Comparative survey analysis 9783111416854, 9783111052540

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COMPARATIVE SURVEY ANALYSIS

CONFLUENCE S U R V E Y S I N

T H E

O F

R E S E A R C H

S O C I A L

S C I E N C E S

A SERIES EDITED BY THE INTERNATIONAL

COMMITTEE

FOR

SOCIAL

DOCUMENTATION

V O L . XII

IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE COUNCIL AND WITH THE SUPPORT OF UNESCO AND THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

SCIENCES

CONFLUENCE É T A T S E N

D E S

R E C H E R C H E S

S C I E N C E S

S O C I A L E S

COLLECTION PUBLIÉE PAR LE COMITÉ

INTERNATIONAL DES

POUR

SCIENCES

LA

DOCUMENTATION

SOCIALES

V O L . XII

AVEC LA COLLABORATION D U CONSEIL INTERNATIONAL DES SCIENCES SOCIALES ET AVEC L'APPUI DE L'UNESCO ET DE LA NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

COMPARATIVE SURVEY ANALYSIS

BY

STEIN ROKKAN University of Bergen

SIDNEY VERBA Stanford University

JEAN VIET AND ELINA ALMASY Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Paris

MOUTON THE HAGUE • PARIS

©

1969 MOUTON & CO

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by print, microfilm or any other means without written permission from the publisher PRINTED IN BELGIUM

Table of contents / Table des

matières

Introduction à la collection

ix

Introduction to the series

xi

Preface FIRST

PART — COMPARATIVE SURVEY TRENDS, ISSUES. STRATEGIES

xiii ANALYSIS:

Introduction Cross-national survey research : historical, analytical and substantive context; 1 The sevenfold origins of the sample survey 2 The internationalization of the sample survey: opportunities and barriers 3 Styles of cross-national survey research: three case studies 4 The organization of comparative survey research: the conditions for cumulative development

3

I STEIN R O K K A N :

The uses of survey research in the study of comparative politics : issues and strategies 1 Introduction 2 Three approaches: aggregate, configurational and survey analysis 3 The limitations of traditional survey research 4 Problems of comparability in multi-contextual research 5 Strategies of comparative research

5 5 14 20 43

I I SIDNEY VERBA :

Résumé français

56 56 57 60 62 79 107 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECOND PART — COMPARATIVE SURVEY ANALYSIS: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Introductory note

119

I Comparative survey analysis : general context 1 Social, cultural and political conditions for the utilization of survey techniques : barriers encountered in the spread of the new methodology 2 Availability and retrieval of information

128

128 132

II Organizational, methodological and theoretical issues in comparative survey research 1 Organization and procedures 2 The methodology of comparative survey analysis 3 The logic of comparative analysis: general discussions

143 143 147 149

III Substantive analyses by field 1 Conditions, roles, behaviours and attitudes throughout the life cycle 2 Personality characteristics and cultural orientations 3 Market conditions, levels of living, consumer behaviour and opinions 4 Stratification, mobility and class relationships 5 Occupations and work organizations 6 Social and cultural participation 7 Public affairs 8 Language and communication 9 Intercultural and international experiences

156 156 181 227 235 260 269 274 290 295

INDEXES

viii

Countries compared

311

Populations covered

333

Authors

335

Introduction à la collection

La collection Confluence est un élément du programme bibliographique d'ensemble que le Comité international pour la documentation des sciences sociales a entrepris de mettre en œuvre. Ce comité, créé en 1950 avec l'aide de l'Unesco, est une organisation internationale non gouvernementale, dont les membres sont des spécialistes des diverses sciences sociales et des techniciens en matière de documentation. Ils travaillent en liaison étroite avec le Conseil international des sciences sociales et avec les associations internationales spécialisées en ce domaine. En matière bibliographique, la première tâche assumée par le comité a été l'établissement de bibliographies internationales annuelles, concernant respectivement la sociologie, la science économique, la science politique et l'anthropologie sociale et culturelle, régulièrement publiées depuis 1951 (actuellement diffusées par Tavistock Publications, Londres). En outre, le comité établit ou fait établir des bibliographies occasionnelles, des bibliographies analytiques, des répertoires et index, dont la liste peut être envoyée sur demande. En ce même domaine bibliographique, le comité s'est donné comme deuxième tâche la préparation d'études évaluatives et critiques. Les volumes de la collection Confluence ont ainsi pour objet de faire connaître l'état actuel des recherches sur des sujets donnés. Certains de ses volumes sont consacrés à des problèmes de caractère interdisciplinaire, intéressant à la fois différentes sciences sociales ou justifiant d'approches multiples. D'autres concernent des méthodes utilisées par plusieurs disciplines. La rédaction de chaque volume est confiée à un spécialiste, qui établit le manuscrit sous sa propre responsabilité, mais en se conformant à des règles de présentation valables pour la collection dans son ensemble, notamment en ce qui concerne les références bibliographiques. Un sous-comité de lecture ix

INTRODUCTION À LA COLLECTION

est, dans chaque cas, appelé à se prononcer sur le manuscrit avant son impression. Le Comité international exprime sa reconnaissance aux personnalités qui ont accepté de constituer le sous-comité auquel a été soumis le manuscrit du présent volume: Prof. Roy C. Macridis, Brandeis University, Waltham, Mass., États-Unis. Prof. Jean-Paul Trystram, Université de Lille, France. La collection a comporté jusqu'à présent les titres suivants: 1. National character and national stereotypes. A trend report prepared for the International Union of Scientific Psychology, by H.C.J. Duijker and N.H. Frijda (University of Amsterdam), 1960. 2. La médiation. Tendances de la recherche et bibliographie (1945-1959), par Jean Meynaud (Université de Lausanne) et Brigitte Schröder, 1961. 3. La délinquance juvénile, étiologie et prophylaxie. Tendances de la recherche et bibliographie (1945-1960), par Denis Szabo (Université de Montréal), 1963. 4. Aspects sociaux de la radio et de la télévision. Revue des recherches significatives 1950-1964, par Beno Sternberg et Evelyne Sullerot, avec un avant-propos d'Edgar Morin (École pratique des hautes études, Paris), 1966. 5. Social and economic factors affecting mortality. A survey of recent research by Bernard Benjamin (Director of Statistics, Ministry of Health, London), 1966. 6. The effects of economic development on traditional political systems in Africa, south of the Sahara by John Middleton (New York University), 1966. 7. The role of small industry in the process of economic growth. Japan, by Migohei Shinohara; India, by Douglas Fisher; under the direction of Bert F. Hoselitz (University of Chicago), 1968.

x

Introduction

to the series

The series Confluence is a part of the overall bibliographical program undertaken by the International Committee for Social Sciences Documentation. The committee, formed in 1950 with the support of Unesco, is an international non-governmental organization, whose members are social scientists and specialists on documentation problems. They work in close co-operation with the International Social Science Council and the various specialized international associations. As far as bibliography is concerned, the first task undertaken by the committee has been to prepare annual international bibliographies, for sociology, economics, political science and social and cultural anthropology: these have been issued regularly since 1951 and are currently published by Tavistock Publications, London. Other publications, such as occasional bibliographies, abstracts services, repertories and indexes are prepared by the committee or under its auspices; their list will be sent upon application. In the same field of bibliography, the second task of the committee has been to publish critical surveys. The volumes in the series Confluence are intended to assess the situation of current research on special subjects. Most of these subjects are problems of an interdisciplinary nature, of interest to several social sciences or warranting multiple approaches. Other volumes are devoted to one method used in several disciplines. Each volume is written by individual scholars, under their own responsibility. However, each author follows common instructions as to the standard form of the report and the bibliographical references. A reading subcommittee reviews each manuscript before it is printed. The committee expresses its gratitude to the members of the sub-committee to which the manuscript of the present volume was thus submitted for review: xi

INTRODUCTION TO THE SERIES

Prof. Roy C. Macridis, Brandeis University, Waltham, Mass., U.S.A. Prof. Jean-Paul Trystram, Université de Lille, France. The titles previously published in the series are : 1. National character and national stereotypes. A trend report prepared for the International Union of Scientific Psychology by H.C.J. Duijker and N.H. Frijda (University of Amsterdam), 1960. 2. La médiation. Tendances de la recherche et bibliographie (1945-1959) par Jean Meynaud (Université de Lausanne) et Brigitte Schröder, 1961. 3. La délinquance juvénile, étiologie et prophylaxie. Tendances de la recherche et bibliographie (1945-1960) par Denis Szabo (Université de Montréal), 1963. 4. Aspects sociaux de la radio et de la télévision. Revue des recherches significatives 1950-1964 par Beno Sternberg et Evelyne Sullerot avec un avantpropos d'Edgar Morin (École pratique des hautes études, Paris), 1966. 5. Social and economic factor affecting mortality. A survey of recent research by Bernard Benjamin (Director of Statistics, Ministry of Health, London), 1966. 6. The effects of economic development on traditional political systems in Africa, south of the Sahara by John Middleton (New York University), 1966. 7. The role of small industry in the process of economic growth. Japan, by Migohei Shinöhara; India, by Douglas Fisher; under the direction of Bert F. Hoselitz (University of Chicago), 1968.

xii

Preface

This volume on Comparative Survey Analysis is the first in what we hope will be a series of analytical accounts and bibliographical reviews of developments in cross-national, cross-cultural and cross-societal research. The International Committee for Social Sciences Documentation has for a number of years taken an active part in the programme of comparative research organized by UNESCO and the International Social Science Council 1 and taken charge of the development of a variety of facilities for scholars interested in the systematic analysis of similarities and variations among cultural or political units. One series of publications within this programme offer Guides to Data for Comparative Research: the first volume in this series is devoted to electoral statistics and will have been published when the present volume is on the market 2 . This volume on survey analysis is the first in a second series: in this we hope to cover the major categories of data used in comparisons across cultures and nations. We have worked out plans for a volume on the cross-cultural method: this will cover comparisons of anthropological and ethnographic reports. We expect to be able to proceed to comparisons of aggregate statistics, to comparative content analysis of communications, to comparative historical studies, to comparative experimental research, and possibly even to comparisons of psychological tests, a field partly, but clearly inadequately, covered in the present volume. We hope that this first volume will help to establish the need for such documentary tools and that the readers and users in the social science community will give us the advice we very much need in deciding on next steps in this series. The two introductory chapters were planned independently of each other. The first chapter offers an essentially European perspective and concentrates on the historical roots of survey research, the logic of cross-national surveys xiii

PREFACE

and the organizational infrastructure. The second chapter offers a set of reflections on problems in cross-cultural field work by one of the directors of perhaps the most successful project of comparative survey research ever undertaken: Sidney Verba. We are most grateful to this leader in the American survey movement for allowing us to print his chapter in this volume: it was originally written out as a set of reflections on criticisms and queries encountered in the work on The Civic Culture but fitted in so admirably in the structure of the volume we had planned that we asked him to join us. We wish to record our great indebtedness to Elina Almasy and Jean Viet for their tireless and resourceful work with the Bibliography. As readers will soon discover this is no ordinary list of references and abstracts: it required systematic checking of each study to allow detailed coding in accordance with a scheme established aftei a great deal of exploration. We hope that this style of bibliographic description will catch on and prove a first step toward automated indexing of the data bases of the research literature. We regret that the Bibliography had to be wound up during 1966: this means that it will be close to two years out of date when this volume appears. To remedy this we propose to prepare annual or biannual supplements organized on the same lines as the bibliography we present in this volume; these supplements will, we hope, appear regularly in Social Science Information, the journal of the International Social Science Council. Paris and Bergen, November 1967 Jean Meyriat

Stein Rokkan

1. See especially the account in S. Rokkan, ed., Comparative research across cultures and nations, The Hague, Mouton, 1968. 2. S. Rokkan and J. Meyriat, eds., International guide to electoral statistics: Vol. I, National elections in Western Europe, The Hague, Mouton, 1969. xiv

FIRST PART

Comparative survey analysis: trends, issues, strategies

Introduction

The crucial characteristics of the sample survey are easily identified: — y o u define, for a given territory of residence or activity, a population of units, be they individuals, households, dwelling units, farms, shops, factories, organizations, agencies; — y o u want to establish propositions about the distributions of attributes within this population but cannot afford the cost of collecting information about such attributes for all the units; — y o u therefore proceed by sampling: you select a smaller set of units for the data gathering operation and make sure to select them in such a way that statements about distributions in this smaller set can be translated, with known margins of error, into statements about the total set; —having established a target sample you then proceed to contact these selected sources of information (in the typical case these" target respondents" will at the same time constitute units of the populations under study, but there will also be cases where the "sender of data" is not identical with the unit of description or analysis, but, e.g. a member of, or an informant about, that unit), and subject them, typically by way of oral interview, but also by use of written questionnaires, check lists or tests, to standardized series of questions or other response-eliciting stimuli. The great majority of the reports produced on the basis of such datagathering operations have limited themselves to analyses of one sample of one given population: they may of course include introductory discussions of, or footnote references to, similar studies carried out on the same, or similar, populations in the past or to parallel studies on other populations, in other localities or in other countries, but the bulk of the reports limit themselves to the one sample. The trend, however, is toward an increase in the number of cross-sample, cross-population analyses. More and more 3

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

social scientists have become dissatisfied with the typical "one-shot" survey operation: they want to check the stability of findings across a larger number of studies; they want to study the sources of variation over time; they want to explore the possibilities of systematic analysis of the impact of variation in socio-cultural-political contexts on the structuring of behaviours, attitudes, values and opinions. This "trend report" seeks to place one of these movements in a broader historical and methodological perspective: the efforts to make use of survey techniques and survey data in the study of similarities and differences across distinct national populations. This is a movement of great potential importance for the future of the social sciences: the "transport revolution", the steady increase in the economic resources for social science research, the rising demand for information about conditions and processes in other countries than one's own, the development of strong supra-national bureaucracies, all these processes are bound to lead almost automatically to a multiplication of investments of time and personnel in the organization of comparative surveys and in the development of facilities for the accumulation and retrieval of survey data across many countries. But this very increase in the opportunities for cross-national data gathering and data organization will add significantly to the intellectual responsibilities of social scientists. The proliferation of survey operations to more and more countries of the world and the continual amassing of more data from so many different socio-cultural and political context raise a series of difficult problems of methodology, of research strategy, of organizational policy: questions about the conditions for the use of different methods of data gathering, issues of comparability and equivalence in the measurement of similarities or differences among distinct populations, difficulties in the logic of multi-level analysis of the type required in comparisons across complex social systems. In this introductory statement an effort will be made to trace a quick map of this frontier of research: to place the methodological development in their historical and technological contexts, and to review some of the attempts made at coping with the many difficulties encountered in this type of cross-national, cross-cultural study. In the second half of this "trend report" Sidney Verba will review achievements, difficulties and attempted solutions in one particularly important field of application: the field of comparative politics.

4

I. Cross-national survey research: historical, analytical and substantive contexts STEIN R O K K A N

1 THE S E V E N F O L D ORIGINS OF THE S A M P L E S U R V E Y The practice of subjecting samples of populations to systematic questioning can be traced back to several distinct historical roots. Three conditions appear to be crucial for the emergence of any system of standardized questioning and response registration: first, some minimal level of centralization and bureaucratization, whether in the form of imperial or national territorial administrations, in the form of cross-local church organizations or educational systems, or in the form of private corporations such as banks or merchant networks; secondly, there must be a sufficient level of literacy in the population to make it possible to recruit the required minimum of officials or administrators for the tasks of questioning and information transmission; and thirdly, there must be enough cross-local mobility in the population to make it worthwhile for the central decision-makers to invest in information-gathering of this formal type rather than through the traditional channels of oral communication from person to person. In these three senses the practice of standardized questioning and data registration is a typical characteristic of modernizing polities and organizational networks: the development of such formalization and systematization in the modes of communication can be interpreted as part of the overall transition from the primordial kinship-centered, " o r a l " communities of earlier ages to the differentiated mass-bureaucratic polities of the present. This is a point of basic importance in the discussion of the cross-cultural "reach" of social science techniques: the sample survey grew out of a variety of administrative practices in bureaucratic organizations in countries at a high level of literacy and will for that very reason prove much more problem5

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

atic as a data-gathering device in pre-literate societies and in traditionally oriented communities within modernizing polities Six of the devices developed for the management of the large-scale territorial bureaucracies of the modern world may be singled out as particularly important in the history of this technique of data-gathering : 1. the administrative questionnaire 2. the registration form 3. the census 4. the election 5. the referendum 6. the examination. The first three are essential devices of information channeling and control within organizations too large to be adequately managed through the traditional networks of person-to-person oral communication: to guard against "noise" and distortion in the information channels specific questions are formulated for large numbers of "source-persons" and specific categories are offered for the recording of the data 2 . Of the three, the census represented the greatest advance in systematization. The census was essentially an instrument of control and of resource planning: it helped to define the politically important categories of the territorial population and it allowed estimates of the resources in manpower and mobilizable wealth. Three features of the population census was to prove crucial in the later development of the sample survey: (a) the emphasis on the coverage of the total range of units in the population, whatever their status, whatever their circumstances; (b) the insistence on clear-cut, easily codable categories of information for subsequent tabulation and analysis; (c) the minimization of interest in information about distinct individuals and the concentration of interest in aggregated totals. The early sample surveys 3 stuck closely to this model: (a) they were administrative devices of immediate utility in the planning of public services, the allocation of manpower, the provision of various types of assistance; (b) they were cheaper and could be administered with greater frequency than the census; (c) they made it possible to cover a broader range of variables and they allowed more detailed coding than the total counts; (d) they divorced the information about individual units of the popula6

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

tion completely from the aggregated totals; the individual households or respondents were not contacted and questioned as concrete units but as statistical representatives of all units sharing their socio-economic and areal characteristics. This programmatic separation of the individual intelligence objective from the objective of statistical aggregation and analysis is of crucial importance in empirical social research. Official data collection agencies very early established strict rules of secrecy to ensure the protection of individual records against misuse by outsiders: the recent controversy over the plans to link up a variety of individual files within a Federal Data Center in the United States has rubbed in the importance of this distinction between intelligence and statistics 4. The sample survey pushes the distinction to a further extreme: the data are collected through the questioning of individuals but the respondents are not sought out as potential targets of intelligence operations, but as randomly chosen units for statistical aggregation and analysis 5 . This characteristic of the sample survey was even further reinforced under the impact of the other major models of data generation: the election and the referendum. For the burgeoning social sciences the election and the referendum represented fascinating approximations to the mass experiment: —they define given populations through strict rules of inclusion and exclusion; —they force each member of the given populations to choose among a set of uniformly presented alternatives: vote for A, vote for B ... or decide to abstain; —they provide for the registration of each individual decision and they allow the collection of a variety of other data about each actor. But there is one decisive limitation: the individual decisions are conscientiously registered but they are counted as anonymous acts cut off from their origins. The experiment produces vast masses of statistics for the social scientist but the rules of secrecy set barriers to his analyses: at least for the decisions between the parties he must confine himself to the aggregate counts by locality or constituency and is cut off from the data at the level of the individual citizen. This contrast sets the central challenge of electoral statistics: vast masses of well-established data in the aggregate, legal barriers against direct analysis at the individual level. 7

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

This contrast was in itself a product of the process of political modernization: the introduction of strict rules of secrecy was part and parcel of a general process of administrative standardization triggered off through the widening of the suffrage and the consequent efforts of mass mobilization 6 . In the régime censitaire the vote was a publicly visible act: the citizen was accountable for his choice of candidate or party and had to be prepared to defend it in his dealings with his fellow men. In some cases voting was entirely oral and there was no record of individual votes. In other cases detailed registers of all the eligible voters were maintained for the recording of their votes: this source of data on early divisions in the body politic has only recently been opened up by historians and holds great promise for systematic research 7. With the extension of the suffrage to the dependent strata of the population this onus of choice produced strains in the body politic and tended to defeat the purposes of election: the peaceful resolution of conflicts over representation. There were marked differences in the reactions to these strains. Countries heavily dominated by landowners tended to maintain open voting even after the enfranchizement of the dependent strata: thus Denmark, Hungary and Prussia. Other countries introduced formal secrecy at an early stage but encountered great difficulties in the standardization of electoral practices. But whatever the details of application the rule of secrecy determined the character of the statistical product of the elections: the act of voting was severed from the enfranchized citizen and was only registered and counted as a contribution toward a territorial total. The imposition of secrecy had important consequences for the character of the democratic process of persuasion and counter-persuasion: it allowed the passive rank-and-file to keep out of the socially visible alignments pro or con given candidates, parties or issues and set them clearly off from the politically identifiable party members, militants and campaign workers. The political survey grew out of the uncertainties created through this stratification of the citizenry: the extension of the suffrage to large masses of inarticulate members of the community and the introduction of safeguards against bribery and intimidation had made the outcomes of elections much more a matter of chance and it soon became increasingly tempting to develop devices for the prediction of the outcomes through "soundings" and "straw votes". It is highly significant that the earliest ventures into the prediction of electoral outcomes came in the country with the longest continuous history of the wide-suffrage politics: the United States of America. The history of 8

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

the institution of straw votes goes back to the early decades of the nineteenth century 8 . In a highly mobile, egalitarian population with few official restraints on the expression of political opinions, this was a very natural development: the rapid changes in the composition of the local electorates made for uncertainty about the outcomes of political contests and the easy openness of discussions within most sectors of the populations made it very tempting to collect data about preferences before the official events through the organization of "straw ballots". This point is of central significance in the discussion of the "exportability" of the interview survey as a method of social science research: the United States went through the same development toward the standardization of secret voting as other competitive democracies 9 but the open partisanship of the primaries kept political identities much more visible and made for much less resistance to questioning about preferences about candidates and policies. A variety of foreign observers of the rising nation were impressed by the easy informality of personal contacts, the trust in strangers, the willingness to communicate with others, even newcomers, about public and political affairs of all kinds. This political culture offered the ideal climate for the growth of the new technique of social science data gathering: rapid changes in the conditions of electioneering increased the demand for such "opinion soundings" and the ease and openness of social communication made it very tempting to meet this demand through systematic interviewing across the major segments of the population. The history of large-scale mass questioning begins in 1916 with the Literary Digest polls 1 0 : these were "elections in miniature", administered through the circulation to millions of citizens of very simple ballots or lists of referendum-type questions. These "mail polls" had their heyday in the 1920s, during the prohibition era, and come to a sad and dramatic end with Roosevelt's victory in 1936: the Digest predicted he would only collect 40 per cent of the votes while in fact he got 60 per cent. This gave the new generation of social scientists their great chance. George Gallup and Elmo Roper had set up organizations for regular sampling and interviewing the year before this disaster and were given an extraordinary opportunity to demonstrate the soundness of their two operating principles: —first you must make sure to draw a sample closely mirroring the structure of the population you want to predict for; —secondly, once you have set up your sample you must make direct personal contacts with all the target respondents to get as many as possible of them to indicate their preference or their opinion. 9

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

The Literary Digest had proceeded on the naive assumption that there was "safety in numbers" and had sinned grievously against these canons: —the ballots had been indiscriminately sent to all households listed in telephone directories or registers of car owners without any check on the representativeness of these populations (in fact they were heavily middleclass and consequently produced a Republican bias in 1936); —there was no procedure for checking the extent of bias produced through differential returns of mailed ballots (in fact the Republicans most likely to be motivated to mail back their responses tended to be convinced opponents of the New Deal). What Gallup, Roper and their colleagues were able to demonstrate was that mass questioning of the type indulged in by Literary Digest was not only misleading but also wasteful: much more precise estimates of the distributions of political preferences could be established at vastly lower cost through careful sampling of the electorate and through direct interviewing by local staffs 11. This marked the beginning of one important tradition of survey research: the tradition of the commercial poll and the market study. The late 'thirties saw a great mushrooming of private organizations for the conduct of interviews within samples of nationals poulations: first in the United States, then in Britain and even in France. This movement continued in an accelerated tempo during the years immediately after the end of the hostilities in 1944-1945: by 1950 all the economically advanced countries of the West, and even some "Third World" countries, had seen the establishment of at least one polling organization in its territory. Most of these were brought into one or the other of the two world networks of polling agencies, Gallup Affiliates and the initially Roper-linked International Research Associates, INRA. These two networks served crucial functions in the internationalization of the polling profession: they spread techniques and standards from country to country; they accumulated experiences in the use of equivalent question formulations or measurement techniques across different countries; they offered facilities for the conduct of comparative surveys by governmental agencies, by business corporations, and even by academic scholars. A great number of studies included in our bibliography are products of this important international effort of organization: without these American initiatives the movement towards the internationalization of these new methods of social science data gathering would have been vastly slower and more erratic. 10

