienne Kienast Weber, Peter Petschek Pergolas: Functions, Forms, and Construction Elements Hans-Joachim Liesecke Shade-providing Small Buildings in Landscaping and Landscape Architecture Julia Burbulla Cables in Landscape Architecture: The MFO Park Markus Fierz Teaching About Shadows Nancy Yen-wen Cheng, Joachim B. Kieferle Shade-providing Tents: On the Design and Construction of Lightweight Canvas Structures Siegfried Gass

Plants 72 74

Overview Plants Clinging Rootlets, Creepers, Twiners, Tendrils, and Scrambling Climbers Maja Tobler, Olivier Zuber

Projects 116 122 245 246

Overview Projects Projects Biographies Sources and Bibliography

Introduction Peter Petschek Siegfried Gass You must know the feeling of sweltering on a hot day in a place without protection from the scorching sun, and looked for a shady place under a tree, in a tent, or under a roof. You have also experienced the pleasant coolness of shade on your skin, perhaps the glimmering light of a tree swaying in the breeze, or the dappled pattern that sunlight makes on a floor. Yet, the phenomenon of shade most likely left your mind soon after, without being analyzed in detail. Trees are the optimal sources of shade. They allow light to pass through in the winter, and offer protection from it in the summer. However, trees cannot be planted everywhere, and pergolas, pavilions, gazebos, tents, awnings, canopies, arbors, or cables can also take on the role of providing shade outdoors. The function of providing shade is the focal point of small buildings and tents, whereas pergolas or arcades incorporate the concept of a supporting framework and foliage. An added advantage of these plant structures is an increased awareness of the change of seasons, the scent of blossoms, the sound of leaves blowing in the wind, or even the taste of the fruit these plants might bear. The importance of shade in gardens, parks, public open spaces, combined with concern over global climate change, are reasons why landscape design is increasingly confronted with the topic of constructions that provide shade. This publication is an instruction manual for students and beginning practitioners that addresses construction methods, structural engineering, the appropriate plants, the historical background, and of course, the phenomenon of shade. It is also a reference book for general practitioners, with references to completed projects by landscape architects and architects from all over the world, as well as examples by both students and established firms. Using relatively little text, the publication offers a generous amount of image and plan material, as well as detailed drawings done to scale. Rapperswil / Nürtingen, 2011

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Introduction

Plants — Shadow

the connective tissue of the dermis, and From a building services engineering percan cause premature aging of the skin, spective, a plant is something between or wrinkles. UVA rays are also respons­ a sun collector and an air-conditioning ible for sun allergies. They can indirectly unit that also happens to cast shadows. damage the DNA (genetic makeup) of Construction engineers ask about their the skin cells and increase the risk of weight. Architects use them for greening skin cancer. surplus areas. However, for landscape • UVB rays (5%, 280–320 nm) are rich architects, a plant is the most crucial in energy and are more aggressive than design medium and construction materPeter Petschek UVA rays. They only penetrate the epiial. This also includes the shadows they dermis, but cause the most dangerous sunburns. They can cast. Shadows are part of an extraordinarily multi-faceted directly damage DNA and overtax the skin’s own repair mechphenomenon. In his book, The Secret of Shadows, scientist Roberto Casati wanders deftly from astronomy and archi- anism. UVB rays greatly increase the risk of skin cancer. tecture to painting and mathematics, and on to philosophy • UVC rays (< 280 nm) do not reach the earth’s surface, beand physics, and impressively describes "the fascinating ca- cause they are absorbed by the ozone layer (Krebsliga Schweiz). The sun’s radiant energy is vital for many processes on the reer of a mysterious phenomenon." (Casati 2001) Although, unfortunately, Casati does not write about the shadows cast Earth: the water cycle and other cycles, the growth of flora and by plants, his book is nevertheless highly recommended be- fauna. Depending on geographic location and radiation levels, cause it can unveil the complex quality of shadows to the light can be very damaging to human health. The problem of the thinning ozone layer increased public awareness of the interested reader. As far as designing shadow-casting constructions in land- chemical thermal effects of solar radiation. Surplus chloroscape architecture is concerned, plants and their relationship fluorocarbons (CFCs) released by people into the atmosphere to light are certainly of fundamental interest. We will go into has damaged the ozone layer, allowing more UV rays to reach more detail about this phenomenon after examining the defini- the Earth’s surface, which increases the risk of skin damage and skin cancer. On the other hand, the physical effects of tions of light and shadow. light are also vital to people—for instance, for the sensory impressions recorded by the eye, in which light and color play Light the most important role. A sunny, autumn landscape is inspir— The sun is the star at the center of our planetary solar system. ing, but limited visibility and lack of contrast can also be dull The distance between the earth and the sun is approximately and depressing. 150 million kilometers. The earth receives an uninterrupted Shadows flow of energy from the sun in the form of radiation. Only a — fragment of this transmitted energy arrives on the earth’s surface; the rest is reflected by clouds, back out into space, Shadows can create a space or a projection. A shadow will or absorbed by gas molecules in the atmosphere. The rad- form behind an object if it is located in front of a light source. iation that reaches the earth’s surface is called global The object will also cast a shadow onto another surface if the radiation. It consists of both direct and scattered rays. Scat- front of the object is lit with a point light source, such as the tered radiation, which is also called skylight, is bounced sun or a spotlight. The sharply focused shadow shape cast around by clouds, water, and dust particles before reach- by an object is called a silhouette. The unlit portion of the object, which is in shadow, is called the eigenshadow. The ing the earth’s surface. The vernacular term "light" refers only to the part of the deepest shadow, or umbra, is the darkest area of the shadow sun’s radiation that is visible to the human eye. Solar radiation because the light source is completely covered by the shadowconsists of electromagnetic rays of varying wavelengths. They casting object. The penumbra is the area in shadow that is only obscured in part from the light source, meaning that the are measured in nanometers (nm) and are composed of: • 50% visible light (400–780 nm), which provides light and light source is partially recognizable from the penumbra perspective. In this area of the shadow, a part of the light that color, • 44% infrared rays (>780 nm), which warms the skin and is obscured from the object is reflected on the surface. Real light sources are not point light sources; they possess a cermuscles, and • 6% ultraviolet (UV) rays (100–400 nm), which are neither tain spatial expanse, which is why the contour of the shadow is blurred. visible nor can they be directly felt. Shadows play an important role regarding plants. Two ecological plant groups can be identified, based on the type of UV Rays available natural light: shade-tolerant plants and sun-tolerant — Ultraviolet rays have shorter wavelengths than visible light and plants. Species that can grow in very heavily shaded areas, infrared rays. This makes them more powerful and more able to such as beech, wild garlic, and yellow archangel are called shade-tolerant plants. Sun-tolerant plants are those that need damage skin and eyes. There are three types of UV rays: • UVA rays (95%, 320–400 nm) brown the surface of the skin. almost constant sun, such as thyme or stonecrop. They penetrate deep into the layers of the skin, can even reach

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1 1. Umbra (deep shadow), 2. Silhouette (outline shadow), 3. Penumbra, 4. Eigenshadow, 5. Shadow line, 6. Shadow area (Casati, 2001). 2 1. Roots take in water. 2. The plant releases oxygen through the stomata. 3. Glucose is transported from the leaf to other parts of the plant. 4. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata. 5. Water evaporates on the leaf via photosynthesis. 6. Chlorophyll in the leaf absorbs energy from the red, orange, blue, and violet parts of transmitted light, and reflects only the green light, which is why the leaves appear green. 7. Solar radiation: 50% visible light, 44% infrared rays, 6% ultraviolet rays (Burnie, 2008).

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3 The reproduced image of the light source becomes increa​singly sharper as the opening in a barrier located between a diffuse light source and the projection surface becomes smaller. (Schlichting 1995) 4 Correct digital tree shadow (www.laubwerk.com) 5 Long shadows in an autumn mountain landscape 6 Dappled sun on asphalt

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Plants — Shadow

Plants and their Relationship to Light and Shadow — Most plants have roots, stems, and leaves. However, the leaves of shade-tolerant plants play the most crucial role. Not only do they cast shade, they also receive energy from the sun, like solar cells, and process this energy, by means of photosynthesis, to convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds. Because they have to adapt to different climatic conditions, leaves differ in shape, size, and arrangement. There are simple leaves with undivided lamina, or compound or pinnate lamina that have leaflets symmetrically arranged along a central vein. The banana tree has the largest simple leaves. They can grow to up to two and a half meters in length.

Dust Filtering — Plants are also able to filter dust and, hence, are used as an effective means of controlling air pollution caused by fine particulates and nitrogen oxides. However, their filtration performance should not be overestimated. A feasibility study carried out by HSR Hochschule für Technik Rapperswil on exhaust gas treatment through plants (Bunge 2008) verified that trees, bushes, and moss, planted in the appropriate manner, will in fact reduce emissions, but that the overall effect is insignificant. Consequently, plants are not an effective alternative to control air pollution; they can only be implemented as an additional, supplementary measure.

Sun Dapples — A curious effect of shadows cast by deciduous trees is sun dapples: round, bright spots that appear on the ground below the canopies of trees and bushes when the sun is shining. They appear wherever sunlight falls through small openings. The form of the opening is unimportant; the spots, however, are always perfectly round or elliptical. The bright spots are actually photographic images of the sun, because the small openings between the leaves function like a natural pinhole camera. A pinhole camera allows only a little light to enter through a very small opening in the camera. The rays of light form a direct connection between the projection forming inside the dark interior of the camera and the light emanating from an object outside the camera that is a source of light, or an object on which light is projected. The same thing happens outdoors below trees. The spherical sun is projected through small openings between Humidity the leaves onto the surface below. A similar phenomenon can — In addition to protection against radiation, high levels of hu- be simulated artificially. Take a flashlight and tape a triangumidity and, thus, air coolness are responsible for the better lar template over the opening, and then a diffusion film over conditions under tree shade. Plants contribute to humidity the triangle to disperse the point-like filament light source. by cooling the air by means of water evaporation. From the Shine the flashlight through one or more small openings (for time a plant begins to grow, it takes in water through its roots example a branch with leaves), and corresponding light spots and transports it to the stomata, which are tiny pores in the will appear on the projection surface. The dappled-sun effect leaf’s epidermis. The stomata can open and close in order to can also be seen in the case of window blinds. They project regulate this process, which is called transpiration. A decrease sun dapples though the narrow, rectangular openings in the in water supply creates a suction process, so that new water lamellae that control and support the blinds, onto the floor or and dissolved minerals are absorbed from the earth. This flow the surface of a wall opposite the window. of moisture is a part of photosynthesis, which uses sunlight Esthetics and chlorophyll to transform carbon dioxide and water into — glucose and oxygen. The process also releases water vapor, which increases air moisture—the greater the supply of water, The psychological esthetic aspect of plants should not be unthe higher the level of evaporation. A healthy beech tree or derestimated. They have been used for centuries as a means basswood can give off up to 500 liters of water per day. The of design for parks and gardens. Hermann von Pückler-Muskau, cooling effect is diminished if the leaves’ supply of water is not gardener, well-traveled writer, eccentric playboy, gourmet, and consistent. If the tree does not have sufficient water, the bio- creator of two major parks in the nineteenth century in Germany mass (leaves) will reduce in size or, in the case of deciduous (the landscape parks Muskau and Branitz), wrote a detailed trees, will be shed by the trees in order to reduce the amount of account in his book Andeutungen über Landschaftsgärtnerei water being lost through the leaves’ epidermis. For this reason, (Notes on landscape gardening) about the esthetic effect of the planting season for deciduous trees is always late autumn trees. We are all familiar with the long shadows cast on sunny autumn days by trees in parks or open landscape. These imor winter. ages are not easily forgotten, but they are always tinged with melancholy because the long shadows announce the coming darkness of winter.

Protection against Radiation — Deciduous trees are the best shade-casting plants. In winter, their canopy offers little protection against radiation, but in summer they provide an excellent radiation shield. The canopy of deciduous trees is semi-transparent in spring and autumn. This temporary protection also influences the local climate under the trees. Shadows cast by plants inhibit certain materials from heating up, such as stone or concrete, which have a high heat storage capacity and do not cool down in the evening, which, in cities, can be a problem in the summer months. This radiation protection also affects the temperature underneath the trees. A park can be several degrees cooler in temperature than the surrounding built-up area.

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Today, digital botany is becoming more and more prevalent. There are many "virtual tree nursuries," but it is important to note that digital shadows and moods can only be correctly simulated with 3D trees that have been meticulously modeled according to their biological species and morphology. There is no comparable means of referencing the change of seasons—which is evident in the forms of shadows, the scent of flowers, the sound of wind rushing through the leaves, or the taste of fruit—other than plants. Plants are more than a combination of sun collector and air-conditioning unit with the added plus of greening empty spaces, that also happen to cast shadows.

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Plants — Shadow

Constructive Design of Small Buildings

Design challenges rarely follow a linear Structural planning involves fulfilling the process; rather, they are revealed while required bearing capacity and usability following a complex pathway of right or of a built structure for a specific length wrong decisions. In order to keep control of time. These also have to meet the cost of the design process in this Durcheinanefficiency and esthetic requirements. dertal (Valley of confusion) (Medici Mall, Structural design is the construction 1998), the authors of this essay wrote a stuof built structures. It includes the builddent handbook for the course Constructive ing process as well as the result, that is, Design in the Department of Landscape the structural sum of the individual comArchitecture at the Technical University ponents in the finished building. in Rapperswil. Small Buildings, shadeStructural designs are subdivided acproviding structures such as pavilions cording to components (foundation, wall Handbook or pergolas, are among the most basic construction, roof construction), accorddesign challenges for landscape archiing to material (wood, masonry, steel, reFabienne Kienast Weber tects. This essay sets out to systematiinforced steel), according to the assemPeter Petschek cally explain the procedure. bly of the components (solid structure, Any methodical practice requires a certain level of stringency. system building, frame construction) and according to building This is not always a simple matter in a creative process. It creates phase (earth work, shell construction, interior work). a basis from which the right questions can be posed and also Design methodology is the theory of the methods that are serves as a source of ideas for designers. Moreover, stringency generally applied when constructing a building. It systematizes is not a replacement for intuition or creativity; on the contrary, and abstracts the process of building. Design methodology can it leaves space for any design possibility and does not exclude be used to divide the total task into smaller parts, thus making ideas or options for known or universal solutions. The solutions it possible to develop situation-specific partial solutions. found during the design process can still be verified and questioned. It helps keep the design process transparent, accessible, Approaching and quantifiable. This method facilitates dialog, which is espeConstructive Design cially crucial for collaborations involving several team members — or professionals from other fields of expertise, because it pro- In order to discuss the basic design methods, we will first examvides an accessible and understandable work process. ine the design strategies implemented by architects. The original role of the architect as universal genius is changIn Entwerfen – 25 Architekten 25 Standpunkte (Designing — ing into one of generalist. Architects are the heads of construc- 25 architects 25 points of view) (Lorenz 2004), Peter Lorenz tion projects, and are hence required to be familiar with all the interviews architects on the subject of designing. The results different areas of knowledge and expertise. They are advised verified that designing is a highly complex process that evolves and supported by specialists and specialist planners. from a process of discussions involving several people. The first Landscape architecture has also changed over time, from design step might be a simple sketch to solidify an idea. The designing gardens or clearly delineated spaces to the larger path to the finished project is developed from a process of intelprojects and future-oriented development planning common lectual effort and collecting information, verifying and evaluattoday. The spaces such architects usually work with have ing the analysis, and finally, further developing the original idea. not only expanded; the requirements involving public space Designing is creative chaos and needs a system of methodolhave become much more complex and diverse. Landscape ogy. "Sensuality is the goal, but rationality is the means," is Max architectural concepts are in demand today, but so also are Dudler’s answer to the question of whether he designs spontasolutions for small buildings. These include bus stations, pe- neously and emotionally, or systematically and rationally. destrian shelters, kiosks, pavilions, pergolas, and other shadeA comparable situation can be found in machine technology. providing structures that landscape architects and construc- If we look at a building within a landscape context as a technical tion engineers plan and realize in collaboration. The different system consisting of several subsystems, there are some obvifunctions and the often-complex conditions set by the client ous parallels in the VDI-Richtlinie 2222 "Konstruktionsmethodik take teamwork to arrive at appropriate solutions. For this – Konzipieren technischer Produkte" (VDI guideline 2222: VDI reason, interdisciplinary cooperation with architects, spatial Manual of Product Engineering and Design) published by the planners, and construction engineers is an absolute necessity, Association of German Engineers. Producing and using conin order to meet the challenges and requirements successfully. struction manuals calls for the following procedure: developBoundaries between the different areas of responsibilities often ing the idea, designing, and realizing. In general, this involves cross—thought processes interconnect, which creates an over- dividing the task into smaller parts and searching for as many lapping of ideas that ultimately leads to an overall solution. efficient partial solutions as possible, which when combined provide different variations on a concept. The first step is planDefinitions ning: the task is chosen, information gathered, and the devel— opment contract secured. The next design phase is to define Structural engineering and knowledge of structural theory and de- the tasks and establish a list of requirements. In the subsesign methodologies are basic requirements for structural design. quent design phase, a design to scale is created, which is then

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2. Analysis optimized and adjusted. In contrast to architecture or land— scape architecture, machine technology focuses on the choice The analysis examines the context and the project. It provides of material, production, assembly, and ergonomics. data about the existing local conditions, and important factors and information concerning the task that has to be developed. Summary This offers an overview of the task. The first design ideas can — Formally developing a project is a dynamic process in which a be developed at this stage. spatial form evolves step by step, a process shaped by interactions, progress, and setbacks caused either by new knowlAnalysis — Context edge or by the client changing the requirements. These might In this phase, the site and object come into the dialog. The site involve economic aspects or additional requests that have to will not only change in form, but will also experience a converbe integrated into the design along the way. sion or new use. Time, and how it will actually be used, will Form, function, and the properties of materials and con- determine to what degree the new object has been integrated structions can be explained in a rational manner. Every form into the built, public, and social environment. This, however, can be measured precisely, and material properties can be does not imply that an attractive design solution is a guarverified according to physics. However, describing the ratio anteed upgrade for the site, or that it will be accepted by the between two dimensions, dealing with the existence or per- user. Designing is not merely a task of creating esthetically spective of the site, and explaining how a project relates to its attractive design solutions; it is also a task of satisfying specicontext, or how it is interpreted within its context, are all far fied requirements, such as functionality, financial viability, or more complex and difficult to articulate. Here is where per- dealing with its continued existence. sonal experience and individual ideas regarding architecture The following is a description of the most important points enter into the design process. The physical experience of the of analysis, without creating a hierarchy. Every task and every built space influences the individual’s perception. site will establish the importance of these points in a new way. Constructive design is a synthesis of rational knowledge and emotional thinking. Contradictions and tensions that arise Site during the design process are not signs of failure, but rather Visiting the site provides an overview of the area to be conindicate progress. structed, an understanding of it as a whole. It is important to The design strategy Konstruktives Entwerfen in der Land- register the spatial and visual boundaries, the path structure schaftsarchitektur (Constructive design in landscape architec- or traffic patterns, and the infrastructure of the site in question. ture), which can be downloaded as a poster from the construct- Sketching is a good way of recording and analyzing the site ingshadows.hsr.ch website, identifies and defines six work precisely. Drawing reduces a spatial situation, whether it is a phases: task, analysis, concept, design, development, project. town square or a landscape, to its most essential characterThese phases guide the designer through the design process, istics. Accentuating or omitting individual elements transmits from the task to the project. This strategy is illustrated on the one’s individual perception of the site onto paper. Parameters poster: Content is a part of each work phase. It lists the factors such as size, proportions, and spatial and atmospheric effect that have to be taken into consideration. The result shows the are taken in subjectively and expressed by means of the drawoutcome of the relative status of the project. Theory provides ing. Through subconscious abstraction, a picture of the site more information on the subject by means of additional litera- is created that is the first critical and analytical approach to ture. The image book provides a view of the expected status the design. Human-body dimensions can be used to measure the diof the development via plans, sketches, and photographs. The Konstruktives Entwerfen in der Landschaftsarchitektur manual mensions of the space. It is possible to measure the length of presents all the relevant factors of a design process and ex- a path, the width of a support, or estimate the height of a tree using span (the distance between the thumb and the tip of the plains their rational, underlying principles. small finger), fathom (the length of the outstretched arms of the human body), or stride (the distance between the instep of 1. Task both feet while walking). — In addition to measurable site properties, there are charA construction or design process begins by formulating the problem and defining the tasks. Requirements presented by acteristics that cannot be tangibly articulated in dimensions. the clients serve as a helpful guide for the design to get started This is how the genius loci pervades the atmosphere. It is influin the right direction. The needs and requests can differ greatly enced by people and how they use the site. Observing and recording the environment is a core subject from one target group to another. For older people, wheelchair accessibility is crucial, which means project requirements will area for landscape architects; the space around us is their field include minimum width for doorways or barrier-free entrances. of work and research. One must be able to observe very closely A list of requirements is a checklist for planners, allowing to recognize the finer points in the environment that can serve them to repeatedly assess feasibility and financial viability. It as design ideas, such as the fall of shadows, the branches of a can be adjusted according to need. As far as the client is con- tree, or other natural processes. cerned, the specifications are of interest because they might reveal any possible risks in his or her own plan.

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Constructive Design

Culture and Society

Project Analysis

While looking for traces, a site’s existing design elements are examined and its historical and cultural background are researched. The traces left by construction on a certain space may provide an historical reference, which can be used to establish needs and functional requirements of the space. Each task will determine to what extent the historical reference should influence the design.

Every solution should have a convincing design, make sense functionally, and be structurally feasible. It should also respect the specific project budget. To achieve this, both the context and the construction have to be analyzed very thoroughly. The economic or financial aspects greatly affect the design. A small budget requires cost-efficient construction methods, which affects the choice of materials, type of construction, and quality of workmanship. Ecological factors such as material availability or grey energy (the total sum of energy needed for the production, transportation, storage, sales, and waste management of a product or service) are other factors that influence the project design. Legal requirements such as prospects, building lines, building height, or roof formations have to be discussed with the responsible authorities and observed. Choosing the structural system defines the spatial organization of a project, the arrangement of open and closed areas, the formation of a roof, the dimensions of supports and posts, or the maximum possible span widths. The requirements of construction have to be clearly defined and observed from the beginning. An accessible list of these requirements serves the planner throughout the course of the design process as a checklist, and can always be consulted to verify feasibility and financial viability. It can also be adjusted when necessary.

Architecture and Urban Planning

Every project is developed and derived from a concept. The site, with its buildings and open spaces, is the key aspect of a new project. Analyzing the existing urban and architectural concept provides important references regarding building typology and construction materials. The existing, specific constructions or materials can be adapted in order to compose the architectural expression. Alternatively, deciding against such a concept of conformity can create a design that emphasizes the contrast between old and new. The formation of the facades and how the buildings are positioned in relation to one another can provide orientation and site development. Entranceways and throughways also have to be taken into consideration. Do the existing passageways connect to the new project, or will new ones have to be constructed? In addition to the quantitative, measurable parameters, such as the size of a house, a roof formation, facade design, or materials, there are non-quantifiable factors that also provide important references for the design idea. These include the use of the site at various times during the day or year, the sequence of spaces, and the quality of occupancy—these all contribute to the atmosphere of a site. Climate

Communicating the Analysis

The results of the analysis are put into written form. Images and illustrations visualize and explain the site and its relationship to the context. Diagrams can demonstrate the system of pathways, views, borders, or rest areas. These models serve the designer as a basic structure from which to develop the next steps. The analysis allows for ideas to be reassessed even in later phases of the design process and to be communicated to third parties.

The geographic location separates a site into shaded and sunny areas. Knowledge about the conditions of light and the 3. Concept course of the sun are vital aspects to consider when position— ing a shade-providing construction. Open and closed surfaces should be developed so that they can adapt optimally to light "Disegnare è rappresentare, e descrivere con segni e lineamenti" conditions. If the site is located at a high altitude, the choice (Baldinucci 1624–1697). The Italian art historian Baldinucci deof materials and construction methods has to take the excess fined drawing as the communication of a thought in visual form. After the required criteria of the site and the project have weight of snow into consideration. been examined and defined, the concept can then be developed. The design idea must be abstracted and transmitted to Landscape Topographical conditions greatly define the landscape. There paper. Sketching solidifies ideas and functions, operating as may be level surfaces, terracing, and steep embankments— a thought tool in the design process: it unveils the sense and even small changes in elevation influence a design and its phys- logic of a design and supports analytical thinking by means of ical relationship between the interior and the exterior. The way abstraction. Because the sketches are mostly drawn by hand, the foundation is designed is not only a question of structural they also reveal the individual characteristics of one’s personal necessity; it also offers design potential as a direct response to design style. "The spontaneity of the statement, the directness the topographical situation. Therefore, the project can either of the design process made visible by the sketch lends it a spebe embedded into or elevate upward from the surface of the cial appeal." (Kieven 1993) topography, can correspond to it by varying in height, or can Ideas are not recorded on a scale of 1:1, but are released completely remodel the terrain. The exact position of the proj- from their original context, then reduced and reformulated. ect allows for visual links to or specific views of the landscape. This allows a simple idea to develop into a completely new inThe design directly links the project to the context, and a strong terpretation formally, thematically, or functionally. Creativity is relationship develops between the interior and exterior, as well not a free invention of form; it is a new formulation of existing as between the architecture and the landscape. information.

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Schattenkonstruktion vor Ort

Constructive Design

Doz P. P

The use of analytical and subjective methods allows us to develop a concept out of these initial design elements. Analytical Methods

Literature research can provide built examples. Gathering information about built structures and construction systems using different materials will supply an initial impression of the various design possibilities. Analytical natural systems (bionics) offer the following design approaches: the branches of trees, for instance, are structural systems. Studying human limbs can give insight into the way supports and posts may be joined. There is a wealth of natural systems and processes that can be incorporated into architectural works. The morphological box is another analytical, rational method used to aid design development. It breaks the task down into individual sections. For every partial problem, there are partial solutions, which, when combined in various ways, create a total solution. This does not mean that every solution is sensible or possible. Formulating the problem, the requirement specifications, and the analysis from the product and context will help the designer to evaluate and select the appropriate solution. Subjective Methods

Teamwork and dialog are subjective or intuitional methods. The tasks are discussed between two or more members of the team. It is also invaluable to exchange ideas with other professionals, such as construction engineers, other architects, carpenters, or steelworkers at an early stage. This allows the construction engineer to demonstrate possible variations of the structural system, for instance. A similar procedural method is the iterative process, which consists of a sequence of sketches. This is a more complex process, because it deals with intuitive processes and is very broad-based. The designs do not build on one another consecutively; each one is individual and different. The iterative process involves developing a concept, editing it down to the most specific points, and pursuing these in a coherent and thorough manner. The resulting concept serves as a foundation for further development and finally the actual implementation of the project. The project is visualized in non-scale sketches as a ground plan, sectional diagram, or perspective drawing.

can achieve this while making it possible to create a much finer construction: the supports almost float atop the slender posts. Horizontal wooden surfaces require a slight slope in order to avoid moisture build up and the damage it causes. If the design calls for plants to be trained on the construction, the intervals and alignment of tension wires or lamellae have to be considered in order to make sure the plants will have the desired effect as they grow over time. If two different materials are to be combined, it is imperative to examine whether they are mutually compatible and how they can be joined together structurally. The choice of supporting framework system depends on the load the structure will have to bear. Measures have to be taken to guarantee stability, such as braces to protect the structure against strong winds. Physical and mechanical properties like stability, elasticity, or tensile and compressive strength influence the form and choice of material and of supporting structure. In combination, they lend the project the desired atmos­ pheric effect of lightness, liveliness, transparency, enclosure, or a monumental presence. Because structural engineering is only marginally addressed at the bachelor level in landscape architecture, we recommend the book Structure Systems by Heino Engel (Engel 2007) as an initial way to choose a supporting structure, used in close collaboration with structural engineers at the educational and practice level. In Rapperswil, for instance, students are required to discuss their landscape architectural constructions with the structural engineer lecturers, before they take their projects to the next stage. They are also required to make a final seminar presentation about their project. Form and Structure

Simple forms are created by joining points and lines that form surfaces and bodies. Some elementary geometric forms are the circle, the square, and the equilateral triangle. The most important aspects of these shapes are their absolute regularity and geometric precision. Symmetry and order also create a powerful effect. These primary forms represent a central concept to which all others are subordinated. Circular buildings are not oriented; they are centered around their own midpoint. They express individuality and are confident in relation to the concept. The plaza or square is a cosmopolitan symbol. The four equal sides give the surface an omnidirectional effect, and, as with the circle, can be integrated freely into an existing context. Equilateral triangles 4. Design are created by dividing the square through its symmetrical — axis, corner to corner. The forms of triangles and squares are The concept has now been developed. The next step is to more directly related. The rectangle has two long sides of equal precisely define and assess the design as regards material and length that can serve to orient a structure in space and can supporting framework, form, and design, and the layout and place emphasis on specific sides. function of the project. More complex forms can be created by adding, subtracting, or repeating these basic forms. Criteria such as symmetry (dividing forms), proportion (the relationship between forms Material and Supporting Framework The appropriate material and supporting framework must be and proportions), and organization (the structure of forms) found in order for the concept to be realized. For example, define the design composition of the elementary forms. In contrast to basic forms and combined forms, free forms large span widths in wooden constructions are only feasible with supports and posts that have large cross-sections, which do not follow design principles such as symmetry, propormake the structure look very robust. Steel, on the other hand, tion, or structure, nor are they based on geometric principles.

Essays

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Mikado Pergola

19

Constructive Design

However, this requires a convincing demonstration of how the form was created, otherwise the accentuated awareness of form can run the risk of seeming arbitrary or merely about form. Proportion and structure must not be used as a substitute for an idea. They should only be used to assess and review the design. "The governing lines are not created in advance … The governing network of lines is not a source of poetry or lyrical ideas; it does not influence the theme in any way; it is not creative, it only serves to balance." (Le Corbusier 1995) The best-known rule of proportion in construction is the golden ratio. In 1951, Le Corbusier developed the "Modular" system for architectural proportions, basing it on the golden ratio and the dimensions of the human body. Certain laws of numbers continue to appear repeatedly in very different design styles throughout the ages. This leads to the hypothesis that such rules are universal, and hence independent of time-related, stylistic, formal, or content-related factors. On the other hand, there is the unforeseeable optical effect, despite laws such as these. Moreover, proportions in landscape architecture design are only visible in ground plans, elevations, or sectional diagrams. But in reality, they are perceived in perspective, because lines, surfaces, and bodies appear distorted. In addition, light influences the optical impression of a space or area. In order to fulfill the desire for harmonious forms and structure, the spatial effect of the design has to be continually reassessed in the form of drawings and models. In many cases, a satisfactory design will not be found without trying out several proportional relationships and arrangements of elements. The poetics of design lie in compositions that recontextualize form and content in unexpected ways. In this process, established design rules are referred to, changed, and broken.

provides knowledge about maximum proportions, special production methods, or standard products; these in turn define the grid intervals, structure, and dimensions. The specific needs of the target group, knowledge gained from the analysis, and the concept itself are all formally, constructively, and functionally further developed. This phase is called the pre-project. The design can be seen for the first time in its true size, and in ground plans, elevations, and sectional drawings. Written information about material use and construction explains the building of the project in detail. The process followed to develop the form is clear as regards content and is presented as a drawing. The idea might be considered unsuccessful if the form cannot be implemented with the degree of elegance or sophistication originally planned. The results from the analysis, specifications, and sketches of the concept shed light on the most crucial elements of the concept and it becomes possible to compare these to the design. The form might need to be reworked and adapted to the concept so that it can be further developed as a construction. A work model at this stage is a helpful tool. Anything that can be made as a model can also be built in reality. The advantages and disadvantages of the construction are quickly recognized and can be corrected. Moreover, building models is an excellent means of gaining a deeper understanding of the proportional relationships. Visualizations allow the optical impression and the design’s light and shadow effect to be put to the first test.

5. Development — The objective of this work stage is to optimize the design and define the materials and the construction system. The design feasibility is verified by professionals such as construction engineers, carpenters, and steel workers. The structure’s deFunction/Construction After the specifics of the design have been defined in terms sign, function, and construction are optimized. All of the basic of material, construction, structure, and form, the next step conditions are fulfilled. Visual renderings reveal the material focuses on the implementation and feasibility of the project qualities of the construction and its visual appearance in the regarding the construction and function of individual struc- effective environment. Varying the position of the sun in computer programs can tural components. The structural components for small buildings are more simulate the fall of shadow at different times of the day. This freely defined than those for larger, residential buildings. This makes it possible for the position and shadow effect to be means that bases or floors are not required for functional assessed again and optimized. The further development of the pre-project is then the reasons, and can be restricted to a question of design intentions related to the topographical conditions, as described in actual building project. Elevation data and measurements are the section titled "Analysis — Context Landscape" in Step 2: added to the plans. The loads are calculated in consultation Analysis. However, how the base or foundation is anchored into with the construction engineers, the components are dimenthe ground is very crucial. This requires a solution for joining sioned, and the structural system is adjusted. certain materials or combinations of materials. For example, 6. Project wood needs to be protected against moisture. How the struc— ture is installed on site has to be taken into consideration The last stage is the technical development of the project and beforehand, while developing the construction details. The structure can be anchored in a variety of ways, depend- the optimization or fine-tuning of the details. Construction and ing on whether the components are assembled on site or are material descriptions at this stage clarify details about the delivered as prefabricated wall or roof systems. Wall and roof building components. In addition to dimensions, information systems can be designed freely. Functional requirements are about surface design such as color, structure, or mechanical the effect of shadow, weather protection, seating possibili- processing come into the picture. The dimensioned final plans ties, or accessibility. Gathering information about the produc- serve the contractor as a basis for the tendering and execution tion procedures and processing methods of the components of work on the building site.

Essays

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The project is realized at the end of the construction process. The word project derives from the Latin word proicere, meaning to throw forward. Proiectum, meaning project, is "that which has been thrown forward." The project was projected in six work phases. As implied at the beginning of this essay, the design process is a dynamic process. Setbacks are inevitable, however disciplined and targeted the approach. The progress of the project is repeatedly checked by means of evaluation criteria. Doubt always accompanies any critical observation. Seen positively, this meticulous discourse with the project is crucial in order to evaluate its inner logic and coherence. It might be necessary to adapt ideas again and again to the formal, construction, and functional conditions in order to arrive at a result. The advantages of having a systematic basis lie in the conclusiveness and transparency of the concept. Clear dialog facilitates communication and promotes interdisciplinary collaboration. The designer can always keep an overview and can recognize and work on various problems that arise in the design. The designer’s intuition and creativity supplement the theoretical aspect of the design process. The individual interpretation of this procedure offers enough scope for a unique personal design style.

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Constructive Design

Pergolas: Functions, Forms, and Construction Elements

doors. This will also serve as a transition A pergola is a supporting frame conbetween the built structure and the outstruction that shields an area, is open door planted area. There are again two on at least one side, and is covered with different designs for this possibility. First, a horizontal roof supported at selected the pergola can be attached to a buildpoints. Pergolas commonly feature an ing, which is a popular alternative beopen trellis that is trained with woody cause it does not involve a complicated vines. This sets the pergola apart from construction, and if desired the pergola linear climbing vine structures, planar can be attached to the building at a later trellises, and the arcades that were popdate. Alternatively, the building and perular at the end of the nineteenth and begola can form one structural unit by addginning of the twentieth centuries. As a ing a protruding flat roof that is open on rule, arcades have an arch-shaped, canone or more sides. However, this option opy-like structure, are mostly closed on requires a coordinated design of both the sides, and are constructed from brothe building and the open space. ken or cut woody plants supported by a Hans-Joachim Liesecke The pergola can also provide an indisubconstruction. The pergola’s function is determined predominantly by how it will be used. It can be rect partitioning of space if it is to function as a complete or traced as far back as antiquity and has been a design element partial horizontal delineation of an enclosed outdoor space surrounded by walls, fences, or hedges—such as a garden, of varied significance and forms throughout the ages. courtyard, or back yard. The visual effect of enlarging the space by interrupting its vertical line, combined with a partial Use-determined Functions roofing of the space, has the added effect of optically increas— The use-determined functions of the pergola refer to its ing the spatial depth. The pergola can assume a delineating function when secMediterranean origins. The climate of that region called for a climbing frame for useful plants and later for ornamental tions of open spaces with different uses need to be framed and plants as well as a construction designed as a source of shade defined without appearing to be cut off from one another. There for areas with low-growing cultivated plants or for outdoor lei- are a variety of pergola designs that help achieve a spatial sure areas near the house. The two aspects are complemen- but accessible separation of different uses. This can increase tary and both are still in use today. The trellis of foliage offers a space’s possibilities and the diversity of experiences. an optimal source of shade, but today ornamental plants have A summary of the pergola’s design functions would be income to replace useful plants almost entirely. Moreover, as complete without referencing the play of light and shadow pergolas provide an outdoor enclosed area, they also offer pri- inside the pergola, the choice of views from inside the pergola, vacy. Pergolas with densely trained climbing or trailing foliage and how the pergola can accentuate certain chosen archishould be constructed using rafters placed at wide intervals. tectural elements in the open space—for example, elevated Pergolas that are designed to supply shade without a trellis lookout points, bastions, or other outstanding or preferred structure should be built with rafter elements placed vertically areas. at close intervals, similar to lamella-like sun visors. If shade is not a requirement, the rafters can be reduced even further to Design Principles a mere external frame. — The formal and structural design of a pergola must take into Design Functions account the functional requirements, the conditions at the lo— cation, and the concept (based on the structural design and/ The pergola’s design functions have made it an especially pop- or open space), as well as the economic aspects of building ular outdoor construction. Few structures offer a comparable and maintenance. space-creating effect or transition from built areas to outdoor The emphasized assimilation of elements, materials, forms, planted areas. The following is a detailed description of the structures, and colors derived from the structural design, plus four aspects within this scope of use: the trend toward more open constructions, met in the pergola’s The pergola is a framed passage and can serve as a linking function in the 1970s as a transitional and intermediating link element designed to guide people from one space, building, between buildings and the planted outdoors. or area to another. There are two basic structures for this option. First, the pergola may span the elements that need to Structural Principles and Dimensioning be linked and be open at two sides. This would generally be — a freestanding structure that is independent of the other ele- Today’s conventional way of building a pergola is still based ments. Alternatively, the pergola can be closed on one side on the ancient principles of load and bearing, using several and attached to a wall, fence, or hedge, or it can involve one individual components stacked on top of one another. The or more supporting functions of these elements. introduction of innovative building materials, steel posts in If the pergola is related directly to a building, it will function particular, led to a variety of new possibilities in construction as a direct extension of the constructed space that leads out- techniques.

