Conflict and Enmity in the Asaph Psalms: Dissertationsschrift 9783161620416

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DAVID CAMERON RAY

Conflict and Enmity in the Asaph Psalms

Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe 145

Mohr Siebeck

Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe

Edited by Corinna K6rting (Hamburg) . Konrad Schmid (Zurich) Mark S. Smith (Princeton) . Andrew Teeter (Harvard)

145

David Cameron Ray

Conflict and Enmity in the Asaph Psalms

Mohr Siebeck

David Cameron Ray, born 1972; 2021 PhD in Old Testament (Australian College of Theology); Tutor of Old Testament Studies at Ridley College, Melbourne. orcid.orgI0000-000 34092-7225

ISBN 978-3-16-162041-6/eISBN 978-3-16-162571-8 DOl 10 .1628/978-3-16-162571-8 ISSN 1611-4914/ e1SSN 2568-8367 (Forschungen zum AIten Testament, 2. Reihe) The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbiblio­ graphie; detailed bibliographic data are available at https./ldnb.de.

© 2023 Mohr Siebeck Tiibingen, Germany.

www.mohrsiebeck.com

This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that per­ mitted by copyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies parti­ cularly to reproductions, translations and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was printed on non-aging paper by Laupp & Gobel in Gomaringen and bOlllld by Buchbinderei Nadele in Nehren. Printed in Germany.

To my family and myforebears

Preface [...j aeterna pacta perpetuae salutis neglegan! { ..} quasi vera quemlibet inimicum hominem perniciosius sentiat quam ipsum odium, quo in eum irritatur, aut vastet quisquam perse­ quendo alium gravius, quam cor suum vasta! inimicando. (StAugusfine a/Hippo, Confessiones, Liber 1, Caput 18) My paraphrase: "[. . . ] neglecting the eternal covenant of everlasting salvation [ . . . ] It is as if humanity senses that there is an enemy more destructive than its O\VIl hatred, or as ifhuman­ ity could destroy the enemy even more completely than it destroys itself through that same hatred."

This publication resulted from the pursuit of an eclectic mix of interests in Biblical Hebrew, Hebrew poetry, Ge nTIan studies, syntax, semantics, discourse analysis and, above all, the notion of the enemy. The enemy in the Psalter is a fascinating yet elusive figure, presented only through the subjective depictions of the psalmists in their contexts. Notwithstanding this limitation, the psalms as poetic texts are rich with semiotic, semantic and syntactic ambiguity and ripe for exploring power relations between the people, their opponents and their God. Having concentrated on Book III of the Psalter during graduate stud­ ies, the Asaph Psalms became the natural corpus for research. The dissertation corn bines a close reading of the Hebrew and Greek texts and a discourse ana­ lytical framework built on semantic roles with an eye to the process of conflict and the state of enmity. At examination, it was highlighted that narrativisation is evident in the dissertation. This publication then adds a further sub-chapter on the henneneutic approach toward the Asaph Psalms as a collection and an Appendix outlining a theory on the possible semantic shift of an oblique yet prominent term, especially in the Asaph Psalms - nsh. I would like to express my profound thanks to those who directly supported me in completing my doctoral dissertation. First, I am most grateful for the encouragement and gentle steering of my principal supervisor Rev. Dr Lindsay Wilson, who never gave easy answers but with great wisdom teased me into becoming a researcher, and for the constructive and helpful guidance of co­ supervisor Rev. Dr Jill Firth and temporary supervisor Dr Andrew Malone. Second, my thanks to the faculty members, Anglican Institute supervisors, li­ brarians, and Registry staff of Ridley College, Melbourne, who were patient with me as I struggled through theological and pastoral studies. Third, einen ganz herzlichen Dank an meinen deutschen (noch besser, schweizerischen/)

VIII

Preface

Doktorvater, Prof. Martin Leuenberger, for graciously facilitating and oversee­ ing my research and involvement with the cohort of Hebrew Bible Doktoranden during my time at the University of Tubingen, Germany, in 2016 as well as its Welcome Centerjur intemationale Forschende and the librarians at its Theologicum. Fourth, thanks to the Australian and New Zealand Associ­ ation of Theological Studies (ANZATS) for the award for my first paper de­ livered at its 2019 Auckland Conference and for publishing it in its journal Colloquium: The Australian and New Zealand Theological Review. Fifth, many thanks to my pastor and friend Rev. Dr Mark Durie for his frank feedback and lessons on writing with clarity and Lisa Neale for taking on the unenviable role of copy-editor. Sixth, I express great appreciation to my examiners, namely Rev. Dr David John Cohen (Vose Seminary, Perth, Australia), Rev. Dr David Firth (Trinity College, Bristol, UK), and Dr Beat Weber (Basel, Swit­ zerland). In particular, Dr Firth's monograph Surrendering Retribution and Dr Weber's dissertation and numerous articles on the Asaph Psalms as well as his post-examination encouragement have inspired my research efforts. Finally, my profound appreciation for all at Mohr Siebeck for considering my disserta­ tion for this series and for their guidance and patience during the editing pro­ cess. Many others supported me through this very difficult period in my life. First, my lecturers and tutors in the Department of Languages, Literatures, Cultures and Linguistics at Monash University, Melbourne. Second, noch einen ganz herzlichen Dank an Elke und Gunter aus dem Kreis B6blingen for looking after me during my stays in Baden-Wurttemberg and fostering my understanding of German language and culture. Lastly, I am most grateful for the patient endur­ ance of my family and friends and especially of my immediate family, Rev. Suzie Ray and children Grace and Lydia, who gave up so much family time to enable me to focus on my studies and to whom I firstly dedicate this publica­ tion. As a final note, it is most fitting to also dedicate this thesis to my forebears, for it is about how future generations mirror their foibles. Yet each of my fore­ bears demonstrated strong faith in very different ways as an example to follow: my father Peter and mother Hilary by supporting me as I gave it all up on a whim yet still believing in me; my paternal grandmother Phyllis for praying for me daily and grandfather Fred for his earnest trust in the betterment of things; my maternal grandmother Phyllis for her gentleness and patience and grandfather Teddy, who would have loved the opportunity to undertake study of the Hebrew Bible but instead had to build houses, including the one I sold to pay for my doctoral research. My forebears laid down their tools and left them for me to build a new house. And now I shall "stoop and build 'em up with worn-out tools" (Kipling, If-).

Table of Contents

Preface VII Table of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XVI Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XVII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 1: Introduction

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

1 . 1 Research Objective ................................................................................. 1 1.2 Literature Survey .................................................................................... 7 1.2.1 1 . 2.2 1 . 2.3

Composition, Traditions, and Collectivisation o f AP Conflict as the Central Motif of AP Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 12 ......... 16

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..

Chapter 2 : Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7

2. 1 A Perceived Gap - Conflict and Enmity in th e AP-Collection ............... 1 7 2.2 Conflict and Enmity .............................................................................. 20 2.2.1 2.2.2

Conflict and Enmity in the Psalms Identity and Character of the Opponent

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . 20 25

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3 Relational cathetii................................................................................. 29 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4

Opponent-Collective cathetus Opponent-God cathetus Collective-God cathetus Summary of Relational cathetii

34 35 . . . . . . . . . 35 36

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4 Reading AP as the AP-Collection.......................................................... 37 2.5 Synopsis ofMethodology....................................................................... 43 2. 6 Introduction to Conflict and Enmity in the AP-Collection ..................... 43

x

Table a/Contents

Chapter 3: Theological Problem - Divine Absence and Opponent Presence CP I a") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3. 1 Psalm 73 ............................................................................................... 48 3.1.1 3 . 1 .2 3 . 1 .3 3 . 1 .4 3 . 1 .5 3 . 1 .6

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Contested Object - Well-Being of the Opponent (vv l -3) . Why the Opponent Should Not be Prosperous (vv4-12) . . . . . . . . . . Confusion Resolved by Focusing on the Opponent (vv 13-1 7) . Divine Vengeance as Precursor to Praise (vvI 8-28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50 52 53 56 59 62

3.2 Psalm 74 ............................................................................................... 63 3.2.1 3.2.2

3.2.3

3.2.4

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Pity and Shame before God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2.1 Stage I - the Opponent who Seeks to be God (vv l-8) 3.2.2.2 Stage 2 - Memories of Divine Order (vv9-17) . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivation for God to Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. 3 . 1 The Taunting Opponent as Motivation (vv I 8, 22-23) . 3.2.3.2 Poor-Needy Seeking Covenant Fulfilment (vv I 9-21) . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64 66 66 69 72 73 73 76

3.3 Synopsis of Theological Problem .......................................................... 77 3.3.1 3.3.2

Divine Distance a s Trigger for Theological Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 The Opponent as Means of Self-Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Chapter 4: Test of Covenant Relationship - Anticipation of Universal Divine Justice CP lb") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1

4. 1 Psalm 75 ............................................................................................... 82 4. 1 . 1 4. 1 . 2

4. 1 . 3

4. 1 . 4

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Praise of God's Wondrous Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . 1 . 2 . 1 Presuming Right Relationship with God (vv l-3) . . . . . . . . 4.1 .2.2 Assuming Divine Beneficence for the Collective (vv l O-l l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Covenant Expectations of Universal Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 1 . 3 . 1 Manifestations of Divine Power (vv4-6, 9) ...... 4. 1 . 3.2 The Righteousness of God (vv7-8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83 84 84 87 87 88 92 93

4.2 Psalm 76 ............................................................................................... 94

XI

Table a/Contents

4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3

4.2.4

Translation 95 Praise for Mighty God-as-Warrior (vv2-8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Covenant Expectations of Divine Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00 4.2. 3 . 1 "All the poor-needy of the earth" (v l Ob) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00 4.2.3.2 "He caused to hear the case" Whose Case? (vv9-l Oa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 02 4.2.3.3 Divine Judgment of the Opponent (vv l l-13) . . . . . . . . . . . 1 02 Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3 Synopsis of Test of Covenant Relationship""""""""""""""""""""" 105 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3

Covenant Expectations of Universal Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 05 Covenant Expectations of Establishing Zion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 06 A Failed Theological Reflection - A Segue to Inner Turmoil . 1 07

Chapter 5: Inner Turmoil - Divine Abandonment and Yearning for Right Relationship (Seams of "P2") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I

5. 1 Psalm 77"".".".".".".".".""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""".". . 1 1 2 5.1.1 5 . 1 .2

5 . 1 .3 5 . 1 .4 5 . 1 .5

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inner Turmoil - Divine Absence without an Opponent . . . . . . . . . . 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 Victim without a Perpetrator (vv2-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . 1 .2.2 A Capricious God? (vv8-1 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . Remembering Divine Retribution (vvI2-21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traces of a Wider Palimpsest of Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". .......

1 13 lIS lIS 118 1 24 1 26 1 29

5.2 Inner Turmoil over Covenant Disobedience ........................................ 1 3 1 5.2.1 5.2.2

God's Anger in Psalm 78:59-66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 1 God's Yearning for an Obedient Israel in Psalm 8 1 : 1 2-14 . . . . . 133

5.3 Synopsis ofInner Turmoil""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""". 135

XII

Table a/Contents

Chapter 6: Blamefixing - Maintaining Innocence through Blaming the Fathers ("P2a") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 39

6. 1 Psalm 78 6. 1 . 1 6. 1 . 2 6. 1 . 3

6. 1 . 4 6. 1 . 5

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deviance of Groups within Israel and the Conflict Model . . . . . . Faithfulness of God and the Unfaithfulness of the Fathers . . . . . 6. 1 . 3 . 1 Explanatory Bookends (vv8-1 1 , 56-58) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 1 . 3.2 First Macrodiscourse - Prophetic Reflections on Wilderness Events (vv I 2-39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 1 . 3.3 Excursus - Remembering God as Focal Point of Psalm 78? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 1 . 3.4 Second Macrodiscourse - Exodus Recapitulated (v40-55) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Opponent as Collateral Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2 Psalm 79 6.2.1 6.2.2

6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5

6.3.3

6.3.4

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Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collective as Victim Seeking God to Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2. 2.1 The Collective Presurues Innocence before God (vv5, l Oa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2.2 Victim of the Nations (vv l -4, 6-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2.3 Victim of the Fathers' Iniquities (vv8-9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Divine Mercy for the Collective (vv l l , 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vindication for the Collective (v 1 2 cf vv6, l Oac-b) ..... Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.3 Psalm 80 6.3.1 6.3.2

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Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blaming God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.1 Shepherd-Flock Motif (vv2-7) ... ...... 6.3.2.2 Gardener-Vine Motif (vv9-14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.3 Father-Son Motif (vv I 8-19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing the Vine and the Son (vv I 5-17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 6.3. 3 . 1 A Positive Reading o r ,p� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3.2 A Negative Reading o r,p� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4 Synopsis ofBlamefixing 6.4.1

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141 1 43 1 49 1 52 1 53 I SS 1 59 1 63 1 64 1 66 1 68 1 70 171 1 72 1 74 176 181 1 82 1 84 1 86 1 87 1 89 189 193 1 99 202 204 205 209 209 211

Deviant Fathers Added to the Notion of Opponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 1

Table a/Contents

6.4.2 6.4.3

XIII

The External Opponent as Collateral Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 3 Feigning Innocence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 4

Chapter 7 : Failure of Covenant Obligations Divine Justice as Correction ("P2b") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 7

7. 1 Psalm 81 7. 1 . 1 7. 1 . 2 7. 1 . 3 7. 1 . 4 7. 1 . 5

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Covenant Failure - Indictment of All-Israel (vv5-13) . . . . . . . . . . . . Covenant Expectation - Walking in God's Paths (v 14) . . . . . . . . . . Covenant Promise - God's Own Opponent (vv 1 5-17) . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2 Psalm 50 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3

7.2.4 7.2.5

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Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Covenant Failure - Cult-Critique of the c','on (vv7-l 5) . . . . . . . Covenant Failure - Counter Example of the c'�I:i' (vv 1 6-2l) 7.2. 3 . 1 A Past Act of Divine Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3.2 The Wicked as Fonner Constituent of All-Israel . . . . . . . Covenant Expectation and Promise (vv22-23) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3 Synopsis a/Covenant Failure

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7.4 The Canonical Placement a/Psalm 50

................................................

218 219 221 225 226 228 229 231 232 235 235 237 239 241 243 246

Chapter 8: Theological Resolution - Ingathering of God's Opponent ("P3") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

8.1 Psalm 82 8.1.1 8 . 1 .2 8 . 1 .3 8 . 1 .4

.............................................................................................

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Opposition to God's Righteousness (vv l -7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expectation of Divine Order (v8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .....

254 255 256 260 261

8.2 Psalm 83 ............................................................................................. 262 8.2.1 8.2.2

Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Opposition to God's Sovereignty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 8.2.2.1 Opponent as Coalition against God (vv3-9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

XIV

8.2.3 8.2.4

Table a/Contents

8.2.2.2 God's Potential to Eradicate the Opponent (vv l O-1 8) . . . . . . . 266 Expectation of Divine Protection (v I 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Summary of Oppositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

8.3 Synopsis of Theological Resolution

.....................................................

272

Chapter 9: Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

9.1 A Configurative Reading - Resolving Opponent Presence and Divine Absence by Trusting God

277

9.2 Implications

279

.........................................................

........................................................................................

Chapter 10: Appendix - a Contextual Word Study of n�1:t / n�l in the Hebrew Bible

1 0. 1 Introduction

......................................................................................

1 0.2 Canonical Observations

...................................................................

1 0. 3 Spatial Form - Deteriorating Waste 10.3. 1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4

. . . . . . . . 283

.................................................

Nothingness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... Brokenness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abandonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 0. 4 A Proposed Image Schema of mlJ: Deteriorating Waste

...................

283 285 289 290 292 295 297 297

10.4.1 Conceptual Categorisation through Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 10.4.2 Temporal Form - Time is Waste (Product) !Wasting Away . . . . 299 10.4.3 Divisional Fonn - Divided Resources is Waste Product . . . . . . . . 300 1 0. 5 Time Conception inANE 1 0. 6 Conclusion.

..................................................................

.......................................................................................

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

302 303

. . . . . . 305

Index of References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 9 Index o f Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Table of Figures

Figure 1: Proposed relational paradigm of binary relations 6 Figure 2: Dhanaraj ' s triangular paradigm with subject foci in individual laments 30 Figure 3: Proposed relational paradigm comprising binary negative relations in collectivised psahns of mixed form 31 Figure 4 : Central opposition in Psalms 73-74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 0 Figure 5 : Central opposition in Psalms 75-76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Figure 6: Central opposition associated with inner turmoil in Psalm 77 . . . 136 Figure 7: Diagram of the complex tri-partite conflict model in Psalms 78-80 150 Figure 8: Central opposition in Psalms 8 1 and 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Figure 9: Central opposition in Psalms 82-83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Figure 10: Summary of AP-Collection with its two closing branches . . . . . . . 279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of Tables

Table 1: Tokens of�" � and �I:i'-groups as identified by Keel 27 Table 2: Taxonomy of power relations with discourse-level semantic roles 32 Table 3: Opponent-Collective cathetus 35 Table 4: Opponent-God cathetus 35 Table 5: Collective-God cathetus 36 Table 6: Summary of relational cathetii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Table 7: Possible cross-textual referents (psalm 76 and Exodus 1-15) . . . . . . . 99 Table 8: Possible cross-textual referents (ps 77:8-10 and Exod 34:6) . . . . . . . 1 2 1 Table 9 : Possible cross-textual referents (ps 77 : 1 6-21 and the book of Exodus) 128 Table 10: Summary of first two prophetic cycles CPs 78: 1 2-32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Table 11: Summary of three cycles of father/God contrast (ps 78: 1 2-39) . 158 Table 12: Structural comparison of Psalm 50 with Psalm 8 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Table 13: Comparison of Psalm 50:7 with Psalm 81 :9-l l a . . . . . . . . . . 252 Table 14: n�l tokens by content/form and canonical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Abbreviations

ANES AP AThANT BASOR BCOTWP BDB

BHS Bib BJRL BN Books I-V BR BZ CBQ EBC ExtTim ETR EvT FAT FAT II FOTL HALOT HAT HB HS HUCA HvTSt JBL JETS Jotion

JSOT JSOTSup JSS JSJSup

Ancient Near Eastern Studies Asaph Psalms Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments Bulletin of the American Schools ofOriental Research Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms Bro\VIl, Francis, Samuel R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs. En­ hanced Bro\VIl-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. Ox­ ford: Clarendon, 1977. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Biblica Bulletin of the JOM Rylands University Library of Manchester Biblische Notizen Books I-V of the Psalter Biblical Research Biblische Zeitschrift Catholic Biblical Quarterly The Expositor's Bible Commentary The Expository Times Etudes Theologiques et Religieuses Evangelische Theologie Forschungen zum Alten Testament Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe Forms of the Old Testament Literature Kohler, Ludwig and Walter Baumgartner. The Hebrew and Ara­ maic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill, 2001. Handbuch zum Alten Testament Hebrew Bible Hebrew Studies Hebrew Union College Armual Hervonnde teologiese studies Journal ofBiblical Literature Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Jotion, Paul and Takamitsu Muraoka. A Grammar ofBiblical He­ brew. Subsidia Biblica 27. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2006. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Journal of Semitic Studies Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism

XVIII LHB LXX MT MSA NASB NIDOTTE

NRSV 0BS OTE OtSt PI P2 P3 PRSt PrTMS R&T RB SBS SBLDS SBLMS SBM SJOT SK StZ The AP-Collection TynBul TZ UF UCOP VT VTSup WMANT WBC WiBiLex ZAW

Abbreviations Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies The Septuagint Masoretic Text Meddelanden fran Stiftelsens for Abo Akademi Forskningsinsti­ lut New American Standard Bible VanGemeren, Willem A., ed. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology & Exegesis. 5 vals. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997. New Revised Standard Version Osterreichische Biblische Studien Old Testament Essays Oudtestamentische Studien Group 1 of the AP-Collection (Psalms 73-76) Group 2 of the AP-Collection (Psalms 77-81, 50) Group 3 of the AP-Collection (Psalms 82-83) Perspectives in Religious Studies Princeton Theological Monograph Series Religion & Theology Revue biblique Stuttgarter Bibelstudien Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series Stuttgarter Biblische Monographien Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Skrif en kerk Stimmen der Zeit The Asaph Psalms treated as a collection of psalms Tyndale Bulletin Theologische Zeitschrift Ugarit-F orschungen University of Cambridge Oriental Publications Vetus Testamentum Supplements to Vetus Testamentum Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testa­ ment Word Biblical Commentary Das vvissenschaftliche Bibellexikon im Internet Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

Chapter 1

Introduction

l.1 Research Objective The objective of this research is to consider how conflict is depicted by the psalmists! in the Asaph Psalms, comprising Psalms 50 and 73-83 as a collec­ tion of the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible. To accomplish this aim, this study focuses on relations between AP's main characters (God, "the Collec­ tive", and "the Opponent")' and how those relations change in terms of the level of intensity of enmity. Definitions of key terms are warranted. First, I define "the Collective" as the contemporary generation of the holy nation of Israel, chosen by God (cf. Exod 19:5; Deut 4:20). This national iden­ tity comprises different generations (i.e. ancestors, fathers, sons) across the phases of salvation history, including the exodus, wanderings, conquest, and

1 I will refer to "psalmist" in the individual psalms and "psalmists" in the communal psalms. The purpose of this distinction is to emphasise the plurality of the voice of the speaker(s), rather than to assert that the respective psalm was actually written by one or multiple persons. I will also refer to both singular and plural psalmists -with the pronoun "they" for the purpose of gender inc1usivity. For similar reasons, I seek to avoid use of the third-person masculine singular pronoun to refer to God, using the term "his" in inverted commas and sparingly. For transparency, groups typically found in the Psalter such as "the enemy" and "the petitioners" are collectivised and referred to in the third-person singular, where necessary. The purpose ofthis distinction is solely to seek the avoidance of confusion, particularly when reference is made to, for instance, the psalmist and the persons for which they are purporting to write. 2 Claus Westennarm, Praise and Lament in the Psalms - Book Two: Lament in the Psalms, trans. Keith R. Crim and Richard N. Soulen (Atlanta: Jo1m Knox, 1981), 169. Westermarm refers to "the petitioner" as one ofthe main characters. I argue that the Collec­ tive corresponds lNith the petitioner, given the high concentration of collective psalms in the AP-Collection. See also Klaus Seybold, "Das 'Wir' in den Asaph-Psalmen: Spezifische Probleme einer Psalmgruppe" in Neue Wege der Psalmenforschung, ed. Klaus Seybold and Erich Zenger, HB S 1 (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1994), 145-147.

2

Chapter 1: Introduction

monarchies, which is labelled altogether "all-Israel" .' Importantly, the AP-Col­ lection is read from the standpoint of the Collective, as far as possible 4 Second, "Opponent" is defined herein as an entity which by act or attitude opposes the will and purpose of the beholder This concept is not limited to foreign powers or identities and may include all-Israel or certain generations or sub-groups thereof. 5 Third, "conflict" is defined as the active process of the power struggle be­ tween two entities that are not in right relationship with each other.6 "Enmity" is the status of that relationship, being a binary opposition of negation associ­ ation in a temporal equilibrium . Accordingly, enmity is the state that exists between two entities that are in the process of conflict over a contested do­ main.7 One might briefly summarise AP as a compilation of mainly communal psalms in which the psalmists present conflicts between God, the Opponent, and the Collective in historical, wisdom, judgment, complaint and hymnal

3 An important feature of AP is the revision of the concept of "Israel" by the psalmists, limiting covenant promises to certain generations or regions of the monarchies. In particular, Psalm 78 redefines God's people as "Judah" . See Kristin Weingart, "Juda als Sachwalter Israels: Geschichtstheologie nach dem Ende des N ordreiches in Hos 13 und Ps 78", Z4W 127 (2015): 456, footnote 63. "The Collective", constituted by God's people as a collective noun, "Will be referred to "With pronouns sparingly and, where necessary, "With the third-person singular pronoun "it" and solely to avoid confusion "With the plural use of the psalmists. In relation to the national identity of AP, see Walter J. Houston, "David, Asaph and the Mighty Works of God: Theme and Geme in the Psalm Collections", JSOT 20 (1995): 1 1 1 . 4 Marco Pavan observes a " dialogic-choral physiognomy" in Psalms 73-83. See Marco Pavan, "He Remembered that They Were But Flesh, a Breath that Passes and Does Not

Return" (Ps 78,39): The Theme ofMemory and Forgetting in the Third Book of the Psalter (Pss 73-89), OB S 44 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2014), 194. We "Will extend this dia­ logical concept to all AP. The role of the Collective in the reading of AP-Collection is dis­ cussed further in Section 2.4. 5 Cf. Karl-Johan Illman, Thema und Tradition in den Asaf-Psalmen, MDA 13 (Abo: Stiftelsens for Abo Akademi Forskningsinstitut, 1976), 3 1 . The identity and character ofthe Opponent "Will be considered further in Section 2.2.2. 6 Cf. Thomas Diez, Stephan Stetter and Mathias Albert, "The European Union and Border Conflicts: The Transfonnative Power of Integration", International Organization 60 (2006): 565. 7 Cf. Ioannis D. Evrigenis, Fear of Enemies and Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 7 1 . The concepts of conflict and enmity are considered further in Section 2.2.

Research Objective

3

fonns 8 The origins of AP have been traced to a supposed "Ephraimite" tradi­ tion,9 which is transfonned as the AP-Collection in a "Jerusalemite" context.lO This study engages with scholars who treat AP as a corpus on the basis that it has been authored, redacted, and compiled as a collection in MTY Texts are compared to LXX where relevant While the final form of the AP-Collection is largely accepted as is, its composition and order are tested through textual analysis of each AP individually, as sub-groups, and as a whole. The corpus of the AP-Collection is limited to specific psalms that have been identified in tenns of Asaphite tradition and/or them elm otif within the Psalter.12 The notion of the AP-Collection presupposes that the authors and redactors of AP played a critical role in a specific collection resulting in a "defacto interpretation" of its constituent psalmsY The broad acceptance of the AP-Collection as a corpus supports this assurnption.14 The main argument of this thesis is that the AP-Collection was carefully compiled with a distinctive shift in the degree of intensity of enmity between God, the Opponent, and the Collective, detennined by exploring its different 8 Cf. Seybold, "Das 'Wir''', 150. Also see Beat Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter - eine Skiz ze" in Prophetie und Psalmen: Festschrift fur Klaus Seybold zum 65. Geburtstag (Mllnster: Ugarit-Vedag, 2001), 1 1 9 . 9 Harry P. Nasuti, Tradition History and the Psalms of Asaph, SBLDS 9 6 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 25. 10 Ivan Engnell, Critical Essays on the Old Testament, trans. John T. Willis (London: S.P.C.K., 1970), 79. 11 More broadly referred to by Nasuti, Tradition History, 56; Michael D. Goulder, The Psalms ofAsaph and the Pentateuch: Studies in the Psalter, III, ed. David J.A. Clines and Philip R. Davies, JSOTSup 233 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 35; David G. Firth, "Asaph and Sons of Korah" in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings, ed. Tremper Longman, III and Peter Enns (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 24, 26; Matthias Millard, Die Komposition des Psalters: Ein formgeschichtlicher Ansatz, FAT 9 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994), 90-103. Also as basis for diachronic de­ velopment, Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 133-137. 12 To use Davage's analogy of the Psalter as a "garden of flowers", this study considers only one "garden bed" "With its own "paratext" . See David (fd Willgren) Davage, The

Formation of the 'Book' of Psalms: Reconsidering the Transmission and Canonization of Psalmody in Light ofMaterial Culture and the Poetics ofAnthologies, FAT II 88 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016), 392. The notion of "the AP-Collection" and particularly the approach to reading AP as a collection will be discussed further in Section 2.4. 1 3 Cf. Gregory R. Goswell, "Two Testaments in Parallel: The Influence of the Old Testament on the Structuring ofthe New Testament Canon", JETS 56 (2013): 459-460. 1 4 Recent research on the AP-Collection presumes the existence of a collection. See Nasuti, Tradition History; Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch; Christine Brown Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph: A Study of the Function of a Psalm Collection" (PhD diss., Baylor University, 2009); Karl N. Jacobson, Memories ofAsaph: Mnemohistory and the Psalms of Asaph (MiIllleapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2017); Christian Gers-Uphaus, "Gott als wahrer Cl,;-,I;lK und Retter der Annen: Psalm 82 im Korpus der Asafpsalmen", BZ 63 (2019).

4

Chapter 1: Introduction

types and patterns of conflict. The aim of this study is to analyse the AP-Col­ lection: first theologically through the lens of conflict and emnity at the level of each AP individually; secondly, by grouping AP based on discerned conflict patterns; and thirdly, as a unity by means of a configurative reading. The study shall examine my main proposition: After attempting to pass blame for its plight onto God as well as vague external Opponents 1 5 and past internal Opponents 16 (Psalms 77-80), the Collective is confronted with key divine judgment oracles (Psalm 8 1 cf. Psalm 50), 1 7 convicting it of its lack of faithfulness and its failure to trust in God's covenant promises (Psalms 74-76 cf. Psalm 73 of the faithful indi­ vidual). These oracles make it clear that all-Israel, both past and present and including the contemporary Collective, is complicit in its O\VJl suffering. In response to this realisation, the Collective shows true dedication and dependence on God by transferring to God full responsibility for dealing lNith heavenly and earthly Opponents (Psalms 82-83). The pro­ gram of collective renewal enables the Collective to place its trust in God. God is expected to defend the Collective.

My research responds to Illman's thematic and tradition-oriented study of AP. While denying that AP shares a common thematic thread or tradition, the most pertinent outcome of Illman's study is that conflict is the only motif that pervades all AP.18 Illman also finds some unusual conflict patterns. First, the foreign nations serve as both an instrument of divine wrath against the people of God and an object of divine retribution for the benefit of the people of God 19 The distinction between the Opponent and Israel is blurred in the middle of the 1 5 By "external Opponent", I mean an individual or group identified as having no part in covenant relationship lNith God, including (but not limited to) foreign peoples, nations, and their representatives. This designation is determined based on the absence of any textual evidence to support the deviant's past or present entitlement to God's covenant promises. Accordingly, it may include individuals or groups that are not specifically labelled as being "foreign". 16 The "internal Opponent" is notionally Israel or part thereof, which is in both covenant relationship and conflict lNith God such that a state of enmity subsists. An example of both the concept of the internal Opponent and the splitting of Israel into parts occurs in Psalm 78, wherein the fathers of Ephraim are guilty of failing to take the testimony of God's salvation to heart and pass it onto their sons (vv8- 1 1 , 56-58). Another example is the generation of lNicked ones in Psalm 50 which is held out to have been subject to God's ordinances and discipline (vvI6-17). The key distinction between the internal and external Opponent then is that there is evidence of a past or present covenant relationship between the Opponent and God, at least in the psalmists' eyes. 1 7 I present a theory on the displacement of Psalm 50 and, for the purpose of this study ofthe AP-Collection, reunite the psalm lNith its paired divine oracle in Psalm 8 1 in Section 7.4. 1 8 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 63; cf. Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 34; contra Jacobson, Memories ofAsaph, 6. Illman refers to a Streit-Strafe Motiv ("motif of conflict and retribution"). I argue that the concept of retribution is subsumed by the motif of conflict. 1 9 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 34-35; cf. Beat Weber, Werkbuch Psalmen: Die Psalmen 73 bis 150 II (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2003), 20-2 1 .

Research Objective

5

AP-Collection. Second, the people of God themselves or a part thereof become the Opponent of God.20 These insights are particularly interesting and have been broadly accepted.21 My approach is essentially a close reading of the text of AP through the lenses of conflict and enmity. Enmity is a state of opposing power relations between any two identities at a particular timepoint. These identities are in the process of resolving that difference by either reconciliation or destruction through conflict. Each psalm represents the perspective of a notional contem­ porary generation of Israel, the Collective, which shifts across the AP-Collec­ tion based on the generational setting of each psalm. My analysis concentrates on binary oppositions between the main charac­ ters.22 The nature of relationships between the main characters of the Psalter are represented in a triangular fOnTI, comprising the binary relations between Opponent/Collective, Opponent/God, and Collective/God:23

20 The idea of Israel as Opponent of God challenges a tendency to limit enmity to internal or external enemies of Israel in psalms scholarship. For example, Alan J. E. Persaud, Praying

the Language ofEnmity in the Psalter: A Study of Psalms 110,119,129,137,139 and 149

(Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2016), 1-2. 21 For instance, Nasuti, Tradition History, 44; Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 20; Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 120; Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 23. 22 Claude Levi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, trans. Monique Layton (London: Penguin Books, 1977), 2: 172. According to Levi-Strauss, binary oppositions are used myth­ ologically to resolve problems in a presented world. 2 3 Hugo Goeke, Das Menschenbild der individuellen Klagelieder: Ein Beitrag zur alttestamentlichen Anthropologie (BoIlll: UniversiUit BOIlll, 1971), 50. Goeke presents the idea of the contrasting of the weakness of the psalmist with the strength of the enemy as an expression ofthe expectation that God "Will act for the psalmist's benefit as a classic rhetor­ ical feature of lament.

6

Chapter 1: Introduction

Opponent

Collective

God Figure 1:

Proposed relational paradigm ofbimuy relations

The text can be divided according to semantic roles of the main characters at discourse level.24 These cognitive discourse roles" are then categorised based on whom is depicted as deviant or victim and on how God is called upon to wield divine power.26 This process highlights both predictable and unusual patterns of conflict. For example, the contrast between the poor-weak Collective and the rich­ strong Opponent or the subjugated Opponent and the retributory acts of God are conventional forms of conflict, which are prominent in what I define as the first group of the AP-Collection (Psahns 73-76). However, there is a notable change in the depiction of Israel in what I call the second group of the AP­ Collection (Psahns 77-81 and 50), when the conflict between the "fathers" and "sons" of Israel becomes a key feature (e.g. Ps 78:8, 56 cf. Pss 78:9-11, 5758; 79:8-9; 80:15-17). In contrast, Israel is less prominent in what I call the third group of the AP-Collection (Psahns 82-83), which concentrates on the ingathered heavenly and earthly Opponents of God. I argue that there is an overall conflict pattern in the AP-Collection that bears a striking resemblance to Ringgren's characterisation of enemies in the Psalter:

24 Cf. Tellll A. van Dijk, "Semantic Discourse Analysis" in Handbook of Discourse AnalYSiS,

ed. Tellll A. van Dijk (Cambridge: Academic Press, 1985), 1 1 5 .

2 5 Cf. Ray lackendoff, Foundations afLanguage: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Evolution

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 420. 2 6 Cf. Judith Krawelitzki, Gottes Macht imPsaiter, FAT II 97 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017).

Literature Survey

7

the opposition between the righteous and their enemies - whether they are called the wicked or something else - is lifted to a higher or metaphysical level related to the opposition be­ tween cosmos and chaos, or life and death, which [ . . . ] is so typical of the ancient Israelite view of life. 27

Ultimately, this study seeks to detennine how the variegated forms of conflict and power relations deliver a sapiential collection for the Collective ex post facto.28

1 . 2 Literature Survey

Much AP scholarship concentrates on areas other than conflict, particularly the nature of the Asaphite tradition and the function of the collection for a sup­ posed postexilic community. This literature survey aims to demonstrate that the study of the different forms of conflict and the nature of enmity in the AP­ Collection remains a gap in the literature. 1.2.1 Composition, Traditions, and Collectivisation ofAP Earlier AP literature is concerned principally with composition, form and da­ ting of the psalms. Delitzsch finds a series of common characteristics in AP: the fact that constituent psalms are all found in the so-called Elohistic Psalter; the use of prophetic judgments; primeval history and northern tribe (Joseph) references as synecdoche for the people of God. He also refers to the postexilic interest in a Davidic-appointed Levitical psalm tradition based on the Asaph­ figure presented by the Chronicler.29 Gunkel observes that AP shares a core of communal laments (Psalms 74, 79, 80 and 83).30 However, Gunkel finds little purpose in the common AP titles given that all collections are canonically separated and manifest a range of dif­ ferent genres and mixed forms, mostly from the postexilic era.31 Schelling later observes a reliance on the Moses-Joshua tradition in AP in­ cluding representations of key biblical events of the exodus, wanderings, and

27 Hehner Ringgren, The Faith of the Psalmists (London: SCM Press, 1963), 46; cited in George W. Anderson, "Enemies and Evildoers in the Book of Psalms" , BJRL 48 (1965): 29. 28 Cf. Manfred Oeming, "Wisdom as a Hermeneutical Key to the Book of Psalms" in Scribes, Sages, and Seers, ed. Leo G. Perdue (G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008),

161. 2 9 Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary o n the Psalms (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1888), 140-143; cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 196-198. 3 0 Hermarm Gunkel, Einleitung in die Psalmen: Die Gattungen der religiosen Lyrik Israels zu Ende gefiihrt von J. Begrich (G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1933), 1 17. 3 1 Gunkel, Einleitung, 434-435.

8

Chapter 1: Introduction

conquest. He draws attention to the significant reliance on Exodus 15, Deuter­ onomy 32, and texts relating to the dual character of God (Exod 34:6-7).32 In more recent times, Pavan's study of Psalrns 73-83 as part of broader re­ search into the motifs of memory and forgetting in Book III of the Psalter con­ firms many of these common features. Pavan finds that Psalms 73-83 operate as a collection with a national interest in their own right "with a sequence gen­ erated by a fairly recognisable logic ofreciprocal relations, capable of weaving a discourse of complete sense".33 However, according to Pavan, this collection continues beyond AP to encompass the whole of Book III of the Psalter with the addition of the supposed voice of the n'l:io.34 Another area of early interest in AP scholarship is the cultic provenance and Sitz irn Leben of the collection. Mowinckel perceives a largely communal role for the Psalter in general and discerns a role for a supposed king-orator bearing divine and prophetic voices on behalf of the Collective.35 Leveraging the idea that the Psalter has a communal role, Goulder attributes a cultic order to AP, seeking to establish a relationship between a hypothetical cultic setting and the Pentateuch. This nexus is based on his claim that a largely communal AP bears a "Deuteronornistic Vergeltungsdogrna" of judgment in a preexilic northern setting.36 Goulder claims that AP should be considered with a unified message: God -will judge the enemy for their iniquity and overthrow them; he -will judge their gods for putting them up to it; and he -will judge us if we do not obey his ordinances.37

Goulder considers the image ofIsrael as the poor-needy followers of God. This image binds the collection together through "appeals to the divine covenant, in the face of a dire threat or series of threats. "38 Cultic approaches to AP have not been widely accepted. However, the search for a tradition behind AP has fostered some attention. Buss explores the composite role within the temple of prophet-singer-Levite. He finds that the Asaph-figure ofthe AP-Collection takes on the Deuteronomistic-informed role towards the "religious education of the people".39 Buss does not refer directly 3 2 Pieter Schelling, De Asafspsalmen: Hun samenhang en achtergrond (Kampen: Kok, 1985), 52-87; cited in Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 125. For a more recent study of the analogical reliance on the Song of Moses in AP in terms of its authority, liturgical form, and textual function, see Beat Weber, "Mose-Lied (Dtn 32,1-43) und Asaph-Psalmen (Ps 50; 73-83) Untersuchungen zu ihrem Verhaltnis", ZAR 27 (2021): 45-47. 33 Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 127-128. 34 Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 186-188, 219. 35 Sigmund 01afP1ytt Mo-wincke1, The Psalms in Israel's Worship: Volume I, trans. D. R. Ap-Thomas (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992), 42-6 1 . 3 6 Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 31-32. 37 Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 22. 38 Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 22. 39 Martin J. Buss, "Psalms of Asaph and Korah", JBL 82 (1963): 386.

Literature Survey

9

to the works of the Chronicler 40 However, Mitchell later extends this explana­ tion to conflate the supposed Asaphite-Levite with the clan of Korah (1 Chr 25:9; 26: 1), providing the basis for Mitchell's argument that postexilic Asaph­ ite prophet-musicians played the role of "remembrancer".41 Illman refutes Buss' claim of a composite Asaph-figure. He also argues that there is no basis for a logical connection between the prophetic-judgment and lament psalms of AP and the praise hymnody of the Asaphite tradition in the works ofthe Chronicler 42 Illman defines a tradition as the combination of both themes as abstractions and motifs as concretions within the text.43 Accordingly, he argues that AP are only connected by their common title as a loose collec­ tion of psalms of various forms. Nasuti responds to Illman, leveraging the work of Engnell,44 who claims that AP bears distinctive northern Israelite language and names with a "Jerusalem­ ite spirit".45 He critiques Illman's presumption of an absence of a socio-histor­ ical context in AP. Nasuti demonstrates idiosyncratic lexical links between most of AP and a distinctive "Ephraimite" tradition of the northern kingdom (including proto-Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Hosea). This squares with Rendsburg's "northern dialect", including the use of Aramaisms in AP (e.g. Pss 73 :8, 12; 76:3, 5, 6, 1 1 , 12, 13) 46 However, lexical links fall short of providing a con­ vincing connection between the Asaph-figure/traditions in AP (mainly com­ plaints and judgments) and the Chronicler (descriptive praise). The content of AP centres on the calling of Israel to covenant obedience and is presented from the Collective's (pre)exilic lament mindset In contrast, the supposed inclusion of the Chronicler's work in "deutero-Asaph" (psalms 96, 105 and 106 cf 1 Chr 16: 8-36) reflects only the praise of the Collective 47 4 0 Buss, "Asaph and Korah", 385. 4 1 David C. Mitchell, The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book ofPsalms (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1997), 91-93, 107. 4 2 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 25-29, 55, 64; cf. Peter C. Craigie and Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 1-50, WBC 19 (Waco, TX: Word, 2004), 363. 43 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 15. 44 Engnell, Critical Essays on the Old Testament, 79. 45 Nasuti, Tradition History, 25, 50-5 1 . Nasuti relies on his presumed conception of "Ephraimite" tradition throughout his monograph, however he does not clearly define the extent of this tradition from a biblical perspective (cf. Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 16). 4 6 Gary A. Rendsburg, Linguistic Evidence for the Northern Origin of Selected Psalms, SBLMS 43 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990), 73-8 1; Jo1m Goldingay, Psalms, Volume 2: Psalms 42-89, ed. Tremper Longman III, BCOTWP (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 401; cf. Weber, Psalmen II, 17. Rendsburg assumes that rare uses of certain terms in certain texts and the presumption of a geographic provenance of those same texts provides strong evidence for an idiolect. Davage challenges this assumption, noting that the use of textual patterns is typical of poetic texts (Davage, Formation of the 'Book' ofPsalms, 15). 47 Cf. Nasuti, Tradition History, 175.

Chapter 1: Introduction

10

Exploring the tradition behind AP opens the further question as to what the Collective represents. The identity of the original Collective of AP is one that arguably shifts in each individual psalm. Westermann observes that the Asaph and Korah collections are on the whole either laments or descriptive praise of the people, in contrast to Davidic collections of the individua1.48 Seybold demonstrates that AP are writings with an observable number of characteristics49 that demonstrate the texts are written of the Collective in an exilic time yet contain a preconceived preexilic [onn .50 He supports the view that the origins of AP stem from preexilic Judah, based on disparate internal evidence of God's dwelling in the temple." Seybold adds that AP is principally concerned with the interests of the Col­ lective through what are mainly communal psalms. This claim is based onAP's overall theo-political interest in prophetic judgments, particularly through the flock-shepherd motif (Pss 74: 1 ; 77:21 ; 79:9, 13; 80:2, 14; 8 3 : 1 3) 52 Weber extends the collective interest of AP to all of its psalms (cf. Pss 73 : 1 ; 77:21).53 He advances a diachronic theory on the formation of AP as a collec­ tion, in which the dating of certain psalms and fragments result in a theoretical phasing of the forming of AP as canon. The key diachronic shifts of AP are: first, the insertion of Psalm 79 into AP, which is argued to be an exilic update of the original preexilic Vorbild Psalm 74;54 and second, the displacement of Psalm 50 from its counterpart judgment Psalm 8 1 to straddle Korah and Da­ vidic collections upon AP's incorporation into the Elohistic Psalter. 55 This preipostexilic understanding is underpinned by some assumptions about the original and later settings which contribute to the compilation of AP.56 Weber also contributes other significant insights in his extensive writings about AP. For instance, he advocates for the notion that the original historical setting was a response to the fall of the northern kingdom. 57 Weber proposes Westermann, Psalms 2, 257-258. Klaus Seybold, Die Psalmen, HAT 15 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996), 8. Seybold, "Das 'Wir"', 145. Seybold, Die Psalmen, 8. Seybold, "Das 'Wir"', 145-147. 53 Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 1 19. 54 Beat Weber, "Zur Datierung der Asaph-Psalmen 74 und 79", Bib 8 1 (2000): 523; cf. Millard, Komposition des Psalters, 91-92. 55 Beat Weber, "Asaf I Asafiten I Asafpsalmen", in Das wissenschaftliche Bibellexikon im Internet (Stuttgart: WiBiLex, 2008), 4; cf. Joel S. Burnett, "A Plea for David and Zion: The Elohistic Psalter as Psalm Collection for the Temple's Restoration" in Diachronic and 48 49 50 51 52

Synchronic: Reading the Psalms in Real Time - Proceedings of the Baylor Symposium on the Book of Psalms, ed. Joel S. Burnett, et al. (New York: T&T Clark, 2007), 1 12. Burnett argues that the Elohistic Psalter is analogous to Mesopotamian collections of laments over destroyed sanctuaries and anticipation oftheir rebuilding. 5 6 Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 127-139. 57 Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 1 3 1 .

Literature Survey

II

that the tradition of AP was transmitted by a group of escapee Levites from the fall of Samaria and its cities (2 Kgs 1 7 : 1 -5) and is manifested in the Asaphite tradition under the authority of Hezekiah (cf 2 Chr 29:30). Accordingly, the tragedies that the northern kingdom endured at the hand of Assyria might be woven into the theological crisis facing the Collective. 58 Weber also finds that the Opponent is central to the canonical redaction of AP. He argues that the first stage of AP-development included the capping of the AP-Collection with bookends that attest to the gravity of the opposition facing the Collective." In Psalm 73, the hubris ofthe haughty-wicked ones sets themselves far off from God so that they perish (v27), in contrast to the poor­ needy Collective who are near to God (v28 cf vv22-23). Similarly, the hubris of the enemy nations in Psalm 83 is demonstrated in surrounding and seeking to eliminate Israel (v5) and Israel' s inheritance (v13) but the conglomerate of national enemies will ultimately perish (vI8), in contrast to the needy-pious Collective which shows reverence to God (v I 9).60 He suggests the bookends were established during the reign of Josiah and within his Deuteronomistic re­ forms (2 Kings 23).61 Weber also highlights the tension between the expectation of God's ultimate victory over the Collective's Opponent62 and the impending threat of destruc­ tion between the campaigns of Assyria and Babylon. For instance, in the sec­ ond stage of AP-development, the preexilic setting of the northern kingdom falling to Assyria is adopted into the account of destroyed Jerusalem in Psalm 79.63 Another finding from Weber's research that is important for this study is the significance of "signs" in Psalm 74, signalling the inaccessibility of God. "Signs" are argued to serve as symbols of a religious system - the cognitive means through which the Collective recognises God as being sovereign. Weber contends that the placement of signs of the Opponent ("their signs", v4) and the loss of the signs of the Collective (literally "our signs, we did not see", v9)

5 8 Cf. Weber, "Asaf I Asafiten I Asafpsalmen", 6. An example of extrabiblical evidence for the original northern provenance is found in the possible parallel between Psalm 75:810 and Papyrus Amherst 63:xiii, 5-6 (Weber, Psalmen 11, 33). It is noteworthy that Papyrus Amherst 63:xiii, 1 1-17 makes reference to northern god Baal on (Mount) Zaphon. See Robert D. Miller, II, "The Zion Hymns as Instruments of Power" , ANES 47 (2010): 219. 5 9 Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 136; cf. Beat Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld: Eine poetologische Studie (Weinheim: Beltz Athenaum, 1995), 256. 60 Weber, Psalmen II, 79. 6 1 Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 127, 133. 62 Cf. Lawrence Boadt, "The Use of 'Panels' in the Structure of Psalms 73-78", CEQ 66 (2004): 548. Weber's argument is similar to Boadt's claim that Psalms 73 and 78 reinforce "God's cosmic rule over the nations" . 6 3 Weber, "Zur Datierung", 523.

12

Chapter 1: Introduction

is "eine massive theologische Krise".64 The Collective has lost access to the religious symbolic system, so God becomes inaccessible (cf Lam 5 : 1 9)." The significance of the perceived loss of access to God at the hand of God's (and Israel's) enemies serves as a contrast to the Second Temple period, in which the third stage of AP-development produces a collection in the Elohistic (or perhaps messianic) Psalter.66 In summary, the underlying problem of AP is the existence of the Opponent and the absence of God, manifested initially by the fall of the northern kingdom and reinterpreted in light of the exile. However, this theological crisis is not tied to a particular historical setting; it is a prototypical setting in which the Collective longs for God's presence but senses only opposition. 1.2.2 Conflict as the Central Motif ofAP One motif in AP that has received less attention than others is conflict. While it is arguable that the entire Psalter is a "conflict conversation with GOd",67 the AP-Collection has a particularly high concentration of conflict text; that is, text that bears a dysfunctional relationship between two entities. IUman first observes that various types of conflict and a shifting conception of the Opponent are common characteristics in nearly all AP.68 Under the broader heading of judgment, Illman determines its major subcomponents as the role of God-as-judge,69 the Streit-Strafe-Motiv ("Conflict and Punishment motif'), and Gegner-Thema ("Opponent theme"). Illman observes that judgment and prophecy are regularly combined across AP, including the use of divine oracle to represent the role of God-as-judge 70 He presents the God of justice through theophany (Ps 50:4) with the purpose of reversing the lot ofthe haughty-wicked and the lowly-righteous (Ps 75:7, 1 2 cf. Jer 1 : 1 0) to set God's universal righteous rule over the cosmos without equivocation. Accordingly, the theme of divine judgment in AP subsumes the conflict motif and the Opponent theme 71 According to Illman, the Opponent figure inhibits or acts in the absence of God's universal rule and is missing only from individual Psalms 73 and 77. 64 Weber, "Zur Datierung", 527-528. 6 5 Cf. FriedheIm Hartenstein, Die Unzuganglichkeit

Gottes im Heiligtum: Jesaja 6 und der Wohnort JHWHs in der Jerusalemer Kulttradition (Neukirchen-VIuyn: Neukirchener, 1997), 229, 247, 250. 66 Weber, "Asafl Asafiten / Asafpsalmen", 10. 67 Bernd Janowski, Arguing with God: A Theological Anthropology of the Psalms (Louisville: Westminster Jo1m Knox, 2013). The original German publication is entitled "Konfliktgespn'ich mit Gott" . 68 Ilhnan, Thema und Tradition, 31-38, 63. 69 The term "God-as-judge" "Will be used throughout the study. 70 Ilhnan, Thema und Tradition, 8; cf. Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 12. 7 1 Ilhnan, Thema und Tradition, 13, 30-3 1 , 38.