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

But this was only the first of three distinctive developments in this field of data gathering: more and more governmental agencies developed staffs for the conduct of sample surveys, and a number of academic institutions were able to set up field organizations of some sort, whether separately or through various joint arrangements. To get some perspective on these developments we shall have to go back to our listing of "models of data-gathering." The commercial survey was essentially modelled on the election and the referendum: the very name used to describe field operations of this type, polls, rubbed in these origins in attempts at a miniaturization of officially established consultations of the "people". The great breakthrough in 1936 was the result of a successful attempt to simulate elections ahead of time: there was enough isomorphy between the situation in the interview and the situation in the polling booth to make it safe to infer predictions of official results from the established frequencies of responses to the interviewers. But the crucial development occurred afterwards: the commercial surveyors shifted from the election model to the model of the referendum and claimed to be able to take the "people's pulse" not only in matters of party strength or candidate choice, but even in matters of public policy. The model of the referendum of the plebiscite was to have a profound impact on the style of work in the commercial agencies, not only in their reports to newspapers and radio networks on issues of public policy, but also in their studies in the consumption market, of mass preferences among products. In the early phase of commercial polling and market research the typical report simply gave for each question the percent of all interviewed responding one way or the other: so many X, so many Y, so many Z, so many don't know. The underlying model of the public was plebiscitarian and equalitarian. The "pollsters" started out from the basic premise of fullsuffrage democracy: "One citizen, one vote, one value". They equated votes and other expressions of opinion and gave the same numerical value to every such expression, whether actively articulated independently of any interview, or elicited only in the interview situation. The sum total of such unit expressions was presented as an estimate of "public opinion" on the given issue. The aim was clearly not just elicitation, classification, and enumeration; the essential aim was to establish the "will of the people" through sample interviews instead of through elections and referenda. To such pioneers as George Gallup and Elmo Roper, the "poll" was essentially a new technique of democratic control: the interviews helped to bring out 11

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

the will of the "inarticulate, unorganized majority of the people" as a countervailing power against the pervasive pressure of the many minority interests 12. For years to come this emphasis on the plebiscite as a model set the commercial practitioners in opposition to the governmental and the academic survey professionals. A number of government agencies set up survey organizations from the late 1930's onwards to ensure quicker and cheaper data collection in areas thus far poorly covered under the traditional systems of administrative bookkeeping: the best known and most far-ranging of these was probably the Social Survey set up under the Central Office of Information in London. The operations of these governmental agencies was essentially modelled on the census: they were used to get inexpensive estimates of distributions within given populations and they were geared to eminently practical tasks of policy guidance. The academic survey organization also stuck close to the census model but added two further elements: — the fixed-category test battery, — the informal reportorial conversation. Historically, the test battery grew out of the standardized scholastic examination: by contrast to the single-question approach of the plebiscitemodelled poll, the test-type interview elicited responses to a wide range of items within the same fields of variation and offered the basis for a variety of summary measures of tendencies, orientations, attitudes, personality syndromes. The techniques of test administration had initially been developed in the classroom and in the study of other "found" groups of subjects but was, after some experimentation, adjusted to the requirements of the "doorstep" interview. This development opened up a number of opportunities for innovation, not only in the range and depth of data gathering, but also in the style of statistical refinement. The commercial polls had typically limited themselves to elementary statistical treatments of their data: most of the findings were presented in simple percentage tables. With the introduction of multi-item test batteries, there was a marked increase in the statistical sophistication of survey analysis: the responses collected through interview surveys were not only subjected to the typical correlation and factor analytical treatments of the type known from the earlier phase of differential and educational psychology, but also offered opportunities for the development of powerful new techniques, better adapted to the qualitative character 12

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

of the data, such as Guttman scaling, Lazarsfeld's latent structure analysis, and various forms of attribute space analysis. A number of academic institutions contributed to the acceleration of such efforts but one of them stands out as particularly important for the development of higher-level techniques of sampling, survey design and multivariate statistical analysis: the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan. This institution has a curious history, a history which holds an important lesson for the further efforts to internationalize the survey profession. Just about the time George Gallup and Elmo Roper set up their commercial interview organizations, Rensis Likert was able to persuade the United States Department of Agriculture to develop a regular agency for the conduct of surveys among farmers. During World War II this organization was given a broader definition and was able to carry out a variety of studies. Just after the end of the War Likert and his associates took up negotiations to transfer these survey operations to an academic site and succeeded in persuading the University of Michigan to offer a home for this novel type of facility for social science research. The result was a mushrooming of significant innovations in the collection and analysis of empirical data about human behaviours and organizational structures, first within American society, later, through flexible institutional arrangements with national scholars, within a number of other advanced societies: Norway, France, Britain, Australia, Japan. Extensive programmes of research were developed in a wide variety of fields: studies of worker satisfaction in industrial and bureaucratic organizations; studies of consumer finances, purchasing behaviour, economic expectations; electoral research; studies of attitudes on issues of public concern; studies of leisure and participation; studies of adjustment and maladjustment within the younger generation .... This extraordinary proliferation of studies was made possible through hardheaded concentration on the infrastructure needs for cooperative social science research: the need for a constantly renewed, constantly supervised network of interviewers across the country, the need for a well-trained professional staff of sampling experts, field administrators and data processers, and the need for continuous interaction in the sharing of experiences at all stages of the research operations. Other academic institutions were able to develop some of these infrastructure facilities but none succeeded in maintaining such an even flow of operations and in servicing such a broad range of interests, both in the academic community and in the circles of potential clients for such research. A major characteristic of the full-blown academic survey operation is its 13

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

extreme flexibility: it allows the combination of elements from all the six models of "bureaucratic" data gathering and adds a seventh, perhaps still more important, model, the informal conversation among strangers. The Survey Research Center at Michigan made a pioneering contribution to the development of the informal, "open-ended" interview as a tool of datagathering: there was an increasing realization of the artificiality of many of the response categories in the fixed-alternative questions inherited from the census model and, even more pronouncedly, from the plebiscite, and more and more elaborate attempts were made to approximate the flow of informal colloquial conversation without jeopardizing the imperative controls of cross-interview comparability. This linked up with a number of parallel developments in the "case-oriented" behavioral sciences: the therapeutic conversation inherited from the religious practice of the confession and perfected in the various schools of psychoanalysis, the counselling interview developed within the social work tradition and in educational psychology, the personnel interview developed within management psychology, the informal questioning of informants practiced for decades by cultural and social anthropologists in their studies of preliterate and traditional communities. These movements on the data elicitation front had been reinforced by concomitant developments on the data categorization — data processing front: the efforts made within linguistics, folklore and communications research to elaborate techniques for the statistical analysis of the style and contents of oral or textual messages helped the survey analysts to find ways of coping with "open-ended" responses and to develop techniques for the extraction of significant dimensions of variation in the flow of messages recorded by the interviewers.

2 THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE SAMPLE SURVEY: OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS The rapid expansion of the networks of polling agencies and market research organizations in the immediate wake of World War II generated a great deal of internationalist ferment: enthusiasts talked about "world surveying" (Dodd: 11) *, global "demoscopic services" on the model of the meteorolog* References in parentheses refer by author and number to items in the bibliography presented as the Second Part of this volume. 14

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

ical services. The numbers of cross-national polls and surveys did indeed increase rapidly in those years: this can easily be read out of our extensive bibliography. But the early enthusiasms for world surveying were soon disappointed: it proved difficult to spread the new techniques beyond the confines of the advanced Western countries, and even when organization could be set up in typically "developing countries" the sampling and the interviewing proved very difficult to organize beyond the boundaries of the larger urban settlements. More and more social scientists became suspicious of the claims for the universal applicability of the new technique and began to speculate about the limiting factors, the barriers against further diffusion. The critiques of social and cultural anthropologists further reinforced this attitude of suspicious skepticism: the sample survey was essentially a technique for the study of the "alphabetized", mobile, individualistic and market-oriented societies of the West and could not be expected to produce meaningful data for the analysis of preliterate cultures minimally affected by such processes of modernization as monetization, mobilization and politicization. The literature on this question has grown voluminous over the years. The 53 items of section 1.1 of our bibliography represent only a selection of the most explicit discussions of the conditions for the spread of the survey technique: if we were to cover the indirect, ad hoc discussions of the pros and cons of sample surveys vs. anthropological observation in particular cases, our list would have been vastly longer. The fundamental reason for the perpetuation of this debate is of course the process of Westernization itself: with the continuing spread of the Western type of market economy, of the mass media and of the concomitant phenomena of urban mass culture, the developing societies tend to lend themselves less and less to the traditional techniques of the cultural or social anthropologist, but do not, therefore, become obvious territories for the standardized sample survey. The "transitional" status of large areas of the "Third World" has increased the uncertainties about methods of data gathering and has added new fire to the old controversies over the boundaries of the disciplines. To move further ahead in this debate we clearly have to abandon the unitary concept of the sample survey: a variety of elements, inherited from widely differing traditions of data gathering, go into any particular field operation and the balance among the elements have shifted over time and varied across schools of practitioners. Clearly some elements in this congeries of data-gathering devices may work in developing communities even if the 15

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

others do not. There is no basis for a blanket acceptance or rejection of the survey method as such but there is very often definite need for methodological experiments before deciding which mode of field operation and which style of questioning will produce valid data in which context and for what purposes of analysis. What is woefully lacking in the literature on the diffusion of survey techniques to developing countries is systematic methodological research of the type carried out in the advanced countries on modes of contacting target respondents, on styles of interviewing, on the effects of variations in question formulations and question sequences, on the consequences of interviewer-respondent differences en sex, age, status, dialect, level of articulation 13 . This is high-priority area of research in the developing countries: with the spread of literacy, the uprooting of traditional cultures and the development of new structures of organization the established methods of anthropological data collection will no longer be adequate and will have to be supplemented, if not replaced, by various forms of standardized questioning of samples of the territorial populations. One important reason for the failures of the new style of data-gathering traditional and developing communities was the overconcentration of the plebiscitarían model. This was the most culturebound of all the seven paradigms of questioning: it was based on the assumption that all adults, women as well as men, heads of households as well as other members, were faced with alternatives of choice and had the resources to make meaningful decisions. This was a model eminently suited to the market culture: in the economy as well as in the polity, the monetized/enfranchized citizen was faced with distinct alternatives (products/candidates/policy options) and had the resources (discretionary funds/votes) required to make effective choices among them. This model worked in the competitive economies which were at the same time competitive polities: the units to be sampled might not be the same in studies of the markets for products (for minor routine products: housewives; for durables: the head of the household or both spouses) as in studies of the markets for candidates, parties or policies (all the enfranchized citizens) but the basic structure of the information-gathering style was the same. The model was also introduced in countries where the markets for products were competitive but where the political market was heavily monopolistic: this tended to produce acceptable data for the economic clients but much more questionable data for the political analysts. The opposite imbalance has been observed in studies of competitive polities with backward econo-

16

C R O S S - N A T I O N A L S U R V E Y RESEARCH

mies; election polls will make sense but consumer preference questions produce data of low validity in communities at a low level of monetization. The fourth cell in this fourfold scheme produces least trouble methodologically: polling organizations are not very likely to move into territories where both the economic and the political motives for the conduct of interview studies are missing. The difficulties occur in the cells off the diagonal:

Competitive

Competitive

Political and polls effective

economic

Polity Monolithic, traditional

Questionable data on political choices (e.g. polls in Southern Italy, Spain, Mexico)

Economy

Monopolistic, traditional

Questionable data on economic choices

Polling not likely to occur

(e.g. polls in remote Indian villages)

The dilemmas "off the diagonal" are often solved through geographical concentration: market research forms in the dual economies of the "Third World" generally find it most profitable to limit their field work to the major cities, to the segments of the population most likely to have some effective choice in economic matters (in India, the commercial pollsters opted for another compromise: they interviewed in the cities and in the nearest of the villages!) In the thoroughly monetized nations of Europe and the West, the purchasers of data generally frowned on such restrictions: they wanted to know about their chances in the expanding rural markets as well. But in many of these countries the conditions for economic market research were much more favorable than for political: the nation might be economically integrated through the spread of the same brands of consumer products and the same ideals of modern living, but there would still be bitter conflicts over cultural, religious and political identity. In such segmented polities the pollsters attempting to add political

17

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

questions to their lists of consumer preference items often encountered a great deal of resistance and obstruction. In countries such as Belgium, France, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy, not to speak of Greece and Spain, the refusal rates for political questions tended to be very high and the significance of the responses recorded was often subject to doubt 1 4 . Questions about politics may be rejected as impertinent 01 embarrassing even in the most homogeneous of countries (the refusal rates for party preference questions are at their very lowest in Sweden and the United States) but the percentages of such "lost" responses tend to be so small that they do not affect decisively the possibilities of meaningful analysis. In countries torn by deepseated conflicts between the central elite and the peripheral communities, between secular and religous camps, between communist and bourgeois establishments, it will clearly be much more difficult to establish the needed rapport with the target respondents and to elicit sincere answeres to political questions. There may be ways of reducing the risk of rejection and increasing the chances of obtaining valid data but the national polling organizations have genrally found such devices too expensive. They may establish scores for the likelihood of refusals by type of local community and then oversample the most recalcitrant ones, they may even develop culturally and politically distinctive interviewer teams and assign matching samples of respondents to each of them, but all such tricks will be to little avail as long as the interview organizations adhere so closely to the plebiscitarían model of fixedalternative questioning: this model may generate useful data in cultural and political contexts where the costs to the person of reporting a choice or an identity is at a minimum but will rarely work in contexts where the reporting of such information is seen as potentially disruptive. This is a source of variation rarely considered in the design of samples and in the planning of interview schedules: the strength of the local cultural and political pressures to keep information from strangers. The severer the strains between the centres of political power and the peripheral communities in a system, the less likely is information to flow freely from respondents to interviewer: conversations with strangers tend to be brief and guarded and the typical fixed-alternative question will be received with great suspicion if not outright scorn. Anthropologists and sociologists have described a large number of such tight-knit local communities within larger nation-states: Julian Pitt-Rivers's work on a village of the Spanish Sierra is a particularly vivid example 1 5 . In such situations anthropological techniques of obser-

18

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

vation and conversation with informants may be the only appropriate ones but in larger communities of this kind the numbers of households and segments may be so large as to call for some form of sampling: in such cases the census model of questioning may prove the most effective but it may also prove possible to get closer to some mapping of social, cultural and political identifications through the use of test batteries and loosely structured reportorial interviews. But whatever the technique of questioning the crucial condition of success is the establishment of friendly and confident rapport: if the interviewer is received as a potential spy, as an agent of the police or of the tax collector, the data he can collect will not be worth much. Survey organizations are "nationalizing" agencies: they spread questions, requests for information, from the centre to the peripheries of each nation. But by contrast to the army, the police, and the fiscal administration they have no way of forcing their subjects to give information: they depend for their survival on the simple fact of social life that people are willing to communicate freely with strangers once a few minimum requirements of confidence have been established 16 . In thoroughly mobile national communities such as the United States, even "out-of-towners" may quickly establish this minimal level of confidence, but in countries with many isolated, tradition-tied communities hostile to influences from the power centres, it may be essential to work from inside to establish local contacts and to use local interviewers. Teachers, particularly women teachers, may often prove useful in this role: they will generally have established themselves as persons worthy of trust, at least in part of the community, and their contacts with agencies at the national center will not so easily be viewed with suspicion. There are well-known limits to any such efforts, however. In countries and territories divided by international power conflicts any effort of data-gathering, however innocuous, runs the risk of politicization: the interviewer tends to be treated as a potential spy and the survey organization tends to be labelled an agency of foreign dominance. The CAMELOT scandal over the allocation of Defense Department funds for surveys and other studies in Latin America (Horowitz: 21) has recently reminded the social science community of these dangers and has prompted a great deal of soul-searching among the strategists of cross-national research: many of them have come to the conclusion that the UN and its agencies might have a useful role to play in the sponsorship of scholarly studies in sensitive areas of the world.

19

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

3 STYLES OF CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH: THREE CASE STUDIES Whatever the difficulties in the way of the diffusion of the survey method a number of countries of the world have for two decades or more been subjected to regular sampling and questioning by private and public organizations. A great number of the questions asked have been similar in structure from country to country and have generated potentially comparable data for analysis. Some of these potentially comparable categories of data bear on essential background characteristics needed inmost efforts of analysis: sex, age, status in the household (head, dependent), economic activity status (employer, employed, housewife, retired, unemployed), occupation, type of community, region. The international networks of polling characteristics have tried their best to develop uniform styles of questioning and coding for such variables and have to some extent been guided in this work by efforts of statistical standardization pursued by the UN Statistical Office, the ILO, the OECD and other agencies. Many of the attitude-opinion questions have been repeated in similar form in country after country through agreements within the international networks (e.g. Roper-Woodward : 165; "Démocratie ...": 860) or through the intervention of some major international client (e.g. the 1947 Time study, "Plain people . . . " : 972; Wallace: 980; Woodward: 982; Stern: 978; the 1963 Reader's Digest study: 640-641). Other questions just happened to be formulated in roughly similar ways because they dealt with events, fashions, fads, issues of an international nature: there was no deliberate effort to establish cross-national comparability but the data generated happened to be similar enough to warrant reanalysis in an international perspective. The existence of a great variety of such "haphazard products of internationalization" is one reason for the development of archives of raw data from sample surveys: the principal literature on this movement is listed in section 1.22 of the bibliography. Only a small minority of the total number of questions asked in similar fashion across two or more countries have been part of deliberately designed cross-national surveys. Such studies are still a rarity: they are costly, they require a great deal of organization, they are not surefire investments. But they are methodologically and strategically much more important than the other studies: they offer a much better basis for serious and systematic 20

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

consideration of comparability and equivalence issues, of questions about the logic of cross-national and cross-culture research designs, and of the organizational options in such undertakings. It would be impossible, within the confines of this brief introduction to a bibliography, to review all such attempts at deliberate cross-national data gathering. Instead, I have chosen to report in some detail on three cases: —the 1948 Unesco nine-country survey reported in the well-known volume How Nations See Each Other (Buchanan and Cantril: 502); —the seven-country survey of primary and secondary school teachers carried out in 1953 by the Organization for Comparative Social Research (Rokkan: 160; Aubert, Fisher and Rokkan: 870; Rokkan: 885); —the five-country survey of active vs. passive citizens reported on by Almond and Verba. The Civic Culture (834).

3.1 The Unesco nine-country survey The Unesco survey was part of a broader programme of research on "tensions" among nations, races and ethnic groups (Klineberg: 509). The objective was to map variations in "common ideas about foreign peoples" and in "attitudes affecting international understanding". The study was carried out in altogether nine countries. Eight of the countries were economically advanced and could be covered by well-equipped private polling organizations: Australia, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The ninth country was a "dual economy" country with very limited elements of pluralist competition in its political system: Mexico. In this country there was no question of establishing a nation-wide cross-section: the sample simply covered the 23 cities where the organization had trained interviewers. The choice of countries was not guided by any considerations of theory, did not reflect any deliberate research design: the countries were simply chosen in terms of the availability of polling organizations and the convenience of cooperation. The 1948 study proceeded in a series of steps: (a) elaboration of first draft questionnaire; (b) selection of countries for study and of survey organizations to undertake the field work; (c) preliminary field tests and revision of questionnaire; 21

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

(d) preparation of final questionnaire in its English and French "master versions"; (e) transmission to each organization of: (aa) master questionnaire in English and French; (bb) instructions for translations of questionnaire; (cc) instructions for sampling (1,000 respondents, cross-sectional quota sample); (dd) instructions for coding and tabulation of responses; (f) field work in each country (June 1948—January 1949); (g) coding, punching and tabulating in each country; (h) presentation to Unesco by each country organization of operational reports and response tabulations in accordance with instructions; (i) central analysis of tabulations; (j) preparations of reports. In reviewing these operational steps the authors of the principal report emphasize the importance of further coordination and centralization in controlling the levels of comparability and in ensuring fuller exploration of cross-national analysis possibilities. Quite particularly they call attention to the need for such coordination on two points : 1. Pre-testing the ballot with several hundred interviews in each country, to get a leverage on the translation problems and to standardize the coding. 2. Central coding and tabulation of results from ballots which show as precisely as possible the background information on each respondent. (Buchanan and Cantril: 502, p. 113). In addition, mention was made of the need for more "open-ended" questions in such cross-national surveys. The prohibitive cost of central coding of verbatim protocols of free response was, however, found to argue decisively against any substantial change in the proportion of "check-box" to "openended" questions. The design of the comparative study was very straightforward. Five general areas of opinion-perception can be said to have been explored through the 1948 study: 1. The individual's estimate of his own position in the class structure of his country, and its relation to his view of other people at home and abroad (Q. 9-10). 2. His feeling of personal security in matters unrelated to international affairs, and his satisfaction with life in his own country (Q. 5-8). 22

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

3. The peoples toward whom he feels friendly or unfriendly (Q. 11-12). 4. The stereotypes he carries in his head of his own and certain foreign peoples (Q. 13). 5. His ideas about human nature, peace, world government, and national character (Q. 1-4). In addition, the design included (6) an item relating to the general political orientation of the respondent (Q. 14), (7) five standard items of information on the basic social characteristics of each respondent (sex, age, education, socio-economic status, occupation). The study was from the outset presented as a descriptive and exploratory one. The interview instrument was not designed to test any articulate social science theory or its derivations but was organized as it was to allow analyses of empirical relationships between responses in systematically selected problem areas. There were, however, some general and some specific expectations of probable distributions and relationships, and these expectations seem to some extent to have guided the preparation of the instructions for tabulations and the plan of analysis. It can only be said to be unfortunate that in such an exploratory study the actual analysis had to be limited to the relatively few cross-talubations which had been decided on before the data had been collected and the response distributions for each country were known (cf. Buchanan and Cantril: 502, p. 109). It is of some interest to observe how these pioneers of the comparative survey went about their analysis of the data from the nine countries. In the introductory chapter of their report (p. 8) they state: Two complementary systems of analysis are employed to reduce this mass of data, not all of which is equally valuable, to workable dimensions: 1. Percentages on a single question or group of questions in all nine nations are juxtaposed, and similarities between all or most of the nations are examined; 2. Each national survey is treated as a unit, and examined in the light of what was known about that country, with differences receiving major attention. They further imply that three types of procedures of analysis may usefully be applied in exploring such similarities or differences (simplified summary of the list p. 9): Type I. Direct between-country comparisons of response distributions for single questions; Type II. Between-country comparisons of the direction and statistical 23

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

significance of relationships between responses to one question and some other attribute or variable, whether another response or some "background" characteristic; Type III. Ranking of countries on the basis of percentage distributions on one or more questions and cross-national analysis of relationships between several rank orders between different countries. A fourth type of procedure is considered but is not recommended: "Percentages, indices, or differences for the nine countries may be added or averaged, but this is avoided where possible, since it serves to obscure national variations from the pattern." The actual analysis was severely limited by the "freezing" of the list of required tabulations ahead of the inspection of the actual data: excerpts of this a priori tabulating instructions are given in Appendix C, p. 121-124 of Buchanan and Cantril. Most of the tabulations requested were of type I or type II: mostly straightforward comparisons of the marginal distributions question by question, or simple controls for one background characteristic at a time, primarily sex, age, education and interviewer-rated socio-economic status, in a few cases a crude classification by the occupation of the head of the household. Most of the type III tabulations bear exclusively on data generated by the survey itself: countries are ranked on single questions or on various summary scores on the basis of the degree of correlation among responses and the correlations of such rank orders are presented. Only in two cases do we find attempts at analyses of the variations in the survey data through the specification of what we now call the macro-contexts of the national responses: on p. 25 the countries are grouped by the politics of their current government to account for variations in attitudes to its ideological position ("too much to the right", "too much to the left") and on p. 34 some GNP figures are brought in to account for the variations in the national rank orders on the "satisfaction" and "security" scores. The analysis stays practically entirely at the micro level: true to the tradition of plebiscitarian polling the analysts treat each respondent as an isolated unit cut out of the day-to-day contexts of historically and culturally channelled interaction in his society. There is some reluctance to the merging of all units indiscriminately into one set irrespective of the country of residence (Type IV in the scheme above) but the rationale for this reluctance is not developed. The analysts feel intuitively that the data have to be grouped and 24

CROSS-NATIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH

analysed by country but this classification remains completely nominal in their treatment: beyond the very elementary classification by the party in power and the level of economic development, there is no attempt to identify any analytical dimensions of the national contexts of the variations in recorded responses. In the further development of cross-national survey research, these questions of macro-micro design took on central importance. The crucial analytical distinctions were initially worked out on bodies of single-nation data (Lazarsfeld and Rosenberg: 214; Suchman: 243) but were obviously of critical importance in comparisons across different political systems. The essential scheme of distinctions can be set out in three steps: Primary personal characteristics :

Examples

Derived

unit

characteristics

An attribute or variable Sex characterizing an individual Weight qua individual Pigmentation Incidence of some disease

A rate, an average, a parameter of some distribution within the unit.