Essays

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The basic components of a pergola are: supports (posts, pillars, columns), joists (beams, purlins, trusses, frames) and roof (grills, lamellae). The structural quality of the material and the functional intention of the design govern the dimensions. However, the relationship between proportions is particularly vital to the structure, because the load capacity on strain, meaning the bending resistance, increases with the supporting frame approximately as follows: pillars → natural stone monolith → wood → reinforced concrete → steel. Therefore, posts made from these materials can be decreased in dimension accordingly in the same sequence. Using "slender" steel posts and steel support beams in combination with sturdier-looking wooden beams that emphasize the horizontal lines will accentuate the impression of "floating" rafters and the transparency of the supported space. Using monolithic natural stone or plastered pillars will give the impression of heavier, calming, rustic pergolas. The thickness of light-loaded wooden support beams is defined by their structural properties and can be estimated as follows: One tenth of half of the length of the self-supporting cross beam will give you the beam’s height. This means that the ratio between the width and the height of wood should be roughly 5:7. The dimensions governing the span width between posts and the clear height of a conventional pergola construction are 300 X 300 X 230 centimeters. The height should be at least 230 centimeters, because this guarantees that visitors can enter the pergola with ease, even if plants are hanging from its roof or ceiling. The introduction of steel profiles as posts made possible a more flexible approach to this ratio. Building materials can often be stretched to the limits of their load capacity by increasing the distance between the posts as much as possible while decreasing their thickness. This plays down the posts and emphasizes the floating impression of the pergola’s rafters. Basic Forms of the Pergola — The way in which the supporting and non-supporting components are assembled allows for the following three basic forms: post and beam pergola, frame pergola and cassette pergola. With a post and beam pergola, which is the conventional construction method, the trusses and roof elements are placed one on top of another at various levels. The projection of the roof elements creates a chamber-like edge. Using round or squared wood, the overhang should be between 30 and 60 centimeters wide. With a frame pergola, the outer frame serves as the supporting structure, instead of the trusses. The "roof" is made of slats that are inserted like lamellae into the frame, so that the frame and the lamellae are level. Depending on the intended function, this frame can also consist of fragmented elements; alternatively, the "rafters" can be reduced to the external frame alone. The less common cassette pergola is a special version of the frame pergola. It features a more intricate, square or rectangular lattice or grid-like structure for a roof instead of parallel-lying lamellae. Some frame or cassette pergolas with a wide span between the supports and a deliberate frame overhang might require

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extra support beams inside. In this option, the frame serves as sheathing, and is not the sole supporting structure. In both forms of pergola, the frame and lamellae are generally made from endwise-vertically installed planks and occasionally from bonded plywood planks and squared timber. Installing the Posts — Pergolas are generally constructed using single posts. Double posts made from steel or wood are not required for structural reasons but are chosen for the specific construction and design. Diagonal or V-shaped supports are fashionable options, but are not required for the structure. The drawing entitled "Pergola forms based on the arrangement of posts" shows various basic possibilities for positioning the posts. In the second variation, the arrangement of the roof elements relative to the posts is less effective as a construction or design, because the trusses extend beyond the posts. The drawings emphasize frame pergola constructions that feature the above-mentioned option of fragmenting the pergola into individual frame components, and the arrangement of additional load-bearing trusses, as well as the need to add double posts and how they can be positioned. It also shows that making protruding frames depends on the chosen construction, but that they are ultimately a question of function and design. Positioning the Wooden Rafters — The options for a protruding roof are more clearly displayed in the sectional diagram "Ways of positioning the point of support." Here, the ways of arranging the roof elements or "wooden slats" in relation to the frame range from simply laying them across the top, to cogging, weaving, hingeing, hanging, or suspending them. The floating effect increases in this sequence as well, but the construction also becomes progressively more complex as well as "interesting." Connecting Pergolas and Walls — Pergolas as outdoor places of leisure should be closed on at least one side to protect from wind, to provide privacy, and to satisfy the human need to lean. Masonry offers several possibilities, and the supporting function of a wall can be used for the pergola’s rafters. A pergola can be attached to a wall with brackets or consoles only if there is sufficient load capacity above the point of support. As a rule, this method can only be used for the walls of buildings. Crack formation in the walls also has to be accounted for. The height of the wall has to be carefully calculated if the rafters are simply laid on top, and measures must be taken to prevent them from shifting over time. These restrictions, and the great diversity of formal constructions, mean that the pergola and freestanding or supporting wall must be treated as two separate structures. The rafters either follow specific lines in the wall or are detached from it at the correct height.

Pergolas

Connecting Pergolas and Buildings — There are various ways of attaching a pergola to a building in order to create a structural unit. The pergola can also be a freestanding structure. If they are to be structurally connected, this should be taken into consideration while designing the structure. The structure and interior roof construction determine whether the pergola can be subsequently attached to the building, especially if it is a one-story construction. Adding the pergola as a separate structure requires aligning the required height of the pergola either directly with certain lines on the building, such as a window or door jamb, roof eaves, attic borders, a change in material, or a construction joint—or along such lines, but detached. Taking eye level as the vanishing point, aligning the lower edge of the pergola’s rafters with the lower edge of the eaves is optically more attractive than aligning them with the top edges. Fundamentally, the illustrated principle of attaching pergolas to one-story buildings can be applied to attaching pergolas to two-story (or higher) buildings.

to be very sturdy, because they need only support plants or snow. Combining more "robust" purlins with "thinner" wooden slats placed at close intervals is also an exciting alternative. Squared Wood Pergolas

This option is also a form of post and beam pergola construction. Spruce and pine are the most common wood choices for this option as well. Whereas the supports will have a comparatively consistent, squared cross-section, the rectangular, endwise vertically installed cross-sections of the beams have to comply with structural requirements, because sagging beams greatly disrupt the overall esthetic effect of the pergola. The width of the beams has to precisely match the cross-section of the poles or supports, in order to completely cover the endgrain surface of the supports. Choosing rectangular-shaped cross-sections, also installed endwise but with thinner roofing slats, is largely a formal decision, but hewing the wood profiles can help optimize water drainage from the end-grain surface of the head profile. Plank Timber Pergolas

Offering more flexibility than round wood or squared wood conBuilding Techniques structions, planks can be used to build post and beam, frame, — or cassette pergolas. Due to the form of their construction, they The different building techniques used to construct pergolas function more often as an architectural or shade-providing elewill be explained according to the properties and construction ment, rather than as a climbing frame or trellis. requirements of the building materials or the combination of If wooden posts are to be used, either rectangular squared building materials used in the various components. They can wood posts or planks paired as double supports are preferred. be identified as wood pergolas, steel/wood pergolas, stone/ Because of the type of wood, and due to structural reasons, wood pergolas, steel pergolas and reinforced steel pergolas. the height of the planks in the rafters must not exceed twenty centimeters at their center. For frame constructions, the nonbearing components are usually more slender, but often equal Wood Pergolas The cross-sectional shape of the wooden rafters allow wood in height to the bearing components. The span between the pergolas to be divided into round timber pergolas, squared roof slats, or lamellae, is decided on the basis of the pergola’s timber pergolas and plank timber pergolas. In practice, com- function and of the cross-sectional dimensions of the building binations of different cross-sectional shapes can also be used. components—thus, decreasing the cross-section to the same However, a more important aspect is the above-mentioned size as a slat means that the distance between them can also combinations of building materials, and information provided decrease to 25 centimeters. Using weather-proofed, bonded plywood for wider spans about the building techniques for wood will also apply to steel/ or dimensionally standard profiles requires the use of crosswood pergolas, and stone/wood pergolas. sections analogous to the squared wood or beam dimensions. Round Timber Pergolas

Round timber pergolas are basically post and beam pergolas, constructed using poles of stripped spruce or pine. In some cases, especially in regions south of the Alps, poles of unstripped chestnut or oak are also becoming more popular because they lend the pergola a more rustic air. Round timber, even if it has been professionally treated with wood preservatives, is not very durable because fissures tend to form in the wood over time. The rafters are especially at risk, because precipitation gets trapped in the crevices, leading to weathering and wood rot. The posts are installed according to their natural, upward tapering form. The classical column shape with a tapered middle has also come into use in some cases. The trusses should be of a consistent thickness, preferably a bit thicker than the rafters, so as to completely cover and protect the end-grain surface. The roof elements do not need

Essays

Steel and Timber Pergolas

The steel and timber pergola differs from the wood pergola inasmuch as steel profiles can be used for both posts and trusses. The formal construction can be used in a post and beam, frame, or cassette pergola, and therefore the principles explained for wooden constructions for round wood, squared wood, or plank timber rafters can also be applied to steel and timber pergolas. The rafters can be emphasized by fully exploiting the bending strength and load capacity of the steel profiles when designing the posts and rafters. Square or rectangular pipes can be used as posts, or round pipes in cases of corresponding span widths and bearing load section-steel profiles. Double posts can be used for formal or design reasons, but are less critical structurally. On the other hand, structural requirements and formal considerations might require utilizing upright, rectangular pipes as posts in combi-

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1 Post and beam pergola Carrer de Salvador Espriu, Barcelona, Spain

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2 Cassette pergola No. 5 Garden (AECOM), Shenzhen, China 3 Post and beam pergola Dallas, USA 4 Frame pergola Wedding house, Darmstadt, Germany 5 Frame pergola, detail Wedding house, Darmstadt, Germany 6 Post and beam pergola Roman baths, Park Charlottenhof, Potsdam, Germany

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7 Post and beam pergola Schlossgarten Brig, Switzerland

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Pergolas

nation with square pipe rafters. The steel profiles of the posts and rafters are welded together. Plug-in or bolted connections are more complex to construct, but are easy to tear down or dismantle, and so offer more flexible use. Galvanizing and painting the steel are both suitable corrosion protection techniques. To allow plants to climb more easily along the smooth surface of the steel, a plastic-coated lattice can be clamped onto eyelets that are screwed into or welded onto the posts.

vanized, or plastic coated steel bars. The post and beam elements can be clamped together to form a climbing structure. Steel and Concrete Pergolas

Attempts to produce pergolas completely of concrete or reinforced concrete can be traced back to the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. One of the better-known examples is the concrete pergola at the wedding tower in Mathildenhöhe in Darmstadt, which was built according to a design by Joseph Maria Olbrich. His design consisted of cast-concrete posts and rafters that nonetheless seem deliStone and Wood Pergolas The formal construction of this pergola option corresponds to cate and light. Today, we use prefabricated reinforced conthe post and rafter pergola. In this form, natural stone mono- crete elements for posts, beams, and rafters, and generally liths, dressed stone columns, or reinforced concrete posts are assemble them according to the principle of "plug and hang." used instead of wooden posts, meaning that the construction— Rectangular cross-sections with parallel cross-sectional proas in the case of steel/wood pergolas—matches that of wood files, or elements with trapezoidal cross-sectional profiles, are pergolas. However, squared or round timber is most commonly required for structural reasons. All known examples verify the necessity of a scaled alignment to buildings that seem to have used with stone. Two basic forms of natural stone monoliths emerge, based the same dimensions as the components. Please note that if a pergola is equipped with even a partial on the natural cleavage and load bearing features of different types of natural stone. In the first case, monoliths of 20 X 25 roof as a weather shelter, for example above seats, it must centimeters in across are cut from sandstone. A V-shaped cut comply with the specific roof structure requirements regarding is carved into the stone to accommodate the wooden rafters. load calculation and drainage. This method allows for two sides of the rafters to be installed Construction Joints linearly, guaranteeing sufficient drainage and drying after — precipitation. The second form can be made from a very hard, layered, and hence fissile natural stone, such as granite. They The most important joint positions of a pergola are: have cross-sections of 20 X 8 to 25 X 10 centimeters, as well as a • between the posts and the foundation or wall semicircular cut that is slightly raised in the center, which also • between the beams and the posts, wall, or partition holds the linear wooden beams. The large cross-sections and • between the roofing elements and the beams rough structured surface of these options combine to convey • between the components of the frame • in extension beams or frame elements a robust impression. Dressed stone columns made from natural stone, clin- Other differentiations occur with different combinations of ker brick, or facing brick have an even sturdier appearance. building materials. The joining options range from simply nailSquare or rectangular columns made from natural stone ma- ing the components together, to hewn wood joints, to steel joinsonry should have a minimum diameter of 30 centimeters, ing elements with screw retentions. while bricks should have at least a one-brick-deep column General Construction Principles bond. Natural stone columns can be constructed with either — a layered brickwork design or, if using a thicker cross-section, a variable brickwork design. It is imperative to add binders to As explained above, pergolas are still constructed mainly from each layer of the bonds, and to remember that creating thinner wood. Hence, the properties of wood define how the compobond layers is a more attractive and "lively" option for the over- nents are joined. In addition to guaranteeing the stability of all pattern. On the other hand, the layers should not be too fine the structure, it is important to protect it from the destructive if deeply embossed bricks are used. Natural stone or dressed effects of weathering as much as possible. For outdoor, open wood constructions, all wooden compostone columns must be capped with a precisely flushed coping nents must be designed so as to allow for the quickest and most brick or cover plate. Slender cross-sections and thus lighter appearing con- optimal drainage of precipitation. Every wood surface must be structions can be achieved by using reinforced concrete. The exposed to air so as to hasten water or moisture evaporation. posts have a square or round cross-section and a parallel or Structures designed to feature numerous wooden components vertically tapered cross-sectional profile. The surface is usu- with open segments are generally more at risk than covered joints. To optimize air circulation, washers or pipe sections ally finished with flush, exposed concrete. should be added between the supporting wooden parts. The top, cut side of the wooden supports must be completely Steel Pergolas Pergolas constructed only with steel components are becom- covered by the truss. This can be done using either bent sheet ing more and more popular. Mass-produced climbing struc- copper or a weatherproof, bonded plastic plate. There should tures provide a special form that can be used for linear spans be a minimum ground clearance of 10 centimeters to protect or as a trellis for climbing plants. The system consists of trian- against constant dampness in the lower end of the posts. The gular cross-sectional trussed elements made from round, gal- transitional areas between the ground, all end-grain surfaces,

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and any joints must be treated with a particularly strong wood preservative. Detachable joints should be used to facilitate the replacement of damaged parts. Nails are used only for the most rudimentary post and beam constructions. Galvanizing is the most effective corrosion protection for steel profiles. This also applies to any steel profile joints. Fitted pieces should be welded onto hollow steel profiles. Holes should be drilled into, or brackets welded onto, the steel before galvanizing. The foundations of the supports should be set in concrete and if necessary protected against frost. The top edge of the foundation should be beveled and should correspond to the level of the floor decking, so it can be installed without a socket under the finished ground level elevation. Making single foundation components with openings to hold steel posts or joining elements is a simple, basic way of bracing and optimizing the positioning with regards to height and alignment. If the posts stand in front of a wall, a suitable distance should be maintained if the wall is an unstable structure made with prefabricated concrete parts. This ensures that the prefabricated elements do not rest or lean on the point foundation. The illustration of the structural joining of pergolas systematically explains the diverse construction options—subdivided in relation to the joining points of the components, the combinations of materials, and the cross-sectional forms. It should be noted that in practice, during the design and detailed development phase, the different joining points of a pergola should also fit formally and structurally with the design.

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Pergolas

Post and beam pergola — joists and beams lie on top of one another at different levels 1 Beams arranged crosswise 2 Beams arranged lengthwise 3 Beams placed at equal intervals at the corner point of a pergola 4 Alternating arrangement of the beams at the corner point of a pergola 1

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Frame pergola — frame and lamellae lie on one level, edges are closed

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1 Lamellae reinforced at the supports 2 Lamellae placed at equal intervals at the corner point of the pergola 3 Lamellae placed at equal intervals at the corner point of the pergola 4 Alternating arrangement of the lamellae at the corner point of a pergola 5 Addition of frame elements with lamellae 6 Addition of frame elements without lamellae

Cassette pergola — a special pergola form 1 Square grid system 2 Rectangular grid system

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Different forms of pergolas based on the arrangement of supports (top view, front view)

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1 Joists lying flat, roof beams arranged next to the supports 2 Joists lying flat, roof beams placed above the supports 3 Frame lying flat, lamellae arranged between the supports 4 Supports inside, frame suspended on them 5 Supports outside, frame suspended on them 6 Supports between the frame elements, elements suspended from them 7 Supports outside on the frame elements, transition to the double supports 8 Double supports arranged crosswise, bearing frame 9 Double supports arranged lengthwise, bearing frame 10 Supports standing inside with bearing joists, bearing frame placed on top and projecting

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Pergolas

Various arrangments of the roof elements (front view, cross-sectional view)

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1 Roof beams laid on top 2 Roof beams partially cogged 3 Roof beams completely cogged 4 Roof beams threaded 5 Frame laid on top 6 Frame suspended at the front 7 Frame built in 8 Roof beams or frame suspended below

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Different ways of connecting pergolas to walls

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1 Pergola and wall are joined structurally. Top construc­ tion is laid on top as bracket or consoles 2 Pergola and wall are joined structurally. Top construction is suspended from the coupling bar 3 Pergola and wall are joined structurally. Top construction is laid on top 4 Pergola and wall as two individual elements. The pergola is placed in front, aligned with the bottom edge of the roof 5 Pergola and wall as two individual elements. The pergola is placed in front, aligned with the top edge of the roof 6 Pergola and wall as two individual elements. Pergola placed over with the wall inserted underneath 7 Pergola and wall as two individual elements. Pergola placed in front and projecting

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Pergolas

Possible ways of relating pergolas to buildings

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1 + 2 The building and the pergola form one structural unit. The pergola projects from the building’s roof. 3 + 4 Pergola as a freestanding structure between two buildings or leaning on one building 5 The tops of the building and pergola roofs aligned 6 The bottoms of the building and pergola roofs aligned 7 Shifting the lower roof edge to align with windows

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Different ways of joining wooden supports with the foundation (cross-sectional view and front view)

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1 Squared or rounded column shoe with welded rebar, fixed using at least 2 bolts 2 Same components as 1, with additional column shoe that can shift upward and laterally 3 Strip steel inserted into both sides in the foundation with cross bars, fixed using at least 2 bolts 4 Column shoe with a small floor slab and base, supports milled out, milled trough at the edge of the grain 5 Strip steel or hollow profile between double supports with or without spacers, fixed using at least 4 bolts

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Different ways of joining steel supports or natural stone with the foundation

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1 Cemented steel supports, fixed on both sides with set screws and base boards to the ground. Base boards space the elements precisely, for example. UKbase plate – concrete base in the foundation frame 2 Supports and foundation joined by means of anchoring device 3 Natural stone monolith buried into the ground, cross sectional reinforcement as foundation 4 Natural stone monolith inserted into reinforced foundation 5 Natural stone monolith placed on a foundation, fixed with steel bolts

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Different ways of joining supports with joists: rounded wood (cross-sectional view, front view)

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1 Joist larger than support. Head of the support is covered, joist inserted level into the joist and nailed 2 Joist and supports equally large. Head of the support is taper-cut, inserted and nailed 3 Strip steel with welded post caps as joining element inserted into the support and joist and fixed with bolts

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Different ways of joining supports and joists: squared beams and planks (cross-sectional view/front view)

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1 Joists lided and doweled, joints cover the supports completely 2 Joists and supports joined by means of tenons, secured with dowels and bolts, joints cover the supports completely 3 Strip steel with welded post caps as connection element inserted into the supports and joists and secured with bolts 4 Joists mounted laterally with small or large spacers, secured with bolts 5 Double joists mounted laterally, nailed or bolted, top edge beveled 6 Double joists inserted laterally, nailed or bolted, top edge beveled 7 Joists with spacers, 2/3 hung between double supports, secured with bolts 8 Joists with spacers, 1/1 hung between double supports, secured with bolts

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Pergolas

Different ways of joining steel supports and wooden joists (cross-sectional view/front view)

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1 Squared beams mounted in welded inserted strip steel plates 2 Squared beams or planks mounted laterally onto welded inserted strip steel plates 3 Squared beams or planks mounted laterally with T-section strip steel joints 4 Beams mounted laterally onto butt ends 5 Planks inserted laterally into strip steel loops 6 Planks hung between double supports with bolts 7 Planks inserted into strip steel loops between double supports

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Different ways of joining stone supports/walls and joists (cross-sectional view/front view)

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1 Top beams made of sandstone monoliths with V-shaped cut 2 Top beams made of Maggia granite monoliths with half-round cut 3 Squared beams laid with spacers onto stone supports or walls. This requires additional bolt or stone bolt to secure against shifting 4 Rounded beams placed onto round steel bolt with welded and inserted top plate of strip steel 5 Squared beams bolted into inserted top plate of strip steel. Joining bolt inserted into stone supports or wall 6 Squared beams mounted onto centrally inserted strip steel bracket. Secured with bolt screws. Bracket inserted into stone supports or wall

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Pergolas

Different ways of joining walls and wooden joists (cross-sectional view/front view)

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1 Vertically mounted joist laid onto inserted strip steel bracket. Secured with bolt screws 2 Vertically mounted joist laid onto centrally inserted strip steel bracket. Secured with bolt screws. Bracket inserted into the wall 3 Vertically mounted joist laid onto centrally inserted strip steel bracket with T-section bracket on the wall. Secured with bolt screws 4 Parallel beams mounted onto consoles 5 Parallel beams hung on stone bolts with spacers 6 Parallel beams onto butt ends on strip steel brackets. Bracket bolted into wall 7 Parallel beams hung onto upright U-shaped joint of strip steel 8 Parallel beams hung onto level U-shaped joint of squared steel bars or squared steel pipes

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Different ways of joining top beams with wooden or steel joists (cross-sectional view/front view)

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1 Round beams mounted and cross-nailed 2 Round beams notched, mounted and nailed 3 Square beams mounted, nailed or doweled 4 Square beams cogged, nailed or doweled 5 Beams mounted, placed onto welded butt ends and bolted 6 Beams cogged to 2/3, round steel bolts added to ensure against shifting 7 Beams completely cogged, only possible with hollow wood 8 Beams threaded. Drill hole protected against weather by a glued-on pipe end 9 Beams hung underneath, placed on butt ends and bolted 10 Beams hung underneath, inserted into U-shaped strip steel loop

Pergolas

Different ways of joining wooden framework (top view or ground plan/front view or cross-sectional view)

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1 Wooden framework joined by means of tenons 2 Wooden framework overlaps 3 Wooden framework joined by means of tenons with dovetail 4 Wooden framework bolted with countersunk L-shaped steel piece 5 Wooden framework bolted with inserted L-shaped steel piece 6 Lamellae joined by means of tenons with wooden framework

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7 Lamellae completely joined by means of tenons with wooden framework 8 Lamellae above countersunk L-shaped steel piece bolted with wooden framework 9 Lamellae above centrally inserted L-shaped steel piece bolted with wooden framework 10 Lamellae with suspended U-shaped steel piece bolted onto wooden framework 11 Lamellae above centrally inserted T-section steel piece bolted with wooden framework 12 Lamellae above centrally inserted strip steel bracket bolted with butt ends onto wooden framework

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Pergolas

Elongation of joists and wooden framework (top view/front view)

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1 Straight overlapping above a wooden support 2 Diagonal overlapping above a wooden support 3 T-section strip steel bracket inserted centrally and bolted onto wooden supports 4 Wood connected by sunken strip steel bracket, welded and bolted onto steel supports 5 Wood connected by butt ends, welded and bolted with spacers onto steel supports 6 Wood connected by centrally inserted T-section steel piece, welded and bolted with spacers onto steel supports 7 Wood butt-joined on wide monoliths 8 Wood butt-joined on wide posts, bolted with stone bolts 9 Wood mounted parallel onto narrow posts or walls, bolted with stone bolts

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Construction examples of transparent roofs for pergolas 1 2 3 4 5

Roof of aluminum panels Wooden beams Wooden slats Glass with downward slope Aluminum bracket

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Pergolas

Shadeproviding Small Buildings

tion on individual buildings from that Outdoor shade-providing small buildings period was also highly respected. In De are extraordinary architectural composiarchitectura he writes in detail about the tions. On the one hand, they fulfill a funcdifferent typologies of temples, and of tion, as do large buildings. On the other, communal, private, and aqueduct contheir purely esthetic de­sign and relative structions, as well as building materials.1 rarity make them special objects. This amounts to a freedom of design that has It is not clear whether the Vitruvian always allowed for esthetic or technimodel was followed by subsequent gencal innovations. (Landscape) architects erations with reference to shade providand garden designers can use small coning small buildings. There are different structions such as these to experiment perspectives. As a matter of ideologiand test their ideas and concepts. cal reasoning, or of style, one might see in Landscaping and Shade-providing small buildings bethis recourse as rational. Small buildLandscape Architecture long to a category of architecture that ings have much in common with larger has boasted a great variety of typoloconstructions as regards structure and Julia Burbulla gies throughout the course of its historifunction, which in some contexts justical development. These include compact, open, temporary, or fies referencing this classical treatise (see also Rolka 2007). plant-and-foliage small constructions. This typological diver- Nonetheless, this derivation is ultimately not very informasity has led to a broad compositional spectrum of potential tive, because it fails to fully address the complexity of small spatial atmospheres that extends beyond a basic shade- buildings. However, other historical sources point to military providing function to include cast shadow or surface shadow, architecture (Zedler 1732–1754, vol. 26, p. 1421). Buildings conor the play of light and shadow through strategic use of rows structed specifically for temporary housing were perfected in of small buildings. However, this unique interplay of construc- the context of military and wartime use, and eventually found tion and shadow is a modern phenomenon. It was not until their way into the private realm. Until the mid-19th century, 1900, as a result of the industrial revolution, that the esthetic designing a garden, a park, and so on was a task for the multipower of structural, technical reality was recognized, and the talented. Gardeners or architects were expected to be knowlformal language of shade-providing buildings pared down to edgeable about military architecture in addition to their own their functional, technical beauty. specialized field of practice. This is an important reason why traces of a military esthetic can be found in private architecA Unique Species ture. Works designed for theaters or auditoriums influenced — the development of small buildings, as well as providing a The origins of small buildings are still difficult to establish. The wealth of reference material for the illusionist and for theaclose relationship to major architecture inspired established ar- trical formal repertoire. (Kolesch 2006; on the relationship chitects and landscaping theorists such between small buildings and paintings: as Sir William Chambers (1728–1796) to Hunt 2004). continue developing this architectural The most significant explanation for category from the ancient example of the the wealth of formal possibilities and Vitruvian primitive hut ->  fig.  I. Vitruvius, specifics of shade-providing small buildings is certainly the fact that small builda Roman architect and engineer from ings were not only a part of landscapthe first century BC, hypothesized in his ing or landscape architectural projects; De architectura libri decem [Ten Books they also played a role in exhibitions, on Architecture] that all architectural festivities, or ceremonies. This brings to constructions originated from forms mind the many small buildings designed found in nature. Humans, motivated by for the World Expo, the Swiss National the fundamental need for housing strucExhibition, or the Garden Show. This contures outside of nature and the desire for cept of selective topicality, in conjunchuman contact, used the forms of nature I tion with an automatic relativization of as a model. According to Vitruvius, this is why humankind created the first leaf huts, nest-like struc- fundamental architectural issues, demands a focused examitures and cave shelters (Rykwert 2005 and Vitruvius 2004, nation of the designs and artistic quality of the original works. It was not initially a concern of weather protection or privacy, pp. 51–52). It is obvious why this idea of an evolution-based theory but of the experimental, artistic, fashionable, or theatrical of architecture’s origins was particularly fascinating to gar- potential of the small building. These fundamental qualities den theorists. They were also greatly influenced by Vitruvius’s were also defined by the German professor of philosophy and complex architectural treatise, which defined the fundamen- garden theorist, Christian Cay Lorenz Hirschfeld (1742–1792) tal qualities of architecture as Firmitas (solid), Utilitas (useful), 1 Vitruvius however did not mention were especially popular in Renaisand Venustas (beautiful). Vitruvius’s theory has been quoted small buildings in detail. The rules of sance landscaping of the eighteenth throughout time on many theoretical levels, but his informa- classical art, as outlined by Vitruvius, century.

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II

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Small Buildings

in his publication, the most important German language gar- An even more theatrical form can be achieved by contrasting den literature of the eighteenth century. He hypothesized that, light and dark. The value of this strategy was emphasized in "The original purpose of garden buildings was functional in eighteenth-century garden theory. It was possible to downplay principle. […] They served [however] first and foremost to en- the real contours of the object for garden visitors, and create liven an area; they countered the monotony or blandness of an enhanced experience if they passed from the light into the darkness of the space. Contemporaries an area[…]". (Hirschfeld 1985). Theorist believed that this spatial-shadow effect Johann Gottfried Grohmann (1763–1805) was predestined for small structures like agreed with this analysis and in 1796 he grottos, cave passageways, chapels, or began publishing the Ideenmagazin für even dark foliage constructions (Burke Liebhaber von Gärten [...] (Magazine of 1989). They also positively evaluated the ideas for garden lovers). In this inventory fact that this conscious staging even inof ideas for small buildings, Grohmann fluenced noise perception. Natural outcontinues to emphasize the importance door sounds are muffled when entering a of a building’s artistic value beyond that dark space, allowing quietude to domin­ of function. He believed that the atmosate. 2 A very early and impressive exampheric symbiosis between the architecture and the surrounding space was a ple is seen here in the Wörlitz Park of crucial factor (Grohmann 1796–1806, 1764, also known as the English Grounds issue 6, Tab. VII). of Wörlitz, in the German federal state Analogous to these theoretical exof Saxony-Anhalt. Here, the visitor enters plorations, the practice was developing an open space after passing through a a broad spectrum of possible tactics: series of small buildings and experienc(landscape) architects and garden deing dark, quiet, cave-like passageways signers combined very different styles lit subtly from the side, before climbing and materials, dissolving boundaries beto the Temple of Venus. This arrangement III tween the genres of architecture, paintlends the situation an almost symbolical ing, and sculpture, or arranging elements of untrammeled na- context, because it has the visitor travel from shadow to light, ture with constructive elements, and creating artistic forms or from the negative to the positive. or monumental spatial modules ->  fig.  II. They used the small Types building as a fondale (a focal point at the end of a perspec— tive), as a link between individual spaces, as a companion to main compositional lines, or as an object to accent the main It is almost impossible to sum up a complete typology of outdoor, shade-providing small structures. Besides the fact that fundaarchitecture or the scenery. mental theoretical works are lacking, as well as a core stylistic focus or cultural and national characteristics, these works The Poetry of Shadows also often possess a temporary essence, all of which combined — The potential of the play of light and shadow was of special makes it difficult to see an overall picture. Nonetheless, it is significance for shade-providing small buildings. Beyond the possible to distinguish some foundations. Compact solutions can certainly be understood as solid general function of offering a place of leisure, (landscape) architects and garden designers used shadow or light in various and traditional architecture in miniature. Compact solutions ways as compositional detail. The following will describe two follow the same principles of design, technology, and material as major architecture in a variety of ways. They are freestandtypes of shadow designs. One preferred use is and has been the cast shadow. This is ing, can be entered, have one or at most two stories, are roofed characterized not only by its atmospheric qualities, but also structures, and must be integrated into their surroundings as by the way it accentuates the volume of an object. If a small optimally as possible (Hirschfeld year, pp. 49–53; Lambert building casts a dark shadow, it projects its mass either pre- 1905, pp. 126–139). Their ground plan can be oval in shape, cisely or distortedly onto other objects. This doubling means round, rectangular, or square. The body is either completely that the structure can expand into different directions in day- closed or open at the front. They are functionally required to light. Combined with other artistic techniques, such as reflec- offer a garden visitor the opportunity to rest or to view the surtion, the areas above and below, or inside and outside, the rounding environment. This means they are largely positioned in exposed areas. There are solutions, of course, that offer structure can also be connected. Single modules become one space, or, as formulated by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, can develop an atmosphere of 2 The use of shadow and sound was whose company and song are so exhilarating that it is difficult to discussed in depth in Hirschfeld’s "flow." Alternatively, the plasticity of the building can be en- thesis. Beyond the use of hard comprehend how some property hanced if the light falls in nuances of light or shaded areas. As contrasts, he extolled the properties owners deny this advantage to a we know, the richly ornamented Baroque small buildings and of shadow, because shadow conveys garden." (from the German, Hirschfeld 1985, vol. 2, p. 50). "[D]isport, not only for the eye, but garden sculptures are closely related to this theme, because also for the ear, by offering a this epoch prioritized a vivid and powerful esthetic -> fig. III. beloved place of leisure to birds,

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privacy for the garden visitor, but the main effect of small ar- arches of columns, a pergola is an arbor with posts or columns chitecture positioned at the end or at the side of a space is made of wood or metal. Pergolas are covered with an open and to provide a strategic view of an elevation or of the center of sometimes barrel-vaulted roof trained with tendrillar plants a garden design -> fig. IV.3 As regards terminology, small archi- -> fig. VI. A pergola is never freestanding; it always leans against a tecture was often categorized under the name pavilion in his- main or auxiliary structure. Its function is to guide visitors along torical sources. The pavilion was devela certain route or to encourage a paroped from military architecture, which ticular view. The various ways in which is implied in the synonymous use of pergolas and arcades can be used to arthe term for "flying flag" or the "ruler’s chitecturally and formally design outdoor or royal tent" (Meyers Konversationsspaces with respect to orientation made lexikon 1888, vol. 12, p. 794). them popular options. They made it posOpen rotundas, temples, or retreats sible to have an optimal flowing arrangeare an adaptation of these compact ment of the outdoor space. The pergola buildings. They are either entirely open and arcade have been highly valued to the surrounding environment or their since the Italian Renaissance, largely as IV compact structure is surrounded by an exposed spatial module. However, in a four-sided arcade (peristasis) or an the twentieth century, designs appeared atrium -> fig. V. that used the arcade alone to define outdoor spaces -> fig. VII. Buildings that imitate nature are another variety of compact small architecVariations of this shade-providing ture. The concept of these hermitages, structure are arbors and arcades made garden houses, or chapels reflect buildfrom plants alone.6 These examples of ing types, constructions, and materials foliage designs were common in sevenderived from nature. Their function is to teenth and eighteenth century gardens; enhance the atmosphere of a planted however, more natural forms became scene or to proclaim the owner’s love of popular with the emergence of landV nature (Zedler 1732–1754, vol. 16, p. 942). scape garden design. Parasols, canopies, and tents are At the beginning of the twentieth cenadaptations of temporary and mobile tury, the diversity of small architecture shelters for outdoor areas. These fabwas reduced to the mainly rectangular ric shade-providers can be traced back models of garden houses, sheds, or arto ancient times and were optimized for bors. The shed is defined as a structure military or ceremonial functions. The mostly used to store garden equipment parasol, better known as the umbrella, or the like. Modern times developed a VI was an object designed purely to carry practical hybrid where the owner could by hand until the twentieth century. The spend time as well as store recreational frame was made of "tubular rods, whaleequipment. Mobile versions that were bone, or thin iron rods" and was fitted easily moved to another location also hit with a cover of silk or linen. The shaft the market. The shed is derived from the was made from precious materials such open variations of small architecture. It as ebony or mahogany, decorated with is either a freestanding structure or part mother of pearl or silver plating (Krünitz, of the main house. An arbor is composip. 72). It was not until the 1920s that the tionally related to a kiosk. Its walls are first industrially produced standing sun usually constructed using white or green umbrella appeared. However, its cousin trellis slats that are trained with climbVII the baldachin, a construction consisting ing plants. 4 There are also examples from the beginning of the twentieth century using iron rods. An of a fabric covering with four wooden rods, has been used as arbor is also freestanding, like the shed, which distinguishes a portable artificial sky in the garden since the Renaissance. Variations were "the window shades, awnings, Venetian blinds, it from a pergola. 5 A pergola is similar to a plant-covered passageway and be- and window shutters, canopies, sunshades, canvas covers, longs to the open structure variety of small buildings. Developed arbors placed on the sunny side, Schoppen, tents, and profrom the arcade, a structure consisting of a continuous series of tection from the sun in gardens, in open areas, in courtyards, 3 The illustrated sketch of small building architecture undergoes slight modifications in the individual garden models. In addition to the named arrangements, positioning is used in landscape gardens to create a constant change of scene. For the

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garden visitor, this develops, not at first glance, but rather by walking through the individual scenes. Consequently, the series of small buildings in the landscape garden are placed in a less exposed manner.

4 This small structure is also known as a treillage (Uerscheln, Kalusok 2001, pp. 249–250).

6 Also known as Cabinet de verdure and Berceaus (Uerscheln, Kalusok 2001, pp. 60–61 and p. 75).

5 See here, for example, Heinrich Zedler’s definition of the "arbor," in: Zedler 1732–1754, vol. 16, p. 942.

Small Buildings

and so on; in short, anything and everything that functioned als of world architecture, which soon led to the construction as a protective measure against the sun." (ibid.) Sail areas or of miniature versions of Egyptian, Chinese, Persian, Spanishtent roofs are modern and permanently installed adaptations Mauritanian, Tahitian, Turkish, or Russian architecture for the outdoors. These structures were not only meant to please of baldachins. Tents, initially used by nomads and by the military as tem- owners and visitors; they were also intended to serve as witporary housing, began experiencing a true renaissance from ness to non-European traditions and their closeness to nature about the middle of the eighteenth century. The criticism of -> fig. X. From 1750 onward, imitations of ancient structures and civilization that was typical of the age of enlightenment (ca. sculptures were added to this repertoire. There was, of course, 1730–1800) emphasized the need for more natural looking already a tradition of references to ancient forms of architecshelters. This resulted in roofed or pyramid like constructions ture going back as far as the renaissance (from ca. 1420), but being considered for garden design purposes. Along the lines it was not until the great architectural research voyages, exof "Return to the roots of building and cavations, and publications on Italian or life," the tent-protected leisure time Greek works that ancient nostalgic forms spent in the garden was suggestive of began to appear in open spaces.8 These a close relationship with nature. But in enhancements are not only manifestaactuality, this claim of modesty seems tions of the European expansion in the questionable in face of the rather ostengarden, but also emphasized Europe’s tatious examples of fabric houses of the historical roots. day -> fig. VIII. This Eurocentric focus peaked in the VIII nineteenth century with the increasing Last but not least, there is the artistic play of light and shadow typical of the twentieth century. demand for a regional expression in small buildings. According Throughout the course of various trends in art, such as the to contemporaries, national or regional styles were more suited Land Art of the 1960s, (landscape) architects and artists ex- to the surrounding and original landscape (von Bonstetten perimented in public and private spaces with this strategy. 1800, pp. 20–37, pp. 110–130, pp. 183–207). It resulted not only in the so-called ArchiSculptures, which Even Swiss garden art and landscape architecture took created a completely new object typology by combining ar- part in this development. Until the 1950s, these reflected in chitectural and sculptural elements,7 but also in new inter- detail the variations of a national or regional diversity of style. In addition to the classical Swiss house, pretations of ancient small-building romantic images and architectural architecture, such as Arne Quinze’s forms, which had traditionally referred Cityscape from 2007 -> fig. IX. The wooden to the architectural culture of Tessin or "Temple of the Gods" (Quinze) references Graubünden, began to take on great sigthe classic rotunda construction and nificance in relation to small-building the small building’s traditional role as design. This love of the homeland could a symbol of nature (art, 1, 2010, 9. 72). also be seen in the choice of materials. Its central position in a row of houses in Sandstone from the Bernese Midland Brussels references the classical motif or tufa stone from Jura accentuated of the contrast between country and IX the desired regional flair. However, this city life. movement did not go uncriticized. In 1908, an anonymous author complained in the Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Diversity Vereinigung für Heimatschutz (Magazine for the Swiss associa— Small buildings offered (landscape) architects and garden tion for protection of cultural heritage) about the uncontrolled designers a wealth of opportunity to experiment with styles use of these elements: "By the way, in the last few decades, and materials. The Baroque period fostered a cosmopolitan even in Switzerland, there have been many bad and tasteless diversity that remained strong until approximately 1900. The examples of architectural designs. […] I can only remember reason for integrating non-European phenomena into garden numerous, ugly […] garden trellises and gateways, an infinite art in the Baroque was largely due to enthusiasm for the newly amount of garden houses and pavilions made from natural discovered wider world. European powers set out on voyages of wood […]. The villa gardens with the more or less successful discovery that began with the travels of Marco Polo (1254–1324) imitations of natural scenes based on various areas, which, and Christopher Columbus (1451–1506). Efforts to colonize the combined with highly imaginative architecture, destroyed Americas and the Arab-Asian world began at the end of the entire streets." (Heimatschutz 1908, pp. 25–26). In order to fifteenth century. From 1650 onward, travelers began report- drive home his point, the author illustrated the article with ing back to Europe in detailed written or etched form on the a number of reproductions of what he meant by good and architecture and garden designs they encountered on their bad examples. journeys (Gothein 1977, vol. 2, pp. 319–361). This in turn gen- 7 The phenomenon of ArchiSculpture an exhibition at the Fondation Beyeler 8 Well-known examples here are from the 1920s onward was ad(Riehen bei Basel) in 2004. This develthe publications by Castell 1728 and erated great enthusiasm for dressed in a catalog of the same opment also influenced landscape Chandler, Revett, Pars 1769. architecture (see Brüderlin 2004). the exotic forms and materi- name, published on the occasion of