Literature Survey

13

Illman finds no common thread in the depiction of the Opponent across AP. However, an analysis of IIIman's findings reveals some commonalities: Psalms 50, 76, 8 1 , 82 and 83 depict the wicked-enemy as the direct Opponent to the plans of God for Israel; Psalms 74, 79 and 80 present an external enemy, who causes Israel to cry out to God for deliverance; Psalm 75 sets the Opponent as an object of divine warning to the righteous. Psahn 78 gives two unique per­ spectives of the Opponent First, Israel, or at least a part thereof, has become the real Opponent of God through the sin and retribution of the fathers ofIsrael, which is transmitted to the sons. Second, the nations play a dual role as both instrument and object of God's retribution. In short, Illman's view of the Op­ ponent incorporates both foreign enemy nations and the people of God them­ selves.72 After considering the Opponent theme, Illman then acknowledges the ubiq­ uitous nature of conflict in AP. However, he finds that AP's conflicts are all of very different types and involve the major characters with no discernible pat­ tern?3 An analysis of IIIman's representation of conflict and retribution reveals a variety of opponents: Israel generally (psalm 50), the vague notion of the wicked (psalm 73), universal judgment (Psalms 75 and 77), the Egyptians (psalm 76), which he claims is then reflected upon Israel, the non-descript col­ lective of Israel's enemies (psalms 79, 80, 8 1 and 83) and the counsel of the gods (Psalm 82), which he claims extends to worldly powers. Most notable is the invocation in Psalm 74 of the memory of the Chaoskampfto burden God's name with responsibility. In contrast, Mitchell claims a more specific form of conflict in AP, where the headings �O�� themselves "suggest a correspondence between (them) and the pre-deliverance ingatherings of the prophetic program ."74 He argues, albeit tentatively, that AP has a "narratival sequence", which climaxes in Psalm 83 with an ingathering of the Collective to witness the ultimate eschatological battle 75 Underpinning this claim is Mitchell's presumption of an "eschatological ori­ entation in the Psalter" with a provenance in the postexilic crisis, when the religious institution is "look[ing] for a sudden dramatic divine intervention" (cf. Ezekiel 34-48, Zechariah 9_14) 76 Mitchell also argues that "the final ar­ rangement of the Psalter is greater than the sum of the parts",77 following Wil­ son's claim of an intentional "progression in thought regarding kingship and the Davidic covenant" and Childs' argument that Psalms 1 and 2 of the Psalter 72 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 31-35. 73 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 35-38. 74 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 75 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 76 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 77 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme,

167. 94, 98, 101-105. 82. 47.

14

Chapter 1: Introduction

create the eschatological framework for the whole collection 78 The function of the entire Psalter thus infonns the function of any one particular part, so that "David's prayers" of Books II and III are for the messianic figure and encom­ pass the Korah and Asaph collections, which surround the second Davidic col­ lection?9 Accordingly, Mitchell superimposes an overarching eschatological orienta­ tion for the Psalter onto smaller collections, including the AP-Collection and the Songs of Ascent, and assigns them a prophetic function to enable Israel to remember God so that God might deliver Israe!' The imposition of a whole-of­ Psalter perspective upon AP makes up for what Mitchell describes as a "weak internal cohesion" within the AP-Collection.80 Importantly, Mitchell's analysis ofthe AP-Collection centres on the conflict between God and the hostile nations, who are the external collective enemy of both God and Israe!.81 According to Mitchell, righteous Israel is not depicted as the subject of divine judgment but rather as being initially in a "lamentable condition"82 and the ultimate beneficiary of the eschatological ingathering theme of AP.83 Accordingly, Mitchell sets a lesser role for Israel as mere on­ lookers at the eschatological battle scene. Gers-Uphaus' recent monograph on the reception history of Psalm 8284 takes a similar perspective to Mitchell on the universal nature of the AP-Col­ lection as "theologische Auseinandersetzungsliteratur" .85 His associated article takes a particular interest in evidence of "name theology" as a theological pro­ gram at the closure of the AP-Collection. In particular, he argues that Psalm 82 declares YHWH as the true Elohim86 and that Psalm 83 presents the "Zielvision" of all nations recognising YHWH as the true God 87 Relying 78 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 58, 6 1 ; cf. Gerald Henry Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985), 209-214; cf. Brevard Childs, Theology of the Old Testament (London: SCM, 1979), 517. 79 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 68, 71. 80 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 192. More recently, Pavan finds "compositional unity" through the study of the motifs of memory and forgetting in Book III of the Psalter, wherein "the structural role of memory and forgetfulness on the Psalms' account of identity, 'Nith them fonning not only a book ' about' memory but also 'for' memory and, so to speak, 'against' forgetfulness" (Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 27, 29). 81 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 166. 82 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 184. 8 3 Mitchell, Eschatological Programme, 99, 172-173. 84 Christian Gers-Uphaus, Sterbliche Gotter - gottliche Menschen: Psalm 82 und seine friihchristlichen Deutungen, SBS 240 (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2019). 8 5 Gers-Uphaus, "Gott als Retter der Annen", 47. My translation: "theological confron­ tation literature". 86 Gers-Uphaus, "Gott als Retter der Annen", 42-43. My idiomatic translation: "focal point of poor-needy theology". 87 Gers-Uphaus, "Gott als Retter der Annen", 44.

Literature Survey

15

particularly on the work of Zenger,88 Gers-Uphaus' then seeks to demonstrate that Psalm 82 functions as an "annentheologische Zuspitzung" for the AP-Col­ lection, which points to a setting in the exilic crisis of poor-needy Israel. 89 In short, Gers-Uphaus' interest lies in finding a religious-historical anchor for the provenance of Psalm 82 and the possible compilation of the AP-Collection and thus centres on the circumstances of Cpost)exilic Judah. While I acknowledge these insights on theology of the poor and the name of God, this study focuses on the motifs of conflict and enmity as a basis for drawing AP together as a collection and will not address name theology.90 Following Mitchell's work, Jones proposes that God's anger might be ap­ peased by Israel through the act ofremembering. However, Jones finds that the central source of conflict for the faithful stems from the character of God it­ self,91 contrasting Mitchell's view that the hostile nations are central to the Psalter's eschatological program . Relying on Brown's key theological metaphors,92 Jones defines the God of AP as the sole just judge,93 the past and present saviour of collective Israel,94 and the creator, who steadies the disorder caused by foreign peoples (ps 75:4) and the cosmos CPs 77 : 1 6) by establishing sovereignty over all." Most im­ portantly, Jones claims that God's anger is perceived as being excessive.96 Ac­ cordingly, Jones interprets Israel's postexilic crisis as the unpredictability of God as reflected throughout AP. By contrast, Jones argues that AP present the faithful in a more predictable manner. Concerning the absence of direct reference to the role of king in AP, Jones claims "the temple and the earthly leader were no assurance that calamity could be averted."'7 Nevertheless, the faithful trust God to punish the wicked 88 Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2: Psalms 51-100, ed. Klaus Baltzer, trans. Linda M. Maloney (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005), 335-336. 89 Gers-Uphaus, "Gott als Retter der Annen", 48. 90 For an alternate view on the significance of God's name, see J. Gordon McConville, "God's 'Name' and God's ' Glory"', TynBul 30 (1979): 152. 9 1 Jones' terms "antagonist" and "faithful" equate roughly to my definition of "the Op­ ponent" and "the Collective" respectively, although they are not identical in all respects. For instance, the referent of the Collective according to my definition depends on the possible identity of the contemporary generation of Israel, whereas Jones' "faithful" refers to the subset of Israel which remains iIlllocent before God. 92 William P. Bro\VIl, Seeing the Psalms: A Theology of Metaphor (Louisville: Westminster JOM Knox, 2002); cited in Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 174. While relying on Bro\VIl might serve as a form of external control, its use constrains analysis on distinctive characteristics as to how God is presented in AP. 9 3 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 1 5 1 . 9 4 Jones, "The Psalms o f Asaph", 155-159. 9 5 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 160-162. 96 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 163. 97 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 174.

Chapter 1: Introduction

16

and save the righteous. Accordingly, the complaint to God as to how long the people will suffer serves to instruct the postexilic community to be patient.98 For Jones, it follows that "in contrast to the negative speech of the antagonist, the faithful let the deeds of God roll off their tongues."99 Jones accounts for the peripheral role of the "antagonist" as an external an­ noyance l()() Conceding that "the enemy in this collection [ . . . ] is difficult to define", Jones' antagonist accounts for all opposition against the Collective. Jones emphasises the repeated taunts of the Opponent (Pss 74: 1 0, 1 8, 22; 79:4, 12; 80:7) against both God and the Collective 101 The enemy-wicked antagonist is presented as having fundamental "misconceptions about God", particularly that God is either inactive, incapable or absent (pss 50:21; 73 : 1 1 ; 79: 1 0). In contrast, the righteous one acknowledges the active power of God. 102 Accord­ ingly, the role of the antagonist is less prevalent in Jones' study. 1.2.3 Summary This brief overview of prior scholarship shows that much of AP scholarship to date has been focused on its composition and the traditions giving rise to the AP-Collection and its function for the postexilic community. The AP-Collec­ tion comprises a mix of collective complaint and praise Psalms, containing the psalmists' historical interests. There is some textual evidence for the influence of a preexilic northern tradition, which emphasises divine judgment for a poor­ needy Collective, and a background reliance on the traditions of the Penta­ teuch. However, there is a lack of textual evidence in AP itself to support the existence of an Asaph-figure which might have served as the bearer of the Asaphite tradition through exile. Accordingly, the literature has focused on three key pieces of evidence for an AP-Collection: the common title �O��; the common rhetoric purpose of the Collective and common themes; and certain motifs, particularly conflict. How­ ever, the overarching function of the variegated nature of conflict in the AP­ Collection remains an open question. The methodology by which I intend to address this question is set out in the next chapter.

98 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 168. 99 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 167-168. 100 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 143-175. 101 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 163. 102 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 167.

Chapter 2

Methodology

The aim of this methodology chapter is to explain the key assumptions and models that will be used to analyse conflict and enmity in the AP-Collection. First, the gap in the literature is further explored, particularly the untested find­ ing from Illman's study that conflict is ubiquitous in the AP-Collection. Ill­ man's claim that there is no tradition behindAP has received far more scholarly criticism than his textual analysis. Second, the concepts of conflict and enmity are presented within a fonnal framework of the Psalter, particularly the key [OnTIS of lament and praise as well as its central theological concerns about theodicy and the failure of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang ("action-conse­ quence-construct"). In addition, the way the psalmists label and describe the Opponent is considered in terms of the literary functions of identifying and characterising opposition to the Collective and to God. Third, I propose a model for the evaluation of conflict patterns based upon binary relations be­ tween AP's major characters as detennined by semantic discourse analysis. Fourth, I outline the henneneutical assumption that underpins interpretations of the AP-Collection at the levels of individual psalms, of sub-groups thereof, and as a whole, that the interpretation of sub-groups of AP and the corpus as a whole requires some involvement of the hearer/reader to solve the inherent ambiguity in the AP-Collection. In short, the methodology chapter forms a nexus between conflict theory, psalms scholarship, discourse analysis, and her­ meneutics.

2 . 1 A Perceived Gap - Conflict and Enmity in the AP­ Collection

The literature survey indicates that there has been less attention to the text of the AP-Collection as an entire corpus. This is partly because it is a reasonably large corpus of twelve psalms, including the second longest in the Psalter (psalm 78). Further, more recent studies on the AP-Collection have not directly addressed Illman's claim that the motif of conflict and the theme of the Oppo­ nent pervade the AP-Collection. IUman makes a significant contribution by identifying variegated conflict as a common motif across AP. He approaches the text as disparate units because

18

Chapter 2: Methodology

he presupposes that there was no common Asaphite tradition and thus there could be no AP-Collection. Nevertheless, lUman's observation invites consid­ eration of how conflict and enmity function across the text of the AP-Collec­ tion. I intend to establish that the AP-Collection has a wider conception of enmity han simply referring to national-military enemies or Israelite lawbreakers. The psalmists and redactors of the AP-Collection break down the distinction be­ tween the in-group and the out-group! by treating both foreign national ene­ mies and the people of God as the Opponent of God, particularly in P2 (the second group of AP, comprising Psalms 77-81 and 50) 2 This observation com­ plements Weber's argument that divine judgment against God's people and against the nations are related to each other across the AP-Collection.3 There are some finer points in IUman' s analysis of the Opponent that require further consideration. First, although Illman's analysis suggests that the Oppo­ nent theme is only absent from Psalm 73 and 77, I would extend the theme to the entire corpus. In particular, Psalm 73 :4-12, 1 8-20, 27 refers to the Oppo­ nent of Israel, which is implicitly the one who remains aloof from God and is destined for ultimate abandonment Furthermore, Psalm 77:8-1 1 implies that the psalmist (for the community) is not in right relationship with God, and Psalm 77: 1 7-1 9 alludes to the universal rule of God after a supposed Cha­ oskampf, a cosmic battle between opposing forces. Second, Illman's claim that the Opponent of God extends beyond foreign nations is insightful. He characterises foreign nations as external enemies. However, these foreign enemies are not always the only Opponent in AP, for Israel is sometimes depicted as God's Opponent:4 Wir haben gesehen, dass Feinde im eigentlichen SiIlll fremde Volker sind, dass jene aber nicht die einzigen oder auch hauptsachlichen Gegner JHWHs sind. Diese kOIlllen auch das

1 From the perspective of the contemporary Collective for whom the psalmists write, I define the term "in-group" in the AP-Collection as the contemporary Collective and gener­ ations of Israel, in so far as this identity perceives itself as being both obedient to God's expectations and constituent ofthe people of God. Correspondingly, I define the term "out­ group" in the AP-Collection as the Opponent and those generations of Israel which fail to adhere to God's expectations and are not constituent ofthe people of God. This is congruent 'Nith Jo1m Elliott's understanding of out-group as a one "that is perceived by members of an in-group as holding different or competing interests and values from those of the in-group and that is designated by the in-group members as 'they', often with negative valuation" . Jo1m H. Elliott, What is Social-Scientific Criticism? (MiIllleapolis: Fortress, 1993), 132. 2 In Section 1 . 1 , I proposed that the AP-Collection be divided into three groups labelled "PI" (Psalms 73-76), "P2" (Psalms 77-81 with paired Psalm 50) and "P3" (Psalms 82-83). 3 Weber, Psalmen 11, 82. 4 Ilhnan, Thema und Tradition, 35.

A Perceived Gap - Conflict and Enmity in the AP-Collection

19

Gottesvolk selbst oder ein Teil dessen sein, und darm treten die Fremdvolker oft als dritter Part auf, und zwar als lNirkliches oder mogliches Objekt fur JHWHs rettendes Eingreifen.5 The external enemies, which are not in covenant relationship with God, can play a distinctive dual role as both the third-party instrument of God and the object of God's breaking in to save. Following from the previous citation, Ill­ man claims: Dies setzt darm voraus, dass das richtige Verhaltnis zwischen JHWH und seinem Volk wie­ derhergestellt worden ist oder es wird ein Mittel dazu.6 The Opponent theme applies then to more than just nations. As in the warnings of the prophets, the Opponent is both a tool of retribution and a trigger for the Collective's experiences of rejection by God in the face of the enemy, so that right relationship between God and the people of God might be restored. The most pertinent point in Illman's study of AP is found in its conclusion in relation to the conflict motif: Kein anderes Motiv als das ' Streit/Strafe' -Motiv karm in samtlichen Psalmen belegt werden. Dies zeigt nur, dass hinter jedem Psalm eine Form von 'Konflikt' liegt, der aber sehr ver­ schiedener Art sein karm.7 In short, Illman finds that divine judgment, conflict, and the Opponent are con­ stants throughout AP. Given Illman's aversion to viewing AP as an intention­ ally redacted collection, he discerns no pattern or reason for the seemingly cha­ otic presentation of the conflict conversation between the psalmists and God. The question remains as to whether a pattern can be identified to support a reading of the AP-Collection as if it were a hypothetical canon. Illman approaches the text presuming that these psalms were compiled with­ out a cohesive purpose or tradition. However, his criterion for a tradition is satisfied by the motif of conflict and associated judgment; that is, he finds ev­ idence of the conflict motif and Opponent theme in virtually every psalm in 5 Ilhnan, Thema und Tradition, 34-35. My translation: "We have seen that enemies are typically foreign nations, but those (nations) are not necessarily the only or even main op­ ponent of YHWH. These (opponents) can also be the people of God themselves or a part thereof, and then foreign nations often appear as a third player and indeed as an actual or potential object for the purpose ofYHWH's saving intervention." Cf. Weber, Psalmen II, 20-2 1 .

6 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 3 5 . My translation: "This (interpretation ofthe role ofthe Opponent as object of God's saving intervention) presupposes then that the correct relation­ ship between YHWH and his people has been re-established or it serves as a means towards this end." 7 Illman, Thema und Tradition, 63; cf. Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 34. My trans­ lation: "No motif other than 'conflict/punishment' is evidenced in all of the psalms (of Asaph). This shows only that behind every psalm [of Asaph] lies a conflict, however these (conflicts) are of very different types." Note that this appears to contradict Jacobson's short assessment of Illman's work (Memories ofAsaph, 6).

20

Chapter 2: Methodology

AP. Represented through concrete examples of the conflict motif, the Oppo­ nent theme is then the abstraction ultimately caused by God-as-judge. There­ fore, Illman has identified a unifying pattern of judgment through the theme of opposition and the motif of conflict within AP. He has also identified an inter­ esting change in the Opponent figure of AP; namely, Israel also becomes God's enemy, and the foreign national enemies become God's instruments. However, Illman has not noticed that this change in the Opponent figure tends to occur in the middle of the AP-Collection. I intend to explore Illman's findings, especially that the all-pervading con­ flict motif is related to more than only foreign nations.

2.2 Conflict and Enmity

In this section, I will describe the process of conflict in the Psalter generally and how the intensity of the state of enmity between God, the Opponent, and the Collective changes. A state of enmity is expressed in binary terms due to the strong emotional response evoked by a confrontation of interests.8 Conflict occurs between two parties and becomes set in a disequilibrium of enmity be­ tween those same two parties.9 A relationship still exists between the two par­ ties set in enmity with each other, albeit one in which one party seeks to negate the interests of the other. Importantly, the state of enmity is volatile and forces parties to resolve their perceived lack of dominance over a contested domain. Conflict changes the degree of intensity of enmity between parties. 2.2. 1 Conflict and Enmity in the Psalms The psalms are perhaps best represented as a prayerful processlO in "a [onn of human struggle against chaos - a struggle simultaneously against and with God."" The psalmists perceive the Opponent's acts of "physical violence" and

8 James A. Aho, This Thing of Darkness: A Sociology of the Enemy (Seattle: University of Washington, 1994), 28-32; cf. Sam Keen, Faces of the Enemy: Reflections of the Hostile Imagination (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986), 27. Aha refers to this process of"reifi­ cation" of the enemy as the out-group through processes of naming, legitimation, mythmak­ ing, sedimentation, and ritualisation. These processes set the enemy as a social product which enables fe-enactment by the in-group for its O\VIl purposes. 9 Cf. Medardus Brehl and Kristin Platt, eds., Feindschaft (Miinchen: Wilhelm Fink, 2003), 8. 10 Janowski, Arguing with God, 79. 11 Erich Zenger, A God o/Vengeance?: Understanding the Psalms ofDivine Wrath, trans. Linda M . Maloney (Louisville: Westminster Jo1m Knox, 1996), 74; cf. Notker Fllglister, OSB, "Von Mut zur ganzen Schrift: Zur vorgesehenen Eliminierung der sogenarmten Fluchpsalmen aus dem neuen Romischen Brevier", StZ 184 (1969): 187; cf. Craig C.

Conflict and Enmity

21

"psychological violence" as unjust.12 Moreover, the psalmists present the Op­ ponent's attempt to dominate God's inheritance as a theological crisisY On behalf of the Collective, the psalmists cry out to God for justice,14 so as to end "all domination and tyranny". 15 While genuine hatred is conveyed, the process prevents taking matters into one's own hands. Instead, the psalmists' retribu­ tive calls for violence against the Opponent are in all cases limited to that which is in accordance with God's own right of retribution.I6 The process of conflict in the Psalter is not limited to a particular geme or fonn17 and is evidenced in both complaint and praise psalms.I8 Westennann claims that these forms are sequentially related in that "lament in the Psalter revolver s1 around [a1 cry out of the depths, and the Psalms of praise declare that God has heard it"19 First, the lament or crisis in retrospect evokes the classic question of theod­ icy - "the complaint is often the only weapon in dealing with the incompre­ hensibility of evil."lO The psalmists participate in the depiction of the enemy in light of their inner experiences, including the shame of being in covenant relationship with God yet seen by others as being prevented from enjoying the benefits of that relationship.21 This description is necessarily subjective.22 Bor­ rowing from psychology, the self-projecting psalmists juxtapose short

Broyles, The Conflict of Faith and Experience in the Psalms: A Form-Critical and Theological Study (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1989), 224. 12 David G. Firth, Surrendering Retribution in the Psalms: Responses to Violence in the Individual Complaints (Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2005), 51, 139. Given "physical vio­ lence" is generally anticipated in the Psalter, I argue that the psalmists subsume "physical violence" into "psychological violence". 1 3 Klaus Schwarzwaller, "Die Feinde des Individuums in den Psalmen" (PhD diss., Universitat Hamburg, 1980), 1 14-118. Schwarzwaller makes this observation based on his claim that the denial of inheritance is found in in Deuteronomistic history and redactions, transpiring from class divisions within Israel as a result of cult centralisation. While this is a possible explanation for dominance over God's inheritance, it is not the only explanation. 1 4 Scott A. Ellington, Risking Truth: Reshaping the World through Prayers of Lament, PrTMS 98 (Eugene, OR: Picbvick, 2008), 8. 1 5 David W. Augsburger, Hate-Work: Working through the Pain and the Pleasures of Hate (Louisville: Westminster Jo1m Knox, 2004), 200. 1 6 Firth, Surrendering Retribution, 4, 50, 1 1 1 . 1 7 Robert Alter, "Psalms" in The Literary Guide to the Bible, ed. Robert Alter and Frank Kennode (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1990), 258-259. 18 W estennarm's basic psalm types "Will be used herein in this dissertation (Psalms 2, 2930). 1 9 Westennarm, Psalms 2, 1 1 , 155-157, 262. 20 Janowski, Arguing with God, 108. 21 W. Dennis Tucker, Jr., "Is Shame a Matter of Patronage in the Communal Laments?", JS0T 3 1 (2007): 468-469. 22 Cf. Brehl and Platt, eds., Feindschaft, 8.

22

Chapter 2: Methodology

interlacing images of the enemy with long detailed descriptions of inner tur­ rnoil.23 As a self-referential form of lamentation, projection serves to open up "a mental pathway for channelling impulses and emotions of hate. "24 This pro­ cess extends the perceived distance between God and the psalrnist25 and inten­ sifies the nature and actions of the Opponent.26 As a consequence, the theolog­ ical problem is dramatised in the text, particularly through pluralisation of the enemy figure,27 the "appeal to memory" as a means of intensifying destructive activity of the enemy towards GOd,28 and the use of direct discourse to put words in the mouth of the Opponent29 Such literary techniques seek to moti­ vate God to act.30 Second, the petition or report of deliverance is a reaction to the perceived failure of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang,3 1 evidenced by the overpowering position of the Opponent Koch's conception of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammen­ hang might be best defined as an ancient way of understanding how justice is meted out in a manner similar to the natural law established by God: actions and what they yield. Essentially, the actions of an individual within a group are inextricably related to a consequential fate, depending on whether that action is perceived as being benevolent or malevolent, within a theocentric worldview. Koch argues that, due to the inconsistency between faith and expe­ rience during times of suffering, the concept is brought into question over time (e.g. Ps 34:20; Eccl 7 : 1 5 ; Job 4:8).32 Janowski adds a sociological explanation of Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang33 in that it underpins the social responsibility 2 3 Othmar Keel, Feinde und Gottesleugner: Studien zum Image der Widersacher in den Individualpsalmen, SBM 7 (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1969), 63-64; cf. Wolfgang Stral3er, "Das Phanomen der Feindschaft in Ps 4 1 und 59: Eine Armaherung an die Feindthematik in den Klageliedern des Einze1nen" in Spuren eines Weges: Freundesgabe fur Bernd Janowski zumfunfzigsten Geburtstag am 30. April 1993, ed. Thomas Podella, et a1. (Heidelberg: UniversiUit Heidelberg, 1993), 23 1 . Stral3er's conclusion leads to the intri­ guing question as to whether the crisis creates the Opponent or the Opponent creates the crisis. 24 Augsburger, Hate-Work, 102-105. 2 5 Michaela Bauks, Die Feinde des Psalmisten und die Freunde Ijobs: Untersuchungen zur Freund-Klage im Alten Testament am Beispiel von Ps 22, SBS 203 (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2004), 128-130. 26 Janowski, Arguing with God, 75, 107. 27 Janowski, Arguing with God, 75, 107. 28 Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 4 1 . 2 9 Rolf A. Jacobson, Many Are Saying: The Function ofDirect Discourse in the Hebrew Psalter (New York: T&T Clark, 2004), 49, 57. 3 0 Westermann, Psalms 2, 57; cf. Ellington, Risking Truth, 8 1 . 3 1 Klaus Koch, "Gibt e s ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testament?" in Spuren des hebriiischen Denkens: Beitriige zur alttestamentlichen Theologie, ed. Bernd Janowski and Martin Krause (Neukirchen-V1uyn: N eukirchener Verlag, 1991), 68-72. 3 2 Koch, "Gibt es ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testament?", 94. 33 Janowski, Arguing with God, 145-146.

Conflict and Enmity

23

of an individual within the community in the presence of God.34 The nature of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang in HB is limited to earthly consequences in human experience, as opposed to later Cpossibly Hellenistic) extensions to in­ corporate eschatology." The petition then reflects both belief and doubt in God's natural justice for the benefit of the petitioner. The petition seeks to triangulate God into the crisis of perceived injustice to maintain divine honour,36 which is related to the circumstances bringing about the crisis. Taking the circumstances into account, Janowski proposes a pattern of petitions against a perceived Opponent associated with the psalmists' per­ ceived relationship with God: Ca) If the overpowering has been caused by God alone due to the psalmists' sin, wherein the enemy stands for the resulting chaos in the psalmists' lives, the psalmists seek God's salvation or protection; or (b) If the overpowering is an act of aggression by the enemy alone, wherein the psalmists claim genuine innocence, the psalmists call on God to destroy the enemy.37 When applied to the Collective, Janowski's model of opposition in the Psal­ ter is most helpful for the purpose of this thesis. It provides a framework for considering respectively: Ca) the reduction of the intensity of enmity between Israel and God; and Cb) the increase of the intensity of enmity between the Opponent and God. This model also distinguishes petitions seeking divine manifestations of salvific power for Israel from petitions that call for retributive justice against the Opponent In a similar manner, Slabbert makes a helpful contribution regarding the circumstances that underpin the type of expected petition: the faithful understands his relationship "With YHWH in terms ofthe "enemy's" relationship in respect ofYHWH and YHWH's negative relationship "With the "enemy" .3 8 In short, the positive relationship between God and Israel is fostered when the negative relationship between God and the Opponent is in focus. This new un­ derstanding leads the psalmists to call on God to execute divine justice and restore order, which is more than a hope that the Collective embeds within its 34 Bernd Janowski, "Die Tat kehrt zum Tater zuriick" in Die rettende Gerechtigkeit: Beitriige zur Theologie des Alten Testaments 2, ed. Bernd Janowski (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1999), 167. 35 Samuel L. Adams, Wisdom in Transition: Act and Consequence in Second Temple Instructions, ed. Jo1m J. Collins, et al., JSJSup 125 (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 4-8. 3 6 Dharmakkan Dhanaraj, Theological Significance of the Motif ofEnemies in Selected Psalms of Individual Lament (Gluckstadt: Augustin, 1992), 275; cf. Tucker, "Is Shame a Matter of Patronage?" , 465-480. 37 Janowski, Arguing with God, 73. 3 8 Martin J. Slabbert, "Coping in a Harsh Reality: The Concept of the 'Enemy' in the Composition of Psalms 9 and 10", HvTSt 71 (2015): 3.

24

Chapter 2: Methodology

own memory.39 However, the shifting concept of the people of God and the Opponent throughout the AP-Collection adds a further complication to these models. Accordingly, I intend to also consider a third relationship - that be­ tween Israel and the Opponent Third, the vow of praise or expression of trust displays a confidence in and expectation of divine deliverance, expressing the understanding "that God stands above the power of every possible enemy" 40 In light of this new expe­ rience of divine power, the psalmists resolve the initial angst by fixing them­ selves in enmity with the Opponent. This resolution serves as the impetus for completing the poetic work 4! The problem of the Opponent is theologically "stated, handled and solved" by shifting the focal point between the three main characters, so that the Opponent no longer serves as a focal point.42 Finally, an important henneneutic question arises as to whether the psalm­ ists and redactors are presenting a world either as it should be or as it should not be. My contention is that the AP-Collection presents the world as it should not be. The generation that follows the contemporary Collective, as the implied collective subject of the AP-Collection, is supposed to learn from the past gen­ eration by recognising how they reflect such behaviour. The so-called Deuter­ onornistic reforms underpin this reading of the AP-Collection43 and serve as a hermeneutical key to the world of the contemporary Collective and its

3 9 Augsburger, Hate-Work, 87. Augsburger rightly claims that "It is a great mistake to imagine that one can resolve traumas in a symbolic world. [ . . . ] Creativity helps us charmel the pain oftrauma into symbolic acts; it doesn't help us resolve it." 4 0 Particularly in relation to individual psalms per Claus Westermarm, Praise and Lament in the Psalms -Book One: The Praise ofGod in the Psalms, trans. Keith R. Crim and Richard N. Soulen (Atlanta: Jolm Knox, 1981), 81, 109. 4 1 Cf. Norbert Lohfink, "Projektion: Uber die Feinde des Kranken im alten Orient und in den Psalmen" in Unsere grofJen Warter: Das Alte Testament zu Themen dieser Jahre, ed. Norbert Lohfink (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1977), 155. 4 2 Dhanaraj, Motif ofEnemies, 275-277. 43 I intend to broadly adopt Cross' view ofthe Josianic Deuteronomist (2 Kings 22-23), whose reforms and the theme of judgment respond to the idolatry of the northern kingdom under Jeroboam I (1 Kgs 13:2-5, 14:7-16 cf. 2 Kgs 17:20-23). See Frank M. Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973), 278-285. Without "Wishing to advocate for any particular branch of Deuteronomistic theology or school of Deuteronomistic history, I accept that the Deuteronomistic historical books and the Josiah reforms provide important background to a possible original northern setting for at least parts of the AP-Collection. I also acknowledge that the so-called Deuteronomistic history may have been compiled from independently written books by redactors with alternate agendas, including the cult central­ isation, the alignment of Josiah "With a Davidic and/or Mosaic figure and the binding of his­ torical events from conquest to exile. Cf. Erik Eynikel, The Reform ofKing Josiah and the Composition of the Deuteronomistic History, ed. Adam S. van der Woude, OtSt 33 (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 357-364.

Conflict and Enmity

25

immediate successors.44 From this point of salvation history, today' s reader ought to consider the AP-Collection through a negative dialectic that looks upon the contemporary Collective from outside so as to be able to critique it.45 2.2.2 Identity and Character ofthe Opponent In this section. I set out my approach to the nature of the Opponent in the AP­ Collection. particularly the way the Opponent is labelled 46 In response to Hartenstein·s perspective on the labelling of enemies and the wicked in the Psalter. I will argue that the enemy and the wicked are expressions of the iden­ tity and character of the Opponent respectively. The Opponent incorporates both of these concepts which. at least in the AP-Collection. cannot be used as a simple means to distinguish foreign enemies from covenant breakers. In exploring the motivation behind the use of enemy images, Hartenstein perceives a more direct manner of labelling adversaries. Hartenstein distin­ guishes psalms in a more generalised manner, based on their invocations against either the �" � politically-ascribed adversarial outsider or the �I:i' reli­ giously-ascribed morally wicked figures which are manifest in the Opponent 47 Paying attention not only to the lexemes but also the overall text and context. Hartenstein extends this distinction between the objectives of different psalms on the basis that they contain the respective forms of the Opponent. According to Hartenstein. enemy psalms tend to be dated earlier and have the underlying purpose of seeking dominance over an external Opponent, whereas those psalms that lament over the wicked seek the execution of divine justice and tend to increasingly dominate postexilic psalms with an internal orientation.48 While this division is helpful and distinguishes the nature of opposition in many psalms, it is disputable whether such a clear criterion can be relied upon to date psalms or to determine the nature of the Opponent without reference to other contextual factors. 44 Cf. Anthony C. Thiselton, "Situating a Theoretical Framework: Biblical Studies and Theoretical Hermeneutics" in Thiselton on Hermeneutics: The Collected Works and New Essays ofAnthony Thiselton, ed. Anthony C. Thiselton (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 27-29. My hermeneutical assumptions are generally built upon Ricoeur's idea of "projected worlds" which are creatively retrieved in light of reception history. See also Section 2.4. 45 Cf. Theodor W. Adorno, Negative Dialektik (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1966). 335. 4 6 "Opponent" has been defined as an entity which by act or attitude opposes the "Will and purpose ofthe beholder. 47 FriedheIm Hartenstein, '''Damit nicht spricht mein Feind: Ich habe ilm llberwllitigt! ' (Psalm 13,5): Zur theologischen Funktion der Feindbi1der in den Psalmen Israels" in Feindschaft: Theologische und philosophische Perspektiven, ed. Michael Moxter and Markus Firchow (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2013), 22; cf. Keel, Feinde und Gottesleugner, 129-13 1 . 4 8 Hartenstein, "Damit nicht", 2 1 .

26

Chapter 2: Methodology

Hartenstein does qualify his observations. First, Hartenstein concentrates his study on the individual psalms. Nevertheless, he advances his theory of a dual enemy image distinction beyond individual psalm forms to communal psalms and Hymns of Zion49 Second, Hartenstein acknowledges that outsider and wicked figures may appear concurrently. For instance, Hartenstein notes that the term C'1l in acrostically-conjoined Psalms 9-10 is associated with both �'1� and �I:i' types.50 Nevertheless, he defends his theory in such cases (e.g. Psalms 3, 7, 9, 17, 3 1 , 37, 55, 68, 7 1 , 92, 1 06, 1 1 9 and 139) by explaining that the uses are differentiated on semantic and religious-historical grounds. In particular, the question of theodicy is argued to be associated with an increase in the pro­ portion of references to the wicked in supposedly postexilic and redacted psalms.51 In light of the distinction between the outer ��j� and inner l)�' enemy image groups, there is a risk one rn .ight infer that ��j� refers to foreign enemies whereas l.lt!i, refers to the wicked within the postexilic community. Even at a cursory level, the regular use of �I:i' in different forms of individual and com­ munal (or collectivised) psalms demonstrates that the use of a particular lex­ erne cannot be the sole determinant ofthe nature of the Opponent; for example, one cannot simply assume that SJ�' is associated with what Gerstenberger calls in Psalm 75 "groups within the congregation", 52 not at least without due regard to the text and context. A closer look at the background to this enemy image distinction is war­ ranted. Hartenstein bases his study upon Keel's study of enemy images, which is also limited to individual psalmsY Keel makes a significant contribution in highlighting there are no fewer than 94 terms that serve to describe the enemy in the individual psalms. The main outcome of Keel's textual study of enemy image in the individual psalms, alongside other prophetic and poetic writings, is that these images may be divided into two groups. Whereas the �'1�-group represents pure opposition (86 instances), the SJ�'-group represents an adver­ sary determined by moral worth (95 instances).54 However, it is pertinent to note that, ofthose 94 lexemes and lexical formulae, 69 were excluded from the enemy image groupings for being neutral; that is, there are many terms that Keel decided did not support his distinction between these enemy image

49 Hartenstein, "Damit nicht" , 34-35. 5 0 Hartenstein, "Damit nicht", 35, footnote 4 1 . 5 1 Hartenstein, "Damit nicht", 22. I note that the vast majority of �" K instances appear in

Books I-III of the Psalter. However, it is also the case that these Books are dominated by individual psalms. 5 2 Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Psalms and Lamentations: Part 2, FOTL 15 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 83. 53 Hartenstein, "Damit nicht", 22; cf. Keel, Feinde und Gottesleugner, 93-98. 54 Keel, Feinde und Gottesleugner, 129.

27

Conflict and Enmity

groups. 55 Furthennore, Keel limited his study to lexemes and noun phrases, which does not take into account how the underlying morpheme is used in other syntactic forms. Accordingly, Keel's findings need further testing before being applied across larger sections, fonns or gemes in the Psalter. Let us consider the use of those same tokens identified by Keel of �" � and �I:i'-groups in the AP-Collection:" Table 1 : Tokens of �" � and �I:i'-groups as identified by Keel Psalm 50 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83

Total

�'K

2 i:;l:

3

�'1K 2 ii::S

l.i�i K:Jtl

2

3

7

5

2

2

Total 0 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 3 0 2 16

l.i�l

3 ��;,

1 �?l

2 2 3

2 8

2

2

'I

Total 1 3 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 13

It is observed fhat most psalms in the AP-Collection can be distinguished based on the lexeme groupings identified by Keel. In particular, four tokens are found in both Psalms 75 and 78, wherein those of the fonner psalm are associated exclusively with the �I:i'-group and those of the latter psalm with the �" �­ group. Other AP with fewer than four tokens can be divided between the �" �­ group (Psalms 80 and 83) and the �I:i'-group (Psalms 50, 73 and 82). However, no tokens are found in Psalms 76, 77 and 79. Also, in Psalms 74 and 8 1 the majority of tokens are found in the ��j�-group yet also contain tokens from the Keel, Feinde und Gottesleugner, 108-109. loharmes Sclmocks undertakes a similar study, focusing on the enemy in AP and rely­ ing on Keel's work. See loharmes Sclmocks, '" . . . bis ich einsah ihr Ende' (Ps 73,17): Die Feinde und ihr Schicksal in der Asaf-Komposition" in Gegner im Gebet: Studien zu Feindschaft und Entfeindung im Buch der Psalmen, ed. loharmes Sclmocks and Kathrin Liess, HBS 9 1 (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2018), 264. Importantly, Sclmocks chooses his o\VIl tokens to divide the two types of opposition, which results in a clearer distinction between types of opposition lNith the sole exception of Psalm 82. While Sclmocks does not give reasons for omitting three distinctive lexemes in Keel's study including 1;l�:J, ir, and K:Jtl, he rightly adds two other distinctive lexemes into the �'1K-group including Cl'1:J (Psalms 78-8 1, 83) and po (Psalms 79-80). 55 56

28

Chapter 2: Methodology

�I:i'-group, particularly the term ��l ("fool" in Psalm 74) and '1 ("strange" gods in Psalm 81) .'7 Furthermore, the respective contexts of Psalm 75, which pronounces the impending universal judgment of God, and Psalm 78, which is on the whole an indictment against Ephraim, are not easily reconciled with the enemy image categories into which they fall. Finally, it is surprising that the AP-Collection, which is characterised by the motif of conflict, would have so few tokens. Note also that the semantic domain of �I:i' is by its nature a symbolic de­ scriptor of the object in question. The morpheme �I:i' describes the quality of an animate object as "wicked" or with "evil intent" as well as being "hostile to the surrounding community". 58 There are relatively few tokens in nominal and verbal forms, including 46 instances as the abstraction "wickedness" (l)�":). or ;r��,) and 34 instances as the verb "to condemn" or "to act wickedly". By contrast, 262 tokens of the �I:i' morpheme are adjectival by nature, mostly ren­ dered as the substantive noun ("the wicked one[ s]"), which by its grammatical nature describes the quality of the animate object" In the AP-Collection, all tokens of �I:i' fall into this latter class. Accordingly, there are good syntactic grounds to support the claim that �I:i' is a quality of malevolent character, ra­ ther than an indication of whether an Opponent is within or beyond the Collec­ tive. By way of contrast, it is commonly understood that ��j� and its synonyms connote the identity of the enemy, opponent or adversary.60 In the AP-Collec­ tion, all instances of ��j� are substantive forms of the participle. In most cases, the tokens are found in construct [onn with a pronominal suffix (i.e. "the ones making enemies with [generally, Israel or God]"), which means the psalmists are referring to a relationship of negative association between the subject and an object of the participle. Accordingly, there is a relational aspect to the use of �" � in the AP-Collection, yet the lexeme only labels the relationship as be­ ing in enmity.

57 Whilst it could be argued that ir is better classed in the �" K-group as the underlying figure described is "strange" gods, God's complaint in Psalm 8 1 is made against the charac­ ter of the Collective as the internal Opponent, who gladly accept "strange" gods in their midst. Accordingly, I maintain ir as a distinctive lexeme in the l.i�i-group. 5 8 Eugene Carpenter and Michael A. Grisanti (#8399) in Willem A. VanGemeren, New International Dictionary ofOld Testament Theology & Exegesis (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 3: 120 1 ; cf. LudlNig Kohler and Walter Baumgartner, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 1295; Francis Bro\Vl1, Samuel R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs, Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977), 957. 5 9 HALOT, 1295; cf. Paul JOllon and Takamitsu Muraoka, A Grammar ofBiblical Hebrew (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2006), 1 5 1 . 6 0 Tyler F. Williams (#366--#368) in NIDOTTE, 1:365; HALOT, 38; BDB, 33.

Relational cathetii

29

I submit that Hartenstein's extension of Keel's enemy Image categories needs to be tested beyond the lexical level, which cannot serve as the primary means by which the religious-historical setting of a psalm is determined. In­ deed, for the purpose of this study, both enemy and wicked are taken to be functionally equivalent terms which both designate the out-group. It follows that tenns used to describe the Opponent cannot be used to deter­ mine whether the identity of object is notionally within the psalmist's concep­ tion of Israel (the internal Opponent) or outside it (the external Opponent) .'! Putting this in Hartenstein's terms, the l)�' enemy image group constitutes a "Feindbeschreibung " ("enemy description") as contrasted with the "Feindbewaltigung" of the �" � group ("coping with the enemy").62 Nonethe­ less, these classes tell us little about the identity of the Opponent; this infor­ mation must come from the text itself. For at least the purpose of analysing the AP-Collection, I will argue that �I:i' is a central and generic fonn of opposition which bears the character of the Opponent By contrast, the wide variety of tenns denoting enemies designate the identity of the Opponent

2 . 3 Relational cathetii

The text-analytical approach adopted in this study is to analyse oppositions by concentrating on particular identities and roles in the text and then compare and contrast those oppositions between the psalms within the same collection, which are shown to have textual links fonning a unity.63 The analysis will re­ veal changes in the dynamic of those oppositions, both within each psalm and within the AP-Collection respectively. Dhanaraj sets out a model to analyse "dialectical relationships" between God, the "Petitioner", and the "Enemy". These relationships are set out a tri­ angular paradigm, wherein each party is set as a focal point in Dhanaraj 's model. The "rotatory movement" of the apex of this paradigmatic triangle fo­ cuses the reader on text from the perspective of that subject, commencing with the enemies and depicted in the Figure below:64

The key distinction between the "internal" and "external" Opponent is that there is evidence of a past or present covenant relationship between the internal Opponent and God, at least in the psalmists' eyes. 62 Hartenstein, "Damit nicht", 39. 63 Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 22. 64 Dhanaraj , MotifofEnemies, 2; cf. Westennarm, Psalms 2, 48. 61

30

Chapter 2: Methodology

Enemy

God Figure 2:

Petitioner

Dhanaraj 's triangular paradigm with subj ect foci in individual laments

Dhanaraj chooses specific individual lament psalms to support his argument and finds a predictable pattern of these dialectical relations, summarised as follows: (a) the Enemy oppresses the Petitioner; (b) at the Petitioner's call, God punishes the Enemy; and (c) the Petitioner assumes God's power position." By contrast, the AP-Collection comprises psalms of very different types 66 Based on the conflict literature relating to binary oppositions set in enmity, I propose that Dhanaraj's model ought to be rotated so that there is no apex of the triangle in focus. Instead, it is the cathetw; (i.e. the "leg" of the triangle, pI. cathetii) that ought to be the central relationship of interest; that is, the rela­ tionship between any two of the maj or characters is in focus at any one point in the text. The model is therefore bi-directional; that is, the focus can shift from one binary relationship to any other. Further, the nature of the AP-Col­ lection is such that, on the whole, it is directed to and on behalf of the Collec­ tive, as opposed to the individual Petitioner. I seek to take a relational stance to conflict without presuming that the Op­ ponent begins as subject. The relations used here can be depicted as in the Fig­ ure below:

6 5 Dhanaraj, Motif of Enemies, 276. 66 No AP were included in Dhanaraj 's study.

Relational cathetii

31

� Opponent

Collective

God 3: Proposed relational paradigm comprising binary negative relations in collectivised psalms of mixed form

Figure

In the remainder of this section, a description of the method used to associate text with relational cathetii will be outlined. This study leverages techniques from Critical Discourse Analysis (herein "CDA") to explore "how language contributes to the domination of some peo­ ple over others",67 particularly at institutional level where discourse is rou­ tinely reproduced.68 I seek to describe power relations in the AP-Collection by means of structural, rhetorical and semantic strategies.69 Given the text of the AP-Collection is found in one key source document and arguably represents one perspective on power relations in its setting, it is insufficient to interpret and evaluate the social processes and effects, which are typical of a CDA ap­ proach. There are three main ways that CDA is used from a practical perspec­ tive.

67 Norman Fairclough, Language and Power (London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2015), l . 68 Tellll A. van Dijk, "Discourse, Power and Access" in Texts and Practices: Rea dings in Critical Discourse Analysis, ed. Cannen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard and Malcolm Coulthard, Discourse, Power and Access (London: Routledge, 1996), 84. 69 Cf. Paul Baker and Sibonile Ellece, Key Terms in Discourse Analysis (London: Continuum International, 2011), 26. Baker and Ellece observe that the description stage of CDA is consistent with Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar, which distinguishes be­ tween theme (prominent) and rheme (supporting) textual elements. See Michael A. K. Halliday, Halliday's Introduction to Functional Grammar (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014), 88-105.

32

Chapter 2: Methodology

First, seven categories of power relations are discerned in the text.70 Set out in the table below is a summary of the categories of power relations, together with the mapping of semantic roles:71 Table 2: Taxonomy of power relations with discourse-level semantic roles #

Aspect of power relations

Discourse-level semantic roles (Subject - Object)

In-group polemic: victim labelling

Opponent as Stimulus Collective as Experiencer _

God as Theme

(various)

2

In-group polemic: divine character

3

In-group polemic: divine empowerment

4

In-group polemic: divine manifestation (salvific)

5

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Agent-Opponent)

Opponent as Agent Collective as Pa­ tient (God as Target)

6

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Experiencer-Opponent)

God as Stimulus Opponent as Expe­ riencer

7

Out-group polemic: divine manifestation (retributive)

God as Agent

_

God as Agent

_

Collective as Recipient

_

Collective as Benefi­ ciary _

_

God as Agent

_

Opponent

as

Patient

#1 In-group polemic: victim labelling is text in which the psalmists ascribe victimhood on the Collective's behalf on the understanding that it is not at fault. The Opponent serves as the Stimulus for such an expression on behalf of the Collective as Experiencer. In Psalm 77:2-7, for example, the individual psalmist opens lNith a lament of anguish over the crisis of God's perceived inactivity. #2 In-group polemic: divine character is text that describes the faithfulness and right­ eousness of God as Theme. The Opponent serves as the Stimulus for such an expression on behalf of the Collective as Experiencer. For example, Psalm 50: 1-6 opens lNith a summons which extols the character of God the righteous judge as present, mighty, and fierce in anger. #3 In-group polemic: divine empowerment is constituted by text that ostensibly affirms God's equipping (as Agent) of the Collective as Recipient to protect itself. An example is found in Psalm 78:67-72, wherein the tribe of Judah is chosen as the people of God, Mount Zion as God's dwelling place and David as God's human hands through which God's people would be led.

70 The categorisation ofthe text, which supports my textual analysis, is mainly found my working papers and is occasionally referred to in the summaries of oppositions throughout the dissertation. 7 1 To avoid repetition, the use of capitalised terms including Agent, Beneficiary, Experi­ encer, Instrument, Patient, Recipient, Stimulus (Source), Target (Goal) and Theme herein lNill be assumed to represent discourse-level semantic roles lNithout introduction. For further information on semantic roles, see Nick Riemer, Introducing Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 338.

Relational cathetii

33

#4 In-group polemic: divine manifestation (salvific) is the petitioning for God as Agent to act for the Collective as Beneficiary. The best example is found in Psalm 78, particularly lNith reference to divine provision in the desert for the wandering generations (vv23-29) and the recount of deliverance of the Israelites in the exodus (vv52-55). #5 Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Agent-Opponent) is the labelling and dramati­ sation ofthe Opponent figure and one of the two most prominent categories in the AP-Col­ lection. This out-group is not only an entity external to Israel, but also generations or groups from within Israel who deviate from the psalmists' conception of the true God-fearing con­ temporary Collective, especially in Psalms 78-80. In this category, the Opponent acts as Agent, and the object is the Collective as Patient. God is occasionally the indirect target of deviant activity, particularly in P 1 and P3. A classic example is found in the denunciation of the lNicked in Psalm 73:4-12. #6 Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Experiencer-Opponent) is the attribution of the Collective (or past generations thereof) as the out-group deviant. This aspect of power rela­ tions is distinguished from #5 above, as it only reflects the nature ofinternal Opponent, lNith which the psalmists can empathise. It is also distinct from #1 above. In #6, the psalmists ascribe deviant status on the Collective's behalf on the understanding that it is at fault. The experience of such deviant labelling also affects the internal state of the current Collective in that its o\VJl identity is tainted by deviant forebears. The subject is God as Stimulus, and the object is the Opponent as Experiencer for this category. The best example is found in the divine oracle ofjudgment against all generations of Israel in Psalm 8 1 :8-13. #7 Out-group polemic: divine manifestation (retributive) is both the metaphorical demon­ isation and dehumanisation of the relatively powerless Opponent in contrast to the mighty God and the historical remembering-celebrating or petitioned-for future acts of retribution against the Opponent. Text is categorised as such where the semantic discourse role of the subject is God as Agent, and the objectis Opponent as Patient. For example, in Psalm 83: 1018 the psalmists call upon God to exact retribution on God's o\VJl enemies.

Second, the text is divided into the seven categories of power relations, deter­ mined based on the semantic roles at discourse level. In the first instance, these divisions distinguish between the psalmists' expressions of victim hood, devi­ ancy, and divine power. These concepts require further explanation. The psalmists' attribution of victim hood is argued by Cottrill in the individ­ ual psalms to be an exercise of "socio-rhetorical power" as it is associated with an expression of trust in God's combative power.72 In the collective psalms, the right to speak represents the access of the psalmists, rather than the Collec­ tive. For the purpose of this study, I consider the psalmists to be writing as mediators of God's message for the ultimate benefit of the Collective, albeit through a process of learning the hard way. Keel suggests that prevailing living conditions might have required people to consider others collectively more than we might today." While the image of the Collective as victim provides the appropriate setting for appealing to God in trus� the attribution of

72 Amy c. Cottrill, Language, Power and Identity in the Lament Psalms ofthe Individual, OTE 493 (London: Continuum International, 2008), 88, footnote 94. 73 Keel, Feinde und Gottesleugner, 56, 62, 75.

34

Chapter 2: Methodology

victim hood is triggered by extreme poles of expressions of trust and fear, which are necessarily subjective. Deviant labelling is a natural response of the self-perceived victim to fears and anxiety within a social or political setting74 by stereotyping and degrading an object to reinforce social abnonnalities?5 For the purpose of this study, de­ viant labelling is applied to both the Opponent and certain generations ofIsrael. However, deviancy is not applied to God as the expression of God-as-deviant would constitute an irreversible act of blasphemy, voiding the text of its theo­ logical underpinnings. The definition of divine power is based on Krawelitzki's more recent mon­ ograph "Gottes Macht im Psalter". Krawelitzki determines three foundational forms of divine power through her analysis of its underlying lexemes in HB: divine ernpowennent of the Collective (or its leader); divine characteristic re­ flecting God's good essence; and divine manifestation through divine acts of salvation or retribution, implying God's alrnightiness?6 Third, the categories of power relations are matched to the relational cathetii between Opponent-Collective, Opponent-God, and Collective-God. These re­ lational cothetii will reveal the pattern of those power relations and how they tend to shift throughout the respective collections. The dominant conflict pat­ terns will fonn a significant part of the exegesis and commentary. 2.3. 1 Opponent-Collective cothetus This relational cathetus encapsulates the psalmists' perception of how direct and intense the Collective's enmity is with the Opponent. The intensity of en­ mity on this cothetus will be shown to be inversely related the Collective's sense of inclusion in God's promises. The Opponent-Collective opposition is often but not exclusively contained in lament or crisis-in-retrospect text blocks about the perceived crisis of injustice:

74 Lloyd K. Pietersen, "Despicable Deviants: Labelling Theory and the Polemic of the Pastorals", Sociology of Religion 58 (1997): 347; cf. Harold Garfinkel, "Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies", American Journal of Sociology 6 1 (1956): 422-424. 75 Michael Petrunik, "The Rise and Fall of "Labelling Theory" : The Construction and Destruction of a Sociological Strawman", Canadian Journal ofSociology 5 (1980): 214; cf. Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology ofDeviance (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1963), 14. 76 Krawelitzki, Gottes Macht, 70; cf. Georg Zenkert et al., "Macht" in Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart: 5. L-M (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002), 64 1 .