An attribute or variable Level of education characterizing an individual reached, occupation, orqua member of some group of ganizational role, etc. social category

A rate, an average, a parameter.

Relational characteristics: An attribute or variable Frequency of communicharacterizing a relationship cation between A and B, of one individual to other indi- sociometric choice. viduals.

A rate, an average, a parameter, or a derived structural attribute of the unit (e.g. " cohesion ")•

Contextual characteristics: An attribute or variable characterizing an individual through the characteristics of the unit he is part of or is exposed to.

Primary unit charateristics An attribute or variable characteristic of the unit qua unit, not derivable from the characteristics of its individual members,

Examples Unit datum : a national political community highly dependent on foreign trade. Personal datum : a citizen of such a nation.

This scheme posits only two levels of variation: the individual and the nextlevel unit. In cross-national research it will often prove necessary to link up variations at three or more levels: at the level of the individual, at the level of his local community (e.g. degree of urbanization), at the level of the 25

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sample survey in fact forces the analyst to concentrate on the search for invariances: the anonymity of the punched card and the technical difficulties of finding out more about each person than what has already been recorded forces the analyst to squeeze as much as he can out of the data at hand. In comparisons across nations the situation may be very different: if the national units compared are very many and very remote (such as in the analyses of materials in the Yale Data Program presented in Russett: 116 and Merritt and Rokkan: 220, cf. Retzlaff: 231) the "anonymization" effect may be strong enough to favour "survey-type" analysis, but in narrower comparisons of fewer nations there is bound to be constant oscillation between the "knowledge by description" and the knowledge by acquaintance" poles of the continuum, between analytical precision and contextual intuition 17 . Judging from the literature recorded in our bibliography it is very unlikely that an effective balance between the two orientations can ever be achieved in any single project: this will be possible only through a continuous process of cumulation, through systematic reanalysis and reinterpretation of studies already done, and through the deliberate design of fresh data-gathering operations to settle hypotheses left in doubt by earlier ones. 3.3 The Almond - Verba five-country study An important step in this direction was taken in 1958 in the planning of a comparative survey study of the "meaning of citizenship" 18. Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba set a landmark in the history of comparative politics through this study. The Civic Culture (Almond and Verba: 834), represents an innovation in the literature of comparative politics: it opens up new perspectives on the theory of democratic politics; it demonstrates the potentialities of a new method of data gathering and analysis; it points to a series of problems for further research and theorizing on the sources of national differences in the character of the relationships between government and the governed. It is a great book and it is a measure of its greatness that it raises as many queries and objections as it produces insights and confirmations. In bare outline, the study reported in this volume seems simple enough: Gabiiel Almond and Sidney Verba wanted to find out what sorts of people were active, articulate and "responsive" and what sorts of people were passive, inarticulate and unconcerned in a number of full-suffrage democracies, and they wanted to study similarities and differences in the backgrounds, 37

TRENDS, ISSUES, STRATEGIES

the orientations and the motivations of actives and passives in such polities. Indeed, what is surprising is that it took so long before any one did just that. We have had full-suffrage democracies in the West for decades, and the contrasts between the active few and the passive but mobilized mass have been endlessly discussed, and sometimes even investigated, in country after country. A few scattered attempts were made in the twenties and the thirties to assemble some of the statistics and to compare them across a few countries, but these attempts stayed at a very low level of theoretical sophistication, (Rokkan: 842, 843, 844). The advent of the poll and the sample survey opened up new posibilities for comparative political statistics, but these possibilities were first seen by sociologists such as Lazarsfeld, Lerner (904) and Lipset (827) and only much later by scholars reared in the traditional disciplines of political theory and institutional analysis. It is indeed significant that the most comprehensive of all anthologies of contributions to the study of comparative politics, the Eckstein-Apter reader includes only a single example of systematic cross-national analysis of poll or survey data 19. Almond and Verba broke new ground: they introduced into the study of comparative politics methods so far primarily developed by social psychologists and sociologists and they demonstrated that these methods can yield results of relevance not only in the description of differences and similarities between polities but also in the exploration of central hypotheses in a theory of political development. The Civic Culture is indeed not just another compilation of comparative statistics. We have travelled a long distance from the crude empirical tabulations assembled by Gosnell and Tingsten in their pioneering works of the twenties and thirties. Almond and Verba designed their five-country survey to explore, if not to test, some of the empirical implications of the general theoretical formulations developed within the Committee on Comparative Politics set up by the Social Science Research Council. The key terms in the vocabulary of this group of scholars are "political development," "political culture," "political inputs" and "political outputs." The choice of countries to be studied reflects their central concern with processes of change from traditional to modern modes of politics: on the one hand two still heavily tradition-bound but rapidly modernizing polities, Mexico and Italy, on the other hand three advanced but still very different systems, the German Federal Republic, the United Kingdom and the United States. Each of these five has its distinctive "political cultures," its particular mix of dominant orien38

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tations to the objects of politics in the different strata and sectors of its population. To map out such variations in dominant modes of orientation Almond and Verba introduce an intriguing typology: they distinguish the parochial mode of the inhabitants psychologically most remote from the administrative apparatus of the nation-state, the subject mode of the obedient or only passively recalcitrant followers of the orders and regulations of the field bureaucracy, and the participant mode of the citizens who are not only aware of the "outputs" of the governmental machinery, but also are ready to contribute to the "inputs" of pressures on those who control the machinery. The five countries chosen for study were taken to represent so many distinctive mixes of such modes of orientation to politics and government: Mexico still largely "parochial" but with strong participant aspirations, Italy also heavily "parochial" but essentially distinguished by the high level of alienation in its "subject" orientations, Germany a more positive "subject" culture but with only minimal emphasis on participation, and the United Kingdom and the United States finally exhibiting flexible equilibria between "subject" and "participant" orientations, the British tending to tilt heavier toward deferential subject roles, the Americans more likely to emphasize the virtues of activity than the duties of civic obedience. This conceptualization of types of relationships between the governed and their government was fundamental in the study: it decided the priorities of the survey design, it was reflected in the actual sequences of questions in the interview schedule, it also governed the procedures of analysis. The focus is on the individual adult and his interaction with constituted governmental authorities: how much does he know about them? how does he feel toward them? how far does he trust them? how competent does he feel in dealing with them ? what does he actually do to counteract or influence them? The questions used to map out these interrelations and interactions are admirably conceived and the interpretation of the resulting response distributions is often illuminating. Yet one may well ask whether this plebiscitarian concentration on the direct links between individual and nation has not tended to distort the maps given us of the five polities and their differences. There is very little analysis of the sources of cleavage and dissension within each polity: regional differences, even in the very obvious cases of Italy and the United States, are not discussed, differences among denominations and between the religiously active and passive are only touched on, and differences between social classes are largely ignored. The authors offer a perceptive introductory note on the need to consider political subcultures 39

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but their data do not go far toward a description of variations in the strength of such alternative foci of political identification as the regional culture, the church, the class, the union, the political party. The five-country study was deliberately centered one one of many axes in the political system and the design was parsimoniously organized to produce data and analysis possibilities in this one direction. The authors state this very clearly (pp. 378-9 and 401) and I can only admire their stubborness in resisting temptations to broaden the design to offer analysis possibilities in alternative directions. In a first attempt at systematic comparative data gathering my own preference would have been for a multi-focussed design, fewer questions in each area of variation and a larger number of respondents in each country. This is not just cautious electicism: given the fact that we still lack even the simplest comparative compilations of political survey statistics for these countries (see the list of attempts in this direction in Section I. 2.3 of the Bibliography) it would seem to me preferable to start out with a broad mapping of sources of within-nation variation before proceeding to refined analyses along one single axis. The strong nation-orientation of the survey desing is also reflected in the analysis procedures and the tabulations in the report. Of the 127 tables and graphs scattered through the volume I count as many as 52 presenting straight comparisons between total national cross-sections without any structural differentiations. This is essentially an expository device but it does raise problems when contrasting such differently designed samples as the Italian and the Mexican: in the one case all communities of the nation, even the smallest rural ones, had a chance to be selected, but in the other only the cities of 10,000 or more inhabitants. The reader is reminded of the necessity to take this into account in a footnote (p. 90), but there is only a single graph setting out differences by size of community (p. 235). In general, given the contrasts in geographic and socio-economic structure among countries at such different levels of economic growth, it would have seemed an elementary precaution to alert the reader at every major point in the presentation to the need for such basic controls for within-nation variation. The great majority of the controls used in the tables and graphs presented are for formal education. This is an essential control in any analysis of elicited expressions of opinion or attitudes: we have moved a long way from the straightforward plebiscitarianism of the early pollsters. Formal education proves an excellent predictor both of awareness of government outputs and of willingness to take action to influence authorities. This message comes through with great 40

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clarity from all the countries and reminds us of a basic problem for all fullsuffrage democracies: votes may be equal, but opinions are only likely to be articulated and pressures only likely to be initiated by small minorities. That these minorities tend to be better educated than the average voters is a finding confirmed by political statisticians in country after country,but this does not mean that there are not other, and sometimes as important, channels of recruitment (cf. Rokkan and Campbell: 845). Politics may be taught in the family, in youth movements, in unions and clubs, and for citizens with only a minimum of formal schooling such stimulations and experiences may prove decisive. The samples of such citizens were very large in all the countries and further differentiations by the most likely sources of early political stimulation might easily have been introduced: 35 % in the U.S., the most educated of the nations, 63 % in the U.K., 84 % in Germany, 79 % in Italy and 88 % in Mexico. These least educated categories must of necessity be highly heterogeneous: they will include farmers, tenants and labourers in the primary economy as well as unemployed, wage earners and some artisans and shopkeepers in the urbanized communities. Such further differentiations might not only help to map out in detail the typical channels for the recruitment of active citizens but also open up the way for analyses of the direction of their activity. This, perhaps, is the point where the sociologist is most likely to object to the Almond-Verba analysis. There are a variety of ingenious indexes of levels of activity, but there is hardly any direct analysis of the political context and the policy direction of the activity: is it directed against or in support of the local or the national authorities, is it essentially an expression of party commitment or is it an outflow of community position ? Historically this is one of the crucial questions to be asked in any comparative discussion of the consequences of full-suffrage democracy: were the lower-class citizens brought into each system through the extension of the franchise mostly mobilized by the existing parties and powerholders or did they organize parties and power centres of their own in opposition to the inherited system? There is very little discussion of the genesis of the five national party systems in the book and hardly a word about the socio-economic, cultural and religious conditions for the continued maintenance of the parties. This may be in full conformity with the deliberate decision to focus on the direct ties between citizen and nation, but it seems legitimate to ask whether this disregard for the political direction of citizen activity has not reduced the utility of the study as an empirical description of differences between countries. 41

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The chapter on "patterns of partisanship" is no doubt the most disappointing to the political sociologist. There is an ingenious analysis of expressions of affect between voters for opposing parties in each country, but no consideration of the socio-cultural factors making for higher or lower levels of polarization between parties or of alienation from the national system: the data collected would have allowed a great deal of analysis in this direction and other studies could have been drawn on to round off the presentation of each party system. The treatment of Italy is particularly problematic. The difficulties of conducting interview studies in a country with a high proportion of Communist voters are well-known: the Milan organization working for Almond and Verba could only register 4.5 % PCI voters and 5.5 % PSI voters in the sample as against 22.7 % and 14.2 % in the election of 1958. Most of the communists and Nenni socialists clearly refused either to be interviewed or to report their votes to the interviewers. Almond and Verba discuss the abnormally high refusal rate for Italy on p. 116-118, but curiously do not relate it directly to the discrepancy for the PCI and the PSI. Other studies carried out in Italy also report marked discrepancies, but none that I have seen report as low per cents for the two parties of the left as Almond and Verba 20. This discrepancy raises general problems of strategy of research in politically divided countries, problems which ought to receive much greater attention than they have, both among political analysts and among the technicians of the survey profession 21 . Dogan's current work on the stratification of the left vote in France and Italy and Allardt's work on the Communist vote in Finland may point the way toward complex combinations of ecological analyses of local variations with pinpointed survey research which will yield much more than the straightforward cross-sectional sampling procedure so far applied. I hope I shall not be accused of carping at details in this well-written report on a pioneering study. My concern has been less with details of design and analysis than with the general problem of strategies for cumulative comparative research on political processes. Many of the additional analyses I have suggested can still be done: the authors have generously bequeathed the IBM cards of their five-country study to the Inter-University Consortium for Political Research and I have myself supervised the work of several students at Yale with these decks. What is needed beyond this, however, is a cumulation of efforts to fit this body of data into a wider context of information on elections, parties, local administrations and interest organizations, 42

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first in the countries studied in such detail, later for a number of other countries. Almond and Verba have on the whole confined themselves to a presentation of their theory, their method and their basic findings. The community of political analysts must now seek to incorporate these data and these findings into a broader cumulative effort to improve the bases for crossnational comparisons. We still lack even the most elementary compilations of evaluated political statistics for the countries of the West. Experts on comparative economic growth can base their analyses on vast efforts of data collation and compilation by the UN and its agencies. Experts on comparative political development have no such basis for their work.

4 THE ORGANIZATION OF COMPARATIVE SURVEY RESEARCH: THE CONDITIONS FOR CUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT The Almond-Verba volume represented a great step forward in the comparative study of styles of political behaviour but was by no means a unique achievement within the social sciences: from the mid-fifties onwards there was a continuous ferment of plans, designs and schemes for cross-cultural and cross-national data gathering and data analysis and a great many of these generated important bodies of data and led to interesting analytical innovations. The great majority of the centrally coordinated projects were American in origin: until well into the 'sixties it was only possible to raise funds for such costly research enterprises from U.S. agencies and foundations. Any priority listing of these American projects will of necessity be arbitrary but these seem to me to be most important examples of academically oriented data-gathering operations across three or more countries since the early 'fifties: The earliest of all co-ordinated survey studies in developing countries the study initiated by Lazarsfeld at the Columbia Bureau of Applied Social Research in six Middle Eastern countries during 1949-51, were at first only presented in a few internal reports but were later analyzed within a broader theoretical framework by Daniel Lerner (904). Parallel efforts of survey research in the developing countries were pursued by Hadley Cantril, the great pioneer of cross-national polling. He set up an Institute for International Social Research at Princeton, N.J., and organized, with his colleague Lloyd Free, a great number of studies of mass and elite attitudes across the world (Cantril: 529, 531, 817; DIVO: 872; Free: 873-876): the most important of 43

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these (Cantril: 530) reports in detail on the administration of his "SelfAnchoring Striving Scale" in a wide range of countries, four highly developed countries (U.S., W. Germany, Israel and Japan), three very different sorts of Socialist polities (Poland, Yugoslavia and, interestingly, Castroite Cuba) and seven typically "developing" countries (Panama, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Brazil, Egypt, Nigeria and India) 22 . A number of comparative studies have centered on factors of change and modernization in the developing countries. David McClelland (568). was able to replicate his "n-achievement" test on different samples in Brazil, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Poland and Turkey and developed an intriguing theory of the personality syndromes most likely to produce entrepreneurial talents in developing countries. Alex Inkeles administered a 119-item test of "attitudinal modernity" to matched "common man" samples in Argentina, Chile, India, Pakistan, Israel and Nigeria (757), and Sidney Verba (848) was able to finance a study of attitudes to social and political changes in the two of these countries, India and Nigeria, for a comparative analysis with corresponding data for Japan and the United States (Mexico had been included in the original scheme but had to be dropped in the wake of project CAMELOT). A major comparative study of attitudes to economic growth is currently (1967) at the planning stage at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology: this will be directly by Frederick Frey. A number of psychologists found it tempting to replicate their tests and their techniques in foreign countries. A pioneer in the field of psychological measurement, Charles Osgood, succeeded in persuading colleagues in close to twenty language communities to use his Semantic Differential Technique (see section III. 80 of bibliography). The Andersons (339, 492-494) were able to replicate their' 'incomplete story " test in some ten countries to explore differences in student-teacher relations in democratic vs. authoritarian environments, and Lambert and Klineberg (510-511) sampled children of different ages in nine countries to test hypotheses about the growth of stereotypes of foreign peoples. Among anthropologists the Whitings took the lead in the development of standardized schedules for the recording of information about childrearing practices (J.W.M. Whiting: 330), and organized an important sixculture data gathering operation much on the same lines of the typical crossnational survey (B.B. Whiting: 329). The Almond-Verba study for some time threatened to remain the only example of a deliberately organized cross-national mass survey of political 44

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behaviour variables. Comparative political sociologists such as Seymour Martin Lipset (827-830) William Kornhauser (839) and Robert Alford(814) 23 relied on data from independently conducted commercial polls and surveys from many countries and tried to place the findings in broader perspectives of history and theory. Daniel Lerner (Lerner and Gorden: 882, cf. Gorden and Lerner: 960) and Karl Deutsch (Deutsch and Merritt: 931) organized extensive studies of elite attitudes in Western Europe and sought to link up evidence from such top-level interviews with secondary evidence from mass surveys (Merritt and Puchala: 109). The active team of electoral analysts at the Survey Research Center moved into Europe country by country and organized local as well as nationwide surveys on lines comparable to the very successful ones carried out in the United States (Campbell and Valen: 816, Converse and Dupeux: 835-836; Rokkan and Campbell: 845). Finally, Philip and Betty Jacob were able to finance the organization of an elaborate four-nation study of "values in local government": this project covers the U.S., Poland, Yugoslavia and India and has generated an impressive array of memoranda, conference reports and initial analyses (853). Each of these projects may have proved costly in funds, personnel and intellectual energy, but they still represent only a very small percentage of the total social science effort in the United States during the last fifteen years. The current generation of social scientists has, at least in the nations of the West, been caught in cross-fire of two conflicting sets of demands: on the one hand they have felt impelled to concentrate their efforts of data-gathering and analysis in the many neglected field of inquiry within their own nation; on the other hand they have felt increasingly aware of the limitations of single-site studies and increasingly convinced of the methodological rationale and the theoretical pay-off of cross-community, cross-national and cross cultural research. The market conditions for decisions in the one direction or in the other have varied enormously from region to region. In the United States the resources of funds and personnel have been large enough to allow a small but expanding phalanx of comparatists to concentrate their work on cross-national and cross-cultural studies. In Latin America the national resources have been meager and the decisive thrust toward the establishment of regular research services have often come from abroad, through the organization of cross-national studies 24 . In Europe there has been a continuous increase in the flow of funds for social science research but a marked concentration on distinctly national tasks. Europe offers a remarkable range of opportunities for detailed cross-national research: there is a wealth of 45

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data still to be tapped, there are broad bodies of national experts to draw on for advice, there is increasing interest among policy-makers in studies cutting across the national and regional units 25. Curiously little has as yet been done to make use of these opportunities. Significantly, some of the first initiatives came from American scholars and were backed by American funds. Europeinitiated and Europe-financed studies have so far been few and far between. Perhaps the happiest example of a jointly financed and cooperatively planned international study is the twelve-country survey of achievement in mathematics (Husen: 336): this was planned at the Unesco Institute of Education in Hamburg, and financed by the U.S. Office of Education (for the international costs of the project) and by national funding agencies in the twelve countries (for the field operations). This project constitutes a model of international academic cooperation: it shows that it is possible to achieve solid results through the sharing of responsibilities across many national teams and it shows how Unesco and other international bodies can perform an important brokerage function in linking up American and European initiatives. The research committees set up by the International Sociological Association have prepared the ground for a similar linking of initiatives but so far the plans for concerted action can be counted one hand. The Committee on Social Stratification and Social Mobility pioneered the organization of a series of cross-national replications and has offered a fruitful forum of methodological and substantive discussions (see sect. Ill 41 and 43 of the bibliography, especially Miller: 739, Glass and Konig: 719): the current threecountry project Metropolit is a direct outcome of discussions within the committee (Janson: 730). Europe is clearly ripe for a variety of cross-national initiatives: what has been lacking has been an organizational focus, a concrete institutional basis for concerted action. Alexander Szalai's spectacular success in getting research workers in a dozen countries interested in joining the cross-national time budget study must be understood against this background (Szalai: 798-799). The Unesco decision to set up an European Co-ordination Centre at Vienna came just at the right moment: communications between sociologists in the East and the West had reached a point where cooperation on concrete tasks of empirical research were possible, and the regional organizations of the West had concentrated their efforts on purely economic studies and failed to offer a minimum of infrastructure for cross-national research in central fields of sociology. The successes of the Vienna Centre and the Unesco Institute of Education 46

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in Hamburg hold important lessons for the future: cross-national research requires an institutional framework, an organizational basis. Great plans and important pilot studies can result from haphazard encounters of enthusiasts but a cumulative tradition of cross-national research can only develop within a clear-cut organizational setting. The demographers, the economists and to some extent the educational scientists, have been able to build up broad international professions within the frameworks of large-scale intergovernmental organizations: the UN, the regional commissions, the World Bank, the OECD, the EEC and the Unesco Departments of Education all offer continuous opportunities for experiences in the handling and evaluation of data masses from wide ranges of countries and help to develop genuine cross-national expertise. There is no such firm basis for cross-national endeavours in the other social sciences: in anthropology, in sociology, in political science. There is some movement in the fields closest to demography, economics and education. It is interesting to observe that the two research committees under the International Association which have come closest to the development of a cumulative programme of cross-national studies are those focussed on the family and on mobility: both of them centering on variables closer to the concerns of demographers and both relying heavily on data from enumerations or from surveys close to the model of the census. It is also significant that the ISA has so far been unable to mount an active Research Committee for the Sociology of Education: there is already a basis for cooperative work on educational statistics in Unesco and the OECD and there is therefore not the same need for an institutionalization of personal communication networks. In other fields of sociology it has proved much more difficult to develop continuous programmes: there have been no institutional frameworks for long-term commitments to cross-national inquiries and, still worse, hardly anything has been done to evaluate or to standardize the production of data across any two or more nations. Take the case of political sociology. Enormous masses of data for analysis are produced in every nation every year: election statistics, polls and surveys, information on elite characteristics. But no international agency has seen any need to train any sizeable body of experts in the handling of such data: the data gathering and the analysis are almost invariably done within each nation and there is no organizational framework for continuous planning and promotion of research across nations. 47

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In the face of these difficulties a number of strategies have been tried out, some with significant intellectual payoffs, but none of them as yet with assured cumulative effects. I shall confine myself, largely for purposes of illustration, to three such strategies: (1) The Tingsten-Duverger-Lasswell line, the collation and comparison of "process-produced" political statistics, be they electoral counts, organizational bookkeeping data or regularly assembled information on key personnel 26 ; (2) The Dogan-Lipset line, the assembly, evaluation and analysis of raw data from independently conducted field operations, primarily from polls and surveys (Dogan: 820-822, Lipset: 827-830, Alford: 814); (3) The Almond-Verba line, the design and execution of explicitly comparative sample surveys across a number of distinct national populations. Each of these lines of inquiry has produced worthwhile results but it has proved remarkably difficult to ensure cumulative continuity in the systematization of the evidence across countries. No one has yet tried to "do a Tingsten" for post-war elections 27. No one has as yet tried to assemble a comparative compendium of historical and statistical information on political parties to fill in the many lacunae in Duverger's work. Lasswell's and Lipset's efforts generated longer-term programmes of research but enormous masses of data on elite recruitment and mass politics are still waiting to be systematically collated, evaluated and analyzed in a comparative context. There has been a tendency to "skim the cream" off the most accessible batches of comparative data and to pass on to new tasks at the first signs of routinization. This would be unthinkable in economics and in demography: the professions are broad enough to encourage a division of labour between the theorists concerned to test out new models and new methods, and the empiricists concerned to gain some measure of control over the onrushing masses of information. The current movement towards the development of computer archiving Oj data must be understood in this perspective: the data banks will have to be built up by hard-headed and down-to-earth empiricists but will leave the theorists a number of degrees freer to explore new hypotheses and new analytical notions (see sect. 1.2 of bibliography, especially Bisco: 56; Converse: 77; Rokkan: 61 and 82). But however international they might be in their coverage, the data banks cannot in themselves create the intellectual environments for effective advances in comparative research: there is 48