Essays

48

This address hints at a perspective of a new typology of small Epilog buildings, one which—in addition to all that local flair—inte— grates functional and factual premises. Yet this position edges Essentially, opinions that are not related to professional discitowards oxymoron. The required concentration on simple plines will also affect architectural or landscape architectural forms mixed with a recourse to "hominess" seems more like a designs. An object’s design and realization is determined by minimal reform than an actual overcoming of tradition (ibid.). the attitude of the client or of critics, by a particular stylistic The New Construction and New Objectivity movements preference, new development, or technical possibility, or last did, however, successfully achieve a break with tradition. but not least, by cultural factors. The architectural challenges In Switzerland, these movements were initiated when the of shade-providing small buildings greatly depend on these Schweizerische Werkbundorganisation (Swiss association of extra-disciplinary points of reference, because they can only craftsmen) was established in 1913. This transformation was, develop in close dialog with the existing social attitudes about the body. in fact, radical in terms of small buildings. The social consensus on what defines The dominance of functionalist, geometa body as beautiful, and the cultural ric, and constructivist basic principles practices this attitude generates, have not only reduced typological diversity, changed repeatedly over the centuries. but also dispensed with any would-be reIn Western Europe, a pale complexion dundant décor. The practical and techniwas at one time a sign of aristocracy, cal now replaced the diverse and, in part, because only the upper classes were very sophisticated play of different senses able to keep out of the sun. However, at that had been characteristic of the previthe end of the nineteenth century, this ous century. In 1959, Roland Gross, on the attitude was challenged by the new "life occasion of the Swiss National Exposition X and nature" movement that advocated in Zurich, defined the role of garden art in a correspondingly sober manner: "The buildings serve the tanned skin as a symbol of a relaxed and healthy attitude, of garden, they protect it from noise from neighboring streets […]. well-being, and of a love of nature. Tanned skin also meant Visitors are not fascinated by the architecture; in fact, they that one had the money and the time to relax in the sun, unlike simple workers or employees. Hence, hardly notice it. They are fascinated by outdoor shade-providing structures bethe garden, or by selected views that came less important and were reduced can be seen through open promenades" to the simple garden house or ubiquitous (Gross 1959, pp. 345–346). This dissolving parasol (Jung 2007).10 of the architectural ambiance also promoted a new interpretation of the tradiThe same effect transformed contemtional symbiosis between small buildings porary theories on the correct leisure acand the surrounding environment. The tivities for the garden. In the eighteenth difference between nature and art with and nineteenth centuries, contemplarespect to technology should be clearly tive activities were very popular, such as obvious. (Landscape) architects and garreading, the study of nature, relaxing, or XI den designers in the nineteenth century going for a walk, but these were superhad already pursued these ideas, by demonstrating the use of seded by sports from 1900 onward -> fig. XI. Consequently, the technical innovations in materials in open spaces by means of enormous diversity of shade-providing small buildings was small buildings.9 The language of modernists, however, contin- reduced in favor of large open surfaces. ued: the sole objective was to "involve natural form and artificial form in a dialog that would benefit the listeners. […] We […] are trying to visualize the contrast between plant and human existence" (Rotzler 1959, p. 351). This criterion will achieve an exchange, according to Willy Rotzler, only through direct discourse between the individual forms. The planted habitus must be set against clarity, the horizontal against the vertical, or the delicate against the powerful. Alternatively, it is also conceivable to achieve a "unison" between the small building and the open space, so they speak with one voice. However, and herein lies the difference from previous practices or theories, this is defined exclusively through form. Because, "[…] we need neither nymphs nor flora nor, for that matter, white marble, fluteplaying Pans to experience 10 By contrast, some Asian cultures preference for complex and diverse the soulful quality of greened 9 A prominent example in Switzerland is the garden pavilion at Villa still covet the pale complexion; it garden constructions is still widespaces. […] Our relationship Patumbah in Zurich, which was built symbolizes an elegant and innocent spread today. is a direct one" (ibid.). using a cast iron construction. life. Consequently, the traditional

49

Small Buildings

Cables in Landscape Architecture

climbing plants. Moreover, the climbing If pergolas, pavilions, tents, or other solid aid can be adapted accordingly if only installations cannot be built as shade-proone type of plant or climbing strategy is viding structures due to technical, topoto be used. graphical, or aesthetic reasons, flexible solutions using green areas may be deJoints veloped. Climbing plants require sup— porting structures in the form of other The primary cables extend along the enplants, rocks, construction elements, or tire length and height of the construction specific training systems. Self-climbing The MFO Park and are friction-locked to the cantilevers plants can cover surfaces such as walls with profiled clamping plates. The crossand sides of buildings, but twining climbMarkus Fierz ing points are friction-locked by means ers, tendril climbers, and woody climbers all need supports, which are generally called climbing aids. of clamping rings and turnbuckles. The crossing points of the Trellis and lattice are commonly used terms, but in a stricter secondary cables are intermittently attached with wire connectors (cable crossers). The climbing aids are mounted disense these are only suitable for twining plants. There are many ways to use cables in landscape architec- rectly onto the steel construction of the crossing points of the ture. In addition to their use as fall prevention devices and lower roof plane of the interior walls. The vertical cables are fences, they are also effective as durable supporting structures interwoven with the horizontals; the same applies to the "warp for climbing plants. Sophisticated systems for greening rela- and woof" of the roof plane. tively small facades already exist, but until recently there have Installation been none for larger areas. This gap was closed by the climbing — aid developed for greening the MFO Park in Zurich. The large, empty, brightly lit industrial hall of the former The horizontal primary cables were installed with an initial engineering works in Oerlikon was to be made accessible and deflection, and the vertical cables without prestressing (only lushly greened with a variety of climbing plants. The joint ven- under dead load) and without initial deflection. The horizonture designed a delicate steel construction, based on the tra- tal and vertical secondary cables were subsequently installed ditional garden design concept of the trellis. The result is a above the pre-installed clamping rings, also without prestressversatile, urban, open space of great atmospheric density in ing. Turnbuckles make it possible to finely adjust the length of a contemporary architectural language: a city garden, unlike the cable. any before. Transforming the site created a vehicle accesCare sible, macadamized area, which was covered by a "car park" — almost completely trained with climbing plants. Footbridges and staircases cross through the double-layered, voluminous The successful greening of the architectural cables requires the "facade," leading to projecting loges and finally to the sun deck right care during the first year. A maintenance concept defines on the roof of the construction. The highly precise architectural the objectives of the care, regulates the type, the scope, and structure and its lush, scented, blossoming vegetation incor- the frequency of maintenance measures. It also sets out ways to deal with plant loss. porates the volumes of the surrounding architecture. Strategic pruning on a regular basis is vital during the development of the plants. The continuous and meticulous tying Structural Concept and pruning of every single plant on its respective cable con— The orthogonal, partially filled supporting structure was built trols the direction of the plants’ growth, regulates the their using minimized, galvanized, standard steel profiles. The competitive behavior, and encourages their lengthwise growth. As the plants continue to develop and grow, the measures climbing aids of crossed stainless steel cables, as they were constructed for this project by Jakob AG (www.jakob.ch), are taken to control and encourage their growth can be reduced. positioned thirty or forty-five centimeters out from the "walls" After the smaller types of growing plants have reached their and the "ceiling." This ensures that a distance is maintained be- maximum height, the medium and large plants can now extween the vegetation and the supporting structure to prevent pand in width on the upper levels. The maintenance of staindamage caused by the climbing plants and to facilitate any less steel climbing aids is limited to periodic inspections and necessary renovations that require treating the surface. Steel replacement of spare parts. brackets are installed as spacers for the supporting structure. The primary cables direct the load along the different levels to the brackets in the supporting structure. Secondary cables are installed between the primary cables. The radial positioning of vertical cables in the fan-shaped base points creates a finely meshed grid structure. The different needs of the various plants can be taken into consideration and the required light in the hall is guaranteed. This system meets the diverse requirements of the hundred or so genera, species, and kinds of

Essays

50

Dach

DG

3.OG

2.OG

51 Clematis vitalba (500)

- Weg W2

w 2.2 Clematis vitalba (500)

3.OG

+8.44 2.OG

+4.22 1.OG

+0.00 EG

1.OG

EG

w 2.1

Cables

Clematis tangutica Clematis 'General Sikorski' Rosa 'Goldfinch'

Konzept: Der allzeit lockende Eingang

Dach Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Wisteria sinensis 'Alba' (500) Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500)

Vorderseite W7

Fallopia aubertii (500)

Planting diagram +12.66

Vitis coignetiae (250)

1.OG +16.88

Clematis 'Huldine'

B

Clematis macropetala 'Blue Bird' Rosa 'Paul's Himalayan Musk' Clematis 'Etoile Violette'

C

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500)

D

Fallopia baldschuanicum (250)

2 Climbing aids made from stainless steel cables at intervals of 30 to 45 centimeters

Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly'

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500) Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (500)

Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (250)

Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (500)

E

Hedera helix 'M. Elegantissima' (250) Clematis montana f. grandiflora Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (250) Clematis orientalis 'Bill Mackenzie' Hedera helix 'M. Elegantissima' (250) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Celastrus orbiculatus (250) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (500) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix 'Deltoidea' (250) Clematis x fargesioides 'Summer Snow' Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (250) Clematis vitalba Hedera helix 'M. Elegantissima' (250) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Clematis montana 'Peveril' Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (500) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix 'Deltoidea' (250) Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500) Hedera helix (Wildart) (500)

Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250)

Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250)

Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250)

1

Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly'

Clematis montana f. grandiflora Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500) Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Fallopia baldschuanicum (500) Clematis 'Huldine' Clematis vitalba (500) Clematis montana 'Picton's Variety' Lonicera japonica var. chinensis Clematis 'Viola' Rosa 'Compassion' Clematis 'Viola' Rosa 'New Dawn' Schizophragma hydrangeoides 'Roseum' Clematis vitalba (500) Clematis 'Betty Corning' Clematis montana f. grandiflora Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Vitis aestivalis Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Humulus lupulus Clematis 'Huldine' Vitis coignetiae (250) Clematis alpina 'White Columbine' Rosa 'Paul's Himalayan Musk' Clematis 'Etoile Violette' Fallopia aubertii (500) Rosa 'New Dawn' Celastrus orbiculatus (Zwitter) Clematis 'Mrs. Cholmondeley' Clematis vitalba (500) Clematis 'Betty Corning' Clematis montana f. grandiflora Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500) Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Fallopia baldschuanicum (250) Clematis 'Huldine' Vitis coignetiae (250) Clematis alpina 'Frances Rivis' Rosa 'Paul's Himalayan Musk' Clematis 'Etoile Violette' Fallopia aubertii (500) Rosa 'New Dawn' Celastrus orbiculatus (Zwitter) Clematis 'Viola' Clematis vitalba (500) Clematis 'Betty Corning' Clematis montana f. grandiflora Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Vitis aestivalis Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Humulus lupulus Clematis 'Huldine' Vitis coignetiae (250) Clematis macropetala 'Tage Lundell' Rosa 'Paul's Himalayan Musk' Clematis 'Etoile Violette' Fallopia aubertii (500) Rosa 'New Dawn' Celastrus orbiculatus (Zwitter) Clematis 'Mrs. Cholmondeley' Clematis vitalba (500) Clematis 'Betty Corning' Clematis montana f. grandiflora

Clematis 'Betty Corning'

Fallopia aubertii (500) Celastrus orbiculatus (Zwitter)

Genus and species in different growth categories

Clematis 'Viola'

Rosa 'New Dawn'

Clematis alpina 'Pink Flamingo' Rosa 'Paul's Himalayan Musk' Clematis 'Etoile Violette'

Hedera helix 'M. Elegantissima' (250)

Hedera helix (Wildart) (500)

F

Clematis montana 'Peveril'

Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250)

G

Vitis coignetiae (250)

DG

Vitis aestivalis

H

Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Humulus lupulus Clematis 'Huldine'

I

Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Clematis montana f. grandiflora Hedera helix 'M. Elegantissima' (250) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (250) Clematis vitalba Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix 'Deltoidea' (250) Clematis x fargesioides 'Summer Snow' Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (500) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix (Wildart) (500) Celastrus orbiculatus (250) Hedera helix 'M. Elegantissima' (250) Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (250) Clematis orientalis 'Bill Mackenzie'

Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250)

Hedera helix 'Deltoidea' (250) Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500) Hedera helix 'Plattensee' (500)

Hedera helix (Wildart) (500)

1 Cable as a climbing aid

Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly'

Clematis montana f. grandiflora Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Parthenocissus quinquefolia (500) Lonicera periclymenum 'Loly' Fallopia baldschuanicum (250) Clematis 'Huldine' Vitis coignetiae (250) Clematis macropetala 'Jan Lindmark' Rosa 'Paul's Himalayan Musk' Clematis 'Etoile Violette' Fallopia aubertii (500) Rosa 'New Dawn' Celastrus orbiculatus (Zwitter) Clematis 'Mrs. Cholmondeley' Clematis vitalba (500) Clematis 'Betty Corning' Clematis montana f. grandiflora

EG

Clematis 'Betty Corning'

2.OG

Clematis 'Viola'

3.OG

Lonicera japonica 'Hall's Prolific (250)

Dach

Fallopia aubertii (500)

EG

Celastrus orbiculatus (Zwitter)

1.OG

Rosa 'New Dawn'

Clematis 'General Sikor

Rosa 'Albertine'

Clematis alpina 'France

Clematis terniflora 'Ro

Rosa 'Albertine'

Clematis 'Lady Betty B

Clematis 'General Sikor

Clematis x fargesioides

Clematis alpina 'France

Clematis terniflora 'Ro

Clematis 'Lasurstern'

Clematis 'Lady Betty B

Ampelopsis brevipedu

Clematis 'General Sikor

Rosa 'Albertine'

Clematis alpina 'France

Clematis terniflora 'Ro

Clematis 'Lasurstern'

Clematis 'Lady Betty B

Ampelopsis aconitifoli

Clematis 'General Sikor

Rosa 'Albertine'

Clematis alpina 'France

Clematis terniflora 'Ro

Clematis 'Lasurstern'

Clematis 'Lady Betty B

Clematis 'General Sikor

Rosa 'Albertine'

Clematis alpina 'France

Clematis terniflora 'Ro

Clematis 'Lasurstern'

Clematis 'Lady Betty B

Ampelopsis brevipedun

Clematis 'General Sikor

Rosa 'Albertine'

Clematis alpina 'France

Clematis terniflora 'Ro

Rosa 'Albertine'

Clematis alpina 'France

Clematis terniflora 'Ro

Clematis x fargesioides

Clematis 'Lady Betty B

Ampelopsis aconitifoli

2.OG

2

w 1.2

A A

w

DG

w3 Be

w

11

Installation diagram

M 1:100 1

2

4 3

5 6

7

8 9

13

10

11

14

12 15 17

16

18

19

20 21

22 23 24

28

25 27 26

29

1 Roof level 2 Primary cable 12 mm 3 Small clamping ring 4 Pipe below on HEB 5 Horizontal primary cable, 1st priority 6 211 cm x 52.8 cm mesh width 7 Secondary cable 5 mm 8 Cable connection not adjustable 9 Vertical secondary cable, 4th priority without initial deflection 10 Initial deflection 11 Vertical primary cable, 2nd priority without initial deflection 12 105.5 cm x 52.8 cm mesh width 13 Consoles 14 Pipe central in HEB 15 Secondary cable 5 mm 16 Cables 5 mm woven together 17 Horizontal secondary cable, 5th priority without initial deflection 18 52.8 cm x 52.8 cm mesh width 19 Vertical secondary cable, 4th priority without initial deflection 20 Initial deflection 21 Horizontal primary cable, 1st priority 22 Primary cable 12 mm 23 Cables 5 mm woven together 24 Cable connection adjustable 25 Diagonal secondary cable, 4th priority without initial deflection 26 Small clamping ring 27 Diagonal primary cable, 3rd priority without initial deflection 28 Horizontal secondary cable, 5th priority without initial deflection 29 Foundation plate

A

Detail A Climbing aids

M 1:20 30 Turnbuckle grouted with bracket

30 30

Essays

52

Cross section

M 1:100

Isometric drawings Detail B

2

3

1 Stainless steel cable climbing aids 2 Steel profile HEB 120 3 Steel pipe Ø 63.5/2.9 mm 4 Steel rod Ø 50 mm 5 Steel profile 120/120/5 mm 6 Steel pipe Ø 101.6/9 mm 7 Bottom boom steel profile HEA 120 8 Safety barrier 9 Steel rod Ø 30 mm 10 Steel grid bolted on steel profile IPE 120 11 Turnbuckle grouted with bracket 12 Cable end cap 13 Console with clamping plate 14 Primary cable Ø 12 mm 15 Small clamping ring to primary cable 16 Stranded wire Ø 5 mm

4

5 B 6

8

9 1

7

12 13

13

15 14

10

53

16

Cables

Teaching About Shadows

ing masks surface relief and has the efShadows strongly influence the percepfect of creating depth between an object tion of architecture. The play of light and and its shadow. Backlighting creates an shadow can transform the appearance uncomfortable glare if the bare light of forms and textures, blurring spatial sources are visible, but backlit transluboundaries. The changing relationship cent materials can take on an attractive of the object and its shadow offers us glowing effect. new ways to see the familiar. For stuMovement reveals the relationship dents to consciously work with this phebetween light source, object, and pronomenon, we need to teach them basic Nancy Yen-wen Cheng jection surface, meaning that a viewer visual principles and then allow them Joachim B. Kieferle might shift position to view a shadow to gain a deeper understanding through experimentation. This paper explains ways to raise awareness from another angle. Like moving objects, moving shadows will about shadow design possibilities and sensitize students to a attract the eye. strategic application of creative light and shadow. Shadow and Materials The topic of light and shadow can be effectively taught — using study models with light fixtures and varied materials. The immediate, sometimes unexpected, results sensitize stu- A shadow’s appearance is defined by how materials transmit, dents, enabling them to recognize the potential of light and reflect, or refract light: the appearance varies according to the shadow in spatial design, and encourage them to pursue fur- material characteristics of both the shading object and the ther studies. Images and ideas about shadows can inspire stu- shaded surface. The shadow of a free-standing, opaque object dents to discover how they themselves might apply shadow normally falls on a nontransparent surface, and its shape is phenomena in architectural projects. Over the past years, we defined by the direction and the quality of the light. When the have integrated these exercises into different teaching units, same object is "layered" by placing it behind a translucent sureither as independent workshops or as part of a semester- face, that surface catches the shadow like a projection screen, constraining the geometry of the shadow and how it is viewed. long design project. The appearance of the shadow is then overlaid with the variable density of the projection surface. This means, in short, Introduction to light and shadow that shadow effects can be composed by layering surfaces — Experiences of nature form the basis for our perceptions of with apertures and silhouettes. Varying the gap between laythe built environment. Clouds shape our environment by the ers greatly increases the range of visual effects: they will vary shadows they create, making our world gloomy or dramatic, according to both the angle of incidence and the angle of view. The appearance of the projected letters on the translucent according to the weather. The interaction of light with surface materials makes up our visual world, whether it is light reflect- surface shown in Figure 1 changes completely, depending on ing on wet pavement, shimmering ocean waves, or gleaming the atmospheric lighting conditions. Students who worked tree leaves. Brightly lit ceilings suggest the feeling of a bound- with small, sharply contoured openings learned that under less blue sky. Sparkling points of light in the dark recall memo- diffuse light conditions the projection surfaces would show ries of starlit night skies. Glowing objects hold the mystical hardly any shadow at all. Whereas translucent materials scatter transmitted light energy of burning coals. Without diminishing our awe at the beauty of nature that surrounds us, we can analyze the visual rays and create soft shadows, transparent objects such as qualities of natural effects in order to apply them to designing crystals focus light, so that an explosion of intense sparkling points will appear in the shadow; these points are referred to new built environments. The type of shadow created is determined by the type and as caustics. Shininess (reflectance) and surface color are key number of light sources. Shadow contrast and sharpness variables in how materials reflect, refract, or block light. This depend on light intensity, light concentration, and the prox- means that the same form or shape will create completely difimity of the shadow-casting object to the projection surface. ferent optical effects when made of different materials. White Intense direct light generates sharp shadows, whereas dif- paper, cardboard, or plastic are good materials for diffusing fuse and multiple light sources make soft shadows. Theater and bouncing light. Colored paper, plastic, or even natural spotlights, as well as parallel light rays from the sun, create leaves can enrich the cool abstractness of planar surfaces. consistently projected shadows, whereas pinpoint lights cast Dark surfaces absorb light and make it difficult to discern shadows; for this reason, they are generally to be avoided undiverging radial rays that fade as distance increases. Shadows overlap when several light sources are used in less a glossy or metallic finish can provide visual interest. Textured, curved surfaces and a tight curve radius provide different positions. In theater lighting, colored gels are used to remove part of the light spectrum. An additional light can fill opportunities for catching raking light. Because the density, in this part of the spectrum, making the shadow of the original regularity, and absolute dimensions of textures affect how they are perceived or "read," this level of detail affects perception. spotlight appear to be in the gel’s complementary color. The direction of the light source relative to the object and Slightly curved surfaces can produce contoured shadows with the viewer determines the visual effect of a shadow. Light from a variety of gradients. Smooth curved surfaces make possible the side accentuates surface texture, whereas frontal light- a continuous range of tones, and create a serene environment.

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54

Practical Implementation — A laboratory-like environment equipped with diverse light fixtures will aid students in developing shadow studies using working models. Here shadows can be created, refined, and documented by such means as cutting cardboard; distorting, overlaying, and experimenting with different materials; positioning of lights and model components; and photographing. Light and shadow effects can be scaled relatively, meaning that design ideas can be easily transferred from model scale to building scale by means of proportionately stronger light sources. The learning process is intensified by initially focusing on shadow, independent of a direct architectural task. This way, students can fully concentrate on the shadows without having to consider structural requirements or other parameters. They can learn how geometric relationships and material properties influence the shape and quality of shadows. A simple initial experiment is to cut a cardboard shadowcasting screen of approximately 30 X 30 centimeters. Using a projector as a light source, students can quickly test the shadow that the screen projects onto a white wall. Larger working models have not yielded better results, because the process of building an entire model required too much attention, which distracted students from focusing on the shadow. Even a single layer of openings creates interesting shadow images. Even more complex and diverse shadows can be seen when cut shapes are bent into the third dimension. For a more complex project, the use of different types of materials for creating shadows can be explored. Transparent, shiny, and colorful objects are inherently interesting. Perforated and articulated objects can provide unexpected results by means of overlapping shadows or diffraction effects. Adding an element to indicate scale, such as a figure, furnishing, or clothing, immediately gives an abstract composition cultural meaning. Creating shadows can be supplemented by hunting for shadows with a camera. Showing students archetypal shadow types can help them understand their accidental encounters, which they may use to further research shadows in architecture, art, and design. Digital methods can support architectural shadow studies. However, quick physical experiments should be carried out prior to digital lighting simulations, because manipulating components by hand allows unexpected results to emerge and makes visual geometry easier to perceive. Digital fabrication methods, such as laser cutting and parametric modeling, can be incorporated into physical models. The subtle visual effects of photographing a lighting model can be refined and enriched by photo-collaging additional textures and environment. Once a specific design concept has been developed, computer modeling can give the scheme more precision and computer rendering makes it easy to play with colored light and substitute material properties. Lighting simulation software can define luminaires and surface attributes to predict lighting levels or heat gain within a space. Dynamic sun shadows can be documented by means of digital animation. While this chapter emphasizes the practical aspects of teaching light and shadow principles, it is motivated by the

55

poetic mutability of shadows. The flicker of shadow play can move across surfaces and instantly transform a space. Shadows can make architecture interesting by clothing it in completely different moods. Shadows are generated by rational geometry, but they have the power to move us emotionally. They are always ephemeral and intangible, which is precisely the emotional characteristic that makes shadows a profound source of fascination, and makes them such powerful design elements.

Teaching About Shadows

1

2

3

4

5

7

6

Essays

56

1–4 Simple shadow studies

8

9

10

11

12

13

5 Students analyzing and sorting their photographs according to different categories 6 Students testing their models with desk lamps 7 Shadows on a translucent surface 8 Light coming through a plastic cup creates a halo effect 9 The dangling chains show how the clarity of the shadow’s edge increases or decreases with proximity 10 The contrast of dark, closed surfaces makes the series of strategically placed openings very surprising 11 The wall of holes laser-drilled into 1 centimeter thick acrylic glass catches the light cast by a projector 12 + 13 Student project: Shadow design of a train station

57

Teaching About Shadows

Shadeproviding Tents

mal surfaces with characteristics that Lightweight canvas tents have been imcorrespond to the structural requireportant shade-providing structures for ments of modern tents can be created centuries. They offer protection in hot easily within any perimeter. Minimal climates against the searing sun and surfaces represent the smallest posare fundamental to the nomadic way of sible surface within a given perimeter. life. Classic nomad tents are still used They are normally curved in a saddleon the steppes of central Asia and in the shape, and the curvatures in both main desert regions of the Arab world. They directions are equal in size and are are constructed from local materials On the Design and Construction of exact mirror images (negative Gaussian according to traditional methods, and Lightweight Canvas Structures curvature). Optimal stress distributheir lightweight and simple installation can be achieved because the tention mean they are easy to move around. Siegfried Gass sion on each point in each direction of Black goat hair is woven using simple handlooms to form strips of fabric fifty to seventy centimeters the surface is equal in degree 4. A multitude of possible tent wide. The strips are sewn together and the fabric is attached forms can be created using these characteristics, the classito wooden posts hammered into the earth, forming the roof cal forms of which will be presented in the following typology. and side walls of the tent. The dark roof sections of canvas absorb the rays of the sun and create dense shade. Tent Typology Mobility, simplicity of installation, light weight, and local — materials are the fundamental design requirements for the The Anticlastic Curved Four-point Surface roof of a handmade tent in the desert or on the steppes. — Urban civilization in Mediterranean societies has also de- The four-point tent is the easiest tent form to derive from the pended heavily on fabric awnings over the centuries. In Spain, basic, anticlastic curved minimal surface. The membrane retractable canopies called toldos 1 that are mounted above spans two opposite-positioned high and low points. Frei Otto the street between the eaves of houses have become an im- built this archetypal form of modern tent construction in 1955 portant part of standard construction. In other countries, the in collaboration with Peter Stromeyer as a music pavilion for canopy cloth is hung freely above the streets. The charac- the garden show in Kassel. 5 teristic way that the cloth hangs is defined by the weight of By varying the positions of the high and low points, diverse the material, which is not stable in the wind, but flutters and spatial configurations can be created that are either more billows, subjecting corner details and attachment points to open or more closed, depending on the different intended very dynamic loads. uses of the tent construction. The knowledge of the form, construction, layout, and If the membrane surface is constructed from single secmaterials used for all of these traditional canvas shade con- tions of canvas, the way that they are positioned plays a destructions has been—similar to the classical tent construc- finitive role in the material’s formal design and load-bearing tions of the nineteenth century—passed on from one master capability. Positioning the sections parallel to both main tent builder to another down through the centuries. directions will inevitably lead to the formation of ridges between both high points and both low points, even if there is Shade-providing Tents and no seam at the connecting lines. In these ridges, which are the Principle of Minimal Surface a clear deviation from the minimal surface, a concentration — of load will develop that can lead to overstress. On the other Tent construction in the twentieth century, including modern hand, the fibers, and therefore the load-bearing elements of shade-providing tents, convertible/retractable roofs, and the membrane, are positioned so as to optimally carry the sunshades, is founded on physical and engineering principles applied loads. Turning the direction of the canvas sections that underpin of the design, construction, layout, and choice forty-five degrees avoids a direct continuation of fibers; then of material. the form can easily adjust to that of the minimal surface. The key principle of modern tent construction, particularly However, there is little curvature in the fibers (similar to the as demonstrated through the research and projects of Frei hyperbolic paraboloid), with the result that the form can beOtto 2, is a double curved surface that conveys the load as come very distorted even in cases of relatively small loads. pure tensile force from different directions to the points of sup- This leads directly to the idea of turning the axis of the secport—which means that very lightweight, pliant constructions tions of fabric 22.5 degrees in relation to the main direction can be used. These surfaces also have a highly complex geo- (or grain) of the fabric. metric form that shares cer3 A very clear description of the 4 See Institute for Lightweight tain aspects with the hyper- 1 See Institute for Lightweight Structures (ed.): IL 30 – Velas, Toldos, mathematical foundations of Structures (ed.): IL 18 – Seifenblasen, bolic paraboloid, but unlike Sonnenzelte, Stuttgart 1984, p. 93 ff. minimal areas can be found in: Stuttgart 1987, p. 74 ff. Stefan Hildebrandt, Anthony Tromba: these, cannot be described 2 Winfried Nerdinger (ed.): Frei Otto Panoptimum: mathematische 5 Winfried Nerdinger (2005), p. 179 f. mathematically 3. – Das Gesamtwerk, leicht bauen, Grundmuster des Vollkommenen, In experiments with soap natürlich gestalten, Basel, Boston, Heidelberg 1987. film, anticlastic curved mini- Berlin 2005.

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1 Nomad tent in the steppe region of Saudi Arabia

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2 Toldos in Córdoba, Spain 3 Shade-providing fabric roofs in Istanbul, Turkey 4 Pavilion of the Federal Republic of Germany at EXPO ’67 in Montréal, Canada. Architects: Frei Otto and Rolf Gutbrod 5 Load transfer of the anti-clastic curved minimal surface 6 Minimal surface as soap film 7 Four-point surface: Music pavilion at the Federal Garden Show in Kassel, Germany, 1955. Architect: Frei Otto. Realization: L. Strohmeyer & Co. 8 Different spanning possibilities of the four-point surface 9 Cutting patterns of the four-point surface

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Shade-providing Tents

Tents with Support in the Surface — A support in the surface is necessary to achieve the required spatial curvature in large tents, as is the case with the applied loads transfer. In contrast to rigid constructions, this cannot be done by means of a point support of the surface, because Canvas surfaces with numerous spanning points If additional spanning points at the edge are necessary to the span is too small to achieve sufficient spatial curvature. span a surface, the surface curvature can only be modeled This was illustrated by the attempt to support a soap bubble optimally if the surface is not too strongly differentiated or if using a moistened needle. Large spatial deformations, and high and low points alternate at the edge, meaning an even therefore effective surface supports, can be achieved if the number of spanning points. An uneven number of edge points, load is transferred via a linear element from the surface to the as well as peaks that extend far from the surface, will not point, or via a planar element. lead to all areas of the tent having the appropriate threedimensional curvature. Ridge Tent A point-symmetrical arrangement of spanning points will The effect of a linear element, called a ridge or flute, in a minigive a surface a horizontal center. This leads to water accumu- mal surface can be explained by means of soap film experilating from rain or snow; the water collects in the middle and ments. The consistently level, minimal surface between three can no longer drain off the low points. A continuous drainage points is spatially deformed by a second minimal surface. The of water can be guaranteed by tilting the plane of reference or newly created form can be modified by adding a ridge in its by making an opening in the middle of the tent. sag, meaning that the surface can be modeled by means of a linear element, and the applied loads are transferred from the surface through the linear element to the support points. Wave Tent A wave tent is suitable for very long, rectangular roof struc- In contrast to an unsupported surface, the spatial curve of tures, for example for shaded pathways, which have an or- the surface sections is greatly reduced; because the ridge is dered alternating of high and low points at the edge. Placing relatively stiff, the deformation of the entire surface subject the low and high points opposite one another creates a dy- to load is also greatly reduced. Integrating more ridges will namic form with very good three-dimensional curvature of the increase the rigidity of the tent. The curve radius is smallest membrane: all of the high points can lie on one horizontal at the support points and increases continuously as it reaches level and the low points on a another, without the surface the mid-span. The form of the ridge is defined by the preload; forming horizontal surfaces. This will solve the problem of in extreme cases (preload → ∞), the ridges are rectilinear and the surface sections are flat triangular surfaces. water accumulation. The classic form of the rotationally symmetrical, pointed tent is a clear illustration of the construction principle "from A Mast without Guy Lines This is a special tent form in which the horizontal component the surface via the line to the point." of the tensioning forces is introduced into the foundation by the end elements of the sail, rather than by a separate sail. Umbrella as an Inverse Ridge Tent This arrangement is stable if the base of the mast is positioned Funnel-shaped umbrellas with the lowest point at the center behind the forward-lying lateral tension points. The mast is for controlled drainage of precipitation can be understood as positioned on the masthead in the tangent plane between the inverse (or inverted) ridge tents, whereas with smaller umperipheral cables: it moves according to the load in question, brellas, having several layers of fabric in the seam can provide and can adjust to a new static equilibrium. the effect of a ridge. In the case of larger umbrellas, in a manThe membrane lies on the mast and undergoes consid- ner similar to ridge tents, a strap (girth) or cables sewn into erable mechanical stress due to movement caused by load casings (or pockets) can be used.6 shifts. A curved mast is a possible solution here, but it will be subject to eccentric curvature. The loss of the functional Ridge Tent as Crossed Wave advantage of guy wires or lines, which reach into the space but An alternating, concentric arrangement of ridges and flutes are not disruptive, is offset by a soft construction that displays under the tent surface, supported in the center by a mast, creconsiderably more deformation as a result of wind pressure ates a space similar to a cross vault. This introverted spatial and snow load. impression can be enhanced by guiding the membrane down to the ridge cables along the side masts. Several four-point surfaces can be combined to cover larger areas. This method will convey a serial-type quality, whether the surfaces are similar or not. Combining different types of canvas will open up even more freedom of design.

6 See the project "Solar Umbrellas," p. 210.

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10 Multiple four-point surfaces: Café at the Federal Garden Show in Karlsruhe, Germany, 1967. Architect: Frei Otto. Realization: L. Strohmeyer & Co.

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11 Sail area with three high and three low points, sloped 12 Wave tents over promenade at the International Garden Festival in Hamburg, Germany, in 1963. Architect: Frei Otto. Realization: L. Strohmeyer & Co. 13 Pointed tent at the Federal Garden Show in Cologne, Germany, in 1957. Architect: Frei Otto. Realization: L. Strohmeyer & Co. 14 Soap film horizontally spanned, with point support 15 Soap film with ridge 16 Ridge tent at the Swiss National Exposition in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1964: "Neige et Rocs." Architects: Marc Saugey and Frei Otto. Realization: L. Strohmeyer & Co. 17 Soap film model of a rotationally symmetrical pointed tent with eight ridges 18 Umbrellas for the Pink Floyd U.S. concert tour in 1977. Architect: Frei Otto 19 Crossed Wave-Pavilion at the International Garden Festival in Hamburg, Germany, in 1963. Architect: Frei Otto. Realization: L. Strohmeyer & Co.

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Shade-providing Tents

Ridge Tent as Star Wave

If there is no central support, a symmetrical rotation of the ridges and the Kehlen, as well as arranging all high and low gorges along a horizontal plane, will create a very expressive form that will make the space under the clear lines of the tent refer strongly to the site. There is a risk of water accumulation, as mentioned above) with the forced creation of horizontal planes in the center of the tent, which can again be solved by making an opening in the middle.

shifting of the angle between the warp and fill fibers, whose spatial curves can usually be achieved without making cuts in the surface.7 Convertible Roofs

Membrane roofs such as toldos in Spain are gathered in parallel or at a central point, which leaves them able to adjust to different uses and weather conditions. To transfer the forces from the membrane, they can be shifted far from the center by inserting rings at small intervals that are fixed to the contact cables. With the central gathering of the canvas, insertRidge Tent as Parallel Wave As with the wave-shaped sails, surfaces can also be modeled ing rosettes that are guyed at the center and attached to the with ridge and flute sails that can span greater lengths. As a support cable has proven to be an effective method. The form result, the parallel arrangement of ridges between high points, of the membrane when spanned corresponds to a humped and flutes between low points, creates a clear pattern of ad- surface. When the membrane is gathered, it is important to dition. Alternating arrangements in which the high points and check the drainage in the pockets between the folds. low points are positioned opposite one another can create bending curves, so that the ridges placed at the high points Catenoid merge into flutes that lead to the low points. An axial symmetric catenoid is created by between two concentrically arranged rings placed at different heights. The form is made by rotating a catenary curve around a vertical Cable Loop To support a surface that is not directly connected to an an- axis. It can be mathematically deduced/calculated. However, chor point, a flexible, rupture-resistant circular element can the form is simple to describe but relatively difficult to masbe integrated into the surface — this creates a cable loop ter, because it is not easy, due to the rigid rings, to create a surrounding a type of "eye," and forms an opening in the mem- prestress in the surface that runs in the direction of the rings. brane. Cable loops can be spanned both upward and down- Only by using the various strain curve characteristics in the ward and require a certain diameter in order to model the warp and fill direction of the canvas is it possible to built the surfaces in the desired manner. A problem occurs at the high tangential stress required for the rings to move farther and points, similar to that which arises in masts without guy lines: farther apart. One satisfactory light and flexible tent solution the mast spatially penetrates the membrane that is spanned is one where the edge dissolves into festoons. between the cable ends. But this can be solved with the apMaterials propriate structural modifications. — In contrast to the very narrow choice of materials available to Dome Tent Besides the use of flexible, stressed circular elements, the sur- master tent builders of the nineteenth century, a multitude of face can also be supported using flexible or bend-resistant materials exist today that can be chosen specifically accordcompression stressed arches. This results in an optimal arch ing to the project’s requirements. The following will present form, as illustrated by the soap film experiment, as an inter- the essential characteristics of different membrane materials. section line between three lamellae, and displays the typical Despite this variety, canvas is still the most popular material characteristics of a basket arch that is to be integrated into the used today. Plastic membranes without textile fibers can still surface. The bend-resistant arch divides the membrane into only be used for smaller tents, due to the relatively severe two independent surface sections, each with a shallow spatial three-dimensional deformation when stressed.8 curve. It is spatially stabilized by tensile forces that bear the Fabric with a reversible linen weave has proven most eftwo tangential running surface sections, which means that the fective, because modern, shade-providing tents in the form danger of buckling is reduced. In other words, the arch can be of minimal surfaces require that the strain curve properties of constructed in a relatively slender weight, even if it is freely warp and fill fibers (both along the grain and across the grain) arranged over the membrane. be as similar as possible. In some cases the panama weave "two over two" or "three over three" can be implemented. The yarn was originally made from natural fibers such as cotton Surface Support — Humped Tent For the surface support of a tent, flexible spatially curved or linen, but today artificial fibers high in tensile strength have surface elements are integrated into the membrane; these become more popular. Adding a coating to fabric made in this deform the surface either upward or downward. The required way can affect the properties of the membrane and make it size of the respective elements is determined by the size of the possible to use innovative connecting technology. surface that is to be defined. Umbrellas that decrease in rigidity toward the edges have also been used successfully as sup- 7 See project "Tent Fairgrounds at Gewebe und Folien" (Membrane materials in construction — textiles and porting elements, as have pneumatically stabilized balls or Möglings­höhe," p. 220. plastics), in: Frank Kaltenbach (ed.): inserted rosettes, which are spanned at a central point. This 8 Detailed description: Karsten Moritz, Transluzente Materialien (Translucent creates relatively soft contours, accomplished solely through "Membranwerkstoffe im Hochbau – materials) Munich, 2003, p. 58 ff.

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20 Soap film model of the star wave of the Tanzbrunnens at the Federal Garden Show in Cologne, Germany, in 1957. Architect: Frei Otto

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21 Soap film model of a wave tent, with parallel ridges between high and low points 22 Soap film model of the Institute for Lightweight Structures. Architect: Frei Otto 23 Roof of the market square in Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A. Architect: R. Larry Medlin

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24 Soap film model of an arch-supported tent for the roof of the sports center in Kuwait, 1974. Architects: Frei Otto and Kenzo Tange 25 Soap film horizontally spanned, with full-surface support

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26 Festival tent for the inauguration of the first North Sea pipeline, at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1975. Architects: Frei Otto with Ove Arup & Partners 27 Convertible roof over the monastery in Bad Hersfeld, Germany, in 1968, opening and closing. Architect: Frei Otto

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28 Soap film in catenoid form between two rings of different sizes 29 Design model for a cooling tower in minimal surface form with flexible edges. Architect: Frei Otto

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Shade-providing Tents

Certain material properties, in particular the strain curve properties, must be taken into account for the cut patterns and in compensating for a change in length when under load; biaxial tension tests and long-term tests are indispensible to attaining the highest level of precision. Because of the deformation of the individual fibers in the weaving process, uncoated fabric displays great flexibility in the warp direction (with the grain) — the original highly curved fibers are pulled straight — but in general less flexibility in the fill direction (across the grain of the fabric), and in some cases a shortening of the fabric has even been reported: the initially straight fill fibers are curved by the warp fibers. The opposite is true for coated fabric, due to the additional mechanical stress in the warp direction, i.e. along the grain.