Relational cathetii

35

Table 3: Opponent-Collective cathetus #

Aspect of power relations

Discourse-level semantic roles (Subject - Object)

In-group polemic: victim labelling

Opponent as Stimulus Collective as Experiencer _

5

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Agent-Opponent)

Opponent as Agent Collective tient (God as target)

6

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Experiencer-Opponent)

God

_

as

as

Pa­

Stimulus Opponent as Expe­ riencer _

The recognition of Israel' s complicity in its suffering results in the preva­ lence of a comparison between categories #5 and #6 (e.g. Psalms 78-81), whereas psalms that maintain the innocence of Israel tend to contrast catego­ ries #5 and #1 (e.g. Psalm 74). 2.3.2 Opponent-God cathetus This relational cathetus comprises discourse that expresses the psalmists' per­ ceptions of the Opponent inciting divine anger and also the divine capacity and faithfulness of God in exacting divine vengeance. The Opponent-God opposi­ tion is often but not exclusively related to petitions for retributory justice and an expression of confidence in God's ultimate beneficence for Israel: Table 4: Opponent-God cathetus #

Aspect of power relations

5

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Agent-Opponent)

7

Out-group polemic: divine manifesta­ tion (retributive)

Discourse-level semantic roles (Subject - Object) Opponent as Agent - Collective tient (God as Target)

as

Pa­

God as Agent - Opponent as Patient

2.3.3 Collective-God cathetus This relational cathetus contains the discourse that expresses the psalmists' perception of Israel' s relationship with God, in light of their perception of the divine capacity of God to act in the interest of those who ascribe to the cove­ nant The Collective-God cathetus is often but not exclusively related to the opening invocation or summons, the petition for divine intervention for the benefit of the Collective, and the expression of confidence:

Chapter 2: Methodology

36

Table 5: Collective-God cathetus #

Aspect of power relations

Discourse-level semantic roles (Subject - Object)

2

In-group polemic: divine character

God as Theme - (various)

3

In-group polemic: divine empowerment

God as Agent - Collective as Recipient

4

In-group polemic: divine manifestation (salvific)

God as Agent - Collective as Beneficiary

6

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Experiencer-Opponent)

God as Stimulus - Opponent as Experiencer

2.3.4 Summary a/Relational cathetii Set out below is a table which summarises the detailed explanations above re­ lating how particular blocks of text express the increase (+) or reduction (-) of intensity of enmity between the key opposing parties; that is. between the Op­ ponent and the Collective (O/C). the Opponent and God (O/G). and the Col­ lective and God (C/G): Table 6: Summary of relational cathetii ole

O/G

elG

#

In-group polemic: victim labelling (Opponent as Stimulus - Collective as Experiencer)

+

+

Power relations (with discourse-level semantic roles)

+ + +

2

In-group polemic: divine character (God as Theme - (various))

3

In-group polemic: divine empowerment (God as Agent - Collective as Recipient)

4

In-group polemic: divine manifestation (salvific) (God as Agent - Collective as Beneficiary)

5

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (Opponent as Agent - Collective as Patient (God as Target))

6

Out-group polemic: deviant labelling (God as Stimulus - Opponent as Experiencer)

7

Out-group polemic: divine manifestation (retributive) (God as Agent - Opponent as Patient)

Legend: "+" sign denotes that this discourse type increases enmity in the relevant binary relationship "-" sign denotes that this discourse type decreases enmity in the relevant binary relationship "OIC" denotes Opponent-Collective cathetus "O/G" denotes Opponent-God cathetus "C/G" denotes Collective-God cathetus

ReadingAP as the AP-Collection

37

2 . 4 Reading AP as the AP-Collection

The purpose of this section is to set out, first, an expanded definition of the AP-Collection and, second, the hermeneutical assumptions underpinning the proposed strategy to read its constituent psalms at different levels of interpre­ tation. It was mentioned in Chapter 1 that the AP-Collection comprises all of the psalms identified by the common title �O�� and indicia of Asaphite tradi­ tions. The majority of this study comprises analysis of each individual AP as a text in its own right. The cotext and context of neighbouring psalms are also considered,77 broadening the scope of analysis to theological and thematic commonalities. Both approaches to biblical studies are common in Asaphite scholarship and might be associated with the traditional quest for authorial in­ tention from a supposedly objective text.78 However, a less conventional mode of reading is also adopted whereby the AP-Collection as a whole becomes a hypothetical canon bearing a narrative principally for a prototype hearer, being the postexilic generations following on from those represented by the Collec­ tive. In recognising the roles of elliptical authors and hypothetical hearers, it is important to set out a proposed strategy for reading the AP-Collection as hy­ pothetical canon and then how that might be interpreted by today's reader. First, the object of attention of this study is the AP-Collection, comprising Psalms 50 and 73-83 and justified mainly on tradition-historical evidence. Only very limited archaeological evidence is available to demonstrate the ex­ istence of a collection in antiquity. For instance, sources dated to the first cen­ tury CE found at Qumran and Masada show six AP (psalms 76-78 and 8 1-83) in their relative positions?9 It follows that most of the psalms not accounted for at Qumran or Masada are also found together, namely Psalms 50, 73-75 and 79-80. This at least gives some perspective of a relatively ordered collec­ tion, albeit well after its supposed redaction in an early postexilic setting. A tradition-historical approach provides better justification for the AP-Col­ lection. It has been established by Wilson that the incipits of ANE literature and superscripts in the Hebrew Psalter have a descriptive function in its organ­ isation.80 In relation to AP, the title �O�� then serves as a key identifier, provid­ ing a textual basis for a tradition underpinning the AP-Collection, albeit subject to the question as to the redaction history of the psalm titles. In addition, the overarching God-as-judge theme, the socio-historically informed prophetic 77 Cf. Peter Cotterell, "Linguistics, Meaning, Semantics, and Discourse Analysis" in A Guide to Old Testament Theology and Exegesis: The Introductory Articles from the New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, ed. Willem A. VanGemeren (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999), 136. 78 Cotterell, "Linguistics, Meaning, Semantics, and Discourse Analysis", 140-142. 79 Davage, Formation ofthe 'Book' ofPsalms, 97, 99-10 1 . 8 0 Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter, 53, 140.

Chapter 2: Methodology

38

and didactic functions responding to the fall of the northern kingdom and the AP superscripts provide, according to Nasuti, necessary external controls to determine an "Asaphite" tradition.81 Nasuti' s own study then finds strong links between Psalms 50, 73-74 and 77- 8 1 , and the "Ephraimite" traditions found in Exodus 15, Deuteronornistic history, Deuteronomy, proto-Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Hosea, establishing a "common language" between these texts by means of linguistic analysis.82 Despite the etiological limitations of his textual analy­ sis and the limitation that AP cannot be linked with absolute certainty to the tradition of the Asaphite temple singers referred to by the Chronicler (1 Chr 6:24),83 Nasuti finds an internal Ephraimite tradition in AP extending either side of the exilic period, upon which the AP-Collection might be based. In short, the AP-Collection has sufficient tradition-historical evidence to justify that it may at least be contemplated as a text in its own right as a whole. Second, the question remains as to the manner by which and the extent to which a contemporary reading of the AP-Collection as a whole interacts with its supposed authors and original hearers. I intend to address this from two main perspectives. From a religious-historical perspective, Weber's diachronic framework of the bearers of the Asaphite tradition before and after exile con­ templates the role of psalmist author/redactor and the Collective hearer, albeit one which is well hidden within possible redaction layers of the text, but none­ theless one fonning a collection. Iser's configurative reading process is then advanced as a narrativally informed approach for considering the meaning and significance of the AP-Collection as a whole. Iser's main idea is that a reader builds and breaks down theories of coherence in interpreting the ambiguities of a given text. Adopting these approaches in tandem, this study seeks out Asaphite voices while recognising that those voices are only recorded in text, to be revivified within the reader during the act of reading. The identity of the psalmists and Collective of AP is not precisely defined but rather approximated through the shifts between and perhaps within each AP. Weber's "Vorexilisch-nachexilisches (' diachrones') Verstehenspara­ digma" provides an epoch-based textual framework for considering the au­ thors, redactors, and hearers. The approach recognises the interleaving effect of the northern kingdom tradition being brought to the southern kingdom as well as the fall of Jerusalem and its impact on collective hope and the recon­ stituting of the Asaphite tradition at the time of the Second Temple.84 In the first epoch, the preexilic foundations of the AP-Collection are thought to arise from a northern Levitical tradition and be adopted into a southern kingdom setting, arguably in the time ofHezekiah (c. 700 BCE), corresponding to Asaph 81 82 83 84

Nasuti, Tradition History, 50-51, 56; cf. Buss, "Asaph and Korah", 387-388. Nasuti, TradiiionHistory, 1 1 8 . Ilhnan, Thema und Tradition, 63--64. Weber, "Asafl Asafitenl Asafpsalmen", 8-10; Weber, PsalmenII, 20.

ReadingAP as the AP-Collection

39

the Seer in the account of the Chronicler (2 Chr 29:30). This account both pre­ sents the expectation of national supremacy (e.g. Psalm 76) and contextualises the collapse of the northern kingdom into the southern kingdom 's own setting as an object lesson in the consequences of failure to pass on testimony of God's wondrous works (e.g. Psalm 78). The second epoch is argued to be the contex­ tualisation of AP into an exilic and perhaps early postexilic paradigm of un­ derstanding, wherein the hope of Judah in the Davidic human-shepherd in Psalm 78:70-72 is sharply juxtaposed with the desecration of the Jerusalem temple and the people of Judah in Psalm 79:2-3 at the fall of the southern kingdom in c. 587 BCE." In the third epoch, it is hypothesised that AP may have taken their fonn as a collection and part of the so-called messianic Psalter, perhaps playing a role as the collective emergency, closing the so-called Elo­ histic Psalter as well as perhaps serving as the impetus for the "YHWH as king" psalms and also deutero-Asaph in Book IV in a Second Temple setting.86 These three broad epochs are representative of the temporal and spatial dis­ tance between bearers of the Ephraimite tradition underpinning AP and what I would render the prototype hearer; that is, the future generations can look back at exile and learn from that which is purported to have brought exile about as history. By contrast, the Collective represents the generations which heard the testimony of the fall of the northern kingdom, held high hopes for the southern kingdom, and experienced having those hopes dashed by the fall of Jerusalem and the exile. The Collective is therefore the identification figure of the AP­ Collection, from whom the deuteronomistically influenced didactic program is derived. It is the failings of the Collective that become the learnings of the prototype reader. Presuming that the AP-Collection as a whole is a text written for a postexilic hearer into which we might also inquire, the question then arises as to how the study interacts with that prototype reader and the hermeneutical assumptions that underpin the proposed reading approach. According to Thiselton, "the ca­ pacity of texts to shape and transform readers become (sic) actualized within the temporal horizons of readers."87 It is incumbent upon us then to consider how the horizons of the prototype reader and subsequent readers might be rec­ onciled. Following Heidegger's notion that the Vorgriff ("preconception") is not able to be objectively removed from the process of exegesis,88 Gadamer proposes the idea that the reader participates (or more specifically, "plays") in 8 5 Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 137. 86 Christoph Rosel, Die messianische Redaktion des Psalters: Studien zu Entstehung und Theologie der Sammlung Psalm 2-89 (Stuttgart: Calwer, 1999), 71-74, 172-176. Rosel claims it is in this later stage that Psalm 50 is intentional displaced for the purpose offonning the Elohistic psalter. 87 Anthony C. Thiselton, New Horizons in Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 2 1 . 8 8 Martin Heidegger, Sein und Zeit (Tiibingen: M ax Niemeyer, 1972), 148-150.

40

Chapter 2: Methodology

a process ofrnerging time and spatial distance in the process of reading cultur­ ally and historically-loaded text ("Horizontverschmelzung").89 By applying philosophical hermeneutics to the process of exegesis, it follows that the notion of objective truth in a text is held in suspense so that the prototype reader might appropriate that text for a new context; that is, for the didactic purpose of rec­ ognising past failings of the Collective. The incorporation of the role of reader as a contributor to the interpretation of texts presents an immediate challenge to the notion that a text can bear an objective truth. In constructively critiquing the shift towards perceiving texts as mere semiotic systems, Thiselton sunnises that literary theory "brings into biblical studies an intimidating and complicated network of assumptions and methods which were not in origin designed to take account of the particular nature of biblical texts. "90 Nonetheless, Thiselton also draws attention to some of the productive aspects of reader-focused interpretive systems, notably the fe-emphasis on the author's use of metaphor to engage the reader's imagination and the inherent ambiguity in texts which causes the reader to subjectively wrestle with its meaning.91 It is proposed that the solution to the problem ofvariegated forms of conflict is found by joining groups of AP together to form the AP-Collection as a whole by means of narrativisation. Narrative is not equated simply to the practice of storytelling but rather the notion that the text is intentionally ordered into cog­ nitive segments of discourse for a particular purpose. Chatman argues that dis­ course is the means by which a story is articulated, engaging the reader with "the aesthetic object of a narrative" and enabling the aesthetic experience where the presented world is able to be mentally constructed n Although Chat­ man's thesis is presented in the context of fiction, the notion that discourse provides the form and substance of the author's expression is applicable to the AP-Collection;93 that is, if AP are identifiable to an implied author and an im­ plied reader, the AP-Collection may be read as a narrative. Building on Um­ berto Eco' s idea that poetic texts can break through the cultural confines of a given semiotic world,94 Peters more recently advances the idea that an aesthetic of ambiguity is applicable to literary texts, providing a foundation for suspend­ ing knowledge as a provisional element of a text and thereby enabling the 89 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1960), 290, 366, 375. 90 ThiseHon, New Horizons in Hermeneutics, 471. Original emphasis. 9 1 ThiseHon, New Horizons in Hermeneutics, 475-476; cf. Cotterell, "Linguistics, Meaning, Semantics, and Discourse Analysis", 142. 92 Seymour Chatman, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978), 19, 26-27. 9 3 Cf. Chatman, Story and Discourse, 1 5 1 . 9 4 Umberto Eco, Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 85.

ReadingAP as the AP-Collection

41

"narrativization of reality"95 as the "artifact and the reader work together to establish a possible meaning".96 Applied to the AP-Collection as a whole, the foundation of ambiguity is the puzzling mix of psalms which, according to Illman, is unified only by its conflict motif of different forms. The uncertainty as to how the AP-Collection becomes a whole thematically is essentially the trigger for this entire study - how is conflict depicted by the psalmists? The question as to why the AP-Collection might present variegated types of conflict provides the inherent ambiguity in AP and encourages narrativisation of its content, albeit by a "covert narrator".97 I propose to use Wolfgang Iser's reading process to demonstrate how the reader participates in that process of exegesis and appropriating the text. Iser's central thesis is that, regardless of geme, a text only becomes a reality when the reader participates creatively in the process of concretising the text by nav­ igating the complex processes between a myriad of conflicts and agreements inherent in every text.98 Drawing on Ingarden's idea of an intentional correlate phrase,99 Iser claims that a statement "aims at something beyond what it actu­ ally says", extending the notion of reading beyond the idea that one can achieve an objective reading ofthe text and towards an idea in which the author triggers the reader's own struggle to extract meaning and significance from the textYXl According to Iser, the reading experience is then one in which the contem­ porary reader attempts to suspend their own ideas in order to identify with the text.101 In doing so, the text is enlivened in the contemporary reader through their wrestling with the subject-object division within themselves:102 The text provokes certain expectations which in turn we project onto the text in such a way that we reduce the polysemantic possibilities to a single interpretation in keeping with the expectations aroused, thus extracting an individual, configurative meaning. 1 0 3

Iser also prescribes two modes of interpretation used in this meaning making process, including, first, the literary patterns and themes within the supposed socio-historical setting of the depicted world, and second, the use of strategies foreign to the text in order to make the unfamiliar or ambiguous features of the

9 5 Benjamin J. Peters, Narrativizing Theories: An Aesthetic of Ambiguity (Eugene: Cascade Books, 2020), x cf. 22, 82. 96 Peters, Narrativizing Theories, 7. 97 Cf. Chatman, Story and Discourse, 197. 98 Wolfgang Iser, "The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach", New Literary History 3 (1972): 28 1 . 9 9 Roman Ingarden, Vom Erkennen des literarischen Kunstwerks (Tiibingen: M ax Niemeyer, 1968). 1 00 Iser, "Reading Process", 282. 1 0 1 Iser, "Reading Process", 296. 1 02 Iser, "Reading Process", 298. 1 0 3 Iser, "Reading Process", 290.

42

Chapter 2: Methodology

text familiar or clear.104 Iser's modes of interpretation would seem to corre­ spond neatly with the two main techniques that are being brought to the text in this study; namely, traditional exegetical method based on a given socio-his­ torical setting as well as CDA based on binary relations of negative association. The overall reading approach therefore addresses the text at three distinct read­ ing levels. Traditional exegetical and critical discourse analysis based on se­ mantic roles at discourse level are techniques used to produce an exegesis of the discrete textual unit (first-level reading). In addition, analyses of conflict patterns provide evidence of central oppositions within the AP-Collection in various groups or sub-groups of AP, which are explained at the end of each chapter. These conflict analyses form the basis ofthe argument structure of this dissertation in which the texts are presented in groups based on changes in the overarching pattern of conflicts (second-level reading). Translations of each psalm are provided as well as structure summaries focusing on the significant active conflict on a particular cathetus. The final reading of the text is inter­ preted narrativally and configured hypothetically, as if it were being responded to by an original reader, reading the AP-Collection as a canon (third-level read­ ing). An objection might be raised that this approach to reading the AP-Collection as a whole borders on adopting a "canonical approach". As a pioneer of the whole-of-Psalter approach to interpretation, Childs' principal concern is the "role of the canon", being the final form ofMT, and in particular the contours of the "canonical shape of the Psalter" in the study of any part thereof105 For instance, Childs prioritises Psalm 2 as a proxy for all royal psalms, presuppos­ ing an overarching eschatological orientation for the Psalter generally.l06 Equally, Wilson discerns a sapiential interest for the entire Psalter, based on the descriptive function of superscripts, the organisational function of post­ scripts, and the placement of Psalm 1 .107 It is arguable that there are both sapiential and eschatological features in the AP-Collection. However, I leave the notion of an overarching purpose of the whole Psalter aside, attending only to the analysis of the AP-Collection as an independent corpus as well as the overarching motif of conflict. This study of the AP-Collection should then be distinguished from the canonical approach to interpretation of the Psalter or any part thereof, principally because it utilises the ubiquitous motif from within the AP-Collection itself as its interpretive anchor, as determined independently by Illman and without significant objec­ tion.

104 Iser, "Reading Process", 293. 10 5 Childs, Theology of the Old Testament, 5 1 1 , 522-523. 106 Childs, Theology ofthe Old Testament, 514, 517. 107 Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter, 140, 143.

Synopsis ofMethodology

43

In contrast to a canonical approach, this study seeks to consider the texts in their canonical context on the basis that psalms in context are more than the sum of the messages of the individual texts.!08 Importantly, Janowski qualifies that canonical context is theological by nature and thus needs to be considered in light of the theology ofHB 109 It is from this angle that I propose to consider how the AP-Collection might be considered in its canonical context; namely, it increasingly adopts a deuteronomistically informed theology and is grounded, at least initially, in the setting of the fall of the northern kingdom which seems to be the common background to the supposed Ephraimite tradi­ tion. Accordingly, this study will presuppose that the AP texts constitute a spe­ cific collection on the basis that the constituent psalms are able to be identified in terms of tradition and/or theme/motif within the Psalter

2 . 5 Synopsis of Methodology

In this chapter, I have sought, first of all, to demonstrate how the theory that conflict is an emotion-charged process involving two parties in a state of en­ mity is invoked in the Psalter, and second, to propose a method by which rela­ tions of conflict in the text of the AP-Collection might be approached in a sys­ tematic manner. Each textual unit of AP is analysed using traditional exegetical methods as well as CDA, by which the text is divided based on cognitive dis­ course roles, drawing attention to particular relational cathetii (i.e. binary rela­ tionships of negative association between any two of the major characters in the AP-Collection). Both techniques are used to produce an exegesis of the discrete textual unit (first-level reading), then central oppositions within each sub-group of AP (second-level reading) and finally an overarching pattern of conflicts across the AP-Collection altogether (third-level reading).

2.6 Introduction to Conflict and Enmity in the AP-Collection

This section presents an overview of the narrative shape and the central oppo­ sitions of the AP-Collection, adding context to the methodology presented so far in this chapter. This overview, first, introduces my main argument as to how conflict and emnity unfold in a close reading of AP as a collection, and second, provides heuristic devices as a map through which my analyses can be traced. While AP are analysed closely as individual psalms, I will argue that 108 Bernd Janowski, "Die 'Kleine Biblia': Zur Bedeutung der Psalmen fur eine Theologie des Alten Testaments" in Beitriige zur Theologie des Alten Testaments 2: Die rettende Ge rec htigkeit, ed. Bernd Janowski (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1999), 1 4 1 . 1 0 9 Janowski, "Die 'Kleine Biblia"', 142.

44

Chapter 2: Methodology

there are three major groups within AP, which are not temporally determined but rather are based on the shifting modes of conflict across AP. The key oppositions in focus across AP are summarised as follows: (PI) Between the external Opponent (an ambiguous out-group including foreign powers) and the contemporary Collective, caused by God's absence under the presumption of collective innocence; (P2) Between the contemporary Collec­ tive and the internal Opponent (an out-group comprising past generations of Israel); and (P3) Between the external Opponent (an ambiguous out-group in­ cluding foreign powers) and God, transferred to God after the recognition of past collective guilt. The first group (Psalms 73-76; "PI") sets the central conflict between the contemporary Collective and an external Opponent through personal and col­ lective laments over the inaccessibility of God. This is partially resolved in the succeeding praise psalms, through which Israel hopes for the victory of God in direct conflict with the external Opponent. This external Opponent is described in vague tenns, including the arrogant as well as foreign officials and their peoples. The second group (Psalms 77-81 paired with Psalm 50; "P2") commences with personal inner turmoil over the possibility that God has so changed as to abandon the contemporary Collective (Psalm 77). The centre of P2 sets the main conflict between God and past generations of Israel as the internal Oppo­ nent, enabling the contemporary Collective to retain its innocence before God (psalms 78-80). At its close, there are two divine oracles in which the voice of God indicts the entire Collective, past and present, for its failure to adhere to covenant obligations (psalm 8 1 cf Psalm 50). In addition, those oracles also bear a trace of divine inner tunnoil over the prospect of retribution against God's own people. In the third group (Psalms 82-83; "P3"), the removal of reference to the contemporary Collective resets the central conflict between God and an exter­ nal Opponent. This Opponent is described as the full complement of heavenly and earthly adversaries of God. These groups will be considered sequentially, further segmented into chap­ ters as follows: 3 Theological Problem - Divine Absence and Opponent Presence ("P la") 4 Test of Covenant Relationship - the Anticipation of Universal Divine Justice ("PI b") 5 hiller Turmoil - Divine Abandonment and Yearning for Right Relationship (" Seams" of "P2") 6 Blamefixing - Maintaining Innocence by Blaming the "Fathers" ("P2a") 7 Failure of Covenant Obligations - Divine Justice as Correction ("P2b") 8 Theological Resolution - the Ingathering of God's Opponent ("P3")

The central theological problem of the AP-Collection is argued to be the pres­ ence of the Opponent and the perceived absence of God. This is essentially a breach of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang, which raises questions of the will

Introduction to Conflict and Enmity in the AP-Collection

45

of God for the contemporary Collective. However, I argue that the underlying tension in the AP-Collection is the failure of the contemporary Collective to realise that it is complicit in its own suffering. By means of a configurative reading of these groups of AP, it is contended that the AP-Collection can be interpreted as a program of religious reform through the lenses of conflict and enmity.

Chapter 3

Theological Problem - Divine Absence and Opponent Presence ("P I a")

The central theological problem of the AP-Collection is the incongruity of di­ vine absence! and the Opponent's presence among God's people, set out in Psalms 73-74. This problem is underscored by, first, a strong emphasis on the intrusion of the Opponent as Agent/Stimulus into the world of the Collective as PatientiExperiencer and the conflict that results (Opponent-Collective cathetus), and second, an attempt to triangulate God into this crisis of opposi­ tion (Opponent-God cathetus) by calling on God to act as Agent for the inno­ cent Collective as Beneficiary (Collective-God cathetus). In the individual didactic Psalm 73, the Opponent, a group regarded as being outside the Collective, is the focal point In particular, the psalmist envies the well-being enjoyed by the wicked, arrogant and violent Opponent, from whom God is far off (vv2-3, 27). However, the privilege bestowed upon the Opponent causes it to exert absolute power over the psalmist, akin to God's right of sov­ ereignty (vv4-12). The perceived injustice of the Opponent's belligerence trig­ gers a personal cathartic process, eventually rekindling the psalmist's hope in the nearness and goodness of God (vvI 8-20, 23-26, 28), which endures not­ withstanding the psalmist's doubts (vv21-22). The Opponent remains the main object of the psalm, without which the psalmist would not find hope in God. Psalm 74 is a cornrnunal larnent over the destruction of Israel's religious symbol system at the hand of an external Opponent, presumably foreign pow­ ers, which God has ostensibly allowed to occur. The psalmists escape from the horror of God's absence by reflecting on God's potential power as shown in

1 By divine absence, I mean the perception of the Collective that God is not accessible, frequently cOIllloted in HB through the question levelled by both the Collective and the Op­ ponent, "Where is God?". See Joel S. Burnett, Where is God?: DivineAbsence in the Hebrew Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress, 2010), 4. I \Yill use the term interchangeably with divine dis­ tance, as spatia1 language (e.g. motion verbs) is prominent in the context of presence and absence across the AP-Collection. While divine absence could have positive COIlllOtations of besto\Ying freedom on humanity, it is on the whole a negative conception in the AP-Collec­ tion.

48

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

the Chaoskampf, yet the problem of perceived distance between God and the Collective is not resolved.2 The common ground between these psalms is the delay or denial of access to God by the Opponent, upon which the psalmists are fixated. Both psalms depict the Opponent as evil personified. The theological problem of divine dis­ tance and Opponent presence then provides a means for the Collective to rec­ ognise deviant qualities and then avoid emulating them by trusting in God's protection (cf Ps 37: 1-6). There is also a crucial distinction between these psalms in terms of their internal efficacy. The individual psalmist of Psalm 73 provides an example of theological reflection, finding renewed hope through contemplating God's power over the Opponent, although the trigger for that change eludes the hearer-reader By contrast, the psalmists of Psalm 74 do not demonstrate the capacity to use the Opponent's character as the means of self-critique to rec­ ognise fault in their own approach to God. It is this process of self-examination that I believe is critical to the operation of the AP-Collection, akin to sanctify­ ing oneself before approaching the holy God of Israel (11i'pn;J cf Num 1 1 : 1 8 ; Josh 3 : 1 5 ; 7 : 1 3 ; 1 Sam 16:5). The effect of the Collective's failure to self­ critique before approaching God in Psalm 74 is that the Collective defines its relationship with God not by recognising their identity as God's covenant peo­ ple, but by conceiving their relationship with God as the inverse ofthe negative relationship presented between God and the Collective's own Opponent. Es­ sentially, the fixation on the Opponent as the ultimate deviant or intruder into a God-centred world amounts to an others-critique.

3 . 1 Psalm 73

The form and geme of individual Psalm 73 is multivariate, incorporating ele­ ments of lament, declarative praise, and hymnody. Overall, it lends itself to being read didactically' using contrasting descriptions4 with deeply personal and collective applications.5 Theories on its provenance and cultic setting are numerous but without consensus.6 A macrostructural approach to the Psalter 2 I lNill refer to the term "psalmist" in the individual psalms and the term "psalmists" in the communal psalms. 3 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 223; cf. Hans-Joachim Kraus, Psalms 60-150: A Commentary, trans. Hilton C. Oswald (MiIllleapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1989), 84. 4 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 226. 5 Marko Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation in the Psalms: A Study of the Redaction History of the Psalter, FAT II 1 3 (Tllbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 159. 6 For example, there is debate as to whether there is a clear royal setting. It is supported by Goulder on contextual grounds and Cole on the basis that Psalm 72 is responded to lNith the voice of the king throughout Book III but rejected due to lack of textual evidence by

Psalm 73

49

tends to treat Psalm 73 as a "last word on disorientation"7 for Israel, a "micro­ cosm of Old Testament theology" in expecting pain under divine sovereignty8 or an expansion of the realm of God.9 I intend to take a complementary ap­ proach by claiming that Psalm 73 also has a preparatory function within the AP-Collection of setting the key theological problem as the perceived absence of God in the presence of the Opponent The main argument of this section is that the psalmist both laments over divine distance and also exults over divine nearness through contemplation of the central object of disaffection - the Opponent While the psalmist does re­ solve the inner tension over this theological problem by contemplating God's goodness, it is accomplished principally by contemplating the horrific fate of the psalmist's own Opponent (cf Job 24: 1 8-25; 27: 1 1 -23).10 The psalin can be divided into two halves with the supposed cathartic visit to the "holy places ofE!" (v I 7) at its centre l! However, an exploration of con­ flict in the AP-Collection leads us to pay close attention to the pattern of op­ positions and in particular the extent to which the Opponent becomes the trig­ ger for both despair and delight I will argue that the pattern of oppositions in this psalm might be overlooked if the second half of the psalm is conceived of solely as praise of God. In particular, I will argue that the structure of the text juxtaposes the deviant character of the psalmist (vv2-3, 13-17, 21-22) with that of the Opponent (vv4-12, 1 8-20, 27).12 Overall, the psalm is dominated by the psalmist's fixation on the wicked as both the Opponent of the psalmist and God. Given our interest is to read the psalm as part of the AP-Collection, the prominence of the Opponent in the psalm is most relevant. My argument may seem to go against the wide acceptance of Psalm 73 as a canonical marker reorienting the people of God to a new understanding of its relationship with GodY However, it need not undennine the placement of the psalm for a wider canonical purpose. To that end, it is important to emphasise Kraus and Tate. See Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 55, 58-59; Robert L . Cole, The Shape and Message ofBook III (Psalms 73-89) (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 26; cf. Kraus, Psalms 2, 84, 86; Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51-100, WBC 20 (Waco, TX: Word, 1990), 233. 7 Walter Brueggemarm, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary (MiIllleapolis: Augsburg, 1984), 1 15. 8 J. Clinton McCarm, Jr., "Psalm 73: A Microcosm of Old Testament Theology" in The

ListeningHeart: Essays in Wisdom and the Psalms in Honor ofRolan dE. Murphy, 0. Carm., ed. KeIllleth G. Hoglund and Roland E. Murphy, JSOTSup 58 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), 253. 9 Cf. Ernst R. Wendland, "Introit 'into the Sanctuary of God' (Psalm 73: 17): Entering the Theological 'Heart' ofthe Psalm at the Centre ofthe Psalter", aTE 1 1 (1998): 136. 10 Tremper Longman III, Job (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 297, 3 1 9-320. 11 E.g. Wendland, "Introit", 147. 12 Cf. Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 63. 1 3 Brueggemarm, The Message of the Psalms, 1 15.

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

50

that this is a psalm of the individual. It does not reflect the attitudes, perspec­ tives or understandings of the Collective. Instead, Psalm 73 represents instruc­ tion by an authorised leader, albeit one who has failed, repented, and re-en­ gaged with God in right relationship. Accordingly, this psalm plays an im­ portant role in the AP-Collection by instructing the Collective as to how it might approach God in the day of distress. However, the psalmist does not give the Collective all of the answers as to what happened in the holy places of El that caused their change of heart (v I 7). 3. 1. 1 Translation MT 1 4

�9�? "1 10 ,0 Cl';:'(I;l� I;lt(l�:? �i� ll.( ,��� '"1��

'? n 'm� �P �� �;il

V" 1aa lab lac 2a

:'l� 1$ j'J��� ] :I.(:p Cl'�?ij'J:;J 'r:nqp-':;:l :j'J�1� Cl'��l Clil;l� ClQiO? ni��llJ 1 '� ':;:l

2b 3a 3b 4aa

:Cl?j K K'1�1 iO�'t( �i:l� I;lol?�

4ab 5a

: 1l.i� �; K? Cl ltn::J�l

j'J)19 iOQP�l? P? :i07 0 9� n'�-��l?�

5b 6a 6b

io�'P. ��O� K�; n" :;:l�O 1j�¥

7a 7b

ji:Pl'1 11P'O; : 1j�T Clij�O ClV'� Cl:O�;J 1n�

8a 8b 9a

:���

p�l.i lrp

Translation A psalm (belonging) to Asaph Surely, good to Israel (is) Elohim to the pure-ready ones (of) heart. But I, like a trifle thing, (it) had come close to being t'Nisted, my foot; almost (had) it fallen-poured away, my steps. For I was envious of the boasting ones; (the) well-being ofthe lNicked ones, I see. For there is no suffering-oppression causing their death and fat (are) their bellies. With (the) trouble(s) (of) an ordinary man, that does not occur for them; and (as it is) lNith a human, they are not afflicted. Therefore, their necklace (is) arrogance; it covers itself, a garment of violence, 16 over them. 11. brought forth, out of fatness, their eyes; they crossed over, idol-like-delusions of (the) heart. They scoff and speak lNith malice-oppression; loftily, they speak. They set against the heavens their mouths;

1 4 The original language text in this dissertation is sourced from the Biblica Hebraica Stuttgartensia, © 1977/1997 Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft and Septuaginta, © 2006 Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. 1 5 In relation to subverse labels (e.g. Ps 50: laa), the convention in this dissertation is such that the athnak is the divider between subverses (i.e. vvla and Ib). Accordingly, subdivi­ sions which appear before the athnak (i.e. in tri-cola and quad-cola verses) are marked lNith subsidiary alphabetical labels (e.g. Ps 50: 1 comprises vlaa �oKI;l iHm�, vlab i11i1' Cl'i1I;lK I;lK i�i, vlac fiK-KiP'1, vlb 1K��-il.i ���-niro�). Subdivisions are determined based on the syntactic completion of clauses, the perceived balance of syllable counts lNithin the verse and, where necessary, the placement of disjunctive cantillations in MT. 16 For the purpose of clarity, italicised, �, underlined or highlighted text is used in translations to indicate deictic reference.

Psalm 73 MT 1 4

'n�? 1� i)8 O ll '; �' Cfl;1!,l i�P �'�: IP?

V" 9b lOa

:iO? 1:S�: K�� '�1

lOb

1-' 91$1 1;1�-l.il: j'J:('� :li'� P::;J j'JVl �.:1 Cl'��-'. j'J7�-m;:T :1;1:�n��;:T Cl?il.i '17�1

l laa l lab 1 1b 12a 12b

'��7 'D':;:li P'T'l� :'�;l li' i?�� r Ol�l

13a 13b

Cli,v-l;1fl P1j� ';:T�l : Cl'li?�� 'r:1r;T;lin1 'r:1-', OI$-Cl� io� j'Jl�OI$ : 'r:1l�� "i"j'�� -,i-, m;:T

14a 14b 15aa 15ab 15b

nKr nPl? j'J��Ol$l : 't'P� K';:T 1;1 9 V 1;1�-'\:ili?�- I;1 � Ki�I$--'P : Cl�'1l,l�7 j'Jt'�1$ iO? n'�� nip?l,l� 'l� :niK1W�� Cl�7S;:T

16a 16b 17a 17b 18a 18b

l.in � j'J��7 1'Q 'l'� :nij'J?;q � 1�("J 1�9

19a 19b

r ' PQ� Clil;1l,l;l I-" �� 't'1 l$ : m�r:1 Cl97� '��7 n� Or;1: ':;:l :ltin�� 'Di'7:;l1 l.il� KI;1 1 -'PY'�l$l

20a 20ba 20bb 21a 21b 22a

:'l�� 'D':Q niojp 'l�� -" �� '�I$l :,�,�:--,�.:p �rOI$ 'm�("J "i"j� � l?� :'mWr:1 -'i�.f -'O�l Cl'OW� ,1;1-'0 ': : rw� 'r:1��·� K� � ��·1 '��71 'l�� j'J? .f Cl';:T·I;1 � 'P?�l '��7--'1:S ' 07W�

22b 23a 23b 24a 24b 25a 25b 26aa 26ab

51

Translation and their tongue parades-walks through the land. Therefore, it returns, its (\Yicked) people, here [?]; and (the) waters of fullness, they were lapped up to them(selves[?]). And they said, "How does Elohim know?"; and "Is there knowledge in the most-high One?". Behold these (are) wicked ones; at ease always, they make their wealth-strength great. Surely, in vain I cleansed my heart; and washed in blamelessness the palms of my hands, in that I am being struck all of the day; and my reproof, at every morning. If I said, "I \Yin speak thus (i.e. 'like the \Yicked')"; behold, (\Yith) a generation (of) your sons, would have dealt treacherously. Whenever I ponder, to gain understanding, this; troublesome it (is) in my eyes. Until (such time as) I enter the holy places ofEI; I \Yin consider their fate. Surely, in slippery (places) you set for them; you have caused them to fall into deception-de­ struction. How they became a horror suddenly; They were swept away and came to an end from terrors. As a dream, from (which he is) awakened; Adonai, when aroused their likeness, you \Yin despise. For it leavens-sours itself, my heart; and my kidneys, I pierce-complain to myself. For I (was) foolish and I did not know-recog­ nise; animal(-like), I was with you. Yet I (was) continually \Yith you; you seized (me) by my right hand. With your counsel you guide me; and after, (in your) glory, you take me. Who (else is) for (the benefit of) me in heaven?; For (I am) with you, I did not delight in the earth. It was completed, my flesh and my heart, rock of my heart and my portion (is) Elohim to a remote time.

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

52 MT 1 4

1j�K' ,:,]'POl

mjT' :;:l

V" 27a 27b 28aa

'Or;TO i1!jJ; 't'K:;l I'r;1� ' 'l'QIO�?O-�, "1� O?

28ab 28ba 28bb

Translation For, behold, the ones holding themselves aloof of you will perish; You 'Nill cause to ruin all (who) you abandon to fornication-unfaithfulness. But I (am) near (to) Elohim (who) to me (is) good I have set with Adanai YH WH my refuge; so to tell of all your works (LXX: at the gates afthe daughter of Zion).

3.1.2 The Contested Object - Well-Being of the Opponent (vv 1-3) Psalm 73 is inspired by the psalmist's desire for well-being in verses 1-3. The opening declaration of the goodness of God then serves as appeal for divine favour. However, it is not the goodness of God that triggers this desire but rather the perception that the Opponent possesses that which the psalmist con­ siders to be rightfully their own. The opening verse of Psalm 73 expresses hope in God's apportionment of divine power for God's people Israel, given the national credo "God is good to (all-)Israel" (vl) 17 This declaration is intended to assure an ingathered Collec­ tive that God empowers it, or perhaps the "upright ofEl";18 that is, Israel as the pious and needy people of God.19 On this basis, the individual psalmist conveys a personal experience for didactic purposes with the ultimate benefit of the Collective in mind. This opening declaration of the certainty of God's providence is juxtaposed with an expression of personal doubt in God's benevolence (v2a).20 The trigger for the psalmist's doubt is their memory of past experiences of the so-called wicked (vv2-3a with qatal verbs).21 1 7 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 397; contra Kraus, Psalms 2, 82. 18 Per textual variant I;lK j � I;l . 1 9 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 233-234; cf. Weber, "Der Asaph-Psalter", 1 19. The expression �� I;l 'j� 1;l in verse 1 is typically rendered to as "the pure [ones] of heart" , given the counter­ part instance of the phrase in Psalm 24:4. There are numerous other homonymous meanings for the same morpheme j�, including "son", "empty", "threshed grain", "field", "potash", "ship" and all uses ofj� have relatively few instances in HB (HALOT, 153). I would tenta­ tively advance that the "family resemblance" among these disparate renderings ofj� might take the sense of "preparedness". For reference to family resemblances, see L udlNig Wittgenstein, Philosophische Untersuchungen (Oxford: Blackwell, 1958), 32. Given there is little doubt that �� I;l 'j�1;l qualifies I;lKj�'I;l, this suggests God's goodness is afforded ex­ clusively to pious Israe1. 20 Cf. Joiion, 590. The waw serves as a simple juxtaposition ("But as for me"). 2 1 I adopt Bartelmus' model for tense and aspect in poetic texts of HB, particularly the completed aspect of qalal verbs and the indefinite aspect of yiqtol verbs. See Rudiger Bartelmus, Einfiihrung in das biblische Hebriiisch (ZUrich: Theologischer Verlag, 1994), 206. ,

Psalm 73

53

The psalmist admits to having almost lost the capacity to trust God in the face of a prosperous and immodest (c'��m::l) Opponent (vv2). In particular, the psalmist "envies" (�lp) the well-being of the wicked (v3). The morpheme ��p in HB represents ardour, zeal, and an all-consuming desire for exclusive possession of an object which is in the possession of a competitor.22 The evo­ cation of jealousy by the psalmist is triggered by something that is not objec­ tively sinister: the Opponent is well-off (C'�I:i).23 The psalmist is presenting their subjective response to the failure of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang.24 It is this preconceived image of an adversary possessing all the benefits of re­ lationship with God which serves as the grounds for the ensuing complaint Accordingly, the psalmist focuses on what the Opponent possesses or the ad­ vantage it has over the psalmist.25 Furthennore, the failure to trust in God impinges on the psalmist's access to divine favour; that is, the psalmist creates divine distance. The syntactic struc­ ture of verse 3 is significant here. The phrase contains a causal conjunction, the main verb ��p, and a heit prepositional accusative phrase. There are only six instances of this syntactic form in HB (Gen 37: 1 1 ; Pss 37: 1 ; 73 :3; Prov 3 : 3 1 ; 24: 1 , 19). In all of these instances, the prepositional phrase contains beit causa and the direct object is a person or group of persons. What is unique in this particular instance is that the trigger for the jealousy is made explicit after the athnak- the well-being of the wicked (v3b). Accordingly, the reference to slipping away in verse 2b is directional by nature (;,n�I:i), forcing a distance between God and the psalmist The psalmist uses the yiqtol form of ;,�, in verse 3b to dramatise the process of seeing the wicked, re-evoking in the psalm­ ist's strong feelings of injustice and hatred of a common Opponent. In summary, this discourse contrasts the future potential of God to bless the Collective (Collective-God cathetus) with the reality of the psalmist's personal lack of blessing due to coveting the well-being of the wicked (Opponent-Col­ lective cathetus).

22 HALOT, 1 1 10; cf. BDB, 888. Compare "With Genesis 37: 1 1 , Exodus 34:14 (cf. Deut 5:9) and Numbers 5:19. 2 3 Kraus, Psalms 2, 87; contra Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 56. This noun i s de­ rived from the verb root Cl l;l � (HALOT, 1507). It has a reasonably "Wide range of meaning, which includes the regular reference to "peace", "health", holistic "well-being", "complete­ ness" and the place " Salem" (HALOT, 1536-1540). However, the verbal root often bears a sense of "to satisfy", "reconcile", "repay" or even "reward" in the piel stem (e.g. Ps 137:8) (HALOT, 1534-1535). Accordingly, it is relevant that the bestowal ofCl, I;l � is not only tan­ gible "well-being" but also the granting of favour, ostensibly by the sovereign God. 24 Cf. Weber, PsalmenII, 22. 2 5 Cf. Bob Sorge, Envy: The Enemy Within (Minneapolis: Chosen, 2014), 16. Sorge de­ fines envy as a negative "attitude about what another has" to the point that the envious one seeks to strip that advantage from the other party.

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Chapter 3: Theological Problem

3. 1.3 Why the Opponent Should Not be Prosperous (vv4-12) In verses 4-12. the psalmist attempts to persuade God to act against their Op­ ponent. which implies that God has erred in affording the Opponent such re­ source and guile. After admitting envy of the wicked·s well-being (v3). the psalmist presents a lengthy complaint directly against the Opponent. objecting to violence and arrogance, which arise due to their position of wealth, power, and self-reliance. In this complaint, riches and power were perceived by the psalmist to be more important than relationship with God. The Opponent denies divine potential-power in the perceived absence of God and seeks to take the place of God over the psalmist (v I I). However. the complaint is made against God (albeit indirectly) in that the wicked are not deemed worthy of such presumed divine beneficence. First, in verse 4 a causal connection is made between the arrogance of the wicked and the well-being bestowed on them . The well-being is represented as earthly riches and the physical corpulence of their bodies (v4). Once again. the Opponent is subjectively depicted by the use of verbless adjectival predicate phrases with stark imagery (e.g. "fat (are) their bellies··. c�,� as a hapax le­ gomenon).26 This image of indulgence dramatises the theological problem of Opponent presence. Also, if set before exile, the sign of provision presents a counterimage of Israel (whether northern or southern kingdom) under siege 27 Second. verses 5-7 build the argument that the wicked·s malevolence and violence sterns from arrogance which, by implication, God has allowed to oc­ cur. The well-provided-for Opponent is presented as one spared the oppression and affliction endured by the ordinary person (v5 I:i'l� cf. c,�). with whom the psalmist and the Collective identify. The Opponent is dramatised in almost su­ perhuman terms in that it avoids the suffering encountered by the psalmist (vv4-5). Also. the causal conjunction at verse 6 (p�) indicates that experience of providence has fostered the wicked's arrogance and violence. The psalmist presents the Opponent as unworthy of such provision because it has presumed itself to hold high position (vv6-7).28 Interestingly. it is the character of the Opponent rather than its deeds that is in focus; for instance, the garment of violence covers (���) the Opponent (v6b. object with lamed of specification) and particularly "their eyes·· (v7a). Up until this point. the Opponent has not actually been depicted as having done anything specific to another party to

26 Note that this hapax legomenon could be repointed as 'their foolislmess' (Zech 1 1 : 15 as 'foolish [shepherds n. It is interesting that this term appears lNith K'j� in a negative con­ text as 'fat' (sheep) (Zech 1 1 : 16 cf. Pharaoh's dream in Genesis 41). Although the term fits better lNith the body analogies in its context, one might wonder whether there is a relation­ ship between the texts, at least semantically. 27 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 404. 28 Cf. Goldingay, Psalms 2, 405.

Psalm 73

55

warrant labelling as the deviant, which implies that God has allowed the Op­ ponent to gain its grandiose position. Third, the description of the arrogant Opponent is one which ostensibly takes God's place in divine absence, as if the Opponent conceives of God as being transcendent rather than present. By using the wicked Opponent's voice, the psalmist attempts to shift the central opposition from the Opponent-Collec­ tive onto the Opponent-God cathetus. Effectively, God is triangulated into the complaint by presenting a case against the wicked for their lack of reverence for God and his provision for them (vI2).29 There is textual evidence that the psalmist uses the Opponent's voice to con­ vey blasphemous ideas. Body motifs abound in pondering the wicked - not only are the deluded hearts ofthe wicked examined, but also their arrogant eyes and the lofty speech of their tongues and mouths, which walk the earth, perhaps as if they owned it (vv7-1 0).30 Their haughtiness is most intentional (V8).31 On this basis, the central distinction between the upright and the wicked lies in the forruer's understanding not to speak against God (cf v I I ab-b).32 The psalmist knows to put such words of blasphemy on the lips of their enemies, rather than personally utter them 33 The lofty (c" oo, "out of the heights") speech of the Opponent in verse 9 is reflective of the experience of the mocked psalmist by such an arrogant and all-pervading voice of negation against heaven and earth (vv9-1O). The would­ be battle on the heights occurs particularly in the speech of the wicked against the heavens (v9a dativus incommodi) and in their questioning of Elohim 's abil­ ity to observe the events on earth (v I l a). Through the voice of the Opponent, these are accusations that God is somehow incapable of judging justly yet in­ triguingly not denying God's very existence. Although verse 1 0 is corrupted,34 its opening resultative conjunction (p� v l O cf v6) indicates that it functions as a metaphor for extreme self-indulgence in the absence of a figure who would bring them into line.35 However, in verse 1 1 the mocking voice is raised di­ rectly against God with striking irreverence - an attack on God's "highness" (1" �� v I I b).

29 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 407. 3 0 Cf. Kraus, Psalms 2, 88. 3 1 LXX supports this interpretation, bearing the root i'havO£OllaL ("to be mindful" ), alt­ hough a departure from MT P10 ("scoffing"). 3 2 Nancy L . deClaisse-Walford, Rolf A. Jacobson and Beth LaNeel Tarmer, The Book of Psalms, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 5 9 1 . 33 Jacobson, Many Are Saying, 36-37. 34 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 229. 35 The discourse is centred here on the Opponent and therefore is unlikely to have a (di­ rect) purpose of restoring or indicting Israel (contra Tate, Psalms 51-100, 228-229).

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Chapter 3: Theological Problem

Overall, by demonstrating God's provision for the Opponent, the wicked's ingratitude and dishonouring of God is dramatised. The Opponent is a circuit­ breaker for direct conflict against God. 3. 1.4 Confusion Resolved by Focusing on the Opponent (vv 13-1 7) The Opponent becomes the means through which hope in God is found. The psalmist anticipates the horrific fate of their Opponent, thereby restoring con­ fidence in the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang. This claim is predicated on the argument that, first, the psalmist has sought to draw near to God in their own strength (vv 13-1 4), and second, that the psalmist's experience is not com­ pletely transformed by the supposed entry into the holy places of El according to a close reading of the conditional clauses in verses 15-17. First, the psalmist's self-justification and act of cleansing is not being con­ trasted directly with the Opponent here, but rather serves as a veiled accusation against God. In verses 13-14, the psalmist expresses their utter confusion as to why the ones who seek to prepare themselves before God are not provided for as promised. The psalmist complains with more body language (,�� l" Pl "[I washed] in blamelessness my hand-palm" cf C'�� 'pl Ps 24:4) that they have complied with God's ordinances by justifying (;,�! cf Mic 6: 1 1 , Ps 5 1 :6)36 and washing themselves Crn, v 1 3a).37 These acts are more often a response to cor­ porate sin (cf. Isa 1 : 16), rather than preparatory purification or consecration as typically found in the Pentateuch, Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets (e.g. ,;,� cf Ps 5 1 :4, 9; Ii,p). The psalmist's attempts to cleanse themselves result only in the continuation of violence and reproof (v 14 with waw-explica­ tivum). The use of the word "my reproof' ('nn�1n) as an objective genitive is particularly interesting as God is the instigator of n�' in HB. By complaining that God should not act in this manner, the psalmist implicitly admits that God has done so intentionally. Kraus rightly describes the predicament as a "screaming contrast" to that expected of the goodness of GOd,38 evident in the use of the -1� emphatic (v1ab cf v 1 3a "surely") followed by contrasting ad­ jectives of God's goodness (�,�) and the psalmist's vanity (p" ). In short, the psalmist implies that God's goodness is not forthcoming and is dumbfounded as to why. Second, the internal dialogue ofthe psalmist's reserved speech does nothing to resolve the fundamental theological problem facing the psalmist, who ex­ pects God to act for them. The confused psalmist still recognises that the treacherous thought of speaking against God, like the Opponent has (cf. v I I), would have adverse consequences on the next generation and is troublesome 3 6 BDB, 269. 37 HALOT, 1220. 3 8 Kraus, Psalms 2, 88; cf. Willem A. VanGemeren, Psalms, ed. FrankE. Gaebelein, EBC 5 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008), 476.