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no easy substitute for the intensive interaction of individual experts within organized networks of the type built up in economics and in demography. In fact the rush to feed computers with unevaluated data from a variety of different countries may produce a great deal of numerological nonsense: it will be essential to build in safeguards through close contacts with local informants and experts. Kingsley Davis has recently issued strong warnings against the "ready-data" schemes: there is the risk of "progressive diffusion of misinformation" and the danger of serious misinterpretation of analysis findings through ignorance of variations in the cultural, social and political contexts. 28 This, obviously is not an argument against the archiving of data but a plea for the development of broader cross-national analysis centres: it is not enough to make the data computer readable; they have to make empirical and analytical sense and they have to be evaluated in the light of thorough contextual knowledge. The strict evaluation procedures established for the data archive of the Inter-University Consortium at Ann Arbor, Michigan, suggest a model for operations in other countries: the object is not the accumulation of any prima facie comparable data but the organization of a systematic file of information likely to offer clear analytical payoffs. Data archives of this type seem destined to serve an important function in the planning of fresh field operations: archives of time series data for localities have already proved useful in the design of nation-wide sample surveys29 and backlog data from earlier surveys are increasingly used in calculations of alternative strategies of further data-gathering 30. Erwin Scheuch, in a recent paper 31 , reported that a Latin American social scientist had reacted to a plan for a survey by saying that it implied a "knownothing" approach to the population under investigation, a studied posture of ignorance of social-structural facts already known. The sample survey inherited this studied ignorance from the full-suffrage election and the referendum: the early polls were deliberately modelled on these political institutions and even very sophisticated survey practitioners are still heavily influenced by this heritage. Under the old régime censitaire, elections reflected the social structure of the national population: through the universalization of the suffrage and the introduction of secrecy, the act of voting was isolated from the social structure. The poll and the survey start out from the same equalitarian postulates: every adult is given the same chance to express himself or herself, irrespective of position in the social hierarchy, of level of education, of level of articulateness. This procedure is obviously justified in the study of elections: each 49

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adult has formally equal weight and has the same chance of influencing the fate of the Government. But what about studies of other areas of behaviour, processes of communication, attitudes to issues in the community, the spread of social, cultural and political innovations ? The argument generally heard for cross-section surveys in such areas is that one first has to establish the facts of the structure before moving on to the pinpointed surveys of strategic sectors of the population. But there is still a tendency to stick to the old cross-sectional model even after large quantities of information has been established. This seems to me to be a basic rationale for the development of archives of data for secondary analysis: the more we know about the results of earlier studies the easier it will be to design new studies and particularly to decide on strategic groups requiring further study. This is one point on which the procedure of the already classic AlmondVerba study might have been decisively improved. Such costly research enterprises should be preceded by detailed scrutiny of the data already at hand for each country. In some cases such scrutiny may of course still lead the researcher to decide on a cross-sectional approach in each country. It may well be that the Almond-Verba decision to carry out cross-sectional surveys in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and Italy, was based on such analyses of existent data, but the decision to exclude the rural communities of Mexico was clearly based on quite different considerations of fieldwork conditions. It seems to me that it would have been better to limit all the samples to populations at the same level of urbanization. This would not only have increased the overall comparability of the five samples but also allowed much more detailed analysis for the same investment of research dollars. Obviously, to make such a decision it would have been essential to carry out detailed analysis of rural-urban differences in the existing bodies of survey data. With the development of data archives this type of preparatory analysis should become possible for more and more countries and in the future it ought to become a matter of standard practice to fit new efforts of data gathering into the broader corpus of cumulating evidence for each country. There is an obvious danger, to quote Mattei Dogan, that data archives may degenerate into cimetières de cartes perdues, but it seems to me very difficult to limit their size through priority rankings of topics of research. The best criteria are probably the range of variables covered in each study and the variety of analysis possibilities it allows : the more varied the possi50

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bilities the more useful will the archive be for future research workers planning fresh data-gathering enterprises. But all such efforts only make sense within interlocking programmes of active cooperation among social scientists intimately familiar with conditions in the countries under study: "instant comparisons" through computer manipulations are bound to boomerang. The traditional exchanges of papers at international conferences may still help to bring together "opposite numbers" but the decisive confrontations must come before the papers: at the stage of data gathering data evaluation and comparative analysis. The demographers and the economists have built up the infrastructure for such confrontations : the other social scientists are still groping for solutions. Unesco and the International Social Science Council have seen the need for active exploration of new strategies in the advancement of cross-national comparrisons and have tried to draw up a long-term programme to this end 32 . The fate of this programme is still uncertain. We know from bitter experience that isolated cross-national projects tend to have very little cumulative payoff but we still have not been able to set up any international machinery to ensure project-to-project linkages over time. The powerful funding agencies in the United States are taking steps in this direction and may in fact be able to achieve some useful coordination of data-gathering operations organized under their auspices, but this still leaves the problem of international coordination unsolved. The Vienna Centre may point the way to a solution within Europe but is still too weak to take these broader functions. A decisive move in this direction could only be made through an arrangement among the principal funding agencies for the social sciences in Europe, but this will still remain to be worked out. Meanwhile, there is no way of stopping the flow of new projects. Many of them will still proceed in blithe ignorance of contextual factors affecting the outcome of cross-national replications. Many of them will still rush into fresh field operations without detailed reanalysis of data and experiences from earlier studies. Many of them will remain at the "safari" level of cultural immersion: the studies will be designed and the questions will be formulated without detailed consultation of scholars steeped in contextual knowledge of each of the societies to be covered. None of this can be changed overnight: we can only hope that the proportions, if not the absolute numbers, of such poorly designed studies will be reduced over the next couple of decades. The further development of data archives will no doubt facilitate this process of study-to-study and study-to-context linkage. So will the current efforts 51

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to inventorize surveys question by question and population by population to allow effective retrieval of all the information required in the design of new studies 33. And so will bibliographies such as the one presented in this volume: especially if it can be transformed in due time into a computer readable record of the coded characteristics of all available reports on past attempts at cross-national analysis of data from sample surveys.

NOTES 1. Jack Goody and Ian Watt have forcefully argued the decisive importance of alphabetization, not only for the structuring of societies, but also for the strategies of data gathering and the formulation of analytical concepts in the social sciences : "Looked at in the perspective of time, man's biological evolution shades into prehistory when he becomes a language-using animal; add writing, and history proper begins. Looked at in a temporal perspective, man as animal is studied primarily by the zoologist, man as talking animal primarily by the anthropologist, and man as talking and writing animal by the sociologist," ("The Consequences of literacy", Comparative Studies in Society and History 5(3), April 1963 : 304-345, at p. 304, my italics.) 2. For examples of particular relevance for the later development of the survey see Sigmund Diamond, "Some early uses of the questionnaire", Public Opinion Quarterly 27(4), 1963 : 528-542. 3. For reviews of these developments see the introduction to A. Eaton and S.M. Harrison, A Bibliography of social surveys, New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1930, XVIII-467 p. and FF. Stephan, "History of the use of modern sampling procedures" Journal of the American Statistical Association 43(241), March 1948 : 12-40. For German developments see A. Oberschall, Empirical social research in Germany, 1848-1914, Paris, Mouton, 1965, XII-153 p. 4. See Edgar S.D. Dunn, Jr. "The idea of a National Data Center and the issue of personal privacy", American Statistician 21(1), February 1927 : 21-27. 5. Large-scale sample surveys may, of course, serve purposes of individual intelligence or camouflage attempts at personal persuasion : the best known case of this is probably the Colin Hurry survey in Britain, see R. Rose, Influencing voters, London, Faber, 1966, p. 138. 6. For an analysis of these developments see Stein Rokkan, "Mass suffrage, secret voting and political participation", Archives européennes de Sociologie 2(1), 1961 : 132-154, and "Electoral systems", in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, New York, Macmillan, 1968, Vol. 5, pp. 6-21. 7. The most important work of this type has been done by J.R. Vincent at Cambridge, see his Poll books: how Victorians voted 1830-1872, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1967, XII-194 p. 8. See Claude E. Robinson, Straw votes. A study of political prediction. New York, Columbia University Press, 1932, XXI-203 p. 9. For accounts of the development of standardized voting procedures in the United States see J.H. Wigmore, The Australian ballot system, Boston, Boston Book Co., 1889, VIII-205 p. ; E.D. Evans, A History of the Australian ballot system in the United States, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1917, V-102 p.

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10. See Robinson, op. cit.; Henry C. Link, "Some milestones in the public opinion research", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 1, 1947 : 36-47; F.F. Stephan, "Advances in survey methods and measurement techniques", Public Opinion Quarterly 21(1), 1957 : 79-90. 11. G. Gallup and C. Robinson, "American Institute of Public Opinion Surveys, 19351938", Public Opinion Quarterly 2(3), July 1938 : 373-399; Elmo Roper, "Fortune quarterly survey", Fortune 11(7), July 1935 and ensuing issues; Daniel Katz and Hadley Cantril, "Public opinion polls", Sociometry 1, 1937 : 155-179. 12. The plebiscitarían assumptions of commercial polling have been analyzed with great critical skill by the German philosopher Wilhelm Hennis in Meinungsforschung und repräsentative Demokratie, Tübingen, Mohr, 1957, 64 p. This work is of particular interest as an attempt to bridge the gap between the political theory of representation and democracy and the current controversies about the assumptions underlying the practice of mass interviews. This theme is discussed in a broader perspective of historical sociology in Jürgen Habermas, Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit, Neuwied, Luchterhand, 1962, 291 p. (Politica. 4.) The position of the "pollsters" has been ably defended by G. Schmidtchen. Die befragte Nation, Freiburg, Rombach, 1959, 289 p. and Manfred Kuhn, Umfragen und Demokratie, Allensbach, Verlag für Demoskopie, 1959, 49 p. 13. Among the major contributions to research on such questions are : D.Riesman and N. Glazer, "The Meaning of opinion", Public Opinion Quarterly 12(4), Winter 1948-1949: 633-648; H. Hyman et al., Interviewing in social research, Chicago .University of Chicago Press, 1962, XVI-415 p.; Mark Benney, D. Riesman and S. Star, "Age and sex in the interview", American Journal of Sociology 62(2), September 1956 : 143-152; R.L. Kahn and Ch. Cannell, The Dynamics of interviewing, New York, Wiley, 1965, X-368 p.; Charles S. Mayer, Interviewing costs in survey research: a computer simulation study, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1964, IX-114 p.; Stephen A. Richardson, B.S. Dohrenwend and David Klein, Interviewing, its forms and functions. New York, Basic Books, 1965, VIII-380 p. 14. For a general discussion of alternatives to the survey methods in politically divided countries, see Juan Linz, "Ecological analysis and survey research", paper to be printed in M. Dogan and S. Rokkan, eds., Quantitative ecological analysis in the social sciences, Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1969. 15. J.A. Pitt-Rivers, People of the Sierra, New York, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1955, XVI-232 p. 16. The contrast between the survey interviewer and the judge or lawyer in the elicitation of legal testimony has been analyzed with great insight in "Expectations and premises : the so-called leading question", pp. 171-197 in : S.A. Richardson, B.S. Dohrenwend and D. Klein, Interviewing, its forms and functions, New York, Basic Books, 1965. In backward communities with some history of tolerant connivance of acts against the central authorities there is a real danger that the less educated will unconsciously identify any outside interviewer as a police inquisitor, a judge or an attorney. This points to an important task of methodological research : how much internal differentiation, how much exposure to the outside world is required before a local community can be effectively incorporated as a sampling point in a nation-wide study? 17. This point has been brillantly brought out in Sidney Verba's review, in World Politics 20(1), October 1967 : 111-127, of R.A. Dahl, ed., Political oppositions in Western democracies, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966, XX-458 p. 18. The ensuing section is adapted from a review written for American Political Science Review 57(3), 1964 : 676-679. 19. H. Eckstein and D. Apter, Comparative politics, a reader, 2d ed., New York, Free 53

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Press, 1964, XII-746 p. The example included is a chapter from Kornhauser : 838, The politics of mass society. 20. See specifically the studies reported on in Alberto Spreafico and Joseph La Palombara, ed., Elezioni e comportamento politico in Italia, Milano, Ed. di Comunità, 1963, XLVIII999 p. 21. See above p. 27-31. 22. The sampling report appended to the Cantril volume adds further evidence of the difficulties of interviewing in the rural areas of dual-economy territories : in Cuba, it was only possible to interview in Havana and some other cities ("... The name of the organization that did the work, long since disbanded and out of the country, must remain anonymous") ; in Egypt only 82 rural interviews could be collected and had to be weighted nine times to match the urban sample; in India only 10 per cent of the women could be interviewed because of local taboos. 23. Alford's secondary analysis of several dozen cross-sectional surveys of electorates in Australia, Canada, Great Britain and the United States has stimulated a great deal of further work, see the chapter on "The Anglo-American democracies" in S.M. Lipset and S. Rokkan, eds., Party systems and voter alignments, New York, the Free Press, 1967, XVIII-554 p.; and the interesting reanalysis of the Alford data in G.E. Lenski, "Status inconsistency and the vote : a four-nation test", American Sociological Review 32(2), April 1967 : 298-301. 24. For details see Germani, G. "International conference on comparative social research in developing countries, Buenos Aires, September 8-16, 1964, General Report", Social Science Information 4(2), June 1965 : 156-172. 25. See the recent OECD report The Social sciences and the policies of governments, Paris, OECD, 1966, 104 p., especially p. 79-80. 26. H.Tingsten, Political Behaviour, New ed., Totowa, N.J., Bedminster, 1963, 231 p.; 1st ed. London, P.S. King, 1937; M. Duverger, Lespartispolitiques, Paris, Colin, 1951, XI-476 p.; H.D. Lasswell et al., The Comparative study of elites, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1952, 72 p. 27. A first step in this direction : the publication of the first volume of the International guide to electoral statistics, Paris, Mouton, 1969. 28. K. Davis, "Problems and solution in international comparison for social science purposes", paper for the International Conference on Comparative Social Research in Developing Countries : intra-countries discontinuities in the process of economic and social development in Latin America, Buenos Aires, Di Telia Institute, September 1964, 14 p. mimeo. See the arguments for the archiving of cross-country data in B. Russett et al., World handbook of political and social indicators, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1964, X-373 p. and in H. Alker Jr., "The Comparison of aggregate political and social data : potentialities and problems", in S. Rokkan, ed., Comparative research across cultures and nations. Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1968, VIII-238 p. 29. See S. Rokkan and H. Valen, "Archives for statistical studies of within-nation differences", p. 411-418 in R.L. Merritt and S. Rokkan, Comparing nations, New Haven, Conn. Yale University Press, 1966. 30. For a remarkable example of the use of past data in determining optimal strategies of new data gathering see Charles S. Mayer, Interviewing costs in survey research, a computer simulation study, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1964, IX-114 p. 31. E. Scheuch "Progress in the cross-cultural use of sample surveys", in S. Rokkan, ed., Comparative research across cultures and nations, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1968, VIII-238 p. 32. See S. Rokkan, "Trends and possibilities in comparative social sciences," Social 54

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Sciences Information 4(4), 1965 : 139-165; S. Rokkan and K. Szezerba-Likiernik, "A programme for the advancement of comparative social science research; the action of the international Social Science Council", in S. Rokkan, ed., Comparative research across cultures and nations. Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1968, VIII-238 p. 33. Marten Brouwer of the Steinmetz Stichting of the University of Amsterdam has recently (April, 1967) completed an inventory of surveys stored in European archives (cf. Bisco : 56). Similar efforts of "study description" are under way for all U.S. archives under the auspices of the Council for Social Science Data Archives. Frederick Frey at M.I.T. has developed a computer readable register of questions asked and responses recorded in surveys conducted in developing countries. In the future it should be possible to retrieve quickly and effectively information about all surveys covering a given variable for a given country : see Bisco : 55; Levy : 59; Scheuch and Stone : 68, 69.

55

II. The uses of survey research in the study of comparative politics: issues and strategies SIDNEY VERBA

1 INTRODUCTION Survey research is perhaps the most important tool of empirical social research to have been developed in recent decades It is apparently also one of the most widely used. There are many reasons for its recent popularity. Some probably have to do with intellectual faddism and the prestige of quantitative techniques, but other reasons have more solid intellectual grounding. Survey research generates a large amount of standardized information so that quantitative analysis and hypothesis testing is possible; and it standardizes procedures which is the key to the all-important task of replication. In the field of political science (to which this essay will be limited because of the limitations of the author's knowledge, though much of what is said would apply to many other areas of social research) survey research has made major contributions. Our understanding of voting behavior, of political attitude formation, of legislative/constituency relations, of political socialization, of patterns of political competition, of elite mass relations within political parties, and many other subjects has been greatly enhanced. This essay will deal with the usefulness of survey research in studies of comparative politics. Survey techniques at first glance would seem particularly apt for comparative studies, since all survey analysis depends upon comparison. To understand voting we compare Socialists and Conservatives, workers and non-workers, protestants and catholics; to understand socialization we compare sons of authoritarian fathers with sons of non-authoritarian fathers, and so forth. But these are comparisons among individuals, or rather among large groups of individuals. One compares the rate of political activity among sons of authoritarian fathers with the rate among sons of non-authoritarian fathers. The units of analysis are individuals and 56

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their attitudes and behaviors. Our concern in this paper will be with the use of survey techniques for the comparison of large social systems: for macrosocial or macro-political analysis. This problem is important in the field of comparative politics where much comparison focusses on the largest and most complicated social unit we know, the nation-state. Many of the most important political questions require such a macro-political focus. Most of the definitions of political activity and political systems refer to the authoritative allocation of values for a society, the claim to a monopoly of legitimate violence, or the coordination of societal activity to attain collective goals. Ans this makes the nation-state an important unit of analysis. It is the government in most modern societies that claims the monopoly of legitimate violence, that allocates values for a society, and that coordinates societal activity toward collective goals. Can survey research contribute to the understanding of macro-political systems? Survey research focusses on the individual person or on aggregates of individuals as the unit of analysis, yet one wants to compare macrosystems. This is the main problem to be dealt with in this paper. Though the discussion will concentrate on survey research and comparative politics, it has general relevance to the comparative method. The precision and explicitness of the techniques of survey research highlight problems that may remain implicit in other types of comparative research. For instance, one major issue to be dealt with is the validity of comparison among specific aspects of more complicated systems and this is a general problem in the comparative method. Similarly the question of the relevance of data gathered from individuals for the understanding of political systems or nation-states (a question the survey researcher inevitably faces) is one version of the more general question of the relationship between individual behavior and complex social systems, and of the yet more general question of the relationship between the study of sub-units of a social system and the study of the larger social system. 2 THREE APPROACHES: AGGREGATE, AND SURVEY ANALYSIS

CONFIGURATIONAL

The nature of survey research as applied to problems of macro-analysis can best be understood by comparing it to two other approaches: the aggregate data approach and the configurative. 57

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In recent years, there has been much interest in gathering and analyzing aggregate unit data on nation-states. There are many kinds of aggregate unit data, some of them not that dissimilar to survey data (we will discuss this further below). For the time being, we shall be referring to information available for a social unit as a whole but not for its subparts. This includes information based on aggregates of its subparts, such as mean income, as well as information gathered on the level of the unit as a whole, such as its constitutional form. These data include quantitative data on economic and social matters (GNP, GNP per capita, newspaper circulation per capita, and so forth) as well as, in some cases, more qualitative ratings of various aspects of the economic, social or political systems (Banks and Textor: 103; Russett et al.\ 116; Deutsch: 80; Deutsch et al.: 81; Russett: 99; Retzlaff: 231; Scheuch: 238.) One attraction of the approach is that relatively systematic data, roughly comparable from nation to nation, are gathered for a large number of units. The latter fact is important. One of the problems in macro-political research on entire political systems is that there are too few cases. The study of the single case or the comparison of a few cases may suggest plausible relationships but cannot test them. The existence of a universe of more than one hundred relatively independent polities, however, may allow one more adequately to test the relations among variables. An additional attraction of this approach is that the data are on the level of the unit about which we want to generalize; they are on the nation-state level and, therefore, quite appropriate for macro-generalization. But the approach also entails a number of disadvantages. In the first place, the units for which measures are obtained are not necessarily comparable. The equal legal status of UN members cannot mask the fact that they differ substantially in size, internal cohesion, and degree of independence from other units. Secondly, the researcher is limited to the data made available through various governmental and international data collection agencies. One uses the statistics that are gathered, not necessarily the statistics that are most relevant to one's problems. Thirdly, these data may present a spurious "hardness", the differences in methods of collection and recording data, in the definition of variables, in the relationship of variables to social structure from which they are measured and so forth, greatly limit the degree to which such international comparisons are valid 2 . Fourthly, the use of available data collected by governmental agencies usually means that one does not have attitudinal measures. Lastly, and perhaps most important, the use of aggregate measures treats the unit as a unit. One does not penetrate into the 58

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social unit (in this case the nation-state) to deal with internal variations or internal structure. Indeed, the use of measures on the level of the unit does not allow one validly to make statements about the relations among subparts of the unit (say behaviors of individuals) without running the danger of committing what Robinson has called the ecological fallacy 3 . In sum, the nation-state can be characterized by a series of summary measurements dealing with its social and economic characteristics and these can be compared among many nations. But to characterize by a set of measures on the national level is perhaps to abstract too much. One must penetrate further into the system. A t the other extreme from the aggregate unit data approach is the configurative case study. This is difficult to characterize since it takes so many different forms among different authors and in relation to different problems. I am not referring here to the use of different theoretical structures, but to such aspects as style of research, type of observations, research techniques, and so forth. Configurative case studies are based on a wide range of types of often unsystematic observations carried out by the researcher. It is in many ways the most flexible and appropriate approach to the comparison of complex systems. It maximizes common sense; data that are "obviously" invalid cannot sneak into the analysis as easily as they can when the operations for data selection are more rigidly defined and put into effect more mechanically. On the other hand, the configurative approach to a single political system has all the usual faults of the intensive case study: it can prove nothing; it is hard to replicate; it does not easily lend itself to a systematic cumulation of knowledge. And of course, the number of cases is necessarily small 5 . Survey research, as a technique, lies roughly between the configurative case study and the aggregate data approach. Like the latter it depends upon relatively precise data gathering and evaluational techniques, using methods that allow replication by others. And the data allow meaningful quantitative manipulation to test hypotheses. On the other hand, the approach penetrates below the level of the nation-state. It gathers material relevant to internal variations within the nation. Furthermore, one can gather data on individual attitudes and behavior as well as on the "harder" subjects on which aggregate data are gathered. And one is not bound by the data already collected by governmental or other agencies. In this way survey techniques combine some of the advantages of depth and richness of the configurative study, as well as some of the rigor of the 59

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aggregate data approach. Is this the happy solution to all our research problems? The recent expansion in amount of survey work suggests that many think yes. But one must hesitate. For one thing, the organizational difficulties and expense of such work mean that surveys are usually limited to one or two societies and that the benefits of having a large number of national units for analysis are lost. We have a large number of cases, but the cases are individuals not systems. In this sense we are faced with the problem of the configurative approach: too few examples of the units we wish to compare. And, conversely, the survey techniques result in the kind of abstraction and selection that worries some of the critics of the aggregate approach. Nevertheless, survey techniques promise to combine depth with rigor and therefore commend themselves to our attention for macro-comparisons. But if this research is to contribute to such comparisons, it will need modification. In the remaining sections of this paper, I should like to: (1) enumerate some of the limitations of traditional survey research for macro-comparisons ; (2) argue that one needs a new type of survey research that is explicitly multi-contextual; (3) suggest some of the technical and methodological difficulties in achieving this kind of multi-contextual research; and (4) suggest some ways to get around the obstacles. One caveat before beginning. The above discussion should not be taken to imply that we are dealing with contradictory and mutually exclusive research approaches. A configurative case study can use survey research as one of its data gathering techniques; and the differences between aggregate data and data generated through the survey process is not a very clear one. Indeed, what I shall argue for is a reconciliation among approaches whereby we achieve a more systematic comparative approach.