PTFE-coated Fiberglass Fabric

This relatively expensive material is suitable for use in extreme climatic conditions, in making membranes with large span widths, or when a particularly long lifespan is required. Because the inflammable polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®) coating is highly dirt resistant and UV radiation resistant, it shows few signs of aging. The material has a light transmission level of up to thirteen percent. The relatively stiff material requires very high pre-stressing forces. Its low buckling resistance makes it unsuitable for convertible constructions. The individual sections of fabric, which require a special cut, are joined by high frequency welding. PTFE Fabric

The open, uncoated polytetrafluoroethylene fabric’s excellent buckling properties and perpendicularity make it suitable for Cotton/Polyester Blend Fabric This uncoated and therefore porous fabric is suitable for light- complex, convertible, shade-providing structures where a weight shade-providing tents that can only be erected in warm long lifespan is required. However, the structural properties of seasons. It has a high level of flexibility that allows the use the material mean this fabric is only suitable for constructions of parallel sections of fabric without cutting. Both fibers are with relatively small spans. It is flammable and, depending on mixed in the yarn, but cotton, which is a renewable resource material and thickness, has a light transmission level of up to and the traditional material used in tent construction, will thirty-seven percent. It has exceptional antifouling properties become shorter and expand if exposed to moisture: the tent and a lifespan of over twenty-five years if treated and handled will stretch and the pores between the fill and warp fibers with care, as is required by all open fabrics. Problems arise will close. Polyester fibers have a high level of tensile strength, in regard to its resistance to driving rain, which can be solved meaning this relatively lightweight material is still sufficiently by sealing the gaps in the fabric with a fluoropolymer coatstable under load. Unprotected fibers have a lifespan of five ing. The seams are stitched, as is the standard procedure with to ten years, depending on levels of strain and care. The open fabrics. normally flammable, open fabric is known for having a lighttransmission level of approximately ten percent, as well as ETFE Film for its foldability and buckling resistance. This makes it also a In contrast to anisotropic fabrics, highly translucent ethylene good choice for convertible or mobile constructions. The sec- tetrafluoroethylene film has an isotropic stress-strain curve. tions of fabric are joined and the membrane edges produced It is also has very good mechanical properties, is flame resisusing the same sewing techniques that are used with all un- tant, and, typically for fluoropolymer bonds, highly resistant coated fabrics. to chemical and biological stresses, as well as UV rays. The standard 250-micrometer-thick film has a low tear resistance, which limits the span of weight-bearing constructions, and PVC-coated Polyester Fabric This mass-produced membrane material remains a very popu- is the reason why the material is mainly used in the form of lar choice, due to the clearly differentiable material proper- pneumatic cushions. As with all membranes made from fluoties and relatively low cost. The polyester fibers ensure a high ropolymer bonds, ETFE film’s lifespan of twenty-five to thirty level of tear resistance, and the polyvinyl chloride coating years is very high. It also offers a level of light transmission protects against ultraviolet (UV) rays and moisture. An addi- much higher than glass, which is an important consideration tional surface coating (PVDF varnish) provides protection that if the design calls for covering natural habitats. The individual keeps the coating from becoming prematurely brittle or soiled, sections — up to 1.55 meters wide — are joined by welding. resulting in a lifespan of twenty years or more. The fabric is classified into five different standard type classes according to minimum tensile strength, and is highly flammable. It has a light transmission level of four percent. Compared to open fabric, the coating reduces the level of flexibility, normally required by differentiated cut sections of fabric. The standard joining technique employed is high frequency welding. A strap is sewn to the edges as additional reinforcement.

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30 Double-sided linen fabric

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31 Cotton/polyester blend fabric: Tent in front of the Academy in Nürtingen, Germany in 2007. Architect: Siegfried Gass 32 PVC-coated polyester fabric: renovation of the star wave tent above the Tanzbrunnen in Cologne, Germany, in 2000. Architects: Frei Otto, SL-Rasch 33 PTFE-coated fiberglass fabric: tent in front of a ministry in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, in 1995. Architect: SL-Rasch 34 PTFE-fabric: solar umbrella in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, in 1987. Architects: Bodo Rasch and Associates 35 ETFE-film: summer shade tent in a private garden in Leonberg, Germany in 1987. Architects: Frei Otto, Jürgen Bradatsch

Standard membrane materials and their properties

Fabric type Surface weight [g/m²] Tear resistance warp / weft [N/5cm] Translucency UV-resistance Life expectancy Standard color

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Cotton / blend fabric uncoated 350 to 500

PVC-coated Polyester fabric coated 590 to 1500

PTFE-coated glassfiber weave coated 800 to 1500

PTFE fabric

ETFE film

uncoated 300 to 750

film 87.5 to 350

1700/1000 to 2500/2000 up to 25 % satisfactory

3000/3000 to 9800/8300 0 to 25 % good

3500/3500 to 7500/6500 0 to 15 % very good

400/2200 to 4500/4500 15 to 40 % very good

5 to maximum 10 years white, can be painted almost any color light, temporary, and foldable membrane; small span widths; rainproof

15 to 20 years

more than 25 years

more than 25 years

50/50 to 60/60 up to 95 % very good, without UV transmission more than 25 years

white, other colors available on demand standard material, highly versatile, limited foldability, rainproof

white, limited colors available on demand high quality standard material, technically demanding, cannot be folded, rainproof

white, other colors available on demand superior quality standard material, specifically for convertible roofs, semi-rainproof

transparent, other colors available on demand high quality standard material, specifically for pneumatically supported membranes, rainproof

Shade-providing Tents

Joining Technology — Because the standard section widths of 1.24 to 1.78 meters are usually not wide enough to realize a complete tent surface, the membranes have to be constructed from several sections joined together. There is a fundamental difference between the joining techniques for coated and uncoated materials. There are also different joining techniques for uncoated materials that depend on whether the selvedges at the edge are intact or the fabric has been cut. All types of seams are distinguished by how the material has been layered, meaning that the direction and spacing of the seams are the basic design qualities of the membrane’s construction.

underlying strap. Under pre-stress, the strap stands slightly erect at the center, thus creating a small border that gathers moisture and guides it to the tension points. Coated fabrics are usually folded at the edge and welded; the textile strap is stitched onto the membrane. In both cases, the seam creates an interlocking connection that is able to transfer both radial forces (from the pre-stress) and tangential forces (from the varying loads) from the membrane to the strap. Peripheral Cabling

Larger spans mean stronger forces. Synthetic fiber cables, or, more commonly, steel cables, are used because of their good elasticity when transferring these forces. However, the strength properties of the cables should be selected according to how effective they are at reducing the radial forces that are Flat Seam This is the simplest seam. Two sections of uncoated fabric are to be transferred, and guiding the corresponding strain to the overlapped at the edge and stitched together—usually with deformations in the membrane, while maintaining an equally a backstitched double seam. High frequency welding is the reduced rigidity. The cables are guided through a casing that standard joining technique used for coated fabrics, regard- is formed by folding and stitching or by welding. In some cases, it might be necessary to check whether a comparatively narless of the type of edging on the sections. row additional strap should be stitched on parallel to the edge, in order to divert the forces stemming from the asymmetrical Double Felled Seam Uncoated fabric with a selvedge that has been cut for the pat- loads that function tangentially to the cables, and thus keep tern is joined using a double felled seam. The cloth is folded the membrane from shifting on the cable. A very light and transparent-looking edge can be created at the periphery so as to secure the open edge. Then the two sections of cloth are folded into each other and backstitched if a membrane that is supported by a strap only touches the into a double seam. The sewing machines are equipped with steel cable at certain points, forming a type of festoon. It is feed bars that feed the folded material directly under two possible to use very narrow straps, since the arches have a relatively small radius and thus low tensile forces.9 adjacent needles. Field Joint

Masts

Because seams cannot be stitched or welded at the construction site, various field joints can be used to connect individual sections of a very large membrane surface. The loop joint, the classic joining technique used for traditional boy scout tents, and the zigzag joint, for simple connections that can be easily loosened, are mainly suitable for small tent constructions, whereas clamp joints can provide a joint that is as secure as a welded seam for larger tents. However, the relatively stiff plates embedded in the soft surface may cause small imperfections in the formation of the folds.

Masts made from steel or wood are the most common types used to support a tent. They hold the tent in place and carry the vertical loads, but their slender form means they are subject to buckling. There are two different, basic construction solutions used to aid the transfer of the horizontal loads from the membrane to the cables of the guy lines. The first is to transfer the horizontal forces to the mast using separate, balanced components. The second option is to run the forcecarrying structural elements through the mast, meaning the membrane edge and the sail are a single element.

Edges

Masts with a Lateral Connection

A linear supporting element is required in order to transfer the load from the surface to the tension points. It must be able to form the curved edge that is necessary to transfer load, and be able to adapt to varying load situations by changing its form accordingly. There are relatively flexible elements available for lightweight shade-providing tents that adapt well to the membrane form and in this way transfer the applied loads as pure tensile forces.

Especially in cases of lightweight tents with a strapped edging, there is a structural requirement to transmit the forces from the membrane along the edge to the mast and then onto the sail. The simplest way to do this is via a shackle that is welded onto the mast; the shackle accommodates the triangular ring that is integrated into both the strapped edging and the cable eye of the guy ropes. Steel plates are used in more complex welded constructions; their boreholes accommodate shackles to connect the strapped edge with the bracket fittings of the steel cables for either the sail or the edge cable.10

Textile Strapping or Girths

In cases of small spans and manageable loads, textile straps are a good method of achieving the ideal adaptation of form to fit the flexible membrane. Uncoated fabrics, which are always open because of the required cutting of the edge, which does not have a selvedge, are folded over and sewn onto an

Essays

9 See project "Tent Fairgrounds at Möglingshöhe," p. 220.

10 See project "Tent Fairgrounds at Möglingshöhe".

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37 Flat seam: tent in front of the Academy in Nürtingen, Germany, in 2007. Architect: Siegfried Gass 38 Double felled seam 39 Double felled seam: tent in front of the Museum of Modern Art in New York, U.S.A. in 1971. Architect: R. Larry Medlin

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40 Loop joint 41 Zig-zag joint 42 Field joint: pavilion for the Federal Republic of Germany at EXPO ’67 in Montréal, Canada. Architects: Frei Otto and Rolf Gutbrod 43 Clamping plate joint

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44 Textile strap or girth 45 Edge reinforced with sewn strap or girth: tent at the Kampnagel in Hamburg, Germany, in 1987. Architects: Jürgen Bradatsch, Siegfried Gass 46 Peripheral cables 47 Peripheral cables in welded casings with welded straps: Friedenstent in Leonberg, Germany, in 1988. Architect: Jürgen Bradatsch

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48 Mast top with welded steel plate: tent at the Möglingshöhe fairgrounds in VillingenSchwenningen, Germany, in 2010. Architect: Siegfried Gass

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Shade-providing Tents

Expanding anchors mobilize the surrounding soil either by Mast with Continuous Cables If the steel cables are to run the entire length of the mast, then means of mechanical devices, which are activated after being a large enough support will have to be made by means of a inserted into the earth, and expand the anchor under stress, corresponding welded construction. The cables are fixed in or by means of a great deformation below ground, created by place by a screwed clamping plate in order to prevent slippage. an explosion at the bottom end of the anchor. Pre-stressed ground anchors that are inserted into a drilled hole and are secured by cement mortar can be used for unusually large loads Mast Base The foot of the mast requires a flexible support for the rela- and forces. tively slender pressing rod, in order to avoid fixed-end moFinding the Form ments and consequent material-intensive bending stress. In — most cases, a uniaxial articulation positioned horizontal to the resultant of the guy lines will solve the problem. It might To begin with, minimal surfaces challenge an architect’s pure be necessary to add a bearing to the pivot for masts that are freedom of creativity. The form must be "found," in a process that takes into account the spatial and functional requiresubject to extreme stress from varying loads. ments as well as the effect, meaning that the peripheral conditions will define the form. The form can only be "designed" Anchoring by using this knowledge. — Many different construction elements can be used to anchor and thus stabilize the stresses applied to the membrane surSoap-film Models face. All require that the resulting tension forces be brought Because the form of a tent construction is strongly defined into equilibrium by activating the mass. by its pre-stressed state, soap-film or soap-skin models are good aids in the search for the optimal minimal surface. Soap lamellae are fairly short-lived, but high humidity and low Heavy Load Base A ballast weight can be added to anchor a temporary shade- temperatures can lengthen their lifespan. Soap-skin plays an providing tent that is not intended to be anchored in the ground. important role in the process of finding a form because the It is important to consider the combination of the single ele- form, as an equilibrium form of a physical process, can often ments and their guaranteed availability throughout the en- be reproduced at will. With the aid of modifiable experiment tire duration of use. Since guy lines do not as a rule work in a facilities, the influence of geometric peripheral conditions on perpendicular direction, the force should be broken down into the form can be examined very thoroughly.12 The form actually its components, using the weight of the ballast to transfer the finds itself. It can be photographically recorded (distortionvertical part, and friction to transfer the horizontal part to the free projection of the image using parallel light on a matte foundation. If the structure is tall, the attachment point should surface), described, and analyzed. The relatively complex be chosen in such a way as to prevent the structure from tipping. technology leads to very clear models. Reinforced steel foundations set into the ground are a good and cost effective solution for shade-providing constructions Hosiery Models that require long lifespans and are to be anchored in soft earth. A very easy model building technique for the first attempts to find a form for a shade-providing tent can be created using elastic knitted fabric, such as nylon stockings or hosiery. The Tent Pegs Temporary tents positioned in places where the ground can hosiery model is the first three-dimensional sketch: the matebe penetrated can be anchored using tent pegs hammered rial is stretched according to the three-dimensional geometry, vertically into the ground. This activates the surrounding soil the edges are sewn, glued, and cut. This creates very robust, to take on the applied load. It is important to calculate the realistic models that make good presentation models. The correct anchor depth needed, as well as the thickness and knitted fabric may show some three-dimensional curvature; strength of the peg, for this method of anchoring, which is however, the tension in the surface can only be marginally typically used, for instance, with circus tents.11 It is also im- controlled. The models can only give an impression of the portant to consider the effect of the inclined guy lines on the minimal surface. corresponding force components, whereby the vertical tensile force is activated by friction on the shaft of the anchor. Tulle Models For a realistic illustration of the structural behavior in the fabric, models with a membrane surface of square meshed voile Ground Anchors The earth mass that serves to anchor the load can be en- or tulle can be produced, using curtain material, for instance. larged in order to anchor greater loads that cannot be divided For this relatively complex scale model, the voile or tulle is among several anchors. Depending on the plate size and stretched three-dimensionally, using small spiral springs that the type of earth or soil, anchoring bolts that are screwed are transferred using an iterative process until the intervals into the earth manually or with a machine can transfer are relatively constant and the length of all the spiral springs relatively heavy forces. They can be completely removed after use. 11 See DIN EN 13782:2006-05 12 See Institute for Lightweight Fliegende Bauten – Zelte – Sicherheit.

Essays

Structures (ed.): IL 18 – Seifenblasen.

68

49 Mast base with uniaxial articulated support: Friedenstent in Leonberg, Germany, in 1988. Architect: Jürgen Bradatsch

49

50

50 Anchoring with granite: tent at Kampnagel in Hamburg, Germany, in 1987. Architects: Jürgen Bradatsch, Siegfried Gass 51 Anchoring with anchoring bolts: tent at the Möglingshöhe fairgrounds in VillingenSchwenningen, Germany, in 2010. Architect: Siegfried Gass

51

52 Soap film model: design model for the tent in front of the Unithekle in StuttgartVaihingen, Germany, in 1987. Architects: student group, Siegfried Gass 53 Soap film model: orthophoto of the design model for the tent in front of the Unithekle in Stuttgart-Vaihingen

52

53

54 Hosiery model: design model for the tent in front of the Deutschen Architekturmuseum in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, in 1989. Architect: Siegfried Gass

54

69

Shade-providing Tents

is identical. This at least guarantees a uniformity of tension at the edges. This model-building technique creates very robust, realistic models that can be used as measurement models to describe the principal axes of the surface curvature and the angular shift between the warp and fill fibers, and can help in designing cutting patterns.13 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

With modern computer programs, the minimal surface is generated as a three-dimensional spatial model. It is normally based on a square meshed net, which is generated in the ground plan and built up along the geometry of the tension points. Using an error-compensation calculation, the form is gradually modified so that the initial inconsistent tensions in the surface can be corrected. The mathematical model can then be rendered as a design model, that is, as a structuraldynamic model that can have loads applied to it, which allows the deformations to be examined under load, and finally can also help in designing cutting patterns. This creates very realistic models that enable one to work precisely, to the millimeter, from the design to the production.

13 See Institute for Lightweight Structures (ed.): IL 25 – Experimente, Stuttgart 1987, p. 78.

Essays

70

55 Tulle model: measurement and cutting pattern model for the tent in front of the Unithekle in Stuttgart-Vaihingen, Germany

55

56 Computer-Aided Design (CAD): model of the tent in front of the Unithekle in Stuttgart-Vaihingen, 1987, Architects: student group, Siegfried Gass

56

71

Shade-providing Tents

Overview Plants Twiners Actinidia 76

Akebia 78

Aristolochia 80

Berchemia 82

Celastrus 86

Fallopia 92

Humulus 96

Jasminum officinale 99

Jasminum polyanthum 99

Jasminum sambac 99

Lonicera 100

Schisandra 110

Thunbergia 111

Wisteria 114

Plants

72

Clinging rootlets Campsis 84

Creepers Ficus 93

Hedera 94

Hydrangea 97

Parthenocissus 102

Clematis 87

Parthenocissus inserta 103

Passiflora 104

Vitis 112

Jasminum grandiflorum 98

Jasminum mesnyi 98

Jasminum nudiflorum 98

Rosa 106

Tendrils Ampelopsis 79

Scrambling climbers Bougainvillea 83

73

Overview

Clinging Rootlets, Creepers, Twiners, Tendrils, and Scrambling Climbers Maja Tobler, Olivier Zuber Introduction

Climbing plants can be found almost all over the world. The spectrum of annual or perennial and herbal or woody plants comprises over 2,500 different species. Climbing plants are defined as plants that require a vertical supporting structure: in other words, they need climbing aids in order to grow. Climbing plants depend on trees and bushes in the forest or on the edges of the forest in order to reach the light. These natural climbing aids can be replaced by artificial constructions such as metal, wood, or a wall.

Choice of Plants

When choosing plants, it is important to consider a number of factors.

Location

Location is defined by soil, light conditions, and water supply. The plants require soil that contains enough of the necessary nutrients. Light conditions are differentiated as sunny, semi-shaded, and shaded. In the event that plants are growing under a projecting roof, they will need to be supplied with sufficient water. They might also require winter protection. ™ Sunny exposure to direct sun for 7 or more hours a day in summer  Semi-shaded exposure to direct sun for 3 to 5 hours a day in summer  Shaded exposure to direct sun for up to 3 hours a day in summer

Ornamental value

Distinctive blossoms, pretty seed stems, decorative leaves, or pretty autumn coloring establish the ornamental value of a plant. U Blossom particularly decorative blossoms u Fruit edible fruit Q Leaves decorative leaves (in form or color) Qa Autumn coloring attractive autumn coloring Qe Evergreen in Central Europe evergreen

Growth

When covering shade-providing constructions with plants, it is important to consider the growth habit and growth potential. This will increase the chance of achieving a successful foliage awning and avoid loss or damage. A plant's growth potential can help one determine the correct amount of plants needed for a certain location. Some plants grow slowly when they are young, and then more quickly as they get older. Slow annual growth Moderate annual growth Fast annual growth Very fast annual growth

Plants

less than 50 centimeters 50 to 100 centimeters 100 to 200 centimeters over 200 centimeters

Order

Climbing plants are divided into different groups.

Self-clinging climbers

• Clinging rootlets These plants climb using clinging rootlets to attach their shoots to a base. Most of these climbers grow away from the light. The base should be kept a dark color, and have a somewhat rough surface and a certain level of moisture. If the roots reach an area that is high in moisture, the clinging rootlets become ground roots. They continue to grow and can enlarge existing cracks or splits and, hence, damage facades. • Creepers From a botanical perspective, creepers are actually a subgroup of the sprout tendril climbers. At the end of their tendrils, the plants form small adhesive pads. These pads excrete a type of adhesive when they come into contact with a base. Creepers can also climb along light-colored bases. The base should have a somewhat rough surface.

Support Climbers

• Twiners These plants use their own young shoots to twine around their climbing aid (small tree trunks, wooden posts, metal rods, wire, and so on). They do not develop their own climbing organs. Twiners prefer a vertical base. Climbing aids with an incline of less than 45 degrees are rarely used for twiners. Cross connections on the climbing aids can keep the shoots from slipping. • Tendrils Tendrils form organs (leaf-stem tendril, leaf tendril, sprout tendril) that grab or hold onto a surface. The tendril climbing aid should be delicate enough for the tendrils to take hold. • Scrambling climbers They climb by weaving their shoots through other plants and are supported by thorns, spines, bristles, or vertical branches. Scrambling climbers often need to be tied to the climbing structure. Cautionary note to readers: A number of plants that are commonly used in Europe are considered invasive species on other continents, notably in North America, where these plants have no natural controls present.

Such plants can crowd out native species and adversely affect wildlife. Please be sure to check local information in your area when choosing plants.

74

Clinging rootlets

Creepers

Twiners

Tendrils

grow on walls, masonry, trees, levels (horizontal, diagonal, vertical).

grow on walls, masonry, trees, levels (horizontal, diagonal, vertical).

are suitable for climbing horizontal cables, pergolas, arcades.

p. 84 Campsis

p. 102 Parthenocissus henryana Parthenocissus himalayana Parthenocissus quinquefolia Parthenocissus tricuspidata

are suited to espaliers, trellises, climbing ropes or cables (spanned horizontally and vertically), arcades and pergolas with trellises.

p. 93 Ficus p. 94 Hedera p. 97 Hydrangea

p. 76 Actinidia p. 78 Akebia p. 80 Aristolochia p. 82 Berchemia p. 86 Celastrus p. 92 Fallopia

Scrambling climbers

need walls with climbing supports, trees or large bushes, or pergolas with trellises.

p. 79 Ampelopsis

p. 83 Bougainvillea

p. 87 Clematis

p. 98 Jasminum grandiflorum Jasminum mesnyi Jasminum nudiflorum

p. 103 Parthenocissus inserta p. 104 Passiflora

p. 106 Rosa

p. 112 Vitis

p. 96 Humulus p. 99 Jasminum officinale Jasminum polyanthum Jasminum sambac p. 100 Lonicera p. 110 Schisandra p. 111 Thunbergia p. 114 Wisteria

75

Contents

Botanical name Common name Family

Actinidia Actinidia Actinidiaceae

Growth

The actinidia genus comprises approximately 40 species that are indi­ genous to China, Eastern Siberia, Japan, and Java. They are twiners, rather fast growing shrubs, and are cultivated for their tasty fruit, which is very high in vitamin C. They have very dense leaf growth and are resistant to illness. Many species are dioecious; but bisexual species are also available.

Bot. name Eng. name

Actinidia arguta Hardy kiwi

Actinidia callosa Mini Kiwi, Chinese gooseberry

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 3 m/y 10‒15 m tall, 5‒6 m wide

up to 2 m/y 8‒10 m tall, 4‒5 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich soil

humus-rich soil

Hardiness

to -20° C

to -5° C

Leaf

large leaves up to 13 cm long, oval

large leaves up to 12 cm long, cuneiform

Blossom

white; May-June; lightly scented, mostly hidden by dense foliage, dioecious

large, white; May; lightly scented, mostly hidden by dense foliage

Fruit

edible, somewhat less flavorful than real kiwis

edible, green, red overflowing and mottled

Choose for

UQu

UQu

Care

prune in winter

prune in winter

Special notes

Young plants need to be protected Young plants need to be protected in the event of a hard winter. in the event of a hard winter. Variety: 'Issai': self-fertilizing clone; 'Meander Female': large fruit yield

Actinidia deliciosa

Plants

76

Actinidia coriacea Chinese egg gooseberry

Actinidia deliciosa (A. chinensis) Kiwi

Actinidia kolomikta Chinese gooseberry

Actinidia polygama Silver vine

twiners

twiners

twiners

twiners

up to 2 m/y up to 8 m tall, up to 4 m wide

up to 3 m/y 8‒10 m tall, 6‒8 m wide

up to 1.5 m/y 3‒6 m tall, 3‒5 m wide

up to 1.5 m/y 3‒6 m tall, 3‒5 m wide

™

™

™

™

humus-rich soil

humus-rich soil

humus-rich soil, calcareous soil

humus-rich soil, calcareous soil

to -5° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

often semi-evergreen, large leaves up to 13 cm long, oval

large leaves up to 20 cm long, cordate

large leaves up to 15 cm long, oval; male leaves are creamy white and pink or reddish on top

large leaves up to 15 cm long, oval; male leaves are creamy white on top

red with yellow anthers; June; mostly hidden in the dense foliage

many flowers, white to creamcolored; May to June; fragrant, dioecious

small, white; June; slightly fragrant, mostly hidden by dense foliage

small, white; June; slightly fragrant, mostly hidden by dense foliage

edible, brown, juicy

edible, reddish brown, fuzzy skin

edible, yellowish green, approx. 2.5 cm long

edible, yellowish green, approx. 2.5 cm long

U Q u

U Q u

U Q u

U

prune in winter

prune in winter

prune in winter

prune in winter

Winter protection is needed for young plants in the event of a harsh winter. Also goes (erroneously) by the name of A. henryi: but A. henryi is a different plant.

Winter protection is needed for young plants in the event of a harsh winter. Variety: 'Jenny': self-fertilizing hermaphrodite, 'Bruno': female bears very large fruit

Winter protection is needed for young plants in the event of a harsh winter. The distinctive color of the leaves appears after 2 or 3 years.

Winter protection is needed for young plants in the event of a harsh winter. The distinctive color of the leaves appears after 2 or 3 years.

77

Act

Botanical name Common name Family

Akebia Akebia

There are five known species of Akebia. All grow in the mountainous forests of China, Korea, and Japan. The Akebia retains its leaves for a long time in autumn. As a twiner, it depends on climbing aids or mature strong-growing trees.

Lardizabalaceae

Bot. name Eng. name

Akebia quinata Chocolate vine or Five-leaf akebia

Akebia trifoliata Three-leaf akebia

Akebia x pentaphylla Five-leaf akebia, Five-finger akebia

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

twiners

Growth

weak growing in its early years, later up to 2 m/y 6–10 m tall, 6–8 m wide

up to 1 m/y 5‒7 m tall, up to 4 m wide

up to 1 m/y 5‒7 m tall, 3‒4 m wide

Location

 prefer warm, protected areas up to 600 meters above sea level

 prefer warm, protected areas up to 600 meters above sea level

 prefer warm, protected areas up to 600 meters above sea level

Soil

moist, nutrient-rich, loamy to sandy earth

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

moist, nutrient-rich, loamy to sandy earth

Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Leaf

deciduous, in mild climates evergreen, palmate, pentamerous, dark green

often semi-deciduous, large leaves up to 13 cm long, oval

pentamerous, medium green, deciduous

Blossom

female blossoms violet brown, male blossoms smaller and pink, vanilla scented; May

blossoms smaller than the A. female blossoms violet brown, male blossoms smaller and pink, quinata, female blossoms brown, male blossoms smaller and lighter; fragrant; May April‒May

Fruit

edible, purple violet, bananashaped, 5‒10 cm long, bears fruit only in warm areas

edible, light purple violet, bananashaped, 5‒10 cm long, bears fruit only in warm areas

edible, purple violet, bananashaped, 5‒8 cm long, bears fruit only in warm areas

Choose for

UQ

UQ

UQ

Care

can be pruned back in winter, but not necessary

can be pruned back in winter, but not necessary

young plants need winter protection in harsh climates; pruning not necessary

Special notes

This fruit is the favorite fruit of the rare in Europe snow monkeys in Japan. The leaves are dried and used for tea. Therapeutic uses (to inhibit inflammation) Variety: 'Alba': white blossoms with purple violet stamens

Plants

Cross breeding of A. quinata X A. trifoliata occurs in nature as well as by man.

78

Botanical name Common name Family

Ampelopsis Vine Vitaceae

Bot. name

79

There are approximately 25 known species of the Ampelopsis. They are very rarely cultivated in Europe, but are indigenous to Asia and North America. These plants climb the trunks and branches of forest trees. The Ampelopsis are very robust and resistant to disease and pests. They need a climbing aid with a grid-like structure with intervals of approximately 20 centimeters. Only suitable for sheltered areas (vineyard climate).

Eng. name

Ampelopsis aconitifolia Monkshood vine

Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Porcelain berry

Ampelopsis megalophylla Spikenard Ampelopsis

Climbing form

tendrils

tendrils

tendrils

Growth

up to 1.5 m/y 7‒8 m tall, 3‒4 m wide

up to 1.5 m/y 7‒8 m tall, 3‒4 m wide

up to 2.5 m/y 8‒10 m tall, 4‒6 m wide

Location

 love warm, sheltered areas up to 600 meters above sea level

 love warm, sheltered areas up to 600 meters above sea level

 love warm, sheltered areas up to 600 meters above sea level

Soil

humus-rich, moist and nutrition-rich soil

humus-rich, moist and nutrition-rich soil

humus-rich, moist and nutrition-rich soil

Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -15° C

Leaf

very varied, trilobal to pentalobal, 6‒12 cm wide, fall foliage yellow to purple violet

mostly trilobal, rarely pentalobal, new shoots are reddish brown then deep green, fall foliage yellow to red

very long stems, single or multiple pinnates, 45‒60 cm long, top side shiny green, fall foliage yellow and reddish brown

Blossom

inconspicuous; July‒August

inconspicuous; July‒August

inconspicuous; July‒August

Fruit

round berries, approx. 6 mm, first blue, then yellowish-orange

round berries, approx. 8 mm, very decorative, light amethyst blue to violet on dark mottled background

round berries, approx. 6 mm, dark purple, later black stems

Choose for

Qa u

U Qa u

Qa u

Care

prune in winter

prune in winter

prune in winter

Special notes

winter protection needed for young plants in the event of a harsh winter

winter protection needed for young winter protection needed for young plants in the event of a harsh win- plants in the event of a harsh ter. This species bears more fruit if winter the root zone is limited. Variety: 'Elegans': leaves pink, white and yellow variegated, smaller than the var. maximowiczii; leaf forms very variable, berries porcelain blue, less hardy in winter than the A. brevipedunculata

Ake‒Amp

Botanical name Common name Family

Aristolochia Pipevine Aristolochiaceae

Growth

The genus Aristolochia comprises 300 to 500 species. Most are found in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America. Only a small number of the species are indigenous to temperate climate zones. Aristolochia are deciduous or evergreen shrubs with a very rapid rate of growth. The tropical species are cultivated particularly for their large flowers. The flowers of the species found in Europe are less striking; they are cultivated for their large, cordate foliage.

Bot. name Eng. name

Aristolochia gigantea Brazilian Dutchman's pipe

Aristolochia grandiflora Pelican flower

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 6 m/y 15‒20 m tall, up to 15 m wide

fast growing: up to 5 m/y 15‒20 m tall, up to 15 m wide

Location

™



Soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

Hardiness

not hardy below 5° C

not hardy below 5° C

Leaf

large cordate leaves up to 20 cm long and 15 cm wide, dark green, evergreen

large ovate or cordate leaves up to 20 cm long and 15 cm wide, dark green

Blossom

pipe-shaped, very large burgundycolored flowers lined with white veins, up to 50 cm long and 30 cm wide; flowers bloom in stages in summer; compared with A. grandiflora, the plant smells only slightly of carrion

the largest flower in the tropics, one of the largest in the world; pipe-shaped flower grows up to 2.5 m in length, blooms in summer; flower marbled with violet, white, yellow, red, and green; inner part of flower is deep violet; flower smells strongly of carrion!

Fruit

capsules

capsules

Choose for

U Q Qe

U Q Qe

Care

Special notes

Aristolochia macrophylla

Plants

80

Aristolochia littoralis Calico flower

Aristolochia macrophylla Dutchman's pipe, pipevine

Aristolochia manshuriensis Manchurian Dutchman's pipe

Aristolochia moupinensis Chinese Dutchman's pipe, pipevine

Aristolochia tomentosa Woolly Dutchman's pipe, pipevine

twiners

twiners

twiners

twiners

twiners

up to 2 m/y up to 10 m tall, up to 6 m wide

up to 3 m/y 8‒10 m tall, 4‒6 m wide

up to 2 m/y 8‒10 m tall, 4‒6 m wide

up to 1.5 m/y 4‒6 m tall, up to 3 m wide

up to 2 m/y 6‒7 m tall, 3‒5 m wide

™



™



™

sandy to humus-rich soil, can tolerate salt

nutrient-rich, moist, humus-rich soil, can tolerate lime

nutrient-rich, moist, humus-rich soil

nutrient-rich, moist, humus-rich soil

nutrient-rich, moist, humus-rich soil

not hardy below 5° C

hardy to -25° C

hardy to -20° C

hardy to -15° C

hardy to -15° C

evergreen, very elegant cordate foliage, up to 12 cm long and 12 cm wide

deciduous, large foliage up to 30 cm long, cordate; does not always show color in autumn

large, cordate foliage up to 20 cm, petiole up to 10 cm long; upper surface of the leaf medium green, underside gray-green

wide ovate, 7–12 cm long, medium green, underside gray-green, villous

wide ovate, 10–20 cm long, petiole up to 7 cm long, dull green

pipe-shaped, white spotted, brownish-red pipe flowers are approx. 8–10 cm wide and a bit over 10 cm long; they flower throughout the year

pipe-shaped, outside yellow, inside crimson, up to 8 cm long, not as striking as the tropical species, mostly hidden by dense foliage; June–August

pipe-shaped yellowish-green, inside purplish-brown spotted or striped, approx 5–6cm long; May‒ June; the flowers are more striking than A. machrophylla

pipe-shaped, stems, yellow-green, 3 cm long, mouth yellow, spotted crimson; June–July

pipe-shaped, yellowish-green, inside purplish-brown, up to 4 cm long; June

capsules, approx. 8 cm long

capsules, 6‒8 cm long

capsules, up to 11 cm long

capsules up to 8 cm long

capsules, 6‒8 cm long

U Q Qe

Q

UQ

Q

Q

After flowering, prune lateral branches to half their length to ensure that more flowers grow the next year. The entire plant is poisonous. The dense foliage creates total shade. The plant conveys a tropical feeling.

81

Ari

Botanical name Common name Family

Berchemia Berchemia Rhamnaceae

Growth

Berchemia racemosa

Plants

The Berchemia comprises approximately 20 species that are indigenous to South Asia, Mexico, Guatemala, the southern regions of the United States, and East Africa. These are mainly deciduous, clockwise win­ding plants. They are rarely cultivated in Europe because they require a warm habitat that is sheltered from wind. Berchemias are particularly noted for their beautiful fruits.

Bot. name Eng. name

Berchemia racemosa Japanese Berchemia

Berchemia scandens Alabama supplejack

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 0.50 m/y 7‒12 m tall, 5‒8 m wide

up to 0.30 m/y 3‒5 m tall, up to 3 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

Hardiness

hardy to -15° C

hardy to -15° C

Leaf

ovate, 3–6 cm long, upper surface of leaf dark green, underside lighter; short stalks: 1 cm; fall foliage gold/yellow

elliptical-ovate, 3–8 cm long, leaf edge wavy, upper leaf surface dark green, underside bluish; short stalk: 1 cm

Blossom

apical green panicles, approx. 20 cm long; July–September

panicles, often apical, greenishwhite, 2–5 cm long; June

Fruit

stone fruit, round, 5–7 mm, first red, then black, fruit remains on the plantduring winter

stone fruit, oblong-shaped, up to 1 cm, bluish-black

Choose for

Qa u

Qu

Care

needs winter protection and mild climate in Europe

needs winter protection and mild climate in Europe

Special notes

Variety: 'Variegata': young foliage deep cream colored, white variegated

82

Botanical name Common name Family

Bougainvillea Bougainvillea Nyctaginaceae

Bot. name

83

The Bougainvillea genus comprises 18 species, all indigenous to South America. Their colorfulness is immediately associated with Mediterranean and southern countries. They are mainly scrambling climbing shrubs with stem thorns. The flowers cluster in groups of three and hence were nicknamed Drillingsblume (triplet flower) in German. The flower appears in summer and remains throughout the entire growing season. When blossoming is finished, the brightly colored spathaceous bract becomes green and dry.

Bougainvillea glabra

Bougainvillea glabra 'Sanderiana'

Bougainvillea spectabilis

Eng. name

Bougainvillea x buttiana (B. glabra x B. peruviana) Bougainvillea, paper flower

Bougainvillea, paper flower

Bougainvillea, paper flower

Bougainvillea, paper flower

Climbing form

scrambling climbers

scrambling climbers

scrambling climbers

scrambling climbers

Growth

up to 2 m/y 5‒7 m tall, 5‒6 m wide

up to 3 m/y 10‒20 m tall, 8‒10 m wide

up to 3 m/y 10‒15 m tall, 8‒10 m wide

up to 3.5 m/y 15‒25 m tall, 10‒12 m wide

Location

™

™

™

™

Soil

sandy, clay-rich, well-drained soil, pH value ~ 6.5, much water and fertilizer in summer, in winter little water

sandy, clay-rich, well-drained soil, pH value ~ 6,5, much water and fertilizer in summer, in winter little water

sandy, clay-rich, well-drained soil, pH value ~ 6.5, much water and fertilizer in summer, in winter little water

sandy, clay-rich, well-drained soil, pH value ~ 6.5, much water and fertilizer in summer, in winter little water

Hardiness

to 0° C

to 0° C

to 0° C

to 5° C

Leaf

evergreen, wide ovate, up to 12 cm long and 8 cm wide, tapered bare foliage, dark green

evergreen, elliptical, up to 13 cm long and 6 cm wide, top surface of some species is shiny, others are matte, bare to sparsely villous, top surface dark green, underside lighter; fewer thorns than B. spectabilis

evergreen, elliptical, up to 13 cm long and 6 cm wide, top surface shiny, bare to sparsely villous, upper side of surface dark green, underside lighter

evergreen, oval, up to 10 cm long and 6 cm wide, covered with dense villi; more thorns than B. glabra

Blossom

spathaceous bracts grow to 3.5 cm profuse flowering, pale violet spathaceous bracts long and wide; varying by species orange, yellow, purple, carmine, or scarlet red petals

profuse flowering, violet spathaceous bracts

spathaceous bracts grow to approx. 4 cm long and wide, the original species is crimson; varying by species, orange, yellow, purple, carmine, or scarlet red spathaceous bracts; species with double blossoms also available

Fruit

nut-shaped

nut-shaped

nut-shaped

nut-shaped

Choose for

U Qe

U Qe

U Qe

U Qe

Care

prune in winter if necessary

prune in winter if necessary

prune in winter if necessary

prune in winter if necessary

Special notes

Variety: 'Golden Glow': orange floral bracts, moderate growth up to 5 m high 'Rosenka': The bract is orange and gradually turns pink, the plant grows to 4 m high and 4 m wide.

Variety: 'Harrissii': foliage is brightly variegated in the middle.

Variety: There are many different species 'Sanderiana': is the most commonly available. available variety. 'Sanderiana Variegata': the foliage is cream-white at the edge.

Ber–Bou

Botanical name Common name Family

Campsis Trumpet vine Bignoniaceae

Growth

Campsis grandiflora

Plants

There are two known sources: Campsis radicans from America and Campsis grandiflora from China. C. radicans is cultivated more often in Central Europe because it is winter hardy. There are also some hybrids available on the market. Campsis species thrive in regions that have warm summers and mild winters. They flower abundantly and are lush in the Mediterranean region. They like nutrient-rich, not very dry soil, and do not tolerate stagnant moisture in winter. The plants develop adhesive roots. It is recommended, however, to provide a climbing aid to support the heavy growth. The flowers bloom on deciduous wood.

Bot. name

Campsis grandiflora

Campsis radicans

Eng. name

Chinese trumpet vine

American trumpet vine

Climbing form

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

Growth

up to 3 m/y 7‒10 m tall, 5‒6 m wide adhesive rootlets are only slightly developed

up to 3 m/y 10‒12 m tall, 7‒8 m wide has strong adhesive rootlets

Location

 shade at base, otherwise sunny

 shade at base, otherwise sunny

Soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrientrich soil

Hardiness

to -10° C

to -20° C

Leaf

deciduous, imparipinnate, up to deciduous, imparipinnate, up to 20 cm long, matte dark green, edge 25 cm long, fresh green, sawtooth roughly toothed edge

Blossom

apical, projecting panicles, orange and red, individual flowers up to 5–7 cm long; August–September

Fruit

small capsules, up to 8 cm long

small capsules, up to 10 cm long

Choose for

❀U

❀U

Care

Prune in spring: prune back 2‒3 buds of the long shoots that do not help the climbing plant to develop.

Prune in spring: prune back 2‒3 buds of the long shoots that do not help the climbing plant to develop.