Psalm 73

57

to contemplate (vv 15-l6). However, there are some important syntactic obser­ vations in verses 15-1 7 which suggest that the psalmist has not been com­ pletely transformed by a supposed experience in holy places of El. A careful analysis of the conditional and/or temporal particles and their impact on clausal confines reveals an alternative reading to a positive outcome of the supposed visit to the sanctuary. The psalmist uses co-ordinating particles C� in verse 1 5 and the waw in verse 1639 to mark the protasis of two successive conditional clauses.4o The question remains as to how these markers relate. There are several options; first, verses 1 5 and 1 6 might be independent conditional clauses; second, the protasis in verse 1 6 might be subordinate to that in verse 15; and third, verses 1 6 and 1 7 might b e a temporal clause subordinate or independent of verse 1 5 . The problem of clause structure can be resolved through syntactic differen­ tiation. It is observed that the main clause of verse 1 5 bears qatal verbs whereas verses 1 6-17 contains yiqtol verbs - a juxtaposition of tense.41 It seems most likely that both verses 15 and 16 denote irrealis mood, each as an independent protasis with the apodosis after the athnak 42 Accordingly, verses 1 5 and 1 6 differ in tense and aspect - the speech-event of verse 1 5 bears a past-completed tense-aspect, whereas the pondering in verse 1 6 indicates an indefinite-habitual tense-aspect with associated modality: 15 If I had said, "I "Will speak thus (i.e. 'like the "Wicked')";4 3 behold, ("With) a generation of your sons, I would have dealt treacherously. 16 Whenever I ponder to gain understanding of this; troublesome it [is] in my eyes.

In this interpretation, the temptation to follow the example of the wicked has been averted, at least in the eyes of the psalmist, yet the psalmist continues to find their current predicament deeply troubling (�O� v 1 6b). The state of the psalmist is still in unrest. The interpreter is confronted with a syntactic dilemma in verse 1 7 - what does one make of the opening -'1.'7 I argue that -'1.' is a co-ordinating particle

3 9 Joiion, 5 9 1 . 4 0 Joiion, 584. Temporal and conditional clauses are closely related, ifnot indistinguish­ able by the subjunctive mood cOIllloted by the temporal particle "when(ever)" . 4 1 The volitional-he affixed to the main verb of verse l6a affects mood but not tense (cf. Joiion, 1 14, 127). It provides syntactic evidence of volitional modality but does not negate the implicit subjunctive mood pervading verses 15-16 through the conditional clauses. Con­ tra Hubert Irslinger, Psalm 73 - Monolog eines Weisen, ed. Wolfgang Richter (St. Ottlien: EOS, 1984), 33. 4 2 The apodosis in verse l5b is explicit. By contrast, verse l6b is a predicate clause "With an opening emphatic adjective (I;lol.i) (cf. Irslinger, Psalm 73, 34). I consider this to be a rare case of an elliptical apodosis, perhaps due to the lack of a main verb (cf. Joiion, 594). 4 3 Cf. Irslinger, Psalm 73, 29-30.

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Chapter 3: Theological Problem

of anteriority; that is, the subordinated clause precedes the main clause. 44 Verse 17a functions as a subordinated temporal clause with an implicit subjunctive mood. Given the absence of any co-ordinating conjunction, the main clause follows in verse 17b. The psalmist explains that they intentionally and habitu­ ally contemplate the destiny of the wicked until the indefinite future time-point at which they gain entry to the sanctuary: 17 Until (such time as) I enter the holy places ofE1; I will45 conside:r4 6 their fate.

It is difficult to justify syntactically the interpretation of verses 1 6-17 as one conditional/temporal clause, given that verse 16b functions as an apodosis and verse 17b has no co-ordinating conjunction (i.e. it cannot be that verse 1 6 is the subordinated clause and verse 1 7 is the main clause). While it is possible that the waw in verse 1 6a could be interpreted as resultative (i.e. verse 16a would read "so that I ponder to gain understanding of this"), the yiqtol verbs in verse 1 6-17 do not bear the same tense as the qatal verbs in the main clause of verse I S and this fails to account for the volitional-he suffixed to r� (v 1 7b). It could also be argued that the -,� co-ordinates the whole of verse 17 in the "domain of the future" (i.e. verse 1 7 would read "while I enter the holy places of El, I will consider their fate"), although the ad preposition is not commonly used in this rnanner.47 In any case, this interpretation implies that psalmist en­ tered God's house fixated or, as Brueggemann puts it, "intensely, almost ob­ sessively, fascinated"48 on the Opponent. This reading supports my main con­ tention that the Opponent is the centre of the psalmist's thoughts. It is unclear then exactly how the holy places ofEl trigger the despondency­ to-hope transformation. Wendland claims that the unusual plural reference to the holy places of El in verse 1 7 connotes something greater than a physical encounter with the divine : a miraculous event which is "spiritually regenera­ tive" 49 Goldingay argues that "the change that comes over the psalmist issued not from YHWH' s having acted but from the psalmist having gained a convic­ tion that YHWH will act."" Cole argues that in verse 1 7 the psalmist is 44 Joiion, 587-588; cf. Bruce K. Waltke and Michael O'CoIlllor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 215. 45 Seybold translates with the auxiliary verb "willen" to express volition on the part of the psalmist (Die Psalmen, 280). 4 6 HALOT, 122. The main verb of the verse 17b (1'�) often means "to understand" (e.g. NRSV) but the volitional-he is more easily rendered lNith the frequent qal meaning "to con­ sider" or "to contemplate". 47 Joiion, 587; cf. Waltke and O'CoIlllor, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 215; cf. HALOT, 787. Irslinger follows this reading but treats the yiqtol verbs as having all occurred in the past (Psalm 73, 56). 48 Brueggemarm, The Message ofthe Psalms, 1 17; cf. Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 65. 49 Wendland, "Introit", 139. 5 0 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 4 1 8 .

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surveying the broken ruins of the sanctuary of God in Psalm 74:3b and claims the ruins somehow assure the psalmist that the Opponent will be divested of their power." By contrast, I suggest that the holy places of El is an idealised domain where there is no trace of the Opponent - only God is in the Collec­ tive's midst (cf Zeph 3 : 15) 52 The contemplation of God's presence in the holy dwelling places should then provide the eschatological key to divine hope. Overall, the psalmist sets the case before God as to why the psalmist's pre­ dicament should be reversed by, first, presenting an Opponent who holds God and the psalmist in contempt, and second, by expressing their state of confusion over the perceived injustice of impoverishment before a well-to-do Opponent. The two juxtaposing discourse units can be summarised as complaint (vv4-12) and confusion (vv 1 3-17) over the well-being of the Opponent These dis­ courses dramatise the emnity between the Opponent and God. However, the psalmist's confusion ultimately pertains to God's handling of their predica­ ment Although the psalmist's doleful contemplation in verses 13-17a articu­ lates a hypothetical affront to God, this is a common form of complaint ex­ pected of the faithful grappling with a serious theological conundrum like di­ vine distance. 3. 1.5 Divine Vengeance as Precursor to Praise (vv18-28) In verses 1 8-22, the first expectation from the contemplation of or encounter with God is that the Opponent would be removed (�'O "swept away" like a storm wind)" from the psalmist's midst (vI9b). In an attempt to remove the Opponent from contemplation (cf v I 7b), the psalmist expresses confidence in God's power and depicts the Opponent as a grotesque abhorrence. This sub­ jective image of the Opponent objectified as God-forsakenness anticipates the removal of the Opponent from the psalmist's experience (cf v27), which is necessary for the psalmist to fully engage with God. Akin to the image of the unblemished sanctuary with God at its centre, a world without the Opponent serves as the main aspect of being in the presence of God in verse 23-26. First, the psalmist expresses confidence in God's imminent and powerful retribution against the Opponent (vv l S-20). The image of divine retribution is 5 1 Cole, Book III, 23. By contrast, Irslinger argues rightly that the plural fonn of holy places emphasises the "greatness" of the sanctuary, implying that that the sanctuary still stands here in Psalm 73 (Psalm 73, 36). 5 2 The theocentric response at the beginning of the second Korahite collection (Ps 84:25) might offer a canonical solution to the theological problem of divine distance and Oppo­ nent presence in Psalm 73 (cf. deClaisse-Walford, Jacobson and Tarmer, The Book of Psalms, 654). This aligns "With Houston's distinction between Asaphite and Korahite collec­ tions: Asaph is set in national crisis and its people are defined by covenant relationship, whereas Korah is set in the holy place to which God's people gather in (Houston, "David, Asaph and the Mighty Works of God", 103, 1 1 1). 53 BDB, 693.

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a pretext of the supposed will of God to see the despised Opponent eradicated - a reversal of the opening plight of the psalmist For instance, the imminent slipping of the Opponent (�'O v I Sa) is analogous to the twisted and sliding feet through which the psalmist represents their doubt in verse 2 (;r�l cf 1�1i). The difference is that the psalmist presents God as the active agent of retribution against the Opponent who sets (n'li) and causes the Opponent to fall (��l with God as causer by means of the hiphil stem) (v l Sb). A syntactic shift in verses I S-20 anticipates the turning of the power imbal­ ance away from the Opponent towards the sovereign God. This shift underpins the polemic labelling of the Opponent as deviant, which is now subject to di­ vine retribution. The opening yiqtol verb in verse 1 8a is contrasted to qatal verbs in verses 1 8b-19, without syntactic markers to impute a sequence. So far in this psalm, qatal verbs have reflected events conducted in the past (cf vv2b, 3a, 7, 9a, 1 3a, 15aa, 15b). Similar to verse 17b, the opening of the contempla­ tion ofthe fate ofthe wicked is habitual in nature (v I Sa "Surely, you [typically1 set them in slippery places" cf p�;r), and the act of retribution is considered imminent It follows that the psalmist uses the qatal verbs following verse I S a to depict the fulfilment o f God's retributory power with descriptive examples of completed divine acts of condemnation of the Opponent, including its de­ struction and terrible end (vI9). This reflects an implicit sense of Schaden­ freude at the Opponent losing the privilege that caused them to rebel (vv I Sb19). The anticipated manifestation of God's power contrasts with the power imbalance in favour of the Opponent (cf vv4-7). Second, the psalmist subjectively depicts the Opponent as a "horror" (vI 9a) and describes the removal of the Opponent as "terror" (vI 9b) without offering substantial details. The expectation is that God would respond to the haughty Opponent by actively setting a trap in the lower regions of the earth to make it a counterexample of prosperity and well-being. While it is presented as if the Opponent has caused itself to become a repulsive object of horror (v20b), it is a supposedly improved world without the Opponent which, at least at this point, the psalmist seeks (cf v27). The improvement is the eradication of the "image" (c�� cf Gen 1 :26-27 of humankind in the likeness of God, 1 Sam 6:5 of detestable objects, 2 Kgs 1 1 : 1 S of idolatrous figures) of the Opponent by God - the antithesis of the favour God has bestowed on them. Third, catharsis over Opponent presence and divine absence is finally di­ rected towards rightful relationship with God from verse 2 1 . The psalmist ad­ mits that their vain attempts to purify themselves so as to somehow obligate God to act have not resulted in a mindset of dependence on God (vv21 -22 cf Ps 50: 1 4-15) but rather it has added "insult to injury"." While there is hint of contrition by the psalmist before the visitation experience underpinning the

54 Goldingay,

Psalms 2, 408.

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61

psalmist's expression of confusion, the psalmist now regrets their lack of faith in divine retribution in verses 21-22. It is not clear exactly why the psalmist is remorseful for the way they have acted before God. However, the psalmist presents themselves in verse 22 in the same subjective manner as they did ofthe Opponent in verses 4-12, using self­ deprecating language of foolishness (�,� ��, '��-'l�') and beastliness (n'o;,�). It is possible then that the psalmist recognises in themselves deviant qualities of the Opponent because it is with a sense of shame that they present their personal confession. However, it is also possible that the psalmist is ashamed of the way they implied that God was aloof from their plight in verses 4-16. Regardless, the psalmist's act of contrition becomes an example for the Col­ lective to follow. The final transition to praise occurs at the seam of interesting phonological parallelism and contrastive affections of the psalmist, as both causer of iniquity against God as well as beneficiary of the presence of God (lo� "with you" vv22b-23a, 25b, 28a). The praise centres on spatial idea of proximity to God, bringing divine hope to completion (vv23-26). The psalmist remained in a state of separation from the favour and presence of God until they separated them­ selves from the offending image of the prosperous Opponent (cf. v 1 7). This process of jettisoning the Opponent from their contemplation suggests that contrition has been brought about by focusing on the sin of the Opponent rather than the holiness of God. Nevertheless, the result is that the psalmist turns back to right relationship with God, ultimately rejecting that which the Opponent valued and distanced the psalmist from God (v25ab-b). God is perceived as being active and present in verses 23-24a, grasping onto the slipping psalmist (cf. v2b) and counselling them from misunderstanding (cf. vv 1 3-16) to right understanding, rather than eschatological judgment (vv I 8-20, 27 cf. Isa 4 1 : 1 1)." Overall, the psalmist wants the Opponent to be removed from their presence in order to re-engage with God. The contemplation of the fate of the Opponent turns the discourse from divine retribution in verse 1 8-20 and 27 (Opponent­ God cathetus) towards expressions of the psalmist's contrition and expectation of divine empowerment in verses 21-26 and anticipatory praise in verse 28 (Collective-God cathetus). LXX extends the psalmist's description of the ref­ uge of Adonai YHWH by anticipating it althe Collective's stronghold (v28bb).

55 Cf. Goldingay,

Psalms 2, 4 10.

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

62

3. 1. 6 Summary a/Oppositions ole

Cathetii O/G elG

+ +

+ + + +

+

Summary of Structure of Psalm 73 1 Theme - divine empowerment for pure/upright Collective 2-3 Crisis in retrospect - self-attribution of deviance due to envy over Opponent's wellbeing 4-12 Complaint - description afthe deviant character of Opponent, who has contempt for God the provider 13-17 Reflection - psalmist's confusion over cove­ nant obedience not yielding covenant benefits 18-20 Expression of confidence - divine retribu­ tion against the Opponent for their contempt to­ ward God 21-22 Reflection - expression of regret for psalmist's own contempt for God as provider 23-26 Reflection - praise of the nearness of God to the psalmist and divine protection 27 Grounds for praise - divine abandonment of the aloof, who are allowed to follow their o\VIl destructive desires 28 Grounds for praise - God is good to those who draw near to seek divine protection

Legend: Cathetii "legs ofa triangle", denoting conflict between two major characters; OIC conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-Collective cathetus); OIG conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-God cathetus); CIG conflict between Col­ lective and God (Collective-God cathetus); +1- indication of active conflict on the respec­ tive cathetus in accordance lNith the proposed conflict taxonomy; +1- indication of signif­ icant active conflict on the respective cathetus (commentary focuses on this cathetus) =

=

=

=

=

=

The core theological problem of the AP-Collection centres on the presence of the Opponent in a setting whereas God is absent (vv2-16). In particular. the Opponent possesses that which the psalmist thought was the psalmist"s exclu­ sive right as God·s people. Accordingly. Psalm 73 is dominated by an account of the psalmist"s enmity with the subjectively represented Opponent and in particular the coveting of their "well-being·· (c'�I:i) (vv3-12 cf. vv l S-20. 27). The psalmist was lured by ephemeral prosperity. which almost led them to abandon hope in God. The complaints in the first half of the psalm imply that God has allowed the Opponent to prosper. There is a significant power differential between the psalmist and the wicked Opponent. The haughtiness of the Opponent is due to the way its well-being affected its self-image of supremacy, causing it to conclude that God is some­ how aloof to the affairs of the earth (vv4-12). This increases the focus on the Opponent-God cathetus. However. by envying the Opponent"s well-being. the psalmist also indirectly sets themselves in enmity with God by expressing their sense of shame over trusting in a supposedly good God who allows the wicked

Psalm 74

63

to prosper (vv 13-15). In discourse-level semantic roles, the Opponent is de­ picted as Agent, the Collective as Patient and God the Target of the discourse. The psalmist's confusion over the wicked Opponent's undeserved well-be­ ing (vI6) drives them to fixate on the reversal of the fortune of the Opponent (vvI 8-20). The supposed encounter in the holy places ofE! (vI7) reinvigorates the psalmist and refreshes their hope in a God whose divine presence they rec­ ognise as being near and even with them (vv23a, 25a, 28a). However, the psalmist's change of mood actually comes from the contemplation of the fate of the Opponent (vv1 7b-20, 27). The expression of personal contrition in verses 21-22 is presented in a sub­ jective manner which does not acknowledge the basis for the contrition, only that the psalmist recognises they have brought about the distance between God as Stimulus and themselves as Experiencer, emphasising the Collective-God cathetus (vv2-3). Whereas it might be inferred that God was considered wrong for allowing the psalmist's situation to transpire in the first place, the psalmist is genuinely ashamed. It is the process of recognising the psalmist's offence before God that ultimately restores right relationship with God (vv23-26). Only the praise of God's divine character as Theme and empowennent as Agent for the psalmist as Recipient at the beginning and end of the psalm reduces the perceived dis­ tance between God and the psalmist (vv l , 23-26, 28) on the Collective-God cathetus. The psalmist finds divine hope in the expectation that God will re­ move the Opponent from their midst. On the one hand, this psalm is a model for contemplation of emnity with an Opponent in that the psalmist uses that same predicament to restore hope in God. On the other hand, it is fixation upon the Opponent, which caused the psalmist's problems in the first place. This psalm sets the key theological prob­ lem of divine distance and Opponent presence for the AP-Collection and re­ solves it. However, the psalmist leaves unanswered the question as to what exactly happened in the supposed encounter in the holy places which caused such a change of heart. Wendland is right in observing the encounter in the holy places ofE! as mystical (v 17).

3.2 Psalm 74

Psalm 74 is the first communal lament of the AP-Collection. Whereas Goulder speculates its Sitz im Leben as a covenant renewal ceremony,56 the psalmists present the Collective in crisis. They recall past acts in creation and salvation to maintain its fragile identity.57 The psalmists seek to motivate God to act in 5 6 Gaulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 74. 57 Hassfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 243; Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 0 1 .

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

64

the interest of the Collective and to convince the Collective that God can act as such notwithstanding its doubts. First, the psalmists seek God's sympathy by presenting confusion over di­ vine absence and Opponent presence by becoming self-centred over the Col­ lective's presumed deviant status. The psalmists reveal the state of the Collec­ tive's cognitive dissonance, which underpins the perceived theological prob­ lem of divine distance and Opponent presence. 58 In particular, they presume to know the mind of the absent God, who has rejected them completely, yet also want to know why God would have rejected them by allowing the Opponent to take over the divine dwelling place (vI b), so that the Collective loses access to God (vv4-8). The idea of self-centredness is used poetically here because it bears a sense of helplessness and self-pity. Using Tucker's terminology, the "client" Collective presents itself as if it were guilty in the hope that it might shame the "patron" God into correcting divine judgment to a verdict of inno­ cence, thereby reversing their fate.59 Second, the psalmists express confidence in the God of the past by con­ trasting the subjective presentations of opposing powers in the primeval Cha­ oskampf, setting the cosmos into divine order (vv 1 2-17). The rhetorical pur­ pose of the Chaoskampf is to motivate God to act in that same manner in the present predicament. The psalmists close with the perfect motivation for God to act for the Col­ lective's exclusive benefit.60 The implied hope of the Collective is that the di­ vine Chaoskampfer would assume responsibility for the real deviant - the Op­ ponent standing before the Collective in God's own seemingly deserted dwell­ ing place (vvI 8-23). To this end, the psalmists identify the taunting Opponent as the enemy of God rather than the Collective (vv4a, l Ob, 1 8a, 23a, 23b). The key question remains unanswered: why is the Chaoskampfer not here now? 3.2. 1 Translation MT

�9� 7 �,� �o n��? ��w Cl';:T·I;l� j'J�? ''lQ ' �lO IK"� 'l� � I�¥.:

V 1aa lab 1b

c llP- �'�i? 1'i'jl;1ll? j jr

2aa

'i'jQ ? m ��� �7\.(� :i� QP� li1r li':;I:-jjJ

2ab 2b

Translation A piece-of--..visdom (belonging) to Asaph Why, Elohim, have you rejected-detested com­ pletely?; (Why) does it smoke, your nose, against (the) sheep of your pasture? Remember your assembly (which) you had bought before, you redeemed (the) tribe of your inheritance; the mountain of Zion, this, you settled in it.

5 8 Alec Basson, '''Only Ruins Remain': Psalm 74 as a Case of Mundus Inversus", 20 (2007): 130. 5 9 Tucker, "Is Shame a Matter of Patronage?", 475. 60 Cf. deClaisse-Walford, Jacobson and Tarmer, The Book ofPsalms, 594.

aTE

Psalm 74

n1K�0'7 'rgp� ;'P'ly

V

Translation

3a

Cause (them) to rise up, yoW" steps, to (the) de-

'�1i'. ,'1K l>"1V-�;>

3b

'1." �'ll " ,,�;?

4a

:n1nk CJ;iti1K 10� ;'� ¥ P '7 K'. O;> ",1:

4b 5a

, n1 011'' r"-�;>q. 'Cl; Q'1}1n� n Pl

5b 6a

' I ' C'�O ' n. �';ll �'$;l?

6b 7a 7b

MT

n.l

65

�1�10

��l?O '*;> ; n7� '�g 'Dli'

ceptions-remains;

8aa

everything he has made evil, (the) enemy, in (the) holy (place-thing). They roared, (the) ones hostile to you, within yoW" meeting place; they set their signs - signs! He is known as one who causes to enteribring (himself) into (the) high (place); through (the) undergrowth o f a tree (are) adzes. And now, (the) engraved thing of (the) community; with axe and beam, they strike(-down). They stretched out in fire your holy place; to (the) ground, they profaned (the) dwelling place of your name. They said in the heart of them,

8ab

"I will oppress them altogether";

8b

They burned down all of Lhe meeting places of

0; �iP;> �111!l ;'�K : C��;:J-"V C'�'�IJ '�Iq J71l�ip

13a

El on earth. Our signs, we did not see, no more is there a prophet; and not (one) of us knows until when (we will). Until when, Elohim, will he taunt, (the) adversary?; Will he disrespect, (the) enemy, yoW" name continually? Why do you cause to tum away your hand? Even yoW" right hand; from the midst of your lap, cease (withholding yoW" hand) ! But, Elohim, my king, from before; (you were the) one working acts of salvation in the midst of the earth. You yourself roused wi th your might (the) sea;

13b

you shauered (the) heads ofLhe oppressors upon

IQ;17 '1i"1 N.l ;'�K

14a

You yourself smote-dashed (the) heads of the

,0':.7 OP7 �;>�o ")J)n

14b

:1t;1 ' \$ n1'm J71tp;l1" "J71 1.(

�nl) I;¥e �¥i?;> ;'�K

15a 15b

;' �; 7 �7-'1K 01'

�7

16a

:���l '1K� t;11�':;lQ "QI.(

16b

U'I;q j( " iJ'lJti1K

" '11�; o';,,� � '09-'"

9aa 9ab 9b lOa

':1K r�"

lOb

K':;::!, " VTlt

: " 9-'P Pl' 1JJ7I�-j("l

,n.,�

�Q � �1;

" $� ;'07

"i"j�'�'1

' ;'�;l � ,,1n 'lpo Ol;? e

'.70 O';)':>Kl

'n�y '1." nBn�; � ""

l laa l lab 1 1b 12a 12b

the waters.

Leviathan; you gave it. food for (the) people, for the (ones on) ships. You yourself burst forth spring and wadi; you yourself caused to dry up ever-flowing streams. (Belonging) to you (is the) day, also (belonging) to you (is the) night; You yoW"self caused to fix (the) soW"ce of light, the sun.

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

66

Yl.1$ nil;l1�rl;lfl �9�;:T jJQI.(

MT

V 17a

:ClQl�; jJQI.( �n.hi f: i? nKr-j� i j'Jji1; l�lO ��iK :'i'j�� 1:S1$� I;l�t ClPl

17b 1 8aa 18ab 18b 19a 19b

n'j�� " ��j'j niK� n. �-'.;;l � r,H� 1K7 9 .�;

20a 20b

: o r.m

07�l 11 �,,:-��

21a 21b

Cl';:T·I;l� j'J91P 'i'j�'l j'J�'1 :Cli'jTl;lfl l;l�r'�� 'i'jr;1�j,iJ j jr l'T',;;

�Ip n"�n-��

:j'�� jJ?l.i 'i'j'�i? liK�

22aa 22ab 22b 23a 23b

Translation You yourself caused to set all of (the) territories of (the) earth; summer and lNinter, you yourself set them. Remember this the enemy has taunted, YHWH; and a foolish people, they have disrespected your name. May you not give to beasts (the) nephes of your turtle dove; the life of your poor ones, may you not forget to abandonment. Cause to look at the covenant; For they have been filled, dark places of (the) earth, pastures of violence. May he not return, the oppressed one, while be­ ing shamed; (the) poor-needy one, (so) they may they praise your name. Rise up, Elohim, contest your cause; remember (the) taunts of you from the foolish (one) all ofthe day. May you not forget (the) noise of your foes; (the) roar of (the) ones rising up (against) you (is) ascending constantly.

3.2.2 Self-Pity and Shame before God In this section. the Collective sets itself in a negative light through its petition as a rhetorical means to compel God to act to protect the integrity of the divine name. This occurs in two stages - verses I b-8 and verses 9-17. 3.2. 2.1 Stage 1 - the Opponent who Seeks to be God (vvl-8) In the first stage of self-pity. the psalmists present the Collective in two con­ trasting lights as both the prized and rejected possession of God, This is the paradox before the Collective : they are aware of the expected promises of God but also of the Opponent"s devastation of the sanctuary, Such contemplation does nothing to resolve the theological tension over divine absence and Oppo­ nent presence. The psalmists place the question as to why God has rejected them in an em­ phatic opening position (vI), The "impression of a hasty opening that ignores etiquette'>61 is typical of a communal complaint psalm. Treated in isolation, the question is paradoxical: the Collective seeks to understand the rationale for the 61 Westermann, Psalms 1, 53; contra Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 77-78.

Psalm 74

67

very act which the Collective presumes God has caused This is cognitive dis­ sonance par excellence.62 Through hyperbole the Collective projects its own fears that God has completely rejected63 yet also hopes to provoke a divine response. The expression after the athnak in verse I is equally paradoxical. The Col­ lective perceives itself as being subject to divine wrath (vlb literally "nose" ��), which implies that the Collective is aware of its contribution to God's supposed response of abandonment. However, it also expresses the Collec­ tive's expectation of divine protection by appealing to God's nature as shep­ herd of the flock (v2). Accordingly, the psalmists express their perception of the Collective's status in the eyes of God as both deviant and victim concur­ rently. The cognitive dissonance in the Collective's character is only managed by presenting God as being aloof, in stark contrast to Psalm 73 :28a. The petition for divine intervention on the Collective's behalf in verse 2 is grounded in God's original claim of ownership over his assembly as a pur­ chased (mp) and redeemed (��l) people. MT then uses lexical terms that reflect God's claim over Israel from the time of the exodus (v2a cf. Exod 1 5 : 13, 1 6).64 62 Cf. Basson, "Only Ruins Remain", 130. 63 mr in qatal form with the adverb n::S:J1;l (vlab cf. vv3, 10, 17) is better rendered here as "completely" . There are at least 17 instances of n::S:J in the Hebrew Bible that qualify verbs describing final conditions or finite processes of destruction and abandonment (e.g. "perish­ ing", "breaking" or "forgetting" forever; for instance, Job 20:7a "Like his waste, he perishes [?]forever"), so that a perpetual rendering of the term confounds rather than complements the verb (1 Sam 15:29; Pss 9:7, 19; 1 0 : 1 1 ; 13:2; 52:7; 68:17; 74:3; 74:19; Job 4:20; 20:7; Lam 3: 18; 5:20; Isa 28:28; 63:3, 6; Jer 8:5). I contend that n::S:J is on the whole polysemous; that is, it bears multiple signs 'Nithin the same semantic field, best represented through a spatial image of deteriorating waste. The image of "waste" is metaphorically transformed into a temporal conception wherein time "wastes away" to or towards a point of expiration, rendered as "continual", "thoroughly" and "finally", and is haloised in later positive contexts such that "waste product becomes divided resources". This explains polysemous uses of n::S:J in the Other Writings and the psalms titles as "set apart" or "divided up", which lend them­ selves towards uses as "leader". When applied in Psalm 74: lab, this rendering of n::S:J would have an illocutionary function of negating the possibility of the reversal of the Collective's plight; that is, ifthe Collective is completely rejected, it carmot be restored to right relation­ ship 'Nithin the rightful divine order. By contrast, in Psalm 79:5a I claim this use is a "finite temporal period" use of n::S:J as "continual" yet not unending, which has an underlying se­ mantic of "deteriorating waste", transformed into a "destructive" context under the meta­ phorical extension "time has begun to waste away" . Examples of this usage are found in 2 Samuel 2:26; Isaiah 57:16; Jeremiah 3:5; 15: 18; 50:39; Amos 1 : 1 1 ; Psalms 1 6 : 1 1 ; 49:10; 74:1, 10; 77:9; 79:5; 89:47; 103:9; as negations: Isaiah 13:20; 34 : 1 0 (x2); Habakkuk 1 :4; Amos 8:7; Psalm 49:20. See also Appendix 1 . 64 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 420; cf. Stefan Holtmarm, "Die Asafpsalmen als Spiegel der Geschichte Israels: Uberlegungen zur Komposition von Ps 73-83 (Teil l)", BN 122 (2004): 66-67. It is noted that LXX makes a creation allusion here (an' apXT]�): both creation and exodus allusions are made in the psalm.

68

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

The psalmists argue for divine internal consistency : if God claims the Collec­ tive for a redeemed inheritance, then God must act to redeem again. Between cries over God's absence (v2 cf. vv1O-11), the psalmists declare the real deviant to be the roaring war-like sign-bearing enemy (v4 cf. v9 ab­ sence of signs of the prophets), who has set fire to the holy place of God's name (v7) and made it (or its surrounds) a broken ruin (v3), with n�l again in a noun phrase." Having cut down the beautifying woodwork (vv5-6 cf. 1 Kgs 6:29), the Opponent arrogantly promotes itself to the prestigious position as the oppressor of God's people (v8 cf. Ps 73 :7-1 0),66 treating what is holy as "something ordinary" 67 This depiction of the holy place as desecrated and bro­ ken ruins are an image of covenant failure;68 that is, the expected relationship with God did not produce its supposed benefits, which causes dishonour and, in the eyes of the psalmists, shame, not only for the Collective, but also for GOd.69 The strong emotion of shame later calls for God to restore divine honour (vv 10, 20, 22) 70 Accordingly, it is not only the Collective's fear that has brought it to the conclusion that God is absent, but also the psalmists' contemplation of the Op­ ponent presence (vv3-7) and the presentation of that Opponent as being in op­ position with God (v8 cf. Ps 73:9-1 1). Opponent presence is tangible evidence of covenant failure in that God is no longer accessible: a chaos into which the "spatiotemporal" fabric of the Collective's world has collapsed, approaching extinction.71 Such a rhetorical strategy also seeks to align the Collective's in­ terests with God as Target, in the absence of any prophetic encouragement. Overall, there are two key effects in tenns of the conflict pattern in verses 1-8. First, the discourse in this first stage begins with self-pity (negative rela­ tionship on the Collective-God cathetus) for the counterintuitive purpose of seeking mercy as victim, wherein the Opponent serves as Stimulus and the Collective as Experiencer. Second, the psalmists portray the Opponent as the

6 5 I propose that that n:!l::J stands in apposition to n'K�O (a hapax legomenon) in a prepositional phrase, rather than functioning adverbially to qualify the entire verb phrase. 66 Weber, Psalmen 11, 25. 67 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 428. 68 Given the uncertain identity ofthe temple and the centrality of the Opponent figure, I argue that temple theology carmot contribute to solving the problem of divine absence. The theological problem is greater than just where God is, but also the psalmists \Vfestle "With the reason why the Opponent is present. 69 Tucker, "Is Shame a Matter of Patronage?", 474-475. Tucker goes as far to suggest that Psalm 74 may be considered paradigmatic for study ofthe relationship between shame, honour, and patronage. 70 Tucker, "Is Shame a Matter of Patronage?", 477; cf. Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 0 1 . 7 1 Dennis Sylva, "Pre creation Discourse in Psalms 74 and 77: Struggling "With Chaoskampfe", R&T 18 (20 1 1): 242.

Psalm 74

69

supreme power and Agent over the Collective as Patient (negative relationship on the Opponent-Collective cothetus). 3.2.2.2 Stage 2 - Memories ofDivine Order (vv9-1 7) In the second stage of self-pity, the psalmists build on the wrresolved confusion by complaining about the lack of a prophetic sign and seeking a time limit on the taunts of the enemy. After an emotion-charged battery of questions to God (vv l O-I l a), the complaint climaxes in a demand to end tyranny by ceasing to remain inactive (v l lb). The psalmists' mood then changes abruptly to present a hopeful image ofthe powerful God, who once set the cosmos-temple in order (vv I 2-17) in the hope that God might do the same again. First, the psalmists repeat their complaint that God has intentionally rejected the Collective, which is a response to the theological conundrum over the pres­ ence of the Opponent and the perceived absence of God. The practical effects of the destruction of El's meeting places is declared, including the loss of di­ vine symbols and the prophetic platform (V9),72 through which the Collective ordinarily gains access to the earthly manifestation of God?3 These "signs" (n1n�) might refer to major acts of salvation history,74 or the revelatory confir­ mation of the prophets of divine intervention, or the time when such interven­ tion is expected?5 It is possible that the prophetic voice the psalmists seek is the one which affirms God's favour for God's people. Certainly, the plethora of prophets predicting the fall of the northern and southern kingdoms is well documented in the Prophets, particularly those argued to be of an Ephraimite tradition (especially Hosea and Jeremiah) 76 Calling for repentance would not escape the attention of the kings and officials of Israel and Judah. Second, the psalmists seek an end to the lack of signs and prophets by calling on God to recommence divine activity. The questions that follow this declara­ tion of confusion and despair over the lack of prophetic affirmation are tem­ poral (vv l O-I I), particularly 'no-,� (v l Oa "Until when [ . . . ] will he taunt, the adversary?") and n�l� (vlOb "Will he disrespect [ . . . ] continually?") 77 The

72 Goldingay claims that the absence of prophetic voice is more harrO\ving than receiving word from false prophets (Goldingay, Psalms 2, 429). 73 Cf. Hartenstein, Unzuganglichkeit Gottes, 229. 74 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 246. 75 Robert P. Gordon, '''We Do Not See Our Signs' (Psalm 74:9): Signs, Prophets, Oracles, and the Asaphite Psalter" in New Perspectives on Old Testament Prophecy and History: Essays in Honour ofHansM. Barstad, ed. Rarmfrid Thelle, et al., VTSup 168 (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 92-94. 76 Nasuti, Tradition History, 60. 77 There is some conjecture over the nature of this temporal clause. It is most unlikely that n:!l::J1;l functions as an adverb across the entire verse. In the AP-Collection, adverbs are generally located next to the verb they qualify.

70

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

emphatic closing imperative calling God to exercise divine power is also tem­ porally marked with ;r�� (v I I b "Cease [withholding your handl' ") 78 The piling-on of questions to and demands of God shows that the psalmists do not actually consider the Collective as in any way responsible for their plight The Collective feels the shame of placing its trust in a God who is per­ ceived to have not delivered on covenant promises and it wishes to pass that shame on to someone else because it is too painful to bear. Although the psalm­ ists set the Collective as victim of a maleficent Opponent, ultimately God has allowed such a foreign power to co-opt divine sovereignty. However, it is as if God had not intended for this to occur. The " and ]'0' of God are both symbolic of the divine capacity to meet the Opponent's acts of aggression with an infi­ nitely greater measure (v I l a cf. Exod 1 5 :6, 12, 16) 79 The inactivity of God is in focus here, rather than the activity of the Opponent, as in the first stage. Third, the psalmist avoids direct imprecations by referring back to primeval acts which established the original divine order over the waters of chaos with destructive force (vv 13-15). However, the psalmists also avoid making the connection between God's destructive activity and the destruction of the sanc­ tuary. The use of ANE parallels gives some insight as to the rhetorical purpose of the psalm : they are seeking to restore the sovereignty of God in the Collective's memory. Greene argues that the psalmists adapt Ugaritic preservation myths and Babylonian Chaoskampf parallels for the purpose of re-establishing the cosmos and reconstituting the temple as a fonn of creation.8o In doing so the psalmists combine the seemingly contrary motifs of destruction and creation of verses 12-17 into the metaphor "creation-order is a battle".81 Walton con­ curs with this view, claiming that "theomachy" is typical of the "cognitive en­ vironment" of ANE, which is notably missing from biblical creation accounts, yet prevalent here and possibly also in Psalm 77.82 78 The exclamation at the end of verse 1 1 is made on the basis that jjl;l� is rendered lNith a more conventional piel imperative second-person masculine singular and, in its context, lNith an elliptical reduplication ofthe main verb in verse l l a (cf. Kraus, Psalms 2, 96; contra Goldingay, Psalms 2, 421). 79 Weber, Psalmen 11, 26. 80 For instance, Greene finds that the beast cosmology in verses 12-17 is common lNith Enuma Elish and the destruction and setting of Elohim as king is common lNith the Ugaritic Baal Cycle. See Nathaniel E. Greene, "Creation, Destruction, and a Psalmist's Plea: Rethinking the Poetic Structure of Psalm 74", JBL 136 (2017): 91-92, 98, 100; cf. J OM H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World ofthe Hebrew Bible (Nottingham: Apollos, 2007), 196; cf. Tate, Psalms 51-100, 25025 1 . 8 1 Greene, "Creation, Destruction", 93-95. 82 W alton,ANET and OT, 199; cf. Rebecca S. Watson, Chaos Uncreated: A Reassessment ofthe Theme of 'Chaos ' in the Hebrew Bible (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2005), 157.

Psalm 74

71

This discourse does not directly relate to the Exodus account, and there is no reference to a beneficiary of salvific acts.83 Nevertheless, it would seem fitting that the primary purpose ofthe primeval acts in verses 12-17 is to assure the Collective of God's capacity to save, given the creation-order accounts in verses 13-15 are: proof ofthe power ofYHWH's kingship in the exodus and occupation ofthe land [ .. ] myth­ icized as "foundational acts" of God lNith creation theology.84

The personal appeal to God is an attempt to re-establish divine affinity from the distant past, by invoking God as universal king and saviour" Accordingly, I concur with Slyva that: the function of the Chaoskampfin Ps[alm] 74 is to engender trust in the divine reclamation ofthe psalmist's o\VIl space and time.80

From a textual perspective, the opening waw-adversative (vI 2aa) switches the lamentable mood to a hymnic account of "theological chutzpah" 87 The ref­ erence to C';J�� as "my king" is rare (cf. Pss 5 :3; 44:5; 68:25; 84:4), personal­ ising the communal lament in MT in contrast to LXX. It is likely that the tem­ poral particle c'po at the athnak qualifies both the statement about God's king­ ship over the psalmists (v1 2a) and the character of God as worker of acts of salvation on earth (n'�'I:i' ��� v 1 2b) in the distant past. The psalmists' use of the Chaoskampfmotifin verses 13-15 reflects self-assurance about God's ca­ pacity for divine victory over a contemporary Opponent and re-establish crea­ tion-order (vv 16-17 cf. Gen 1 :9-10; 8 :22) as it should be for the benefit of the Collective. The use of the Chaoskampfas a form to reinvigorate hope in the creator­ ordering God has another positive externality, as Slyva suggests: The myth decreases the magnification of the problems caused by the enemies. In pulling back, it enables the recognition ofthe placement of socio-political chaos in the larger reality of the God-empowered natural order that grounds all socio-political parties.88

83 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 431-432. 84 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 242. 85 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 241. 86 Sylva, "Pre creation Discourse", 254. However, I would dispute that the use of n:!l::J and the reference to the temple causes the expansion of "the spatiotemporal matrix ofthe world" in the eyes ofthe psalmists - in fact, I believe the opposite to be the case here (cf. Appendix 1 ). 87 deClaisse-Walford, Jacobson and Tarmer, The Book ofPsalms, 500. 88 Sylva, "Precreation Discourse", 253-254.

72

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

The actual Opponent is removed from view and replaced with a mythical beastly one, dramatised and demonised. The Opponent is therefore the "fram­ ing element" of the psalm.89 Overall, confusion relating to opposing powers in the first stage are resolved in the second stage by contemplating the re-establishment of God's rule over the cosmos as a renewed act of salvation, reminiscent of the exodus.90 Both stages of self-pity have a similar structure: an opening statement declaring the Collective's confusion (vv l , 9-1 1), followed by an application of the destruc­ tive power over the dwelling place of God (vv2-8, 1 2-17). After the first stage of contemplation fails to resolve the theological tension caused by divine dis­ tance and Opponent presence, the Chaoskamp/ in the second stage seeks a "cognitive reclamation of historical space and tirne".91 The psalmists shift from expressions of self-pity in an effort to obtain divine sympathy (negative rela­ tionship on the Collective-God cathetus) towards a display of God's power in acts of divine salvation and retribution (positive relationship on the Collective­ God cathetus). At the same time, the Chaoskamp/focuses on the negative re­ lationship on the Opponent-God cathetus, albeit against a mythical Opponent as Patient, where God is Agent 3.2. 3 Motivation/or God to Act The attempt to reflect back on the past in verses 1 2-17 increases the sense of alienation from God felt by the Collective in the remainder of the psalm n This return to reality triggers a breaking point, at which the psalmists make the ul­ timate call for divine intervention for the sake of God's own cause (v22a cf. v I I b). There are two main parts to this ultimatum . First, the bookends of verses 1 8 and 22-23 present the Opponent again as being the real deviant who disrespects the name of God and continually issues taunts, warranting the destructive ac­ tivity of verses 13-1 5 . Second, the centre of this pericope focuses on the victim state of the poor-needy Collective, taunted by the Opponent and fearful of God's rejection, which oughtto be the perfect motivation for God to act (vv 1921).

89 Gerlinde B aumarm, "Psalm 74: Myth as the Source of Hope in Times of Devastation"

inPsalmsandMythology, ed. Dirk J. Human, LHB 462 (New York: T&T Clark, 2007), 100. 90 Cf. Georg Fischer, SJ, "Israels Auszug aus Agypten in den Psalmen" in 'Cantero in eterno Ie misericordie del Signore ' (Sal 89,2): studi in onore del prof Gianni Barbiero in occasione del suo settantesimo compleanno, ed. Stefan M. Attard and Marco Pavan (Rome: Gregorian and Biblical, 2015), 223. 91 Sylva, "Precreation Discourse", 254. 92 Cf. Tate, Psalms 51-100, 253.

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73

3.2.3.1 The Taunting Opponent as Motivation (vvI8. 22-23) Verses I S and 22-23 continue to set the Opponent as the direct taunting Op­ ponent of God for the purpose of motivating divine retribution. First. the psalmists seek to reset the Collective's world back into what it perceives to be divine order - a reversal of the circumstances of the Opponent and the Collec­ tive.93 YHWH is reminded of the past taunts of the Opponent (v I S with qatal verbs94 cf. vvSab. l Ob) as well as current taunts in the final petition to c';r�� (vv22b-23 with indefinite temporal lexeme ,'on). These taunts serve as a frame for the closing petitions.95 Second. the Collective desires God to take responsibility for punishing the Opponent.96 In verse 23. the Opponent is referred as being the Opponent of God. not the Collective (cf. vv4a. l Ob. I Sa). However. I argue that the Oppo­ nent is really God's Opponent in name only. There is no resolution of future hope in Psalm 74. as if the Collective expects that it will face the marauding Opponent once again. Also, the use of second-person singular pronoun and pronominal suffix. appealing to God as "you··. are used together so frequently as to heighten the psalmists' exasperation over the perceived absence of God in the face of the marauding enemy.97 Overall. this section focuses on both the negative relationship on the Oppo­ nent-God and Opponent-Collective cathetii. The taunts of the Opponent are an affront to both God and the Collective. disrespecting the name of God and op­ pressing God· s people. 3.2.3.2 Poor-Needy Seeking Covenant Fulfilment (vv 19-21) The crux of the psalmists· complaint is the incongruity of the Collective·s dis­ honour in light of God·s covenant promises (vv I9-21). The expression of 93 Cf. Basson, "Only Ruins Remain", 134. 94 The rendering of these verbs ought to be the past tense, especially given the opening verb to "remember" past acts (cf. Weber, Psalmen II, 25). 95 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 246; contra Greene, "Creation, Destruction", 88-89. Greene ar­ gues that verses 12-17 are "violently" inserted in the redaction process on the basis that verse 18 echoes the taunt reference of verse 10. I counterargue that the taunting of God (vv8, 10-11, 18, 22-23) is scattered throughout the Psalm intentionally so as to serve as frames, not only here, but also for the opening petitions (vv2-3), lament over the lack of confirma­ tory signs and prophecies (v9), the Chaoskampfhynmody (vv1 2-17), and the call for cove­ nant fulfilment (vv19-21). Greene' s claim of a chiasm of the syntactic pattern of first verbs in verses 19-23 is notable, yet it does not provide great insight into a supposed redaction process. 96 Cf. Goldingay, Psalms 2, 436. 97 One noteworthy syntactic feature of Psalm 74 is the unusually high number of refer­ ences to God as both object through the second-person pronoun and pronominal suffix, es­ pecially in comparison to other AP (31 of 140) and as subject by use of second-person sin­ gular verbs (25 cf. Psalm 80 with up to 26 uses including fiqfol verbs).

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dishonour "assumes that God is being charged with ignoring the obligations of his cQvenant"98 and is the ultimate means by which the Collective seeks to mo­ tivate God to act; namely, repeating divine covenant promises and presenting a poor-needy people seeking covenant protection. This section addresses, first, the nature of covenant in Psalm 74 and the AP-Collection generally, and sec­ ond, the rhetorical use of victirnhood to provoke God's salvific action. First, the reference to covenant in verse 20 is critical to the AP-Collection in that God's promises to the Collective and the Collective's obligations to­ wards God are presented concurrently. The tenn '�r appears prominently in this pericope (vv 1 8a, 22b cf v2a) and is typically associated with arousing God's attention and intervention.99 However, the uses of '�r in this psalm are centred on reminding God of the presence of the Opponent, rather than the covenant. The tenn t'1�,� (v20a "covenant") functions to direct attention to the relationship between the Collective and God. The call to the absent God to "take notice of the covenant" (n" �� ��;r in hiphiTJ and the depiction of "dark violent places"j()() in the land (r'�, or perhaps the whole earth) filled by the Opponent serve to both remind God of divine distance (v20 cf v22b) as well as to bring that perception of divine distance to mind.lOi This is understandable in light of the fears of complete abandonment and rejectionI02 in verse 19, con­ trasting the Collective as 1,m ("your turtledove") with the Opponent as n'n ("beasts"). With Hurnan, I argue that the Davidic covenant is in view in verse 20 of this psalm (cf. 2 Sam 7:8-16), which connotes covenant promises and obliga­ tions 103 It is clear that the Davidic covenant is set (at least initially) within the so-called Deuteronomistic historical books.104 Gerbrandt has demonstrated that the Davidic covenant is an unconditional promise of kingship, yet the provision

98 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 252. 99 Leslie C. Allen (#2349) in NIDOTTE, 1: 1 1 0 1 . 100 I render the expression otm n1K:J ("the pastures of violence") in apposition to the sub­ ject of Psalm 74:20b, rendered 'Nith its stative main verb as "they have been filled, (the) dark places ofthe earth, (the) pastures of violence" . The point is that the earth is full of darkness and violence. n1K:J always appears in the feminine plural construct fonn in HB. 1 0 1 Cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 39. I concur 'Nith Pavan's insight that "remembering assumes a situation of distance" with an inclination towards hope. I advance that a call to the absent God is not devoid of hope, even in this most lamentable situation of complete abandonment (cf. vI). 102 On the translation "to abandonment", see Appendix 1 . 1 0 3 Cf. Dirk J . Human, "Berit in Psalm 74", SK 1 6 (1995): 60. 1 04 Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology, trans. D . M. G. Stalker (London: SCM Press, 1975), 1 :334-357; cf. Cross, Canaanite Myth, 277-278. Von Rad goes further to claim that there were significant messianic threads in Deuteronomistic history, particularly the Davidic covenant, which is not repudiated but further explicated by reference to impending exile in 1 Kings 9: 6-9.

Psalm 74

75

of benefits under the covenant remain conditionaP05 The Collective is respon­ sible to ensure that it, led by the "covenant administrator", adheres to torah under the Davidic covenant.106 A continuous covenant concept relativises the difference between the Mosaic and Davidic covenants, emphasising the im­ portance of covenant obligation under the Mosaic covenant without denying the new and unconditional nature of covenant promise of kingship under the Davidic covenant (cf Exod 19:5).107 Although the concept of Davidic kingship is not explicit in the AP-Collection (aside from allusions in Psalms 78: 1-4, 7072; 80: 1 6, 1 8), the theological tension over the lack of covenant benefits re­ mains for the Collective. This tension then emphasises that the Collective is responsible for covenant obligations. Also, it is possible that God has enacted his promise to repay the Collective for its own crookedness. Second, the petition for covenant fulfilment by God presupposes that God is not acting in accordance with covenant expectations, the covenant is still in operation, and the Jerusalem temple cannot be completely destroyed presum­ ing the psalm bears traces of a supposedly original northern setting. !08 The jus­ sives of verse 21 express the Collective's yearning that shame be removed so that God's name might be praised. However, within the context of the call to honour the covenant, these jussives might have the illocutionary function of telling God what to do. Despite the self-pitying of the Collective in verses 1 b and 9, the psalmists appear to have exonerated the Collective from any respon­ sibility for its plight Instead, the Collective claims victim status in verse 21, refocusing on the Opponent-Collective cathetus, in the hope that God might act in accordance with its covenant expectations. However, this strategy has not resolved the Collective's plight

1 0 5 Gerald E. Gerbrandt,

Kingship according to the Deuteronomistic History (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986), 167. 106 Gerbrandt, Kingship according to the Deuteronomistic History, 102. 1 07 William J. Dumbrell, "The Davidic Covenant" in Covenant and Kingdom: A Collection of Old Testament Essays, ed. Gregory R. Goswell and Allan M. Hannan (Doncaster: Reformed Theological Review, 2007), 34-35. 108 Dumbrell points to the importance ofthe temple being established (2 Samuel 6) before the covenant is made, given that in "the erection of a temple was recognised as an assertion of divine control over the political and religious life of the state concerned" as a "central theological conception in the ancient world", such as the Enuma Elish, comparable with the return of the ark in 1 Samuel 4-7 (Dumbrell, "The Davidic Covenant", 28-29).

76

Chapter 3: Theological Problem

3.2. 4 Summary a/Oppositions ole

Cathetii O/G elG

+

+

+ +

+ +

+

+

oskampf 16-17 Elohim is great in history - remembering the setting of divine order 18 Petition - reminding God of the taunting Opponent, implying that action is now necessary to avoid dishonour 19-21 Petition - appeal to God to deliver benefits of covenant relationship, implying that God is inactive 22-23 Grounds for petition - reminding God of the con­ tinual taunts of the Opponent which bring dishonour

+

+ +

Summary of Structure of Psalm 74 1 Complaint question - (presupposition of) complete abandonment of God as aperceived crisis of covenant failure 2 Petition - call for God to remember the redeemed peo­ ple and the divine abode of Mount Zion 3-8 Petition/complaint - call for God to rise up to view the broken ruins afthe holy place/meeting places of E1 9 Complaint - denial of access to God in the absence of signs and prophets lO-11ba Complaint (question): duration of divine ab­ sence and dishonour caused by Opponent presence 1 1 bb (Implied) imprecation: Call to God to cease lNith­ holding divine retribution against the Opponent 12 Elohim is great in history - remembering past salvific and cosmic acts of King Elohim 13-15 Elohim is great in history - remember­ ing divine victory by means of the Cha­

+

Legend: Cathetii "legs ofa triangle", denoting conflict between two major characters; OIC conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-Collective cathetus); OIG conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-God cathetus); CIG conflict between Col­ lective and God (Collective-God cathetus); +1- indication of active conflict on the respec­ tive cathetus in accordance lNith the proposed conflict taxonomy; +1- indication of signif­ icant active conflict on the respective cathetus (commentary focuses on this cathetus) =

=

=

=

=

=

The cognitive dissonance over divine absence and Opponent presence remains wrresolved in Psalm 74. The psalmists complain against the God who hears yet has already abandoned Israel. and who protects yet has already inflicted divine wrath. These mutually exclusive conditions evoke the Collective's cognitive dissonance and theological confusion over an intolerable situation. The setting of God's meeting places and sanctuary in ruins serves as primary evidence of divine abandonment and Opponent presence (vv3-8). This is the exact opposite of what is expected of the God who is always faithful to the covenant cut with Israel, reflecting the brokenness of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusam­ menhang.