3 THE LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL SURVEY RESEARCH Most survey studies have had two characteristics that limit their usefulness for macro-political analysis. They focus on the individual as the unit of analysis, and (what is really the same problem from a slightly different point of view) they have been non-contextual. By the latter I mean that they have not dealt explicitly with variations in the social context (the social structure and culture) within which the individual measurements are taken. In some cases, this is because the relevant social context does not vary. All measure60

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ments are made within a single context as when surveys are limited to single national political systems 6 . Or the survey may take place within several contexts, but these do not vary in terms of some relevant contextual dimensions. Thus, comparisons that incorporate the structural characteristics of sub-units of a nation-state (such as comparisons among different states or congressional districts of the United States where the contextual characteristics of the states are explicitly considered 7) deal with units that are homogeneous in such characteristics as democratic political form or fundamental electoral rules and they are culturally homogeneous in certain respects. And even multi-national studies may offer little variation along some of the most interesting of political system dimensions. The Almond-Verba Civic Culture study, for instance, is limited to relatively older and economically developed nations that have relatively high commitment to democratic procedures8. In other cases, there may be variation along important contextual dimensions, but the survey study remains non-contextual because these variations are ignored. Thus even studies that take place within single nations are carried on in different states, regions, cities, congressional districts and the like. But rhese contextual differences have rarely been considered explicitly within the analysis 9. The lack of contextual variation does not much interfere with micropolitical analyses, that is, analyses of the behavior of individuals. The behavior (say, voting decisions or frequency of political participation) of individuals is related to their social characteristics, attitudes, past experiences and so forth. Of course, individuals operate within a complicated social context, and their attitudes or behavior as well as such social characteristics as race, place of residence or class have meaning only within some such structural context. But in the analysis of much survey research these characteristics are considered the individual possession of the respondent 10. Insofar as one is interested in testing hypotheses about individuals, the fact that the measurements are limited to individuals or the fact that the context is not considered as part of the analysis may make little difference n . But if the characteristics of the context are held constant, the data about individuals cannot be used for analyses relevant to the context neither to explore the ways in which the structural context affect the individual's behavior or beliefs, nor to explores the ways in which the behaviors of individuals affect the context. Thus, if survey research is to be of use for the study of comparative macropolitics, it has to be multi-contextual and to pay attention to the placement 61

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of the individual within the relevant social structures (the former is a requisite for the latter.) In order to explore the potentialities for such multi-contextual survey research, I would like first to spell out some of the difficulties involved; for these difficulties are relevant to the comparative method in general. And consideration of the difficulties will set the stage for an understanding of the potentialities 12.

4 PROBLEMS OF COMPARABILITY RESEARCH

IN MULTI-CONTEXTUAL

The major problem is whether that which we compare is indeed comparable. Consider cross-national comparisons of voting rates, or rates of acceptance of agricultural innovation, or frequencies of expression of loyalty to the nation. Can these be compared? Is a vote in one context (say in a two-party democracy) equivalent to a vote in another context (say in a single party mobilizational system)? Can one compare frequencies of certain attitudes attitudes from one country to another? If we want to interpret differences in frequency of certain kinds of behavior or frequency of the expression of certain kinds of attitudes from nation to nation we must be measuring comparable frequencies. But equivalence is difficult to achieve because of the very fact that these measures are taken within different contexts. There are two kinds of problem here: problems of technical measurement and problems of conceptualization. The two types of problem overlap, but we shall discuss them separately, looking briefly at the first and then more intensively at the second. And we shall consider tham in connection with problems in cross-national research. 4.1 Technical problems If we want to compare the responses of two individuals to a survey question or the rates of response in two groups to a survey question, we want to make sure that they are asked the same question. The responses are not comparable if the stimuli are different. Most of the techniques of survey research (interviewer training, question wording, control of the setting of the interview and so forth) are aimed at creating a situation where each interview can be considered an experiment that replicates the other interviews. Differences in response cannot be caused by differences in stimulus. It is thus meaningful 62

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to ask questions about what else might have caused the differences. But when research is carried on in different nations, it becomes difficult to standardize the stimulus. There are numerous reasons for this, the most obvious being the problem of linguistic equivalence. There are now a number of standard techniques for the translation of interview items from one language to another but these, though useful, give us relatively little certainty that we have achieved equivalence. The standard technique now appears to be the use of a blind translation from the language in which the interview was first written into the new language, followed by a blind retranslation back into the original language. The first version in the original language is then compared with the new version. Discrepancies that are revealed help to locate ambiguities in the original or misinterpretations in the translation. But as Erwin Scheuch has pointed out, this tells us relatively little about the equivalence of the final products (Scheuch: 193. See also Erwin and Bower: 147; Jacobson: 152; Jacobson and Rokkan: 153; Rommetveit and Israel: 191). In recent research being conducted by the Institute of Political Studies at Stanford and the Institute for International Studies and the Survey Research Center at the University of California, Berkeley, in collaboration with university groups in four other nations we have found that a translation-and-blind-retranslation technique is less efficient and less to the point than parallel blind translations from the original into the new language. This is coupled with intensive discussion of the meaning of the items among the several translators and the drafters of the original items. In addition, the original draft of the questionnaire is accompanied by discussion of the intended meaning of the terms in the questions, a technique we found quite useful for translators. This procedure introduces a clearly subjective and somewhat unsystematic aspect into the survey design. But this aspect of research design (question selection and wording) is an aspect with heavy qualitative components even within single nation surveys. The problem is that literal equivalence, even if achievable, does not mean that the questions are equivalent in the different languages. Words that denote similar objects in two languages may have different emotional connotations; words that denote the same object may have multiple meanings in one language but not in the other; words that denote a particular object may not exist in both languages (which means that one has to use longer and more involved circumlocutions); the most accurate word to describe an object may be a colloquial word in one language but a technical word that is less 63

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generally familiar in another language, and so forth. (See especially Scheuch: 193.) The problems are severe and it is easier to explicate them than to suggest ways of dealing with them. One reason that standardization is difficult is that any procedure to test standardization involves using non-equivalent stimulus and response; that is, the stimulus in language A produces a response in language A ; while that in language B produces one in language B. There is no overlap in either stimulus or response that would allow one to test whether the same individuals or the same populations would reply in a similar manner to the two versions of the question 13 . In general, though, the problem is not unmanageable and can be exaggerated. Exact linguistic equivalence is, indeed, probably impossible. We would not know how to recognize if we saw it. What is important is that the question tap the same dimension of attitude or behavior in the two languages, not that it be an exact replica in one language of the question in the other. In this connection it must "be remembered that even in a single language, any particular question is but one of a number of alternative measures of some underlying dimension and it has only a probabilistic relationship to the underlying dimension. This is the basis for Paul Lazarsfeld's argument that survey items are interchangeable. Two different items may measure the same dimension and have a similar relationship to some external criterion even though the distributions of individuals who answer the two items negatively or positively will differ 14 . This suggests that one can look at parallel survey questions in different languages as alternative items that measure the same dimension. Thus identity in meaning is not needed any more than it is needed for two items in the same language that tap a single dimension. Whether the items do indeed tap the same dimension will be ascertained in terms of their pattern of relationship with other such items, both in terms of the extent to which they form meaningful scales or clusters of items and in terms of their relationship to other dimensions 1 5 . The point is that one must first define the underlying dimension with which one is interested, and then seek indicators of that dimension in the several languages. It may be that the most adequate indicators in different settings take quite different forms. We shall return to this problem below when we discuss problems of conceptualization in cross national research. When looked at in this light, it becomes clear that the problem of linguistic equivalence is not unique to cross-national survey research. It exists in con64

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nection with survey research within a single national context; and it exists in connection with non-survey research in a cross-national context. The obvious case of a linguistic problem within a single national context is the multi-lingual society; and here of course the problem is no different from that in cross-national research. But even in situations where one language suffices for research purposes, the difference in meanings assigned to words in different regions of a country, different social strata, and so forth may be substantial. These problems are little different in kind from those found in cross-linguistic research; and if they are somewhat less severe in research limited to a single language, they are more likely to be overlooked. One advantage in cross-linguistic research is that one has to be conscious of language problems, though that does not mean there is always much one can do about them. Just as single nation survey research shares linguistic problems with crossnational survey research, the same applies to cross-national research of a non-survey kind. Problems of linguistic comparability apply to comparative historical studies or comparative configurative studies where the comparison is across different linguistic units. The researcher is forced to compare historical documents, statements of leaders, political platforms, and so forth across languages. Linguistic problems take a different form and are perhaps not quite so severe. The researcher has more flexibility to interpret, explain, and use common sense than is possible in a structured dialogue between interviewer and respondent. Nevertheless the general problem of finding comparable linguistic items exists. Consider for instance, the statement by John Beattie from the preface to his ethnography of the Bunyoro 1 6 : "... In every culture there are concepts which do not have an exact equivalent in another culture, so that any translation is bound to be to some extent a mistranslation. Since many of the categories of Nyoro kinship terminology have no exact equivalent in English, to translate them by familiar English kinship terms may lead to serious misunderstanding. There is no easy solution to this problem; I have to write my book in English and not in Nyoro ... I shall try to avoid misrepresentation as far as I can by presenting Nyoro categories of thought and behavior as far as possible as they conceive them, even if this sometimes involves circumlocution." I believe one could find many cases where such comments would be relevant but where the problem is unrecognized. Linguistic problems are paralleled by technical problems in the area of interviewer-respondent relations. Just as the instrument must be standardized 65

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across nations so the interviewing setting must be the same if responses are to be comparable. The fact that interviews take place within different cultures and different social structures creates non-comparabilities in the interviewerrespondent relationship. One such problem has to do with differing stratification and social cleavage patterns in different societies, and the way these intersect with interviewer-respondent relations. Interviews are affected by the relative social statuses of the respondent and the interviewer. There is evidence, for instance, that Negro respondents in the United States reply quite differently to Negro and white interviewers, though other social differences make less difference 17 . But this does not mean that racial differences would be the only ones to have a major contaminating effect in other societies. In many societies the inhibitions to social intercourse across linguistic, caste, religious, or social class lines may be as severe or more severe than those between Negro and white in the United States. Since we cannot match each respondent with an interviewer of the same social characteristics, surveys in different countries are inevitably faced with the problem that individuals with one set of social characteristics will be interviewing individuals with another, that the relevant social characteristics will differ from society to society (in some cases interviews will go on across religious lines, in some caste lines, in some cases tribal lines, and in most cases social class lines) and that the societies will differ in the extent to which these social cleavages are significant. In the United States, a Protestant respondent would in all likelihood be unaware whether the interviewer were Catholic or Protestant and, for most subjects, it would make little difference in the response. The same cannot be said with confidence for Moslems and Hindus in India or Catholics and Protestants in Holland. There are a number of other factors that might make interviewing situations non-comparable from society to society. Consider the following example. In the United States, Almond and Verba found that less than 1 % of their respondents refused to give their partisan preference; in Italy 35 % refused. We cannot be certain about the reasons for this, though information we have about the degree of interpersonal trust in the two countries, the knowledge of and exposure to sample surveys, and so forth suggest that the mesaurement situation is different in the two countries. Assuming for the time being that partisan affiliation is a comparable phenomenon in the two countries, the difference in response rate can probably be traced to differing degrees to which respondents trust interviewers. The example illuminates our problem. The point is often made in the 66

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literature on comparative politics (particularly in connection with the literature on political development) that theoretical approaches are culture bound; that we transfer to other nations (specially the newer nations) models and hypotheses generated in our own. Thus we tend to use equibrium models while we ignore problems of rapid change. Or we focus on the problem of participation and social mobilization, whthout considering the problem of the creation of fundamental institutions that can manage and channel participation 18 . The criticism is often just. The main reason why we make these mistakes is that we do not notice the extent to which our models of politics contain parochial assumptions that do not apply to nations with far different experience. A parallel point can be made with some justification about research techniques. Survey research has been developed largely in the United States, and has been transferred from there to other western democracies and more recently to the developing societies 19. Consequently, certain aspects of the social system and culture of the United States that are not present elsewhere may have important effects on the workability of the technique and the comparability of the results particularly as we move into the developing areas. A few examples of the assumptions upon which survey research operates will illustrate the point 20. 1. In the United States, many relationships are functionally specific and impersonal: successful interviews may depend upon the respondent's willingness to discuss with a "stranger" subjects that often are discussed only among intimates. Respondents may do this largely because the relationship with an interviewer is so specific and impersonal that one can break down ordinary boundaries in the belief that the relationship will not extend beyond this specific exchange of information. But where individuals have less exposure to such functionally specific relationships, they may be less willing to speak honestly or to speak at all to the interviewer. The limitations of the relationship may be unclear and, therefore, threatening. 2. Techniques of answering questions are well known to respondents in the United States: everything from school examinations to quiz shows probably have some impact on learning what a question is, what an answer is, what a rating scale is, and so forth. In the absence of such experience standardized questions or the use of a rating scale may not be easily comprehensible 21 . 3. The sheer volume of survey type work and its well publicized uses make it easier for respondents to understand the purpose of an interview. One has 67

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to engage in much longer explanation of what it is that one is about where the "Gallup poll" is not a household word. 4. In the United States, individuals have many contacts with large organizations in the private sphere. And much well-publicized survey work is clearly non-governmental. Where the government intervenes more in daily life or where fewer private organizations exist, one is more likely to believe that the interviewer at your door represents the government (and, indeed, in many nations private interviewing for commercial or academic purposes requires government approval, so that the governmental involvement is real even if not necessarily relevant). Under such circumstances, respondents are likely to be on their guard against revealing information that might be damaging to them. 5. It is hard to say what it is that makes individuals accept the promise of anonymity explicit or implicit in the interview situation. Such institutions as the secret ballot may lead people to understand that anonymity can be maintained. But it may be harder for individuals to believe that preferences not identified with a particular individual can be taken seriously, and if one believes that a statement of preference or position only makes sense in terms of the person who said it, it becomes hard to credit promises of anonymity offered by interviewers 22 . 6. One can go on to list what may be special characteristics of American society (or of more modernized societies in general) that make survey research a more useful technique: greater understanding of scientific inquiry; greater comprehension of an "opinion" (an individual statement of preference that cannot be considered right or wrong); greater ability to imagine oneself in hypothetical situations; and so forth and so forth. As with the linguistic problems, it is easier to list the problems than to solve them. There is growing technical experience with survey research in social situations different from those in which the original techniques grew up. But there is need for research into interviewer effects and biases: studies of the effect of class or ethnic group on the interviewer-respondent relationship; problems of cross-sex interviewing; problems of interview setting (in front of others or alone); problems of respondent fatigue and so forth. In the meantime, one can point out, as with the linguistic problems that problems of the interveiwer-respondent relationship are not different in kind from interviewer-respondent relationships within a single nation; nor are they different in kind from researcher-subject matter relationships in other kinds of social research across cultures. Within nations, there are prob68

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lems of the differential relationship of interviewers of respondent at different points in the social structure 23 . And those researchers working with other kinds of material—be they written materials, or interviews with political officials or direct observation, may be faced with similar problems of lack of comparability in their relationship to the material. Governing officials may be more likely in one country than in another to give researchers the "official line". Documents in one country may reflect a systematic bias not apparent in other countries. In one society one may have access to all archives; in others the archives may be carefully controlled with the researcher sent only to some. And so forth. Survey research may intensify the problems of the observer effect, but it does not create them. These problems should not inhibit research but make research more cautious. And these problems should become the subject of research. Only by carrying on empirical research with this type of problem in mind can we see the extent to which it is a problem.

4.2 The problems of

conceptualization.

Thus far we have been discussing problems of the accuracy of measurement. Let us assume that the technical problems of survey design have been solved and that respondents have been presented with equivalent stimulus situations: the translation is such that they have answered the same question in each system; the interviewers have behaved in a standardized manner; the problems of evasion, of courtesy, of fear have been handled such that the respondents in all the systems studied are roughly as open and honest; and in all respects we are dealing with answers to the same questions. The problem remains of interpreting the meaning of these results. The problem derives from the fact that the questions have been asked within different social and cultural contexts. We may have accurate information as to whether respondents vote or belong to political movements; or as to whether they are in favor of or opposed to the incumbent regime. But we are still faced with a serious problem of the equivalence of these acts or attitudes, since their meaning may be contingent on the particular social and cultural setting in which they exist. The problem is a general one for all comparative research: what set of concepts and measurable variables can we develop such that they can be applied with equivalent meaning in a number of systems ? No matter how 69

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much one is committed to a macro-sociological approach, it is clear that one cannot compare total systems. Rather, one abstracts certain aspects of the system for comparison. But how do we find equivalent aspects? It makes little sense to compare the legislatures in two nations if the two bodies are selected differently and perform quite different functions. The only similarity may be that both are labeled with that term. In political science this problem has led to attempts to define and compare the performance of general political functions such as interest aggregation or political socialization or to locate and compare political institutions such as bureaucracies 01 political elites. The problem remains, though, that the meaning of any political structure or function that we isolate by assigning it a conceptual label depends to some extent upon the context within which it is found. The problem is clear in connection with behavioral and attitudinal measures in survey research. In the first place, it is necessary to find dimensions of attitude or behavior that are relevant to the various contexts in which they will be used. One cannot compare party affiliation across nations, if one nation has no party system. For cross-system comparisons it may be necessary to define quite general dimensions such as political involvement or political activity in such a way that they are meaningful in a multiplicity of systems. But, though one may deal with quite general political variables, the problem remains of finding indicators that are comparable from system to system. Suppose we want to compare political activity in two nations. It is clear that we will learn little if we compare the late of some political activity in one country with the rate of some economic activity in another. (I am assuming, of course, that we have defined these general dimensions adequately from a theoretical point of view). The simplest and standard approach is to compare the "same thing" across nations; which usually means acts with the same label — be that "votes" or "crimes" or "suicides", or answers to the "same question". But this is deceptive. Activities which receive the same label and which appear on the surface to be the same kind of activity in two nations may, due to the different contexts in which we are measuring the particular behavior, differ sharply from each other. And similarly labeled activities may differ in their meaning for the individual who is perfoiming the act or in their meaning for the political system in which the act is performed. Voting is a good example of such an activity since it is the most easily measurable political behavior and the most frequently used for crossnational comparative purposes. From the point of view of the individual 70

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the vote may mean any one of a number of things: one may vote because he wants to bring into power a certain candidate or political party; he may vote because he wants to throw out of power a political party or candidate; he may vote merely in ritualistic conformity to traditional party affiliation; he may vote in order to fulfill an obligation he feels he owes as a citizen; or he may vote because the law says he must vote. Thus, to use the vote for various political parties as a measure of the political attitudes and desires of the citizens of a nation may be quite risky, just as it would be risky to use voting turnout as a measure of political activity or involvement. Variations of this sort in the meaning of the vote occur, of course, within nations, but the variations among nations are likely to be even sharper. It would make little sense to compare the rate of voting in Australia, where voting is compulsory by law, with the rate of voting in a nation that has no such legal provision. From the point of view of the political system within which it takes place the meaning of any political act also may differ strikingly from nation to nation. There are relatively few political systems in the world without elections, but the act of voting means quite different things under different electoral or paity systems. In some nations where there is no choice between candidates voting may have symbolic consequences as a manifestation of solidarity; in other nations there may be a choice among candidates or parties but voting may have little consequence in terms of deciding who runs the country because one party tends to be overwhelmingly dominant or because, conversely, there are so many parties that the formation of governments takes place within the legislature and only weakly reflects voting decisions; while in other countries voting can in fact have an effect on who will man the key political positions. Certainly the vote is not an equivalent act in these different circumstances. Finally, it should be pointed out that there may be independent variations in the individual and systemic meanings of a political act such as voting. Two individuals may vote for entirely different reasons but their votes may have identical effects on the political system. One individual may be conforming to traditional family voting patterns, while another votes to further a particular policy, but both vote for the same party. And, indeed, the fact that social structures such as political parties direct multiply-determined behavior into a limited number of channels is one of their most important characteristics. Conversely, the vote may mean the same to two individuals but different things from the perspective of the system: two individuals 71

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may vote to express their strong opposition to an incumbent regime, but the vote of one may be counted while the other's vote is not. Thus the context within which one measures the frequency of a particular act affects the meaning of that act. And since the meanings may differ between two contexts both from the individual and the system point of view (and vary independently from each point of view) it may become difficult to say whether differences found between two nations in the frequency of certain political acts reflect differences based on the characteristics of the individuals within those nations or the characteristics of the system. Consider the data that Almond and I found about differences in media exposure between the United States and Mexico. (Almond and Verba: 834.) In our cross-national survey we found that a much higher proportion of Americans than of Mexicans watch news broadcasts on television. There is little doubt that this represents a real difference in the behavior of Americans and Mexicans: the question was a simple one with no particular translation problem, and we have little reason to believe that respondents were inflating or deflating the extent to which they watched news broadcasts. But how does one interpret such a result? Can one conclude from this information that Americans are more interested in politics and involved in governmental affairs ? Probably not. The bulk of the difference between the two nations is due to the greater ease of access to television sets in the United States. This does not necessarily mean the difference is unimportant or meaningless. If one is interested in the amount of time spent exposed to certain kinds of communications about politics, the difference is important. On the other hand, the data cannot very well be used to infer differences in such individual attributes as motivation to obtain information about politics. Nor can it tell us much about differences in exposure to political communications in general between the two nations unless we also consider the use of alternative channels. This discussion illustrates the complex intertwining of micro- and macromeasures when one conducts multi-contextual research. We measure individual behavior such as the vote within societies that differ in terms that are relevant to the voting act (that differ in terms of the structure of the electoral system as well as in terms of the cultural meaning assigned the votes.) This raises questions as to the usefulness of data on voting for either comparative micro-analyses or macro-analyses. From the point of view of the understanding of individual political behavior one must ask what the vote signifies. One can argue that a vote is a vote, and therefore the comparison is on the face of it valid. But it clearly is not from the point of view of any interesting 72

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theories or hypotheses about political behavior. Or one can consider the vote an indicator of some more general political dimension such as political mobilization, and ask: what kinds of people are likely to be mobilized; and what are the consequences for the individual of this mobilization 24 . The questions are posed on the micro level for which the data of survey research is most immediately useful. But even for the micro-comparison, we must deal with the fact that the item being compared may not be an equally valid indicator of the underlying dimension because the measures are made different macro-contexts. From the point of view of our major interest in political systems we have a similar problem. Votes can be aggregated in various ways. We can compare nations by adding the number of votes together as an indicator of the amount of popular control over the government; or we can compare rates of voting in different sub-groups to locate differences in the distribution of power among several systems; or we can relate the vote for various parties to other social attributes to estimate the extent to which party affiliation is crystallized within specific social groupings. Or can we? The answer is we can, but not simply. We can aggregate in this way in order to make statements about systems only after we have dealt with the problem of the comparability of the individual acts we aggregate. And these acts in turn differ because of differences on the system level. This appears to be a vicious circle, and we will return with some ways of breaking it later. A similar problem applies to the interpretation of differences in frequency of political attitudes. Because of the different contexts within which one is asking about political attitudes, the objects of orientation for these attitudes differ. Individuals will be talking about different political systems. The situation is quite different from that in most single context surveys where one compares the attitudes of different sub-groups toward the same government. Suppose that we could develop cross-cultural measures of political attitudes that would reliably measure the same attitude in different political contexts. We could then say that two individuals in two different political systems feel the same way about their respective governments; for instance, both are as alienated from their governments. Despite the fact that in some sense the mental states of these individuals vis-à-vis their governments are the same, their attitudes would have different meanings because of the different contexts in which they exist. In the cross-national political survey mentioned above, we found that the five nations studied differed sharply in the frequency 73

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with which individuals reported that they felt competent to influence their governments. This probably represents real differences in the attitudes held by the populations in the several nations studied. But what do these differences mean? They may reflect the fact that individuals in the different nations have been exposed to different socializing experiences. In some nations the entire range of non-political experience, in the family, in the school, and at the work place, may be such as to lead the individual to believe that he can influence those in authority over him. In other societies, socializing experiences may create a more passive attitude toward authority. Our study suggests that differences in with non-political authority figures have an important effect on the extent to which individuals believe that they are capable of influencing their governments. (Almond and Verba: 834, chapter 12.) On the other hand, the differences in frequency of belief in one's influence capabilities may simply reflect the fact that the governments in the five nations differ objectively in the extent to which they are amenable to being influenced by their citizens. In this case the different frequencies would reflect accurate cognitions of the real political situation in the several nations. Or, consider the implication for the operation of the political system of these varying frequencies of belief in one's ability to influence the government. In all the nations studied, we found that those who believe they can influence the government are more likely to engage in political activity and to attempt to exercise such influence. This appears to be an interesting, if not startling, cross-national micro-political generalization. Nevertheless, there are sharp differences among the nations in the likelihood that this belief will be translated into activity. Furthermore, the effect of this activity on the behavior of the political elites depends on a number of factors that are independent of the particular attitudes held by the citizens in a society. This is not to argue that the differences found are not real differences with important consequences. It is merely to point out that the interpretation of these differences is quite a bit more complex than it would be if one were dealing with a political survey carried on in one political system. The problem of the different meaning that answers to questions can have within different political systems relates not merely to specific measures of attitude or behavioi but to the general question of the meaning of public attitudes. It was suggested above that survey research methods have a "western-democracy" bias. The same may be suggested for the interpretation of survey research results. The differences, for instance, between the state of public attitudes in the United States and in some of the new nations 74