Special notes

The shallow root system should not dry out in the summer; winter protection is needed for young plants in a harsh winter.

winter protection needed for young plants in a harsh winter Variety: 'Flamenco': shoots crimson, flowers red, orange when withering 'Praecox': early flowering in June, flowers red

apical, projecting panicles, orange and red, individual flowers up to 8 cm long; July–September

84

Campsis radicans 'Flava' Flava trumpet vine

Campsis x tagliabuana (C. grandiflora x C. radicans) Hybrid trumpet vine

Campsis x tagliabuana 'Indian Summer' Indian summer trumpet vine

Campsis x tagliabuana 'Madame Galen' Madame Galen trumpet vine

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

up to 2 m/y up to 8 m tall, up to 4 m wide

up to 3 m/y 6‒8 m tall, 4‒5 m wide weak climbers, more shrub-like

up to 2 m/y 4 m tall, 4 m wide

up to 3 m/y 7‒9 m tall, 5‒6 m wide

 shade at base, otherwise sunny

 shade at base, otherwise sunny

 shade at base, otherwise sunny

 shade at base, otherwise sunny

humus-rich, moist, and nutrientrich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrientrich soil, loamy

humus-rich, moist, and nutrientrich soil, loamy

humus-rich, moist, and nutrientrich soil, loamy

to -20° C

to -15° C

to -15° C

to -20° C

deciduous, imparipinnate, up to 25 cm long, pale green, sawtooth edge

deciduous, imparipinnate, up to 25–35 cm long, fresh green, sawtooth edge

deciduous, imparipinnate, up to 50 cm long, fresh green, sawtooth edge

deciduous, imparipinnate, up to 40 cm long, fresh green, sawtooth edge

apical, projecting panicles, yellow, single flowers approx. 8 cm, throat orange inside with red cross stripes; July–September; needs a very warm location to guarantee flowers

apical, projecting panicles, orange, apical, projecting panicles up to single flowers approx. 8 cm, throat 10 cm long, orange, single flowers red inside; July–September approx. 8 cm, orange throat greenish-yellow inside, orange outside; July–September

small capsules up to 10 cm long

small capsules up to 10 cm long

small capsules up to 10 cm long

small capsules up to 15 cm long

❀U

❀U

❀U

❀U

Prune in spring: prune back 2–3 buds of long shoots that do not help climbing plant develop.

Prune in spring: prune back 2–3 buds of long shoots that do not help climbing plant develop.

Prune in spring: prune back 2–3 buds of long shoots that do not help climbing plant develop.

Prune in spring: prune back 2–3 buds of long shoots that do not help climbing plant develop.

winter protection needed for young plants in a harsh winter

winter protection needed for young plants in a harsh winter

winter protection needed for young plants in a harsh winter

winter protection needed for young plants in a harsh winter

85

apical, projecting panicles up to 8 cm long, orange, single flowers approx. 8 cm, throat red inside, orange outside; June–September

Cam

Botanical name Common name Family

Celastrus Staff vine

The Celastrus genus comprises approximately 32 species that are indi­ ge­nous to East and South Asia, America, Madagascar, and the Fiji Islands. They are counter-clockwise winding, very fast growing shrubby vines. They are cultivated mainly for their decorative fruit. The plants are very robust. Many species are dioecious, but there are also numerous hermaphrodite plants available. They require very stable climbing aids. Young plants need supports with a diameter of 1 to 2 centimeters; older plants can twine around supports with diameters of up to 20 centi­meters. The plants should not climb on drainage pipes due to their dense growth. Even weak growing and young trees can be strangled by these vines.

Celastraceae

Bot. name

Celastrus angulatus

Celastrus scandens

Chinese staff vine

Celastrus orbiculatus var. orbiculatus Oriental staff vine, bittersweet

Eng. name Climbing form

twiners

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 2 m/y 6‒8 m tall, 5‒6 m wide

up to 2 m/y 10‒15 m tall, 8‒10 m wide

up to 2 m/y 7‒10 m tall, up to 4 m wide

Location







Soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil, not too alkaline

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil, not too alkaline

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil, not too alkaline

Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -40° C

Leaf

round-cordate, 10–18 cm long, short tapered, in autumn bright yellow

round, 5–10 cm long, short tapered, ovate, 5–10 cm long, long tapered, light green, shiny, in autumn bright in autumn bright yellow yellow

Blossom

panicles 10–15 cm long, greenish in June, dioecious

axillary umbels, greenish-yellow, June, dioecious also sometimes with hermaphrodite flowers

apical racemes or panicles, 5–10 cm long, light yellow, June, dioecious

Fruit

balls, 1 cm thick, yellow, seed shell red; fruits keep very long in winter

balls, 8 mm thick, orange-yellow, seed shell scarlet red, poisonous; fruits keep very long in winter

balls, 8 mm thick, yellow, seed shell carmine red; fruits keep very long in winter

American staff vine, bittersweet

Choose for

Qa u

Qa u

Qa u

Care

does not need pruning

does not need pruning

does not need pruning

Variety: 'Diana': female clone 'Hercules': male clone

Variety: 'Indian Brave': male clone 'Indian Maiden': female clone

Special notes

Plants

86

Botanical name Common name Family

Growth

Clematis Clematis Ranunculaceae

The Clematis genus comprises approximately 295 species that are mostly found in northern, temperate zones (10 species in Europe). Most are deciduous climbing plants, shrubs, or bushes. The plants are occasionally evergreen. The foliage of the climbing species develops elements that climb (leaf climbers). There are a large number of breeds available on the market, which makes it difficult to classify them into groups. As a result, there is still considerable confusion about species and names. This book will refer to the Clematis group classification according to the Philip (2000) Classification of Genera in RHS Plant Finder 2000–2001.

Bot. name Eng. name

Clematis Clematis (general)

Climbing form

tendril climbers

Location

All Clematis prefer a shady root zone.

Soil

The soil should be well drained, nutrient-rich, and loamy.

Blossom

The flowers have at least four petals that grow into bell shapes separately or together.

Fruit

The fruits are feather-white, villous, and very decorative. They appear in late summer and autumn and remain on the plants well into the winter.

Care

The only important disease worth mentioning here is the Clematis wilt. It is caused by fungus and can occur suddenly. The largeflowered hybrid species are the most vulnerable. Affected shoots must be pruned at the base and removed. Fungal infestations can be avoided by setting container plants into the soil about 10 to 15 cm below ground level. Most Clematis varieties are slightly poisonous to humans.

Special notes

The climbing construction to support the fast-growing species should be strong enough for the plants to attain their substantial mass. Clematis require horizontal or vertical supports with a diameter of up to 1.5 cm and intervals between the grid-like structure of 15 to 20 cm.

Groups

Clematis can be divided into three basic groups, based on their pruning seasons. Group A

This Clematis group flowers early in the year (April to beginning of June) on the previous year's growth. If it is necessary to prune because of strong growth or bare areas, it should be done right after flowering.

Group B

This plant group flowers in early summer (May and June) on short lateral shoots of this year's growth. Dead or weak shoots should be pruned and removed in the spring.

Group C

Most of the large flower varieties fall into this group. They flower only on this year's new shoots. They are pruned in spring or in autumn just above their base. If they are not pruned regularly, the lower part of the plant will become bare. Most climbing wild species require regular pruning.

The list of commercially available Clematis is very long. This book will only describe proven Clematis varieties that grow to over 3 meters.

87

Cel‒Cle

Group A

Genus/species Clematis alpina Variety

Clematis alpina 'Albina Plena'

Clematis alpina 'Frances Rivis'

Clematis alpina 'Odorata'

Clematis alpina 'Pamela Jackman'

Clematis alpina 'Pink Flamingo'

Clematis alpina 'Ruby'

Clematis alpina 'White Columbine'

Clematis armandii

Flower color

violet-blue

white

deep blue-violet

blue, fragrant

violet blue

light pink

violet-red

white

white

Flower form

nodding, bell-shaped

double, nodding, nodding, bell-shaped bell-shaped

nodding, bell-shaped

slightly nodding, nodding, bell-shaped bell-shaped

nodding, bell-shaped

slightly nodding, star-shaped, bell-shaped fragrant

Anthesis

V‒VI

V‒VI

IV‒VI

V‒VI

IV‒V

IV‒V

IV‒V

IV‒V

III‒V

Growth height

to 3 m

to 2 m

to 2.5 m

to 3 m

to 3 m

to 3 m

to 3 m

to 2.5 m

5‒10 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -25° C

to -20° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

-12° C

Special notes

The entire plant is mildly poisonous to humans.

This evergreen has large dark green foliage.

Genus/species Clematis Variety armandii 'Apple Blossom'

Clematis cirrhosa var. balearica

Clematis macropetala

Clematis Clematis macropetala montana 'Markham's Pink'

Clematis montana 'Alexander'

Clematis montana 'Elizabeth'

Clematis montana var. grandiflora

Clematis montana var. rubens

Flower color

pink-pale pink

white with reddish-brown

blue

pinkish-white

white, partially pink

cream-white, fragrant

pink, fragrant

white

pink

Flower form

cup-shaped

wide, bell-shaped

large, bell-shaped

large, bell-shaped

large, cup-shaped

large, cup-shaped

large, cup-shaped

large, cup-shaped

large, cup-shaped

Anthesis

III‒V

XII–III

IV‒VI

IV‒VI

IV‒VI

IV‒VI

V‒VI

V‒VI

V

Growth height

5‒10 m

8‒10 m

to 3.5 m

to 2.5 m

to 12 m

to 8 m

to 8 m

to 11 m

to 10 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -12° C

to -5° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Special notes

an evergreen with large dark green foliage

evergreen

This plant is not susceptible to Clematis wilt.

Clematis alpina

Clematis armandii

Plants

Foliage is larger Foliage is than the species, greenish-violet. light green.

Clematis macropetala

Clematis montana var. grandiflora

to -20° C

to -20° C

Foliage is dark green.

young shoots reddish; foliage light violet

Clematis montana var. rubens

88

Group B

Genus/species Clematis Variety Cultivars 'Barbara Dibley'

Clematis Cultivars 'Barbara Jackman'

Clematis Cultivars 'Bees Jubilee'

Clematis Cultivars 'Doctor Ruppel'

Clematis Cultivars 'Fireworks'

Clematis Cultivars 'Fuji-musume'

Clematis Cultivars 'Glynderek'

Clematis Cultivars 'Henryi'

Clematis jackmannii 'Alba'

Flower color

lilac-pink, red stripes

violet, red stripes

pale lilac, red stripes

pink, red stripes

blue-violet with red stripes

lavender blue

violet

white

white and silvery

Flower form

saucer-shaped, 15‒17 cm

saucer-shaped, 12‒15 cm

saucer-shaped, 12‒18 cm

saucer-shaped, 12‒18 cm

saucer-shaped, 15-20 cm

saucer-shaped, 11‒14 cm

double, saucersaucer-shaped, shaped, 15‒20 cm 15‒18 cm

saucer-shaped, 10‒15 cm

Anthesis

VI (VII‒IX)

VI (VII‒X)

V‒VI (IX)

V‒VI (IX)

V‒VI (VIII‒IX)

VII‒IX

V‒VI (IX)

VII‒IX

VII‒IX

Growth height

3 ‒ 3.5m

to 3.5m

to 3 m

to 3 m

to 3 m

to 4 m

to 3 m

to 3 m

to 6 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -25° C

Special notes

flowers as profusely as 'Nelly Moser'

Fades when wilting.

first flowers semi-double, then plain

Genus/species Clematis Variety jackmannii 'Superba'

Clematis Cultivars 'Mrs Cholmondeley'

Clematis Cultivars 'Nelly Moser'

Clematis Cultivars 'The President'

Clematis Cultivars 'Ville de Lyon'

Clematis Cultivars 'Vino'

Clematis florida

Clematis florida 'Alba Plena'

Clematis florida var. sieboldiana

Flower color

purple-violet

lavender blue

lilac pink with stripes

violet blue

red, light stripes

burgundy

white

white

green to white

Flower form

saucer-shaped, 8‒13 cm

saucer-shaped, 10‒14 cm

saucer-shaped, 10‒14 cm

saucer-shaped, 14‒18 cm

saucer-shaped, 10‒14 cm

saucer-shaped, 16‒18 cm

saucer-shaped, 6‒9 cm

densely double, saucer-shaped, 6‒8 cm

saucer-shaped, 7‒10 cm

Anthesis

V‒VI (IX)

V‒X

V‒VI (VIII‒IX)

VI‒IX

V‒IX

V‒VI (VIII)

VI‒VII

VI‒IX

VI‒VII

Growth height

to 6 m

to 6 m

to 4 m

to 3.5 m

to 3.5 m

to 3 m

to 4 m

to 3 m

to 3 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -25° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -15° C

to -10° C

to -10° C

Special notes

First flowers are semi-double, then plain.

semi-evergreen, has violet filaments

Needs a sheltered location.

Filaments are green, violet when withering.

Clematis Cultivars 'Barbara Jackman'

89

New foliage is bronze-colored.

Clematis Cultivars 'Mrs Cholmondeley'

Clematis Culti­vars 'Nelly Moser'

Clematis florida 'Alba Plena'

Clematis florida var. sieboldiana

Cle

Group C

Genus/species Clematis Variety Cultivars 'Anita'

Clematis Cultivars 'Blekitny Aniol'

Clematis Cultivars 'Gipsy Queen'

Clematis Cultivars 'Huldine'

Clematis Cultivars 'Jenny'

Flower color

white

light blue

velvety deep violet

white

Flower form

dipped, bell-shaped

saucer-shaped, 8‒10

saucer-shaped, 12‒15 cm

saucer-shaped, 4‒8 cm

Clematis Cultivars 'Kardynal Wyszinsky'

Clematis Cultivars 'Lady Betty Balfour'

Clematis Cultivars 'Luther Burbank'

blue with stripes carmine with stripes

purple-violet

pale violet

saucer-shaped, 8‒10 cm

saucer-shaped, 8‒12 cm

saucer-shaped, 12‒16 cm

saucer-shaped, 16‒20 cm

Anthesis

VI‒VIII

VII‒IX

VI (VII‒X)

VI‒X

VII‒IX

VII‒IX

V‒VI (IX)

VII‒IX

Growth height

to 4.5 m

to 4 m

to 4 m

to 4.5 m

to 4 m

to 3.5 m

to 4 m

to 4 m

Location

















Hardiness

to -25° C

to -20° C

to -25° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -25° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Special notes

Tendrils and petiole are purple.

Genus/species Clematis Variety Cultivars 'Marmori'

Clematis Cultivars 'Negritjanka'

Clematis Cultivars 'Perle d'Azur'

Clematis akebioides

Clematis apiifolia

Clematis brevicaudata

Clematis connata

Clematis fargesioides 'Summer Snow'

Flower color

salmon pink

dark purple

sky blue-pink

yellow to greenish

white

yellowish-white

light yellow

white

Flower form

saucer-shaped, 8‒10 cm

saucer-shaped, 10‒12 cm

saucer-shaped, 10‒14 cm

hanging, bellpanicles 15 cm shaped, 3‒3.5 cm long

panicles up to 20 cm long

panicles up to 12 cm long

saucer-shaped, 4‒5 cm

Anthesis

VII‒IX

VII‒X

VI‒IX

VII‒X

IX‒XI

VI‒VIII

VII‒IX

VI‒IX

Growth height

to 3.5 m

to 3.5 m

to 4.5 m

to 6 m

to 4.5 m

to 8 m

to 7 m

to 8 m

Location

















Hardiness

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -15° C

to 20° C

to -15° C

to -25° C

Special notes

leaves bluish green

Genus/species Clematis Variety flammula

Clematis tangutica

Clematis terniflora

Clematis vitalba

Clematis vitalba 'Western Virgin'

Clematis viticella

Clematis viticella 'Abundance'

Clematis viticella 'Étoile Violette'

Flower color

white

bright yellow

white

white

white

blue-violet

burgundy

dark purple

Flower form

panicles up to 30 cm long

nodding, bellshaped

panicles, 3‒4 cm panicles, 2 cm wide wide

panicles, 2 cm wide

nodding, 3‒5 cm nodding, bellshaped

saucer-shaped, 4‒6 cm

Anthesis

VII‒IX

VI‒IX

VII‒X

VII‒X

VII‒IX

VI‒IX

VIII‒IX

VII‒IX

Growth height

to 5 m

to 5 m

to 10 m

to 30 m

to 8 m

to 5 m

to 5 m

to 3.5 m

Location

















Hardiness

to 10° C

to -25° C

to -15° C

to -30° C

to -25° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Special notes

smells of bitter almonds

very decorative fruit

fragrant flowers

Plants

very large decorative foliage

90

Clematis jackmannii 'Superba'

Clematis Cultivars 'Marmori'

Clematis Cultivars 'Negritjanka'

Clematis Cultivars 'Anita'

Clematis viticella 'Étoile Violette'

Clematis viticella 'Purpurea Plena'

Clematis viticella 'Venosa Violacea'

Genus/species Clematis viticella Clematis viticella Clematis viticella Clematis viticella Variety 'Madame Julia 'Purpurea Plena' 'Vanessa' 'Venosa Corrévon' Violacea' Flower color

ruby red

crimson

light blue

violet white

Flower form

saucer-shaped, 8‒10 cm

double, saucershaped, 5‒8 cm

saucer-shaped, 6‒8 cm

saucer-shaped, 8‒10 cm

Anthesis

VI‒X

VI‒IX

VII‒IX

VII‒IX

Growth height

to 4 m

to 3.5 m

to 3.5 m

to 3 m

Location









Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

91

Cle

Botanical name Common name Family

Fallopia Fallopia Polygonaceae

Growth

Fallopia baldschuanica

Plants

The name of this genus has undergone several changes. A specific nomenclature has not yet been established, which is why Fallopia baldschuanica is also available today as F. aubertii or Polygonum aubertii (silver lace vine). There are 12 known species indigenous to the area of Western Asia to Central Asia. They are very fast growing, climbing plants that need all versions of climbing aids. However, vertically spanned wires should be avoided, as they can lead to the plants strangling themselves. The climbing base should be large enough because the silver lace vine can grow to become dense and heavy. The plants respond sensitively to excessive pruning. However, pruning the past year's wood will encourage flower development. The flowers are extremely appealing to bees, bumblebees, and other insects. The architect Frank Lloyd Wright once said wisely that, "A doctor can bury his mistakes but an architect can only advise his clients to plant vines." For this reason, the Fallopia baldschuanica was nicknamed Architektentrost (architect's consolation) in the German language.

Bot. name Eng. name

Fallopia baldschuanica Mile-a-minute vine, silver lace vine

Fallopia multiflora Chinese knotweed

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 8 m/y 8‒15 m tall, 4‒8 m wide

up to 2 m/y 5‒7 m tall, 4‒5 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil, acidic to alkaline

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil, acidic to alkaline

Hardiness

to -20° C

to -15° C

Leaf

deciduous, ovate, fresh green, 6–9 cm long; fall foliage yellow-brown

semi-deciduous, new shoots red, leaves cordate, 5–12 cm long, shiny dark green

Blossom

white, panicles up to 20 cm long, very profuse, from July to September

white to greenish, in loose panicles up to 15 cm long, from July to September

Fruit

triangular nuts

triangular nuts

Choose for

U Qa

U

Care

none

none

Special notes

can form offshoots

92

Botanical name Common name Family

Ficus Fig tree Moraceae

Growth

Ficus pumila

Ficus is a mainly tropical genus with approximately 800 different species. Fig trees vary greatly in form, ranging from large trees and individual shrubs to a few climbing plant varieties. The flowers are unisexual. The best-known fruits are certainly those of the Ficus carica (Common fig). The leaf is undivided, except in the case of the Common fig. All figs contain a white to yellowish latex sap.

Bot. name Eng. name

Ficus pumila Creeping fig

Ficus pumila 'Variegata' Creeping fig

Climbing form

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

Growth

to 1 m/y 15‒20 m tall, 12‒15 m wide

to 0.50 m/y 6‒8 m tall, 4‒6 m wide

Location





Soil

humus-rich, moist soil

humus-rich, moist soil

Hardiness

to 0° C

to 5° C

Leaf

evergreen, young leaves cordate 2–3 cm long, mature leaves 6–8 cm long and very leathery

evergreen, white edge, young leaves cordate, mature leaves 6–8 cm long and very leathery

Blossom

inconspicuous, plants begin flowering at a height of 4–6 m

inconspicuous, plants begin flowering at a height of 4–6 m

Fruit

reversed ovate, approx. 6 cm long, green, later orange-yellow

reversed ovate, approx. 6 cm long, green, later orange-yellow

Choose for

Qe

Qe Q

Care

prune back mature shoots to keep plant in juvenile stage

prune back mature shoots to keep plant in juvenile stage

Special notes

The plant only develops climbing adhesive pads in its juvenile stage; in its mature phase, the branches become more voluminous and stop producing adhesive pads.

The plant only develops climbing adhesive pads in its juvenile stage; in its mature phase, the branches become more voluminous and stop producing adhesive pads.

Mature form

93

Fal-Fic

Botanical name Common name Family

Hedera Ivy Araliaceae

Growth

Hedera helix

Plants

Evergreen, develops climbing adhesive pads in its juvenile phase. The genus comprises approximately 16 species that are distributed throughout the northern hemisphere with the exception of North America. The appearance of ivy's young phase and mature phase differs greatly. The mature shoots flower and bear fruit, while only the young shoots form adhesive climbing pads. All varieties of ivy tolerate full shade. Ivy can cause great damage to buildings if it does not receive the appro­priate care or is provided with the wrong climbing aids. It can tear the plaster from a facade when it becomes too heavy. It is also necessary to be careful with cracks or splits, which the plants can infiltrate without being noticed.

Bot. name Eng. name

Hedera canariensis Canaries ivy

Hedera colchica Persian ivy

Climbing form

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

Growth

up to 3 m/y 5‒7 m tall, 5‒6 m wide

up to 2 m/y 10‒20 m tall, up to 10 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

Hardiness

to -5° C

to -15° C

Leaf

evergreen, young leaves trilobal, 10–15 cm long, yellowish-green, bronze in winter, adult shoots ovate to round, dark green; petiole dark red

evergreen, very large elliptical, rarely lobed, 10–25 cm long, dark green

Blossom

appear only on adult shoots, panicles, greenish; September–October

only on adult shoots, round umbels, greenish; September–October; nectar and pollen source for bees

Fruit

round, black, ripe in winter, up to 1 cm across

round, bluish-black, ripe in spring, up to 1 cm across

Choose for

Qe

Qe

Care

prune in late spring to maintain desired size; pruning not necessary

prune in late spring to maintain desired size; pruning not necessary

Special notes

Variety: 'Gloire de Marengo': foliage green with silvery-gray areas between the veins, irregular cream-colored border

Variety: 'Dentata Variegata': foliage undivided, light green with irregular gray-green spots and creamcolored edge 'Sulphur Heart': leaf center irregularly variegated large, yellow

94

Hedera helix Common ivy, English ivy

Hedera helix 'Glacier' Common ivy, English ivy

Hedera helix 'Goldheart' Common ivy, English ivy

Hedera helix 'Plattensee' Common ivy, English ivy

Hedera hibernica Atlantic ivy, Irish ivy

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

up to 2 m/y 10‒25 m tall, 4‒10 m wide

up to 0.5 m/y 5‒8 m tall, 3‒4 m wide

up to 0.5 m/y 5‒8 m tall, 3‒4 m wide

up to 2 m/y 10‒15 m tall, 4‒8 m wide

up to 2 m/y 10‒20 m tall, 4‒10 m wide

™

™

™

™

™

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

to -20° C

to -10° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -15° C

evergreen, very variable, mostly trilobal, dark green with lighter lamina; mature form unlobed, cordate form, tapered long, shiny dark green; turns mottled brownish-violet when exposed to summer sun

evergreen, shoots green-violet, leaves are tri- or pentalobal, to 6 cm long, gray-green with nar­row white border

evergreen, shoots first deep pink, then brown; leaves trilobal, up to 6 cm long, dark green with irregular pale yellow spots in the center

evergreen, small tri- or pentalobal, 4–6 cm long, fresh green with silvery white veins, in winter dark green; when exposed to sun in winter become mottled brown-violet

evergreen, pentalobal, central lobes longer than side lobes, leaves larger than H. helix, 8–15 cm long, matte green with pale gray veins, petiole violet-green

only on mature shoots, round umbels, greenish; September–October; plants are floral mature in 8–10 years, nectar and pollen source for bees

only on mature shoots, round umbels, greenish; September–October; plants are floral mature in 8–10 years, nectar and pollen source for bees

only on mature shoots, round umbels, greenish; September–October; plants are floral mature in 8–10 years, nectar and pollen source for bees

only on mature shoots, round umbels, greenish; September–October; plants are floral mature in 8–10 years, nectar and pollen source for bees

only on mature shoots, round umbels, greenish; September– October; nectar and pollen source for bees

round, bluish black, ripe in spring, up to 1 cm across

round, bluish black, ripe in spring, up to 1 cm across

round, bluish black, ripe in spring, up to 1 cm across

round, bluish black, ripe in spring, up to 1 cm across

round, bluish black, ripe in spring, up to 1 cm across

Qe

Qe

Qe

Qe

Qe

prune in late spring to maintain desired size; pruning not necessary

prune in late spring to maintain desired size; pruning not necessary

prune in late spring to maintain desired size; pruning not necessary

prune in late spring to maintain desired size; pruning not necessary

prune in late spring to maintain desired size; pruning not necessary

Variety: 'Sagittifolia': leaves spear-shaped, very slender, 5–7 cm long, pentalo­bal, dark green; in winter reddish-brown; moderate growth up to 4 m high

Variety: 'Woerneri': very similar, but leaves somewhat larger

Mature form

95

Hed

Botanical name Common name Family

Humulus Hop

Hop is best-known for its use in brewing beer (H. lupulus). The genus comprises two species, both indigenous to Eastern and Western Asia and Europe. These winding perennials are dioecious; the female plants bear decorative fruit starting in late summer.

Cannabaceae

Growth

Humulus lupulus

Plants

Bot. name Eng. name

Humulus japonicus Asian hop, Japanese hop

Humulus lupulus Common hop

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 10 m/y 8‒10 m tall, 1‒2 m wide

up to 6 m/y 5‒6 m tall, 1‒2 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, and nutrient-rich soil

Hardiness

to 0° C

to -25° C

Leaf

large leaves, up to 5 to 7 lobes, shiny

large leaves, 3 to 5 lobes, matte surface

Blossom

female blossoms in short panicles, green with crimson, up to 2 cm in size; male flowers in loose panicles, single flowers inconspicuous; July–September

female flowers in short panicles, green, up to 2 cm in size; male flowers in loose panicles, single flowers 5 mm in size; July–September; female flowers used to brew beer

Fruit

look like cones, approx. 2 cm in size look like cones, approx. 1 cm in size

Choose for

Qu

Qu

Care

prune in spring to 10 cm above the ground's surface

prune in spring to 10 cm above the ground's surface

Special notes

winter protection needed in harsh winters Variety: 'Variegatus': leaves are variegated, with white stripes

Variety: 'Aureus': leaves are gold colored, needs a sunny location 'Nordbrau': has particularly large fruit (female)

96

Botanical name Common name Family

97

Hydrangea Hortensia

The Hydrangea genus comprises approximately 23 species that can be found in the Himalayas, Japan, the Philippines, Java, Eastern North America, and even Chile. Most species grow shrub-like and upright, but there are various species that creep using climbing adhesive pads. The young shoots often have to be tied.

Hydrangeaceae

Bot. name Eng. name

Hydrangea anomala Climbing hydrangea

Hydrangea anomala ssp. petiolaris Climbing hydrangea

Hydrangea serratifolia Evergreen climbing hydrangea

Climbing form

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

clinging rootlets

Growth

up to 0.5 m/y 10‒12 m tall, 8‒10 m wide

up to 0.5 m/y 10‒20 m tall, 8‒12 m wide

up to 0.5 m/y up to 30 m tall, up to 10 m wide

Location

™

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -5° C

Leaf

deciduous, wide ovate, 6–10 cm long, upper surface shiny, dark green, long petiole up to 15 cm; fall foliage yellowish-gold

deciduous, ovate-round, 4–11 cm long, upper surface shiny, dark green, long petiole up to 8 cm; fall foliage yellowish-gold

evergreen, elliptical, 5–15 cm long, dark green

Blossom

white, flat cymes, 15–25 cm wide, sterile border flowers white, sweet fragrance; June–July

white, flat cymes, 15–25 cm wide, sterile border flowers white, sweet fragrance; June–July

white, in small clusters; in the budding stage, each small cluster is surrounded by 4 paper-like floral bracts that shed when the flowers open; August–September, as decorative as Hydrangea anomala

Choose for

U Qa

U Qa

Qe

Care

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

Special notes

slower-growing in the juvenile phase slower-growing in the juvenile phase

Hum‒Hyd

Botanical name Common name Family

Jasminum Jasmine Oleaceae

Jasmine is indigenous to the sub-tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere. According to the literature, there are 200 to 450 known species. Jasmine is cultivated for its fragrant flowers. Most are evergreen. They love sunny but not dry locations. The flowers are used to produce an essential oil that is used by the perfume industry.

Growth

Jasminum nudiflorum

Plants

Bot. name Eng. name

Jasminum grandiflorum Spanish jasmine, Royal jasmine

Jasminum mesnyi Primrose jasmine, Chinese jasmine

Climbing form

scrambling climbers

scrambling climbers

Growth

up to 1 m/y 5‒6 m tall, 3‒4 m wide

up to 2 m/y 3‒4 m tall, 3‒5 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

Hardiness

to 10° C

to -5° C

Leaf

evergreen, pinnate, dark green, slightly shiny

evergreen to semi-deciduous, 3 deep green, small oval leaves

Blossom

white, 3–4 cm in size, in clusters up to 50 cm in size; May–September; very fragrant

yellow, single, 3–4 cm in size, semi-double; May and June

Fruit

berries very small

berries very small

Choose for

U Qe

U Qe

Care

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

Special notes

98

Jasminum nudiflorum Winter jasmine

Jasminum officinale Common jasmine

Jasminum polyanthum Pink jasmine, White jasmine

Jasminum sambac Arabian jasmine

scrambling climbers

twiners

twiners

twiners

up to 1 m/y 3‒5 m tall, 2‒3 m wide

up to 1 m/y 8‒12 m tall, 6‒8 m wide

up to 1 m/y 6‒10 m tall, 3‒5 m wide

up to 1 m/y 3‒5 m tall, 3‒5 m wide

™

™

™

™

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist soil

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moist, nutrient-rich soil

to -15° C

to -10° C

to 0° C

to 15° C

deciduous, three-leafed, dark green, shiny

deciduous, in mild regions semi-deciduous, pinnate, up to 12 cm long

evergreen, pinnate, to 15 cm long, middle green

evergreen, oval, approx. 4 cm long

yellow, on the previous year's twigs, profuse flowering in clusters, white, in large clusters, white, buds pink 2 cm in size; January–April approx. 2 cm in size; June– or red tinted, 1–2 cm in size, fraSeptember; very fragrant grant; May–September

white, very fragrant, 3–5 cm in size, in clusters on the top shoots and in the top axilla; June–July

U

U

U Qe

U Qe

does not require pruning

pruning hinders development of flowers

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

grows downward, up to 5 m

99

Jas

Botanical name Common name Family

Lonicera Honeysuckle

This genus comprises approximately 180 species that are generally found throughout the northern hemisphere. Approximately 20 of the species are climbing plants that flower on the present year's vine.

Caprifoliaceae

Growth

Bot. name Eng. name

Lonicera Honeysuckle (general)

Climbing form

twiners

Location

loves a shaded base

Soil

Honeysuckle prefers a somewhat loamy soil that dries very slowly.

Leaf

Leaves are opposite, uppermost leaves often fused together, forming a disk-like shape.

Blossom

Flowers are often in whorls on the sprout ends; cultivated mainly for their many very fragrant blossoms.

Fruit

Berries are round, black, red, yellow, or white and poisonous.

Care

This genus becomes bare at the base with time. Pruning some shoots near the bottom of the plant can encourage new shoots to grow.

Lonicera periclymenum

Lonicera sempervirens

Plants

Lonicera periclymenum

Lonicera japonica

Lonicera caprifolium

100

Genus/species Lonicera Variety acuminata

Lonicera x americana

Lonicera x brownii 'Golden Trumpet'

Lonicera x brownii 'Dropmore Scarlet'

Lonicera caprifolium

Lonicera etrusca Lonicera etrusca Lonicera 'Donald Waterer' 'Superba' heckrottii

Lonicera heckrottii 'Goldflame'

Blossom

cream-yellow, fragrant

cream-white, fragrant

yellow-orange

scarlet red

yellowish, fragrant

reddish-yellow, fragrant

cream-orange

purple-yellow, fragrant

crimson-lilac, red

Anthesis

VI–VII

VI–IX

V–VIII

V–VIII

V–VI

VI

VI

VI–IX

VI–IX

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

slow

moderate

moderate

moderate

fast

slow

moderate

Growth height

to 5 m

to 7 m

to 3 m

to 5 m

to 8 m

to 4 m

to 6 m

to 4 m

to 6 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -15° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -25° C

to -10° C

to -10° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Special notes

evergreen

semi-evergreen in mild regions

semi-evergreen in mild regions

evergreen

evergreen

very profuse flowering, slow winding

very profuse flowering, slow winding

Lonicera sempervirens

Lonicera sempervirens fo. sulphurea

Lonicera x tellmanniana

Genus/species Lonicera henryi Variety

Lonicera henryi 'Copper Beauty'

Lonicera japonica

Lonicera japonica 'Halliana'

Lonicera japonica 'Interold'

Blossom

yellow-reddish, fragrant

yellow, fragrant

white-red, fragrant

white-yellow, fragrant

white-pink, fragrant

Anthesis

VI–VIII

VI–VII

VI–VIII

VI–VIII

VI–VIII

Growth rate

fast

moderate

slow

slow

slow

Growth height

to 8 m

to 6 m

to 10 m

to 6 m

to 6 m

Location











Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Special notes

evergreen or semi-deciduous

evergreen or semi-deciduous

Young shoots are reddish.

Genus/species Lonicera Variety periclymenum

Lonicera periclymenum 'Belgica'

Lonicera periclymenum 'Graham Thomas'

Lonicera periclymenum 'Linden'

Blossom

yellow-white, fragrant

yellow-pink, fragrant

yellow-lilac-red, fragrant

yellow-lilac-pink yellow-lilac-red

orange-red, large

yellow

bright yellow

Anthesis

V–VI

V–VI

V–VI

V–VI

V–VIII

V–VIII

V–VIII

VI–VII

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

fast

fast

slow

moderate

moderate

fast

Growth height

to 10 m

to 4 m

to 10 m

to 8 m

to 6 m

to 10 m

to 4 m

to 10 m

Location

















Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -15° C

to -15° C

to -15° C

Young shoots are crimson, leaves bluish.

Leaves are narrow.

indeciduous or winter green

indeciduous or winter green

Special notes

101

Young shoots are reddish.

Lonicera periclymenum 'Serotina'

Lon

Botanical name Common name Family

Parthenocissus Virginia creeper Vitaceae

Growth

There are approximately ten species belonging to this genus that are indi­genous to North America, East Asia, and the Himalayas. They are all fast-growing climbing plants, mostly with adhesive pads. Some species can hold on very well to any base; others need grid-like climbing aids with a mesh width of about 15 to 20 centimeters and a rod diameter of 2.4 centimeters.

Bot. name Eng. name

Parthenocissus henryana Chinese Virginia creeper

Parthenocissus himalayana Himalaya creeper

Climbing form

creepers

creepers

Growth

up to 1 m/y 8‒10 m tall, 5‒6 m wide

up to 2 m/y 15‒22 m tall, 8‒12 m wide

Location





Soil

humus-rich, moderately dry to moist, nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moderately dry to moist, nutrient-rich soil

Hardiness

to -10° C

to 0° C

Leaf

deciduous, composite, fivefold, small leaves 4–12 cm long, matte green with white veins, underside of leaf purple; petiole pink; fall foliage red

deciduous, composite, threefold, small leaves oval to 10 cm long; top side dark green, underside light, bluish green; shoots violet; fall foliage deep carmine

Blossom

inconspicuous, greenish, in panicles up to 15 cm long; July–August

inconspicuous, greenish, in panicles up to 10 cm long; July–August

Fruit

dark blue berries, small

dark blue berries, small

Choose for

Qa

Qa

Care

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

Special notes

winter protection needed in harsh winters

winter protection needed in harsh winters Variety: 'Rubrifolia'

Parthenocissus quinquefolia in autumn

Plants

102

Parthenocissus inserta Thicket creeper

Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper

Parthenocissus tricuspidata Japanese creeper, Boston ivy

tendrils

creepers

creepers

up to 1 m/y up to 8 m tall, up to 4 m wide

up to 1 m/y 10‒20 m tall, 6‒10 m wide

up to 2 m/y 20‒25 m tall, 10‒15 m wide



™

™

humus-rich, moderately dry to moist, nutrient-rich soil

humus-rich, moderately dry to moist, nutrient-rich soil, tolerates salt

humus-rich, moderately dry to moist, nutrient-rich soil

to -20° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

deciduous, composite, fivefold, small leaves 5–12 cm long, both sides shiny; fall foliage bright purple

deciduous, composite, fivefold, small leaves 2–10 cm long, oval; top side dark green, underside bluish green, petiole green, to 10 cm long; fall foliage bright crimson

deciduous, very variable, unlobed, slightly lobed, or three small leaflets; top side dark green, underside shiny, shoots bronze colored, fall foliage bright yellow, orange, to purple

inconspicuous, greenish, in clusters inconspicuous, whitish, in clusters; up to 8 cm long; June–July July–August

inconspicuous, whitish, in clusters; June–July

dark blue berries, small

dark blue berries, berries slightly pruinose, small

dark blue berries, berries slightly pruinose, small

Qa

Qa

Qa

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

Variety: 'var. engelmannii': leaves longer and narrower than the standard species, up to 15 cm long, petiole reddish, up to 15 cm long

Variety: 'Green Spring': leaves 15–20 cm long, fresh green, top side shiny, shoots reddish 'Veitchii': leaves smaller than the species, also reddish when young 'Veitchii Robusta': leaves shiny, young leaves slightly reddish, very fast growing, up to 3 m/y

103

Par

Botanical name Common name Family

Passiflora Passion flower Passifloraceae

Growth

Passiflora incarnata

Plants

This genus with approximately 430 species is indigenous to Asia, South America, Australia, and Polynesia. Passion flowers are prized for their exotic blossoms and the decorative, sometimes edible fruit. They climb by forming climbing rootlets. The climbing aid can have rods up to 3 centimeters in diameter. Passion flowers do not need to be pruned. However, in order to control their growth, the shoots should be pruned in spring. Passion flowers bloom on this year's growth. Eighteenth-century Christian immigrants interpreted the blossoms of the Passiflora as the symbol of Christ's suffering. Their ten petals are supposed to represent the ten apostles, excluding Judas and Peter, the violet-white radial filaments stand for the crown of thorns, the five anthers for Christ's wounds, and the three stigmas for the nails used in the cross.

Bot. name Eng. name

Passiflora caerulea Blue passion flower

Passiflora incarnata Purple passion flower

Climbing form

tendrils

tendrils

Growth

up to 3 m/y 10‒18 m tall, 8‒12 m wide

up to 6 m/y 6‒8 m tall, 4‒5 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, slightly moist, and nut­rient-rich soil; does not tolerate stagnant moisture

humus-rich, slightly moist, and nut­rient-rich soil; does not tolerate stagnant moisture

Hardiness

to -10° C

to -15° C

Leaf

deciduous to evergreen, 5–7 lobes, bluish-green, shiny

deciduous, trilobal, dark green

Blossom

white or pale pink, throat purple becoming blue towards the tip, 7–9 cm in size; June–September

white-pink, 7–9 cm in size; June–September

Fruit

round, 6 cm long, orange-yellow

round, 6 cm long, yellow

Choose for

U

U

Care

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

Special notes

winter protection needed in severe winters Variety: 'Constance Elliott': blossoms ivory white, not as numerous as the standard species

winter protection needed in severe winters Variety: 'Alba': blossoms white, very fast-growing

104

Passiflora edulis Passion fruit

Passiflora quadrangularis Giant granadilla

Passiflora vitifolia Crimson passion flower

tendrils

tendrils

tendrils

up to 6 m/y 8‒12 m tall, 6‒8 m wide

up to 6 m/y 12‒20 m tall, 8‒10 m wide

up to 5 m/y 10‒15 m tall, 6‒8 m wide

™

™

™

humus-rich, slightly moist, and nut­rient-rich soil; does not tolerate stagnant moisture

humus-rich, slightly moist, and nut­rient-rich soil; does not tolerate stagnant moisture

humus-rich, slightly moist, and nut­rient-rich soil; does not tolerate stagnant moisture

to 10° C

to 10° C

to 15° C

deciduous, trilobal, dark green leaves, shiny

deciduous, trilobal, dark green leaves, shiny

trilobal, shiny

violet-white, 5–8 cm in size, flowers throughout the year

pale red-white, up to 12 cm in size, filaments up to 6 cm long, curl at the tips, purple, fragrant, flowers throughout the year

red to yellow, 10–20 cm large, flowers throughout the year

edible, purple-violet

edible, up to 30 cm in size, green or orange

greenish-yellow, edible, up to 6 cm in size

U Qe u

U Qe u

U Qe

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

does not require pruning

Variety: f. flavicarpi: flowers are larger, fruit is yellow

105

Pas

Botanical name Common name Family

Rosa Climbing Rose Rosaceae

Growth

The rose is surely the most beloved and frequently cultivated decorative plant. The Rose genus comprises approximately 150 species that are mostly found in the temperate zones of the northern hemisphere. Some species are indigenous to the Philippines. There is a wide array of climbing roses available. Below is a list of only the most important, robust varieties.