Synopsis of Theological Problem

77

The rhetorical strategy of presenting the Collective as if God had decided it were the deviant (vv l b, 9) is an attempt to shame God into acting. The psalm­ ists compare the Opponent that captured the earthly temple from the Collective and the God who established the cosmos-temple in the Chaoskampf in ancient times, effectively wallowing in self-pity before God. Ultimately, the Collective considers itself to be the victim of both the overlording Opponent and the God who allowed this to occur through inactivity (vv 1 O-1 1 a cf. vv I 9-21). It is the injury from this suffering which the psalmists seek to transfer to God, using an unusually high num ber of instances of the second-person singu­ lar pronoun. Accordingly, the Opponent is positioned as the proper object of God's wrath through its direct opposition to God (vv I 8, 22-23 cf. vv8, 10-1 1). The question as to why God would have allowed this situation remains un­ answered. However, it is evident that the psalmists do not consider the Collec­ tive as bearing any responsibility for its position, which is typical of communal laments 109 God should act to reverse this theologically incomprehensible situ­ ation. Overall, the pattern of conflict might be summarised as two responses to the Collective's self-pity - the first increasing enmity on the Opponent-Collective cathetus, in which the Opponent generally serves as Stimulus and the Collec­ tive as Experiencer, and the second on the Opponent-God cathetus, in which God is presented as acting as Agent against the Opponent as Patient The over­ all goal of the psalmists is to transfer opposition from the Collective to God. However, the Collective does not realise that it might be the real deviant which breached the condition of covenant obedience (v20).

3 . 3 Synopsis of Theological Problem

3.3.1 Divine Distance as Triggerfor Theological Reflection The central theological problem for the Collective is set out at the beginning of the AP-Collection: God is absent and has allowed the external Opponent to take the divine dwelling place. However, juxtaposition of God's absence and the Opponent's presence is incongruent with the Collective's understanding of divine sovereignty and its own exclusive access to God's benefits. If God is not among the Collective, is the Collective really God's people at all? In Psalm 73, the Opponent is in the presence of the Collective. First, the qualities of the wicked Opponent, particularly its corpulence and arrogance, are very much in the face and eyes of the psalmists (v3). The Opponent is pre­ sented as being violently malevolent, presumably towards the Collective (vv61 0 9 Walter c. Bouzard, Jr., We Have Heard With Our Ears, 0 God: Sources of the Communal Laments in the Psalms, SBLDS 159 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 106.

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Chapter 3: Theological Problem

9). The Opponent takes on an almost superhuman image (vv4-5). Notwith­ standing this, the temporal state of wealth and well-being (c'�I:i) of the wicked (vv2, 4-5) is desirable to the Collective. Moreover, as prosperity is God-given, the Collective is puzzled as to why it does not enjoy God's provision exclu­ sively. Although there is a "shocking shift" from the nearness reference at the end of Psalm 73,110 the vivid recollection of the Opponent's trail of destruction in Psalm 74 serves as a constant reminder of enemy presence (ps 74:4-8). By denying access to God through religious symbols (Ps 74:9), the malevolent Opponent has unjustly set itself against the poor-needy Collective as easy prey. Second, the Opponent seeks to take the place of the God of the Collective. It is the Opponent's presumption that the supposedly transcendent God remains aloof that is distinctive here. The Opponent exudes a loftiness that implies an attack on the highness of God (ps 73:9a, l Ib). This is in essence the source of the Collective's shame : that it has placed its trust in the God who is perceived to have not delivered and instead preferred the wicked Opponent (ps 73:2-12). Eventually, the psalmist recognises their folly (ps 73:21-22) and, instead of expressing shame, becomes ashamed of their failure to trust in divine retribu­ tion and provision. The presumption of divine absence is also made by the Opponent in Psalm 74. They show no regard for God's sovereignty, as if to mock the Collective for their blind adherence to an absent deity. The Opponent is openly defiant towards God and therefore God's people suffer. This is a cause of great shame for the Collective, reflected in questions to God which presuppose a failure to act in accordance with covenant promises (vv l , 1 0-11). The psalmists then recount both past and present taunts of the Opponent against the name of God (vv7b, 8ab, 1 0, 1 8, 22b, 23). They call on God directly and continually in the second-person to defend against "your enemies" (vv4, 23), just like divine ac­ tion in the Chaoskamp/(vv 1 3-15). However, the presumption of God's aban­ donment (v I ) would suggest that the attempt to pass off the Opponent as being God's own adversary is not one made with complete trust in God, but rather in disbelief. The question of whether the act of setting divine distance is inten­ tional or merely forgetful remains unanswered. 3.3.2 The Opponent as Means a/Self-Critique The laments of Psalms 73 and 74 address more than the problem of divine distance. According to Deuteronornistic theology, it is incumbent on those who would put God's ordinances on their lips to reflect on their own misgivings, particularly idolatry (2 Kings 22-23 cf. Leviticus 26). The Opponent provides the negative example of reverence, which ought to tum the Collective back to 110

Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 6 8 .

Synopsis of Theological Problem

79

God; that is, the contemplation of the wicked character of the Opponent by the righteous Collective ought to be instructional (negative relationship on the Op­ ponent-God cathetus). Importantly, the identity of the Opponent is wholly outside God's covenant promises: it is the external Opponent. The treacherous character of the wicked Opponent (psalm 73 cf Psalm 75) and the national or military enemy Oppo­ nent (Psalm 74 cf Psalm 76) are recognizable as being groups who have no right to claim the benefit of covenant promises. The Opponent is not specifi­ cally identified as being part of the Collective 111 In Psalm 73, the rhetorical questions posed by the haughty Opponent demonstrate its lack of respect for Israel's good God (v I I). In particular, the Opponent provokes the Collective by questioning the knowledge of a god for­ eign to them, evoking the label of the mighty and wealthy wicked (v I2). Only the thought of visiting the (plural) holy places (v1 7a) enables the psalmist to access God's presence (cf v2Sa) and thus reignites hope for the Collective (vv23-26). However, this hope in God's goodness is evoked by considering the wickedness of the Opponent (vv4-12, 1 7b) and the horrible fate that awaits it (vv l S-20, 27). Only once the psalmist considers the Opponent to have been removed can the Collective re-engage with God in right relationship. In a similar manner, Psalm 74 presents the Opponent as dominant (vS). However, the call for God to descend from Zion to the (singular) holy place (v3 cf plural in Ps 73: 17 a) evokes a completely different response to that in the preceding psalm. The Opponent is present where God should be and denies the Collective access to God (vv4-5, 9), inconsistent with the notion that God­ as-shepherd tends Israel as an innocent flock (vv2, 19-21). The Collective seeks answers as to why God would abandon it yet fail to act against the Op­ ponent (vv l , 1 1). The psalmists continually plead for God to act against "your" own taunting Opponent, as if God were unaware of or indifferent to the Oppo­ nent's actions. The incongruity of Opponent presence and divine absence is only resolved by remembering how the cosmic Opponent was overcome in the Chaoskampf (vv 1 2-1 7). The Collective regains temporary hope in the God who could act by remembering bygone acts of salvation and anticipating an imminent act for the self-designated innocent people of God. However, remembering does not cause the Collective to recognise that it has missed the mark of God's covenant expectations. Instead, the Opponent becomes the means by which the

1 1 1 In Section 2.2.2, I argue that both "enemy" and "lNicked" terms have a functional equivalence as terms which both designate the deviant or out-group. The corollary of this argument is that terms used to describe the Opponent carmot be used to determine whether the identity of object being described is notionally lNithin or outside the psalmist's concep­ tion of Israe1.

80

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3:

Theological Problem

Collective questions God's goodness, rather than acknowledging its own un­ faithfulness. Accordingly, Psalms 73 and 74 present examples of others-critique - the Collective recognises a quality of deviance in their counterpart. While the psalmist confesses their failure to relate to God in an appropriate manner (Ps 73:21-22), the act of contrition in Psalm 73 does not provide a complete picture of a selfcritique, as it remains a mystery as to what caused the mood shift at the holy places of EI (vI7). Further, Psalm 74 demonstrates that the Collective does not recognise the ways in which it might share deviant characteristics of the Opponent, avoiding self-critique by critiquing the other; that is, the Oppo­ nent. Were the Collective mighty and wealthy, it may well have responded with the same hubris as the Opponent has. In short, the Collective has the means by which it might examine itself before approaching the God who cannot tolerate disobedience. This means is an Opponent who seeks to take God's own place.

� Opponent

Collective

God Figure 4:

Central opposition in Psalms 73-74

The Collective's experience of God's absence and the presence of the Oppo­ nent is incongruent with its assumption that it is innocent before God and there­ fore exclusively entitled to receive covenant benefits. In the next chapter, this assumption will be tested from both the Collective's perspective and God's perspective through the theme of covenant expectations.

Chapter 4

Test of Covenant Relationship - Anticipation of Universal Divine Justice ("PI b")

Psalm 74 closes with the Collective's experience of an earth filled with dark­ ness and violence. Psalms 75 and 76 present two complementary sets of cove­ nant expectations, those of God and of the Collective respectively, responding to the call upon God to "take notice of the covenant" (ps 74:20). In the previous chapter, we saw that the conflict patterns of Psalms 73 and 74 express complaints of the individual and the community. These two imme­ diately preceding psalms use the perceived injustice of being denied the bene­ fits of God's covenant (negative relationship on the Collective-Opponent and Collective-God cathetii) as a means to triangulate God into the Collective's own dilemma of Opponent presence (negative relationship on the Opponent­ God cathetus). In contrast to Psalms 73 and 74, the pattern of conflict in praise Psalms 75 and 761 supposes a positive relationship between God as Agent/Theme and the supposedly innocent Collective as BeneficiarylRecipient (positive relationship on the Collective-God cathetus), whereas the Opponent as Agent is presumed to be defying God as Target directly (negative relationship on the Opponent­ God cathetus). Psalms 75 and 76 bear the title ,'1:1 (cf. Exod 1 5 : 1), which is typical of hymn texts "proclaim[ing] the theophanic intervention of YHWH to rescue Zionlhis people" 2 Accordingly, the Collective presents itself as having God's favour, manifested in unswerving confidence in God's beneficence. The contrast between the positive relationship on the Collective-God cathe­ tus and negative relationship on the Opponent-God cathetus is presented in Psalms 75-76 through the depiction of God as both judge and warrior for the Collective against the Opponent Psalm 75 opens and closes with praise (or vows of praise) of God-as-judge who acts for the righteous Collective (vvl-3 cf. v I O) by means of retributory power against the ones who raise themselves up to be like gods (vv4-9 cf. v I I). In Psalm 76, the psalmists recognise God's greatness for all of Israel (vv2-4) by recounting the victory of God-as-warrioi' against the fierce haughty Opponent (vv5-8). Also, God-as-judge rises to hear

Westennarm, Psalms 1, 157. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 264. 3 The term "God-as-warnor" will be used throughout the study. 1

2

Chapter 4: Test of Covenant Relationship

82

the case against the Opponent in the presence of poor-needy Israel (vv9-10) and the humiliating judgment of the Opponent that ensues (vv l l-13). Accordingly, there is a significant shift away from conflict between the Op­ ponent and the Collective, which is prevalent in Psalms 73 and 74, towards a positive relationship between the Collective and God in Psalius 75 and 76. Im­ portantly, the change is underpinned by the continued assumption that the Col­ lective is innocent before God and therefore anticipates receiving God's cove­ nant benefits in the near future. This assumption of innocence is not tested further in PI but remains an open question for P2 (Psalms 77-81 and 50).

4. 1 Psalm 75

Psalm 75 is a dramatic mix of declarative praise and a prophetically mediated answer from God-as-judge who acts (v3), in contrast to God's perceived ab­ sence in Psalm 74 4 Although this psalm contains little lexical evidence of a link to the supposed Ephraimite tradition, j it shares the common theme of God­ as-judge and a form akin to other judgment psalms in AP (psalms 50, 8 1 and 82) 6 Conflict is woven into the structure of Psalm 75, revealing the Collec­ tive's dependence on God as one who can bring about change? A key point is that God's expectations for the Collective are implied in the judgment anticipated by the psalmists of Psalm 75. The psaliuists' confidence is based upon the character of God-as-judge, with a capacity for retribution against their elusive yet haughty Opponent. Whereas Psalms 73-74 contem­ plate unfulfilled expectations of God for the Collective (negative relationship on the Collective-God cathetus), in Psalm 75 the quality of the upright charac­ ter expected from the Collective by God-as-judge (vv7-8) serves as the "pow­ erful hinge" between the accounts of divine retribution in verses 5-6 and 9.8 God is the true judge, discerning between those who depend on God's protec­ tion and those who raise their own power (l'P "hom"), denying God due hon­ OUf. The divine judge separates these two distinct groups, focusing on the neg­ ative relationship on the Opponent-God cathetus and the positive relationship on the Collective-God cathetus. By implication, the Collective is expected to allow God to shape its character The supposedly innocent Collective anticipates the divine judge' s actions against the wicked-Opponent of disempowerment by the image of the cut-off

Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 255, 257. Nasuti, Tradition History, 71, 75. Weber, Psalmen 11, 33; Tate, Psalms 51-JOO, 258. 7 Kraus, Psalms 2, 106. 8 Pierre Auffret, "C'est Dieu qui juge: Etude structurelle du psaume 75", ZA W 109

4 5 6

(1997): 389.

Psalm 75

83

horn and humiliation in forcing them to drink to the dregs of the mixed wine of judgment (vv9, I l a) 9 These subjectively depicted acts of divine retribution anticipate the restoration of honour to God. Therefore, the Collective seeks to attach itself to God's cause,lO regardless of whether it in fact is following the ethical and universal principles of divine righteousness. In order to demonstrate how Psalm 75 sets out covenant responsibilities through its conflict pattern, the analysis of the psalm will be divided into two main sections explaining, first, how the Collective praises God (vvl-3, l O­ l l), and second, how the Opponent denies God due honour (vv4-9). 4. 1 . 1 Translation

MT

V

nO�TI;l\.( I O��9�

la

:i'� �91,(7 iio r � Cl';:T·I;l� 1":"] 7 tl'lij"J ":"]�� �ii i?l tl'lij"J

1b 2aa 2ab

2b il,iio ni? � '� :�9�� Cl'l �'� '�I$ Q,��;-I;l�1 rw Cl'�b�

3a 3b 4a 4b

11;l;,�-1;l\.( Cl'�7ij"J� '1;1101,( 'Ilr. ' O'l�-� � O'��17!

Sa 5b

�Pti Cl';:T·I;l�-'� 1;l \�0� m :Cl'l; ml li OiJ r �1 j"J lj"J;-i�� oi� '�

8a 8ba 8bb 9aa

Translation To the set apart one, 11 may you not cause to destroy; A psalm (belonging) to Asaph, a song. We have given thanks to you, Elohim, we have given thanks, because near (is/was) your name; They (the Collective) have armounced your wondrous works, "Truly, I shall determine an appointed time; I, before the upright ones, myself "Will judge. Swayed-shaken (things) (shall be) the earth and all of (the) inhabitants of her; I myself have made correct (the) pillars of her." Selah.

I have said to the boasting ones, "Do not boast"; and to the wicked ones, "Do not cause to raise up a hom. Do not cause to raise up to the high place your hom; (do not) cause to speak "With a (raised) neck for­ ward-arrogantly." (It is) not from (the sun)rise-source [in the east] nor from (the) sunset [ofthe west]; and (it is) not from (the) "Wilderness [of the south], the causing of rising. Because Elohim (is the) judging one; this (one), he causes (to be) low and this (other one), he causes to raise up. For a cup in the hand of YHWH "With strong­ "Wine, it foamed,

9 Phil J. Botha, '''The Honour ofthe Righteous Will Be Restored': Psalm 75 in its Social Context", aTE 15 (2002): 322. 1 0 Botha, "The honour of the righteous", 332. 11 See Appendix 1 .

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Chapter 4: Test of Covenant Relationship

MT j'J�� j.�:l 1 9 � K� 9

V

9ab 9ac

'n�-'p�l �j Cl? l.i? j'�\.( '�I$l

9b lOa

:�Pl?� 'j::lI;lK� j'Jl �n$ Pl � 1$ Cl' ��l ' n i? -I;l�l

lOb Ila 1 1b

Translation

it was full of spices - soon he "\Yill cause to pour out from this, indeed, (the) dregs of her, .tl:!&y must slurp

(them) out; all of (the) "Wicked ones ofCthe) earth. But I myself shall cause to declare to a remote time; I shall sing praise towards the Elohei of Jacob: That all of (the) horns afthe wicked ones, I shall cut off; They shall be lifted up, (the) horns of (the) right­ eous one.

4.1.2 Praise a/God's Wondrous Works The use of bookends of declarative praise inPsalrn 75 is a [onnal characteristic, claiming right relationship between the Collective and God. Praise is a formal precursor and a faithful response to the centre of the psalm, anticipating a man­ ifestation of the indefeasible power of God-as-judge for the benefit of the Col­ lective. First, the declaration of the Collective's access to God's name and abode triggers a divine response by God-as-judge through a prophetic voice (vv 1-3). Second, the individual prophetic representative of the Collective ex­ presses assurance of being on the right side of God's act of righteous judgment through the closing vow of praise (vv l O-l l). These are expressed in a wholly positive discourse over God's just character and power in salvation (positive relationship on the Collective-God cathetus). 4.1.2.1 Presuming RightRelationship with God (vv1-3) Verses 1-3 demonstrate that the Collective presumes right relationship with God in several ways. First, the title of the psalm refers to contexts in which Israel' s leaders plead for God's mercy as innocent representatives (v I). The title of the psalm contains an uncommon negative plea nnl:in-�� ("may you not cause to destroy" cf. Deut 9:26, 1 Sam 26:9, Isa 65:8).12 This textual string cross-references key Deuteronomistic historical accounts of Moses' plea to God in the wake of the golden calf incident and David's admonition not to kill YHWH's anointed king Saul. These accounts emphasise the uprightness of God's appointed ones, acting for the benefit of a guilty Collective and dissident king respectively. If the title is not a late emendation, verse 1 contains an allu­ sion to these historical pleas to spare the life of the Collective, renewing right relationship. The title provides a segue from the theological crisis of Psalm 74 12 The negative particle I;lK might be best expressed as a negative volition rather than a negative command. See RonaldJ. Williams andJolm C. Beckman, Williams ' Hebrew Syntax (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007), 145.

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to the setting of God's expectations of the Collective in Psalm 75, and such an expectation would only be made if the Collective was prepared to approach God for such intervention. Second, verse 2 refers to completed acts of praise and declarations of God's presence among the Collective. These historical acts of praise are presented in anticipation of the divine oracle and the prophetic exhortation, which follows in verses 4-9. The praise of Psalm 75 is distinguished, in that it is not preceded by the lengthy contemplation of the Opponent, as it was in Psalm 73:23-26. Furthermore, this is the only place in the Psalter where ii'� is used in qatal fonu, emphasising that this is a unique past act of praise (in the hiphil stem) of God's wondrous works, which have also already occurred (cf Ps 74:13-18) 13 Instead of invoking God through a new act of praise by the Collective, refer­ ence to past acts of praise demonstrates the preparedness of the Collective to receive God's instruction. Although the subject shifts to the third-person plural in verse 2b, the declaration of God's wondrous works as central object is made by the same Collective as subject,14 rather than the works themselves as subject declaring "your name" (cf 1°1:) v2ab) and "your heavens"." It is most unlikely that n'���l (a niphal feminine plural participle) is subject here, as it most often serves as a direct object. Third, the praise and declaration of verses 1-2 are met with an opening re­ sponse under the auspices of God's own voice in verse 3 . This is a positive affinuation expressed invocatio dei. Although Gerstenberger argues that the absence of marking to denote a change to divine discourse is not unprecedented in the Psalter,16 the opening �� reads best as an emphatic asseverative discourse marker ("truly") rather than a temporal marker ("when"). The temporal marker is unnecessary given '1)iO in verse 3 is likely to take the meaning "appointed 1 3 While it is possible that the two tenses are used to distinguish the declaration of praise by the Collective and the divine voice in verse 3 using yiqtol verbs, other markers make clear the discourse juncture; namely, the change of voice, the use ofthe first-person singular from verse 3, and the conjunction ,�. Interestingly, Joseph Jensen translates all the ,� conjunctions and the beginning of verses 3 and 7-9 as "Be assured", so as to emphasise the role and identity ofthe prophetic speaker in the dialogue. See Joseph E. Jensen, "Psalm 75: Its Poetic Context and Structure", CBQ 63 (2001): 416. By contrast, I consider verse 3 to be the prin­ cipal indicator that the discourse has changed speaker. 1 4 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 438; contra Tate, Psalms 51-100, 255. 1 5 Contra JOM S. Ksehnan, "J anus Parallelism in Psalm 75:2" , JBL 121 (2002): 531-532. I argue that a dual function of lO� as both the singular object "your name" in verse 2ab and collective subject "your heaven" in verse 2b is unlikely. Although there are instances where TO� functions as a plural noun (Deut 28:23; Pss 8:4, 144:5) and the transcendence and im­ manence of God might be poetically expressed in "Janus parallelism", there is no precedent for the singular noun lO� serving this function. Further, the more common heaven and earth duality as found in Psalm 73:9 and 25 is not found here. The retention of the same subject throughout verse 2 provides the expected continuity until the discourse marker at verse 3. 1 6 Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 82.

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time" 17 The transition of the subject to the first-person singular and to yiqtol verbs in the present tense has the force of immanent divine discourse, even if spoken vicariously by a prophetic mediator. Accordingly, God responds to past praise, affirming an anticipated act of judgment Fourth, I suggest that the upright ones of verse 3b refers to the Collective. The emphatic first-person singular pronoun and the main finite verb ��� are separated by c" Ii'o, the only instance of the morpheme ,Ii' in the AP-Collec­ tion.18 Major translations parse this as a prepositional phrase with an absolute masculine plural noun, taking the abstract meaning of an unmarked phrase "with uprightness" or "with equity" and qualifying adverbially ��Ii as if the main verb were intransitive. However, in nearly all cases ��t6 is a transitive verb.19 Further, c�,t6�o as a lexerne is nonnally a substantive noun meaning as "what is right". Accordingly, there is a textual challenge here in verse 3b. Although the min preposition can take an instrumental use as the "mecha­ nism or means by which something happens",20 in verse 3b it could contain a min preposition prefixed to a substantive masculine plural fonn of the mor­ pheme ,�\ In this case, the min preposition would take the meaning of "from the standpoint of' (cf. Josh 8 : 1 3, Jer 5 1 :5, Ps 1 8 :22, Job 4 : 1 7); that is, verse 3b could be translated as a transitive verb clause "I, before the upright ones, my­ self willjudge". 21 Within the context of a divine response, the upright ones are interpreted as the ones to whom the divine oracle is responding, namely the Collective. This reading provides a literary bridge between the Collective's upright praise with proclamation of God's presence (vv l -2) and the declara­ tion of impending judgment for the benefit of the Collective (V3).22

1 7 Contra Jensen, "Psalm 75", 421. Jensen observes the use of -,5)10 in Psalm 74:4 and 8 \'lith a locative sense and claims the assembly is the replacement for the meeting place in Psalm 75:3. However, I argue that this is the divine response to the Collective's preparatory praise and declaration, in which God reveals his character as judge. The meeting place or appointed time is peripheral to the centrality ofthe judgment theme in Psalm 75 and the AP­ Collection as a whole. 1 8 Presuming the textual variant in Psalm 73:1 b Cn( j�,I;l) is rejected. 1 9 ��� is intransitive on three other occasions and in all cases there is a noun phrase which is typically translated in an adverbial marmer. Accordingly, Cl'j�'O ought to be treated as an adjunct rather than a complement (Ps 58:2; Prov 31 :9; Zech 8: 16). In most cases, Cl'j�'O is rendered an adverbial phrase when it is prefixed by a beit preposition. 20 Williams and Beckman, Hebrew Syntax, 122. 21 Williams and Beckman, Hebrew Syntax, 125; cf. Waltke and O'CoIlllor, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 213. This reading is equally applicable to Psalm 58:2 (the only other in­ stance of the string ��� Clj�'O) and, in my view, makes better sense of the phrase (i.e. "Do [ ... ] you judge before the upright ones, 0 sons ofmen?") 22 Whether this divine speech promising upright judgment is eschatological is secondary to the affirmation ofthe Collective. Cf. Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 82.

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4.1.2.2 Assuming Divine Beneficence for the Collective (vv10-11) The close ofthe psalm in verses 10-1 1 follows the formal pattern of declarative praise. Responding to the graphic image of God inflicting judgment on the wicked through the motif of spiced wine (v9), the return to formal praise shows that the judgment theme in the centre of the psalm does not affect the way the Collective perceives itself in relation to God. The psalmists conclude with a vow of praise and a declaration about how God-as-judge will act, which Gerstenberger rightly describes is a "sort ofthreat of imprecation against the impious".23 However, there is no evidence that the dialogue transpires "between groups within the congregation".24 Instead, the �I:i' are at all times the out-group and by no means part of the community seeking God's favour. The voice of the Collective's prophetic representative in the first-person singular functions to bring the psalm to its conclusion (v 1 0 cf. vv5-9 report of the psalmists).25 I argue, with Weber, that the waw at the beginning of verse 1 1 is pleonastic: the psalmists embed the divine oracle of the impending righteous judgment of Elohim for the pious Collective into their own speech in verse 1 1 .26 This waw is prefixed to the direct object of the noun phrase of verse l l a, which marks the decision rule of God's justice: the pro­ phetic representative declares that God (not the king) will assume ultimate power by actively cutting off the horns of the wicked in an act of "humiliating judgment" 27 By contrast, the righteous "shall be lifted up" as the passive sub­ ject of the unusual polel conjugation of c" (v I I b). This affirms the under­ standing of the Collective as the upright ones in verse 3b. In short, there is an imminent expectation that God will act as judge for the Collective as humble-lowly righteous descendants of Jacob. The second em­ bedded divine oracle (v I I) forthtells that God alone grants the righteous their horn of strength, whereas the necklhom-raising Opponent has sought to raise itselfup as being powerful in its own right (cf. vv5-9). This conclusion implies that one benefits from divine judgment by depending on God's own power. 4. 1.3 Covenant Expectations of Universal Justice By contrast to the Collective's assumption of right relationship with God-as­ judge in verses 1-3 and 10-1 1 , the centre of the psalm acknowledges God as the true judge and describes the Opponent as attempting to take God's place over the Collective as the supposedly upright ones. In verses 4-9, the earthly 23 24 25

Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 83. Contra Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 83. See Section 2.2.2. Tate, Psalms 51-100, 257. Tate claims this could be uttered by the king who is "iden­ tifying 'Nith Yahweh's cause", however there is little internal evidence to suggest this, espe­ cially since the earlier utterance was originally made by the Collective (cf. v2). 26 Weber, Psalmen II, 30. 27 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 256.

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wicked Opponent and the righteous God are juxtaposed (negative relationship on the Opponent-God cathetus). The function of the centre of the psalm is, first, to declare the power of God-as-judge through brief poetic accounts of historical and anticipated acts of judgment against the Opponent in verses 4-6 and 9, and second, to set an ethical and universal framework for right relation­ ship with God at its centrepiece in verses 7-8. In the context of reference to the covenant in Psalm 74:20, God's expectation of the Collective is an upright character that gives honour to God's name. 4.1.3.1 Manifestations a/Divine Power (vv4-6, 9) The centre of the psalm focuses on God's past execution of justice and the anticipation of it happening again at the appointed time. Images of God break­ ing into the earth (v4), the cut-off hom (vv5-6) and the cup (v9) represent the impending divine judgment of the wicked for the benefit of the upright Collec­ tive.28 By implication, these warnings are not only to the wicked Opponent but implicitly the Collective also - it must continue to live up to God's expecta­ tions of remaining under the authority of the divine judge. First, a divine interruption to the earth is presented through the prophetic oracle as if it were the very speech of God (v4). The earth is (or soon will be) shaken29 because God has sized up its pillars. 3D This is a unique factitive piel instance of the root pM, which I render as "make correct".31 Also, the use of qatal verb with finite aspect in verse 4b connotes that God's intrusion has hap­ pened. Accordingly, the state of the earth, as set out in the stative verbless clause before the athnak, is the result of that completed action. While the ultimate outcome of pn is to establish order, the overarching pur­ pose of the psalm is the proclamation and in-breaking of the universal judg­ ment of God against the proud, being the hope of the oppressed.32 This agrees with Botha' s assessment of the underlying social setting for the psalm, which

Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 82-83. as niphal participle imputes a copula. LXX renders this term as in the aorist tense tl0KT] ("melted"), which gives an even greater sense of God's in-breaking with destructive force. 3 0 This term is often associated lNith the temple. For instance, there are 39 references to this term in the book of Exodus. Weber notices the phonological association between "ap­ pointed time" il.i10 and "pillars" j"j'i10l.i (Weber, Psalmen 11, 32). However, this ought not affect the time reference of the verb in verse 4b. Nevertheless, one is tempted to consider whether a similar lexical association is being drawn upon as found in Judges 16:26 where Samson is caused to stand (1i'Ol.i') among the pillars (Cl'i10l.i), so that the retributive act of Samson against the Philistines in their temple might be implied in this passage. 3 1 Cf. HALOT, 1734. 3 2 Weber, Psalmen 11, 32-33. 28

2 9 :l1t�

Psalm 75

89

he claims is a fonn of oppression after national or military upheaval.33 Accord­ ingly, he argues that the function of the psalm overall is to effect a religious and political impact, ensuring the Collective maintain right relationship with God. The use of strong transforming imagery is to assure that:

Yahweh is ready to tum the tables so that the out-group "Will be dishonoured in judgement and the righteous people's honour "Will be restored.34 Notwithstanding this, there is significant support for Tate's alternative argu­ ment that God is the stabilising force in the cosmos. He argues that verses 4-6 reflect the psalmists' understanding of the character of God, as the object of this discourse, is to elicit confidence among the hearers:

Yahweh is the basis both of the world's stability and of the moral order. If either is chal­ lenged, chaos may erupt, but Yahweh's steadying hand will be there to restore order.35 Whilst I agree that the purpose of the psalm is to assure the Collective that it will benefit from divine judgment, this interpretation of God's role as the stead­ ying hand relies on a Hellenic understanding that cosmos connotes order as opposed to chaos.36 The rendering of pM as "to stabilise" seems to be derived from its conjectural reading as 1'� ("to establish [firmly]" cf Pss 93 : 1 ; 96: 1 0; 1 Chr 1 630). Based on my syntactic and semantic explanation, I conclude with Botha that the divine act of breaking into the Collective's situation with justice has a pro­ found impact God-as-judge and Agent will disrupt the earthly order by reset­ ting the pillars through divine judgment, which gives the Collective as Benefi­ ciary confidence through disruption of oppressive powers. Second, the divine manifestation of power in verse 4 serves as the basis for the prophetic warning to the boasting ones (c'��m v5a cf Ps 733a) to with­ draw their attempts to exert power over others, presumably the Collective.37 The horn (l'P) can serve as a symbol of legitimate use of power (v l lb). How­ ever, taken together, verses 4-6 juxtapose God's power with that ofthe wicked, boasting ones, so the image of the hom (vv5b, 6a cf Jer 48:25, Lam 23), par­ alleled by the raised-up neck (pn� ,�,� v6b), symbolises not only arrogance, but also an encroachment on God's own power.38 The central opposition is then

33 Botha, "The honour of the righteous", 326-327. Botha uses conflict language in his assessment ofthe social setting: "the out-group [is perceived] to have acted from a position of strength in regard to the in-group". 34 Botha, "The honour of the righteous", 332. 35 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 258 cf. 255; cf. Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 74, 182; Kraus, Psalms 2, 105; Jensen, "Psalm 75", 421. 3 6 Walton, ANET and QT, 185. 37 The prophetic warning here is invocatio dei, representing past divine speech (iOK in qatal form cf. Ps 50: 16a as direct divine oracle in perfect tense). 38 Botha, "The honour ofthe righteous", 323.

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between God and the Opponent (negative relationship on the Opponent-God cathetus). In addition, another symbol of power in the psalm is the prominent use of the root C" in verses 5b and 6a (cf vv7, 8, 1 1 ; Ps 74:3):

Cl�np Cliit:)l;l jt:l'in-I;lK :Jip 1t:l'in-I;lK Cl, �t6jl;l, The first two uses are second-person masculine plural imperatives accompa­ nied by the negation marker ��. These prohibitions serve as prophetically me­ diated warnings to the arrogant to withdraw attempts to extend their power into God's dornain.39 The third use ofc" occurs as a plural noun in a prepositional phrase with a directional lamed, rendered "to the high place" or perhaps "to the lifted-up place". This is an intrusion into what would typically be associated with the presence of the deity in an ANE worldview 40 The spatial terms associated with in-breaking are therefore important in verses 4-6: God breaks into the earth as judge because the wicked has extended itself beyond its own legitimate use of power, hence the need for divine inter­ vention. These verses poetically depict the quest for power that rightfully be­ longs to God. The wicked's encroachment into God's domain is consistent with Botha's argument that the horn serves as both a symbol of the arrogance of the wicked and also the capacity of God to reverse the power differential between what he conceives as the poor-needy righteous and the haughty wicked 4! Third, the contrast between the relative power of God and the wicked is expressed through the image of the cup of God's wrath (v9). While this act reflects the character of God as the true judge more than the fate of the Oppo­ nent,42 it is also a dramatisation of the subduing of the passive Opponent by a divine act of retributory justice.43 The image of wine as a symbol of judgment is found in the warnings of the latter prophets, for instance, Jeremiah 2 5 : 1 528, which has the effect of bringing low all the nations 44 However, the mixing of wine with spices is not necessarily one that is associated with poison: it could be about emiching the wine to make the impending judgment more

Cf. Weber, Psalmen II, 33; Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 83. Walton, ANET and QT, 13. MT is preferred to LXX, which reduces the intensity and removes the imagery of verse 6b by referring to the Mcked's haughtiness as wrongful speech against God (Ill] AaA£Ll£ Kam 1011 8£011 &OLKLav). 4 1 Botha, "The honour ofthe righteous", 324. 4 2 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 259. 43 Botha, "The honour ofthe righteous", 322. 44 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 253; Nasuti, Tradition History, 73. It should be noted that the Jeremiah cross-reference is a universal judgment, including Jerusalem and its cities (Jer 25: 17). 39

40

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91

potent or complete (cf. Prov 9:2, 5). Nevertheless, the wicked are each forced to take the wine as an act of humiliation (V9) 45 The tense marking in verse 9 is noteworthy. It demonstrates the capacity for and the imminence of God's judgment, following the statement of God's equal­ ising justice (v8). Tense contrasts impose a time dimension into the act ofjudg­ ment, wherein God has already prepared for and will soon pour out in judg­ ment Verse 9aa and 9ab firstly bear qatol verbs ,on ("to foam")46 and the stative ��o ("to be full"), forming a bi-cola subclause in past-completed tense­ aspect. '��j is marked as a wawyiqtol verb, which under ordinary circumstances might be expected to function in sequence with the qatal verbs. However, I argue that the waw prefixed to ,�� is a new discourse point on the basis that there is a line-break in BHS, presumably due to the postpositive disjunctive sinnor cantillation (199). The wow then might be read as a conjunction em­ phatically marking the imminent nature of the judgment, perhaps rendered "soon he will cause to pour out from this (cup)". In verse 9ac, the following yiqtol verbs ii�O and iiri� have an indefinite future aspect, which can be read together as a hendiadys for the obligatory and dramatic act of slurping out the dregs of wine 47 After the athnak, the final cola ("all of (the) wicked ones of the earth") provides the deictic reference for the subject ofthe hendiadys string, so that the second half of the verse is in present-indefinite tense-aspect for dra­ matic effect Accordingly, verse 9 depicts YHWH poetically as one who has the capacity to judge and is now or soon will be inflicting judgment on the Opponent The negative pleas of verses 5-6 imply that the Opponent thought it could raise itself up to take the position of absolute power, comparable to God-as-judge who has swayed the earth as a preparatory step before impending judgment (v4). However, such thinking triggers divine retribution against the wicked. Overall, the two images of power, the horn and the cup, serve as reminders for 45 Contra Cole, Book III, 21-22. It is unlikely that there is a thematic link between the "waters of abundance" taken voluntarily by the wicked (Ps 73: 10) and the 'Nine taken invol­ untarily here. 4 6 This root has a paucity of instances and appears to be homonymous for both "to foam" and "to bum". However, 'Nithin the context of the psalm, the aspect of burning might also conjure the image of forcing the 'Nicked to drink judgment in the "burning" anger of God

(HALOT, 330). 47

It is not clear what the deictic reference of the feminine singular pronominal suffix in

jj'iO� is. It could refer to the common singular 1" as Tate claims, but that is unlikely if the subject of the third-person masculine singular ion is 1" (Tate, Psalms 51-100, 257). If the waw prefixed to 1" is comitative (i.e. "'Nith wine"), then it would not be the subject of ion

and then 1" could function as a feminine noun and thus the referent for the pronominal suffix. However, a search of the deictic reference of the feminine pronominal suffix revealed that the most likely and common referent across the AP-Collection is jj�in ("reproach", 4 in­ stances). Regardless of the actual referent, the psalmists are indicating that the judgment is meted out in full.

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the Collective not to follow the ways of the wicked who deny God due honour. Nevertheless, the psalmists make no admission that the plight of the Collective might be caused by its own sinfulness. 4.1.3.2 The Righteousness a/God (vv7-8) Verses 7-8 set out the ethical framework for God's covenant expectations, which are underpinned by the notion that God is the only valid universal judge, not the present Opponent. First, the Opponent is branded as being incapable of effective judgment or rule (vv7a-b) 48 The prophetic representative declares that true exaltation (e" hiphil infinitive construct v7 cf vv5b, 6a, 8, 1 1) does not corne from any cardinal direction or any high or low place, again invoking spatial terrns.49 There is however a notable exception to the list of cardinal di­ rections, being that of the north, possibly representing the Assyrian forces of Tiglath-pileser 11 (732 BCE) resulting in Israel' s annexation (722 BCE).50 One might speculate as to whether the psalm is written or redacted under the super­ vision of then-current overlords. It certainly opens the possibility that the As­ syrians might not be the deictic referent of the wicked in this psalm or that divine judgment might come through the Assyrians as an instrument of God's wrath, rather than the object of it. Second, the psalmists declare both the role of God-as-judge (v8a) and also the character of God as of one who institutes justice by raising up (e,,) the upright Collective and casting down (��I:i) the oppressor-Opponent (v8b). Jen­ sen claims that the statements of verse 8b are simple predicates based on the emphatic use of the demonstrative article (i.e. "this is who raises up, this is who casts down"). However, Jensen overlooks the valency-increasing causa­ tion of the hiphil verbs in verse 8b,51 which means the demonstrative article cannot refer to the subject but rather the object (i.e. "God raises up this [one]"). Divine judgment is a humiliating act that withdraws power from the proud Op­ ponent (cf 1 Sam 2:7-10) ." In response to the Opponent' s attempts to exert power over the Collective, the psalmists declare that fate is determined solely by the action of the God of Jacob (v l Ob cf Pss 76:7; 8 1 :2, 5). Accordingly, verses 7-8 set God-as-judge at the centre of the psalm as the sole arbiter of righteousness. This is what Auffret calls the "powerful hinge"

Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 249. Cf. Jensen, "Psalm 75", 421. Jensen observes rightly that the spatial dimension is com­ mon to Psalms 74 and 75. 5 0 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 257. 5 1 The causative hiphil conjunction ordinarily has at least two arguments (i.e. here God as Agent and the raised-up/cast-do\VIl one as Patient). 5 2 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 256; cf. Weber, Psalmen 11, 30-31; Goldingay, Psalms 2, 443. 48

49

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93

separating two discourses on enmity between God and the wicked, who en­ croach on the issuing of divine justice. 53 4. 1.4 Summary of Oppositions

ole

Cathetii O/G elG

Summary of Structure of Psalm 75

l-2a Invocation - past praise of the God who was (and is still) near to the Collective 2b-3 Review of past help - proclamation of Elohim's salvific actions for the upright Collective + 4-6 Divine-prophetic oracle - earth is swayed-shaken at God's in-breaking, warning of humiliating judgment + + 7-8 Expression of confidence - true exaltation comes not via divine judge not earthly direc­ tions/elements + 9 YHWH is good in salvation - humiliation of earthly "Wicked soon to occur through the "Wine of divine anger 10 Vow of praise -future praise ofElohim to aremote time/place 1 1 Grounds for praise - future praise in restoration of honour to God and therefore to the Collective Legend: Cathetii "legs ofa triangle", denoting conflict between two major characters; O/C conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-Collective cathetus); O/G conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-God cathetus); C/G conflict between Col­ lective and God (Collective-God cathetus); +/- indication of active conflict on the respec­ tive cathetus in accordance "With the proposed conflict taxonomy; +/- indication of signif­ icant active conflict on the respective cathetus (commentary focuses on this cathetus) =

=

=

=

=

=

The central opposition in Psalm 75 is between the Opponent and God. in which the Opponent is both an object of divine judgment (v9) and a counter example to what is expected of the upright (vv5-6). The promise of the provision of divine power is reinvoked by the psalmists. first. through God·s preparatory act of breaking into the earth in order to reset divine order (v4). and second. through the proclamation of God·s imminent judgment of the whole earth and particularly against the wicked Opponent (v9). Whereas conflict on the Col­ lective-Opponent cathetus was prominent in Psalm 73 and 74, it is not promi­ nent in this psalm. By contrast, the centre of attention is the negative relation­ ship on the Opponent-God cathetus. The psalmists expect God to act for the benefit of Jacob·s people. This ex­ pectation arises from their past praise and declaration of divine wonders (v2 cf. v 1 0). The psalm reflects a positive relationship on the Collective-God cathetus. However, the conclusion to the psalm demonstrates the universal and ethical framework for God·s justice (v I I). Fate is not determined on the basis 53

Auffret, "C'est Dieu quijuge", 389.

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of affinity (v7), but on the status of being upright or wicked (v8b). The upright is distinguished based on how they show deference to God as true judge (v8a) and their dependence on the provision of divine power, not on the basis of their own strength (vv 5-6). The psalm indicates that there are ethical expectations in observing right relationship with God as ultimate Agent in the world, with which those who seek to rely on God's provision of divine power must comply. The Opponent as Patient is depicted as the haughty evil one, which is dramatically humbled and shamed by God, judged by means of potent wine. However, the conclusion ofthe psalm demonstrates that God's righteous judgments are a universal ethic: God does not prefer the Collective solely because of its identity as Israel but humbles all who seek to raise themselves into the judgment seat of God. It remains an open question whether the Collective submits to God-as-judge or reflects the Opponent's encroachment on God's domain of justice.

4.2 Psalm 76

Psalm 76 is a national hymn of Zion in the same vein as Psalms 46 and 48,54 continuing the theme of God-as-judge from Psalm 75. Much debate around the psalm is related to how much it reflects common Asaphite characteristics or the Jerusalem temple cult The function of the so-called preexilic Zion psalms is limited to a national interest, prevalent in both Psalms 48 and 76.55 My read­ ing will assume this psalm contains northern traditions and polemic seeking to bolster the Collective's confidence in the presence of YHWH on Zion and in the character of God as both warrior and judge." In Psalm 76, the Collective declares its covenant expectations of the victo­ rious divine warrior-judge,57 particularly an exclusive right to covenant bene­ fits. The psalmists present a collective vision of what God is expected to deliver in response to the cry to "take notice of the covenant" (ps 74:20). Their vision

54 CoriIllla K6rting, Zion in den Psalmen, FAT 48 (Tllbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005), 2; cf. Miller, "Zion Hymns", 218-219. K6rting surprisingly does not examine Psalm 76. Nev­ ertheless, this psalm fits best in the traditional preexilic conception of the Zion tradition as a derivative of Psalms 46 and 48 in an earlier stage of the progressive expansion of the vertical understanding of the kingdom of God. 55 Cf. Miller, "Zion Hymns", 223. 5 6 Harold W. Ballard, The Divine Warrior Motif in the Psalms (North Richland Hills: BIBAL, 1999), 10, 85-88. Ballard sees a strong cOIlllection between the figure ofthe divine warrior, God-as-judge and protector of Israel, particularly in the Zion Psalms 46, 48 and 76, particularly "With the use of "militaristic language". 57 Cf. Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 75.

Psalm 76

95

is of the presence of God exclusively among Israel, which constitutes the "beautiful day" in contrast to the "day of distress"." Psalm 76 can be divided into main sections, which respectively set out the divine character of God-as-warrior and God-as-judge. First, the psalm opens with praise of God-as-warrior, proclaiming God's presence and recognition among wider Israel (vv2-3). An account is given of the past acts of the divine warrior, who descended from Mount Zion to completely disempower the Op­ ponent (vv4-7)," with allusions to battle imagery, divine anger, and the dwell­ ing place of God, all of which are found in the song at the Sea of Reeds (cf Exodus 15). This first sub-section closes with a declaration of God's retribu­ tory power and the fear that standing in God-as-warrior's presence would bring (v8), serving as a segue to the setting of divine order by God-as-judge. Second, the psalmists describe the impending acts of the divine judge, who descends from the heavens to hear the case against the elusive earthly Oppo­ nent (v9). The case is unfail accompli, alluding back to the cries of the poor­ needy in the Exodus account (Exod 2:23-24). The act of judgment parallels that of the past triumph over Pharoah, humiliating the Opponent (vv 1 1-13). Again, God's act of retribution is issued for the benefit of a poor-needy Israel (v 10), akin to that of Israel under Pharaoh's rule. Within the confines of this hymn of praise, the Collective expects God to deliver as demonstrated in the exodus. The psalmists focus on celebration in this Zion psalm. The Collective presumes it is in right relationship with God, but this presumption remains untested. Indeed, there are some cues that serve as a foundation for succeeding groups in the AP-Collection, implicitly ques­ tioning the Collective's perceived state of innocence before God. 4.2.1 Translation

MT

v

la :j'� �91$? jion�

Cl';:T·I;l � i17ji1'-=P 5)7i:l

:iot9 I;lij� l;lt(lt9:�

lb 2a 2b 3a

Translation To (the) set apart (one), 6 0 in (a) mocking[?] song; A psalm (belonging) to Asaph, a song [LXX: concerning the Assyrians]. Known in Judah (is) Elohim; in Israel, great (is) his name. It is (and continues to be) in Salem, his den­ booth;

Janowski, Arguing with God, 273. Ballard, Divine Warrior Motif, 27-29. The acts of God are consistent lNith most of Ballard's definition ofthe key characteristics ofthe divine warrior from ANE, namely asso­ ciation lNith storms, mythical battles, weapons, fertility/creation, triumph over an enemy, kingly rule, andjustice. 6 0 See Appendix 1. 5 8 Cf.

59

Chapter 4: Test of Covenant Relationship

96

MT

V

:Ji':;I:� in � il.i91 n �i?-'Pt91 j�� j'J�� ';,79 ;' 9�?� ' �lm P 9 : �l�-'!.ljJ� i'l l.( i1QI.( jiK� �� 'l'::P1.( 111;l � int9 �

Cl ��t9 10�

:Clry'T 1;l:1J-,� �\.(-I;l� 1 K� 9 -KI;lI �Pl;i� 'v·l;l � 'i'jr;1ll?�t.' :010) ��!.1 Cll",�

j'JQ� Kli:l Ij'J!7J�

: 'i'j� \.( rl$� r ; ��7 jb l?� -'�1 1 ' "1 Q ¥ 0 t90 Cl:O�O : j'J�i? �1 j'J1$1: n� Cl'jJ·l;l � ��t9 ��-Cl1P�

:j�nn non n'jK� Cl�'v·l;l � j'lj�'� 1t:l��1 1�·�� " �'�Iyl;l� :Iqi�� ;� ·1�,�i, Cl'l'�� 01) j:S�:

Translation and his resting-hiding tent, it is (and continues 3b to be) in Zion. 4a There he broke the plague-flame of (the) bow; 4b (the) shield, (the) sword and (the) battle. Selah. (The) Illuminated One you (were), mighty, from Sa the mountains of prey. 6aa They were plundered, fierce (ones) of heart, 6ab they slumbered (into) their sleep; and they did not find-regain, all the men of 6b strength-army, their hands-power. 7a From your rebuke-threat, Elohei of Jacob; 7b stUIllled-stupefied (were) both chariot and horse. 8aa You - feared (are) you. Who can stand in your presence before the 8ab power of your nose-anger? 9a From the heavens you caused to hear (the) case; 9b (the) earth, she feared and became still and quiet. lOa At the arising for judgment, Elohim; to cause to deliver all (the) poor-needy of the lOb earth. Selah. Truly, (the) rage of humankind, she shall cause l l a to praise you; (with its) renmant of rage, you shall gird (your­ l Ib self). 12aa Vow and repay to YHWH, your (pI) Elohei!(;) l2ab all of the ones surrounding him (i.e. God), 12b .!:ha shall cause to bring (a) gift for veneration. 13a He humbles the breath-potential of officers; (he, the) feared (one) by (the) kings of (the) 13b earth.

4,2,2 Praise for Mighty God-os-Warrior (vv2-8) In verses 2-8, the psalmist appeals to God as divine warrior in the past, which enables the Collective to access hope in the power of God in the present (cf Pss 74: 1 3-1 8 ; 75:2). The two methods used to invoke divine power are, first, the invocation of God as present and powerful (vv2-4 cf vv8-1O), and second, the recollection of past salvation from the book of Exodus, particularly but not exclusively from the song about the destruction of Pharaoh's army at the Sea of Reeds (Exodus 15 cf vvS-8). The psalmists do not explicitly set out the reasons for the proclamation of God's past salvation. Nevertheless, there are many nominal cross-references and verbal synonyms linking to Exodus 1-15 throughout the psalm. I argue that this corpus concerning Israel in captivity,

Psalm 76

97

which cries out (Exod 2:23-24) and is remarkably delivered (Exodus 14-1 5), serves as the hypotext for Psalm 76 as the hypertext6! First, the proclamation of God as being known and great serves as a call to praise God in verse 2. The emphatic positioning of the niphal participle �" l and adjective �" l in verse 2 is a feature of the psalm (cf vv5a, 7b, 8a) and characteristic of Zion psalms.62 These adjectives are praiseworthy attributes of God, manifest in the ensuing accounts of past triumph and impending judg­ ment The call upon the name of God emphasises the character of God as pro­ tector of all-Israel,63 as in the exodus. Two sets of parallel references are made to both northern and southern king­ doms in verses 2 (Israel and Judah) and 3 (Salem and Zion). While there is some debate as to what the archaic Salem (c�l:i) refers to,64 it is likely that the psalm is multivalent for both northern and southern contexts.65 The attributes of God's greatness are recognised among all-Israel in verses 2-3. God is referred to through the metaphor of a booty-hiding lion (of Judah in the so-called northern traditions cf Gen 49:9; Jer 1 2 :7; Ezek 19: 1 ; Hos 4: 14; 1 3 : 7),66 who resides in a den-booth (10 cf ;'!l�O in Ps 1 04:22) 67 God-as-lion symbolises power and permanence, the latter of which is also indicated by the use of yiqtol verbs with an indefinite aspect

61 Gerard Genette, Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 5. Genette presents the idea of hypertextuality as a metaphorical extension ofthe "palimpsest"; that is, a superimposing of one text on a parchment over an­ other so both can be seen, although one bears only its trace. If it can be established that verses 2-8 draw upon the hypo text of Exodus 1-15, then the second conflict cycle in verses 1 1-13 then draws playfully upon it too as a pastiche of the two former texts. 62 Jorg Jeremias, Das Konigtum Gottes in den Psalmen: Israels Begegnung mit dem kanaaniiischenMythos in den Jahwe-Konig-Psalmen (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987), 174; contra Tate, Psalms 51-100, 260. 6 3 By "all-Israel", I mean past and present generations of all tribes and kingdoms ofIsrael. 64 Goulder presents the plausible argument that, by substituting proper name for the du­ biously rendered adverb "safely" (e.g. NASB), Salem is referred to as "a city near Shechem" in Genesis 33: 18, located in the hill country of Ephraim, where Jacob erects an altar to El. See Goulder, Asaph and the Pentateuch, 86-87; cf. Jo1m A. Thompson, "Shechem" in Derek R. W. Wood and I. Howard Marshall, eds., New Bible Dictionary (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 1089. However, it seems equally possible that Salem is an archaic yet veiled reference to Jerusalem (cf. Gen 14: 18), given the interdependence of Jerusalem and Zion as an "Identifikationsmotiv" in later psalms (e.g. Pss 102:22; 128:5; 135:21; 147:12) (K6rting, Zion in den Psalmen, 31, 85-86). 6 5 Beat Weber, "In Salem \Vllfde sein Versteck ... : Psalm 76 im Lichte literarischer und historischer Kontexte neu gelesen", BN 97 (1999): 9 1 . 66 Weber, "In Salem \VUrde sein Versteck", 90. 67 HALOT,

615, 753.