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of the world are numerous. It has been argued that opinion surveys in developing nations will reveal little for there is little to reveal. Individuals have few opinions; they are not informed about politics and have rarely thought about the subject. The questions an interviewer asks suddenly propel the respondent into a world of thoughts he never had. He may find the questions incomprehensible and throw up his hands or he may respond with spontaneous thoughts about politics that did not exist before the question was asked. This is certainly true, especially if the questions are about political problems as defined by the researcher, but it does not appear to be a problem limited to the developing nations. The characteristics spelled out above seem to be general ones for "mass publics" in developed societies as well 25 . More important than the mere absence of opinion and ignorance about politics, is the contrast between the social settings of opinions in the United States and in many of the developing nations. In the United States individuals are important: leading American values involve the equalitarian nature of political opinions, the privacy and independence of political opinions, and the positive value of having opinions. In many traditional societies, the individual is not expected to and does not consider it proper to have individual opinions. The Rudolphs, commenting on their experience in India, point out "the flaws in the assumption that most people hold opinions on a broad range of issues and are capable of articulating them. But articulation involves at least some degree of self-consciousness, sufficient to see that the dictates of custom are not the only sources of beliefs and attitudes. Even if he clings to his customs and tradition, the person who has developed some selfawareness realizes, however dimly, that other ways of seeing the world exist. Only when this perception of alternatives arises does the individual appreciate that his views are in some sense peculiar to himself, that he has opinions. In the area of the political culture (political self-consciousness, information, literacy) this transformation has not yet taken place among many of our interviewees.» (Rudolph and Rudolph: 42, p. 236. See also Jones: 26; Wilson and Armstrong: 51; Wilson: 52.) Such community grounding of opinions introduces problems of survey design, of course, in that respondents may be unwilling to talk as individuals to interviewers. But what we are interested in here is the fact that the meaning of the such responses differ from those elicited in circumstances where they have a more independent origin. If two respondents in two different political settings express the same opinion, the expiession may not be equivalent because of the different social roots of the opinions. And such a differ75

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ence in social roots may have important implications for the attitude under study. Similar attitudes with different origins may differ in terms of stability and in terms of the situation under which they will change. This difference in nature of opinions may also be looked at from the point of view of the system. If there are differences among systems in the degree to which political opinions are individually based and in the extent to which the holding of opinions is considered legitimate, there will also be differences in the implications for the system of the opinions that are held. For instance, the extent to which expressions of hostility toward an incumbent regime represent a threat to that regime will depend not merely on the frequence with which such hostility is expressed (assuming one can get comparable measures of frequency and intensity across systems) but on the organizational potentialities for those with hostile opinions, the degree to which it may be freely expressed, the response of the incumbent elites, and so forth 2e . The above discussion relates to some of the complex attitudinal and behavioral variables that are often the dependent variables in political research. But the same problem exists in relation to some of the standard independent variables used in such analysis. These variables also differ from nation to nation because of different social structures and different patterns of meaning associated with them. Standard measures have ambiguous meanings. It may be difficult if not impossible to match individuals on these measures; or even to consider them comparable ordinal scales (in those cases where an assumption of ordinality seems warranted). Let us consider a few: 1. Education. — This is one of the most important variables used in comparative research and one that is closely related to many political phenomena of interest. (Almond and Verba: 834, Chapter 13.) But can we match individuals in terms of their educational attainments? What appear to be comparable levels of educational attainment (say the completion of a secondary school degree, or a university degree, or 12 years of school, or some other measure of amount of education received) may turn out not to be comparable at all. Even if a similar amount of time is spent in school by respondents in different societies, the meaning of that education will differ. Not only is the content and quality of education different, but the social position that education implies differs. For instance, in a society where a high proportion of secondary school graduates go on to higher education, higher education has quite different implications in terms of prestige, career opportunities, and the like than it does in a society where a university educa76

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tion automatically makes one a member of the intellectual elite. This is not a measurement problem in the usual sense. We assume that we can accurately measure the amount of education that an individual has received. The problem is: what does it mean? 2. Occupation. — The problem is similar. Two individuals may do the same work — perhaps run a machine of a certain sort in a factory —. But does this mean they have equivalent occupations? Only in part. The question of equivalence hinges as well on the prestige accorded different occupations, the amount of special training needed (in one society a machine operator may need little extra training since his basic education taught him such skills as counting, reading and writing; but in other circumstances the same job may entail much extra training.) 3. Income (and/or wealth). — The relative material well-being of individuals is an important consideration in understanding political attitudes. But measuring it is difficult. Again we can ignore for the time being the severe measurement problems involved in unwillingness or inability to report income as well as problems in translating from one monetary system to another. More difficult problems arise in terms of the social structure within which income is earned and the cultural interpretations of what are valued material goods. More concretely these problems translate into those of "whose income?" and "what is considered income?". The extent of the group that has a "common purse" or that shares responsibility for monetary support varies from society to society. Thus in one setting the respondent's material status may be determined by that of his nuclear family, in another one would have to consider the material status of more distant relatives. Similarly, the measurement of material status becomes quite difficult in circumstances where material goods are not easily translatable into monetary terms. If wealth in land or in cattle is more desirable than wealth in money, and if land or cattle are not freely convertible into money (because, for instance, of a land tenure system that restricts sale of land) it becomes difficult to measure relative wealth within a society, and more difficult between societies 27 . 4. Urban status. — It makes a difference whether an individual lives in a village, town or city. And these are usually differentiated by the size of the local governmental unit. But it is now well known that not all cities are the same—some small units are really contiguous suburbs of modern industrial cities; some large cities (the Nigerian cities of the western region are a good 77

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example) are largely populated by people engaged in agriculture. Their sociological meaning is different, though their size is similar. 5. Age. — A simple quantitative measure (not always so simple since some individuals will not know their age, or report it in terms of membership in some age grade association, but that is not our problem here), but chronological age is a complicated measure. It articulates only imperfectly with position in the life cycle; in some cases people may have the same age in terms of years, but in one society the individual will still be a dependent child, while in another he will be an independent head of family. The list could go on. The point is that what seem to be simple variables are really complicated clusters of variables that do not correlate the same way in different settings. And they are complicated clusters of variables that do not correlate the same way because what we may take as the 'measurement core' of the variable (i.e. that which we design our research to measure such as number of years in school, chronological age, and so forth) is embedded in a social structure and a culture that give that measure a different meaning. One obvious "structural embedding" is the distributional pattern of the variable. Even if we match education in terms of length and quality etc. we need to know the distribution of educational attainments to understand the meaning of a particular educational level. Or if we compare occupations that involve the same kind of work, we need to know something of the hierarchical arrangements within the factory. Similarly, we need to know something about the meanings assigned by the culture to particular positions if they are to be compared. "Leather-worker" may be a useful denotative occupational terms in several societies, but it does not have the same meaning in a society that considers working on the skins of animals ritually impure as in one that does not. The situation is of course not unique to survey research. The problem does not arise from the research technique, but from the differences in social structure and patterns of meaning assigned to social positions. Thus the same problem would exist for other kinds of data used on a comparative basis. (For the same problem as it relates to aggregate data, see McGranahan: 156.) And it exists for studies based on techniques that do not attempt relatively precise measurements. But it is likely to be a more severe problem the more precisely one attempts to select out some variable for measurement. The discussion above poses the problem for the use of survey research to deal with problems of macro politics. If the measures taken from individuals are to be useful in understanding the larger social units of which the 78

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individuals are members (to be useful, that is, in hypotheses where one of the variables in the hypothesis refers to some characteristic of a social unit) survey studies must be multi-contextual. They must take individualistic measures within different social contexts: in different nations, different communities, etc. But this raises the problem of the equivalence of the individualistic measures. The problem derives from the fact that one is dealing with multiple contexts. This leads to technical questions of survey design and administration. More importantly and interestingly, it leads to conceptual and theoretical problems. These problems derive from the fact that the items we select for measurement are embedded in social structures and cultural systems; and when these items are selected from different social structures and cultures their meanings may be different. Votes mean different things in different electoral systems. And they mean different things in different cultural systems where the values and norms associated with political behavior differ. How is one to deal with this problem? Thus far we have given two rather evasive answers. It has been suggested that problems associated with cross-cultural survey research are no different in kind though perhaps different in intensity from those associated with survey research in a single country. Linguistic problems exist even in the same language; and measures taken at different points in a society—whether this be different regions or different social classes—are taken from different structural and cultural contexts. The other evasive answer has been that cross-cultural survey research shares problems with cross-cultural research of all sorts, whatever techniques are used to gather data for comparison. It is important to make these points to indicate that the problems discussed are related to other forms of research and to counsel against despair, or conversely to suggest that one's despair should be cosmic and not specific to survey research. But such answers to the problem may give a kind of false sense of satisfaction to the survey research practitioner without changing the real situation with which he is faced. I would, therefore, like to suggest in the last section of this essay some ways by which the problem can be minimized, if not eliminated.

5 STRATEGIES OF COMPARATIVE RESEARCH If the problem of the comparability of measures taken from two different social systems derives from the fact that the measures are embedded in 79

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different structural and cultural contexts, the solution to the problem lies in trying to maintain the contextual grounding of the measures when making comparisons. Insofar as possible, comparisons should take into account the structural and cultural context of the measure before comparisons are made of the measures across systemic boundaries. Three ways in which this can be done are suggested: (1) the selection and measurement of variables that are embedded in their contexts; (2) the inclusion of structural (and perhaps cultural) characteristics into the survey design and (3) the inclusion of structural (and perhaps cultural) characteristics in the survey analysis. In a sense I am saying that we can get around the problem of the gap between the individualistic data of survey research and the macro level by so conducting our survey that the individual is placed in his political and cultural context rather than being treated as the isolated and anonymous figure of the standard polling model.

5.1 Embedding a variable in its context The first way in which the context of the individual measure can be taken into account is through the selection of the variables. Face similarity may be trivial unless the variable has the same relationship to other variables in each system, i.e. it is a functional equivalent across systems 28. The need to find functionally equivalent measures in different contexts is an argument for specifiying relatively general theories (or at least relatively general hypotheses) before one searches for equivalent measures. Only by specifiying what the underlying variable is that one is interested in can one begin to look for functional equivalents. Thus the comparative study of voting rates may not be interesting (though one can find voting systems in most nation) since the act differs in meaning and is not relevant to any general conceptualization. But comparative studies of the differing modes of political participation (defined, perhaps, as activity intentionally aimed at influencing decisions of political authorities) may be interesting. We might pose such questions as "What kinds of people are more likely to engage in participatory activities?", "What kinds of people are likely to have a high ratio of successful participation acts?" and so forth. Once we understand what the dependent variable is (in this case, political participatory acts) we can then ask what are the most likely such acts in different countries, and compare these acts. In this case one might refer to voting in one system and petition 80

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signing in another. And rather than using one item of behavior for each nation one might use several. The fact that one had an underlying general dimension would make it possible to locate this multiplicity of measures. Examples could be given from other fields. The items that measure agressive behavior might differ from society to society or from social group to social group. In one case it may be various kinds of verbal behavior, in another various kinds of physical behavior, or perhaps different kinds of verbal behavior and physical behavior in different systems. Or as suggested above the measures of economic well-being may differ from system to system. Several points follow from this. The fact that we are searching for functional equivalents, makes clear that we are not looking for variables or measures that are equivalent in all respects. As was suggested earlier a particular political attitude or behavior may have equivalent meanings across systems for individuals but different meanings for the system, or vice versa; and such lack of across-the-board equivalence represents a serious problem in comparative research. But no two measures are ever perfectly equivalent. What is important is that the measures be equivalent in those respects that are relevant to the problem at hand. It is, for instance, a point of great substantive political importance that the structure of political competition in a party system — particularly in a system with relatively few parties — can convert the vast variety of individual motives into a choice among two or three or four alternatives. For certain problems having to do perhaps with election outcomes and the stability of party systems it may be possible to look at measures of individual attitudes and behaviors on a level where they have equivalent meaning. If one plunged deeper into the roots of those attitudes or behaviors one would find a great lack of equivalence. The above example is one in which the individual motivations for holding a particular attitude or performing a particular act differ, but the substantive content of the attitude or act in terms of its impact on the system is equivalent. It is possible to find situations where the converse is true: the substantive political content of an attitude or act may differ, but on the level of the individual, there may be important equivalences. Much of contemporary work in attitude formation and change has dealt not with the content of attitudes but with their structure. Thus there has been concern with whether a set of attitudes are congruent one with another, whether a set of attitudes is rigidly held or flexibly held, whether an individual adheres to a closed, rigid and all-encompassing ideology or has instead a looser set of political orientations 29. It may be possible, using measuies of attitude structure, to compare 81

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political systems in terms of the frequencies of types of attitude structuring. In one system there may be more individuals with flexible political attitudes than in another. On this level it may not matter that individuals in one system are flexible on one aspect of politics, while individuals in another are flexible on another aspect. Complete equivalence of measures in differing systems is difficult if not impossible. What is important is equivalence that is appropriate to the problem at hand. In order to find functionally equivalent measures, it may be necessary at times to change the level of generality. An example of this is given above, where the shift in emphasis is from the content of the belief to the structure of the belief. Such a shift in level may enable us to find comparable problems where comparability does not exist at a lower level. For the frequencies of certain political attitudes or behaviors to be useful as explanatory factors on the system level, it is necessary that the attitudes or behaviors be defined in such a way that they have general relevance to the set of systems for which expanation is sought. One must look beyond political attitudes or behaviors that are specific to a system. Since specific political issues differ from system to system, propositions in terms of attitudes on these issues will have little general relevance. If, however, attitudes on political issues can be conceptualized in more general terms (say, in terms of broad tendencies in favor of or opposed to more government activity, or in terms of the rigidity of attitudes on specific issues, or in terms perhaps simply of whether or not many people have attitudes on issues) broad generalizations may be easier. This can be illustrated if we consider the problem of whether or not respondents in fact have opinions worth studying. As was suggested earlier, one objection to carrying on studies of attitudes on public issues in some of the newer nations is that one will discover few attitudes on public issues, that the individuals interviewed will have little information on the subject and will have thought very little if at all about what the interviewer is asking. And since one is studying opinions on different topics in different systems and since there is so little to be discovered about attitudes on these topics, it might suggest that such study is of little use. But if the problem is redefined so that what is studied is simply whether or nor respondents in various nations have opinions on various subjects, not what opinions they have, the comparative study of even the uninformed and inarticulate masses may become important. By raising the level of generality of the problem to that of having opinions 82

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or not, it is possible to learn a lot about the relative politicization of the populations in various systems. Opinion holding was found by Daniel Lerner to be a key variable in explaining the involvement of individuals in the modern aspects of their societies. In this way, the inability or unwillingness of a respondent to answer a question does not involve the loss of data, but is itself an important datum 30. Another way in which variables may be made more equivalent is by breaking them down into the components parts. This again is related to the search for underlying theoretical dimensions. Such variables as education, occupation and the like are in fact bundles of variables. The occupation of an individual is important for his political or social attitudes for a number of reasons: it places him in a particular economic situation in relation to his wage earning capacity and the market of his nation; it places him in a particular interpersonal set of relations within the plant; it requires of him that he have certain skills, think about problems in a certain way; it leads others to react to him in particular ways etc. A single occupation found in two nations (say lathe operator) may put two individuals in the same category on some of these dimensions but not on others. They may have the same skill, but not the same prestige 31 . In dealing with occupational categories, thus, these various dimensions may be taken into account, depending of course on which dimensions are most relevant to the problem at hand. If one is studying the strains associated with incongruent or uncrystallized status positions 32 it may be most useful to measure the prestige ratings of professions and occupations directly. Individuals could be asked to rate their own occupations in terms of prestige as well as to rate occupations in general in these terms. In this way one could develop occupational ratings for the system as a whole (by summing the results of a sample) as well as the individuals rating of his own and other occupations. And this, combined with other data that place the individual subjectively and objectively on various hierarchies would allow testing of hypotheses about the strains associated with incongruities among various hierarchies. Similarly one might be interested in occupational variables as they relate to such variables as beliefs or non-occupational behavior. Thus modernization has been defined (in one of its myriad definitions) as the growth of the use of complex machinery and the substitution of inanimate for animate power 33 . The usual occupational categories would not allow us to place an individual on a "modernity" scale using this definition since certain occu83

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pations may vary in the complexity of the machinery used. This may have to be measured directly, through job descriptions, questions about technical training needed for one occupation and about equipment used and the like. The point is that the equivalence of items may be marred by their multidimensionality. And the relation among the dimensions will differ from system to system. Thus it may be necessary to define the theoretical purpose for which we want the item and to measure the items in terms of its sub-dimensions. The above discussion is related to a point made by Neil Smelser on the need for a combination of objective and subjective definitions of terms in comparative research 34 . One reason why apparently equivalent measures may differ is that they are embedded in different cultural contexts. Thus it may be useful and necessary to measure not only the individual's position or activity, but the subjective meaning of these activities or positions to him. And one of the advantages of survey research (unlike many other research techniques) is that it can be used to measure both subjective and objective aspects of action or social structure. The simultaneous measurement of both the objective occupational position held by individuals and such subjective aspects as the prestige rating assigned that position by the respondent is an example of the dual perspective possible with this kind of research. Or consider measures of political activity: votes, campaign participation, or demands sent to political elites. These have, as suggested earlier, different implications in different political systems. One way both to assess and improve the comparability of measures of such activities would be tap at the same time the interpretations of the meaning of these activities by those engaged in them. We know the rate of voting in various societies, and we can estimate the objective impact of the vote in terms of its effect on electoral outcome. But we can also gather information on the perception of the meaning of elections by those who engage in them: both voters and political elites. The discovery of similarities or differences across populations in the meaning of the vote would help us to evaluate the extent to which such acts can be considered equivalent measures in different populations. The point being made here is that the equivalence of indicators is ambiguous because of structural and cultural contextual factors. In some cases, these contextual factors are known prior to the research. But the research itself can be used to generate data that allow assessment of the importance of such factors. In many cases these additional data are data about the meanings assigned by the respondent to some act or status 35 . The suggestion that surveys be used to gather information simultaneously on the rate of parti84

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cular activities and on the interpretations of these activities is most relevant in situations where the meanings of acts are ambiguous, or unknown, or variable among the several populations studied. And this is most often the case in cross-national research. The need to embed cross-national survey research in different cultural contexts creates special problems for the design of survey instruments. For answers to be equivalent, the frame of reference of the various respondents must be the same. " B a d " survey questions are those that allow for more than one frame of reference (one respondent answers a question about "interest in politics" with reference to a current election, another with reference to politics in general; one respondent thinks of politics as referring only to domestic politics, another includes international politics). In cross-national survey work, the differences in culture and social structure mean that for many types of questions the frame of reference of the respondent will be unknown and may systematically vary from society to society. Under these circumstances, it may be difficult if not impossible for the interviewer to be sure that the frame of reference is the same for different respondents. One solution to this problem is to attempt to define the frame of reference as precisely as possible; which is not more than to say that the questions should be as precise and unambiguous as possible. An alternative technique, often useful in cross-national research where the possible frames of reference are uncertain, would be to allow the respondent to set his own. In exploratory research, as most cross-national research must be, this is a particularly useful way of avoiding placing the respondent into categories designed by social scientists that do violence to the respondent's beliefs. Allowing the respondent to set his own frame of reference may involve a two stage process: the respondent makes clear his frame of reference and then is questioned further. An example of this is Hadley Cantril's cross-national study of the "pattern of human concerns". Cantril is interested, among other things, in the extent to which people perceive improvement in their lives. But there are many ways in which one can improve one's life, and a major improvement for one person might be quite minor for another. To measure the perception of improvement, he first has each respondent set his own frame of reference, by telling what he considers the best and worst of all possible worlds. He then places himself on a scale that runs from his self-defined worst world to his selfdefined best world, the scale being "self-anchored" by his own definitions of these two situations 36 .

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5.2 A contextual research design Thus far we have dealt with the selection and measurement of variables in such a way as to increase the extent to which they are embedded in the context from which they are selected. In addition, general survey design can incorporate aspects of differing social structures. Much of survey research has been conducted and analyzed on a populistic "one-man-one vote" basis. The preferences of a group are assumed to be the simple sum of the preferences of a random sample. This may conform to populistic ideology, but as a reflection of actual patterns of preference and of meaningful impacts that might derive from these patterns of preference, it is a highly inadequate perspective 37. The sum of policy preferences of individuals tells us little unless we know something about the stratification of the population in terms of intensity and stability of preference. And if we want to know the impact on governmental decision making that is likely to result from a preference distribution we need to know about the resources (such as money, skills, access, etc.) that are available to various people at various positions in the society. Otherwise one is in the position of someone trying to predict an electoral outcome on the basis of knowledge of the distribution of votes for the various parties, but who lacks knowledge of the system on the basis of which the votes are converted into electoral victories, and under circumstances where votes are not weighed equally. Ei win Scheuch has labeled the attempt to derive characteristics of a political system from the simple sum of the responses from a sample of individuals the "individualistic fallacy." (Scheuch: 193.) This is the opposite of the "ecological fallacy" 38 The latter involves statements about patterns of individual behavior on the basis of measurements on the level of social units; the individualistic fallacy involves statements about a social unit on the basis of measurements based on individuals. Scheuch rightly points out that one cannot infer the extent of "democracy" in a nation on the basis of the proportion of respondents who give "democratic" answers to opinion questions. The political structure and the way in which it channels these responses will mediate between the response pattern and the way in which political decisions are made. Much evidence exists, for instance, to suggest that a system of civil liberties is compatible with a high degree of rejection of such liberties by cross-section population samples. The reason is that few act or have the opportunity to act on what are on the surface quite antilibertarian beliefs. In addition, those in more elite positions, tend to have 86

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more libertarian outlooks 39. What is needed thus is some technique for aggregating responses that includes more assumptions about the social structure, i.e. about the hierarchy of statuses or differences in respondents in terms of other attributes. What assumptions one wants to build into the summation process, of course, depend upon the particular problem in which one is interested. Consider two examples: 1. Much survey research is aimed at describing the policy preferences of a population on some burning issue of the day. The purpose of such research, a type usually carried on outside of academic auspices, is often to inform the public and the government of the state of public preferences on a particular issue. But the raw distribution of preferences conveys little information; one would want to consider the level of information of those with various preferences, the intensity of their beliefs, and so forth 40. Some weighting scheme that took these vaiiables into account would give a better indication of the distribution of preferences. The use of filter questions to eliminate those who have not considered the problem or who have no information is one technique that has come into common use. 2. If, on the other hand, one's concern were not with the mere distribution of preferences but with the likelihood that public preferences would affect the decisions of governing elites, one might want to weigh the preferences in terms of the likelihood that a preference will be converted into a demand on the government and in terms of the resources available to the preference holder to enforce his demand. The preference of an individual with a history of political activity who controlled such resources as money, access to influential people, skills and the like would be weighted more heavily. The weighting procedure can take place at one of two points: as part of a sample design or as part of the analysis of the survey results. At the sampling stage, one can increase the number of respondents from particularly relevant groups. If one is interested in political mobilization, one might oversample those most likely to have just been mobilized or most likely to become mobilized in the near future. Or, if one is interested in conflict and consensus among political groups within a nation, the sample might best be one drawn from the major conflicting groups, rather than from the population as an undifferentiated whole. The advantages of a sample design that reflects structural aspects is that it allows for more flexible data analysis. One is, for instance, more likely to have sufficient cases of the particular kinds of groups with which one is concerned. 87