Bot. name Eng. name

Rosa climbing rose (general)

Climbing form

Climbing roses are scramblers. Their thorns help them cling to a climbing aid. They have to be carefully attached to the climbing aid in their young phase.

Location

Climbing roses prefer locations with full sun.

Soil

Deep, nutrient-rich, slightly moist and well-drained soil (slightly acidic to alkaline) is best.

Leaf

Rose leaves are imparipinnate and deciduous.

Blossom

The blossoms are single or ordered in cymes. The flower form ranges from simple to double. Roses are available in almost every color except blue. Many varieties exude a beautiful fragrance.

Fruit

The fruits (rose hips) take many forms and are black, or orange to red.

Care

There is no simple rule about caring for roses. They are pruned according to type. Dead, weak, and sick branches are continuously removed. Climbing roses do not have to be pruned every year. It is enough to prune back 2–3 shoots above the ground every 3–4 years, in order to encourage the growth of new strong shoots. The shoots should be pruned one by one so as not to cause any damage to young shoots. The pruning time can be directly after blossoming (in cases where it is not remontant) or in late winter.

Groups

Climbing roses are divided into two groups: once-blooming

(generally decorative fruit)

continuous-blooming

(bloom throughout the season)

We recommend specialized books and catalogs for those interested specifically in roses. Special notes Rosa filipes 'Kiftsgate'

Plants

Roses are susceptible to a number of illnesses and vermin. There are, however, some species that are more robust. We provide a list of the most pest- and disease-resistant varieties.

106

Once-blooming

Wild roses: bloom in panicles or clusters, profuse flowering

Genus/species Rosa banksiae Variety

Rosa banksiae 'Alba'

Rosa banksiae 'Lutea'

Rosa bracteata

Rosa filipes 'Kiftsgate'

Rosa gigantea

Rosa multiflora

Rosa multiflora 'Carnea'

Rosa multiflora var. cathayensis

Flower color

white-yellow

white

yellow

white

white

white

white

light pink

pale pink

Flower form

simple, small, fragrant

double, 3 cm, fragrant

double, fragrant

simple, 8 cm, fragrant

simple, 3 cm, fragrant

simple, 14 cm, fragrant

simple, 3 cm, fragrant

double, 3 cm, fragrant

simple, 4 cm

Anthesis

V–VI

V–VI

V–VI

VI–IX

VI–VII

V–VI

V–VI

V–VI

V–VI

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

slow

fast

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

to 12 m

to 12 m

to 12m

to 6 m

to 10 m

to 30 m

to 10 m

to 5 m

to 8 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -5° C

to -5° C

to -10° C

to -5° C

to -15° C

to 0° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

Special notes

no thorns, no thorns fruits small, red, spherical

no thorns, the most winter-hardy of the species

deciduous to semi-deciduous

Fruit is spherical, scarlet red, 1.5 cm.

the most vigorous species

rose hips spherical, light red, 0.5 cm

Once-blooming

Rose hips are spherical, light red, 0.5 cm.

Garden hybrids: flowers in panicles or clusters, profuse flowering

Genus/species Rambler rose Variety 'Albéric Barbier'

Rosa Cultivars 'Albertine'

Rosa Cultivars 'Alchymist'

Rambler rose 'American Pillar'

Rambler rose 'Améthyste'

Rambler rose 'Aviateur Blériot'

Rambler rose 'Blush Rambler'

Rambler rose 'Bobbie James'

Rosa Cultivars 'Dorothy Dennison'

Flower color

white with yellow center

coppery-pink

light yellow shading to orange-red

carmine pink with white buds

carmine violet

orange-yellowwhite

pale pink

cream-white

white to light pink

Flower form

double, 5 cm

double, 8 cm, fragrant

double, 7 cm

simple

small, double, fragrant

double, fragrant

semi-double, fragrant

simple, 6 cm, fragrant

double, 4 cm

Anthesis

VI

VII

V

VII

VII

VI

VI–VII

VI

VI–VII

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

to 5  m

to 6  m

to 5 m

to 7 m

to 4.5 m

to 6 m

to 4.5 m

to 8 m

to 6 m

Location









–









Hardiness

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

Special notes

Blooms again in autumn.

Has many thorns.

Shoots are bronze-colored.

susceptible to mildew in unfavorable locations

Has few thorns.

shiny, dark green foliage

few thorns

beautiful small rose hips, red

light green foliage

Genus/species Rambler rose Variety 'Goldfinch'

Rambler rose 'Hiawatha'

Rambler rose 'Paul's Himalayan Musk'

Rambler rose 'Rambling Rector'

Rambler rose 'Russelliana'

Rambler rose 'Treasure Trove'

Rosa multiflora 'Veilchenblau'

Rambler rose 'Venusta Pendula'

Rambler rose 'Violette'

Flower color

light yellow

bluish-red with a white center

light pink-white

cream-yellow

crimson

apricot-pinkwhite

purple-violet with white buds

white with a pink edge

deep violet

Flower form

semi-double, 4 cm, fragrant

simple, cup-shaped

double, 4 cm, fragrant

semi-double, 3 cm, fragrant

double, flat blos- double, 7 cm, som, fragrant fragrant

double

double

double, 3 cm

Anthesis

VII

VII

VII

VI

VI

VI

VI–VII

VI–VII

VI–VII

Growth rate

moderate

fast

fast

moderate

moderate

fast

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

up to 6 m

up to 6 m

up to 9 m

up to 6 m

up to 6 m

up to 8 m

up to 5 m

up to 5 m

up to 5 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

Special notes

no thorns, beautiful rose hips

shiny, dark green foliage

many thorns

many thorns

many thorns

107

shiny leaves

Ros

Once-blooming

Garden hybrids, large flowers

Genus/species Climbing rose Variety 'Mme. A. Meilland'

Climbing rose 'Mrs. Herbert Stevens'

Climbing rose 'Sutter's Gold'

Flower color

yellow with pink edge

white

gold-yellow to mottled red

Flower form

double, 15 cm

double, 10 cm, fragrant

double, 8 cm, fragrant

Anthesis

VII

VI–VII

VI

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

up to 6 m

up to 6 m

up to 3.5m

Location







Hardiness

to -15° C

to -25° C

Special notes

to -25° C Some bloom again in autumn.

Continuous-blooming

Garden hybrids, large flowers

Genus/species Rosa Cultivars Variety 'Blaze supérieur'

Rosa Cultivars 'Coral Dawn'

Rosa Cultivars 'Danse du Feu'

Rosa Cultivars 'Elfe'

Rosa Cultivars 'Gloire de Dijon'

Rosa Cultivars 'Ilse Krohn Superior'

Rosa Cultivars 'Lawinia'

Rosa Cultivars 'Mermaid'

Rosa Cultivars 'Morning Juwel'

Flower color

scarlet red

coral pink

scarlet red

cream white

salmon pinkorange yellow

cream white

pink

yellow

dark pink

Flower form

semi-double, 9 cm

double, 12 cm, fragrant

double, 8 cm, fragrant

double, 8 cm, fragrant

double, fragrant

double, 12 cm, fragrant

double, 12 cm, fragrant

simple, 15 cm, fragrant

semi-double, 10 cm

Anthesis

from VI

from V

from VI

from VI

from V

from VI

from VI

from VI

from VI

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

up to 5 m

up to 3 m

up to 3 m

up to 3 m

up to 5 m

up to 3,5 m

up to 3 m

up to 5 m

up to 3,5 m

Location



















Hardiness

to -25° C

–25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -10° C

to -25° C

Special notes

small, dark leaves

large yellow rose hips

Genus/species Rosa Cultivars Variety 'New Dawn'

Rosa Cultivars 'Rosarium Uetersen'

Rosa Cultivars 'Schoolgirl'

Rosa Cultivars 'Shogun'

Flower color

light pink

pink with silvery shimmer

copper yellow; when withering: salmon pink

pink with shades scarlet red of salmon and yellow

pink-light red

Flower form

double, 8 cm, fragrant

double, 8 cm

semi-double, 14 cm, fragrant

double, 8 cm

double, 12 cm

semi-double, 8 cm, fragrant

Anthesis

from V

VI–VII

from VI

VI

from VI

VI

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

up to 8 m

up to 3 m

up to 4.5 m

up to 4 m

up to 5 m

up to 5 m

Location













Hardiness

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -25° C

to -10° C

in unfavorable locations, susceptible to sooty mold

Shoots are bronze-colored, with no thorns.

Special notes

Plants

large, shiny foliage, rose hips

Rosa Cultivars 'Sympathie'

Rosa Cultivars 'Zéphirine Drouhin'

108

Once-blooming

Rosa banksiae

Rambler rose 'Albéric Barbier'

Rosa Cultivars 'Alchymist'

Rambler rose 'American Pillar'

Rambler rose 'Bobbie James'

Rambler rose 'Goldfinch'

Rambler rose 'Paul's Hima­layan Musk'

Rambler rose 'Rambling Rector'

Rambler rose 'Russelliana'

Rambler rose 'Treasure Trove'

Climbing rose 'Mme. A. Meilland'

Climbing rose 'Mrs Herbert Stevens'

Continuously blooming

Rosa Cultivars 'Danse du Feu'

109

Rosa Cultivars 'Elfe'

Rosa Cultivars 'Lawinia'

Rosa Cultivars 'Sympathie'

Ros

Botanical name Common name Family

Schisandra Magnolia vine

The Magnolia vine genus comprises approximately 25 species that are indigenous to Asia and eastern North America. They are winding, fairly fast-growing shrubs, cultivated for their wax-like flowers and beautiful fruit. The plants are dioecious, meaning both sexes of the plant must be planted in order to produce fruit.

Schisandraceae

Bot. name

Schisandra chinensis

Schisandra grandiflora Magnolia vine

Schisandra grandiflora var. rubriflora Magnolia vine

Schisandra propinqua var. sinensis Magnolia vine

Eng. name

Magnolia vine

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 0.5 m/y 7–9 m tall, 5–6 m wide

up to 0.5 m/y 5–6 m tall, 4–5 m wide

up to 0.5 m/y 5–6 m tall, 4–5 m wide

up to 0.5 m/y up to 5 m tall, up to 3 m wide

Location









Soil

nutrient-rich, loamy soil

nutrient-rich, loamy soil

nutrient-rich, loamy soil

nutrient-rich, loamy soil

Hardiness

to -15° C

to -15° C

to -15° C

to -10° C

Leaf

deciduous, elliptical, 6–15 cm long, upper side dark green and shiny, underside lighter, often bluish, shoots red

deciduous, oval, 6–12 cm long, upper side dark green, underside lighter, and slightly shiny, young shoots red

deciduous, oval, 6–12 cm long, upper side dark green, underside lighter and slightly shiny, young shoots red

deciduous, narrow oval, 4–10 cm long, leaves edged with white

Blossom

light pink, fragrant, have slender stems, very small; May–June

white, fragrant, have slender stems, very small; April–May

dark red, fragrant, have slender stems, very small, April–May

yellow; June–August

Fruit

scarlet red, pea-sized, spherical, in hanging spikes up to 7 cm long; fruits keep for a long time in winter

red, pea-sized, spherical, in hanging spikes up to 15 cm long; fruits keep for a long time in winter

red, pea-sized, spherical, in hanging spikes up to 15 cm long; fruits keep for a long time in winter

red, in hanging spikes up to 15 cm long

Choose for

Uu

Uu

Uu

u

Care

prune in spring

prune in spring

prune in spring

prune in spring

Plants

110

Botanical name Common name Family

111

Thunbergia Thunbergia

The Thunbergia genus comprises approximately 90 annual and perennial herbs and shrubs, which include many climbing plants. They are indigenous to tropical and southern Africa, Madagascar, and warm parts of Asia. The leaves are simple; the flowers are single in the axilla or unite to form terminal racemes. Thunbergia are not winter hardy in temperate zones. In Europe, Thunbergia alata (Black-eyed Susan) is cultivated as an annual plant.

Acanthaceae

Bot. name Eng. name

Thunbergia alata Black-eyed Susan

Thunbergia grandiflora Blue trumpet vine

Thunbergia mysorensis Clock vine

Climbing form

twiners

twiners

twiners

Growth

up to 2 m/y 4–6 m tall, 4–6 m wide

up to 4 m/y 12–18 m tall, 8–10 m wide

up to 4 m/y 12–18 m tall, 8–10 m wide

Location







Soil

humus-rich soil

humus-rich, slightly moist soil, does humus-rich, slightly moist soil not tolerate stagnant moisture

Hardiness

to 10° C

to 10° C

Leaf

deciduous, arrow-shaped, toothed, deciduous, elliptical, hairy, with wings stems from 2.5–7.5 cm 12–20 cm long, dark green long

Blossom

single in the axilla, crown approx. 4 cm long, with short, curved tubes and 5 spread lobes, yellow or orange, mostly with a black center; June–October

profuse flowering, in racemes, crown light or dark blue, 7.5 cm long and wide; in the tropics the plant flowers throughout the year, main flowering period: summer

profuse flowering, in racemes up to 45 cm long, single flowers upright with 2 greenish-violet bracts; crown up to 5 cm long, with yellow tubes, 5 uneven, folded back, mostly reddish-brown lobes; May– October

Fruit

very small, approx. 4 mm

very small

very small

Choose for

U

U

U

Care

prune in winter to control growth

does not need pruning; to reduce growth, prune in spring

does not need pruning; to reduce growth, prune in spring

Special notes

Variety: 'Orange Wonder': large flower, rich orange with a deep black center, fast growing 'Susie': white with black center, slower growing than the standard species

Variety: 'Alba': large white flowers with a yellow center

to 15° C deciduous, narrow, elliptical, 10–18 cm long, dark green

Sch–Thu

Botanical name Common name Family

Vitis Grapevine Vitaceae

Growth

All of the approximately 70 different species of grapevine are indigenous to the northern hemisphere. The best-known representative of this genus is the Common grapevine. The Asian species are popular because of their decorative advantage. They have very ornate foliage that turns into a fireworks display of yellow to deep purple in autumn. Vines thrive in deep, slightly moist, moderately nutrient-rich and calcareous soil without stagnated moisture. Pruning is done at the end of winter. In the spring, the plants produce a great deal of sap; thus the plants would wither if pruned at this time.

Bot. name Eng. name

Vitis aestivalis Summer grape

Vitis amurensis Amur grape

Climbing form

tendrils

tendrils

Growth

up to 2 m/y 15–20 m tall, 8–10 m wide

up to 2 m/y 10–15 m tall, 8–10 m wide

Location

™

™

Soil

humus-rich, slightly moist soil

humus-rich, slightly moist soil

Hardiness

to -30° C

to -25° C

Leaf

deciduous, tri- to pentalobal, 10– 30 cm large, top side of leaf dull green, underside gray fuzzy

deciduous, large leaves up to 30 cm long, tri- to pentalobal, both sides dark green; fall foliage is carmine and violet

Blossom

panicles, 10–25 cm long, greenish; June

panicles, 5 cm long, greenish; June–July

Fruit

berries, edible, dark blue, pruinose, 1 cm across

berries, edible, black, 1 cm across

Choose for

Qa Qe

Qa Qe

Care

prune in winter

prune in winter

Special notes

Vitis coignetiae in autumn

Plants

112

Vitis coignetiae Crimson Glory vine

Vitis riparia River Bank grape, Frost grape

Vitis thunbergii Korean grape

Vitis vinifera Common grape

tendrils

tendrils

tendrils

tendrils

up to 1 m/y 15–25 m tall, 10–12 m wide

up to 2 m/y 15–20 m tall, 8–10 m wide

up to 1.5 m/y 3–6 m tall, 3–5 m wide

up to 2 m/y 6–10 m tall, 3–5 m wide

™

™

™

™

humus-rich, slightly moist soil

humus-rich, slightly moist soil

humus-rich, slightly moist soil

humus-rich, slightly moist soil

to -20° C

to -40° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

deciduous, round, slightly lobed, large, wide, ovate, 8– 12 cm long, 20– 30 cm across, top side dull trilobal, top side light green and green and rough-surfaced, undershiny, underside fresh green side rusty; fuzzy, fall foliage is scarlet to carmine red

large leaves, up to 15 cm long, large leaves, up to 15 cm long, oval, oval, male leaves on the upper half male leaves cream-colored, white cream-colored, white and pink, or on the upper half fading to red.

panicles, 6–12 cm long, rusty, fuzzy; panicles, yellowish, up to 20 cm June–July long, fragrant; June–July

panicles, greenish, up to 25 cm long; May–June

panicles, yellowish-green, slightly fragrant; June–August

berries, black, purple, pruinose, 1 cm across

berries, black-violet, blue, pruinose, approx. 8 mm across

berries, greenish, up to 5 mm long

dark blue, violet, green, or yellow, approx. 0.5–2 cm diameter, edible

Qa Qe

Qa Qe

UQu

U

prune in winter

prune in winter

prune in winter

prune in winter This is almost the oldest of all fruits known today. It has been cultivated for thousands of years. There are many different varieties available on the market that are not mentioned here.

113

Vit

Botanical name Common name Family

Wisteria Wisteria Fabaceae

Growth

This genus comprises eight species that are mainly indigenous to East Asia and eastern North America. Wisteria is cultivated mainly for its ornate blossoms. The most common species on the market are W. floribunda (clockwise winding, flowers appear with the leaves) and W. sinensis (counterclockwise winding, flowers appear before the leaves). Wisteria grows very fast and densely, which is why it can cause damage to climbing aids. The plants can twine around climbing aids with a diameter of 8 centimeters or more. Drainage pipes and small trees are not suitable climbing aids, because wisteria can crush them. It is imperative to consider the strength of this plant when calculating the dimensions of the climbing aids.

Bot. name Eng. name

Wisteria Wisteria (general)

Climbing form

twiners

Location

Wisteria favors locations with full sun.

Soil

Nutrient-rich, slightly moist, and well-drained soil (acidic to alkaline) is preferred. Too much fertilizer encourages growth, while hindering flower development.

Leaf

The leaves are imparipinnate and deciduous. Some species display yellow fall foliage.

Blossom

Wisteria flowers in long pendulous racemes. Young plants often flower on short branches after several years.

Fruit

The seeds are produced in long pods.

Care

Once the climbing aid has been erected, lateral shoots are pruned back 2 to 3 buds every year in winter. This encourages flowering. After flowering, the long and unnecessary lateral shoots can be pruned back approximately 20 centimeters.

Wisteria sinensis 'Prolific'

Wisteria sinensis

Plants

Wisteria sinensis 'Alba'

Wisteria floribunda

Wisteria floribunda 'Shiro Kapitan'

114

Genus/species Wisteria Variety floribunda 'Murasak Kapitan'

Wisteria brachybotrys 'Shiro Kapitan'

Wisteria brachybotrys 'Showa Beni'

Wisteria floribunda 'Burford'

Wisteria floribunda 'Domino'

Wisteria floribunda 'Eranthema'

Wisteria floribunda 'Honbeni'

Flower color

blue-violet

white

dark pink

light violet

light violet

dark violet

pale pink

Flower form

35–50 cm, fragrant

20–35 cm, fragrant

20–25 cm, fragrant

40–45 cm, fragrant

18–25 cm, slightly fragrant

40–45 cm

30–40 cm racemes

Anthesis

V–VI

V–VI

IV–V

V–VI

V

V

V

Growth rate

fast

moderate

moderate

very fast

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

up to 9 m

up to 6 m

up to 6 m

up to 10 m

up to 8 m

up to 8 m

up to 8 m

Location















Hardiness

to -15° C

to -15° C

to -15° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Special notes

Fall foliage is Fall foliage yelyellow; leaves low; leaves shed are shed quickly. later in winter.

Shoots are light green.

Shoots are silvery-bronze, dark green.

Shoots are bronze-colored.

Wisteria floribunda 'Violacea Plena'

Wisteria x formosa 'Issai'

Wisteria frutes­cens

Genus/species Wisteria Variety floribunda 'Kuchi-beni'

Wisteria floribunda 'Lawrence'

Wisteria floribunda 'Macrobotrys'

Wisteria floribunda 'Royal Purple'

Flower color

light pink

light lilac blue

blue-violet

purple violet

violet

light violet

light purple violet

Flower form

35–50 cm, fragrant

40–80 cm

50–120 cm, fragrant

90–110 cm, fragrant

25–35 cm, double

15–25 cm, fragrant

5–10 cm, fragrant

Anthesis

V–VI

V

V–VI

V

V

V–VI

VI–IX

Growth rate

moderate

moderate

moderate

fast

moderate

fast

slow

Growth height

up to 8 m

up to 8 m

up to 10 m

up to 10 m

up to 8 m

up to 25 m

up to 12 m

Location















Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

–20° C

Special notes

Shoots are light Many fruits are then dark green. produced.

Blooms again in August.

Many fruits are produced.

Shoots are green.

The flowers open Shoots are with the leaves. yellow.

Genus/species Wisteria sinensis Wisteria sinensis Wisteria sinensis Wisteria sinensis Wisteria sinensis Wisteria venusta Variety 'Alba' 'Jako' 'Prolific' 'Silver Prolific' Flower color

violet-blue

white

cream-white

light violet

white

white

Flower form

15–30 cm, fragrant

20–35 cm, fragrant

20–25 cm, fragrant

25–30 cm, fragrant

30–50 cm, fragrant

8–15 cm, fragrant

Anthesis

V–VI

V

V

V

V–IV

VI–VII

Growth rate

very fast

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

moderate

Growth height

up to 15 m

up to 10 m

up to 8 m

up to 10 m

up to 10 m

up to 9 m

Location













Hardiness

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

to -20° C

Fall foliage is lemon-yellow.

Blooms again in August.

Special notes

115

Wis

Locations

Pergola of the Deserter Cologne, Germany Tent Fairgrounds at Möglingshöhe Villingen-Schwenningen, Germany The Serpentine Gallery Pavilion 2009 London, Great Britain [C]SPACE London, Great Britain

Pavilion in Spreebogen Park Berlin, Germany Pavilion Frauenfeld, Switzerland Steel grids City Park St. Gallen, Switzerland

Pavilions Parc des Rives Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland

Pergola am Wassergarten Zurich, Switzerland

CSS Tribschenstadt Lucerne, Switzerland

Climbing Cable West Park Zurich, Switzerland Sunshade on the Riva Split, Croatia

"Shadow Forest" Cordoba, Spain Shade Roof Alicante, Spain Canopy at the Ronda Promenade Majorca, Spain

Solar Umbrellas Mecca, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Shin-Yatsushiro Monument Yatsushiro, Kumamoto, Japan Houtan Park Shanghai, China Water Flowers Pavilions Shenzhen, China

Community Tent Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Eagle Johannesburg, South Africa The Birdhide Thesen Islands, South Africa

Projects

116

Dan Kiley Pergola Westport, USA Dan Kiley Pergolas Salisbury, USA ALCOA Forecast Garden Los Angeles, USA

Pier 45 New York City, USA

Trellis Dallas, USA Follies Miami Beach, USA

Acapulco Pergolas Acapulco, Mexico Orquideorama Medellin, Colombia

Strand Jetty Shade Structure Townsville, Australia

Jacaranda Square Sydney, Australia

117

Landmarks Drylands, Chile

Overview

Overview Projects Pergolas ALCOA Forecast Garden 122

Pergola am Wassergarten 126

Dan Kiley Pergolas 128

Shade Roof 130

Acapulco Pergolas 134

CSS Tribschenstadt 136

Sunshade on the Riva 140

Jacaranda Square 144

Trellis 148

Projects

118

Pavilions Follies 154

Strand Jetty Shade Structure 156

Pier 45 160

Pavilion in Spreebogen Park 164

Pavilion Botanical Garden 168

The Birdhide 172

Orquideorama 176

Water Flowers Pavilions 182

Pavilions Parc des Rives 186

[C]SPACE 190

The Serpentine Gal­lery Pavilion '09 Houtan Park 198 192

"Shadow Forest" 202

119

Overview

Tents Solar Umbrellas 208

Canopy at the Ronda Promenade 212

Community Tent 214

Tent Fairgrounds at Möglingshöhe 218

Landmarks 236

Pergola of the Deserter 240

Cables Climbing Cable West Park 224

Steel Grids City Park 226

Art Eagle 230

Shin-Yatsushiro Monument 232

Projects

120

ALCOA Forecast Garden Los Angeles, USA 1959 Garret Eckbo

Garret Eckbo is one of the most influential American landscape architects of the twentieth century. Together with partners Dean, Austin, and Williams, he established Eckbo EDAW in 1964, the renowned landscape architecture company that has also been the design and planning department of AECOM since 2009. Industrial production of aluminum escalated during the Second World War for military purposes because it was lightweight and rust resistant. After the war ended, the industry began looking for new markets for their aluminum products and in the process discovered the housing market. Aluminum was the postwar new material for building houses in America’s booming suburbs. In 1956, ALCOA (Aluminum Company of America), one of the largest aluminum manufacturers in the United States, asked Eckbo, already a very successful landscape architect, whether he would investigate for the ALCOA forecast program the possibility of using aluminum for sunshading and visual screening systems in gardens, and develop a project of reference for this objective. Eckbo agreed and used his own private garden. Eckbo’s home at the time was situated in the Wonderland Park Estate in Los Angeles, which he planned himself in 1952. For the ALCOA commission in 1959, he designed the "Sunbreak" pergola, which was attached to the building, as well as a freestanding pavilion. Eckbo’s garden did not become famous because of its spatial effect or plants. It gained distinction because it was the first example of a design application in a garden using aluminum, an industrially manufactured material. The garden won much public acclaim through the ALCOA advertising media campaign. It was the starting point for a new approach to garden design, which until then had been dominated by the use of traditional materials. Unfortunately, neither structure exists today. In his book The Donnell and Eckbo Gardens: Modern Californian Masterworks, Marc Treib describes in detail the history of this project. The original plans are in the Garret Eckbo Collection, Environmental Design Archives at the University of California in Berkeley. The hand-drawn plan of the pavilion was reconstructed for this book project by the HSR Hochschule für Technik Rapperswil using CAD. The frame construction of the pavilion consisted of two pairs of supports with deal boards mounted crosswise. These two frame elements were joined by two additional laths. The redwood was left a reserved shade of dark brown, in order to emphasize the contrast between the darkness of the wood and the light gray color of the aluminum sun shield. Aluminum expanded metal was used for the wave-like curved sun protection. The visual screening panels were constructed from vertically and horizontally spanned aluminum rods.

↑ ALCOA Forecast Garden, photo 1959

Projects

122

Drawing The drawing shows the main elements of the garden. "Sunbreak" pergola can be seen in the foreground, the pavilion in the rear.

Isometric drawings

123

Pergolas

Top view

S 1:50

3

4

2

1

12

5

A

Detail of roof

S 1:10

Detail A

S 1:10

10 1 5 4

Projects

2

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124

Sectional view a-a

S 1:50

3 10

4

Detail Bench

1

7 11

125

2

5

7

9 8 6

6

1

S 1:10 1 7.62 X 10.16 cm Redwood supports 2 5.08 X 25.4 cm Redwood planks, mounted laterally 3 5.08 X 15.24 cm Redwood connecting planks 4 Aluminum angles 5 Aluminum expanded metal 6 Aluminum visual screening panels 7 5.08 X 7.62 cm Redwood bench 8 Concrete foundation 9 Metal base inserted into supports and connected with bolts 10 Angle elements 11 Aluminum brackets

Pergolas

Pergola am Wassergarten Belvoirpark, Zurich, Switzerland 1959 Architecture team Lederer and Schweizer

The G/59 was the first Swiss Horticulture Exhibition. It took place in 1959 on both banks of Lake Zurich. The sponsoring bodies were different horticultural associations that have since consolidated to form the Jardin Suisse and the BSLA Bund Schweizerischer Landschaftsarchitekten (Federal Association of Swiss Landscape Architects). G/59 attained world renown through the "Garden of Poets" by Ernst Cramer (1898-1985), one of the most significant Swiss landscape architects of the twentieth century. Cramer’s work consisted of four grass pyramids, a grass sphere, and a shallow water basin that reflected the earth. This seminal modeled land­ scape was unfortunately leveled when the horticulture exhibition came to an end in the autumn of 1959 (Petschek, 2008). However, the left bank of the lake in Belvoirpark still boasts an interesting shade-providing construction, which was also created for the horticultural exhibition but was preserved after the G/59. It is the pergola designed by the landscape architect team of Walter + Klaus Lederer and Dr. Johannes Schweizer. The pergola spans a pathway with seating areas and emphasizes the spatial aspect of the pathway’s directional course. The cassette pergola has an external frame that is filled on two levels with parallel lying lamellae filled with horizontal and vertical wooden panels. The twenty-three-meter tall panels create a strong spatial effect. The wooden cassette has three layers and is suspended on a supporting steel construction. The concrete paving allows for a shadow projection of the complex pergola on the ground.

↑ The pergola in Belvoirpark, 50 years after completion (summer 2009)

Projects

126

Isometric drawing

Top view

Top view

No scale

Detail A

S 1:100

2

3 1 5

1

Section a-a

2

3

4

A

S 1:50

6

1 External formwork 3 X 29 cm 2 Transverse slats 4 X 6 cm 3 Diagonal boards 3 X 23 cm suspended from the steel frames by bolted angle elements 4 Lateral slats 4 X 6 cm 5 Spacer/screw joint 6 IPE 180 X 80 mm 7 HEA 120 X 120 mm

7

127

Pergolas

Dan Kiley Pergolas Salisbury / Westport, USA 1994/96 Office of Dan Kiley

Dan Kiley was one of the most influential landscape architects of the twentieth century. Some of the projects he completed during his long and successful design career included the courtroom that held the Nuremberg Trials, the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York City, Dalle Centrale, La Défense in Paris, and the Fountain Place in Dallas. For the garden of the Kimmel residence in Salisbury, Connecticut, Kiley planned a wide pergola as a lateral conclusion to the croquet lawn. The white wooden frame construction is supported by heavy, round, concrete posts with climbing plants trained around them. The Shapiro residence in Westport, New York, was another Kiley project from the 1990s. For this scheme, Kiley designed two pergolas. The first construction is similar to the one at the Kimmel residence. A wooden construction is laid upon heavy, round, concrete supports, also wound around with climbing plants. The second pergola is more delicate in character. Kiley created this impression by using smaller diameters for the supports and by reducing the size of the support heads. The wooden construction consists only of a double-plank beam and lamellae. Kiley’s work has been archived in the Harvard Graduate School of Design, Frances Loeb Library Special Collections. Unfortunately, there are no existing plans of his projects, due to a fire in Kiley’s offices in 2006, which occurred before the documents were given to the archive.

↑ Kimmel residence → Shapiro residence, first pergola → → Shapiro Residence, second pergola

Projects

128

Shade Roof Parque de la Ereta, Alicante, Spain 2003 Obras architectes (Marc Bigarnet and Frédéric Bonnet)

Projects

This timber framework pergola is part of a park built by Marc Bigarnet and Frédéric Bonnet between 2000 and 2003. The seven-hectare park offers residents of the old city a leisure facility that faces southwest and provides a beautiful view of the ocean. The shade-providing pergola at the park entrance directly borders the constructed overhang of the city. It creates a roof projection that partially covers a garden of white marble. The rest of the garden was planted with carob trees. Fountains, white marble, shade-providing foliage and timber framework create a pleasant microclimate: the convection on the steel surfaces of the woven roof, the sea air, the water vapor, the garden setting, and the slight shadow effect all contribute by simple means to making this a refreshing oasis along the lines of the famous Persian and Moorish arbors. The fresh effect is less a result of technology, and more a result of material choices, water, wind, the geometry of the structure, and the overhang situation. The timber framework construction is a repeated motif throughout the park and can be seen in the design of the ramps in the olive grove or in the shop windows of the park’s architecture. The structure is made of eighty woven flat beams, reminiscent of wickerwork, with a filament above and a filament below. Three double-crossed beams function as supports, and as spreaders, for the woven roof. The beams are made from two Kerto panels that are each fifty-five millimeters thick. It was possible to weave the elements due to the elasticity of the microlaminate. These originally straight, wooden beams were bent by hand; the curve of the meshwork was achieved using a round work platform mounted four and half meters above the ground. After an initial rough fit, the structure was adjusted more precisely in order to give the woven geometry a perfect uniform quality and to straighten the crossover lines. The entire structure forms a threedimensional, connected woven surface with traverse and perimeter beams that hold the filaments together, while preventing the lateral projections from bending in both directions. The stainless steel bracing is invisible; there is a plate attached by grub screws to the perimeter beams. On the cross struts, the wooden beams are attached the same way to the steel structure. The woven surface is supported by three frames, each made from a steel double beam and HEB 240 supports. The double beam makes it unnecessary to add an additional reinforcement to the dimensioning of the structure and bracing, which is very beneficial in this coastal region, because it is prone to earthquakes and strong winds. The topside of the wooden structure was lined with rust-resistant metal sheets bonded with soft resin glue.

130

Plan and sectional view

131

S 1:200

Pergolas

Longitudinal section

S 1:150

Lateral section

S 1:150

Projects

132

Roof details

S 1:20

Detail

133

Front view

Pergolas

Acapulco Pergolas Acapulco, Mexico 2004 EDSA

The Fairmont Heritage Place Acapulco Diamante was Fairmont’s signature entry into the exclusive private residence club market. The property is located on 20 acres of prime beachfront property along Revolcadero Beach in Acapulco. The project consists of 50 private luxury residences, along with a 1,600-square-meter zeroentry active pool with an infinity edge, a 45-square-meter children’s pool, an 1,170-square-meter pool deck with planters and areas for cabanas/deck chairs, a private beach for members, an arrival pavilion, and unique courtyard designs for each private residence. The Fiesta Americana is a 2,470-acre, 5-star destination resort which includes a 200-room hotel, 250 timeshare units, and an 1,140-square-meter convention center, as well as pools, tennis courts, spa, gymnasium, and an 18-hole Jack Nicklaus golf course. Both projects are inspired by the surrounding setting and were created from materials that originated in the region. The pergola structures found around the pool areas of the two resorts are excellent examples of this. The casual placement of Lattilla, a tree similar to bamboo that is native to the area, across the main horizontal beams enhances the organic feel of the pergola while creating shade. The main portions of the structures were constructed from hardwood trees also found in the region. The primary construction technique used with both structures is post-and-beam, in which a galvanized steel post is inserted into the core of the wooden post set in a reinforced concrete base as a foundation. Rope lashing was used for an esthetic appearance, while also serving to hide these connections. A "U" bracket made of galvanized steel was used to attach the top portions of the pergolas. While EDSA developed detailed construction drawings of the fabrication for the structures, much of the final implementation was developed as construction progressed through on-site hand drawings. Once on site and working sideby-side with the contractors, it was easier to make changes and work through solutions by way of drawn graphics than to delay the progress by going back to the office to make the changes using the computer.

↑ Heritage Place Acapulco Diamante → Fiesta Americana

Projects

134

Section

S 1:25

3 1 2

4 5

6

Draft

7

Hand-made drawings were the only means of communication on the construction site.

135

1 30 cm X 10 cm wood beam 2 Wood beam located on center 3 Lattilla round wood post 4 Natural rope (to hide post to base/post to trellis connection) 25 cm in height 5 Cantera stone facade to hide concrete pier/footing 6 Galvanized iron column anchor plate and screws 7 Galvanized anchor bolt

Pergolas

CSS Tribschenstadt Lucerne, Switzerland 2005 freiraumarchitektur gmbh

↑ View of the pergola from the office building → View under the pergola to the hanging cables with a sufficiently large plant trough

Projects

The freestanding pergola is located at the center of the inner courtyard of a new complex of buildings in the Tribschenstadt in Luzern. Its triangular ground plan refers to the surrounding buildings. The 34-meter-long, 15-meter-wide pergola is made of 100% galvanized steel, trained with various climbing plants, and has a clearance height of 3.90 meters. It is constructed using round supports 15 centimeters in diameter, beams made from T-profile steel supports, and lateral rung-like supports of the same profile. The supports are spaced at double-rung intervals along the beams. The spacing changes to an interval of one-rung from beam to beam. This staggered spacing enables the outward-facing end supports to be placed directly under the beams that run diagonally at this point. The rung level was augmented by means of Inox cable pulls (www.jakob.ch) that run transverse to the metal supports and serves as climbing aids. The four-millimeter-thick steel cables are laced through holes drilled into the rungs. The posts are fixed to the ground by welded flanges, which are bolted into the concrete base with compound anchors. This joint is below the surface of the pavement and covered with a water barrier to prevent moisture entering the concrete body. On the upper ends of the supports there are double link plates to which the beams are bolted. The drilled holes for the screws are elongated lengthwise, so as to compensate for any possible deformation of the material when erecting the construction. The rungs are bolted directly onto the beams. The climbing plants grow in steel plant troughs, which are embedded halfway into the earth under the pergola. The hanging cables extend from these troughs to the level of the rungs. The plants are distributed along the rung level and the horizontal cables spanned at this point. The cable winches are attached at ground level by a frame construction made from band steel that is concealed in the troughs. A variety of climbing plants were used to green the structure; these include wisteria, clematis, akebia quinata, campsis radicans, lonicera japonica, parthenocissus quinquefolia, and vitis riparia. The dense growth along the hanging cables creates the effect of spatial partition and protection. Assigned to them are seven concrete benches. An additional concrete element is a 2.40-meter-high wall plate that cuts across the construction in the tapering area of the pergola, creating a spatial conclusion. There are five hanging lamps arranged in a row to illuminate the space. The required electricity is supplied by a cable that is fed through the supports and follows along the beams.

136

Top view

S 1:150

1 2

1 Concrete wall plate 2 Hanging cables, frame: band steel 8 mm, cable: INOX ø 4 mm 3 INOX-cable ø 4 mm, grouted external thread, intermediate, bolted onto the long side additionally with molded water resistant connector, spacing between the cables: 600 or 300 mm 4 Tubular steel supports, 152.4 X 7.1 mm, length 4140 mm, attached to a concrete lid 5 Secondary supports T-Profile 100/100/11 6 Primary supports 1/2 I PE 300

3

4

5

6

137

Pergolas

Sectional view a-a

S 1:100 1 Detail of support beams 2 Hanging cables, frame: band steel 8 mm, cable: INOX ø 4 mm 3 Primary support, 1/2 I PE 300 4 Secondary support, T-Profile, 100/100/11 5 INOX cable ø 4 mm 6 Tubular steel supports, 152.4 /71 mm, length 4140 mm 7 Detail of attachment to ground

1 3 4 5 2

6

7

Sectional view b-b

Projects

S 1:100

138

Details

S 1:10

1 2

3

4 5

6 7

1 T-iron, 100/100/11 2 INOX cable ø 4 mm 3 Grouted intermediate thread 4 Grouted external thread 5 M10 6 ½ I PE 300 7 M12 8 Tubular steel, 152.4 X 7.1 X 4140 mm 9 FLA 15 10 Water barrier EP 5 GA 11 4 anchoring dowels, M16, L = 165 mm, bolted directly into the concrete ceiling, covered with the water barrier EP5 GA and 1/2 I PE 300 M12

8

9 10 9 11

Details

139

Inox cables as climbing aids

Pergolas

Sunshade on the Riva Split, Croatia 2007 3LHD

Projects

The city of Split in Croatia, and its waterfront, the Riva, the embodiment of Split’s history and character, are among the most interesting and most remarkable sites in the Mediterranean. In May 2005, an expert jury awarded first prize to the design work of 3LHD architects at the public competition. The project was completed in May 2007. Very important in the 3LHD design are the Sunscreens; they are unique elements adapted to the climate, with the motifs of masts, sailboats, sails, and ships. The screens made for the outdoor cafés offer protection from sun and wind; the flexible character of this urban element makes it easy to open and close, depending on the weather, of course, and even makes it possible to set the sunscreen/sail vertically, turning it into a projection screen by night. The terrace sunshades are made of pillars, revolving scissors, rotation mechanisms, and screens. One pillar can support one or two rotating scissors, depending on its location (edge or middle area of the waterfront). Lighting for the front and back part of the walkway is also mounted on the pillars, along with the halogen lamps for the palm trees and the sunshade lighting. The pillars are made of welded flat steel sheets, with the material quality St 52-3. The welded sheets form a double H profile with a base width of 550 X 320 millimeters, and a height of 7.2 meters. At a height of 2.8 meters, the sides of the profile have holes (250 millimeters in diameter) for mounting the scissor rotation axles. At a height of 1.8 meters, the sides of the welded profiles have square holes (150 X 350 millimeters). That is where the lighting for the sunshade screen is mounted. The back side of the pillar has a rectangular hole with a cover (250 X 500 millimeters) at a height of .9 meters, which is used as an access point for the hydraulic aggregate sensor. The weight of one pillar with a pair of console screen carriers is 2,300 kilograms. Projected protection: a metal coating, the material being first cleaned by a solution of hydrochloric acid, then hot galvanized—the thickness of the dry film is 30 microns, with a protective wash-primer (10 microns thick) and a top coating applied in two layers (30 and 40 microns thick). A steel axle with a length of 200 millimeters is welded at 4 meters from the front end of the scissors and is the rotation axle for the scissors. A profile is welded on the opposite side of the axle and it is used for mounting the sunshade screen onto the scissors. The rust protection is identical with the supports. The rotation mechanism is composed of the revolving scissors axle bearing and a hydraulic aggregate. The axle bearing must allow a 110° rotation of the scissors with minimal lateral deviation and should be calculated for the static load of the anticipated scissor weight, and the dynamic load of the sunshade that arises as a result of wind and precipitation. Along with the hydraulic aggregate, a control point, and executive elements for launching of the scissors, it is necessary to make two axles with the hydraulic aggregate vertex bearings, as well as the revolving scissors safety brakes. The sunshade screens have a surface of 38.4 square meters. The screen is electronically drawn. Every screen (with its pair of revolving scissors) is equipped with a wind sensor, which in case of very strong gusts of winds can activate an automatic screen withdrawal.