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98

The past act of divine power on Zion in verse 4 serves as the reason for an act of praise. God breaks ('�I:i) the fiery plague-like bow (nl:ip-'�I:i,)68 and other instruments of war (cf. Ps 46:10) as the "sole warrior" of Israel.69 Ac­ cording to the northern prophetic traditions (Hos 1 :5, 7; 2:20; 7: 1), this explicit divine act of warfare marks an arguably eschatological "Doppelhorizont" of both ruin and promise for Israel through the southern kingdom of Judah (cf. Jer 49:35; Mic 5 : 1-14) 70 No opposing force, demonic power nor the Collective join the battle 71 Second, after the selah, the locus and image of the powerful God-as-warrior on Zion is complemented by a concrete example of divine salvation for past generations of the Collective in the exodus (vv6-8), an historical setting that appears prominently in P2. God appears (v5 niphal participial adjective " �l cf. lightning in Ps 77: 1 9 cf. with imperatival force in Ps 80:4, 8, 20) from the mountains of prey (v5), symbolic of the dwelling place of God on Zion and the lion's den of verse 3.72 In addition, an account is given of God's past earthly acts against the Opponent using qatal verbs and nominal phrases (vv5-8). God is the sole agent who condemned the Opponent without a fight" In contrast to focusing exclusively on God's powerful character in verses 24, the psalmists present the powerlessness of the Opponent through a process of disarmament in verses 6-8, which is a complete reversal of the Collective as the spoil of the Opponent in Psalm 74:8 74 The Opponent is disempowered by being plundered and put to sleep ('��1nI:i� v6 Aramaic form of the passive participle7' cf. C" l v7 in niphaTJ in the divine retributory act against chariot and horse (v7 cf. Exod 1 5 :4, 21). The expression of the awesome power of divine anger in verse 8 implies that the Opponent is utterly condemned ( !�O 1�� v8). This is the image hoped for in Psalm 74: 1 9-21 76 A series of allusions to the Exodus account are synthesised poetically so as to leave only a thin pictorial trace of the possible source texts (vv5-8) 77 While 68 Judit Blair argues this is not a demonic reference. See Judit M. Blair, De-Demonising the Old Testament: An Investigation of Azazel, Lilith, Deber, Qeteb and Reshef in the Hebrew Bible, FAT II 37 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009), 196-201. 6 9 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 261, 265.

Weber, "In Salem \VIlfde sein Versteck", 94. Nasuti, Tradition History, 77; cf. Blair, De-demonising, 196-201. Tate, Psalms 51-100, 261; contra Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 87. 73 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 264. 74 Weber, "In Salem \VIlfde sein Versteck", 95. 75 HALOT, 1531. 76 Weber, "In Salem \VIlfde sein Versteck", 95. 77 Cf. Genette, Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree, 3. I would point out that I have chosen to highlight common lexical uses where the identity of the object or associated possessor or agent is also common. For instance, the phrase 1K:!l:O-KI;l1 is common to Psalm 76:6 and Exodus 15:22, but the context is completely different (i.e. the psalm refers to an inability of Pharaoh's army to regain strength whereas Exodus refers to the inability of the 70 71 72

Psalm 76

99

there are a large number of nominal correspondences with the Exodus ac­ count,78 verbal correspondences are only referrable to synonyms rather than common lexemes. Accordingly, the nouns function in the psalm as allusive hypertexts to Exodus 14-15. Further, the references to �p�' ';'I�� and '1�, being significant symbols of the identity (Exod 4:5) and presence of God (Exod 1 3 : 2 1 ; 1 4:20) within the hypertext of verses 5-8, appear to extend the hypotext to the wider account of the Exodus 1-15. The psalmists are making a clever reference to the circumstances of the Israelites in captivity (Exod 1 5 : 1-2 cf Exod 1 : 1 4; 2:23; 6:9) as well as the character of God-as-warrior (cf I:I'� ;'1m' 101:1 ;'1m' ;'Ion�o Exod 1 5 :3). This specific story is reinvoked by the contempo­ rary Collective in their own situation?9 The table below is by no means a comprehensive cross-textual analysis of Exodus 1-15 and Psalm 76:5-8, but it serves to demonstrate the palimpsest of the two texts:80 Table 7: Possible cross-textual referents (Psalm 76 and Exodus 1-15)

Psalm 76: 5

MT

Exodus ... i1Q� iiK;J

13:21

. . . ... i'l�

14: 1920 15: lOb 15:11a 15: 17a8 1

�l.�-'-niJt� 6

o � ,� � �� 'l.'�� " � 7 In��

:Clry'l; 1;1:01,���-1;1� 1K� �-161

15:5b 15:9a 15: lOb 15:3 15:4a 15:9b

MT �� i1� P::p ... Clry' ��� l �;' i11i1'1 i'�Y7 -n� i �:l . . . Cl';:T·I;1�Q l�70 . i1? � ?jJ

Cl'l'l� Cl:O� nl.�il.i;l 11;1�� i"1K:J i1�b� ' 0 .

�7 V� 'm�7 11�'9 '1�7Ql �V? i11i1' pl,c io:p n·l;1 ts�� ��i;1 �7 � p�o� l'�� �"l� �,IK "10� Cl 'l'l� Cl:O� nl�il.i;l � i1 � � ?O � i11i1� Cl:� i1l; il;1 ' ol i1 l.ilS nj:plO P'll;\ '��� iO�?�r;1 [ . . . ��iK i O I;\] '1; iO�'lin '::p10

Israelites to find water after three days journey into the desert), so it is not cited as a common lexical use. 78 Cf. Jeremias, Das Konigtum Gottes in den Psalmen, 174. 79 Goldingay sees the cOIlllection between Jerusalem and the Exodus account refening to the "whole story of Yhwh's acts" (Goldingay, Psalms 2, 452). By contrast, this analysis indicates that it is specifically refening to the exodus story and the setting behind that. 8 0 Genette, Palimpsests: Literature in the Second Degree, 397-399. 8 1 The lexeme ii1 is very common in the wider Exodus story, particularly in the so-called theophanies at Mount Horeb (Exod 3: 1, 12; 4:27; 17:6; 18:5) and Mount Sinai (Exodus 1931; 32:7-14; 34:4-28).

100

Psalm 76: 7

Chapter 4: Test of Covenant Relationship

MT

Exodus

. 'v·l;l � jJ)jJ; 'i'j'?� j'Jlrl�-'� . 'v·l;l � ClQl�\.( 'jJ l;l� ClQjl$ � Pl;i� ';::fI;1K1 Cl:::;J 5J3 il;1'01 j'Jl.ilS n j�lO " �l��1 i�:;Jj.::jl j'Jl.ilS 010 � ':;:l Cl';! Cl:::;J 5a i�:;J"' l 01 0 -it:l� ���d Cl;O 10-Hn 'i'j'�\.( 01j�1 Cl'�rj j� jJ:(bfl '� jJ)jJ; Cl��il j'J;Jb� -' � PiJ�:

010) ��l.1 Icr1j�

8

MT

r ; ��7 bbgJ-'01 j'J�\.( Iqi:l lj'JQI.( 'i'j�\.(rl$�

15:4a 15: 19 15:21 15:8a 15: 1 1

K?� j'J�l.i n-l;l;:ir� Iqi:l �lP;J i11,9

Legend: . . . denotes lexical similarities; D denotes possible synonyms From an analysis of lexernes in verses 5-8 with selected passages in Exodus and Deuteronomy,82 the tradition of Exodus 4 and 14-15 has most lexical com­ monality with Psalm 76:5-8. In light of this allusion, a picture of the trium­ phant warrior-God and the vanquished Egyptian-Opponent is made complete. 4.2. 3 Covenant Expectations ofDivine Judgment In verses 9-13, the psalmists present another manifestation of divine power, this time as an impending act ofjudgment Invoking the memory of God's past manifestation of salvific power in the exodus (vv2-8), the psalmists depict God as acting in a similar manner in the present, this time as judge (cf. Psalm 75). There is a present expectation that God will deliver on the covenant promise to establish Zion for the benefit of the Collective. First, the identity of the bene­ ficiaries of God's impending judgment is "all the poor-needy of the earth" (vv9-1O). Second, the account of divine retribution sets out the direct manner by which the Collective is involved in the judgment process (vv l l -13). The argument as to what the term 'l� Cpoor-needy") represents is considered first as the remainder of the psalm is dependent upon this reading. 4.2. 3.1 "All the poor-needy of the earth " (v 1 �b) The main argument in this section is that the ultimate beneficiary of God's manifestation of power against the Opponent is the Collective, based on an ostensibly preexilic setting and on several textual grounds.83 First, verses 2-3 82 These include Exodus passages relating to the tyrarmy under Pharaoh, exit from Egypt, and the Sea of Reeds as well as the granting and renewing ofthe law and covenant on Sinai (Exodus 2-6, 13-15, 19-20, 32-34) and generally the synthesis of the exodus and wander­ ings in the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32. 8 3 There are references to material deprivation in the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history (e.g. Deut 15:11; 24:12-15; 2 Sam 22:28 cf. Ps 18:28) but also reference to the

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101

set the identity of those invoking the psalm as being all-Israel, synecdoche for the Collective. Second, the psalmists present the beneficiary of God's past tri­ umph as being the Israelites who came out of the Egypt (vv5-8 cf Exodus 15). Third, the string r'�-" l�-�� is used in only one other place and there it exclu­ sively refers to Judah (v l Ob cf Zeph 2:3). Fourth, the psalmists call for the poor-needy ('l� v l Ob cf 'l� Pss 74: 1 9, 2 1 ; 82:3) to make vows to YHWH (v I 2aa), which presumes a pre-existing relationship with God (vv l l-13). Fifth, the psalm is at least initially an "expression of military readiness to bring to reality [God's] universal rule, especially against nations and individuals who oppose it". 84 Finally and most importantly, the notion of poor-needy in the AP­ Collection (and indeed across most of the Psalter) is not principally one that is materially underprivileged but rather one that is a victim of oppression, crying out (through the psalmists) to God to reverse the situation." The hearer-reader cannot simply reapply the psalm as if it had no setting:86 there is a real op­ pressed Collective and a real Opponent behind the psalm. Some scholars claim that the setting is a postexilic one. For instance, Hoss­ feld and Zenger claim that the theology of the poor in verses 9-10 is a postex­ ilic insertion. They argue that "when the 'wars' against the poor of the earth cease [ . . . ] the essential characteristic of the 'true' God [ . . . ] is proven"; that is, as protector ofthe neglected in the light of gross inequity in the postexilic com­ munity (cf Pss 74: 1 9-2 1 ; 82:1-8) 87 Similarly, Goldingay claims that divine judgment is for universal benefit in that "calamity comes to Judah [ . . . ] only 'leftovers' seem to remain", which centres the act of judgment upon Israe1.88 This perspective overlooks the imminent nature of God-as-judge's anticipated action in this section and how this completes the psalm as a whole contextual unit The Collective expects the God who acted in the past to do so again. Without verses 9-13 as a whole, the entire psalm is emptied of its purpose. Given the collective nature of the AP-Collection and the possible influence from the fall of Samaria, the identity of the Collective is a victim of oppression (cf Ps 74:8, 1 9-21; 82:3) caused by the Opponent Accordingly, the rich are not the general opponents of the poor-needy but specifically the elusive wicked/enemy-Opponent, as encountered so far in the AP-Collection.89 The concept of poor-needy is then a polemical device to motivate God to act for the benefit of the Collective.

oppressed as a collective in the so-called Ephraimite tradition of proto-Isaiah (e.g. Isa 10:2; 14:32). 84 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 269. 85 W. J. Dumbrell (#6705) inNIDOTTE, 3:461. 8 6 Contra Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 78. 87 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 264; Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 86. 88 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 455. 8 9 Gillian C. Firth, "The Re-representation of David in Psalms 140-143" (PhD diss., Australian College of Theology, 2016), 126.

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4.2.3.2 "He caused to hear the case·· - Whose Case? (vv9-l Oa) Verse 9 presents a more complex picture than the judge passing sentence in the phrase l" n�oli;r. which ordinarily means "legal case··.90 This is the only use of 1" with the verb �oli in HB. The hiphil stem of �oli ("to hear··) could signify either a permissive modal sense that potentially increases the number of arguments in the clause (i.e. God let the case be heard from someone)91 or alternatively be rendered "to pro­ claim·· as a form of ingressive form of the hiphil (i.e. God caused the case to be heard in that God spoke it out) ." Either way. I contend that God silences the earth (v9b cf. Pss 83:2; 94: 1 3). metonymous for the Opponent. so that the psalmists can present the Collective·s complaint. First. God takes the passive role of listening from afar in the heavens (C'OIiO v9a). By contrast. the psalm­ ists are actively presenting the case in their speech/text. Second, God is pre­ sented as being unassailable in this psalm and is unlikely to be presenting the case at the same time as acting as judge.93 Thirdly and most importantly. the palimpsest pertaining to the Exodus account provides a contextual basis for an appeal for help by God·s people; that is. God hears and responds to the cries of the poor-need Collective for its benefit (vv5-8 cf. Exod 2:23-24). In short. God responded to the complaint of the Israelites in captivity under Pharoah by remembering the covenant. It follows that the psalmists are pre­ senting the case with the expectation that, when the Collective makes a similar cry for help. God will respond with a manifestation of divine power of a similar magnitude. 4.2. 3.3 Divine Judgment of the Opponent (vv l l -13) After setting this judgment scene. a prophetic declaration akin to a shaming ceremony ensues wherein God self-girds with the rage of the defeated human defendant (c,� non. feminine singular subject). through which God is praised (v I l a) and divine vindication is celebrated (LXX 1optao" v I I b). The same prophetic voice is found in verse l 2ab- l 3. which declares that the officials and kings will be humbled and fear God.94 However. the image that MT presents is by no means a positive one of ending war but rather a reversal of the weapons of war for God's own adornment.95 Accordingly, the generic Opponent is 9 0 HALOT, 220. This is the only instance where HALOT suggests that l'i means some­ thing other than case or quarrel, 'Nithout providing grounds. 9 1 l.iO� in its causative hiphil form would be ditransitive. 9 2 Joiion, 151; HALOT, 1574; BDB, 1034. The semantic nature of l.iO� in the ingressive fonn ofthe hiphil would still require two arguments. 93 In Section 8.1, I will argue that God presents the case against the gods and judges them successively. 94 Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 1 1 ; cf. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 271. 95 Weber, "In Salem \VIlfde sein Versteck", 95.

Psalm 76

103

essentially an object upon which divine wrath and humiliation are set, here and throughout the psalm.96 By contrast, the Collective is called to pay vows to God in response to its vindication (vI 2aa). In verses 1 1-13, I argue that the psalmists are making a double-call to ven­ erate God in verse 12: to the Collective, there is a call to pay vows in verse 12aa in anticipation of their vindication; to the Opponent, there is a declaration of impending condemnation in verse 1 2ab-b, which will be humiliating. The key exegetical problem is the deictic referent of the subjects in verse 12. In particular, ,,�,�o-�� appears before the athnak and on the face of it serves as the subject of the plural imperatives to "pay vows (" 'l) and repay ('O�Ii' cf Salem v3a) YHWH your God". �,�o in the Psalter refers often (yet not exclusively) to military forces who surround and seek to capture God's people (pss 3:7; 12:9; 27:6; 3 1 : 1 4; 44: 1 4; 79:3, 4). The Opponent is not typically associated with acts of piety. Also, it is quite unusual for the Collective to be referred to by the psalmists (who are constituents of the Collective) with the third-person plural pronoun (vI 2b), which is normally reserved for the Opponent. I propose that, if the athnak in verse 1 2 were placed before ,,�,�o-��, it might be possible to read the -�� ,,�,�o as the subject of the succeeding verb phrase �" O� 'Ii ,�,�" ("they [the Opponent] shall bring a tribute for veneration"). A ceremony shaming the Op­ ponent has some textual support. The phrase �'jO" �� j"��j� is rare and appears exclusively in texts that might bear the so-called Ephraimite tradition (Isa 1 8 :7; Ps 68:30)97 Scholarly perspectives on the identity of the subjects of verse 1 2 are corre­ lated to whomever is identified as the poor-needy. Coming from the perspec­ tive that this psalm is postexilic and addresses the needs of the materially ne­ glected, Gerstenberger posits that the imperative is all-encompassing among the wider community.98 Taking the perspective of the universal benefit of di­ vine judgment, Tate claims that "the neighbouring people, along with the Isra­ elites" are referred to here, and Goldingay contends that the call to venerate God becomes a worldwide acknowledgment.99 These perspectives presuppose a universal honouring of God. By contrast, if the poor-needy represents the Collective in the AP-Collection as argued in Section 4.2.3 . 1 , the petition to honour God addresses favourably the southern kingdom (v I 2aa), through those 9 6 Contra Kraus, Psalms 2, 108; Jo1m A. Emerton, "A Neglected Solution of a Problem in Psalm LXXVI I I", VT24 (1974): 136-146. 97 Weber, "In Salem wurde sein Versteck", 99; Nasuti, Tradition History, 78. 9 8 Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 87. See my counter argument in Section 4.2.3.1. 9 9 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 261, 266; Goldingay, Psalms 2, 455, 457; Cole, Book III, 46. Cole claims that the psalm "moves from a self-revelation of God in Zion to an acknowledg­ ment of God throughout the world". However, a universal acknowledgment is at odds with the pattern of conflict cycles that emphasise Opponent-God cathetus in verses 5-8 and (at least) verse 1 1 and 13.

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104

who have fled the northern kingdom (i.e. the Collective celebrates by honour­ ing God with vows), but unfavourably towards the Opponent (v 12ab-b), to whom this call is humiliation (i.e. the Opponent is humiliated by being forced to bring a gift of veneration). This view aligns best with Weber's argument that the vow is one of dedication to God by those calling for divine justice.lOo Accordingly, the call to the Collective to praise God in verse l 2aa antici­ pates divine judgment for its benefit in verse l 2ab-b (i.e. the Collective re­ sponds to the divine judgment with vows and repayment). The psalm is an ex­ pression of God's anticipated rule over the powers that are seeking to subjugate Israel, possibly Assyria 101 The image of homage of the foreign nations would then be not only one of universal acknowledgment but also subjugation. In summary, from the heavens God-as-judge hears the case made by and for the Collective against the Opponent (vv9-1O). The description of the impend­ ing divine judgment is both praiseworthy for the Collective (v1 2aa) and humil­ iating for the Opponent (vv l l , l 2ab-13). 4.2. 4 Summary a/Oppositions

ole

Cathetii O/G elG

Summary of Structure of Psalm 76

1 Title - ? Mocking song used by Israel against opposing nations 2-3 God is good in salvation - Greatness of Elohim's name known in Israel's kingdoms and in the divine abode 4 God is good in salvation - Elohim-as-warnor defended Israel against plague-like instruments of war + 5-8 God is great in history - Elohim-as-warnor ap­ peared, rendering the Opponent powerless for Israel 9-10 God is good in salvation - Elohim-as-judge heard the case and delivered poor-needy Israel from the Opponent + 1 1 God is good in salvation - Elohim receives praise from the Opponent in the fonn oftheir rage + 12-13 God is good in salvation - YHWH Elohim surrounded by tribute-giving adversarial kings/dignatories Legend: Cathetii "legs ofa triangle", denoting conflict between two major characters; OIC conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-Collective cathetus); OIG conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-God cathetus); CIG conflict between Col­ lective and God (Collective-God cathetus); +1- indication of active conflict on the =

=

=

=

=

Weber, "In Salem \VUfde sein Versteck", 97-98. This reading squares lNith LXX, in which "the LORD our God" (KlJPLW 100 8£00 VIlWV, i.e. the God who shows favour to the Collective exclusively) is the recipient of vows and repayment (vI2). Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 269-271. Hossfeld and Zenger argue for a direct po­ lemic against the King of Assyria and the national god Ashur. LXX provides some support for this claim, partly through its psalm title JtPO� 10V AOauPLOV. Nevertheless, the identity of the Opponent remains enigmatic. 100

101

105

Synopsis of Test ofCovenant Relationship

respective cathetus in accordance lNith the proposed conflict taxonomy; +/- indication of significant active conflict on the respective cathetus (commentary focuses on this cathetus) =

In Psalm 76, Israel is essentially passive, benefitting from divine judgment against its supposedly powerful earthly Opponent The psalmists largely ignore the ethical basis for right relationship with God as set out in the preceding Psalm 75. Instead, the psalmists for the Collective as BeneficiarylRecipient presume right relationship with God as Agent (positive relationship on Collec­ tive-God cathetus). By contrast, the focus of the psalm is the lopsided opposi­ tion between earthly principalities and God (negative relationship on the Op­ ponent-God cathetus). First, the psalmists depict God as having been present in an earthly dwelling in (Jeru-)salem/Zion and as a divine warrior, who ap­ peared and easily overpowered the well-armed Opponent in battle. Second, the psalmists present God as the ultimate judge who comes from the heavens to deliver the poor-needy (Israel) from the Opponent The conclusion ofthe psalm concentrates on the humiliation and subjugation of the Opponent to the point where earthly kings and officials are forced to venerate God rather than them­ selves. On the face of it, this psalm is a triumphant song of Zion, which might serve to restore hope for the Collective. The basic premise of the psalm is under­ pinned by the allusion to the exodus story: since God has acted miraculously in the past when called upon by Israel, the expectation is that God must do so again. On the one hand, this expectation is nothing more than God fulfilling covenant promises, given the Opponent is well equipped and in a position of power over the Collective. On the other hand, the anticipation of the humilia­ tion of the Opponent, without mention of the circumstances giving rise to the need for such judgment nor a process of introspection, opens the question: Is the Collective in right relationship with God so as to be entitled to the benefit of divine intervention? Could it be that the subjective depiction of the Oppo­ nent is a projection of its own fears and its false sense of confidence in God's unconditional favour?102

4.3 Synopsis of Test of Covenant Relationship

4.3.1 Covenant Expectations of Universal Justice The redactors of the AP-Collection juxtapose the Collective's doubt over God's goodness in Psalms 73-74 with a divine response from God-as-judge in 102 Cf. Keel, Feinde und Gottesleugner, 63; Bernd Janowski, "Enemies and Evildoers: Toward an Understanding of the Enemy Psalms" in Gegner im Gebet: Studienzu Feindschaft und Entfeindung im Buch der Psalmen, ed. Kathrin Liess and Joharmes Sclmocks, HBS 91 (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2018), 28.

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Chapter 4: Test of Covenant Relationship

Psalm 75. Whereas the Collective-God cathetus was ancillary to the main op­ positions between Opponent-Collective and Opponent-God cathetii in Psalms 73-74, the Collective-God cathetus is central to the setting of covenant respon­ sibilities in Psalms 75-76. In particular, the psalmists presuppose a positive relationship on the Collective-God cathetus and seek to assure the Collective that God will act for its benefit However, the Collective's angst about the fail­ ure of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang in Psalm 74 (cf that of the individual in Psalm 73: 1-17) foreshadows the praise in Psalms 75-76. Psalm 75 features the divine character of God-as-judge (vv2-3, 10-1 1) and the principles of divine justice (vv4-9). Initially, the psalmists extol the inde­ feasible power of God expected by upright Israel. The first-person voice of divine oracle is invoked in verses 3-7 as direct speech of God's instruction for Israel. This implies that Psalm 75 is a divine response to frequent appellations against the Opponent in the preceding psalm (ps 74:7b, l Ob, 1 8b, 2Ib). God has acted as divine judge for the Collective's benefit (ps 75:3-4), and it is ex­ pected that the pious Collective will continue to receive divine favour cPs 75: 10). However, the basis for that divine favour is ethical and universal. God exalts the righteous, who depend on divine power, but lowers the boast­ ing wicked, who are self-reliant (ps 75:5-6, 1 1). At the close of the psalm, the voice of an individual divine appointee sets in the foreground the actions and motivations of God, drawing the focus away from the Collective and towards covenant expectations in terms of uprightness of character. Accordingly, Psalm 75 plays a significant role in PI by setting the test of covenant relationship. God sets a universal ethic, which is pivotal to the coher­ ence of the AP-Collection in that it provides a basis for self-examination before approaching God: the need to be upright, just as God is. By implication, the universal ethic also sets the basis upon which enmity might be set between the Collective and God should the Collective fail to imitate God's righteousness. In addition, God will make a direct challenge to any power that seeks to usurp God's own sovereignty, echoing the closing expressions of confidence and de­ scriptions of God's greatness in salvation in Psalms 73:23-26 and 74:13-17. The Collective must reflect and defer to the character of the upright God and avoid raising up its own "horn" of power, as the wicked Opponent has done. In short, through the mouth of the psalmists, God recapitulates covenant ex­ pectations for universal divine favour in Psalm 75. 4.3.2 Covenant Expectations o/Establishing Zion The placement of a hymn of Zion immediately after a declaration of the ethical foundation of God's justice is purposeful. God's expectations of the covenant people in Psalm 75 are juxtaposed with the people's covenant expectations of God in Psalm 76. Covenant expectations are an important key to solving the theological problem of divine distance and Opponent presence in the AP-

Synopsis of Test ofCovenant Relationship

107

Collection (cf Ps 74:20). There is a tension between these two sets of expec­ tations. In particular, the covenant promise of Davidic kingship is uncondi­ tional and enduring, but the bestowal of the benefits of that kingship is condi­ tional on covenant obedience. The crux of Psalm 76 is that divine providence and protection for the Col­ lective in the presence of God in Zion is to be brought about through the de­ struction of opposing powers and the instruments of war, which would be oth­ erwise waged against God. First, God-as-warrior is known and present among all-Israel (vv2-3) in the setting of preexilic Judah. The psalmists recall the acts ofthe warrior-God in the presence of the Collective (v4a ;,\Oli) against a hapless warrior-Opponent, Pharaoh's annies, in the exodus (vv4, 6-7). God destroys the Opponent's armies and instruments of war and brings vain human rebellion of the Opponent to nought The earthly Opponent is disempowered, disanned, and condemned in divine anger (vv6-8). Second, the Opponent is brought before God-as-judge. In the heavens, God sits to consider the indictment against the Opponent (vv9-1O). Importantly, the poor-needy are present at the shaming and mocking of the Opponent (v l Ob cf c" Ii'o Ps 75:3b), whose rage serves as praise of God (v I I ). The Opponent is the source of the rage (v I I) and includes both all the ones surrounding him (i.e. God) who bring a tribute for veneration (v 1 2ab-b) and the kings and officials who are utterly condemned (vl3). The psalmists consider it praiseworthy that the Opponent of the Collective is humiliated (vI 2aa). Psalm 76 is therefore not only a universal acknowledgment of the judge-God's might, but also a psalm that expresses the expectation of the Collective that the Opponent will be erad­ icated. Overall, Psalms 75 and 76 contain two sets of covenant expectations - will­ ing subjection to God's justice and the eradication of the Opponent In light of the nature of the Davidic covenant, justice and humility before God are the preconditions for the fulfilment of the establishment of Zion. The question then remains as to the innocence of the Collective : is the Collective in right standing with God and therefore in a position to approach with such expectation? 4.3.3 A Failed Theological Reflection - A Segue to Inner Turmoil In the AP-Collection, the perceived distance between God and the Collective is the catalyst for theological reflection. PI presents the existential threat to Israel at the outset of the AP-Collection (pss 73 : 1-17, 74: 1-12). As Weber expresses it, a "bow of tension" is drawn by the collocation of psalms contem­ plating God-as-judge: the petition (ps 74); the announcement (Ps 75); and the breaking-in of judgment (ps 76) 103

10 3 Weber, "In Salem wurde sein Versteck",

100.

108

Chapter 4: Test of Covenant Relationship

It might be argued that there is a positive progression in the sequence of the psalms of P I . Jensen discerns a distinct pattern "from doubt, to presence, to faith [ . . . ] from absence to presence, from humiliation to pride, from defeat to victory, from lament to praise to celebration".104 This is a plausible perspective on the overall mood of the psalmists across P l . However, the praise and cele­ bration in Psalm 76 are made in anticipation ofthe warrior-judge God fulfilling the Collective's expectations of covenant promises. The Collective presumes that God will act in this manner because it considers itself blameless before God. This presumption is about to be tested. It is possible to find grounds for projection upon the Opponent within P I . First, there are indicators o f a driving emotion behind the description of the Opponent as wholly malevolent. For instance, the psalmist's envy of the wicked's well-being in Psalm 73 and the Collective's sense of abandonment over the enemy's destruction and defilement of the holy place in Psalm 74 pro­ vide grounds for an ensuing complaint, directly against the Opponent, but also, implicitly, against God for allowing the seeming injustice to occur. Second, the expectation in Psalm 75 is that the upright will adhere to God­ as-judge. However, the Collective's presumption of divine favour without in­ trospection might also be considered a dishonourable approach to the holy God, which is a self-made trap (Ps 73 : 1 8-20 cf. Ps 8 1 : 1 3). Third, the Opponent in PI is an image of all that is contrary to the will of God. The object of dishonour ought to be repulsive to the Collective, which seeks the exclusive benefit of God's favour. However, the Opponent becomes the means by which the Collective defines itself, projecting its own failures onto the "other". In other words, the Collective presumes God's favour solely because it considers itself as not being the Opponent of God. Fourth, the psalmists consider it praiseworthy to witness God's judgment and humiliation of the external Opponent (Ps 76: 1 1- 1 3 cf. Ps 75:9). It is pos­ sible then that the arrogance of the wicked (cf Ps 73:4-12) might have been unwittingly adopted by a self-righteous and irreverent Collective, which has assumed the exclusive favour of God (pss 73 : 1 , 76:2-3). However, the idea that the Collective has taken on the Opponent's deficiencies is at best specula­ tive in P I . Could Psalm 76 really be a mocking song, as the title might suggest?105 Do the psalmists reflect the presumption of premonarchic Israel that God can be called on demand to deliver them victory (cf. 1 Samuel 4)? Is the Collective itself prepared for universal divine judgment, for which they have called against their own Opponent? Can the Collective stand in the presence of God 104 Jensen, "Psalm 75", 419. 10 5 There are instances where jj:J':I:1, as found in the title (vIa), is typically rendered "mock­

ing song" (Pss 69:13, 77:7a:, Job 30:9; Lam 3: 14, 3:63, 5: 14). The translation of the term seems to be largely dependent on the context in which the term is used.

Synopsis of Test of Covenant Relationship

109

and have its innocence tested before the power of divine wrath? These ques­ tions remain unanswered, just as the lament questions concerning God's per­ ceived absence and inactivity remain unanswered (Ps 74:1, I O- l la). If one were to take a negative dialectic through P I , the boasting one in Psalm 75:5--{) might be applied in Psalm 76 to Israel itself; that is, divine judgment is about to be poured on the Collective, rather than on a vaguely defined Oppo­ nent. Based on this reasoning, the Collective might fail the test of its covenant responsibility to examine itself as it petitions for divine justice. It is not so much that the Collective has false expectations of divine power, but that the Collective does not approach God with the right reverence. Lacking a healthy dose of introspection as to the possibility that it might share the Opponent's deviant tendencies, the Collective defines itself based on its negative relation­ ship with the Opponent. However, the Collective does not recognise that its own relationship with God may not be so pure:

God

Collective

Opponent Figure 5:

Central opposition in Psalms 75-76

If the Collective has failed to pass the tests of right covenant relationship, this would then provide a plausible explanation as to why God is perceived as being absent while the Opponent is present throughout the AP-Collection. The pre­ sumption of right relationship with God from PI provides a neat segue into P2, which confirms that the deliverance of the Collective from its Opponent did not eventuate. In the next chapter, I present the argument that the overall re­ sponse to deliverance not occurring is one of inner turmoil, not only for the Collective over its failed hopes but also for God over a failed covenant rela­ tionship.

Chapter 5

Inner Turmoil - Divine Abandonment and Yearning for Right Relationship ( Seams of "P2")

The main argument of this chapter is that the theme of divine turmoil is pur­ posefully placed within P2 (psalms 77-81 paired with Psalm 50). In particular, the psalmists juxtapose disappointment over unfulfilled covenant expectations, first, of the Collective concerning divine inaction in the individual lament Psalm 77, and second, of God concerning the disobedient Collective through anthropomorphic representations of divine anger and despair in Psalms 78:5966 and 8 1 : 1 2-14 respectively l Accordingly, this chapter considers portions of P2 that provide the necessary foundation of conflict on the Collective-God cathetus, which was set in the background in PI in order to emphasise the neg­ ative relationship on the Opponent-God cathetus. First, Psalm 77 expresses the individual authorised leader's overwhelming disappointment at the perceived failure of God to deliver on covenant prom­ ises. However, the basis upon which the Collective presumed such beneficence in PI (Psalms 73-76) is questionable. Inner turmoil underpins the concentra­ tion of laments and lamentable history in P2, which features subjective reflec­ tions over God's abandonment of the Collective, presumably through the lens of exile. P2 then confirms that the laments and praise of PI have not motivated God to change the well-being of the Collective. Second, God's own disappointment over the Collective's covenant failure is presented anthropomorphically as divine inner turmoil, reflecting the tension within the character of God between lovingkindness and justice. This requires a preview of latter sections of P2 that demonstrate divine yearning for God's people to follow God's ways and the divine anger when that does not occur. The will of the Collective for divine favour and the will of God for the Collec­ tive's covenant obedience constitute the central tension of P2, which is found in the increasingly negative relationship on the Collective-God cathetus.

1 The remainder ofP2 is considered in Chapters 6 and 7.

112

Chapter 5: Inner Turmoil 5 . 1 Psalm 77

Psalm 77 is best described as a mixed-form Psalm. given it includes lament without direct petition, praise in an elusive historical context, and switches be­ tween expressions of the individual psalmist and the Collective which they represent 2 The psalm bears the influence of Canaanite hymnody. particularly the Chaoskampf allusions in its one-sided cosmic battle. the rare use of the tricola [onn in verses 1 7-20,3 as well as allusions to the account of the Sea of Reeds and the fheophanies before the people on Sinai (Exodus 15. 19. 34) 4 The context of hopelessness lends itself to a setting in the exilic period and redaction in the early postexilic era as an after-the-fact reflection on the fall of both northern and southern kingdoms. wherein the prophetic role forms a "the­ ology of catastrophe·· .' At this point of the AP-Collection. it becomes increas­ ingly apparent that the key learnings of the Asaphite tradition traversed the exilic period. both from the text and the title 6 Psalm 77 expresses the personal inner turmoil of the psalmist. echoing the Collective's anguish over continued divine absence and Opponent presence. The personal inner turmoil resolves itself through a temporary shift in the un­ derstanding of God so as to focus on the divine character of lovingkindness, but not necessarily of justice against the Collective. Initially. the psalmist al­ most loses the ability to speak or even breathe about the perception of divine abandonment. That voice is regained as it dawns upon the psalmist that if God

2 Beat Weber, "They Saw You, the Waters - They Trembled (Psalm 77:17b): The Function of Mytho-poetic Language in the Context of Psalm 77" in Psalms and Mythology, ed. Dirk J. Human, LHB 462 (New York: T&T Clark, 2007), 108-110. 3 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 275; Weber, Psalmen II, 1 1 0 . For this reason, Gersten­ berger considers the so-called hymn of verses 14-21 to be a separate text from the remainder ofthe psalm (e.g. Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 90). 4 Pierre Auffret, "La droite du tres-haut: Etude structurelle du Psaume 77", SJOT 6 (1992): 1 15-119; Weber, Psalmen 11, 44; Jo1m S. Ksehnan, "Psalm 77 and the Book of Exodus", The Journal ofthe AncientNearEastern Society ofColumbia University 15 (1983): 51-58. Perspectives of the intertextuality of Psalm 77 vary significantly. Whereas Auffret claims a strong cOIlllection 'Nith Exodus 15: 12-15 and Kselman of Exodus 34:6, Weber con­ siders a wider set ofintertextual references including Jacob and Joseph references in Genesis 35 and 37 and the theophanies from the golden calfincident in Exodus 32-34 and the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32 as well as other selected latter prophets (Habukkuk, Deu­ tero/Trito-Isaiah) and writings (Lamentations 1-3). 5 Weber, "They Saw You, The Waters", 1 13-114; cf. Tate, Psalms 51-100, 274; Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 9 1 . 6 The title l1n'i,-I;lJ) ("concerning the Jeduthun") refers to one of the Levitical groups, exclusively attested to in the Other Writings (Neh 1 1 :7; 1 ehr 16:4 1-42; 25: 1-6; 2 ehr 5: 12; 35: 15) and psalms titles. These arguably later-dated sources attest to the expanding leader­ ship role of Jeduthun during the monarchic period.

Psalm 77

113

has changed to abandon the Collective, then God can change again, without reflecting on why God might respond to a change in circumstances. For the purpose of this study, it is the conflict pattern that is most notewor­ thy, which centres on the Collective-God cothetus. The psalmist demonstrates that not all is right between God as Stimulus and the Collective as Experiencer by reflecting on a devastating yet non-descript predicament, presumably at the hand of a real Opponent Importantly, reference to the contemporary Opponent is avoided throughout the psalm so as to emphasise the key theological problem as one between God and the Collective. First, the psalmist claims victimhood (vv2-7), without referring to an Op­ ponent but rather the rift in the relationship with God,7 which is resolved by re­ conceptualising God as mutable (vv8-1 1). Second, the psalmist expresses the desire to remember and contemplate the past acts of God (vv I2-IS), renewing hope through divine manifestation of salvific power against cosmic elements (vv I 6-21). However, the transfonnation of the psalmist's understanding of the way God relates is incomplete. Questions remain as to whether God has really changed at all and whether the mutability of the most-high One can serve as hope for the Collective. 5. 1 . 1 Translation MT

V

l1n'T-l;lp IJ���� :iit:lr� �91$7 jJi?¥��l Cl';:T·I;l �-I;l � '�ip

laa lab 2a

'n�i" ':J'1 � 'ni:!l: Cli'� :J1�� ��1 � l � � ��; � I'l;

3aa 3ab

:'��� ClIJ�;:T jJ�!$� jJ;9i]�1 Cl';:T·I;l � jJl:pr�

3b 4a

';,79 ':J'l.i niit:l� nrm� :i ;l !$ 161 �r;1 9P�; Clli(.� Cl'�; 'r;1��r:T : Cl' �?il.i ni:J� 'D �'�� jJl:pr�

4bb Sa Sb 6a 6b 7aa

Translation To the set apart (one), 8 for the leduthun (belonging) to Asaph, a song. My voice (is) to Elohim and towards (him) I shall cry; my voice (is) to Elohim and he shall cause to in­ cline his ear to me. In (the) day (of) my distress, Adonai I sought, my hand (by) night was poured-stretched out and she did not weary; she refused to be comforted, mynephes. I long to remember ElohimCs acts), but I (also) want to groan; I want to cry out with lamentation, but she weak­ ens, my breath. Selah. You have seized (the) lids of my eyes; I have been so troubled that I carmot speak. I have considered (the) days ofthe distant past; years of remote times. I have to remember my (mocking-victory) song

7 Gerstenberger argues that the psalmist's dilemma is "not a personal problem but [ . . ] a communal concern" (Psalms 2, 89). 8 See Appendix 1 .

Chapter 5: Inner Turmoil

114 MT

v

j'JiJ' ¢'1,( '�� ?-Cl � j'J?;7�

7ab

: 'nji tlsn'l 'tll$ 1m:; � '�?i ; �V

7b 8a

:iil.i ni:: Sl� �'o\-KI;lI

8b

i"1 90 n��? o� l$ry

9a

:i '1 1 -,'1? j � K jO�

9b

I;l� nim n��v " � r,ll �\.(� r� �n:a� ';,79 K';:T 'Dil;lo -, OK)

lOa IOba 10bb 11a

1 1b

j:l'-,I;lI;lJ)o ' .,'�n� : � �7 � Cl l P.·� �l:Pi��;�

12a 12b 13a 13b

';'Pll �lP:;J Cl';:T·I;l � :Cl'j:fI;lK:;;l l;lij� I;l�-'� K?� j'J�l.i I;l�y j'J�\.(

14a 14b 15a 15b 16a

�9i' l �Pl?�-' �� ';,79 Cl'fil;l� ICl;O 'i'j1Kl 11;1'0; Cl;O 'i'j1Kl :nio;'r;'I nrr ��

l6ba 16bb 1 7aa l7ab 17b

Translation in the night with my heart I want to cry out 'Nith lamentation; but it tracks down my breath. Might (he) to the remote times lNithhold himself, Adanai?; Might he not increase-continue to show favour anymore? Might it have expired completely, his loving­ kindness?; Might it come to an end, (the) utterance from generation to generation? Might he have forgotten to set kindness, El?; or has he drawn-back in anger his compassion? Selah. Then I said, i) "Piercing-Sickness to me (is) she; [idiom: My conundrum is this;] ii) "(The) begiIllling of me (is) she; [idiom: My new beginning/hope is this;] i) changed (is the) right hand of the most-high One." ii) changeable9 (is the) right hand of the most­ high One." I cause to remember the deeds of Yah; indeed, I shall remember, from the distant past, your wondrous work. For I have muttered meditatively concerning all of your acts; but (now) because of all of your deeds I lNill cry out lNithjoy. Elohim, in the holy (path) (is) your way; Who (else) is a god (that is) great like Elohim? You (are) the El, having done miraculous (deeds); you made knO\Vll among the peoples your strength. You redeemed, lNith the arm-power, your peo­ ple; sons of Jacob and Joseph. Selah. They saw you, (the) waters, Elohim They saw you, (the) waters, they crashed; Yea, they bubbled-stirred-trembled up, primeval waters.

9 Given this word is also used in verse 6, I concede that it is also possible to render this word "(the) years". However, this only makes sense when coupled lNith interpretation ii) of verse l la.

Psalm 77 MT

115

ni�¥ ICl;O 10l t

V 18aa

Cl'P1Jt9 tlr;1t !;lip : 1:l?jJ�: 'i'j' ��IT�\.(

18ab 18b

�l?l� ''l9Vl �Ip

19aa 19ab

: fl l;\y �Pj,r;11 j'J)'n · Cl:�

';'Pll Cl'::pl Cl:O::jl 'i'j'?'�t91

19b 20aa 20ab

,:,] 'l) i:liPPl

20b

Translation They poured do\VIl (the) waters, (the) cloud masses, (a) (thunder-)voice, � gave, khe c1oud4 yea, your (arrows of) lightning, they went-shot out themselves. Voice, your thunder, in the (whirling) wheel, they caused to become light, lightnings (reflect­ ing around) the world; she trembled and quaked, the earth. In (through) the sea (was) your way, and your stretches-paths (were) through many­ great waters; although your footprints, they did not become

'i'j� p lItS:;l Q'r:T�

21a 21b

You led, as the flock, your people; by the hand of Moses and Aaron

l;l�lJ Cl'Pl� j-l'l.(;:T

: 1l.ilj KI;l

: 1'1;:; -q I\ j'J�b-j��

kno\Vll.

5.1.2 Inner Turmoil - Divine Absence without an Opponent In this section, the tension of divine distance and God's benevolence is repre­ sented in the individual psalmist's personal distress, resolved only by a shift in their conception of God. In the first half of this psalm, the psalmist's tunnoil over God's nature is expressed through the image of the all-consumed body (vv2-5). Crucially, there is no reference to an existing Opponent in this section. Until this point in the AP-Collection, the Opponent has been the focal point of the psalmists' laments and hopes for the Collective. Here the psalmist attempts to explain the theological problem without reference to the Opponent. The re­ sult is that the others-critique of Psalms 73-76 begins to shift towards self­ critique in Psalm 77. However, at this stage introspection is limited to a self­ awareness of personal suffering and falls short of a recognition of personal responsibility. The argument that the psalmist turns inward for an answer to divine absence will be set out in two main parts. First, the psalmist claims victim status in relation to their current predicament (vv2-7). Second, the psalmist questions their own entitlement to the benefits of relationship with God and resolves this by emphasising that God changes (vv8-1 1), rather than admitting that they have fallen short of meeting God's expectations and ought to change. 5.1.2.1 Victim without a Perpetrator (vv2-7) In verses 2-7, the inner turmoil of the psalmist is brought about because there is no one else to blame for the predicament facing the Collective. The psalm­ ist's self-labelling as victim is depicted subjectively through corporeal images of deep personal suffering endured during divine absence, which never seems to end and from which they cannot escape. However, the suffering differs

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significantly from that in Psalm 74: 10-1 1 , 19-21, in that no reference is made to an Opponent, nor is there any direct accusation that God has been negligent in allowing the psalmist to grieve to the point of breathlessness. There are two main discourses expressing this grief; first, reaching out to God in vain (vv24); and second, being forced to remember and contemplate the past (vv5-7). The first discourse (vv2-4) reflects a sombre lament of the double minded victim. The psalmist has continually sought out God and refused to accept God's supposed absence. In verse 2, the voice (�'p) of the psalmist cries out (p�� cf. n'i:I vv4, 7, 13) with reciprocal expectation and intrinsic modality that God should listen (J!� in hiphil cf. �01:i).10 The yiqtol verbs bear an habitual aspectY With a temporal heit preposition, the psalmist emphasises their own effort to seek out the absent God with all their might (cf. ,') (v3 with qatal verbs) 12 The motif of Israel earnestly calling on God to listen is also attested in the possible Exodus palimpsest of Psalm 76:5-8 (cf. Exod 2:23-24), which is both a [onnal characteristic and a common intertextual reference in Psalms 76 and 77. Verse 4 closes the lament with a statement demonstrating the double mind­ edness of the psalmist Syntactic markers including yiqtol verbs, waw-disjunc­ tives, volitional-he, and the first instance of the structurally significant pairing of verbs: ,�! (cf. vv7, 12) and 1�� as acts in silence; and ;'10;'1 and n'i:I (cf. vv7, 13) as acts of outcry indicate that the psalmist's endurance is corning to an end (v4b cf. v7b) 13 In verse 4a, the volitional-he14 suffixed to '�r indicates the psahnist inten­ tionally wants to remember the character and past acts of God as an act of faith." However, it is the very thought that God has acted in the past yet seems not to in the present that triggers the need to utter a loud "groan" (;'10;'1 with volitional-he cf. Ps 83:3 the Opponent "roars") as an intentional and emotional outburst 16 The silence of ,�! is juxtaposed with the sound of ;'10;'1, syntactically marked by the waw-disjunctive between the two verbs17 ("I long to remember Elohim ['s acts] but I [also] want to groan"). Similarly, in verse 4b n'i:I is suf­ fixed with a volitional-he ("I want to cry out with lamentation", implicitly Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 43, 47; cf. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 273. Tate, Psalms 51-100, 274; contra Goldingay, Psalms 2, 458. Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 51-52. Weber outlines the dilemma as to whether j�r and n'tl or n'tl and ��l.i are synonymous (Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 58). In contrast to Weber's finding, j�r loses the aspect ofiIlller thought when rendered "anrufen" . j�r generally COIlllotes silence in "ca1l[ing] some­ thing to mind" (HALOT, 269-270). Accordingly, the verbs i1t:li1 and n'tl parallel each other 'Nith sound as do j�r and ��l.i with silence. 1 4 Cf. Joiion, 346. 1 5 Auffret, "La droite du tres-haut", 98. 16 Preferable to the starkly different translation of being gladdened (Eucppav9l')v) in LXX. 1 7 Joiion, 353. 10 11 12 13

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towards God),18 However, the psalmist's need to cry out is thwarted by their own exhaustion ('n1, ���nn' "but my breath weakens") and closes the dis­ course with the selah. Whether in silence or aloud, verse 4 demonstrates that whatever the psalmist does to approach God is fruitless,19 The second discourse (vv5-7) is a dream-like sequence that depicts graph­ ically the psalmist-victim ' s humiliation. In one sense, the psalmist depicts their nightmare recalled from deep subconsciousness, but in another sense the psalmist is forcibly awoken to encounter the lamentable situation.20 Presented initially in qatal verbs with a completed aspect, the act of seizing the eyelids of the psalmist was caused by God (v5a), which is the sole reference to God in the second-person in the first half of the Psalm (vv2-1 1), contrasting I I times in the third-person. It is possible that this person-switch is a syntactic marker with the effect that the deictic reference of the second-person singular pronoun could extend to an agent of God; that is, the figure behind this torturous act could be the northern kingdom's Opponent. However, the psalmist avoids ref­ erence to an Opponent. The distant past is lamentable and takes away the psalmist's ability to com­ municate the horror they encounter (v6 with resultative-waw and yiqtol verb with a mode of negative possibility), What exactly is in the mind's eye of the psalmist that is so harrowing? Could it be the well-being ofthe wicked in Psalm 73:2-12? Could it be the destroyed holy place at the hand of the taunting Op­ ponent in Psalm 74:3-71 Could it be the image of the hom of the boasting ones lording over the Collective from Psalm 75:5-6? Or has the expectation that the Opponent would be humiliated at God's judgment in Psalm 76: I I and 1 3 not eventuated? The text does not say. Nevertheless, the reference in verse 7a to �ri����, contextually rendered "my mocking song", might form a link between Psalms 76 and 77 through the title ;'fl'll in Psalm 76: 1 21 It is possible that the redactors of the AP-Collection in­ tended for the hymn of Zion to serve as a site of memory and history in which

1 8 Hans-Peter MUller, "Die hebn'iische Wurzel syh", VT 19 (1969): 364; cf. HALOT, 101 1-1012, 1320. MUller demonstrates that the underlying emotion oflamentation or praise associated 'Nith n'tl is ambiguous. This is particularly important as it serves as a structural marker for lamentation in verses 4b and 7b but also a cause for rejoicing from verse 13a. 1 9 Weber, Psalmen 11, 42. 20 Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 69. 21 LXX makes a significant departure from MT in verse 7 by transforming the noun 'D t'�� to correspond 'Nith the verb phrase £1l£A£1T]Oa ('D'�Ql cf. vI3a). In seeking to resolve the supposed problem of rendering 'D�'�� into Greek, LXX translators interpret j�r as an intran­ sitive verb, which is most uncommon in MT. Accordingly, the textual variant is to be re­ jected and the possibility of intertextuality here remains. This position differs from Pavan's view that the term does not correspond to any other term in the AP-Collection (Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 80).