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The advantages and costs of such a sampling strategy are spelled out by Frank Bonilla and Jose A . Silva Michelena. Given the heterogeneity of Venezuela, the country they were studying, they note the unreality of a "poll plebiscite" as a guide to policy. The weight of diverse social groups in the policy process plainly had little relation to their general numbers in the general population. A cross-section of the nation would not have yielded more than a few individuals in such key positions as parish priests, student or union leaders, university officials or government officials. Increasing the sample size to ensure reaching enough such individuals for independent analysis, particularly if any attention was to be paid to withing-group variations, would have pushed the number to be sample far beyond the resources at hand or what seemed justifiable in view of the limited usefulness of the global figures. The selection of groups to be sampled was thus carried out with a number of priority development issues and an intuitive vision of the political structure in mind. The clear focus of policy makers on issues such as industrialization, agrarian reform, education, and community development in itself pointed to certain groups as indispensable to the survey ... While this approach seems best suited to the aims of the study, it raised a great many difficulties not common to more conventional national surveys: problems of field administration are multiplied by the need to deal with some three dozen independent sampling frames. Cross-national checks or comparisons become extremely difficult. 4 1 On the other hand, one can argue that the sample design should have no built in assumptions about population. The reason is that one does not know these distributions nor the implications of structural position. If the purpose of the research is to locate points of conflict within a society, one cannot design a sample around the conflicting groups. Under these circumstances, an assumptionless random procedure may be preferable. The argument has merit, especially under conditions where empirical survey work is just beginning. But as data accumulate and as studies become more purposive and less exploratory, the argument may become less persuasive. A n d even at our present level of knowledge, we know enough about educational differences, rural-urban differences and the like to justify violating principles of equal probability for all members of the population if the research problem warrants it. In many cases, the preferred strategy may be one of unbiased but weighted sampling 42 . In this way, the sample is weighted to reflect the assumed weight of each sub-group in relation to the research problem. If the research problem has to do with influence over the national 88

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government one can oversample those presumed to have more influence, such as those living in the Capital, those with organizational affiliations, higher education, etc. But others, not assumed to be in this favored position are sampled as well. The latter allows one to check the assumptions built into the sample design. In cases where one has opted for the cross-section assumptionless strategy, it is still possible to build structural assumptions into the analysis stage. Here, a two-stage "bootstrap" procedure might be most appropriate. The data that are gathered can be used to test various assumptions about the nature of the political or social structure—one can test empirically whether or not particular subgroups are likely to attempt influence disproportionate to their numbers. These assumptions, thus tested, can then be built into the next analysis stage of the data, and/or into sample designs for further research. Thus far we have discussed sample designs that reflect structural aspects of the social unit under study. Another approach would be to sample social units. If one samples units one can, in principle at least, deal with them in the same way as one deals with individual respondents. Survey research becomes relevant for the macro-unit by being a survey of such units. The difference between a sampling of social units and multicontextual studies in which samples are drawn from a small number of political systems is that in the former the characteristics of the social unit may be systematically varied in order to study their interaction with individual characteristics. To take a concrete example: James A. Davies drew a sample of 172 groups containing 1909 participants from groups in the University of Chicago's Great Books Program. Thus he had a sample both of individuals and of groups. Propositions could be tested that related individual to group characteristics and vice versa. For instance, a good deal of the analysis focuses on what the author calls composition effects, i.e. the independent effect on an individual possessing certain characteristics of the proportion having that characteristic in his group. Thus one studies not merely individual attitudes that are related to withdrawal from the group, but the effect on withdrawal of the culture of the group. Two individuals with the same attitudes toward their groups may differ in their behavior depending upon the attitudes of others in their respective groups 43 . It is clear that the study of composition effects is closely related to the subject of the aggregation of individual attitudes in terms of their systemic effects. The use of a multiplicity of social units help avoid the "individualistic fallacy" by developing rules as to the ways in which the relationship among 89

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individual attributes is affected by the context in which they exist. To take some examples: we may find in survey studies that hostility to the government is related to active involvement in revolutionary movements, or that level of need-achievement is related to involvement in entrepreneurial activity. But the study of composition effects would indicate the way in which the rates of hostility or need achievement in a society affect the extent to which hostility is translated into revolutionary activity or need-achievement into entrepreneurial activity. Thus one might hypothesize that in a society in which many are hostile, hostility is more likely to lead to action; and even those not personally antagonistic toward the government may get caught up in revolutionary movements. The relationship between an individual's preference on a particular matter and the likely consequences of that preference (say, the likelihood that he will act on it) is complex. In general, one can argue that the likelihood that an individual will act on the basis of a particular preference is related to the proportion of those around him who share that preference 44 . This argues for knowledge of individual preferences as well as knowledge of the distribution of preferences within the relevant social unit — be this small group, community or nation. But this might not be sufficient to place the individual opinion in its context. Individual beliefs as to the distribution of preferences among others is also relevant. Though perceptions of what others prefer may be inaccurate, it may be more controlling over behavior than the actual distribution of preferences 45 . In the foregoing example characteristics of the social unit are used to help explain individual attitudes or behavior. The systematic selection of groups as well as individuals as units of analysis also permits the development and testing of a type of proposition very rare in studies that utilize survey data, propositions in which the dependent variable is an attribute of the system. A sample of 172 groups, for instance, allows one to test propositions as to why some groups dissolve while others survive. There are a few explicitly political studies that approximate the multilevel design of the Great Books study. All are studies that use as the political unit sub-national political systems. Thus there are studies of the way in which voting laws affect electoral behavior in which the political unit is the state 4 6 ; of the way in which local party activities affect the outcome of elections in which the political unit is the precinct 47 ; and of the ways in which the nature of the campaign, or the size of the town, or the distribution of the votes affects electoral behavior in which the community is the political system studied 48 . 90

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Perhaps the most ambitious study of this sort is that being conducted by Miller and Stokes of congressional districts—in which one has data on the attitudes of voters in a sample of districts as well as such system characteristics as the attitudes and behavior of the incumbent congressman and his opponents 49 . This study represents two important additions to the standard techniques of survey research. One additional technique involves the systematic selection of units at more than one level, individuals and congressional districts. The second technique involves the coordinated interviewing of both ordinary voters and political elites. Since so much of the problem of integrating studies of mass attitutes with the operation of political systems is related to the way in which these mass attitudes interact with elite attitudes and behavior, this represents a step forward in the application of surveys to problems of macro-political analysis. The above examples illustrate the variety of kinds of measures one can generate in a study that samples both individuals as well as social systems. It also points to an asymmetry between the individualistic and ecological fallacies: individualistic data can be aggregated more easily than ecological data can be disaggregated. One type of variable that can be used to characterize a social unit is the aggregate of responses in a survey of individual attributes, assuming of course that one has an adequate sample or a full census. One can characterize a unit as having a high average income or one can use measures of distribution to characterize a unit on the relative equality or inequality of income, and so forth 50. In addition, one can often add to the analysis "found" data that characterize the social unit, e.g. census data, voting data and other forms usually considered to be ecological measures. This is of course facilitated if the social unit sampled is also a unit of measure for governmental statistics. And one can add to the research design explicit measures of "global" or unit-level characteristics; on which information may already exist, or for which information can be gathered as part of the research design. These can include such items as political structural characteristics 51 , beliefs, acts, etc. of leaders 52, physical facilities of the social unit 53 ; or aspects of the social organization of the unit used in the sample 54 . And, as Lazarsfeld has pointed out, any of these measures on the level of the social unit can be used, in turn, for micro-analyses since each individual respondent can be characterized by the nature of the social unit of which he is a member, e.g. he can be considered a resident of a high income community (over and above his own income); or a resident in a state with restrictive voting laws, and so forth. And these unit characteristics, in addition to what 91

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we might call individual specific characteristics such as his own beliefs or attitudes, help explain the individual's behavior 55. As these examples make clear, the micro-macro (individual/ecological) distinction is not a hard and fast one. And the most interesting research designs are those that straddle the border between these two types of measures. One shortcoming in the above examples of the systematic selection of political units will be immediately apparent to the student of comparative politics. In all cases, the political units selected were sub-national units (congressional districts, communities, electoral precincts) rather than nationstates. The latter has been the traditional unit of analysis for comparative political science and is, indeed, the most general focus of political integration and political development in the modern world. The use of sub-national units has, however, certain advantages. For one thing it is feasible; it takes less resources to sample a series of local units than to sample a series of nations. The complex organizational and technical problems that accompany cross-national research can be avoided. (Abrams: 137; Duijker and Rokkan: 144; Almond and Verba: 834; Rokkan: 159.) Furthermore, it is easier to get a fairly reliable sample. Though there are over one hundred autonomous nations from which a sample could be drawn, not all are available for research and the thought of drawing a sample of, say, thirty nations and conducting surveys in each staggers the imagination. On the other hand, there are many local political units much more amenable to systematic sampling. In fact, the value of such locally based comparative studies may be that they will alert the student of comparative politics to the fact that useful systematic comparisons may be pursued on many different levels. One problem in comparative analysis of political systems (unlike analysis of micro-politics) is that one soon runs out of cases. The systematic comparative study of local political units is one way of increasing the number of cases. Lastly, the comparative study of local political units has the methodological advantage of controlling for many of the contextual variations that were cited in the beginning of this paper as complicating multicontextual research. By dealing with communities within a nation, one holds constant a large number of political factors and, therefore, can isolate somewhat more unambiguously the relevant differences among the systems 56. On the cross-national level, it may be possible to approximate some of the benefits that would be forthcoming if one could systematically select a sample of nations. Coordinated cross-national studies are rare, and coordinated cross-national studies in which the nations to study are systematically select92

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ed on the basis of their characteristics as systems are even rarer, if not nonexistent. Coordinated study of a systematically selected group of nations is of course greatly to be desired. But in several ways it may be possible to approximate some of its benefits. There have been a number of recent attempts to gather aggregate data about nations; and to relate these data to the political characteristics of these systems. (Deutsch: 80; Deutsch et al.: 81; Banks and Textor: 103; Russett et al.: 116; Russett: 99; Retzlaff: 231; Scheuch: 238.) Such work ought to provide some standard criteria for the description of the macro-characteristics of systems in which survey research is carried on 57. This will facilitate the development of a cumulative body of survey material which, though carried on by different researchers is, nevertheless, similar enough to allow comparison. For this purpose, the precision and concern for reliability of the survey method particularly recommends itself; for it makes possible the replication of survey instruments or parts of survey instruments by different scholars in different contexts. Thus without the development of centrally directed and coordinated programs of multi-national survey research, it may still be possible to develop a body of survey data from many nations that can be coordinated with data on the macro-characteristics of the systems and that will allow systematic comparative treatment. 5.3 Adding context to the analysis of survey research results Comparisons based on survey research take into account the context of the survey measures if comparisons are made not of the absolute frequency of attributes in several systems but the of patterns of distributions of attributes. Stein Rokkan has called these second-order comparisons. (Duijker and Rokkan: 144; Rokkan: 844; Rokkan and Campbell: 845.) What is compared is not the absolute frequency of, say, voting between two systems, nor even the absolute frequencies of voting within comparable sub-groups in two systems. Rather one compares systems in terms of the ways in which voting rates differ among sub-groups within the several systems. Does voting turnout increase as one moves up the status hierarchy in all systems under study, or are there differences among systems in the relationship between class and voting turnout? Thus the comparative question one asks is not whether American participate more actively in politics than Frenchmen; nor if American workers participate more actively than French workers, but how workers in each nation differ from other occupational groups. 93

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There are several ways in which such comparisons of patterns of distribution place survey results in a more comparable contextual frame. From the point of view of the achievement of equivalence in measures, this type of comparison controls for many of the contextual differences discussed earlier. Thus, for instance, the frequency of a specific measure of participation is not directly compared among systems, but rather participation rates for various groups are compared within individual systems, with the differences among groups forming the focus of cross-system comparison. Consider an example discussed above. In The Civic Culture, Almond and I found sharp differences among the five nations studied in the frequency with which respondents reported that they believed they could influence the government. But the interpretation of such a direct comparison of frequences across systems is difficult. They may reflect differences in socialization practices or differences in governmental structure. On the other hand, the finding that in each of thefivesystems studied, the sense of ability to influence the government varies in a similar way with educational level and social class represents a more validly comparable finding. The differences in governmental structure are to a large extent controlled by the fact the relationships between education and sense of political competence are made in the first instance within individual nations. Though there may be differences from system to system in the meaning of the measures we use to estimate the sense of competence to influence the government, the measures are roughly comparable. And their comparability is insured because they are in the first instance related to other variables within the system. We can, thus, conclude with some certainty that education has a similar relationship to this attitude in each of the nations studied. (Almond and Verba: 834, chapters 7, 9 and 13; See also Inkeles: 691.) This kind of comparative analysis also simplifies the problem of finding equivalent social categories for cross-national comparison. As pointed out above, demographic measures may have different meanings because of their different contexts. If we concentrate upon second order comparisons, much of this problem fades. It is difficult to determine whether a university education in Burma is equivalent to a university education in Germany, but we are quite sure that a university education in each of these systems represents a higher level of education than does secondary education in each system. Though it is difficult to find equivalent absolute measures of social class or education in different political contexts, it is quite easy to find ordinal measures such that we can be sure that within each individual system we have 94

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people who are arrayed on similar hierarchies. And for second order comparisons, this is all that is needed 58 . The finding of a uniform relationship between educational level and one political attitude becomes even more useful and interesting when it is contrasted with the relationships between educational level and other political attitudes. Thus Almond and Verba found that the general sense of ability to influence the government increased in each of the five nations when one moved up the educational ladder. But the particular strategies that respondents reported they would use in exerting such influence (in particular the frequency with which respondents reported that they would cooperate with others in these attempts) did not vary with educational level. (Almond and Verba: 834, pp. 208-213 and 379-386.) Such a finding allows us to infer certain characteristics of the impact of educational systems on the patterns of political involvement in nations. As educational levels are raised, one can assume that the general sense of one's ability to take part in political affairs will rise; but the mode of participation may well depend upon other factors than the mere attainment of higher levels of education. The substance of the argument in relation to education and modes of political participation is not of prime concern for this paper. What is important is the example of the way in which the mode of analysis of the survey material can both increase the comparability of the survey findings and relate the survey material to attributes of the system. Before comparisons are made, the particular variables are related to other aspects of the social context; political participation is placed in the context of the local educational system before one attempts to compare modes or rates of participation. In this way one increases the comparability of the measures by embedding them in their contexts as part of the process of comparison. It is, of course, a bit presumptuous to consider the bivariate comparison described above as a solution to the contextual problem. To relate modes of political activity to level of education is not to put the political activity variable very deeply into the context. The social context is much more complicated than the single variable of level of education. But it is a beginning, and one can go further to third order comparisons. Comparisons across nations are made only after a two-step internal patterning of relationships. Is the relationship between education and political participation stronger in more industrialized segments of society than in less ? And is the pattern the same in different nations? (Rokkan and Campbell: 845.) Recent work has illustrated the value of sub-national comparisons among regions 59 . The next 95

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stage would be to compare the patterning of regional differences among nations. In this way comparison is not made until relatively elaborate internal analyses have taken place within each relevant political unit, in this case the nation state. The above examples of the application of survey research to the analysis of comparative political systems do not differ in form from micro-political surveys. The same sort of data are gathered and the same types of analyses are made of the data. What does differ from much survey research is the focus of the analysis on the function of systems. Survey research can, thus, contribute much to the analysis of systems merely by framing problems in terms of such systems. This can be illustrated further if we consider the possibilities of "micro-tests of a macro-hypothesis". At the beginning of this paper it was pointed out that survey analysis usually relates two or more attributes of individuals. Most macro-hypotheses about political systems (that is, hypotheses where variables on the system level are related to other variables on the system level) assume certain micro-hypotheses about the individuals who make up the system. In situations where the macro-hypothesis is not directly testable — for lack of precise enough measurement tools, or for lack of accurate data, or, as is often the case in macro-analyses, for lack of enough cases —it may be possible to test more directly the microhypotheses that can be deduced from the macro-hypothesis. An example may make this type of test clear. Several authors have written of the importance of voluntary associations for the maintenance of a stable system of citizen participation in politics 60. Such an hypothesis could be tested on the macro-level. One could relate the extent and nature of voluntary associations in a society with its political characteristics. This would require the gathering of data on associational life and political characteristics from a large number of systems. Or one could test the hypothesis on the micro-level. The hypothesis on this level would be that the individual who is a member of a voluntary association is more likely to be an active participant in poltics than is a non-member. One could also deduce that attitudes of members will differ in other ways from non-members, that they will be more committed to democratic values, for instance. And analysis of the data as to the relationship between organizational membership and political participation and values in five different countries suggests that in all these countries, they are positively related. (Almond and Verba: 834, chapter 11; Verba: 849.) This is, in a sense, an indirect test of the proposition about political systems and volontary associations, but is a powerful test never96

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theless. One would certainly have been dubious about the acceptability of the macro-hypothesis if the micro-hypothesis had not held. However, it still would be an example of the individualistic fallacy to accept or reject the theories of voluntary associations on the basis of such evidence. Such associations could still increase political participation and commitment to democratic norms even if the individual members were not more likely to have these attributes. Though most of the approaches cited above deal with attempts to get away from the individualistic focus of survey research, all still depend upon the standard survey technique of asking questions of discrete individuals. The measures are still primarily of individual attitudes and behavior. But many of the interesting problems and theories as to the functioning of social systems deal not with individual actions but with the relationship among individuals. Most contemporary work on power and influence stresses the fact that these terms refer to relationships among individuals not to the attributes of individuals; and the very conception of role that forms the basis of much contemporary social science analysis implies a relationship among two or more actors. Thus the study of the structural aspects of political systems—be these structures of power and influence, communications nets, structures of mutual perceptions, or structures of affective commitment— would require direct measurement of relationships. If one were to chart the power structure of a system, one would study both the power holder and the person over whom power was held. Sociometric techniques developed in the study of small groups immediately come to mind as ways of dealing with relationships among individuals, but the difficulties of applying these techniques to large social units are enormous. If one is able to study all of the members of a social system it may be possible with the use of high speed computers to develop elaborate structural descriptions of the patterns of interaction 61. The problem is more complicated when, as in most survey studies, one cannot encompass all the members of the system. Yet, this may be an area in which important technical breakthroughs are possible. Expanding the historical frame of reference of survey research may be another way of increasing the relevnace of survey work. Most of the exciting problems in contemporary comparative politics are problems involving change and development. Survey research, though, has often been timebound with interviews conducted at one point in time. For survey research to contribute to the study of political systems in change, its temporal frame of reference will have to expand. There are, 97

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however, numerous ways in which this can be accomplished. Within the classical single-interview survey it is possible to ask retrospective questions tapping an individual's political memory. This of course raises a host of questions about the accuracy of such memory, but even if memories are inaccurate they are important. They represent the ways in which past political events are reflected in the present and are well worth studying. Furthermore, such variables as age and length of exposure to some stimulus, —say, for instance, the length of time the respondent has lived in an urban environment—are amenable to study in a single survey at a particular point of time 62 . Panel surveys and replicated surveys are also potentially useful tools for the study of change. The former has usually involved relatively short-term changes, though some panels have been kept going for extended periods of time 63 . And the rapidity of change in many societies suggests that even short-term panel studies may offer great benefits. Replication is another technique that particularly recommends itself since it involves few of the technical complexities of maintaining a panel between survey waves and can more easily be carried on after extended gaps of time. Furthermore, it does not necessarily have to involve the same researchers. The advantages of replicated surveys cannot be overestimated. In a rapidly changing world, they will allow us to chart patterns of change — what groups are becoming politicized and at what rates. And they would be of even greater use if carried on in a multicontextual framework, for one could then chart differing patterns of change in different contexts. Furthermore, leplication avoids many of the problems of equivalence cited earlier since comparisons are made, in the first instance, within particular systems. For instance the primary comparison of, say, rates of political participation would be between the rates found within the same system at two points of time. One would then compare across systems, not in terms of absolute levels of participation, but in terms of the rates of change in participation 64 . If survey research is to contribute to the understanding of political systems it must be grounded firmly in patterns of historical development. This can be looked at both retrospectively and prospectively. Retrospectively, the survey researcher, as any good student of society, much ground his work in the historical background of the system he studies. In general what this means is that survey analysis alone cannot be expected to encompass the variety of approaches and materials needed for the understanding of political systems and the ways in which they change and develop. If it is to contribute to this

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understanding it will have to be as part of a body of learning that includes other kinds of research as well. Looked at from the prospective point of view it means that survey researchers must be willing to go beyond their data. Survey studies should not merely test hypotheses about political systems or individual political attitude, they should generate new hypotheses as well. These then can be tested in the next wave of survey or other research. If the pattern of attitudes in a society is relevant to the stability of the political arrangements in that society, the survey researcher should be able to make predictions about the future stability of the system. Furthermore, the predictions may be more precise and complicated than the mere prediction of stability or instability. There may be predictions of rates of attitude change and direction of attitude change in various parts of the population; as well as many other predictions. Later studies would then evaluate the accuracy of the prediction. I am not asking that the survey researcher become a seer or even a political pundit; for it is not that important that he be right. What is important is that our knowledge gained from survey research be applied to the analysis of political systems, and that we test out the generalizations made about political systems. In this way the gap between the micro- and the macro-analysis of politics will be narrowed.

NOTES 1. Just as there is some ambiguity in the meaning of comparative politics so is there ambiguity in the meaning of the term survey research. For many, survey research is coterminous with what the Gallup poll does; it asks a cross-section sample of people a few relatively structured questions in a relatively short interview. For the purposes of this paper, survey research will refer to any research design that depends upon asking questions of a systematically selected group of respondents with a relatively standardized research instrument, and that involves analysis of the data by quantitative techniques. The definition is deliberately loose and merely serves as a useful frame for limiting the scope of this paper. In most cases, the surveys that will be discussed are sample surveys, where one major goal is the inference of certain characteristics of populations from statistics about samples of that population. I have not made sampling part of the definition of survey research since I want to include some studies that have involved interviewing all or almost all of the relevant population. Furthermore, the type of research I shall deal with in the paper will not be limited to studies of national cross-section samples nor to studies with highly structured interviews. 2. McGranahan : 156; Kobben : 213; Scheuch : 238. I shall return to this theme below since the same problem exists in relation to survey research. 3. Scheuch : 238; and William S. Robinson, "Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals," American Sociological Review 15(3), June 1950 : 351-357.

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4. Some of the best of these studies in recent political science include, Harry Eckstein, Division and cohesion in democracy: a study of Norway, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1966, XIII + 293 p.; Lucian W. Pye, Politics, personality and nation building, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1962, XX + 307 p.; David Apter, The Political kingdom in Uganda: a study in bureaucratic nationalism, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1961,XVI + 498 p. and Ghana in transition, New York, Atheneum Press, 1963,432 p.; Leonard Binder, Iran: political development in a changing society, Berkeley, The University of California Press, 1962, XII + 362 p.; Myron Weiner, The Politics of scarcity: public pressure and political response in India, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1962, 231 p. 5. Indeed, the number of cases is usually one. But there have been recent attempts to develop parallel case studies of political systems that allow comparisons across configuratively designed studies. See Robert A. Dahl, ed., Political oppositions in Western democracies, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966, XX + 458 p.; Lucian W. Pye and Sidney Verba, eds., Political culture and political development, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1965, X + 574 p. A more ambitious attempt is the parallel studies of the smaller European democracies organized by Hans Daalder, Robert A. Dahl, Val Lorwin and Stein Rokkan. 6. A bibliography of single nation survey studies would, of course, be much longer than the one contained in this volume. It would contain most of the major works in political survey research. 7. See, for instance, A. Campbell et al., Elections and the political order, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1966, p. 194-211 and 351-372. 8. Almond and Verba: 834. See also Alford: 814, which focuses on comparisons among four English speaking democracies. 9. Some important exceptions will be discussed below. 10. For a good conceptual discussion of the relationship between individual attributes and the attributes of the systems of which they are parts, see Paul Lazarsfeld, "Evidence and inference in social research," p. 107-138 in : Daniel Lerner, ed., Evidence and inference, Glencoe, The Free Press, 1959. 11. But it may make some difference, even under these conditions. What one may not know is the extent to which the individualistic hypothesis is generalizable to other contexts. A relationship between, say, educational level and likelihood of political participation may be a positive one in certain kinds of party systems but may be negative in others, or non-existent in still other situations. Insofar as the context does not vary in this respect (i.e. the study is done within a single party system or within several similar ones) one cannot test its range of applicability. 12. In this essay, I shall focus on the difficulies of cross-national research (i.e., where the relevant context is the nation state) since these present the most difficult problems. Cross-national studies carried on in several nations at the same time represent an important way in which such contextual characteristics can be brought into the analysis (indeed they force such consideration of systemic characteristics) but multi-contextuality does not necessarily imply such a study design. A survey carried on within one particular system can be a multicontextual study as long as the frame of reference goes beyond that system. Thus, though studies limited to a single context cannot test propositions in which the context figures as a variable, it can, as can any well designed case study, suggest such propositions for further testing. Furthermore, it is possible for a study carried on within one political context to be so designed that the data gathered is comparable to data gathered by others in other political contexts. It is one of the virtues of survey procedures that they have been concerned with inter-observer reliability and are therefore often amenable to replication from system to system. Thus, a single context study, by being

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related to other studies, can become part of a multicontextual body of work (Herbert H. Hyman stresses the usefulness of studies of this sort which he calls "pseudo-comparisons"; see Hyman; 180.) And, lastly, for the introduction of systemic variables into a survey study it is not necessary that the system unit be a nation. Multicontextual studies can be made using other political units : communities, organizations and the like. There is of course some advantage to studies that are explicitly multicontextual in design and in which the several contexts are nation states. An explicit multicontextual design allows the maximization of system variation and also forces recognition of such systemic variation, a recognition that may be missing if the design is not an explicitly multicontextual one. 13. Non-verbal techniques represent one possible way around the language problem. There is probably great room for innovation in this regard. Two problems exist, however, in this respect. In the first place, there is evidence of lack of equivalence of meaning of these techniques in different cultures. This is clearly the case when representational pictures are used as in the TAT. The pictures have to be adjusted to the local modes of dress and physical characteristics but this immediately introduces problems similar to those associated with linguistic equivalence. And the same type of problem may arise with non-representational techniques such as the Rorschach. On this general subject, see especially Lindzey : 454; as well as Henry : 445; Kaplan : 450; Sears : 240; and Adcock : 435. See also R. Bruce W. Anderson, "On the comparability of meaningful stimuli in cross-cultural research", Sociometry 30(2), June 1967 : 124-136. (This article reviews most of the literature on the cross-cultural equivalence of verbal as well as nonverbal stimuli.) 14. P. Lazarsfeld, "Evidence and inference in social research," p. 107-138 in Daniel Lerner, ed., Evidence and inference, Glencoe, The Free Press, 1959. 15. For a general discussion ans some specific measures relevant to this problem, see Adam Przeworski and Henry Teune, "Equivalence in cross-national research", Public Opinion Quarterly 30(4), Winter 1966-67 : 551-569. 16. John Beattie, Bunyoro, an African kingdom, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1960, p. 7-8. 17. Herbert Hyman, Interviewing in social research, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1954, p. 83-137 and Morris Axelrod, Donald R. Matthews, and James W. Prothro, "Recruitment for survey research on race problems in the South," Public Opinion Quarterly 26(2), Summer 1962 : 254-262. 18. Samuel P. Huntington, "Political development and political decay," World Politics 17(3), April 1965 : 386-430. 19. The statement is certainly impressionistic and possibly chauvinistic. One certainly has the impression that survey research abroad is often market research, or pre-election surveys for public consumption or for political parties and candidates as a means of improving campaign strategy. These are uses of survey research that started in the Unied States. In addition, the use of survey research by the U.S. Occupation Forces in Japan and Germany left behind both qualified personnel and interest in the technique. But the major impact may derive from the work of such groups as the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan. The two most important contributions of this group and others like it are the provision of intellectual models (Crespi : 8; Passin : 38) and training via student and faculty exchange. 20. Several of these assumptions have been discussed in Zygmunt Goskowski, "Algunas consideraciones en torno a la validezez de las técnicas de investigación utilizadas en los países en vias de desarrollo, " Ciencias Políticas y Sociales 10(37), julio-septiembre 1964: 441-451.