140

Isometric drawing

Top view

S 1:100

Detail of sunscreen

1

4 3

Projects

142

Elevations

S 1:50 1 Sunshade, synthetic, woven, UV protection, white 2 Guide rail and wagon 3 Supports, square pipe, galvanized, coated 4 Scissor, H-profile, galvanized, coated 5 Lighting 6 Hydraulic power unit 7 Rotation device, 110 degrees rotation

5

5

4 3 3

2

4 7

4

6

6

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143

Pergolas

Jacaranda Square, "The Everyday Stadium" Sydney Olympic Park, Australia 2008 ASPECT Studios Pty Ltd McGregor Westlake Architecture Deuce Design

Jacaranda Square is the first new public space in Sydney Olympic Park to sit within the framework of the Sydney Olympic Park 2030 Master Plan. The plan sets out a new urban framework intended to refocus the Olympic legacy of event and spectacle into a finely grained, sustainable town center. The Jacaranda Square project began in 2004, as an invited design competition, which was won by a group of like-minded professionals, ASPECT Studios, McGregor Westlake Architecture, and Deuce Design, representing the fields of landscape architecture, architecture, and graphic design respectively. The winning concept, titled "The Everyday Stadium," was both an ironic nod to the legacy of the 2000 Olympics and a precise description of the design concept. The morphology of a typical stadium gave the scheme its permanent layout, which is an orthogonal edge of seats and walls (the stands), framing a large informal open space (the playing field), protected by long perimeters of shade—one built and the other provided by trees (the canopies). In urban terms the canopy, at five meters high and 50 meters long, with its sweeping interior curve, acts as a unifying element for the whole space. The five-meter height took the adjacent Olympic Park Station and its grand vault as the jumping-off point. The horizontality of the canopy acts as a strong foil to the grander scale of the vault. Shade was desirable, since Western Sydney reaches mean temperatures of over 30 degrees in the summer months. Architecturally, the shade canopy, like a stadium structure, was designed with a minimum of columns, therefore requiring large cantilevers. The structure as a whole was conceived in such a way as to minimize visual clutter, by using a material called "louvamesh" as a soffit cladding. Supported between hanging tertiary beams, this mesh "ceiling" masks the primary and secondary structures above. To maximize the integrity of the louvamesh ceiling, the columns are aligned at a slight tangent to the orthogonal grid of the seating edge. Where the structure begins its radial sweep, increasing its cantilever, the columns are angled back at greater degrees, aiding in the balance of the increasing cantilever. In this way, no column breaks the run of the tertiary beams that support the mesh. Near the wide end, where the cantilever is more than 66 percent of the length of the beams, a second column is added; it forms the center point of a circular café that sits below the canopy. From the perspective of a pedestrian looking along the structure, a dynamic and harmonic effect is created by the uninterrupted 50-meter sweep of the tertiary beams, with the playful and colorful array of green louvamesh panels. Louvamesh is a proprietary, off-the-shelf product, designed for shade structures to minimize solar gain. In panel sizes of 2.4 X 1.2 meters, the mesh is like an expanded metal with a bias and angled aperture that gives it an asymmetrical cross-section. It keeps out the direct rays of the summer sun, but lets in indirect light from the south. Its perforated nature, also means that heat gain is dissipated by the air that moves through and around the apertures. The louvamesh panels are powder coated in four shades of green, a nod to the eucalyptus trees planted opposite. The mesh creates a cooling, filtered effect of light and shade over the concrete seating edge. In winter, the lower angle of the sun means that the concrete seating becomes a heat trap and offers warmth to the park users. → Pergola with expanded metal panels in four tones of green

Projects

144

Site plan

No scale

Projects

146

Isometric drawing

Canopy section

S 1:100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

273 X 9.3 mm CHS 20 mm rod, stainless steel 250 mm UB31 200 mm UB30l T-section Louvamesh panel CHS 76 mm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

147

Pergolas

Trellis The University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, USA 2010 Peter Walker and Partners (PWP), Werner Sobek New York

In 1965, Eugene McDermott, co-founder of Texas Instruments, was one of the four founders of The Southwest Center for Advanced Studies, which was designed to provide advanced technological education for the citizens of Texas. In 1969, the institution was gifted to the State of Texas and is now home to the University of Texas at Dallas. In recent years, Mr. McDermott’s widow, Margaret McDermott, has sought to embellish this legacy by funding a significant portion of a landscape enhancement project that improves the quality of life at the university while providing a much-needed public face for the institution. To these ends, PWP created a design that organizes buildings of different eras and disparate design, including the Eugene McDermott Library, using a double allee of magnolias flanking a 250-metre-long pool and terminating in a large plaza shaded by a delicate metal trellis. The structure consists of a roughly 40-metre by 43-metre grid of primary steel columns, beam framing elements, and secondary shading elements. The goal was to provide a light and elegant structure while providing sufficient shade to eliminate the need for planting above. Horizontal forces in the roof diaphragm are transferred via steel diagonal members, and global stability is provided by a pair of perpendicular concrete walls. Closely-spaced parallel fiberglass tubes are suspended running east-west below the primary structure. These tubes serve as shading elements for the plaza and have a clear space between them of twice their diameter. As light hits the tubes at an angle, the white curved surfaces reflect portions of the incoming light at different angles down onto the plaza. This creates diffuse light, which overlays the light passing directly between the tubes to create a soft shadow without a strong contrast. At the approximate center of the trellis area, a large circle is cut out of the trellis to allow the bright sunlight to reach the reflecting pool and mist column located within the plaza area. Two 14-metre-long concrete walls provide shear stability at the edges of the trellis; one runs east‒west and the other north‒south. The board-form surface of the concrete walls uses a fine grained linear pattern that relates to the trellis shade devices above. Wisteria vines are planted at ten locations beneath the trellis. Each vine will grow up the 7.5-metre height to the trellis along two vertical steel cables that run parallel to the trellis support columns.

↑ UTD Campus → → Shadow created by fiberglass pipes

Projects

148

Studies of shadow

Projects

No scale

150

Isometric drawing

Digital mockups

151

No scale

Pergolas

Shadow system, longitudinal and cross section

S 1:20 1 Steel wings are connected to the main beam with gussets 2 Fiber glass pipes (ø 5.08 cm) continue under the main beam in a N/S direction 3 Cap placed at the end of the fiberglass pipe

1

4 Steel support lateral 5 Steel support cross 6 Steel wing 1.27 X 1.91 cm 7 Hanging device for the fiberglass pipe as a part of the steel wing 8 Fiberglass pipe ø 5.08 cm

3

2

4

6

5

7

8

Hanging device—joint, section

S 1:5 1 Fiberglass pipe (sliding end) 2 Steel tube welded to fin 3 Bolt to secure fixed pipe and steel fin 4 Interior threaded plug 5 Fitted into fiberglass pipe 6 Fiberglass pipe (fixed end)

1

2

5

6

34

Projects

152

Isometric drawing of trellis

153

Pergolas

Follies Lincoln Road, Miami Beach, USA 1957 Morris Lapidus

The first pedestrian zone in the United States was built in Miami Beach in 1957. Lincoln Road was a luxury shopping street with wide sidewalks, parking spots, and two-way traffic. After shopping areas were built specifically for the Fontainebleau Hotel, as well as other hotels, the shops in Lincoln Road began losing customers. The city commissioned architect Morris Lapidus, who had also designed the Fontainebleau, to renovate the street and to redesign it as a pedestrian zone. Inspired by what the landscape architect Burle Marx had done at the Copacabana in Rio de Janeiro, Lapidus used black and white slabs for the pavement. Trees, fountains, and shade-providing pavilions emphasized a subtropical, park-like character, which the architect wanted to create for this pedestrian zone in southern Florida. Lapidus called the shade-providing constructions "Follies," a term that is derived from garden design but can also be used for eccentric architecture. All of the pavilions are made of white-painted concrete and provide the visitors with protection from sun and rain. The Follies are varied in form: different supporting frameworks give each pavilion a unique character. Regrettably, there are no extant plans of the Follies remaining, because when Lapidus retired from architecture, he threw away "entire truckloads of drawings" (Düttmann 1992). After the "rebirth" of Miami in the 1990s, Lincoln Road was also rediscovered. Today, this open urban space is used by numerous cafés and restaurants. Lapidus’s work has remained intact and, in some cases, was extended at either side. Meanwhile, the notion of a vehicle-free, pedestrian zone is highly appreciated in the United States, especially in urban areas, so often plagued by heavy traffic.

→ The Follies as they are today

Projects

154

155

Pavilions

Strand Jetty Shade Structure Townsville, Australia 1999 Tippett Schrock Architects

Projects

The Townsville Strand foreshore development, on the north-east coast of Australia, officially opened in October 1999, redefining Townsville's appeal as a tropical resort city. Along this palm-tree-studded stretch are bike and walkway paths, safe swimming beaches, a recreational jetty, picturesque picnic spots, a water park, and chic restaurants and bars with to-die-for water views. The development evolved following destructive monsoonal storms in 1997 and 1998, which caused significant damage and compromised the integrity of the rock protection seawall. The restoration work included the reconstruction of new seawalls, beach replenishment, reclamation of land from the sea, and improved storm protection along the length of the beach. The finished project ensures the protection of the beaches and rock wall while providing a wide choice of improved amenities and passive recreation opportunities. The Strand jetty, with its associated sail structure, was designed by Tippett Schrock Architects as part of a family of structures extending along the 2.2-kilometer length of the Strand. These include picnic shelters, shade structures, washroom facilities, boat sheds, and commercial outlets, designed as representations of tropical beachside achitecture: light, colorful, and whimsical. The Jetty Sail Structure sits at the end of a recreational fishing jetty, and is intended to be an abstract reflection of the sailboats in the background on Cleveland Bay and around Magnetic Island. The structure is an important feature of the jetty, as a sculptural asset to the Strand precinct, and as a provider of shade. The sails comprise two separately opposed structures hung from common structural steel "masts." Each sail structure is defined by a steel bow truss, a bottom curved beam, and a series of curved support ribs that form the sail shape. The effect of fabric for the sails is achieved by the use of flat aluminum battens measuring 100 X 6  millimeters that curve in two directions over the ribs, and are isolated from the steel ribs by rubber strips to prevent electrical conductivity. The spaces between the battens result in a playful pattern of shadows on the jetty deck that changes continously as the sun moves across the sails. The three-dimensional curvature of the structure presented significant challenges for the designers from a buildability point of view, and at times they doubted they could achieve the desired result. They were particularly concerned that the aluminum battens would separate as they twisted across the curves. Extensive use of three-dimensional modeling helped to overcome their fears and also helped the fabricator understand construction issues. As with any structure near salt water, durability in extreme conditions is a major issue. A coating system formulated to withstand submersion in seawater was used on all elements of the structure and has stood the test of time.

156

CAD rendering, track structure

157

Pavilions

Building plan and section

S 1:100

1 3 2

1 Aluminum bands 100 X 6 mm, mounted curved, insulated at every joint point 2 Bands attached to curved pipe and overlapping, insulation mandatory 3 25 mm interval between the bands 4 Half timber supports 139.7 X 3.5 mm CHS, radius 24937 5 Bar 101.6 X 3.2 mm CHS 6 Bar 101.6 X 3.2 mm CHS, at a right angle to the trussed beam 7 16 mm stringer 8 Pipe 323.9 X 9.5 mm CHS

4 4 5 6

7 8

Projects

158

Section connecting supports — beams, building plan

S 1:5 1 168.3 X 6.4 mm chs curved beam 2 16 mm top plate 3 323.9 X 9.5 mm chs column 4 168.3 X 6.4 mm chs connector 5 8 mm oversize washer 6 Oversize hole ø 30 mm 7 M20 bolt 8 16 mm bottom plate

1

1 4 2 3

4 7 5 6 8 3

Section connecting supports — aluminum lamellae, building plan

S 1:1 / 1:10

2 3 1 4 5

1 Battens, 100 X 6 mm aluminum battens curve around the shade structure, and must be insulated at every point 2 Buildex ZACS 4 screw, 14–20 X 45 mm screw head, powdercoated to match batten color 3 19 mm aluminum bonded washer, 2 standard seals below washer. 4 Rubber strip (95 X 20 X 6 mm) 5 Steel pipe

5

159

Pavilions

Pier 45 Hudson River Park, New York City, USA 2003 Abel Bainnson Butz Landscape Architects and Sowinski Sullivan Architects

Hudson River Park, heralded as the "Central Park of the 21st Century," has transformed Manhattan’s formerly under-utilized post-industrial waterfront into an expansive five-mile-long public park. For the first phase of the park, constructed in 2003, the Abel Bainnson Butz (ABB) team designed the riverfront esplanade, the linear upland park, and three former industrial piers, which were developed as outdoor recreational destinations. Pier 45 (also known as the Christopher Street Pier) extends 850 feet (about 270 meters) out into the Hudson River. The pier, accentuated with tensile fabric shade structures, includes a natural turf lawn and seating areas, for an urban population hungry for open space. The southern tensile fabric structure offers areas of shady respite on the sundrenched pier but also performs multiple functions in the overall park design. This multiple-canopy shade structure jauntily interacts with two other structures on the pier, serving as a spatial marker and creating a soaring, nautical rhythm that breaks down the scale of the long site. The verticality of the structure provides a counterpoint to the extreme horizontality of the pier and complements the popular sunbathing lawn — a southern-sloping expanse of green through the mid-section of the pier — to relieve the inherent flatness of the site. The shade structure, an eccentrically-loaded tensile structure, is composed of a grouping of ten single columns. From a distance, the mast-like galvanized steel columns with suspended horizontal canopies are vaguely referential to the tall ship sails that once graced the Hudson River. Located near the lengthwise center of the pier, the row of masts marches alongside the southern linear walkway and the sunbathing lawn, supporting a series of overlapping high-performance Gortex fabric canopies, rhythmically hoisted at varying heights. To allow maximum flexibility of use as the sun’s angle and intensity changes throughout the days and seasons, no permanent seating is programmed beneath the structure. Movable chairs are provided in some areas, and park users can set out their own beach chairs and beach towels to soak up the sun or shelter in the shade, according to their preferences. In choosing materials, the corrosive effect of salt spray from the brackish estuarine river water was a major governing factor. To minimize maintenance and lengthen lifespan in this corrosive environment, the steel columns were constructed of Schedule 80 galvanized steel pipe and finished with a high-performance coating system. All hardware is 316L stainless steel. The structures were also designed to withstand high wind uplift loads in this exposed waterfront location.

↑ View from Pier 45 on Hudson River ↗ View of Pier 45 and Manhatten

Projects

160

Isometric drawings

161

Pavilions

Building plan

No scale

Projects

162

Details plan and elevation

S 1:10

1 2

3

1 1.27 cm stainless steel, trim ring 2 15.24 cm pipe below 3 1.27 cm stainless, steel rods (typ.) 4 1.27 cm head plate, ø 25.4 cm 5 2.54 cm stainless steel joining plate 6 1.27 cm stainless steel ring, ø 25.4 cm 7 2.54 cm stainless steel joining plate 8 Membrane 9 1.27 cm stainless steel ring, ø 20.32–25.4 cm

4 5

2

6

7

Detail of joints

8

9

163

Pavilions

Pavilion in Spreebogen Park Berlin, Germany 2005 w+s Landschaftsarchitekten

Projects

The unique feature of the Spreebogen park pavilion project is its urban aspect. There are broad, open areas with groups of trees on criss-crossing pathways, hard and dramatic gorges, and a transition zone from the edge of the city to the nearby Spree river valley. Consequently, small architectural elements are conceived more as secondary design features, that is, as a part of the furnishings, like the lighting, benches, footbridges, and so on. The pavilion is one of these elements. With its delicate metal supports, the pavilion blends unpretentiously into the forest-like small grouping of trees that form in an open grid where the paths meet. The lightweight appearance of the roof is due to the set back ribbed elements. Electrical cables and drainage pipes are concealed in the supports. Linear lamp elements installed on the underside of the cement ceiling transform the pavilion into an exquisite lit space at night. The underside is painted salmon red, which, combined with the white supports, creates a warm and pleasant atmosphere.

164

Longitudinal section

S 1:100 1 Roof: seamless concrete, sealed with triple-coated synthetic resin; formwork: smooth, without cavities or inclusions, underside painted salmon red (NCS 0060-Y90R) 2 Recessed ceiling lighting fixtures iGuzzini Linealuce T16 3 Supports: steel, ø 135 mm; color: white, 4 supports designed to double as rainwater drainpipes 4 Floor plates: granite slabs 120 X 60 cm, 3 steps 17 / 30, and mottled granite

1 2 3

4

Cross section

165

S 1:100

Pavilions

Top view

S 1:100 1 Roof edge, surface handfashioned using mortar with a negative incline of 1 cm 2 Roof: 1% sloping screed, seal: synthetic resin coating, color: salmon, 3 coats 3 Roof inlet with aerator

1 2 3

Projects

166

Detail of roof support foundation

S 1:20

1 2

3 4

1 Roof drain, DN 70, uninsulated, steel, with VS-sleeve for liquid plastic seal 2 Liquid plastic seal, triplecoated, on 2–7 cm sloping screed, ca. 1% 3 Steel supports ø 135 mm, designed as a rainwater drainpipe with perforated head plate and pipe supports DN 70 welded to the underside, with all round anticorrosion treatment 4 Fitted strip lighting IGuzzini Linealuce T16 5 Foundation plate ø 300 mm, in-situ concrete in accordance with statics requirements, on a granular subbase ø 50 mm 6 Connection with the RWmanifold, DN 70 / DN 150, drainage in a dry well

5

6

167

Pavilions

Pavilion Botanical Garden, Frauenfeld, Switzerland 2005 Staufer & Hasler (architects), Rutishauser (landscape architect)

On the occasion of the 200-year anniversary of the canton of Thurgau, the canton school’s forgotten garden was revitalized and expanded. The new botanical garden is at the south end of the district, near the renovated buildings of the Supreme Court and the library, which are linked to the district’s villa gardens via the park. A system of paths leads through the different areas of the garden, as well as to a pavilion woven with clematis. The clematis creates a colorful oasis when in bloom and in the summer, a greenery house. The pavilion is constructed from 100% metal and consists of a roof frame with inserted, chessboard-like lamellae modules, which provide the shade, and six sets of supports. The supports are designed as stakes rather than compact or solid forms. A large space in the middle serves as the root zone for the plants. The slender stakes encourage the various species of clematis to climb. The entire construction is painted a dark, matte color, and a stove enamel finish was added to protect against rust. The structure stands on a platform of concrete slabs.

↑ View of the pavilion from the park → Pavilion in the Botanical Garden, Frauenfeld

Projects

168

Isometric drawing

169

Pavilions

Elevation

S 1:100

Anchoring concept

Projects

S 1:20

Detail of stake supports

170

Elevation

S 1:100

Top view

Cross section a-a

S 1:100

S 1:20 1 Concrete slabs 2 Vertical stakes welded to the corners to secure them to the cement slabs 3 Steel angles welded around the stakes and bolted to the concrete foundation

2

1

3

171

Pavilions

The Birdhide Thesen Islands, South Africa 2007 CMAI Architects

This birdhide is situated on the Thesen Islands off Knysna, a small coastal town on South Africa’s beautiful Southern Cape. The Thesen Islands are on the site of the former Thesen Sawmill, in the middle of the Knysna Estuary; the site has been redeveloped into a large residential estate with a smaller commercial core, numerous canals, beaches, public open spaces, and a large area of parkland. The parkland includes a clubhouse, sports facilities, orchards, communal gardens, potagers (ornamental edible gardens), a dog run, and a bird reserve—where the birdhide was constructed. Considerable effort had been put into re-using and recycling existing materials left over from the sawmill structure, so the same principle was applied to the birdhide, where a significant amount of existing timber was re-used. The basic structure of the hide consists of round treated timber poles with smaller round timber slats (harvested from felled nonnative trees), connected using stainless steel fittings. Stainless steel cabling was used to anchor the main structural poles. The timber was treated, but left unpainted to help keep maintenance to a minimum and allow the wood to fade naturally to a weathered gray— this will help the hide blend in with the natural surroundings better over the course of time. The structure is passively cooled by the use of openings and slots between the timber sections, and overhanging pergolas provide additional sun control (while also providing screening for the bird watchers). The most important principles guiding the design were that the structure should provide adequate screening for the bird watchers so that they would not startle any breeding birds; the hide should be comfortable and provide sufficient viewing positions, while blending into the surroundings—and all of this had to be achieved with a fairly limited budget. The structure was designed and documented in one day and completed within one week; the costs amounted to EUR 8,500.00.

↑ Shadow study in the station → Spatial context for the station

Projects

172

Ground plan

173

S 1:50

Pavilions

Cross section and side elevation

Projects

S 1:50

174

Front elevation

S 1:50

Isometric drawings

175

Pavilions

Orquideorama Medellin, Colombia 2006 Plan:B Arquitectos + JPRCR Arquitectos

Projects

The "Orquideorama" can be found in the Botanical Garden in Medellin, Colombia. The construction design has an overall size of 4,200 square meters and a maximum height of 16.7 meters. It was built in 2006. The shade thrown by the tree-like roof guarantees a stable climate of 16 to 28 degrees Celsius and creates the climate needed for the sensitive orchid plants to grow and thrive. In the jungle, the tall trees assume the function of providing shade. In the Orquideorama, a hive-like, hexagonal metal structure, paneled with pinewood lamellae, deflects any direct sun rays from reaching the lower levels. Rainwater is collected in large polyester pans, then led to the ground through a system of pipes and ultimately used to irrigate the plants. The Orquideorama consists of several "trees." The hexagonal basic form of the individual elements is continued at the floor level. The geometric form and the possibility of constructing the roof as needed means that the system can be expanded whenever there is a need.

176

Sectional view of a "tree"

S 1:100 1 Skylight (metal frame) with transparent polycarbonate panels 2 Steel construction for the skylight 3 Metal roof parapet 4 Roof gutters 5 Transparent polycarbonate panels 6 Steel construction for the inclined roof 7 Downspout pipe

8 Steel supports 9 Pressure-treated Patula pinewood cladding 10 Cross section of steel supports 11 Tubular steel, anchored to the main frame 12 Steel construction for the wood paneling 13 Modular system for orchid exhibition 14 25.4 cm tubular steel supports 15 Concrete pile foundation

1

2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11

12

13 7 14 15

177

Pavilions

CAD rendering, structural assembly

Initial design sketches

Projects

178

Isometric drawing

Plan

Sectional view

179

S 1:1000

S 1:500

Pavilions

Roof plan, and section

S 1:50 1 Transparent polycarbonate 2 Metal support structure

1

2

1

2

Detail of roof

S 1:5

Projects

180

Roof, view from below

S 1:50 1 Timber lathing, treated 2 Steel supports, dimensioned according to data provided by the structural engineers 3 Suspended timber lathing (round)

1

A

Detail A

S 1:10

2 3

181

Pavilions

Water Flowers Pavilions Shenzhen, China 2007 AECOM

On a seven-hectare site located near downtown Shenzhen, the project was begun in late 2004, and completed in the middle of 2007. The property is lined by buildings along two sides, with the high-rises of the second phase along the south side, and now the high-rise tower blocks of the third phase along the north side. There are small openings between the buildings to the north, while the space is more open to the south, but bordered there by an existing row of maturing shade trees, next to a generous central open space. The design concept grew out of the site’s proximity to the reserved surrounding hills to the northeast, which are visible from the units facing them, and a natural-looking reservoir within a former amusement park to the southwest; the qualities of these natural elements were reinterpreted and refined within the landscape master plan. The shade structures for the Water Flowers complex are designed to be integral to the open space system and framework, offering places of quiet retreat, views, and unexpected discoveries. There were four structures proposed, of which three were built. The trellis shown was the first built; at five meters high it is a square shape with access on two adjacent sides, connected to the meandering crushed granite pathway. The platform base is raised, above the high point of the open space, offering a view from over-sized benches, which are connected along the two interior sides opposite the entrances. The view orientation is toward the lushly landscaped park-like open space arranged around the reservoir within the abandoned amusement park. The other two shelters are somewhat larger and lower. They are both rectangular in shape, and are situated around two stairwells that allow residents access to the open space from the parking area below. These shelters also have an informal seating arrangement built into their deck structure. All structures are steel framed, with all the exposed steel painted in flat enamel in a rust-red color so as to blend with the COR-TEN steel cladding that makes up the exterior finish of the stairwell parapets. The bollard lights are also painted in this enamel finish. All the steel posts are clad in wood, built up around 100-mm-square GMS posts that are welded to the trellis framing. To further moderate the large-scale differences between the high-rise towers and the open space, the shelters are somewhat over-scaled, However, their detailing remains light and open, retaining their shade function, while marking points of arrival, destination, and departure.

↑ Water Flowers Pavilion seen from the apartment building → Detail view

Projects

182

Perspective

183

Pavilions

Top view / ground plan

Projects

S 1:50

184

Elevations

185

S 1:50

Pavilions

Pavilions Parc des Rives Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland 2007 Localarchitecture

The town of Yverdon-les-Bains commissioned Localarchitecture and Paysagestion to design a public park in a large parcel of neglected land ideally located by Lake Neuchâtel. Besides large open green areas and sports facilities, the park includes a small bar restaurant, a few picnic shelters, a pedal-boat rental, a music kiosk, and a meditation retreat. This portion of the territory is a former swamp, drained when the lake level was controlled and stabilized beginning in the nineteenth century. With no clear function, the still damp area has historically been used for populiculture (poplar tree cultivation), and two canals were excavated—one at either end. A series of thematic sequences are displayed as you walk toward the lake and pavilions are distributed accordingly. Sitting on these laid-out strips, the pavilions emphasize the relationship between the canal and the park. Each pavilion has two load-bearing walls of different heights, connected by a sloping roof, and is open at both ends. Made entirely of braced planks of wood, the pavilions are constructed using the post-and-beam method. One vertical 5 X 22 centimeter Douglas pine post is braced with a rafter of the same dimension, and the system repeats itself. The heights of the posts are graduated to create a sloped roof. In order to avoid using steel diagonals as bracing, a randomly organised system of pine blocks (or props) screwed inside stud faces serve as structural stabilizers. The baselines of both sides of each wall are connected with a metal T-profile and installed to custom fit the concrete-cast anchorage points. Douglas fir was chosen as the building material because it does not need to be treated. Only the cut surfaces of the Douglas fir wood needed to be coated with a black varnish. An acrylic glass covering above the roof’s surface serves as weather protection. Although they are all built on the same basic plan, each pavilion has its own specific arrangement according to its programmatic function. A table, a low seat, or a bench will be braced in the structure using the same building techniques. At nightfall, the pavilions are lit from the inside, and the soft glow emanating from within lights up the park like little lanterns floating at the water’s edge.

↑ One of the nine pavilions in Parc des Rives

Projects

186

Ground plan

S 1:50

Elevation

187

S 1:50

Pavilions

Section

S 1:50

Detail of roof

Projects

S 1:10

188

Isometric drawing

189

Shadow study

Pavilions

[C]SPACE AA DRL10-Pavilion, London, Great Britain 2008 Alan Dempsey & Alvin Huang

[C]space is the winning entry in the AADRL10 Pavilion competition, held to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the AA Design Research Lab, in conjunction with an exhibition and the publication of a book that comprehensively documents the work of the course. The competition was open to all 354 graduates of the lab; the winning entry was designed and developed by Alan Dempsey and Alvin Huang. It was selected by the jury because of the proposal’s radical use of material; its expression of form as a continuous transformation of furniture to floor, walls, and roof structure; and its constructability within a tight schedule and budget. The proposal was for the design to be constructed entirely from fibreC, a thin concrete panel reinforced with glass fibers that is normally used as a cladding material. The striking presence of the pavilion invites inspection from a distance, and upon closer interaction reveals its ambiguity through the merging of sinuous curves, structural performance, and programmatic functions into a single continuous form. As you move around, the surface varies from opaque to transparent, producing a stunning threedimensional moiré. The surface encloses while also providing a route through for passing pedestrians, blurring the distinction between inside and outside. The jointing system in the pavilion makes use of a simple interlocking cross joint, which is tightened by a set of locking neoprene gaskets. Close consultation with the fibreC technical department in Austria (www.rieder.cc/at), along with extensive material testing, was required to develop the design. Over a period of six weeks, 16 iterations of the design model were analyzed before a structural solution was found. In parallel to the digital modeling, numerous rapid prototypes, scale models, and full-scale physical mock-ups were built in order to develop the design of individual elements and test the tolerances and fit of entire assemblies. The final pavilion was constructed from 850 individually unique profiles, nested on standard 13 mm flat fibreC panels and CNC water cut. Once delivered to the site, the entire pavilion was assembled over a period of three weeks by a dedicated team of DRL staff and students, with assistance from Rieder. Over 70 drawing sheets were produced by the design team, describing in detail the step-by-step assembly sequence and accurately locating each piece within the overall structure.

→ View from the AA Architectural Association on the [C]SPACE Pavilion

Projects

190

Side view

Installing the profile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1

Unpunched Gaskets fibreC concrete panels Notch, 50 mm Bonded gasket Drilled holes, 8 mm Punched gaskets M6 bolts and washers

2 5

3 4

Detail of profile joints

7 6

191

Pavilions

The Serpentine Gallery Pavilion 2009 Hyde Park, London, Great Britain 2009 SAANA ARUP

→ 114 shiny stainless steel supports raise the roof from its initial table height to far above the heads of the visitors. In this manner, the roof refers to the slightly waved topography of the Serpentine Gallery.

Projects

The Serpentine Gallery Pavilion 2009 was designed by Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa of the leading Japanese architecture firm SANAA and winners of the Pritzker prize. The Pavilion opened on 12 July, 2009 on the Serpentine Gallery’s lawn, where it remained until 18 October, 2009. Describing their structure, the architects said: "The Pavilion is floating aluminum, drifting freely between the trees like smoke. The reflective canopy undulates across the site, expanding the park and sky. Its appearance changes according to the weather, allowing it to melt into the surroundings. It works as a field of activity with no walls, allowing an uninterrupted view across the park and encouraging access from all sides. It is a sheltered extension of the park where people can read, relax, and enjoy lovely summer days." Sejima and Nishizawa have created a stunning Pavilion that resembles a reflective cloud or a floating pool of water, sitting atop a series of delicate columns. The metal roof structure varies in height, wrapping itself around the trees in the park, reaching up towards the sky and sweeping down almost to the ground in various places. Open and ephemeral in structure, its reflective materials make it sit seamlessly within the natural environment, reflecting both the park and sky above it. The Pavilion is the architects’ first built structure in the UK, and the ninth commission in the Gallery’s annual series of Pavilions, the world’s first and most ambitious architectural programme of its kind. Each year, the Gallery gives preeminent architects their debut here in the United Kngdom and brings the best of contemporary architecture to London for everyone to enjoy. The architects worked with the structural design and engineering firm SAPS, led by Mutsuro Sasaki, and with the ARUP team, led by David Glover and Ed Clark with Cecil Balmond, to realize this project. "They designed a polymorphic, highly polished roof panel, which at first seems untypical of their practice, that gleams like a silvery fish between the trees. The roof membrane is only 26 millimeters thick and 550 square meters large, and consists of a sandwich of two, three-millimeter-thick aluminum plates and a supporting layer of 19-millimeter plywood. One hundred and fourteen shiny stainless steel supports raise the roof from its initial table height to far above the heads of the visitors. In this manner, the roof refers to the slightly waved topography of the Serpentine Gallery. The aluminum panels may seem to float in a lightweight and casual manner amongst the green, but they are the result of a highly complex structural solution. Ed Clark, ARUP’s project engineer, had to convey the entire register of CAD techniques to laser cut, three by one and a half meter large highly polished aluminum panels, in order to achieve the utterly smooth, seamless, and reflecting surface. Every sunken screw hole had to be covered with small aluminum caps and the anchoring points between the aluminum supports and the underside of the roof with three types of special washers: the tolerances range between zero and 0.2 millimeters." (Brensing, 2009)

192

Drawing of concept, SAANA

event space

cafe

table

Drawing of concept, ARUP

3m

Projects

3.5m

194

Ground level plan, ARUP

No scale Plan with column, setting out coordinates and lengths

195

Pavilions

Column top / bottom detail

S 1:5

1 2 3

4 5 6 7

8

1 Top and bottom plates, 3 mm aluminum, mirror-finished 2 18 mm birch plywood core 3 High strength duplex stainless steel disks 4 Cap plate, silicon sealed for waterproofing 5 Wedge washer, angle varies 6 O-ring, wedge cap, angle varies 7 12 mm connection plate, M16 countersunk, cap head bolt, galvanized 8 Stainless steel tube, 5 mm 9 25 mm base plate, 300 X 300 with long slotted holes, stainless steel

9

Detail of screw pile / column

S 1:20

Detail of acrylic wall base

S 1:20

1 2

1 2

3

3 4

1 Filled with loose gravel 2 Drainage 3 Concrete poured after column location fixed

Projects

1 Typ. floor, 10 mm resinbonded gravel 2 100 mm concrete with 6 mm wire mesh 3 Drainage 4 Concrete base with anchor frame for acrylic wall

196

Top view detail of roof

S 1:50 Sandwich roof construction with two 3 X 1.50 cm large and 3 mm thick, highly polished aluminum panels (joints 0–2 mm) and a supporting layer of 19 mm thick plywood elements (joints 2–4 mm) in a compound system

Section a-a

S 1:1 1 2 3 4

1

2

197

3

3 mm aluminum panel Glue line 19 mm plywood core Screws from top and bottom

4

Detail of anchoring points

Detail of surface

The connections between the stainless steel supports and the underside of the roof are barely perceptible. In the background the acrylic wall offers weather protection.

Laser cut, 3 X 1.50 m large, highly polished aluminum panels were used in order to achieve the thoroughly smooth, seamless, and reflecting surface.

Pavilions

Houtan Park Pudong, Shanghai, China Expo 2010 Kongjian Yu ‒ Turenscape

Living organisms have the ability to adapt, change, and protect themselves. Houtan Park at the Shanghai 2010 Expo is designed as a living organism. Located on a former "brown lands" field on the Huangpu waterfront, Houtan Park is a showcase for the Expo as a regenerative public green space. At the very north end of the linear park, a shadow-casting structure is located. It is an advanced version of the Dujiangyan plaza’s Golden Canopy. This shadow-casting structure spreads out in the manner of tree canopies surrounding a water pond, the same pond which collects the water that has been cleaned through the wetland system. It is a celebration of water that has been heavily polluted and then been cleaned through the landscape as a living system. The shadow-casting canopies are painted in shades of pink, the color tones of lotus flower petals, a metaphor for the lotus that has its roots in dirty mud but produces a plant and flowers that are clean and elegant. The shadow-casting canopies are made of metal, while the supporting poles are made of steel and painted white.

→ The shade-providing construction in Houtan Park was further developed from the Turenscape project "Golden Roof" at Dujiangyan Plaza in Dujiangyan. Unlike the Houtan project, in Dujiangyan the steel net hangs on bronze rods.

Projects

198

Plan

Top view

S 1:1000

S 1:50 1 Steel poles, finished surface in white 2 Steel bar network, finished surface in pink

1

2

Projects

200

Sectional view

S 1:50 1 145 X 45 mm bamboo pavement (5 mm joint). 2 50 X 50 mm wood beam and H 20 mm wood block base per 0.5 m 3 Retaining wall made of local natural stone 4 30 mm granite, deep gray 5 Reinforced concrete

1 2 3 4 5

Detail view of the connection between the pipe and the net

S 1:5 1 2 3 4

Iron disk, 20 X 3 mm 2 half steel rings, 20 X 3 mm Steel pole Steel bar network

1 2 3 4

201

Pavilions

"Shadow Forest" Centro Abierto de Actividades Ciudadanas, Cordoba, Spain 2010 ParedesPino arquitectos

The "Centro Abierto de Actividades Ciudadanas" (Open Resident's activity center) is a square in Cordoba, Spain. It is located in an area of new housing near the train station for the high-speed rail link to Madrid. Twice a week the CAAC serves as a market square, and the umbrellas shield the market stalls and customers from the intense sun and from rain. The architects refer to their project as a shady urban forest. They designed it to have umbrellas of different widths, different heights, that overlap at times. The dimensions of the umbrellas range from seven and fifteen meters in width and four to seven meters in height, in order to ensure the most flexibility of use. The topsides of the umbrellas are of many different colors, which makes the square highly visible from the surrounding buildings and bridges. The umbrellas are made of steel. Rainfall is funneled through the masts for drainage. The surface of the underside of the umbrellas is reflective. The square’s lighting system is also integrated in the umbrellas, which, in combination with the reflecting undersides, creates lighter and darker areas on the pavement at night. The pavement surface looks like a giant board game, and was designed to encourage open use. Slabs of local concrete are used for parking market vehicles and for ease of cleaning. The square’s drainage system runs through a slotted gutter system. This successful design of an urban square is based on a concept that won a competition announced in 2004. The project was completed in April 2010.