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God acted powerfully for Israe!.22 Importantly, the key pair of verbs ,�! and n�� are again used in verse 7 in conjunction with m���. If �ri���� is to be rendered "my mocking song", it is more likely that the suffixed-he to ,�! forces the memory of the �ri���� in verse 7aa, contrasting the psalmist's longing to remem­ ber the capacity for God to act in verse 4. It follows that the cries in the evening (n'i:I) in verse 7ab attest to the depth of inner turmoil that it would rob the psalmist of sleep.23 Whereas a victory song ought to conjure renewed expecta­ tion of God's power in the present, it is the memory of that song that is the subject of i:I�n; that is, the song tracks down the breath of the psalmist to the point of breathlessness ('n1, v7b as object cf v4b as subject).24 It is possible then that the redactors of the AP-Collection made the connection between Psalms 76 and 77, intentionally placing the latter psalm to serve as a painful and humiliating reminder of God's past provision and present absence. In summary, verses 2-7 express the distress of the individual psalmist through the image of a burdened body." While the psalmist's expectations of God have not been met, no blame is laid upon God for this predicament In­ stead, the only complaint is that God has allowed the psalmist to realise the extent of the calamity. Furthermore, the psalmist attempts to explain the evil that has befallen them without reference to the traditional object of evil - the Opponent Lacking the typical resources at hand to deal with the incongruity of divine distance, the double minded psalmist wants to both silently remember God's capacity to save and cry out in their distress using the traditional manner of lament until they lose their voice. However, the memory of past victories produces unending suffering. Given the absence of reference to the Opponent, the political circumstances of the Collective are peripheral to the theological issue of divine absence.26 5.1.2.2 A Capricious God? (vv8-1 1) In verses 8-1 1 , the psalmist shifts their understanding of God's character in order to cope with the deep distress they face, namely the absence of God. The evidence for this shift in understanding is found in the rhetorically loaded suc­ cession of questions over the psalmist's (and the Collective's) entitlement to covenant benefits. First, successive questions of God evidence the psalmist's 22 Cf. Weber, "They Saw You, The Waters", 123. 2 3 Weber, Psalmen II, 42. 24 Proposals to emend tl�n" to the first-person singular are understandable given the

fre­ quency of first-person singular verbs in verses 2-7. However, this interpretation overlooks the more sinister nature of the root tl�n, which typically means "to track down" in the piel stem (e.g. Laban searching for his teraphim (Gen 3 1 :35), Joseph searching for the planted cup in Benjamin's sack (Gen 44: 12)) (HALOT, 341; BDB, 344). 2 5 Auffret, "La droite du tres-haut", 96. 26 Cf. Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 79-80.

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confusion over God's involvement in their world (vvS-IO). Second, the psalm­ ist's central statement in verse 1 1 is one of an experientially determined divine mutability,27 which is an incomplete representation of the divine character of both lovingkindness and justice. It is this central statement that sets the foun­ dation for the change of mood from verse 12, founded on a partial understand­ ing of covenant expectations. a)

Questions a/God's Character (vv8-10)

Verses 8-10 comprises three sets of questions of God. Each verse is marked with the interrogative r,r and with the subject emphasised in the final position of each clause (vvS-lOa cf. vv3b, I Sa, 1 9b). These questions are not contextu­ ally bound to the circumstances surrounding the psalmist's day of distress (cf v3a) but instead are a theological response to the inner turmoil of the double minded psalmist First, the questions reveal the shift in the psalmist's perspec­ tive on God's involvement in their predicament. Second, the questions are lim­ ited to the nature of the covenant relationship between the Collective and God, with particular reference to the character of God. The questions express confu­ sion over the way God exerts power over the world order. This confusion is a form of deviance, albeit one which is not comparable to the deviant Opponent seeking to take God's place (cf Ps 74:S). In particular, the psalmist responds to their circumstances by referring to God's lovingkindness, which might have been withheld intentionally due to divine anger, but not a complete understand­ ing of divine justice. The succession of questions is a rhetorical strategy that strengthens semantically the mood of "dubitative modality";28 that is, they ex­ press the exact opposite of the Collective's covenant expectations in the irre­ alis mood. In the first set of questions in verse 8, the psalmist fears that God is subcon­ sciously inactive in the psalmist's world. The divine being is said to be end­ lessly withholding itself, constituting a national crisis of covenant rejection emr vSa cf Ps 74: I b).29 This crisis of corporate identity is paralleled by a negative 27 Martin Leuenberger refers to "konsequente Erfahrungstheologien" (literally "conse­ quential experiential theologies"), which are understandings of God that arise out of personal experience in light of the failure of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang, typically associated lNith the personal circumstances facing Job and the observations of humanity generally by the teacher of Ecclesiastes. See Martin Leuenberger, Gott in Bewegung: Religions- und theologiegeschichtliche Beitriige zu Gottesvorstellungen im alten Israel, FAT 76 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 259. 28 Joiion, 392. 2 9 There are four instances in the Psalter in which mr serves as a main verb without a second argument in the clause (Pss 44:24; 74: 1; 77:7; 89:38), and I argue that in all ofthese cases such a reflexive reading is warranted. Weber observes that this root COIlllotes a national crisis of covenant rejection and therefore serves as background for the complaint overall, even though to this point it has been a personal one (Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 81).

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interrogative, which casts doubt on the continuity (�o' v8b cf. Ps 7 8 : 1 7) of God's favour. Both verbs are inyiqtol fonn with a habitual aspect. If God ha­ bitually withholds divine intervention, God cannot be showing favour to the psalmist nor judgment against an Opponent. The second set of questions in verse 9 reflect a greater fear that God's prom­ ises are limited, in that the "utterance" (,o�, often rendered "promise" [e.g. NASB]) of lovingkindness might have ended of itself. The qatal form of the two intransitive verbs O�� ("to be no more") and 'Ol ("to expire"), coupled with the adverbial clause n�l� marking a completed tense-aspect, wherein the psalmist questions rhetorically as to whether God's lovingkindness has corne to an end (cf. Ps 74: lb, 3a, l Ob, 19b, 23b).30 This set of questions implicitly claims that God's upright character and faithfulness are temporally limited, like that of the human condition. The third set of questions in verse 1 0 allude to the ultimate fear that the psalmist's suffering is caused by God's conscious activity. Both verbs are again in the qatal form with a completed aspect. The first verb clause in verse l Oa is noteworthy. The main verb n�1:i is qualified by a factitive piel infinitive construct of mn, rendered "Might El have forgotten to set kindness?".31 The promise of God's favour has not materialised for the psalmist. Similarly, the psalmist questions whether God's own anger has caused compassion to be withdrawn (v l Ob). Whilst both propositions presuppose that God has already acted againstthe interests ofthe Collective by remaining absent (cf. Ps 74: 1),32 those acts are not interpreted as constituting divine justice. Whereas the questions of verses 8-9 presume that God's inactivity and be­ neficence are temporally limited, the questions in verse 1 0 represent an exis­ tential crisis relating to God's memory of covenant promisesY Kselman makes the compelling argument that verses 9-10 constitute a commentary on the char­ acter of God in Exodus 34:6, containing fundamental theological assump­ tions.34 A comparison of key lexemes in these texts is set out below, demon­ strating this link:

For further discussion on the finite nature of n:!l::l, see Appendix 1 . The factitive piel brings about the end state that the verb achieves (i.e. God is expected to bring about kindness) (cf. Joiion, 151; Williams and Beckman, Hebrew Syntax, 62; Waltke and O'CoIlllor, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 438). 3 2 Weber argues that the recognition of divine anger and the "Withdrawal of compassion crystallise the claim against the God who does not hear and allows unending suffering, so that it constitutes a claim of divine absence (Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 88-89). 33 Pavan claims that "the loss of memory signifies the breaking of the link which is the source of life for man", finding that "forgetfulness is a constant threat to the covenant" (Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 54-55). 34 Kselman, "Psalm 77 and the Book of Exodus" , 53, 57. 30 31

Psalm 77

121

Table 8: Possible cross-textual referents (Ps 77:8-10 and Exod 34:6) Psalm 77:

MT

Exodus 34:

MT

6bb

'[1��j "9Q-�l l

lOa

�'o;-KI;lI '�'11$ 1m:; Cl'�?il.i?jJ : iil.i ntsl� 6]B i O� i "19 0 n��? O�I$O :i '1 1 i '1? I;l� nim n;l�!,l

6aa

11�01 Cl i nl I;l� i11i1; 1i11i1;

lOb

:i1? 9. " � r,ll ��� r� i?-Cl�

6aa 6ba

11�01 Cl i nl I;l� i11i1: 1i11i1;

8 9

Cl ::�� ll �

Legend: . . . denotes lexical similarities; 0 denotes possible synonyms

Auffret also observes the distinction between the temporally-limited and exis­ tential questions of God's benevolence. In particular, verses 8-9 presume that God will at some point become the God they expect, who is able to relieve distress. This is evidenced by the stacking of temporal markers in verses 8 (c�,�, ,,�) and 9 (o��, n�l�, 'Ol, " , ,,�). By contrast, verse 1 0 has no such markers but plainly asks whether God's lovingkindness does not exist35 In summary, the rhetorical questions of the psalmist of verses 8-9, in one sense, echo the past faithfulness of God, yet in another sense, build a case against God for not fulfilling the Collective's one-sided covenant expectations in the present The doubt over God's present faithfulness crystallises into ex­ istential questions as to whether God has ever caused to show favour to the Collective in verse 10. The expression of the opposite of God's promises in one's own voice is to stoop to the level of the Opponent and to speak against God's goodness "betray[s] the generation of [God's] children" (cf. Ps 73 : 1 5). Given the assumption that conditio humana in mundo coram deo is implicit in the psalmist's view of cosmic order,36 God cannot be the deviant - it must be the psalmist, representing the Collective. b)

Statement a/Divine Mutability (vI I)

Verse 1 1 synthesises the questions of verses 8-10 into a statement of divine mutability connecting what is typically thought of as the lament (vv2-1O) and hymnal (vv I 2-21) halves of the psalm .'7 The translation of the verse is 35 Auffret, "La droite du tres-haut", 100. 3 6 Martin Leuenberger, Konzeptionen des Konigtums Gottes im Psalter:

Untersuchungen zu Komposition und Redaktion der theokratischen Bucher IV-V im Psalter, AThANT 83 (ZUrich: Theologischer Verlag Zurich, 2004), 102. 37 Some scholars claim the mood of the psalmist remains subdued on the basis that the psalmist's transformation and re-conceptualisation of their predicament under God's protec­ tion is incomplete (Tate, Psalms 51-100, 272; cf. deClaisse-Walford, Jacobson and Tarmer,

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contentious. Scholars tend to differ in their respective translations based on whether the succeeding hymn constitutes praise of or reserved reflection upon God's past acts in the exodus and wanderings. I argue for a discernible mood swing but also an incomplete transformation in the understanding of the way God interacts with the world. Verse 1 1 normally takes one of two forms - the proclamation of grief or sickness that comes from either recognising that "(the) right hand of the most­ high One has changed"38 or remembering "(the) years of (the) right hand of the most-high One".39 In either case, there is no speech act that would cause such a change of mood so as to arouse praise. In his doctoral dissertation, Weber submits a novel argument that rm� serves as a "double play"40 such that the psalmist intentionally leaves ambiguity in­ herent in this term 4! God's capacity to change enables Weber's "Schaltstelle" reading, which I would paraphrase in English as "My sickness/appeasement is this; change(dlable) is (the) right hand of the most-high One" 42 This reading is based on two key lexemes; first, ��n II's basic meaning is derived from "emptiness" or "piercing",43 but there is some evidence to support a rendering of "sickness", "beginning", and "appeasement" based on LXX 44 Second, n1lli The Book of Psalms, 614; Goldingay, Psalms 2, 473). Other scholars claim the halves are differentiated between lament to praise (Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 275; Weber, Psalmen II, 42; Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 12). For instance, Walter Brueggemarm claims that the turmoil of the first-person psalmist falls away as the Collective's praise is raised towards God, who is identified as the second-person singular subject from verse 12. See Walter Brueggemarm, Israel's Praise: Doxology against Idolatry and Ideology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 138. 38 E.g. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 273. 39 E.g. Goldingay, Psalms 2, 459. lolm Emerton makes the creative proposal of amending 'n,l;ln to 'nl;lnn, which more sense of the second rendering ("This is my hope; the years of the right hand of the most high"). See lolm A. Emerton, "The Text of Psalm LXXVII 1 1", VT 44 (1994): 192-193. However, Emerton's grounds for emendation are the very same reasons for which he rejects other proposed emendations. 4 0 I envisage that double meaning is invoked on numerous occasions in P2. For example, the referent ofthird-person masculine singular (implicit) pronouns and pronominal suffixes in Psalm 78:70-72 might be to God or David or perhaps even both. Similarly, in Psalm 80:914, tiqtolverbs might refer to either the vine or the right hand ofGod. Another key ambiguity arises in the verb root jp� in Psalm 80: 15 (literally "to visit"), which could take a strongly positive ("in order to take care") or negative COIlllOtation ("in order to execute judgment") (HALOT, 955-958; BDB, 823-824). For further discussion on ambiguity generally and in Psalm 80: 15-17, see Sections 2.4 and 6.3.3 respectively. 4 1 Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 95. 4 2 Weber, Psalmen II, 42; Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 108. 43 HALOT, 319-320. 44 The alternate pointing of 'n,l;ln, deriving appwO"'w"t !lou ("sickness of me"), takes an alternate fonn in the piel when coupled "With Cl'��, rendered "to appease" or "to soften the face of' (Zech 7:2; 8:21-22).

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in the infinitive construct can take the meaning of a form of bifurcation or dou­ bling on other occasions (Gen 41 :32, Jer 2:36, Ps 34: I) 45 or the feminine plural noun "years" (cf V6)46 The paradoxical declaration of both God's abandonment and God's power­ potential for Israel opens the second hymnic half of the psalm 47 According to Jacobson, self-quotation is often used as the theological crux of a psalm and is usually followed with expressions of trust and confidence.48 Kselman claims the shift towards praise in verses 12-21 confinns the "old credo" of Exodus 34:6-7 49 Brueggemann takes a wider view of the psalm, arguing that the affir­ mation of the credo and the shift to corporate reflection "takes the mind off the hopelessness of the self', wherein lament is "recontextualized and thereby transformed" into praise." Essentially, the mutability of God is both grievous to the psalmist yet also fortuitous for the Collective, therein causing the posi­ tive change of mood from verse 12. Notwithstanding that, my central argument here is that the basis for the psalmist's trust and confidence is questionable in presuming that God is changeable and that the Collective has not changed. While there is much to agree with in Kselman's and Brueggemann's arguments, the epiphany brought about by questions of doubt in verses 8-10 results in the psalmist's declaration of God's lovingkindness (,on), favour (;r�'/;'!ln), promise (,o�), and compas­ sion (en,). These questions do not affirm that "the God who delivered the Is­ raelites from the Egyptians can deliver the psalmist in the present distress as well".51 In particular, the response of the psalmistto these questions is entirely the opposite to affinning that God is the constant and consistent saviour of the covenant people (v I I). Instead, the psalmist shapes their conception of God to incorporate random or erratic behaviour. However, it is God's response to the errant behaviour of all-Israel in the past which demonstrates that the character of God (enl) is wholly consistent in both lovingkindness and justice. In salva­ tion history, God is able to tum events in response to a change in 45 Weber, Psalmen 11, 42; Weber, Psalm 77 und sein Umfeld, 108. The infinitive form can be used as a subject in a predicate clause (Joiion, 403). n1:l� is also rendered "double" in some circumstances (cf. HALOT, 1597-1598, 1605; BDB, 1039). 4 6 Cf. HALOT, 650, 1597-1606. 47 Tate argues against the notion of a change of mood at verse l I on the basis that "these questions [in verses 9-10] hang unanswered in the psalm" and that "the recontextualisation and transformation in this psalm is incomplete; the speaker is at the threshold of a new un­ derstanding but has not entered, and the reader is left to ponder his or her own "Willingness to enter." This observation that the transformation is incomplete supports my argument that central conflict in the AP-Collection shifts towards the Collective-God cathetus in P2. 48 Jacobson, Many Are Saying, 73. 49 Kse1man, "Psalm 77 and the Book of Exodus", 53, 57. 5 0 Brueggemarm, Israel's Praise, 136-138. 5 1 Contra Kse1man, "Psalm 77 and the Book of Exodus" , 53.

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circumstances, altering the course of events through divine intervention in ac­ cordance with God's perfect character (e.g. Exod 32:1 1-14). I claim that the psalmist has not yet fully recognized that God might have already responded to a change in circumstances concerning the Collective, or at least allowed the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang to take its course (cf. Ps 8 1 : 13). It is also noteworthy that reference to God's justice is largely absent from at least the first half of Psalm 77 (cf. Exod 34:7) yet so prominent in Psalms 75:4-9 and 76:9-1 3. The psalmist's commentary on God's character emphasises lovingkindness, favour, trustworthiness, and compassion in verses 9-10 but avoids reference to forgiveness for transgressions and recompense for iniquity. Tate provides the helpful insight that the psalmist's understanding of the Collective's predicament is incomplete. 52 He observes that in verses 8-10 the psalmist is meditating on past times "when divine love and protection were evident" in contrast to the presentY In verse 1 1 , the psalmist advances their understanding that God changes, yet fails to consider why God might have re­ sponded to changed circumstances. In summary, the psalmist has managed to stop introspection by finding someone else as the random element that would upset their own world order. However, the God of the exodus is not capricious, but consistent in lovingkind­ ness and justice. The psalmist misses the latter element of God's character, principally due to the lack of reference to an Opponent. Accordingly, the trans­ formation of understanding of the Collective's predicament remains incom­ plete under the premise of divine mutability. 5. 1.3 Remembering Divine Retribution (vv 12-21) The second half of Psalm 77 presents hope in the God who is supposedly mal­ leable in the eyes of the psalmist and therefore able to effect salvation for the Collective once again. However, the temporary resolution that God is change­ able causes the psalmist to fixate again on the Opponent, as in Psalms 73-76, albeit here by allusion to cosmic elements. In verses 1 2-21, the psalmist re­ envisages the Collective as if it were in a similar situation to that of the Israel­ ites under Pharaoh's bondage, the effect being that the main conflict reverts to one that centres on divine retribution against opposing forces. While this rep­ resents the execution of divine justice as argued by Kselman (cf. Exod 34:7),54 it is justice executed against an elusive external Opponent. Notwithstanding the turmoil presented in the first half of the psalm, the psalmist presents the Collective here in right relationship with God through acts of praise of God's power (vv I2-15). This is followed by an account of a one-sided theomachy, in which divine heavenly elements trump earthly ones with allusions to the 52 53 54

Tate, Psalms 51-100, 276; cf. Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 82. Tate, Psalms 51-100, 274-275. Kselman, "Psalm 77 and the Book of Exodus" , 53, 57.

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exodus reflects the Collective's confidence in an all-powerful yet mutable God (vv I 6-21). First, the psalmist shifts the mood from deep lament through a more neutral expression towards praise. 55 This can be demonstrated with structural, lexical and syntactic evidence. In verses 12-13, the psalmist again uses key lexemes ,�! and n'i:I, indicating a significant change in discourse (cf vv4, 7). In contrast to the previous uses of these terms, there are no modal he markers in this hymn section. Also, verses 12-13 might demonstrate a "healing process",56 particu­ larly through morphological and semantic evidence. The use of the morpheme nl'l and the phonological relationship between 'nl'll (v7aa "my [mocking] song") and 'n'ln (v13a "I have meditatively muttered") are noteworthy, con­ trasting their use in lament and praise sections and thereby demonstrating the change of mood. Another example of the shift in mood is found in the term n��, which bears the root meaning of "to make an audible noise" such that it can mean in this instance "to cry out with joy" in the same way it is rendered "to cry out with lamentation" in verses 4 and 7.57 Further, the yiqtol verbs bear a durative aspect, supported in LXX which renders the verbs in verse 1 3 in the future tense. Verses 1 4-16 proclaim the powerful character of El as a holy, great, power­ ful redeemer of Jacob and Joseph." The psalmist takes up their prophetic au­ thority for the benefit of the Collective as in the Song of the Reeds (Exod 1 5 :519)." Similar to Psalm 74: 1 2-17, the psalmist recounts past salvific acts of God in an attempt to motivate God to act in the current circumstance.60 Further, the distancing of the psalmist's personal experience suspends the inner tunnoil of the psalm and instead focuses the attention of the Collective on the capacity of God to change for its benefit Second, the psalmist uses theomachy to avoid a direct petition of God for retribution against a real Opponent. After the selah discourse marker in verse 16b, there is a change of subject from God's character and actions to the ele­ ments of the cosmos as Experiencer, which experience the divine presence as Stimulus in verses 17-19. This is the first indication of there being an Oppo­ nent in the background behind the psalmist's complaint, yet this supposed

55 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 273. 56 Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 16. While Kraus claims that "'n':Ii1 in v. 12 clearly is the counterpart of 'n':Ii1 (Gk, S) in v. 7", it would give more weight to his argument that verses 12-13 evi­ dence a healing process if the two terms were phonologically related rather than assimilated, firstly as 'm':I:l ("my [mocking] song") and then as 'n':Ii1 ("I have meditatively muttered"). 57 M1l1ler, "Wurzel syh", 361-371. 58 A possible allusion to the northern kingdom, although not substantial evidence ofitself (Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 16). 59 Weber, Psalmen 11, 42. 60 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 272.

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Opponent is only implied metaphorically in the account of God's acts of supe­ rior power in the supposed Chaoskampf(vv I 7-1 9). 61 In brief, the seemingly chaotic elements ofthe waters-clouds (vI7) and earth (vI 9b) are startled at the presence, voice and light/lightning of God (cf Ps 74: 13-15). The thunderous clouds make audible (�'p v l 8ab cf v 1 9aa) and vis­ ual effects (c'o " 01 "pouring waters" v l 8aa cf T��n/c'p'::l "light/lightning" vv l 8ac, 1 9ab), similar to ancient accounts of theomachy. The supposed Cha­ oskampf adapts ANE mythology of a primeval conquest with the waters and figures of chaos by inserting God as supreme divine authority.62 However, it is also arguable that this cosmic struggle is reflective of the inner turmoil of the Collective.63 The psalm closes with a memory of how God's people were led "by the hand of Moses and Aaron" (v21 with qatal verbs) through the way of the sea and the paths of great waters (v20a), alluding again to divine intervention of the Song of the Reeds (cf VV 14-1 6)64 and the waters in the stonn theophany and theom­ achy (vv 17-19)." Weber argues rightly that the images of Moses and Aaron and that the divine footsteps (v20b) present an open conclusion to the psalm .66 Accordingly, the distress of the former-half of the psalm is forgotten in the memory of God's powerful acts in the latter-half of the psalm. However, this implies that the solution for the Collective's predicament lies squarely in God's court - it is God who must change to avenge the present but elusive Opponent, not the Collective. In this sense, Goldingay is right to claim that the psalm moves from "hopelessness to possibility".67 5.1.4 Traces of a Wider Palimpsest ofExodus In this section, the trace of the Exodus account in the theomachy of Psalm 77 is demonstrated through lexical similarities. The connection between salvation

61 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 275; Goldingay, Psalms 2, 460. For further reference to Chaoskampf, see Fritz Stolz, Strukturen und Figuren im Kult von Jerusalem: Studien zur altorientalischen, vor- und friihisraelitischen Religion, BZAW 1 1 8 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1970), 60. 62 Tate, Psalms 51-JOO, 275; citing Jo1m Day, God's Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Echoes of a Canaanite Myth in the Old Testament, ueop 35 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 96. While supporting the idea that the psalmists adapt divine inter­ vention into this account, it is in no way an even-handed match of the gods but rather as a manifestation of God's wondrous works supporting a claim to God's ultimate power in verses 12-16. 6 3 Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 16. 64 Tate, Psalms 51-JOO, 275. 6 5 Weber, Psalmen II, 43. 66 Weber, Psalmen II, 43; cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 95. 67 Goldingay, Psalms 2, 473.

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history is more prevalent than Psalm 74: 13-1 5.68 Further, the Exodus palimp­ sest in verses 16-21 extends beyond the tyranny under Pharaoh and the re­ markable exit through the Sea of Reeds (cf Ps 76:5-S) to include the Sinaitic events, namely the granting and renewing of the law and covenant. The following observations are made. First, key terms are repeated within these 6 verses, including �� (vv 1 7, I S), C'O (vv 17-IS), ll' (vv 1 7, 19), �'P (vv I S, 19), and C� (vv I 6, 21), demonstrating the importance of these terms in setting an inner inclusia and outer inclusia. Second, the cross-referencing of these and other tenns points to the strong relationship between the verses 1621 and the events at the Sea of Reeds and Mount Sinai.

68 Weber, Psalmen 11, 42-43.

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In addition, an analysis of lexemes in verses 1 6-21 with selected passages in Exodus and Deuteronomy71 reveals that the tradition of Exodus 2-4, 13, 15, 1 9-20, 32 and 34 has most lexical commonality with those verses in Psalm 77. Accordingly, the palimpsest extends beyond the Sea of Reeds to incorporate the key Sinai events; namely, the giving and renewing of the law and covenant and the golden calf incident. These events are most relevant here in terms of the hitherto absent reference to covenant obligations upon the Collective. First, the deliverance of the Israelites comes with the expectation that the Collective will listen the voice of God and preserve the covenant with God (Exod 1 9 :5). Second, the character of God in Exodus 34:6-7 lies at the heart of the Sinaitic covenant, but the psalmist overemphasises the covenant expectations of God and ignores the ramifications of covenant disobedience. 5. 1.5 Summary of Oppositions ole +

Cathetii O/G elG

+ + + +

Summary ofStructure ofPsalm 77 1 Title - for later leading Levitical group leduthun 2 Cry to God-psalmist approaches God lNith a cry and expectation that he lNill listen 3-4 Complaint - tortured memory triggers reaching out to God in double mindedness to breathlessness 4bb Selah 5-7 " Sleepless Nightmare" - troubled by God, psalmist attempts to recall past victory but fails to breathlessness 8-10 Questions of doubt - Divine negligence? Loss of covenant entitlements? Permanent divine abandonment? 10bb Selah 1 1 Prophetic answer - God has changed for unstated reasons there­ fore God might change again 12-13 Prophetic response for Collective - recalling how God acted in the past (exoous) for Goo's people 14 Expression of confidence -praise ofthe holy, great God (to motivate God to act in the present)

6 9 While elements of �9i'l �Pl?�-'�� appear in Exodus, the string does not appear in its entirety. Instead, the Collective is referred to most often as l;l�lt9: 'P (123 tokens in Exodus cf. 2 tokens in the Psalter). 70 It is noteworthy that the waters are the instrument of both divine salvation and retribu­ tion in Exodus 14-15 rather than a metaphor for opposing powers in the universe over which God triumphs (cf. vv17-l9). Accordingly, there is no true cross-reference of the lexeme in its original sense. 7 1 This test includes Exodus passages relating to the tyrarmy under Pharaoh, exit from Egypt, and the Sea of Reeds as well as the granting and renelNing of the law and covenant on Sinai (Exodus 2--6, 13-15, 19-20 and 32-34) and the synthesis of the exodus and wan­ derings in the Song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32.

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ole

Cathetii O/G

e/G

Summary ofStructure ofPsalm 77 15-16 Expression of confidence - memory of God's past acts of strength and redemption in Exodus 17-19 God is great in history - chaotic waters sub­ jected to theophanic elements causing earth to quake 20 God is great in history - Goo prepares a way by appoint­ ing Moses and Aaron to lead the people-flock

+

Legend: Cathetii "legs ofa triangle", denoting conflict between two major characters; ole conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-Collective cathetus); O/G conflict between Opponent and Collective (Opponent-God cathetus); C/G conflict between Col­ lective and God (Collective-God cathetus); +/- indication of active conflict on the respec­ tive cathetus in accordance lNith the proposed conflict taxonomy; +/- indication of signif­ icant active conflict on the respective cathetus (commentary focuses on this cathetus) =

=

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In Psalm 77, there is no direct evidence of injustice at the hand of an out-group deviant Opponent, no clear confession of sin that would cause God to withhold lovingkindness from the Collective, and no direct petition of God. Instead, the psalmist appeals to God as the victim of circumstance in deep personal grief (vv2-7). However, the rhetorical questions of God presuppose that God with­ holds favour from the Collective (vv8-1O). The tunnoil only increases while there is a random element to blame for the predicament of the psalmist The question as to responsibility for the Collective's distress remains unan­ swered. However, the psalmist finds a temporary solution to the distress with the idea that God has changed and therefore is changeable (v I I). In one sense, the psalmist is correct that God responds to changed circumstances (cf. Exod 32: 1 1 -14). However, the idea that God is mutable ceteris paribus is an incom­ plete one - God is not the random element in the Collective's world. Never­ theless, this incomplete transformation of the psalmist's understanding shifts the mood to recognise the power of God under the guise that the Collective is in a similar helpless state to that of Israel in the exodus (cf. Exod 2 :23-24). The psalmist thereby avoids introspection, which might reveal the reason for present distress (cf. Exod 19:5). In summary, the psalm is dominated by angst over broken relationship be­ tween the God as Stimulus and the Collective as Experiencer (negative rela­ tionship on the Collective-God cathetus). This conflict pattern differs substan­ tially to that in PI, in which the negative relationship on the Opponent-Collec­ tive cathetus (i.e. the wicked Opponent lording over the poor-needy Collective) caused the psalmists to reflect on the negative relationship on the Opponent­ God cathetus and positive relationship between Collective-God cathetus. This opens the Collective to a process of self-reflection as to how it and its forebears did not live up to the covenant obligations and received the same punishment as it wished upon the Opponent in P I . The latent fears of the Collective,

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expressed by the individual psalmist in verses 2-1 1 , may have been projected upon the Opponent as Stimulus (negative relationship on the Opponent-Col­ lective cathetus) in P I .

5 . 2 Inner Turmoil over Covenant Disobedience

In this section, the inner turmoil of the psalmist in Psalm 77 is compared to expressions of divine inner tunnoil in the oracles of P2. The motif of God's people calling and God inclining the ear in Psalm 77:2 is reciprocated in the divine inner turmoil - God calls and implores the Collective to listen (Pss 78: 1 ; 8 1 :6, 9) to grievances over its stubbornness, rebelliousness, and the idolatry of past and present generations of the Collective (ps 78:59-64; 8 1 : 1 2-14). First, the psalmists present an angry, raging God as Agent, whose patience finally runs out in Psalm 78 :59-66. Second, the divine oracle in Psalm 8 1 : 12-14 pro­ vides an unusual glimpse at the divine heart for God's people, in which God as Experiencer yearns for right relationship but will accept no imitations. These two contrasting examples of divine inner turmoil shift the nature of conflict in the AP-Collection from one which was essentially interested in an external Op­ ponent to one which likens the deviant nature of that Opponent with the Col­ lective itself. 5.2.1 God's Anger in Psalm 78:59-66 V

Translation

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59a

He heard, Elohim, and he was beside himself, and he despised greatly against Israe1. so that he abandoned (the) tabernacle of Shiloh; (a) tent, (in which) he had dwelt 'Nith humanity. And he gave to captivity his strength; and his splendour into (the) hand of (the new)

i�P YJO � j�9:1

62a

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64a

MT

59b 60a 60b 61a 61b

adversary.

63a 63b

He caused to close off/deliver up to the sword his people; and 'Nith his inheritance, he was beside himself. His young men, fire ate; and his virgins, they were not praised/boasted­ of (anymore),

64b 65a

his priests, with the sword, they fell; and his 'Nidows, they could not (even) weep. Then he awoke as a sleeping (one), Adonai;

Chapter 5: Inner Turmoil

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V

MT

Translation

pij�t.' "i��.f

65b

as

iin l$ " l�- Tl :i�? lOt Cl?il.i nSl iJ

66a

And he struck his adversaries (from) behind;

66b

a lasting reproach,

:J::�

a mighty warrior, who groans to himself after a night of drinking.

he prepared for them.

Legend: "sons" of Ephraim, God Psalm 78 serves as divine instruction for the Collective to reflect corporately on its own faithfulness to God by fusing historical form with sapiential pur­ pose n It is also argued to be "cultic historiography" that consolidates a fonn of collective memory for the postexilic community73 to remember God and ap­ pease divine anger?4 This pericope closes off the second account of divine an­ ger in Psalm 78, which is caused by the disobedience of the fathers of Ephraim and results in divine retribution against both their sons and, in turn, the foreign agents of divine retribution (vv32-64). The final retributory sequence commences in verse 59 with a statement about God's anger ('::l� cf. vv2la, 62b). This tenn plays a double role of not only representing the derogatory name of Israel as ascribed by other people groups generally (c" ::l� rendered "Hebrews" or perhaps "those who cross over") but also as part of God's wondrous salvific works in Joseph narrative (Genesis 39-43), the holy war traditions (e.g. 1 Samuel 4 cf. 1 Samuel 7, 13), the Passover narrative (Exod 12: 12, 23; 1 3 : 2 cf Ps 78:49-51 using alternate terms), and the crossing al the Sea of Reeds (v13a cf. Exod 1 5 : 16) 75 The divine anger in verse 59 is a response to Ephraim 's treachery, in that God greatly despises (,�o o�o) both the fathers and sons of Ephraim 76 In short, the con­ quest generation of Israel and its descendants have set itself up for divine rec­ ompense and retribution, which one would ordinarily expect to be meted out on the nations (v55). In verse 60, the succeeding account of divine retribution commences with a resultative-waw. The effect of Israel' s antagonism is divine abandonment of the tabernacle and the resting place of the ark in Shiloh, otherwise being sym­ boIs of God's presence (cf Josh 1 8 : 1 , 1 Sam 1 :24) 77 Timm claims the 72 Cf. Judith Gartner, Die Geschichtspsalmen: Eine Studie zu den Psalmen 78,105,106, 135 und 136 als hermeneutische Schliisseltexte im Psalter, FAT 84 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 201 2), 36; Beat Weber, "Psalm 78: Geschichte mit Geschichte deuten", TZ 56 (2000): 194. 73 Jacobson, Memories ofAsaph, 9. 74 Jones, "The Psalms of Asaph", 174-175; Christine Bro\VIl Jones, "Lessons Learned: Applying a Hermeneutic of Curiosity to Psalm 78", PRSt 44 (2017): 177. 75 HALOT, 778-783.

76 The use of OKO with iKO is unlikely to mean "reject", given the nature of rejection is final, and carmot take a comparative meaning. 77 Cf. Weber, Psalmen II, 49.

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psalmists interpret the Deuteronomistic understanding of the capture of the ark as divine absence due to disobedience.78 The divine abandonment of Shiloh, once the ultimate symbol of God's inheritance and presence, is analogous to the impending judgment of Ephraim, punished for its continual disobedience. The connection between divine absence and collective disobedience is crucial to the remainder of P2. Verses 61-66 account for the effect of God's withdrawal from Ephraim as a reversal of that expected by the Collective according to covenant promises. First, in verse 61 divine power is withdrawn from Israel and placed in the hand of the Opponent (,�-,,�) as the instrument of God's wrath. Second, God gives over everything under the divine domain in hot anger (vv62-64), expressed again using the normally intransitive verb ,�� in its reflexive form (v62b), which might be idiomatically rendered "he was beside himself'. All subjects and objects are ultimately at God's disposal, as indicated by the frequent use of the possessive singular third-person pronominal suffix (i.e. "his" strength, splendour, people, young men, virgins, priests, widows). Thirdly and most in­ triguingly, the mighty warrior-God awakes with a fury 1"0 p" no " �l� ("call­ ing out to himself because of [the condition of having drunk] wine") and then turns "from behind" ('1n�) to punish the instrument of divine wrath for insti­ tuting the divine retribution it was charged with undertaking (vv66). The idea of the God of lovingkindness punishing the divinely appointed punisher might seem random or erratic, but this rhetorical strategy is effective in presenting divine inner turmoil in its rawest and most aggressive form . The psalmist is in no way affinning a capricious divine nature but rather graphically depicting the painful image of the righteousness of God in full force, entering the judgment that was missing in Psalm 77. The implication is that God cannot tolerate those who wander from the path of righteousness (cf Ps 77 : 1 4a) and is compelled to expunge any trace of disobedience, assuring that God is entirely consistent in character and promise. God breaks in with violence to re-establish upright order in accordance with the everlasting promises of the covenant. This is not what the Collective expects of the Tun-Ergehen-Zusammenhang, but it is divine intervention with the purpose of instituting God's righteousness. In Psalm 78, God is reported to have taken justice into "his" own hands directly. 5.2.2 God's Yearning for an Obedient Israel in Psalm 8 1 : 12-14 MT

'�IP? '�v "O�-K� !

V 12a

Translation But it (3ms) did not listen, my people, to my voice; and Israel, it did not yield to me.

78 Hennarm Timm, "Die Ladeerzahlung (1 Sam 4-6, 2 Sam 6) und das Kerygma des deuteronomistischen Geschichtswerks", EvT 26 (1966) : 522.

Chapter 5: Inner Turmoil

134 MT

Clil� nji'i.t9::p 1j'HJ7�1$1

V 13a

Translation So I sent it out in (the) stubbofImess of their hearts; (so) they (could) walk in the marmer of their own counsels. Oh that illY people (would be/were) listening to me; Israel, in my way, (that) they would walk.

A far less violent depiction of divine inner tunnoil is presented in Psalm 8 1 in its quasi-historical synthesis of the failure of past generations to pass on the testimony of God's wondrous works that led to covenant infidelity (vv 1O-1 1 cf. Ps 7 8 : 8b, 1 8a, 37a). The psalmists attempt to re-contextualise learnings from past generations for the benefit of future generations. However, there is no generation that avoids the charge of covenant infidelity in Psalm 8 1 . In broad terms, the past and present Collective is convicted for unfaithfulness and idolatry by means of the voice of God. The divine oracle commences in verse 6 and constitutes most of the remainder of the psalm. The case against Joseph7' is presented invocatio dei on the grounds that this group, possibly representing the northern kingdom, enjoyed the benefit of God's salvation and provision but failed to demonstrate a dependence on God (vv6-8). This theme is repeated through the failure of the Collective to adhere to ordinances against idolatry (vv9-11). In the context of covenant disobedience, God resigns to the failure of the covenant people; that is, the Collective failed to listen to God's voice ( [...] �ol:i '�'p�) and yield to the divine will (,� ;r�� ,� v l 2 cf. Deut 1 3 :9, Jer 7:24). The response invocatio dei is most important. In contrast to Psalm 78:59-66, God does the opposite of intervening to set the right order in place by instead al­ lowing the stubborn hearts of Israel (cf C�� n" " I:i�)80 to follow their own advice (c;r'n'��'o� ,��,) and suffer the consequences (v 13). This is the Tun­ Ergehen-Zusammenhang in full effect - natural law coram deo, the conscious inactivity of God and divine abandonment altogether (cf. Ps 77:8-10).81 Notwithstanding this, the divine oracle presents God as yearning for and grieving over "his" own people - a rare lament from God (vI4).82 The use of

79 A case 'Nill be made for this based on the beit preposition of disadvantage in Section 7.1.2. 80 Kraus makes an interesting observation that n1jitO ("stubbornness") only appears twice outside of Jeremiah (v13 cf. Deut 29: 18), wherein the "stubbonmess" is ascribed to the heart of all generations of Israel with the objective of "bring[ing] Israel back to the way of Yah­ weh, to the precincts of his covenant and dominion" (Kraus, Psalms 2, 151). 81 Kraus, Psalms 2, 1 5 1 . 8 2 Walter Brueggemarm and William H. Bellinger, Jr., Psalms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 353.

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the onomatopoeic �� constitutes an emotional call out with a wish or desire.83 The divine cry is also found, for example, in Hosea 1 1 , where God cries in verse 8 "How can I give you up, 0 Ephraim 7". Yet the same divine voice in Hosea 1 1 : 12aa claims that "Ephraim surrounds me with lies". The psalmist presents God with anthropomorphic traits, passionately calling for the contem­ porary Collective to �ol:i ("listen" cf v 1 2) and 1�;r ("walk" cf v 1 3) in God's way. The divine discourse continues by offering covenant benefits to the Col­ lective, including the humiliation of the Opponent and provision like that for wandering Israel, on the condition that they adhere to covenant obligations (vv I 5-1 7). The obligatory divine response to disobedience is to allow Israel to disobey and suffer the consequences. God must act consistently with the divine char­ acter This is a key theological point of the AP-Collection. God is limited by being incapable of tolerating disobedience, which is consistent with the divine character of being compassionate and righteous (cf Exod 34:6-7). Accord­ ingly, Israel' s unfaithfulness causes God great distress, closing off the process of externalising enmity in P2.

5 . 3 Synopsis of Inner Turmoil

The difference between the respective moods of descriptive praise Psalm 76 and individual lament Psalm 77 is stark The psalms at the seams of PI and P2 are juxtaposed in this manner to highlight how the exaltation over the humili­ ation of Israel's Opponent is inconsistent with the principle of universal divine justice set out in Psalm 75. The celebration ofthe impending victory song for YHWH Elohim over sub­ jugated earthly rulers in Psalm 76: 1 2-13 contrasts with the individual lament of the first half of Psalm 77. The setting of downfall in Psalm 77: 1-7 is one of deep inner personal turmoil, particularly as there is no clear Opponent over whom the shadow of despair might be cast The distress experienced by the individual psalmist is caused by God (v5), who keeps eyes from sleep. The Collective's hymn of Zion is returned on the individual psalmist ('nl'll v7a cf nl'll Ps 76: l a, both of which I render "mocking song"), only to be applied as an expression of victim hood rather than of remorse. It is also possible that the echo of the mocking song serves to shame the psalmist for having taunted the Opponent only to become the taunted, sapping life and breath (v7ab-b cf v4b; Ps 137 3b). The exasperation over divine rejection comes to a climax through searching questions concerning God's will for Israel. The expressions of torment in Psalm 77 are followed by questions over God's inactivity. The psalmist cycles 83 HALOT,

521; BDB, 530.

136

Chapter 5: Inner Turmoil

between claims of God's subconscious inactivity (vv8, lOa) and conscious ac­ tion to withdraw divine presence from the psalmist, as proxy for Israel (vv9, lOb). The final question as to whether God has intentionally withdrawn com­ passion stands before the selah as a poignant rhetorical pause. Accordingly, Psalm 77 lays the foundation for P2 as an inner battle; that is, the conflict triad is shifted to focus principally on the negative relationship between the Collec­ tive and God, the brokenness of which the psalmist acknowledges as shown in the following diagram:

Collective

God

Opponent Note:

dotted line denotes the broken relationship between God and the Collective

Figure 6:

Central opposition associated with iIliler turmoil in Psalm 77

Psalm 77 resolves personal inner turmoil by shifting the conception of God to one that is mutable so that God's salvific actions in history can occur again for Israel. The precursor to this change of mood and the most poignant point in Psalm 77 is the ambiguous statement in verse 11 that God both has changed and is changeable. The corollary of this is significant - if God is changeable, then there is current hope to be found in God's past shows of strength against the matchless earthly powers (vvI2- l 6). In Section 6, I will extend Weber's argument that this double play not only opens the hymnic second half of the psalm but also serves as an interpretive key for the significant textual ambigu­ ity in P2. The AP-Collection also provides a glimpse of the heart of God, who is en­ tirely consistent in the divine nature of lovingkindness and justice. Conse­ quently, the anger of God bums in reaction to covenant disobedience against both object and agent of retribution (Ps 78:59-66), yet God also yearns for the

Synopsis ofInner Turmoil

137

Collective to return to walk in the righteous paths set before them CPs 8 1 1214). The AP-Collection provides a unique view of not only the covenant people lamenting but also the covenant God lamenting. The aim ofthis chapter was to demonstrate thatthe Collective's expectations of God in PI have not been met and vice versa. The distance between God and the Collective is represented by the conceptual chasm between the Collective's belief that God is mutable and God's yearning for the Collective to tum and follow in God's righteous paths. In the next chapter, it is argued that the psalm­ ists project inner turmoil onto past generations of Israel, fixing blame upon them for the predicament the Collective now faces. By maintaining its own innocence, the Collective seeks to remove the perceived distance between God and it By contrast, the external Opponent plays a more peripheral role in P2.

Chapter 6

Blamefixing - Maintaining Innocence through Blaming the Fathers ("P2a")

The main argument of this chapter is that the psalmists and redactors seek to manage the Collective's inner turmoil over divine absence and Opponent pres­ ence by concentrating in the middle of the AP-Collection psalms that deflect blame onto past generations of the covenant community. By identifying the deviant within the in-group and treating it as an out-group, the Collective main­ tains its self-perception of innocence and is therefore able to call upon God to inflict divine retribution. In Psalms 78-80, the brokenness of the relationship between God and generations of Israel is emphasised, which has become ap­ parent in that the Collective is oppressed at the hand of the nations and neigh­ bouring inhabitants (pss 79: 1 b-4, 7, 10; 80: 13-14 cf. Ps 78 :59-64 referring to past generations). The servitude of Israel is not consistent with the Collective's understanding that God has regard for it, as was the case when they were in bondage under Pharaoh (cf. Exodus 2:23b-24; 3:7-9, 1 5-17). Nevertheless, the psalmists maintain that God is faithful in that they continue to petition for divine protection and provision (Pss 79: 8-9, 1 1 ; 80:3-4, 8, 15a, 20 cf. Ps 78:34-35 referring to past generations). By reading these psalms in sequence as part of the AP-Collection, the implication is that someone else has brought distress upon God's people, namely Ephraim in Psalm 78, the fathers of iniq­ uity in Psalm 79, and the vine out of Egypt in Psalm 80. Holding someone else responsible is evidence of the breakdown of the Tun­ Ergehen-Zusammenhang, which Koch argues does not take into account the blood-guilt aspect (cf. blamefixing) found in (earlier) Deuteronomistic history (e.g. Judges 9; 2 Sam 1 6 : 8, 2 1 : 3 1-33) 1 However, the passing on of responsi­ bility for collective sin is prevalent in the Pentateuch's revelation of the divine character of God (e.g. Exod 20:5 cf. Exod 34:7; Num 1 4: 1 8; Deut 5:9) and the golden calf incident (Exod 32:34), which are pivotal in the palimpsest of the book of Exodus and pervade the AP-Collection from Psalm 74 to this point Nevertheless, the implication is that God allows for calamity to occur in the natural order of events as a form of recompense for failing to walk in upright paths. Misdeeds have consequences for future generations (ps 8 1 : 13).

1 Koch, "Gibt es ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testament?", 85-86.

140

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

The Psalter's second-longest text, Psalm 78, is essentially a character con­ trast between the faithfulness of God and the unfaithfulness of Ephraim, rep­ resented by the fathers of the exodus, wanderings, and conquest (vv 1 7-20, 22, 40-42, 56). It also makes the connection between character and consequence; that is, the unfaithfulness of the fathers of Ephraim is passed onto their sons, who not only "pulled back" (1�;r) in the battle (vv9 cf. I Samuel 4, 3 1 ; 2 Kings 17; Hos 1 0 : 1 4) but also succumbed to idolatry (vv57-58) 2 This expression serves as a Deuteronornistic explanation for the suffering of their descendants at the hand of God .' The exilic reflections of Psalm 79 emphasise the contemporary Collective's innocence and victirnhood in the aftermath of Jerusalem's downfall, which oc­ curred due to the sins of past generations. The Collective and its city are vic­ tims of the external Opponent's malice (vv l b-3, 7), and the Opponent assumes that God is absent and incapable of action (v l Oa cf. Pss 73: I I ; 74:22-23). The psalmists call on God to redirect the heinous acts, which are recounted in the psalm, against the Opponent (vv6, l Ob, 12). More importantly, the Collective's ability to make such imprecation towards God is that its ancestors' iniquities were the supposed cause of its suffering, as if there were a connection between the acts of its forebears and the calamity (vv8-9). Accordingly, Psalm 79 rep­ resents the devastation of the sons of Judah in a similar manner to that of the sons of Ephraim in Psalm 78:59-64. In Psalm 80, the psalmists blame God for not living up to expectations of the present shepherd, causing the Collective's predicament However, past generations of Israel are also implicated in the contemporary Collective's pre­ dicament, particularly the "vine out of Egypt" representing past generations of the exodus, wandering, conquest, and monarchic epochs, planted by God but (over)growing itself. By highlighting the wild nature of its spread and the fact that God allowed it to be destroyed by the (metaphorical) Opponent, the psalm­ ists unwittingly call on God to examine past generations and by implication the contemporary Collective for their covenant faithfulness (or rather lack thereof). Similar to n1lli in Psalm 77: I I , there is a double meaning, I will argue, behind the petition for divine visitation (,p� v 15b cf v 16), consistent with the ten­ dency to find Psalm 80 as ambiguous 4 The psalmists' petitioning of God to 2 Cole, Book III, 64 . Cf. Psalm 77:3 use OfJKO. 3 Mark Leuchter, "The Reference to Shiloh in Psalm 78", HUCA 77 (2006): 3 1 . By con­ trast, Antony Campbell dates the psalm to the tenth century BCE and finds that it contains Deuteronomistic prototypes rather than as a product ofthe so-called Deuteronomistic school which is re-actualised for the psalmist's O\VIl era. See Antony F. Campbell, "Psalm 78: A Contribution to the Theology of Tenth Century Israel", CBQ 4 1 (1979): 73-74. I argue that the question of how the text reflects Deuteronomistic theology is less important that the unresolvable conflict between God and Ephraim. 4 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 3 1 5; Hee S. Kim, "A Critique Against God? Reading Psalm 80 in the Context of Vindication" in Why? ... How Long? Studies on Voicers) of Lamentation

Psalm 78

141

examine the vine could imply that God might either care for poor-needy Israel or judge the vine which spread beyond its confines, as synecdoche for stubborn and rebellious past generations (cf. Ps 7 8 : 8a, 17b, 40a, 56a). In a similar manner to Psalm 77, the external Opponent plays a more periph­ eral role in Psalms 78-80. By contrast, the central opposition in Psalms 78-80 is found between God and past generations of God's people, evidenced by the absence of text relating to their character and the use of the Opponent as both the agent and object of divine wrath. The splitting of generations between the guilty and the innocent complicates the proposed taxonomy of power relations because the deviance of the Opponent and Israel become one and the same. The centre of the AP-Collection opens a didactic dimension, which becomes the foundation for the remainder of the AP-Collection's program of "religious education of the people" .' Psalms 78-80 play a critical role in this program . The fathers of Israel were granted covenant promises yet unknowingly shared the same deviant qualities as the Opponent. Past generations ofIsrael can serve as the metaphorical mirror in which future generations can see the faults of their forebears and recognise them in themselves. In the middle of the AP­ Collection, the contemporary Collective finds every other means available to it to avoid the painful recognition that it too is complicit in the cause of its own suffering. This is the necessary precursor to attaining covenant benefits under Deuteronomistic theology.

6 . 1 Psalm 78

The form and geme of Psalm 78 is essentially mixed in that it is written by an authorised individual for God's people with an historical interest' The original setting is a reflection on Ephraim, which might refer to the loss of the ark at the Shiloh temple (implied in 1 Samuel 4),7 the temple dedication by Solomon (1 Kgs 8 : 1 6),8 reflections on the fall of the northern kingdom in the time of Hezekiah or during Josiah's reforms' or by the exilic community "provid[ing] a negative answer to the question: Will history repeat itself?".l0 Without being Rooted in Biblical Hebrew Poetry, ed. LeArm S. Flesher, et al., LHB 552 (New York: T&T Clark, 2014), 1 1 1; Andrew D. Streett, The Vine and the Son of Man: Eschatological Interpretation ofPsalm 80 in Early Judaism (MiIllleapolis: Fortress, 2014), 16. 5 Buss, "Asaph and Korah", 385. 6 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 286; Kraus, Psalms 2, 122. 7 Cf. Holtmarm, " Spiegel der Geschichte Israels (Teil 1)", 59-60. 8 Campbell, "Psalm 78", 60-62. 9 Leuchter, " Shiloh", 3 1 ; cf. Weber, "Psalm 78", 209, 2 1 1 . 10 Adele Berlin, "Psalms and the Literature of Exile: Psalms 137, 44, 69 and 78" in The Book of Psalms: Composition and Reception, ed. Peter W. Flint and Patrick D. Miller, VTSup 99 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 8 1-82; cf. Jones, "Lessons Learned", 176; Judith Gartner,

142

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

constrained to a particular setting, the majority position holds the psalm as a Deuteronornistic reflection on salvation history.u Psalm 78 plays a pivotal role in the AP-Collection in that it complicates the conflict patterns by distinguishing between generations of Israel and between two distinct yet peripheral external Opponents. The contemporary Collective shelves responsibility for its own plight by heaping blame on the failures of past generations. This section concentrates on the way specific [OnTIS of con­ flict are complicated by intergenerational deflection and by the purpose of fix­ ing blame as part of a "theology of catastrophe" 12 Psalm 78 incorporates a fundamental shift in theological understanding as to what constitutes the peo­ ple of God and how that people ought to honour its God. It is not an echo of previous calls to torah-piety and Davidic kingship but incorporates both themes with a fine thread; that is, God cannot tolerate Israel's past disobedi­ ence and has therefore appointed the line of David as the human agent of the divine shepherd (vv70-72 cf Ezek 3 4 : 1 5). First, attention will be drawn to the Collective-God and Opponent-God ca­ thetii, particularly the generational distinction between the guilty and the inno­ cent of God's people. In general, the fathers serve as deviant-Agent and an internal Opponent, whereas the sons claim victim-Patient status and a right to identify with God's flock Second, the principal opposition is between two cor­ responding Agents being God and the rebellious fathers of Ephraim, evidenced by the psalm ' s repetitive structure and divine subject substitution in the body of the psalm. The primary purpose of this opposition is to emphasise the con­ trast between divine faithfulness and fallibility of the fathers as grounds for the divine indictment against unfaithful generations of Israel (vv l O, 37 cf Ps 74:20), consistent with Pavan's findings on the purpose of the psalm 13 Third, the external Opponent of Psalm 78 is essentially two enigmatic figures as Pa­ tients that play the peripheral role of collateral damage14 in the prophetic and "From Generation to Generation: Remembered History in Psalm 78" in Remembering and Forgetting in Early Second Temple Judah, ed. Ehud Ben Zvi and Christoph Levin, FAT 85 (Tiibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012), 276. 11 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 300. 12 Weber, "They Saw You, The Waters", 1 14. 1 3 Cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 257, 269. Pavan argues cogently that this contrast constitutes the solution to the riddle of Psalm 78, in conjunction with the elec­ tion of Judah. Throughout this chapter, I 'Nill advance that the riddle effectively continues beyond Psalm 78 throughout the remainder of P2, wherein the critique of Ephraim is also made against all-Israel, including Judah. 14 By collateral damage, I take its colloquial meaning of making a punitive attack on a particular deviant target which results in devastation well beyond that target, among those not directly involved. For a formal definition, see Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson, eds., Concise Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 280. I would apply the term in this psalm to the relational battle between the Ephraim and God, particularly its effect on the surrounding nations. The term "nations" ('1:1, first used in AP in

Psalm 78

143

sapiential program to renew the faithfulness of the Collective and its descend­ ants. In particular, the second external Opponent takes the expendable roles of both Instrument (v61 cf. Ps 77:Sa) and Patient (v6S) of God's wrath. 6. 1 . 1 Translation

MT

V

�9�7 �,��o 'Dlin ' ;W r j'Jt'il$jJ

laa lab

'�-'!.�I.(� Cl:;;l �rl$ mjJ

lb

I;l��� j'JiJr;1��

2a

:CllP.-'�� nii'r:T j'J¥'�1.( ClP.l�l 1:l¥O� i�1$ : 1:l?-1i�O 1:l'lJi��l liir,T1.( iii7 ClV'��� liO;l� 16

2b 3a 3b 4aa

j'J)j'J; ni!;ljJr;1 Cl'l�O� " �iK���l imp.l :j'J�¥ i�1$ � Pl?�� � 1i P. ClP.:l

4ab 4ba 4bb 5aa

I;l�l�:� Cl� j'Jlinl 1:l'lJi�l$-n � j'Jl:$ i�1$ :CljJ'.��� Cl¥'lij'J� ""T 1" 07 1i�1: Cl'�il liir,T1.( ii., : ClV'��� 1i�O'1 1of':

5ab 5ba 5bb 6aa 6ab 6b

Cl?9:;:l Cl'jJ·I;lK:;;J 1O' ¢':1

7aa

��-'�7 " 0 ; n,,�, K� ! :1i:S�: " �i:$ 0 1

7ab 7b

ClQi�l$;l 11';;7: Kl;ll

Saa

j'Jlb1 ilio ii.,

Sab

'�

Translation A piece-of-lNisdom (belonging) Asaph, Give your ear toward, my people, my instruc­ tion; stretch out your (pI.) ear to (the) utterances of my mouth. I shall open lNith (the) proverbial-saying my mouth; I shall cause to gush forth allusive-riddles of old, which we heard and knew, them; and (the) fathers of us, they told (them) to us, we shall not conceal them from khe sons o� hem, for a eneration of Aaron, the armouncements, the praises of YHWH; and his strength and his wondrous works, which he did. For he caused to keep-testimony/set-Iaws in Ja­ cob and instruction, it was set in Israel, which he commanded our fathers· to cause them to know, the �onsl ofthem, so that they would know, IfIlturegeneration, son� to be born; they would be raised up and they would pro­ claim to the � of them, and (so that) �would cause to set, in Elohim, confidence of them, so that � would not forget (the) deeds of EI; and the commandments of him, �would pre­ serve, so that it would not happen, as (with the) fathers of� - ageneration a stubborn and rebelling(one)-

verse 55) are ostensibly used by God for the ultimate benefit of future generations, initially as instrument and then as object of\Vfath. This is not to exonerate the nations but to demon­ strate the subjectivity lNith which the nations are portrayed in AP.

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

144 MT

V

Translation

i�� l'�j: n::I;l "i"

8ba

a generation !!. did not cause to establish (the) heart of ll;

:inji I;l�-n� j1�9�.p::1;l1

8bb

and she was not faithful to EI, the mind-spirit of

!t.

9a

Sons of Ephraim, equipped ones, casting ones (of) the bow;

9b

they turned (back) in the day of the fight-ap­ proach.

Cl';:T·I;l� n'l� 1j�� KI;l :n�?? 1:J1$� inl in�1

lOa

They did not keep the covenant of Elohim;

lOb

and in the instruction of walk.

" Qil;l,�p' 1n:P�:1 : Cll;\liJ j�1$ " QiK?��l

lla

And tl!a forgot the deeds of him;

1 1b

and the being-wonders of him, which he caused them to see.

K?� j'J�¥ ClQi�1$ j �� : ] p:s-;!"']t9 Cl:l�� n.�:p Cl!.'�l?:l 0; l.ii?:P

him, tl!a refused to

he did a wonder;

l2a

Before their fathers

l2b

in (the) land of Egypt, the field ofZoan.

13a

He divided-split (the) sea and he caused them to pass through;

Cl�i' It¥� Cl :q:l 1: :�� iiK::P j'J?;�jJ-l;l�l j:Pl�� Cl'j.� l.i�::;J; :jl:Pl nio;,r;'I-=p i?�:l l.i�9� Cl'�)'i:l K�i'l :Cl:9 nii Q p ii.i' )

13b

and he caused to stand (the) waters like a heapdam.

14a

And he caused to lead in (the) cloud by day;

14b

and every night in (the) light of fire.

15a

He divided-split rocks in the "Wilderness; and he provided drink like great floods. And he caused to bring out flows from the crag; and he caused (them) to go do\VIl, as streams of

15b 16a 16b

waters

il;l-K�[J� iil.i 1�'Oi'1

17a

But tl!a still caused to increase-continue sin­ ning against him;

:j'J::$� li'?P. nij9�

17b

causing to rebel against the most-high One in the desert.

O???� ��-'Ol:1 'O��l? �:-c�

20b

Translation Could

he

cause lO establish flesh for

his peo-

l!k?" ";lV�:l "I": "Oli 'P'?

21aa

Therefore he heard himself,

'en "��i ��1

21ab

and, a fire, she was kindled against Jacob;

.

YHWH, and he was beside

' � �i�:;> ,,'?¥ ��-c )] CI,,'�I(� 1�1 � \.iiJ K I;l I:;J

21b

and also, a nose, it went up against Israel.

22a

Because � did not cause to have faith in Elo-

,in¥,,;';> m �;> K�1 �V� 0 c ' PQ� '�:I ,nQ� c:O� '0'?11

22b

�O�7 19 Cy'7� "�9:1

24a

, i o ,? 1 01 c :eli-Pl'

24b

him; 23a 23b

and tl:!..a did not trust in his salvation.

he ordered dust cloud(s) from above; he opened. And he caused to rain dow'n on them manna to Yet

and the doors of (the) heavens, eat; and grain of (the) heavens.

he gave to them.

1D1� 1;l;J\" C'1'�t' CO'?

25a

Bread of the strong ones he ate. each man;

,";>�'? c,,? n71i "T�

25b

provision.

C� I?'F:;:I C'li? S1��

26a

(Then) he caused to pull out an east wind in the heavens;

.

he sent to them for � saiety.

: 11('D 1"�il JjJJ;)

26b

and he drove in his power a south wind.

.,�� "�¥i' c,'7� "�O:l

27a

And he caused to rain down on them like dust, flesh;

' �If �i" c 'O: �in;>'

27b

and as sand of (the) seas, a bird of wing.

'''me 'lP? ��'I

28a

And he caused it to fall in (the) midst of its camp;

" 'Ql'�O'? " ;>9

28b

around its tabernacles.

'"0 '"'�:I '�.K'I

29a

And !M.Y. ate and !M.Y. were sated greatly;

' C O'? K;>: c�l�nl

29b

and their yearning-desire, them.

CQI�o 'TK�

30a

They had not tlUlled aside/estranged themselves from their yeaming-desire;

he caused to bring to

'CO'�. c,?;>� ,iP IC';:J"'� �t'1

30b

still, their food

31aa

CO" Q��:P )�i;I�) CO:;J ;J?V

3 1 ab

When a nose-anger ofElohim iI/he went up against them and iUhe slew against

,V'i." ��i�: '1m,;

3 1b

and the young men of Israel, down.

'inK�Q nK'-�'? ''QiK ' '?�i' "'o�;;r-K�1

32a

In (spite of) all this , !h£.Y missed the mark again;

32b

and � did not put their faith in his wondrous works.

l;l�iJyl;l;l;l

33a

Then he finished in (the) space/vanity of (the) days of them:

CQ't;; ;

(was) in!l!m mouth.

(the) fat-portly (ones) of them;

he caused to bow

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

146 MT

V

Translation

:j'J?y�� Cl�i:J�1

33b

and their years in the sudden-disaster/acute-ill­ ness.

1j'J1�ll1 Clnr,n::J 1.( : l;l tnj [lt91 1��1 Cll1::S Cl';:T·I;l�-':p ji:pr:l '07 �; 1 1'7 � ��! ClV'�:P 1mn�:1

34a

When he slew them then .tl:!&y sought him;

34b

.!J!a turned and sought after EI. So tl!a remember that Elohim (was) their rock; and EI, the most-high One, (was) their redeemer. But tl!a falsely-persuaded him with their

35a 35b 36a

mouth;

dn�p; Cl�i�7�1

36b

and (the) tongue of them (repeatedly) lied to

i�� li:lP(1;l Clil�l

37a

Because (the) heart of them (was) not estab­ lished lNith him;

:in'l�:p m��� Kl;ll li¥ j�;J; ICljnl 1(1j'J1

37b

and tl!a were not faithful in his covenant.

38aa

But he (is) compassionate, sion(s),

him.

n'r:T��-Kl;ll is\.( :l'�Q? j'Jili,m :in�l,l-l;lfl -l'�:-Kl;ll j'J�jJ -'��-':P jjr:l ::l1�; Kl;ll l�ij'J 01) "fll�� 1j'J11 �� j'J��

he covers transgres­

38ab

and he does not cause to destroy,

38ac

and he causes (himself) to become great the turn­ ing-lNithholding of his nose-anger;

38b

and he does not stir up all of his heat.

39a

So he remembers that flesh, tl!a (are like);

39b

a breath/lNind which goes - it does not return.

40a

How much did tl!a cause to be rebellious against him in the wilderness;

: Jit:l'�':p 1j'J1:l'�l?�

40b

(How much) did tl!a cause to aggrieve (the) desert region.

I;lt( 10�;1 1:l1�:1 :1'�;:T l;l�lt9: �iji?1

41a

Because tl!a returned and tl!a tested EI;

41b

and (the) grieve.

him in

holy (one) ofIsrael, tl!a caused to ag­

ij;-n� ji:;:rK!;l

42a

They did not remember

:j �-'�� Cll�-"i:.i� Cli'

42b

(a) day, on which an adversary,

1'QinK Cl:l�t.'� Cl�-j�1$ : 1 P:S-;ll�::p " Q�it:l1 CliJ'l.K; Cl"'J7 lb!,l:l

43a

on which he had set in Egypt his signs

43b

and his wonder/portents in the field of Zoan.

44a

(Then) blood;

his hand-power; he had redeemed them from

he turned their canals (of the Nile) to

:J1'Q�:-I;l:;J Clry'� rjl Cl�:;n('l :l'1¥ CliJfl n��;

44b

and their tricklings, they could not drink.

45a

He sent in them (the) insect and they ate (at)

:CllJ'r:Tt9lJl Pll��1 Cl?1:l; t;,' 01J ? 10:1 : Cl¥'�'l ! j1in\.(?

45b

them; and (the) frog, she caused them to (be) spoil(ed).

46a

And he gave for the cockroach yield of soil;

46b

and (the) product of their labour to the locust.

Psalm 78 v

MT

Cl�l 'I.� '''Q� '�C1Q� cQ'o��1 CI'�. " .� '10')

473

147 Translation

He slew with the hailstones (the) vine of them;

47b

and their sycamore trees with sleet.

483

He caused to close off/deliver up in the

hail-

stones their cattle;

,C'�ji17 c"Wo; P'Q [c;>-n��:

'S�

nl�1 em nl�� ,e'�l '��'1c nn��c 's�'1 �'nl D��: e��l nl�C '1�n-K� " '19n '�1� eQ:nl

48b

and their livestocks to the flames.

49aa

He sent against them (the) anger of his nose,

49ab

fury, accursedness and distress;

49b

an envoy of (such) sinister messengers.

50aa

He levelled out a pathway for his anger he had not withheld from death their nephes; and their life to the pestilence, he had caused to

50ab 50b

close offldeliver-up. 5i3

And he caused to smite all the first-born in Egypt;

5 1b

the first of the familial-powerslvirility/vigor in the tents ofHam(-Egypt).

52a

Then he caused to pull out, like a flock, his peo-

1!1g : '+'l�� 'l P;> c�i,l;) ;) ;'Q� K�1 n��7 C O l ) '

52b

and he drove them as a herd in the wilderness.

53a

And he caused to lead them in trustworthiness so that � did not tremble;

53b

but (the ones) making enemies (i.e. Egypt) "With them, he covered (over with) the sea.

54a

And he caused them to come to the border of his holiness/holy territory;

54b

a mountain of this (one), she/(the) right­ side/power acquired of him.

55aa

He expelled, from the faces of t.hem (the) na­ tions,

"'(0' "�IJ-il C?'��l

55ab

:"\'51�� 'Q� � CO'�V�-il P��)

55b

li'7� c'''''' �rnt;\ 1"1!?:) 10;);)

56a

But � tested and � caused to rebel (against)

EJohim, the most-high One; and his testimony, .!:hsY did not preserve.

:1'1fr;; 1'6

and he caused. for them, to fall in (a) measuring rope, an inheritance; and he caused to dwell in the tents of them the tribes of Israel.

" Q 1i Pl

56b

c Q 1::�� 1' ��:) 1:l0:)

57a

So they were disloyal and dealt treacherously, like their fathers;

:";rt'l n �p..f 1�!f;;T�

57b

they were turned (pulled) back, like a bow of looseness.

ct;i1c�� 1i110'!;�:)

58a

And they caused to aggrieve him with their high places;

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

148

V

MT

Translation

: 1j11K'�i?� ClV'�'O��1

58b

and 'Nith their graven images, they caused to be punitive-jealous.

i;Wll') tl'''?� YJI;Ip

59,

He heard, Elohim, and he was beside himself,

'?�'ft" � iktl O�I:l')

59b

and he despised greatly against Israel.

;�l�l:l �b')

60,

so that he abandoned (the) tabernacle of Shiloh;

,tl1:t9 p� ?;,k

60b

(a) tent, (in which) he had dwelt with hmnanity.

ill) '�W71D')

6"

And he gave to captivity his strength;

'�-i�� 1llj�0l11'

61b

and his splendour into (the) hand of (the new) adversary.

il:lp �'T17 iWJ

62,

He caused to close off/deliver up to the sword his people; and with his inheritance, he was beside himself

him

,i;Wll;r i1l7DP1

62b

'ti�-;;7�� " I1t1�

63,

His YOtmg men, fire ate;

,1?71;r k? " J;l?1ll�'

63b

and his virgins, they were not praisediboasted-of (anymore),

his priests, with the sword, they fell;

'�f Ylll� " ftij

64,

,;r}'::pll k? " DiI:l?�'

64b

and his widows, they could not (even) weep.

'li� I)�:� WJ

65,

Then he awoke as a sleeping (one), Adonal;

' 1 ':1:l p1"111l:lj'�p

65b

as a mighty warrior, who groans to himself after a night of drinking.

iin l;\ " l�-Tl ,107 10, 07W OSlo �o. i' !;l OK::jl o\'(�:l :jiJ� KI;l Cl:l�� ��\:i�1

66a

And he struck his adversaries (from) behind;

66b

a lasting reproach,

67a

And he rejected against (the) tent of Joseph;

67b

and against the tribe of Ephraim, choose.

he prepared for them. he did not

;111;-'; �;J\:i-n� jlJ�:l :�jJl$ j�l$ li':;I: jjJ-n� i�li?� Cl't.'Tio:p ];1:1

68a

But he chose [the) tribe ofJud8ij,

68b

(and the) mountain of Zion, which he loved.

69a

And he built, like (the) high places, ary/holy-place;

,07W7 "19: n�"

69b

like (the) earth, mote (time).

i"�P in:p jlJ�:l :JK:S nK?:;J�� 1jHJi(:1 iK'�V ni!;l:; jlJ\'( �

70a

And he chose in David his servant;

70b

and he took him from the paddocks of a flock.

71aa

From behind the suckling-mothering (ones), caused to bring him

it:lP �Pl?�:P nil.il� :in?m I;lWIt9:�1 i��7 Clii:p c PT l

71ab

in order to tend among Jacob,

71b

and among Israel,

72a

And he tended heart;

:Clm� " �� ni:l1�D�1

72b

and lNith the gentleness of hands, he would cause to lead

I

his sanctu­

he had established her for a re­

he

his � his inheritance.1

�

lNith iIlllocence (of)

Iili i

P ms of em.

his his

Legend: "fathers" of Ephraim, "sons" of Ephraim, kimplicit) sons of JudaJ1l God, God/David Note: Reduced-sized text is repeated from Section 5.2 . 1 .

Psalm 78

149

6. 1.2 Deviance a/Groups within Israel and the Conflict Model The psalm ·s central opposition between God and the fathers of Israel compli­ cates the tri-partite model of the key characters of the Psalter. Whereas it is common to analyse psalms using God-You. Opponent-They. psalmist/Collec­ tive-I/We categories." the psalmist adds generations ofboth the Collective and the Opponent. so that there is generational interplay among all-Israe!.16 The psalmist partitions all-Israel into generations and kingdoms of God·s people. including the fathers of Ephraim. sons of Ephraim. and in effect the sons of Judah. These groups do not correspond exactly to specific generations of biblical events or epochs.17 Instead, the psalmist uses these generations as sub-groups within the conception of all-Israel: the fathers of Ephraim as the deviant; their sons as victim of their father's failure, deviant in their own right; and the sons of Judah as a distinct generation, for which divine promises to Israel continue. 18 Encounters with God are set out by the psalmist for a didactic rather than historical purpose, namely to explain character flaws, defective faith in God. and the flow-on effect for future generations. The psalmist uses subsidiary cathetii (shown as the outer triangles in the table below) as a means to demonstrate how broken relationship with God has consequences for future generations. which are distinct from the identity of the contemporary Collec­ tive. In addition. the external Opponents are both subject to divine retribution. Whereas the first external Opponent (Egypt) is the means by which God demonstrates divine power and benevolence towards the Israelites, the second external Opponent also serves as agent of retribution. The following diagram shows additional tensions within the Collective·s historical concept of all-Israel; that is. there is an internal Opponent (Ephraim. particularly its fathers) as well as an external Opponent (v61) of equal devi­ ance. The intergenerational aspect of this psalm allows the contemporary Col­ lective to pass off its negative characteristics onto past generations.19 In short, the fathers of Ephraim and their idolatrous sons are the deviant past generations of Israel. It is deviance within historical Israel that serves as the real Opponent of the whole Collective in Psalm 78. The Judahites. with whom the Collective 1 5 Westennarm, Psalms 2, 174. 16 According to Pav8l1, the interplay between generations is a fonn of "displacement" whereby the consciousness ofthe Collective is invoked as "full contemporaries" through the recapitulation of the memory of past generations (Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 272). The psalmists present their case against all-Israel by way ofthis literary device. Memory is then the means for the purpose of teaching the Collective to honour God "With obedience to divine commandments "Without ceasing. 17 Pavan also rightly notes that the nature of historical references is often "indeterminate"

(Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 259). 18 Weingart, "Juda als Sachwalter", 456, footnote 63. 1 9 Cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 346.

ISO

Chapter 6: Blameflxing

would have associated, retain their purity and innocence before God by casting sin onto an intergenerational scapegoat. §

Primary opposition for fathers' unfaithfulness

'"

-----��, __

�---c -----� IS $ 0 .

0

r::- � I:r

__

___ ___ ___

--

-

¢Y

Fathers of Ephraim

-

(wilderness/conquest)

(vv8, 12-57) Sons of Ephraim (northern kingdom) (w9-1 1, 56-64) Sons of Judah (c . southern kingdom!

Col ective) (wl-7, 67-72)

Opponent (Pharaoh) Figure 7:

Diagram of the complex tri -partite conflict model in Psalms 78-80

Importantly, the term "Ephraim" serves as a metonym for being rebellious (v8a) in Psalm 78.20 First, verses 57-58 demonstrate that the pattern of idol worship of the fathers of Ephraim (cf. Exodus 32) recurs in the high places and graven images of the sons.21 The sons also endure God's wrath by being left to their own devices (v60a), as God abandons the divine tabernacle dwelling place in Shiloh (v60b), 22 and by suffering at the hand of a new adversary (vv61-64). 20

Cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 281, 294. References to high places and graven images are particularly prominent in the accounts between the time of the fall of the northern kingdom (2 Kings 18) and the reign of Josiah (2 Kings 22), which suggests that the setting may be that of the fallen northern kingdom. Given the intended audience of the psalm is then limited to a Judah-based conception of Israel, I contend that Ephraim represents more than the northern kingdom, in particular the inclina­ tion of all God's people to miss the mark cf. Cole, Book 111, 72. Accordingly, it is possible that both of terms "Jacob" and "Israel" in verses 5, 21 and 71 also refer to the northern kingdom. 22 Cf. Weber, Psalmen 11, 49. Shiloh is the place settled for the keeping of the ark of the covenant after the conquest during the apportionment of inheritance among the tribes of 21

Psalm 78

lSI

Second, while the name Israel appears as a parallel term for both the sons of Ephraim and future generations (vv5-7, 71),23 the reference to Ephraim is one which is exclusively negative. The figures of Joseph and his son Ephraim (cf Num 1 : 10, 32; 26:28), synonymous with the rebellious northern kingdom, its pre-monarchic tribes (1 Sam 4 : 1 0) and Saul (1 Sam 3 1 :7),24 are rejected and not chosen for God's dwelling place nor for future promises of leadership and protection (v67). Ephraim becomes the label representing the stubborn and re­ bellious character due to its failure to trust in divine provision (Hos 1 3 :4-6 cf Ps 78 : 1 2-16, 23-29).25 The labelling of Ephraim as deviant bifurcates (cf Ps 77: 1 1 ) all-Israel into disobedient and compliant generations. The use of Ephraim for this purpose then limits the extent of divine wrath to the northern kingdom, paving the way for the Collective to distance its self-perception of innocence from such deviance.26 Finally, it is important to note that the commentary on the deviance of Ephraim is presented by a leader who concurrently invokes the right to indict God's people while also reporting on divine activity in biblical-historical events through the voice ofthe narrator-psalmist27 By referring to "my people" (,o� v I cf 2 Sam 22:44 of David)28 and "my instruction" (v I cf Deut 32:2 'np� of Moses), the narrator-psalmist assumes the same authority granted to divinely appointed leaders of God's people.29 The opening invocation is given in the first-person (singular in vv l -2, corporatised in vv3-4a) with the purpose of establishing a means for the education of future generations about the

Israel (J osh 18: 1, 1 Sam 1 :24), where God had dwelt lNith Israel (v60b having a pluperfect sense). The reference to Shiloh and the captivity may provide a textual link for the motif of God's abandonment, particularly the capture ofthe ark of the covenant by the Philistines (1 Sam 4: 11) as well as the invocation of the image of the destruction of Shiloh by the Philis­ tines in c. 1050 BCE for apostasy, unfaithfulness and divine absence from God's people in Jeremiah's prophecies concerning Jerusalem (Jer 7:12, 14; 26:6, 9) (Berlin, "Literature of Exile", 79). 2 3 Thomas Rieke, '''Weitergabe des Glaubens' (Ps 78,1-8 ) : Versuch zu Syntax und Struktur von Ps 78", BN 78 (1995): 50. I accept Rieke's argument that this addresses the Collective (past and present) as a whole only to the extent that the covenant expectations are common across all generations. It is not a direct admonition of the sons of Judah (cf. the Collective) but rather a warning (vvl-7). 24 Cf. Weingart, "Juda als Sachwalter", 451-452. 2 5 Weingart, "Juda als Sachwalter", 456. 26 Gartner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 99-102. 27 Cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 272. 28 This term, rarely used by a human leader in RB, is most often cOIlllected lNith God as the first-person possessor. 2 9 Cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 271-272. Pavan rightly adds that the invocation of the songs of Moses and David echoes the thrust ofthe psalm; that is, as testi­ mony against the disobedience ofthe fathers and instruction to follow righteous paths.

152

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

strength and wondrous works of God in the past (v4b cf. vv5-8).30 Throughout the remainder ofthe psalm, an account of biblical history is presented with God as the third-person principal agent of past events so as to "expose a hidden aspect of the historical traditions".31 At the close of the psalm, the deictic ref­ erence of the third-person singular pronoun shifts to the Davidic figure (vv71 ab-72). The prophetic figure behind the psalm portrays subjective and objective perspectives of God's activity in biblical history. The authority ofthe divine appointee as both the davidide and the new Moses re-actualises God's instruction with prophetic force, conveying future hope for Judah.32 6. 1.3 Faithfulness of God and the Unfaithfulness of the Fathers The syntax, structure, and intertextual allusions in the body of the psalm33 are used by the psalmist to demonstrate that the principal opposition is between God and the rebellious fathers of Ephraim . First, the character of the fathers (vv 8, 56) and the effect on their sons (vv9-1 1 , 57-58) serve as structural an­ chors for the body of the psalm as an inner indusia n'���l (vv I2a, 32b "won­ drous works"), in addition to the outer indusia C" �� (vv9a, 67b "Ephraim").34 Second, there is a consistent pattern following the two main prophetic reflec­ tions (vv8-1 1 , 40-42), each comprising two accounts of divine action and di­ vine response to the faithlessness of the fathers (vv33-39) and the sons (vv5966) of Ephraim respectively through divine anger. The account of this opposi­ tion between God and the fathers as internal Opponent constitutes the majority of the psalm (vv8, 1 2-56). The fathers fail to trust in God's provision, 3 0 Weber, "Psalm 78", 199; cf. Buss, "Asaph and Korah", 385. Gerstenberger notes that the psalmist includes themselves in the congregation by means of the first-person plural pronoun, which in conjunction -with the first-person singular pronoun demonstrate how the psalmist seeks to make an authentic and authoritative representation of divine hope for Judah (Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 92). 3 1 Kraus, Psalms 2, 125. I contend that the divine appointee makes plain that future gen­ erations ought to recognise the centrality of knowing God's character and capacity to save in accordance lNith covenant promises, yet subject to covenant obligations. This is more than passing on the memory of God's past acts and points to the significance of what Judah is in God's eyes. Also, the prominent use ofthe hiphil stem throughout Psalm 78 corresponds in most cases with the setting of God as subject, often by substituting human actors and syn­ tactic demotion of inanimate objects as divine instruments. See David C. Ray, "Who Did What To Whom? Reassessing God's activity in Psalm 78", Colloquium: The Australian and New Zealand Theological Review 52 (2020). 3 2 Weber, "Psalm 78", 208; Beat Weber, "Psalm 78 als 'Mitte' des Psalters? - ein Versuch", Bib 88 (2007): 323. 33 By body of the psalm, I mean the entire psalm except its introduction (vvl-7) and conclusion (vv67-72). Less attention lNill be paid to the introduction and conclusion ofthe psalm, as well as verses 59-66 which demonstrate divine iIlller turmoil, as discussed in Sec­ tion 5.2. 1 . 34 Cf. Gartner, Die Geschichtspsalmen, 99.

Psalm 78

153

notwithstanding continual divine presence and provision. The psalmist ex­ plains this failure on account of the stubborn and rebellious character of the fathers' generations (v8a). The two main accounts ofthe fathers' character flaw are each juxtaposed with the faithful character and acts of God in the exodus, wanderings, and conquest, until the point that God's patience finally runs out (vv57-66). Addressing God in the third-person singular, the call for God to face "his" Opponent in Psalm 74: I I and 2 1 now comes to fruition: God judges the rebellious fathers of "his" own people. 6. 1.3. 1 Explanatory Bookends (vv8-ll, 56-58) The structural pattern of the psalm reveals how the fathers' unfaithfulness af­ fected the sons (vv8-58), particularly at its bookends. The psalmist makes the contrast between their fathers (n'�� vv8, 12, 57) and sons ('l� vv5, 6, 9) of rebellious Ephraim (c',��) so as to demonstrate the act and consequence of unfaithfulness of the fathers; that is, the sons walk in the way of their fathers. The generational contrast is highlighted at both the opening (vv8-1 1), the junc­ ture (vv40-42) and the closure (vv56-58) of the two macrodiscourses in verses 1 2-39 and 43-55. Above all, the fathers are introduced as the focal point, par­ ticularly as the negative example of covenant piety. The opening of the body of the psalm in verse 8 commences with a resulta­ tive-waw (cf LXX [va), linking to the authoritative psalmist's decree (v7a) that God set divine instruction for the purpose of ensuring that the disobedience of the fathers would not repeat itself in the sons.35 The initial reference to the fathers' generation as having a "stubborn and rebellious" character (;,\'0' " '0 v8b) is according to Nasuti a significant "traditional-historical clue" limited to Ephraim (cf �'�-;'\l:ip, ;'\'0 Deut 9:6-7).36 By contrast, Clifton argues that the psalmist is accusing all-Israel of iniquity in that they refer to the execution of rebellious sons in Deuteronomy 2 1 : 1 8 and an extension to the judgment of Je­ rusalem in Jeremiah 5 :23.37 While Jeremiah 5:23 serves as an implicit warning to the Judahite listeners to whom the psalmist calls (vI), the psalmist empha­ sises Ephraim as the identity that is rebellious and subject to divine judgment (vv9a, 58, 67b). In particular, the fathers of Ephraim failed to establish the heart of itself (,�� r�;'\-�� v8b); that is, the fathers fail to exercise collective will-power by following God's commands in response to divine deliverance.38 Accordingly, the accusation falls short of an outright indictment of all-Israel.

35 Cf. Holtmarm, " Spiegel der Geschichte Israels (Teil l)", 49. 3 6 Nasuti, Tradition History, 83. 37 Bruno J. Clifton, "What if Israel Was God's Stubborn and Rebellious Son? Deuteronomy 2 1 : 18-21; Jeremiah 5:23; Psalm 78 :8", Zeitschrift fur altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte 20 (2014): 1 1 5-126. 38 Tate, Psalms 51-100, 28 1 .

154

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

A new discourse commences in verse 9 with the emphatic placement of sons of Ephraim as subject. The fundamental character flaw ofthe unfaithful fathers and their consequential failure to respond trustfully to divine salvation (v8) results in their sons' failure (vv9-1 1).39 In particular, the "sons of Ephraim [ . . . ] pulled back in the day of the fight-approach" (�'P c,,� ,��;, v9b as idiom). It is difficult to find a biblical referent for this event. While the psalmist might be referring to Israel' s failure to follow YHWH's direct instruction to approach the belligerent Benjarnites in retaliation for the rape and murder of the concu­ bine of the Levite from Ephraim (;,on�o� ��'i:I'-I:i'� :::jilLI." Judg 20:39 cf Judges 19), Gerstenberger argues rightly that these references are more likely to refer to the obstinance of the sons of Ephraim towards God, rather than weakness in a particular battle.40 Accordingly, this descriptor is more a char­ acter trait than an intertextual allusion. Equally, the close of the body of this psalm commences by pointing to the fathers' acts of testing and rebelling against God (" 0" 'Ol" v56a cf v8). The resultative-waw of verse 57 marks the effect of such rebellion on the sons, so that they were disloyal and treacherous (" l�" 'lO" v57a), which was an effect anticipated in Psalm 73 : 1 5 ('n'l� Tl� " ,). The term 1�;' expresses the failure of sons of Ephraim to act according to battle instructions (cf in qal v9b),41 in that "they were pulled back like a loose bow" (1�;' in niphal v57b). Accord­ ingly, the psalmist is drawing attention to the inevitably of the sons having no choice but to follow the sinful ways of their fathers. Nevertheless, evidence of the treachery ofthe sons is also found in their own high places (cn'o� v58a) and graven images (c;,'�'o� v58b), which are an af­ front to God's desire for exclusive relationship (in the Sinaitic covenant Exod 19:5, Deut 7:6; in the later covenants 2 Sam 7 : 1 0- 1 1 , Jer 3 1 :33). While ;,o� and ��O� appear often in the so-called Deuteronornistic historical and Chroni­ cles accounts as well as the prophetic texts, these terms only appear together in verse 58 and in Chronicles immediately prior to and during the discourse 39 Hieke, "Weitergabe des Glaubens", 50. I concur with Hieke's observation that refer­ ence to the "sons" of verses 9-11 is distinct from the "fathers" in verse 8 and that they are both past generations. However, it is confusing to label both groups as two generations of faithless fathers. Accordingly, I will present these generations as the fathers of Ephraim and the sons of Ephraim, both of which are being contemplated by the psalmist for the benefit of the contemporary Collective, which is essentially the sons of Judah. This means, first of all, that the fathers of Ephraim become the subject in verse 8 with Vorzeitigkeit relative to verses 5-7, a time horizon later resumed from the point where the fathers (of Ephraim) serve as the onlooker in verse 12a (I:m'�K " [before] their fathers"), being the first generation re­ ferred to who failed to fulfil covenant obligations (vvI7-20, 36-37, 40-42, 56). Second, the sons of Ephraim are next referred to in verses 57-64. 4 0 Gerstenberger, Psalms 2, 95. 4 1 Cole, Book III, 64; Campbell, "Psalm 78", 56; Weingart, "Juda als Sachwalter", 448, 452; cf. HALOT, 253.

Psalm 78

ISS

relating to Josiah's reforms (2 Chr 33 : 1 9, 34:3). This provides some evidence of a possible relationship between the provenance of this psalm and the Chron­ icler's accounts of the fall of the southern kingdom to its supposed postexilic hearers. Accordingly, the psalmist structures the text to position the sons as victim to the fathers' misgivings - a fonn of intergenerational blamefixing. The tenns "father" and "son" of rebellious Ephraim serve as key markers of the inclusia of the body of this psalm, setting the case for divine judgment The tragic story of Ephraim serves as an object lesson for the contemporary Collective, which stands aloof from this account of covenant disobedience. It is a piece of wis­ dom (�'�i:lO vI), not so much to remember God but more so to adhere to God's will, thereby obtaining the benefit of covenant promises (cf. vv l Oa, 37b) of the divine shepherd through the human Davidic leader (vv67-72). 6. 1.3.2 First Macrodiscourse - Prophetic Reflections on Wilderness Events (vv12-39) The structural pattern of the body of the psalm (vvI 2-56) sets out the main evidence of God's faithfulness and the fathers' unfaithfulness as part of their blamefixing strategy. In particular, God's miraculous acts of salvation are con­ trasted with the disobedience and insubordination of the rebellious fathers. Verses 8-39 demonstrate the operation of both the anger and the compassion of God in a synthesised account of the wilderness events.42 The key features of this section are the cyclical nature of the wilderness account and the closing reference to God's compassion and understanding of the human proclivities of the fathers. Following the prophetic explanatory discourse (vv8-1 1), this sec­ tion comprises two cycles of God's faithfulness and the fathers' unfaithfulness in the wilderness (vv I 2-22 and vv23-32)43 and a closing third cycle that gives a counterexample of divine judgment and fathers' repentance (vv33-39). Verses 1 2-32 is composed of a pattern of reference to God's provision, fa­ thers' rebellion, divine anger and an explanation of the character flaw of the fathers. The psalmist draws upon biblical accounts of divine provision in the wilderness by an ungrateful generation of fathers. However, the psalmist "does not strive for chronological success but combines the individual

4 2 Campbell refers to this section as the "first recital" ("Psalm 78", 33). 43 It is acknowledged that there is an account of an act of judgment in verse 31 against some of the portly fathers. This act of judgment might allude to the striking do\VIl of 3,000 at Sinai in an act of retribution which Moses purports to have come from God (Exod 32:2728) or perhaps the striking ofthe people in response to Moses' plea for mercy (Exod 32:3435), but this is far from clear (cf. Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 261). Since the act of judgment is elusive, I argue it is peripheral to the overall structure of this section, which seeks to contrast God's faithfulness lNith the fathers' unfaithfulness.

Chapter 6: Blamefixing

156

transrnissions".44 The psalmists conflate wilderness accounts on the way to Si­ nai (Exodus 15-17) and on the way to the promised land (Numbers I I) so that the desert becomes what David Cohen calls "the canvas and the necessary ele­ ments for transforrnation".45 In this psalm, the wilderness setting is used to repeat the contrast between divine faithfulness and the fathers' corresponding lack of trust in God's provision. The first cycle (vv I 2-22) relates to the provision of salvation through water by means of both parting the waters as a wall for safe passage (Exod 1 4:2122, 29) and splitting the rock for drink (Exod 1 7 : 5-6) 46 However, these mirac­ ulous acts (��� ;ri:l� v l 2a cf. n'���l v32b) are met with further complaint over the lack of provision of food (vvI 9-20, Exod 17:2-3 cf. 1 5 :24), testing again the capacity of God to provide by stacking the complaints on top of one an­ other 47 The fathers' complaints trigger divine anger (v21), designated by the important �� causal conjunction at the beginning of verse 22 - God's wrath is aroused because they demonstrate a fundarnental lack of fear of and trust in God, which wondrous works should evoke (cf. Exod 1 4:30-3 1). Not even mir­ acles can attest to God's power for the faithless.48 The second cycle (vv23-32) relates to the provision of bread (Exod 1 6 : 1 421 cf. Exod 16:4-7) and flesh (Exod 1 6 : 8-13). This provision is enjoyed by the fathers despite their lack of faith (Num 1 1 :33 cf. Exod 16:2-3) as an object example of their hypocrisy, enjoying the benefits of God's provision without responding with reverence and trust. Consequently, the fathers are struck and humiliated (vv30-32 cf Num I I :34). It is noteworthy that the second cycle closes with the fathers' failure to trust " n'l���l::l (v32b "in [God's] wondrous works"), which is the same lexeme that closes the first explanatory bookend (" n'���l' v l lb) and opens this first macrodiscourse (��� ;ri:l� v I 2a). This in­ dicates that divine miraculous acts are the key evidence of God's faithfulness and the fathers' lack of trust, forming an indusia.

44 Kraus,

Psalms 2, 127.

45 David J. Cohen, " An Encounter lNith Midbar as Liminal Space and the Enigma of

Mosaic Leadership" (paper presented at the Society of Biblical Literature 2015 International Meeting, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 20-24 July 2015). 4 6 Cf. Holtmarm, " Spiegel der Geschichte Israe1s (Tei1 1)", 52. 47 The question relating to God's capacity to prepare a table in the lNilderness (v19ab-b) is responded to lNith an astonished exclamation On v20aa). The divine provision of abundant waters from a rock (cf. Exod 17: 1-7) could be a response to that question, yet only prompts a further question by the fathers about provision of food (v20ac-b cf. vIS; Exodus 16). LXX makes the cOIlllection clearer by use ofthe opening adverb mEL as a marker of causality and modality (v20aa "Since he [ . . . ], [might] he be able [ . . . ]7"). Accordingly, the emphasis in verses 17-20 lies in the contrast between God's deliverance of the fathers and the disobedi­ ence and rejection of the fathers in response thereto (Fischer, "Israe1s Auszug aus Agypten in den Psalmen", 222). 4 8 Cf. Kraus, Psalms 2, 127.

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Importantly, both cycles synthesise separate accounts of divine provision and Israelite complaint and hypocrisy, without regard to their order in biblical accounts as summarised in Table 1 0 below. For example, the psalmist mixes the accounts of divine provision. The grumbling over food (Exod 17:2-3) serves as the evidence of fathers' unfaithfulness in the first cycle pertaining to water (Exod 1 5 :23-27) and the acceptance of divine provision (Num 1 1 :6, 32) as the evidence of fathers' testing and treachery in the second cycle (Exod 164-13). Table 10: Summary of first two prophetic cycles (Ps 7 8 : 1 2-32) First cycle of fathers-God contrast (vv1222)

Second cycle of fathers-God contrast (vv23-32)

vv12-16 Divine provision through water as a wall (Exod 14:21-22, 29) and from the rock (Exod 17:5-6 cf. sweetened waters Exod 15:23, 25, 27)

Divine provision from the heavens of: i) vv23-24 bread (cf. Exod 16 :4-7); and ii) vv26-28 flesh (Num 1 1 :33 cf. Exod 16:8-13)

vv17-20 Fathers' grumbling for provision of bread and flesh (Exod 17:2-3 cf. Exod 15:24)

Fathers' enjoying provision, despite mis­ trust: i) v25 bread (cf. Num 1 1 :6); and ii)v29 flesh (cf. Num 1 1 :32)

vv21 Divine anger over grumbling (cf. Exod 16:7, 1 1-12)

vv30-31 Divine anger over fathers' dis­ trust while enjoying fruits of salvation (Num 1 1 :34 cf. Exod 32:25-28)

vv22 Fathers' character flaw - failure to trust in God's salvation ('nl.i'�'�)

vv32 Fathers' character flaw - failure to trust in God's wondrous works (" n'KI;l�:J� cf. vv1 1, 12)

The first macrodiscourse closes with a third cycle of fathers-God conflict, which is almost a reversal of the two aforementioned cycles yet also indicates that the conflict is irreconcilable. In verses 33-39, the psalmist builds tension by referring to both the anger (v33) and compassion (vv38-39) of God in the same sub-section. By contrast, the fathers are incapable of trusting God or com­ plying with the covenant 49 The psalmist reports that God slays (l,;r) the fathers (v34aa cf v 3 1 , Exod 32:27 as an act of the sons of Levi), bringing their days and years to an end (vv33 cf Ps 77:6, l Ib days and years of God). Ironically, it is during the divine act of slaying that the fathers "seek" and "tum" (Ii" , ::Illi v34ab-b cf Isa 9 : 12) towards their rock and redeemer God ('l�, ��l v35 cf Ps 1 9 : 1 5).50 However, 49 Holtmarm refers to the contrast between God's faithful actions and the faithless reac­ tions of the fathers of Ephraim as being the essence of the historical narrative of Psalm 78, lNith the purpose of demonstrating what not to do as God's people. See Holtmarm, "Spiegel der Geschichte Israe1s (Tei1 1)", 63. 5 0 Given the historical interest of the psalmist, verse 34a comprises an historical act of divine wrath followed by a human response of seeking, the latter of which is echoed after

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Chapter 6 : Blamefixing

the four uses ofthe term :m:i in this third cycle ultimately take an ulterior mean­ ing. The fathers' turn in repentance (v34b) to a God who habitually withholds anger (�'I:i;'l� ;'I�' v38ac).51 God shows patience because humanity is like a wind never returns (v39b cf. of the returning wind patterns Eccl I :6). The fa­ thers prove their fickle nature by turning (v4I a) to test and aggrieve God (;'1m v41 b)," not remembering the divine hand of power in the exodus (vv41 b-42). In short, the turning (�'I:i) of the fathers is not an act of confession but rather a sign of rebellion (v40a) 53 The table below demonstrates the similarities between the three prophetic cycles, albeit slightly out of order due to the juxtaposition of God's good char­ acter and rhetorical question over the fathers' rebellion in the wilderness: Table I I - Summary of three cycles of father/God contrast (Ps 7 8 : 1 2-39) First two cycles of fathers-God contrast (vv12-32)

Third cycle of fathers-God contrast (vv33-39)54

Divine provision of: vv12-16 water vv23-24, 26-28 bread, flesh

vv33-34aa Divine anger including direct retribution

vv17-20 Fathers' grumbling for provision vv25, 29 Fathers' enjoyment of provision despite mistrust

vv34ab-35 Fathers' seek and tum to rock and redeemer God

Divine anger over fathers': v21 grumbling vv30-3 1 mistrust

vv38-39 Divine character of compassion and lNithholding of anger

Fathers' character flaw - failure to trust in: v22 God's salvation ('nl.i'�'�) vv32 God's wondrous works (" n'KI;l�:J�)

vv36-37 Fathers' character flaw of not being trustworthy nor capable of obeying covenant

the athnak by means of weqatal verbs and is unlikely to bear a habitual aspect. Nonetheless, Pavan's argument that the remembering is consequential is supported by means ofthe waw­ consecutive at the beginning of verse 35, albeit substantially short of an act of confession as demonstrated in verse 36 (cf. Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 288-289). 5 1 The nature of JJYl connoting "increase" is habitual in nature (cf. HALOT, 1 1 76-1 1 77). 5 2 Perhaps a madness of sorts (cf. 1 Sam 2 1 : 14). 53 Pavan argues that prominent lexemes (�I;l, n'..,�, �K, jjtm and ..,1::S) in verses 32-39 and corresponding cross-references "sketch a certain picture of the drama of the covenant the heart of man seeks God [ . . . ] but is revealed to be perennially false" (cf. Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 98). By contrast, I argue that the text does not demonstrate a heart after God but a heart after what God provides, demonstrated through the pattern of contrasts between God's faithfulness and the fathers' lack of faithfulness. 54 Pavan perceives a similar structure for verses 32-39 (cf. Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 286).

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159

In brief, the first macrodiscourse demonstrates both the miraculous capacity of God to deliver and the human proclivity of the fathers to take God's provision for granted. 6. 1.3.3 Excursus - Remembering God as Focal Point of Psalm 78? There has been increasing interest in conceiving AP as a means for the Collec­ tive's memory work with the objective of addressing how the collection might have been invoked in the cultic worship of postexilic communities. 55 The col­ lection has been regarded as a mnemonic device for cultic ingathering after the exile. 56 For instance, Jacobson coins AP as a "mnemohistory", which he de­ fines as a corpus that is "intended for present memory with a past history" for re-representation and re-experiencing,57 based mainly on Psalms 78 and 8 1 .58 The thrust of this brief excursus is that the theme of memory is the natural concomitant of psalms with a particular historical interest and the instrument by which the psalmists present their message. The theme of remembering in Psalm 78 is essentially the means towards the end of assuring the Collective as Judah that it is God's chosen flock in a largely pre exilic context The key ar­ guments of evidence supporting this claim include the concentration of mne­ monic lexemes in only specific AP, the notion that memory-in-text is a medium rather than an end of itself, and the context of the specific instances of ,�! in Psalm 78. First, a significant reason for the interest in memory in the AP-Collection is the prominence of '�r and n�� tokens. '�r appears in verbal fonn 1 2 times in the AP-Collection (pss 74:2, 1 8, 22; 77:4, 7, 1 2 (x2); 78 :35, 39, 42; 79:8, 83 :5), compared to 64 tokens in the Psalter (including nominal references). n�1:i has 6 tokens in AP-Collection (pss 50:22; 74:19, 23; 77: 1 0 ; 78:7, 1 1), compared with 33 across the Psalter On the face of it, these tokens are proportionately overrepresented in the Korahite and Asaph Psalms, bringing Pavan to claim that "the memory motif is concentrated at the beginning and the end of the Elohistic Psalter with a clear prevalence in the psalms of Asaph."" However, it is important to note the distribution of the tokens for '�r and n�� are con­ centrated mainly in specific lament and historical psalms in both the AP-Col­ lection and across the Psalter For instance, Psalms 74, 77 and 78 account for 1 5 of the 1 8 instances of ,�! or n�1:i in the AP-Collection just as Korahite 55 Cf. J. Clinton McCarm, Jr., "Books I-III and the Editorial Purpose of the Hebrew Psalter" in Shape and Shaping of the Psalter, ed. J. Clinton McCarm, Jr., JSOTSup 159 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993), 95, 106. 5 6 McCann, "Books I-III", 96. 57 Jacobson, Memories ofAsaph, 9, 40; cf. Aleida Assmarm, "History, Memory, and the Geme of Testimony", 27 (2006): 263. 58 Jacobson, Memories ofAsaph, 1 1 7-140. 59 Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 73.

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Chapter 6: Blamefixing

Psalms 42, 44 and 45 account for 1 0 of l 5 tokens of 1�! or n�1:i in Book II. The prominence of the lexerne in specific psalms provides some evidence that these are selected discourses of memory. However, I would respond that the in­ stances of these tokens are not sufficient to claim that the motif is prevalent right across the AP-Collection. Instead, the tokens are concentrated in histori­ cally informed psalms, which Pavan rightly calls a "starting point in the con­ sciousness of the worshipper",60 rather than "discourses on rnernory".61 Second, remembering in Psalm 78 is used in a perceptual or cognitive sense, rather than as the overarching imperative of the psalm for its hearers. The uses in verses 35 and 39 are both wawyiqtol in [onn marking the consequential na­ ture of rernernbering as a response to supposed historical acts. It is also note­ worthy that both uses of ,�! are followed by '�, of which there are only three instances in Psalm 78:

35 :Cl?I$� li'?p' I;l�1 Cllj:S Cl,;:·(I;l�-':;:l ji:pr:l 39 :�j�: 161 l�ij"! Oji j"!�jJ i��-':;:l ijr:l In contrast to the emphatic use of the causal conjunction '� at the beginning of verse 22 explaining the rationale for divine anger, these latter uses of ,� are complementisers of nominal clauses, which follow '�r in order to constitute a substantive clause.62 The main cognition of the psalmist and the central con­ trast of Psalm 78 use the same common syntactic form :63 God is the rock and redeemer of the Collective but the fathers are mere mortals and as fleeting as the wind. These statements are ones of comparison,64 rather than "almost a kind of confession of faith".65 Further, the remaining use of '�r in verse 42 followed by the marked direct object " , echoes verse 35 concerning God's salvific power, albeit one which is used against the fathers for their failure to adhere to covenant obligations (v37).66 Third, while the lamentable situation of the Collective under divine wrath is common to P2, Psalm 78 makes no true reference to the faithfulness of the past or present generations of the Collective by way of "rem ern bering God". Jones' study centres on remembering as a heuristic device for the reading of AP under the guise that God is to be feared because divine anger is volatile. Relying on Mitchell's observation that remembering is statistically more prominent in AP

60 Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 66. 61 Pavan, Memory and Forgetting in Book 3, 208. It is also noteworthy that the lexeme "memory" or "reminder"