↑ Pedestrian’s view → Evening → → Afternoon

Projects

202

Bird's eye view

Projects

204

N

205 9

4

7

8

2

5

1 tierra

3

6

cielo

9

4

7

8

2

5

1 tierra

3

6

cielo

9

4

7

8

2

5

1 tierra

3

6

cielo

9

4

7

8

2

5

1 tierra

3

6

cielo

9

4

7

8

2

5

1 tierra

3

6

cielo

Plan No scale

Pavilions

Section

No scale

B

5

A

4

6 7

10 11

1 12 8 2 13

3

9

1 Umbrella ø 13 m / ø 15 m, steel support ø 555 mm 2 Umbrella ø 9 m / ø 11 m, steel support ø 457 mm 3 Umbrella ø 7 m, steel support ø 355 mm 4 Prefabricated steel element, Typ S 275 JR, double-coated 5 Suspended shade-providing roof 6 Steel pipe with corrosion protection and white RAL 9010 stoved enamel coating 7 PVC drainage pipe 8 Concrete filling 9 Rainwater drainage: stainless steel

Projects

10 Top of the roof: 0.7 mm aluminum panels with stoved enamel coating, 40 mm insulation, 0.8 galvanized steel plates 11 Trough: 80 X 80 X 4 mm galvanized steel, curved, stoved enamel coating 12 Underside of the roof: suspended 0.8 steel plate, galvanized, stoved enamel coating RAL 9010 13 Drain

206

Detail A

Rainwater drain detail 10 11

12

Detail B 13

Umbrella catalog

No scale 7,50°

10,00°

10,00°

12,00°

7

9

11

13

15

15,00°

Variable  de 4-5m

Variable  de 4-5m

Variable  de 4-6m

0°

Ø9 63,5 m2

7,50°

10,0

0°

0°

0°

Ø7 38,5 m2

207

10,0

12,0

15,0

TECHO

Variable  de 3,5-7m

CATÁLOGO DE ALTURAS

Variable  de 2,7-7m

CUBIERTA

Ø11 95 m2

Ø13 132,5 m2

Ø15 176,5 m2

Pavilions

Solar Umbrellas Mecca, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1987 SL-Rasch GmbH Special and Lightweight Structures

These umbrellas, with a span width of five by five meters, were developed as a convertible shadeproviding system for the roof of the Great Mosque in Mecca. The form of the extremely lightweight, square umbrellas is derived from the geometric grid of the load-bearing supports; they are designed to minimize any additional load on the roof. The photovoltaic cells on the arms of the umbrellas and the wireless remote controlled motion commands make it possible to have a simple and fast assembly without affecting the marble roof tiles. Although the form of the umbrellas is defined by the conical shape of the double curved membrane, the addition of umbrellas creates a hall of translucent cross vaults. It harmoniously associates the combination of lightness of weight, elegance, and strength with the architecture of the mosque. Different drive systems and membrane materials were tested in long-term trials under extreme climatic conditions: more than 40,000 opening and closing sequences within two years, an amount that would take thirty years in a normal situation, verified that they are capable of fulfilling the requirements. Laboratory tests confirmed these findings, as well as the results of extreme ageing tests to which the membrane material was subjected. Supports, arms, and the struts of the umbrellas—6.8 meters when closed, and 5.5 meters when open—are all made of extruded aluminum molding profiles that have optimized crosssections in view of loads; the joint and guide elements between all of the movable parts consist of custom-molded cast aluminum components. The energy required to open and close the umbrellas comes from twelve photovoltaic panels on the tops of the arms of the umbrellas. The energy is collected by a battery in the base of the umbrella and is furnished with a corresponding charge regulator. Two independent charging cycles ensure that the umbrellas will open even if they have been closed for a long period of time. The arms of the umbrellas are opened and closed by vertical motion of the cylinder in the supports. The cylinder, which is torsion-resistant in its closed position, is powered by a 0.3 kW direct-current motor that has an encapsulated driveshaft to protect it against dust. The movement is controlled by a relay and end switch. In the event of a power failure, the mechanism can be moved by a manual crank. The signal to open and close the umbrellas is transmitted by a high frequency transmitter, which is controlled by a timer, a daylight sensor, and a wind gauge. The last guarantees that the umbrellas close if the wind speed exceeds 15m/sec. The prestressed, funnel-shaped textile membranes are made of three different materials: polyacrylonitrile (Dralon), PVC-coated polyester fabric with PVDF final coating, and uncoated PTFE-fabric (Teflon). Extended time tests showed that the Teflon fabric was most suitable, due to its high durability and good foldability. The lighting concept plans to illuminate the membrane surface from below, which would create an indirect and hence very even distribution of light on the surfaces under the tent.

← Umbrellas from below → Opening the umbrellas

Projects

208

209

Tents

Sectional view

S 1:50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Facing Central control panel Signal receiver Photovoltaic panels Arms Membranes Battery Motor

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Detail of umbrella

Projects

210

Detail A and B

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Remote control Charge regulators Threaded rod M12 Switching relay Electric cable

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Tents

Canopy at the Ronda Promenade Palma, Majorca, Spain 1991 José Antonio Martínez Lapeña and Elías Torres Tur, Architects

The structure is located at the historic city wall of Palma de Mallorca. Previously a military area closed to citizens for centuries, in 1973 the Ministry of Defense transferred it to the city of Palma. The defensive construction, in perfect condition, was transformed into a public space. By furnishing it with a few new elements, the minimum changes and interventions served to emphasize the architectural qualities of the space. Below the Gothic Cathedral and the Bishops’ Palace, a 50 X 25 meter canopy, formed by rhomboidal blue and yellow Trevira cloth pieces, provides shadow and freshness. The gaps between the pieces of cloth allow a view of the Cathedral from below and vice versa. The structure resembles an awningsail of a medieval ship with blue and yellow, recalling the colors of the Balearic Merchant Marine. The shadows cast by the awning were left unplanned. The construction took place between 1988 and 1991.

↑ → Canopy at the Ronda Promenade ↗ Shadow study

Projects

212

Top view

S 1:500 1 Connection detail with two 20 mm diameter stainless steel cables secured every 10 mm 2 Blue and yellow canopy made of Trevira 3 Tensile steel cable tree 4 Main 20 mm diameter stainless steel cables 5 Galvanized steel post supporting the roof canopy

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Isometric drawing

Sectional view

S 1:200

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213

Tents

Community Tent Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 SL-Rasch GmbH Special and Lightweight Structures

Projects

Without artificial cooling technology, a pleasant temperature can only be achieved through the skin by means of evaporation caused by moving air. To accomplish this, the tent is designed so that air can be set into motion via thermal lift by entering the tent through large openings with good-sized upward- and downwardreaching flaps, as well as through a large opening for air in the center of the roof. The roof of the tent is made from a multi-layered membrane and is supported by a steel construction. The outer surface reflects sunlight. It consists of an aluminum-coated fabric mesh that is spanned thirty centimeters above the watertight roof skin. The shade created by the fabric mesh protects the membrane below from the sun’s rays and greatly reduces the build-up of heat. The surface temperature decreases and, consequently, also the warmth under the roof. Moreover, the fabric mesh mitigates the forces of the driving tropical rain on the membrane and hence reduces the level of noise under the spanned roof skin. The center, unshaded, exhaust-hood–shaped membrane forms a structural unit in combination with the skin membrane and serves to equalize the forces. However, it also creates lift in the air under the tent, and serves as a protection against rain for the central area. Six three-legged posts form the steel framework for the 500-square-meter construction. Leveling elements that differ up to fifty centimeters in height have been integrated so that the supporting framework can also be assembled on uneven ground. The construction is raised by means of a central mast, which makes it possible for the tent to be assembled without any need for a crane. After the six tripods and the six outer masts have been anchored with ground nails, the central mast can be removed. The spanning cables on the outer masts include spring elements that compensate for sudden forces created by gusts of wind, which reduces the anchor forces. A floor platform installed under the tent supports the air-cooling concept and protects visitors from ground moisture. The community tent can also be assembled as a single unit; in combination it can form one large, continuous covered space. The straightening straps of the single tents can be attached to each other.

214

Tent isometric drawings

Schematic drawings, phases of installation

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Membrane cap Air inlet Shade-providing mesh Roof skin main membrane, watertight 5 Internal sail

215

Tents

Elevations

No scale

Ground plan

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Projects

Foundation of outer mast Outer anchoring Central mast R6 steel cable l = 14 000 R1 steel cable l = 8 977

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Tent combination

No scale

Detail of mast

S 1:25

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View from outside

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217

1 Polyester fiber membrane, PVC-coated 2 Anchoring 3 Outer mast, tubular steel ø 76.1 and ø 88.8/3.6 mm 4 Footplate, steel plate 8 mm

Tents

Tent Fairgrounds at Möglingshöhe Villingen-Schwenningen, Germany 2010 Siegfried Gass Rasch + Bradatsch

Projects

The tent over the spectator area of the fairground’s square was erected for the Regional Garden Show of Villingen-Schwenningen in 2010. It is now assembled as a summer tent in the spring and taken down again in the autumn, to protect it from the weight of heavy snowfalls that are typical of this region in winter. This is necessary due to the dimensioning of the anchoring, as well as the masts and perimeter details. The form of the prestressed membrane surface is derived from a series of lighter-weight earlier tents that were first developed for the Lehmbau exhibition in Hamburg in 1987, in collaboration with Jürgen Bradatsch. The basic structural principle of these tents is to create anticlastic curved surfaces by means of twisting the angles between the warp and weft fibers, without requiring a cut in the strips of fabric. This means that the surface is assembled from parallel strips of fabric and, by retaining the uncoated fabric’s edging, it is possible to forgo the complex double seam. The course of the parallel seams—whose direction was chosen so that the tension points do not stress one seam alone and thus to avoid a concentration of tension—largely governs the shape of this tent type: the flexibility of angles within the fabric is limited, which is why this type of tent is mainly recommended for lightweight, relatively undramatically modeled tent surfaces in particular. These surfaces are usually very good for conveying prestress and wind forces, but their form is not suitable for large span widths and heavy (snow) loads. The three-dimensional curve of the minimal-surface-designed tent surface is created by the alternating of high and low points along the edge of the membrane. The tent roof surface is also pulled down at four points; this clearly models the surface while controlling the drainage of rainwater. The border details touch on many different span widths of the membrane edges due to their orientation relationship to the stage: the edge forces in the fields lying on the circular ring are conveyed by textile straps sewn under the membrane; in the front-facing larger span widths, the forces from the membrane are conveyed via garland-shaped arranged straps on steel cables. The joint-mounted masts consist of galvanized steel pipes with head and foot areas expanded by means of plates that are formed to comply with the flow of forces. Galvanized steel pipes were also used for the sail to convey the loads to the bolted ground anchors. Funnels made from polycarbonate were suspended under the openings of the low points to lead rainwater directly into the drainage pits, thus contributing to the comfort of spectators.

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Map of the site

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S 1:500

Tents

View

S 1:250

Strips of membrane

Projects

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220

Detail of mast

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1 Drill hole ø 13 mm 2 Border cable 3 Border membrane axis, curved shackle M 22 4 Steel cable DIN EN 12385 GALFAN PG 15 ø 12.2 mm 5 Steel pipes St 355 J2 139.7 X 4 mm 6 Bolts 35 mm X 40 mm, drill hole ø 37 mm 7 Steel pipes St 355 J2 108 mm X 4 mm 8 2 X steel plates St 355 J2 ø 8 mm 9 Steel cable DIN EN 12385 GALFAN PG 15 ø 12.2 mm 10 Strap turnbuckle type 984, curved shackle M 20, stainless steel rust-free 1.4401 11 Ground anchoring for the flagpoles

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Garland-shaped strap

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Joint between the membrane and the mast

Tents

Detail of funnels

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1 Snap hooks 8 X 80, eyebolt M 8, grommet 8.4 X 24 X 2, nut M 8 2 Drill hole ø 10 mm 3 Polycarbonate rainwater funnel

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Projects

222

Polycarbonate rainwater funnel

223

Tents

Climbing Cable West Park Zurich, Switzerland 2002 raderschallpartner landschaftsarchitekten bsla sia with Dr. Lüchinger + Meyer Bauingenieure AG

The commission called for the long, narrow, and deep garden courtyard to play a three-dimensional role, as well as being present on the ground level. However, vegetation forms that were large and tall would have blocked sunlight from reaching the offices, making such vegetation forms an inappropriate solution for the spatial situation. This gave rise to the idea of designing the space with climbing plants trained on a delicate construction. The harp-like, reverse funnelshaped cable construction was developed from work models. In order to enhance the spatial effect, the cable levels were twisted by a diagonally spanned primary cable. The vertical climbing plant surface curls in the air and extends above the viewer. The courtyard is intended to be a small oasis for both employees and visitors. The blooming perennial border, the baroque colorful framework of hortensia, and the three splashing fountains create a peaceful, relaxed garden atmosphere under the awning of greenery.

↑ View from the offices to the garden courtyard

Projects

224

Ground plan

S 1:200

Details A B

S 1:10 1 Clamping device with grouted bracket 2 Light clamping ring (climbing rungs) 3 Climbing cable, cord ø 8 mm 4 Bracket, grouted 5 Clamping ring, with mounting link 6 Supporting cable, cord ø 26 mm 7 Bracket, CNS, anchored in concrete 8 Concrete element 9 Counterpart for socket with nut, CNS 10 Steel plate, ø 25 mm 11 Shear connector 12 Top ceiling, reinforced concrete 13 Outer side of the finished facade

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Steel Grids City Park St. Gallen, Switzerland 2007 raderschallpartner landschaftsarchitekten bsla sia with Dr. Lüchinger + Meyer Bauingenieure AG

The Untere Brühl is a part of St. Gallen City Park: a very old commons with a rich history. It was originally common land, then became a private garden that was gradually partitioned into smaller sections. Numerous buildings were added to the site over time, a common occurrence for many similar parks at the time, and especially since the nineteenth century. Museums, a school, an opera house, a concert hall, and a underground parking garage were built in the park, which divided the grounds into various sections. The Untere Brühl area comprises sections of the concert hall garden and the Blumenau, which belongs to the canton school. After a second underground parking garage was built in the middle of this decade, the Blumenau was completely reconstructed and the concert hall redesigned. The designs were based on a master plan from 2005, which considered the two, very different parts of the park as one unit. Playgrounds were built on top of the underground parking garage to be used for school recess, play, and sports periods. New paths were laid in the concert hall garden, the "parterre" in front of the concert hall was designed to include a fountain, and new plants and flowers were planted along the edges and on the playground. A linear pergola construction serves as a porous, transparent partition between the two park areas. There is an exciting arrangement of triangle-shaped posts that support and carry steel nets and guide them across the structure. The interplay of technical structure and climbing vegetation creates a vertical plant sculpture.

↑ Porous, transparent partition of both park units by means of the linear climbing construction

Projects

226

Sectional view

S 1:100

Top view

9

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1 Supports 2 Brace 3 Vertical cable ø 12 mm toggle 4 Horizontal cable ø 16 mm toggle 5 Webnet 6 Foundation 7 Diagonal cable ø 16 mm toggle 8 End plate 9 Support heads

227

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Cables

Sectional view a-a and b-b

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Detail A and B

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Projects

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228

Detail C

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1 Supports 2 Brace 3 Vertical cable ø 12 mm toggle 4 Foundation 5 Clamping device 6 Connection plates 7 Support plates 8 Delta plates 9 Toggle 10 Union nut 11 Bearing block 12 Head plate 13 IPE 400 14 Footplate 15 Bracket

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Triangle-shaped posts support and span the steel cable nets and guide it across the structure.

229

Cables

Eagle SA Eagle Plaza, Johannesburg, South Africa 2001 GREENinc

The site of this project is the part of the Hollard Street Mall that faces the head office of SA Eagle, our client through Project Logics. SA Eagle had made the decision to remain in the centre of Johannesburg, standing against the tide of émigrés to Sandton. They had appointed Project Logics to oversee the renovation of the interior of their building, and asked that firm to appoint landscape architects to try to deal with the urban decay that surrounded it. At the time of our appointment, the Hollard Street Mall was not what it had once been. The old water features were no longer functional. Standing empty, they were graffiti-covered eyesores, their tiles lifting, and their waterproofing peeling away. The sidewalks had buckled, and some slabs had cracked. Our brief was to upgrade the space entirely. The client, SA Eagle, wanted to express their corporate identity of an eagle in the new square in some way, but the landscape architects were reluctant to brand the space too obviously. The concept developed by artist Marco Cianfanelli subtly brings an eagle into the square without the need for a corporate logo. The shadow of the eagle is best viewed from SA Eagle’s office windows above. It narrows and widens again through the day, just as a real bird turning in flight appears to do. At ground level in the square, the steel sculpture that casts the shadow has a visual dynamic of its own. A panel of sandstone tiles provides the canvas for the shadow sculpture, set off from the surrounding cobblestone paving of the rest of the square. A concrete surface bed under the tiles provides the foundation for the sculpture, which consists of numerous 50-millimeterdiameter capped black powder-coated hollow mild steel tubes, spaced 100 millimeters apart. A tem-plate was plotted from a CAD drawing prepared from the artist’s hand sketches, and cores for the tubes were then drilled into the tiled surface bed overnight. The steel tubes were attached with epoxy and held in place with a timber jig until the epoxy dried.

↑ View of the sculpture from the pedestrian's perspective → View from the SA Eagle building

Projects

230

Presentation plan

231

No scale

Art

ShinYatsushiro Monument Yatsushiro, Kumamoto, Japan 2004 Kumiko Inui

Projects

This is a monument made for the public plaza in front of a newly constructed Bullet Train Station. "It is a very Japanese thing. The government loves to construct monuments when something happens. In this case the government wanted to celebrate the newly constructed bullet train and bullet train station. In Kumamoto prefecture, where this monument is situated, there is a very prestigious design committee called Kumamoto Artpolis. The chair of this committee at that time was Mr. Toyo Ito. Mr. Ito creatively misread what the city government wanted and asked us to design a monument with some expectation that we would not make a simple monument. So we made a kind of gazebo which can be also called a monument of sculpture." — Kumiko Inui The monument has a house-shaped silhouette and has numerous holes perforating the walls and roof. The size of the holes is varied. When the monument is viewed from a distance, only the bigger holes are recognized and they look like ordinary windows. As a result, the monument looks much like one of the houses in a typical country landscape. However, when it is viewed from close up, the appearance changes. All the holes combine to give a kind of insubstantial quality to the monument. The features change with the viewing distance. Each wall, as well as the roof, is a glass-reinforced concrete plane punctured with square holes. Glass Reinforced Concrete uses Alkali Resistant glass fibers for reinforcement rather than the traditional steel. The fact that the fibres will not rust like steel means that there is no real requirement for "cover" or coatings and no problems associated with the lack of them. Thus it is possible to make lightweight elements that have impressive structural qualities, yet save up to around 65 to 75 percent of the weight of a solid unit.

232

Ground plan

S 1:50

Isometric drawing

Projects

234

Elevations

S 1:100 1 A plate bearing an inscription in honor of the contributor, 560 X 560 mm 2 A plate bearing an inscription in honor of Kumamoto Artpoli 300 X 300 mm

1 2

235

Art

Landmarks Drylands, Chile 2007 Ronald Hernández, Marcelo Valdes, Osvaldo Véliz, School of Architecture, Universidad de Talca

"Landmark," the work by R. Hernández, M. Valdés, and O. Véliz presented here, is the outcome of the process by which the three obtained their architect´s diplomas at the School of Architecture, Universidad de Talca in Chile. The process included all phases, from design and management to actually building a work of architecture which contributes to the public good. "Landmark" traces a route through the coastal mountain range that has the Pacific Ocean on the west and the Central Valley on the east, using existing ancient paths that are the only infrastructure for connectivity in this area called the drylands. The project consists of seven modules built at intervals along the route, each module acting as a device for orientation and a resting area for tourists. A landmark is created by the presence of each module, located at points where the route changes or crosses a path, defining a new territory. Beyond being a guide, each landmark creates conditions for a short rest, offers the tourist the possibility of getting in touch with the people living in the surrounding area, and defines a sort of public space where those people can meet. The material used for the structures was selected in such a way as to give back to the region the wood that is produced through forestry in the area. Keeping a balance between costs and materials, it was decided to use (recycle) pieces of wood discarded by industries located in the surrounding areas, wood that ordinarily might be burned for heat. The dimension of such pieces, the bigger pieces about 50 centimeters in length, was taken as a condition for design. Thus, the structure of the box structure (named Bräckzen), is shaped like an irregular web. In all, 3,300 small modules were constructed in order to build the structures, with an average of 13,600 cuts. At the center of each box, a furniture piece is positioned (called a Störken), which defines the inhabitable space. Each of these pieces is placed in a way that relates to the function it is going to serve, depending on the location of the module along the route. The Störken is built out of small pieces of wood, glued together and shaped to obtain the necessary curvature for comfort.

↑ Landmark on the pathway → Landmark also a bench

Projects

236

Isometric drawing

237

Art

Elevation

S 1:100

Longitudinal section

S 1:50 1 "Störken" (laminated wood) 2 Wooden construction built from discarded cut wood 3 Wooden subconstruction (pine) 2.54 X 10.16 cm

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2

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Division of the wooden module

Projects

Furniture variations

238

Cross section

S 1:20 1 Wooden construction 2.54 X 7.62 cm–2.54 X 10.16 cm, 5.08 cm nails 2 Threaded bolt with base with washer and nut 3 Concrete foundation 0.6 X 0.4 X 0.4 m 4 Foundation of gravel/sand

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4

Top view

239

S 1:50

Art

Pergola of the Deserter Cologne, Germany 2009 Ruedi Baur in teamwork with Denis Coueignoux and Stefanie-Vera Kockot

"Homage to the soldiers who refused to shoot the soldiers who refused to shoot the people who refused to kill the people who refused to torture the people who refused to denounce the people who refused to brutalize the people who refused to discriminate against the people who refused to laugh at the people who stood for solidarity and civil courage when the majority of the people kept silent and followed." This memorial is located at Appellhofplatz in Cologne and pays homage to the soldiers of the Second World War who were convicted of desertion and executed because they refused to comply with Germany’s war of destruction. The memorial was designed by Ruedi Baur, an artist residing in France and Switzerland. The memorial is not situated on a monumental structure, but on a simple one, and it was this aspect of the design that convinced the competition’s jury. The threemeter-tall metal framework is covered with a roof consisting of colorful text that displays the above passage. The text forms a network of colorful letters through which the viewer can see the sky. The memorial for the victims of the Nazi military police is constructed from two elements: the supporting structure and the text passage. The supporting frame is made from 100 X 100 and 100 X 50 millimeter steel profiles. The overall structure is double galvanized and finished with a powder coating. The color reference is RAL 7040. The text passage consists of sandcast aluminum. The inside surfaces of the letters are hand painted.

↑ Hand-painted inner surfaces of the letters → Shadow thrown by the text → → View from below to the text passage of the memorial

Projects

240

Top view

S 1:50

Side view

S 1:50

Projects

242

Front view

S 1:50 1 Linkage rod suspension 2 Detail of support foundation 3 Square steel profile, 100 X 100 mm, painted 4 Paving 5 Anchoring

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Text

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Detail of support foundation

S 1:20

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243

Art

Biographies Julia Burbulla Sciences) in Rapperswil, Department of Landscape Architecture. Born 1971 in Hagen. Studied art history, philosophy, and history in 2010 founded Kienastland GmbH and teaches garden and landsBochum and Bonn. 2001 received her Magistra Artium (M.A.). 2008 cape architecture at the university. graduated from the Bern University. Since 2005 has worked as a research assistant at the GTLA Institut für Geschichte und Theorie der Hans-Joachim Liesecke Landschaftsarchitektur (Institute for History and Theory of Land- Born 1931 in Halberstadt, Germany. 1954–1959 studied land conserscape Architecture), department of garden art and culture, HSR vation at the University of Applied Sciences in Hanover, focus on Hochschule für Technik (University of Applied Sciences) in Rapperswil. green planning, degree. 1959–1970 research assistant at the Institut für Grünplanung und Gartenarchitektur (Institute for Green PlanNancy Yen-wen Cheng ning and Garden Architecture) at the TH/TU Hannover under Prof. Born 1960 in St. Louis. 1983 B.A in architecture and mechanical en- W. Lendholt. 1960–1971 part-time freelance planner and designer. gineering at Yale University. 1990 M.Arch. at Harvard Graduate 1970 graduation, senior assistant at the same institution. 1981–1984 School of Design. 1983–93 worked in Boston architectural offices. professor and head of the Institut für Landschaftsbau (Institute 1993–96 Lecturer at the University of Hong Kong. Since 1996, teaching for Landscape Architecture) at Geisenheim research center. 1984 at the University of Oregon. 2009 began directing the Oregon professor of technical-constructive basics of open space planning Department of Architecture’s Portland Program. Emphasis: digital in the Department of Landscape Architecture and Environmental media and design process. Development at Hannover University. 1993 retired, until 2010 freelance research and development work. Markus Fierz Born 1966 in Stäfa, Switzerland. 1993 received his Master of GardenPeter Petschek ing and Landscape Architecture degree. 1993–1999 worked at a Born 1959 in Bamberg, Germany. 1979–1985 studied at the Technical landscape architecture practice in Winthertur. 1999–2008 member University in Berlin (B.Sc. Landscape Planning). 1985–1987 studied at of the management at Raderschall Landscape Architects AG in Louisiana State University, USA (MLA, Master of Landscape ArchiMeilen. 1999–2002 landscape architecture project leader for the tecture). 1987–1996 worked at several landscape architecture practiMFO Park in Zurich. Since 2008, managing director partner at rader- ces in the USA, Germany, and Switzerland. Since 1991, professor in the schallpartner ag landschaftsarchitekten bsla sia in Meilen. Department of Landscape Architecture, HSR Hochschule für Technik (University of Applied Sciences) in Rapperswil, focus on implementaSiegfried Gass tion planning, landscape modeling, and information technology. Born 1955 in Albstadt, Germany. 1976–1984 studied architecture at Stuttgart University. 1978 studied at the Royal Academy of Fine Maja Tobler Arts in Copenhagen. 1984–1990 research assistant at the Institute Born 1973 in Guararapes, Brazil. 1991–1994 studied garden architecfor Lightweight Structures at Stuttgart University under Prof. Frei ture at the GSO Kantonale Gartenbauschule (Canton Garden ArchiOtto. 1990 graduated and founded his architecture practice focused tecture School) in Oeschberg. 1998–2003 studied landscape archion lightweight structures. 1990–1993 freelance assistant at the tecture at the HSR Hochschule für Technik (University of Applied plus^+ architectural practice of Prof. Peter Hübner, focus on buil- Sciences) in Rapperswil. 2006–2008 studied business administrading with children and youth. Since 1995, Professor of Structural tion at the SIU Schweizerisches Institut für Unternehmerschulung Design and Design at the Nürtingen–Geislingen University for Econo- (Swiss Institute for Management Training) in Zurich. 2003 founded my and Environment. her own practice for landscape architecture in Zurich. Since 2006, managing director and owner of Tobler Landschaftsarchitekten AG Joachim B. Kieferle in Haldenstein. Since 2007, teaching in the Department of Land­ Born 1963 in Stuttgart, Germany. 1984–1992 studied architecture scape Architecture at the HSR Hochschule für Technik in Rapperswil. and urban planning at Stuttgart University. Until 1995, research Focus on knowledge of plants. assistant in practices in the United States, Saudi Arabia, Germany, Olivier Zuber and Switzerland. Since 1995, Kieferle & Benk architectural practice. 1995–2002 research assistant at IGP, Stuttgart University. Since Born 1975 in Chur, Switzerland. 1991–1995 studied garden architec2002, Professor of Architecture and Civil Engineering at the Rhein- ture at the GSO Kantonale Gartenbauschule (Canton Garden ArchiMain University of Applied Sciences in the Department of Computer- tecture School) in Oeschberg. 1998–2003 studied landscape architecture at the HSR Hochschule für Technik (University of Applied Aided Design and Visualization. Sciences) in Rapperswil. 2006–2008 studied business administration at the SIU Schweizerisches Institut für Unternehmerschulung Fabienne Kienast Weber Born 1973 in Zurich, Switzerland. 1995–2002 studied architecture at (Swiss Institute for Management Training) in Zurich. 2003 founded the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich. 2002 re- his own practice for landscape architecture in Zurich. Since 2005, ceived his degree in architecture. 2002–2007 worked in a landscape managing director and owner of Zuber Aussenwelten AG in Domat/ practice and gardening business. Since 2005, freelancer at the ETH Ems. Since 2010, teaching at the GSO Kantonale Gartenbauschule in Zurich and at the HSR Hochschule für Technik (University of Applied Oeschberg, focus on designing with plants.

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Biographies

Sources and Bibliography Essays "Plants — Shadow" 8‒11 — Literature • Hélène Binet, Ulrike Brandi, Raoul Bunschoten, Peter Cachola Schmal, Ingeborg Flagge, Christoph Geissmar-Brandi, Deutsches Architektur Museum (eds.): Das Geheimnis des Schattens – Licht und Schatten in der Architektur (The secret of shadow — light and shadow in architecture), Tübingen 2002. • Rainer Bunge: Machbarkeitsstudie "Abgasreinigung mittels Pflanzen" (Feasibility study "Exhaust gas treatment through plants"), Rapperswil 2008. • David Burnie: Pflanzen (Plants), Munich 2008. • Roberto Casati: Die Entdeckung des Schattens (The secret of shadows), Berlin 2001. • Matthias Götz , Bruno Haldner, Matthias Buschle: Schatten, Schatten. Der Schatten – das älteste Medium der Welt (Shadows, shadows — the oldest medium in the world), Basel 2003. • Krebsliga Schweiz (ed.): Sonnenschutz. Eine Information der Krebsliga (Sun protection. Information from the Krebsliga), Bern 2009. • H. Joachim Schlichting: "Sonnentaler fallen nicht vom Himmel" ("Sun spots do not fall from the sky"), in: MNU Zeitschrift 48/4, Neuss 1995, pp. 199–207. • Herbert Sukopp, Rüdiger Wittig (eds.): Stadtökologie (Urban ecology), Stuttgart 1998. • Lorenz von Ehren: Lorenz von Ehren, Hamburg 2000. "Constructive Design of Small Buildings" 12‒21 — Literature • Bert Bielefeld, Sebastian El Khouli: Basics Design Ideas, Basel, Boston, Berlin 2007. • Francis D.K. Ching: Architecture: Form, Space, and Order, Wiley; 2nd ed. 1996. • Heino Engel: Structure Systems, Stuttgart 2007. • Franco Fonatti: Elementare Gestaltungsprinzipien in der Architektur (Elementary design principles of architecture), Wien 1982.

• Kurt W. Forster: Lehrmittel für die Architektur- und Kunstgeschichte (Educational material for architecture and art history) for the Department of Architecture at the ETH Zurich, 2nd-year course, Zurich 1996/97. • Elisabeth Kieven: Römische Architekturzeichnungen des Barock: Von Bernini bis Piranesi (Baroque Roman architectural drawings: from Bernini to Piranesi), exhibition catalog of the drawing and print collection of the Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart 1993, pp. 8–26. • Otto Künzle: Tragkonstruktionen I, 1. Jahreskurs (Vorlesungsskript), (Building Structures I [lecture notes], 1st-year course), Chair of Building Structures, ETH Zurich 2003. • Le Corbusier: Modulor, Harvard University Press, 1980. • Peter Lorenz: Entwerfen. 25 Architekten – 25 Standpunkte (Design. 25 architects — 25 points of view), Munich 2004. • Katharina Medici-Mall: Im Durcheinandertal der Stile (In the valley of design confusion), Basel, Boston, Berlin 1998. • Werner Oechslin: "The WellTempered Sketch," in: Daidalos, Berlin 1982, pp. 99–112. • Frei Otto, Institut für leichte Flächentragwerke IL: Vela, Toldos, Schattenzelte. Sun & Shade, vol. 30, Stuttgart 1984. • Daniel Roehr, Gundula Proksch: "Die Handskizze… back in business" (The freehand sketch … back in business), in: Gartenund Landschaft, Munich 2008. • Association of German Engineers: VDI guideline 2222, VDI manual Product Engineering and Design, Berlin, Cologne 1982. "Shade-providing Small Buildings" 44‒49 — Credits Ill. 1: Chambers 1759, table 1 Ill. 2: Boitard 1846, p. 50 Ill. 3: Lambert 1905, p. 133 Ill. 4: Lambert 1905, p. 128 Ill. 5: © Julia Burbulla 2010 Ill. 6: Lambert 1905, p. 114 Ill. 7: Lambert 1905, p. 118 Ill. 8: Gründling 1900, table 9 Ill. 9: art, Heft 1, 2010, p. 72 Ill. 10: Boitard 1846, p. 53 Ill. 11: Schulze 2006, p. 163

Literature • Anonymous: "Garten (Garden)" in: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Vereinigung für Heimatschutz (Magazine for the Swiss association for protection of cultural heritage), issue 4, 1908, pp. 25–28. • Yvonne Boerlin-Brodbeck: "Chinoiserien in der deutschsprachigen Schweiz (Chinoiserie in German-speaking Switzerland)" in: China in der Schweiz. Zwei Kulturen in Kontakt (China in Switzerland. Two cultures in contact), ed. Paul Hugger, Zurich 2005, pp. 27–40. • Pierre Boitard: L' Art de composer et décorer les jardins (The art of composing and decorating the garden), Paris 1846. • Karl Viktor von Bonstetten: "Über die Gartenkunst, besonders in Rücksicht auf nördliche Lande" (On garden design, with a focus on Nordic countries), in: Der neue Teutsche Merkur (The new German Mercury), 1800, pp. 20–37, pp. 110–130, and pp. 183–207. • Till Briegleb: "Architekt der guten Gefühle" (Feel good architecture), in: art, issue 1, 2010, pp. 68–73. • Markus Brüderlin (ed.): ArchiSculpture, Ostfildern 2004. • Edmund Burke: A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, 1757. • Robert Castell: The Villas of the Ancients Illustrated, London 1728. • William Chambers: A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture, London 1759. • Richard Chandler, Nicholas Revett, William Pars: Ionian Antiquities, London 1769. • Marie Louise Gothein: Geschichte der Gartenkunst (The history of garden design), vol. 2, 1977, pp. 319–361. • Johann Gottfried Grohmann: Ideenmagazin für Liebhaber von Gärten, englischen Anlagen, und für Besitzer von Gärten [...] (Magazine of ideas for garden lovers), Leipzig 1796–1806. • Roland Gross: "Schweizerische Gartenbau-Ausstellung 1959 in Zürich" (Swiss garden exhibition 1959 in Zurich), in: Das Werk, 1959, issue 5, p. 343–350.

• Paul Gründling: Neue GartenArchitekturen (New garden architecture), Leipzig 1900. • Christian Cay Lorenz Hirschfeld: Theorie der Gartenkunst (Theory of Garden Design), five volumes in two units (1779–1784), Hildesheim, New York 1985. • Penelope Hobhouse: An Illustrated History of Plants and Their Influence on Garden Styles — from Ancient Egypt to the Present, New York 1993. • John Dixon Hunt: The Picturesque Garden in Europe, London 2002. • Ernst Jung (ed.): Kleine Kulturgeschichte der Haut (A short history of the skin), Darmstadt 2007. • Doris Kolesch: Theater der Emotionen. Ästhetik und Politik zur Zeit Ludwig XIV. (Theater of emotions, aesthetics, and politics during the reign of Ludwig XIV), Frankfurt 2006. • Johann Georg Krünitz: Oeconomische Encyclopädie, oder allgemeines System der LandHaus- und Staats-Wirthschaft, in alphabetischer Ordnung (Economical encyclopedia, or an alphabetized general system of the country, house, and city economy), Berlin 1773–1858. • Hanno-Walter Kruft: Geschichte der Architekturtheorie (The history of architectural theory), Munich 2004. • André Lambert: Die Gartenarchitektur (Garden architecture), Leipzig 1905. • Günter Mader: Gartenkunst des 20. Jahrhunderts. Gartenund Landschaftsarchitektur in Deutschland (Garden design in the 20th century. Garden and landscape architecture), Stuttgart 1999. • Meyers Konversationslexikon, volume 26, Leipzig 1888. • Caroline Rolka: Historische Kleinarchitekturen in Sachsen. Eine Untersuchung zur Baukonstruktion und der Materialverwendung im Garten- und Landschaftsbau (Historical small architecture in Saxony. A study of construction and use of material in garden and landscape architecture), Berlin 2007. • Willy Rotzler: "Kunst im Grünraum" (Art in green spaces), in: Das Werk, 1959, issue 5, pp. 351–356.

• Joseph Rykwert: Adams Haus im Paradies. Die Urhütte von der Antike bis Le Corbusier (Adam's house in paradise. The primitive hut from antiquity to Le Corbusier), Berlin 2005. • Peter Cachola Schmal: Der Pavillon. Lust und Polemik in der Architektur (The pavilion, desire and polemics in architecture), Ostfildern 2009. • Sabine Schulze: Gärten. Ordnung, Inspiration, Glück (Gardens: order, inspiration, happiness), Ostfildern 2006. • Hans Peter Treichler: Die Schweiz um die Jahrhundertwende (Switzer­land at the turn of the century), Zurich 1985. • Gabriele Uerscheln und Michaela Kalusok: Kleines Wörterbuch der europäischen Gartenkunst (A concise dictionary of European garden design), Stuttgart 2001. • Vitruvius: De architectura libri decem / The Ten Books on Architecture, London 2001. • Johann Heinrich Zedler: Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon aller Wissenschaften und Künste (The great complete universal lexicon of all sciences and arts), volume 64, Halle, Leipzig, 1732–1754. • Anthos, issue 1, Zurich 1962. • Anthos, issue 2, Zurich 1966. • art, issue 1, Hamburg 2010. • Das Werk, issue 10, Zurich 1939. • Das Werk, issue 5, Zurich 1959. • Heimatschutz, issue 4, Bern 1908. • Ideales Heim, issue 4, Winterthur 1942. • Ideales Heim, issue 2, Winterthur 1950. • Schweizer Garten und Wohnkultur, issue 5, Münsingen 1959. "Shade-providing Tents" 58‒71 — Credits © Jürgen Bradatsch: Ill. 32, 33, 34, 35, 47, 49 © Siegfried Gass: Ill. 11, 15, 31, 37, 45, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 © IL-Archiv: Ill. 1, 3 © IL-Archiv Klaus Bach: Ill. 6, 17 © R. Larry Medlin: Ill. 23, 39 © Frei Otto: Ill. 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 42 © Peter Petschek: Ill. 2

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Plants

Projects

Credits © Dalgial: Growth Campsis grandi­flora, 84 © Alexander Dunkel: Growth Actinidia deliciosa, 76 © Markus Fierz: Growth Aristolochia macrophylla, 80; Growth Rosa filipes, 106; Growth Wisteria sinensis, 114 © Forest & Kim Starr, www.hear.org/starr/: Growth Ficus, 93 © Wouter Hagens: Actinidia deliciosa blossom, 77 © Rob Hille: Actinidia deliciosa leaf, 77 © HSR Hochschule für Technik Rapperswil, Giardina 2009: Growth Humulus lupulus, 96

Credits © Daichi Ano: 232, 233 © Iwan Baan: 192 left, 193 © Domagoj Blazevic: 140, 141 © Garret Eckbo Collection (1990‑1) Environmental Design Archives, University of California, Berkeley: 122, 123 © Damir Fabijanic: 142 © Stefan Jetzer: 164 © Milo Keller: 186 © Aaron Kiley: 128, 129 © Jörn Neumann: 241 © Peter Petschek: 126, 189, 192 right, 197, 212 right © Veronica Restrepo: 176 © Roberto Rovira: 155 © Francisco E. Samper Vidal: 130, 133 © Kyal Sheehan: 144 © Hisao Suzuki: 212 left © Simon Wood: 145 © Hans Wüthrich: 136, 139 © Vince Yauger: 148, 149 © Blanca Zuñiga & José Luis Uribe: 236

All other illustrations: © Maja Tobler and Olivier Zuber Literature • W. Erhardt, E. Götz, N. Bödeker, S. Seybold: Zander, Handwörterbuch der Pflanzennamen (Zander, portable dictionary of plant names), 17th edition, Stuttgart 2002. • W. Erhardt, E. Götz, N. Bödeker, S. Seybold: Der grosse Zander, Enzyklopädie der Pflanzennamen (The big Zander, encyclopedia of plant names), volume 1 and 2, Stuttgart 2008. • H. Lorenzi, H. Moreiera de Souza: Plantas ornamentais no Brasil, arbustivas, herbaceas e trepadeisas, 3rd edition, 2001. • M. Penny: Botanica Rosen (Botanical roses), Potsdam 2006. • H.D. Warda: Das große Buch der Garten- und Landschaftsgehölze (The big book of garden and landscaping plants), 2nd edition, Bad Zwischenahn 2002.

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Copyrigth for all other pictures rests with the respective author, architect or landscape architect. We have made every effort to identify and quote the copyright holders of all illustrations. Where this was not possible, we ask the copyright holders to contact the publishers.

Literature • Christian Brensing: "Silberlache", db Deutsche Bauzeitung, 09/2009 • Martina Düttmann, Friederike Schneider: Morris Lapidus. The Architect of the American Dream, Basel, Berlin, Boston 1992. • Peter Petschek: Grading for Landscape Architects and Architects, Basel, Boston, Berlin 2008

Sources / Bibliography

The editors would like to thank the following people and institutions for their financial and expert support. Sponsorship: University of Applied Sciences Rapperswil Department of Landscape Architecture ILF Institute for Landscape and Open Space Jardin Suisse Fa. Jakob AG Expertise: Angel Ayon, Gian Hirt, Prof. Dr. Albin Kenel, Roger Lehmann, Thomas Nideroest, Assistant Professor Roberto Rovira, Marcel Schnyder, Laura Schwerzmann, Peter Würmli GTLA, gtla.hsr.ch Texts: Julia Burbulla, Nancy Yen-wen Cheng, Markus Fierz, Siegfried Gass, Joachim Kieferle, Fabienne Kienast, Hans-Joachim Liesecke, Peter Petschek, Maja Tobler, and Olivier Zuber Translation from German into English: Laura Bruce Copy editing, proofreading: Susan James Editorial office, typesetting: Véronique Hilfiker Durand Layout, cover design, typography: Kathrin Krell, Julia Kind A CIP catalogue record is available from the Library of Congress, Washington D.C., USA. Bibliographic information published by the German National Library The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained. This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 978-3-0346-0713-1). © 2011 Birkhäuser GmbH, Basel P.O. Box, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp. TCF ∞ Printed in Spain ISBN 978-3-0346-0714-8 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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