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21. Goskowski, op. cit., points out that in Poland those with limited education cannot understand the notion of a scale, and rarely use the lower positions. 22. As will be suggested later, respondents who ask the question "Why m e ? " when they feel their views are not as important as those of others, are asking a quite meaningful question. 23. H. Hyman, Interviewing in social research, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1954, p. 83-137. 24. Reinhard Bendix, Nation building and citizenship, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1964, XIV + 314 p.; Karl W. Deutsch, "Social mobilization and political development," American Political Science Review 55(3), Sept. 1961 : 493-514; Stein Rokkan, "The Comparative study of political participation", p. 47-90 in : Austin Ranney, ed., Essays on the behavioral study of politics, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1962, XIV + 251 p. 25. See Philip Converse, "The Nature of belief systems in mass publics," p. 206-261 in : David Apter, ed., Ideology and discontent, New York, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964, 342 p. 26. Analysis of data on American attitudes toward the war in Vietnam indicates that though there is widespread dissatisfaction with the war, this dissatisfaction probably has little effect on decision-makers because of the diffuse nature of the dissatisfaction. It is not concentrated in any social group nor in either political party, and therefore, does not play a major role in elections simply because party leaders cannot adopt electoral strategies to deal with it. See Sidney Verba et al„ "Public opinion and the war in Vietnam," American Political Science Review 61(2), June 1967 : 317-333. 27. The problem exists, of course, within societies as well. The same material object may be differentially evaluated by different groups in the same society. Crumrine points out, for instance, that the mestizos and Mayos in the Mexican city he studied look upon certain material goods differently. Both groups sometimes wear shoes and sometimes sandals. For the mestizos, the wearing of sandals is an indicator that he cannot afford shoes and thus implies low material status. For the Mayo sandals are the ritually proper footwear, that is, he wears them on holidays as a means of expressing ethnic identity. See N. Ross Crumrine, "The Problem of ethnic identity," Transaction 3(6), SeptemberOctober 1966 : 48-50. 28. What this suggests in the first instance is that one must take into account the cultural and structural context within which the measurement takes place. If one is comparing voting rates, it is important to know and take into account the electoral system. (This by no means signifies that voting rates cannot be meaningfully compared for certain purposes across different electoral systems, as we shall discuss below.) This, of course, is to say nothing more than that one ought to know a lot about what it is one is studying before one starts empirical research; and that this is especially the case when one is using techniques, such as survey research where the "automatic" nature of the data gathering process means that obvious aspects of the data may be overlooked. But even if the maxim is platitudinous, it is not always easy to follow. At times we conduct the research simply in order to find out about those structural and cultural features that we need to understand in order to design the research. This leads to another platitudinous maxim about research design: that it is only after it has been done that one knows what one ought to have done, and the obvious conclusion that research programs must build their store of understandings of the meanings of the variables that they measure. In single nations we have had these kinds of replicated growth programs, the voting studies of the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan are an example. It has been only through numerous replications and analyses of their data that the meaning of some of their fundamental variables, such as partisan affiliation, has become 102

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clear. The same kind of long term replicated understanding of variables on the crosscultural basis is needed as well. 29. On this general subject, see the growing literature on cognitive balance or dissonance, including Leon Festinger, A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1962, XII + 291 p.; F. Heider, The Psychology of interpersonal relations, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1958, 322 p.; C.E. Osgood, C.J. Suci and P.H. Tannenbaum, The Measurement of meaning, Urbana, The University of Illinois Press, 1957, 342 p.; M.J. Rosenberg et al„ Attitude organization and change, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1960, X + 239 p.; and the special issue of The Public Opinion Quarterly on "Attitude change", 24(2), Summer 1960 : 163-365, especially the articles by Zajonc, Cohen, Rosenberg and Osgood. For some studies of the structure of attitudes with more direct political implication, see Milton Rokeach, The Open and the closed mind, New York, Basic Books, 1960, XV + 447 p.; and Ulf Himmelstrand, Social pressures attitudes and democratic processes, Stockholm, Almquist and Wiksell, 1960, 471 p. 30. Lerner : 904. The search for new dimensions of political attitude may enable us to break down the barrier to survey studies that appears to be erected by the limited content of the attitudes that are found in survey research. Much of what scholars consider to be a paucity of important political attitudes may rather be an inability of the respondent to structure his political world the way the scholar does. The scholar asks questions about political dimensions that he considers important, with the result that the respondents often have difficulty in answering. If one were to use interview techniques that give the respondent more room to express his own views in his own terms, it might turn out that a richer set of political attitudes exists than we had heretofore expected. This suggests a research strategy involving longer and less structured interviews as a preliminary to the conduct of more highly structured survey research. An example of the richness of popular political ideology that can be gleaned from long and intensive interviews is found in Robert E. Lane, Political ideology. New York, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962,XI + 509 p. 31. Early work by Inkeles and Rossi suggested that there were similar occupational prestige hierarchies in different countries, a finding that would make this problem less severe. (Inkeles and Rossi : 671.) Further studies have in general confirmed the finding, but suggested qualifications particularly when one is dealing with fairly precisely defined occupational categories and with less industrialized sectors. (D'Souza : 668; Hutchinson : 670; Mitchell : 673; Ramsey and Smith : 675; Thomas : 679; Tiryakian : 680.) 32. See Bo Anderson and Morris Zelditch, Jr., "Rank equilibration and political behavior," Archives européennes de sociologie 5(1), 1964 : 112-125; Daniel Bell, ed., The New American Right, New York, Criterion Books, 1955, XIV + 239 p.; Irwin W. Goffman, "Status consistency and preference for change in power distribution," American Sociological Review 22(3), June 1957: 275-281; Gerhard E. Lenski, "Status crystallization: a non-vertical dimension of social status," American Sociological Review 19(4), August 1954 : 405-413, and "Social participation and status crystallization", American Sociological Review 21(4), August 1956 : 458-464; K. Dennis Kelly, "Status consistency and political attitudes," American Sociological Review 31(3), June 1966 : 375-381; Gary B. Rush, "Status consistency and right wing extremism," American Sociological Review 32(1), February 1967 : 86-92; and Johan Galtung, "Rank and social integration : a multidimensional approach", p. 145-198 in : J. Berger, M. Zelditch Jr. and Bo Anderson, ed., Sociological theories in progress, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, to appear in 1968. 33. See Marion J. Levy, Jr., Modernization and the structure of societies, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1966, XX + 374 p. (Especially p. 35-38.) 103

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34. See Neil J. Smelser, "Notes on the methodology of comparative analysis of economic activity", p. 145-159 in: The Social sciences'. Problems and orientations, The Hague-Paris, Mouton, 1968. See also his persuasive argument for a combined objectivist and subjectivist definition of major concepts in comparative research. He argues that any definition of economics must "involve a definition of the production, distribution and consumption of scarce goods and services in relation to individual and social goals" (op. cit. p. 155). The important point is that economics thus involves a relationship between the allocations of scarce resources and social goals. Much economic analysis considers the goals for which the scarce resources are mobilized as given. This may be legitimate in situations where there are well known and fairly uniform institutionalized values throughout a society. But in a cross-national context, one cannot make such an assumption. The goals of economic activity may differ. A similar argument can be made for political activity. If one defines political activity (as I think is useful) as the coordination of societal activities to attain collective goals, it becomes clear that one is dealing with various kinds of coordinative activities (acts of political leadership, coercive acts, governmental decisions, and so forth) all of which make sense only in terms of the goals toward which they are directed. Thus, to understand the relative effectiveness of different political forms (a task pursued by many political scientists of an earlier generation which might be a fruitful consideration for more scientifically oriented political scientists) one must consider that effectiveness depends on what it is one is trying to accomplish. 35. The generation of data on interpretations of particular acts or statuses is not needed from every study. One study that presents information on the interpretation of, say, the sex role in a particular society can be used by other scholars who want to interpret the meaning of sex differences. But, if there is internal variation within a population in the interpretation of these roles, and if one is interested in the respondent's own interpretations, each individual study must generate this data anew. 36. Cantril : 530; Cantril: 529; and Cantril and Free : 531. The problem is not specific to cross-national research in exotic situations. One of the most striking findings of the American voting literature is the extent to which ordinary voters lack a frame of reference comparable to that held by more sophisticated political observers, particularly by newspaper commentators or political scientists. Issues and ideologies (the stuff of sophisticated political debate) are not the stuff of the ordinary man's political world view. Few have anything that could be called a consistent ideology or belief system relevant to political issues. Though they will take positions on a variety of issues when given choices, they will often take the opposite position on the next round of questioning. But this may not mean that they hold no consistent belief systems relevant to politics. It just may mean that the dimensions of academic discourse are not the most meaningful ones for at least one stratum of the participants. 37. See Converse : 195; Rokkan : 189; and Scheuch : 193. On the general subject, see also Wilhelm Hennis, Meinungsforschung und representative Demokratie, Tiibingen, Mohr, 1957, 64 p. and Robert A. Dahl, A preface to democratic theory, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1956, XII + 155 p. 38. William S. Robinson, "Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals," American Sociological Review 15(3), June 1950 : 351-357. 39. Samuel Stouffer, Communism, conformity and civil liberties. Garden City, Doubleday, 1955, 279 p.; James W. Prothro and Charles M. Grigg, "Fundamental principles of democracy : bases of agreement and disagreement," Journal of Politics 22(2), May 1960 : 276-294; and Herbert McClosky, "Consensus and ideology in American politics," American Political Science Review 58(2), June 1964 : 361-382.

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40. For a discussion of survey data in the United States in relation to a major public issue, see Sidney Verba et al., "Public opinion and the war in Vietnam", American Political Science Review 61(2), June 1967 : 317-333. 41. Frank Bonilla and Silva Michelena, Studying the Venezuelan polity, Center of International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Centro de Estudios del Desarrollo, Universidad Central de Venezuela, May 1966, p. 8-9. 42. See Peter H. Rossi, "Four landmarks in voting research", p. 5-54 in : Eugene Burdick and Arthur J. Brodbeck, eds., American voting behavior, Glencoe, The Free Press, 1959, p. 5-54. 43. JamesA.Davies, Great books and small groups, New York, the Free Press of Glencoe, 1961, XIII + 237 p., see Chapter 1. See also, Peter M. Blau, "Structural effects," American Sociological Review 25(2), April 1960 : 178-193. 44. See Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human behavior: an inventory of scientific findings, New York, Harcourt, Brace and World, 1964, XXIII + 712 p. (See p. 567.) 45. An interesting example is found in some studies of Japanese attitudes on particularistic versus universalistic obligations. A large sample in Japan was asked how they would act if faced with the following dilemma : they have been asked to recommend an individual for a job. They know him to be disqualified for it but they have some personal obligation to the father of the applicant. Twice as many (48 %) give the "universalistic" answer that they would tell the truth about him as say they would recommend him anyway (23 %). On the other hand, when asked how they thought others would evaluate their acts, those who gave the more popular universalistic response were more likely to believe that others would disapprove, than were those who gave the less popular particularistic response. See C. Hayashi et al., "A study of japanese national character," Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics (Tokyo) 11,1960, Supplement, 38 p. Here might be an interesting example of a situation in which a social norm (in the statistical sense of the numbers who hold a particular position) has changed in a universalistic direction from the more traditional norms, but the perception of the change has lagged behind. In such a case, the largest group might approve of a particular kind of behavior but the frequency of that behavior might be somewhat lowered by the absence of perception of this change. This is an example where knowledge of the context of the individual preference (in this case both the preferences of others as well as the perceptions of the preferences of others) places the individual preference in a more comprehensive social context. 46. See Campbell et al. The American voter, New York, Wiley, 1963, VIII + 573 p. (Chapter 11 : "Election laws, political systems and the voter", p. 266-289), and A. Campbell and W. Miller, "The Motivational basis of straight and split ticket voting," American Political Science Review 51(2), June 1957 : 293-312. 47. See Daniel Katz and Samuel J. Eldersveld, "The Impact of local party activity upon the electorate," Public Opinion Quarterly 25(1), Spring 1961 : 1-24, and Phillips Cutright and Peter H. Rossi, "Grass roots, politicians and the vote," American Sociological Review 23(2), April 1958 : 171-179. 48. Phillip H. Ennis, "The Contextual dimension in voting," p. 18-211 in : W.N. McPhee and W.A. Glaser, eds., Public opinion and congressional elections, New York, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962, p. 18-211. 49. Donald E. Stokes and Warren Miller, "Party government and the saliency of congress," Public Opinion Quarterly 26(4), Winter 1962 : 531-546; and Miller and Stokes, "Constituency influence on congress," American Political Science Review 57(1), March 1963 : 45-56. 50. See Lazarsfeld, "Evidence and inference in social research", p. 107-138 in : Daniel Lerner, ed., Evidence and inference, Glencoe, The Free Press, 1959. See also Hayward

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R. Alker and Bruce M. Russett, "Indices for comparing inequality," p. 349-372 in : R.L. Merritt and S. Rokkan, eds., Comparing nations: the use of quantitative data in cross-national research, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966, XV + 584 p. 51. As in the Michigan Survey Research Center studies of voting in which local laws can be added as an independent variable affecting voting turnout. See Campbell et al., The American voter, New York, Wiley, 1963, VIII-573 p. 52. Warren Miller and Donald E. Stokes, "Constituency influence on congress," American Political Science Review 57(1), March 1963 : 45-56. 53. As in the forthcoming M.I.T. studies of Turkish villages, see F.W. Frey, "Surveying peasant attitudes in Turkey", Public Opinion Quarterly 27(3), Fall 1963: 335-355. 54. Ibid. (Frey : 15). 55. See the way in which individual motivation is combined with restrictiveness of state laws to help explain voting behavior in Campbell et al., The American voter. New York, Wiley, 1963, VIII + 573 p. (Chapter 11 : "Election laws, political systems and the voter", p. 266-289). 56. Juan J. Linz and Armando de Miguel, "Within nation differences and comparisons," p. 267-320 in : in Merritt and Rokkan, eds., Comparing nations: the use of quantitative data in cross-national research, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966, XV + 584 p. 57. See Phillip M. Gregg and Arthur S. Banks, "Dimensions of political systems : a factor analysis of a cross-polity survey," American Political Science Review 59(3), September 1965 : 602-614. 58. In some cases, however, even an assumption of similar ordinality may not be warranted. The status hierarchy of occupation, for instance, may differ. 59. Linz and de Miguel, op. cit. (above, note 56). 60. See, for instance, William Kornhauser, The Politics of mass society, Glencoe, The Free Press, 1959, p. 76-77; and Seymour M. Lipset, Political man. Garden City, Doubleday, 1960, 432 p. 61. See, for instance, the work of James S. Coleman, "Analysis of social structures and simulation of social processes with electronic computers," p. 61-69 in : Harold Guetzkow, ed., Simulation in social science: readings, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1962. 62. On this general subject, see Herbert Hyman, Political socialization, Glencoe, The Free Press, 1959, 175 p. 63. See, for instance, Phillip E. Converse et al., "Stability and change in 1960 : a reinstating election," American Political Science Review 55(2), June 1961 : 269-280; and Converse, "The Nature of belief systems in mass publics," p. 206-261 in : David Apter, ed., Ideology and discontent, New York, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964, 342 p. On this general subject, see Nathan Goldfarb, An introduction to longitudinal statistical analysis, Glencoe, Illinois, The Free Press, 1960, 220 p. 64. Replication does not necessarily involve the complete repetition of a study at some later date. One of the advantages of the standardized survey instrument is that parts of it can be independently replicated without the necessity of replicating the entire instrument.

106

Résumé

français

STEIN ROKKAN: L'ANALYSE COMPARATIVE DES DONNÉES D'ENQUÊTE Les études reposant sur une collecte de données par la voie d'interviews se sont longtemps limitées pour l'essentiel, à l'analyse d'un échantillon d'une population déterminée; mais ce cadre ne laisse pas d'apparaître aujourd'hui trop étroit aux spécialistes des sciences sociales de plus en plus attirés par la saisie de constantes et de variations dans le temps et dans l'espace. Le présent "état des recherches" tend à dégager l'un des aspects de cette évolution et à le situer dans une large perspective méthodologique et historique; il porte sur l'utilisation des techniques et données d'enquête dans l'étude comparative de populations nationales distinctes. C'est là un problème d'importance pour les sciences sociales, où l'inflation documentaire impose de reconsidérer les problèmes à tous les niveaux de la recherche. 1 Origine de /' enquête par sondage Trois conditions semblent déterminantes dans l'apparition de quelque système que ce soit dequestionnairestandardiséetd'enregistrement des réponses : un minimum de centralisation et de bureaucratisation, une alphabétisation suffisante, et une mobilité trans-locale de la population telle qu'il soit plus avantageux de conduire ce type d'enquête que d'avoir recours aux canaux traditionnels de communication orale. L'existence de ces trois conditions correspond à celle d'une société de type moderne. L'administration de nos sociétés bureaucratiques offre six voies à la collecte des données: 1. Le questionnaire administratif 107

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2. L'enregistrement 3. Le recensement 4. L'élection 5. Le référendum 6. L'examen Le recensement marque le progrès le plus important dans le sens de la systématisation grâce à une couverture totale de catégories nettes facilement codifiables et à la prise en considération d'ensembles homogènes. Les premières enquêtes sur échantillon se conformèrent étroitement à ce modèle et distinguèrent nettement l'individu de sa représentativité statistique (ce qui entraînait le secret professionnel). Ces caractéristiques se trouvèrent renforcées sous l'influence de deux des autres modèles, l'élection et le référendum, qui constituaient en quelque sorte une expérimentation de masse des plus intéressantes pour les sciences sociales naissantes. Un inconvénient cependant: les décisions individuelles étaient ainsi consciencieusement enregistrées, mais en tant qu'actes anonymes coupés de leurs origines, ce qui constituait un obstacle pour l'analyse. Les premières tentatives de prévision des résultats électoraux s'appuyèrent aux États-Unis sur certaines caractéristiques nationales (ce qui rendait problématique l'utilisation des données d'enquête à l'extérieur). L'histoire du questionnaire à grande échelle commence en 1916 avec les Literary Digest Poils administrés à des millions de citoyens; ils constituaient des élections miniatures par correspondance. L'entreprise se solda en 1936 par un fiasco lors de l'élection de Roosevelt, ce qui donna sa chance à une nouvelle génération de spécialistes illustrée par les noms de Gallup et de Roper. Alors s'impose la considération de ce « modèle réduit » de la structure de la population qu'est l'échantillon, objet de contact direct et personnel. La croyance naïve en la valeur d'un nombre élevé d'interviews, génératrice d'importantes distorsions, est abandonnée, et ce d'autant plus vite qu'elle entraîne de fortes dépenses. Deux types principaux d'enquête apparaissent: le sondage commercial et l'étude de marché. Alors se multiplient les entreprises privées de sondages sur échantillons nationaux, appartenant pour la plupart aux Gallup Affiliâtes ou à l'INRA, ce qui internationalise les méthodes et les résultats. Parallèlement se développent des institutions gouvernementales et académiques. L'enquête commerciale est constituée essentiellement sur le modèle de l'élection et du référendum. On relève, en 1936, la réussite d'une simulation d'élections. Par la suite, les enquêteurs commerciaux passèrent du modèle 108

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élection au modèle référendum. L'enquêteur académique compléta le modèle recensement par la batterie de tests (qui trouvait son origine dans l'examen scolaire) et par la conversation à bâtons rompus sur un sujet donné. Une place spéciale doit êtie faite au Survey Research Center de l'Université du Michigan qui connut un développement considérable sous l'impulsion de Rensis Likert. L'enquête académique a ainsi ajouté une septième technique aux six déjà mentionnées, peut-être la plus importante: la conversation informelle entre étrangers (les questions héritées du recensement et du plébiscite étaient trop artificielles). 2. L'internationalisation de l'enquête sur échantillon : facilités et obstacles Un grand nombre d'enquêtes transnationales furent effectuées après la seconde guerre mondiale et suscitèrent de grands espoirs, bien vite déçus. L'extension des techniques nouvelles s'avéra difficile au-delà des limites des pays occidentaux avancés et aléatoire, même dans ces pays, en dehors des agglomérations urbaines. De nombreux spécialistes devinrent sceptiques quant à l'universalisation des nouvelles techniques. Cette circonspection se trouva renforcée par les critiques des ethnologues. La section I. 1 de la bibliographie représente une sélection des discussions relatives à cette extension possible des enquêtes. Une des raisons de l'échec tint à la surconcentration du modèle plébiscitaire parfaitement adapté à un système de marché : il se fondait sur l'hypothèse que tous les adultes confrontés à des alternatives pouvaient prendre des décisions significatives. Ce modèle était valable dans des structures de compétition tant économique que politique. 3 Types d'enquêtes transnationales : trois études de cas En dépit des difficultés, un certain nombre d'enquêtes ont donné naissance depuis vingt ans à une masse de données potentiellement comparables. Une faible partie de ces renseignements a délibérément été obtenue dans une perspective transnationale. Les études de ce genre sont coûteuses et rares : trois d'entre elles font l'objet d'une analyse détaillée. 3.1 L'enquête de /'Unesco portant sur neuf pays Cette enquête de 1948 faisait partie d'un programme de recherche relatif aux tensions entre nations, ethnies et races. Neuf pays étaient couverts. 109

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L'étude se présentait comme descriptive et exploratoire. L'analyse se limitait au « micro-niveau » conformément à la tradition du sondage plébiscitaire, chaque sujet interrogé étant traité comme une unité isolée coupée de son contexte historico-culturel. Les problèmes du niveau envisagé (macro-micro) prirent par la suite une importance primordiale (214,243) et l'on ne peut dire, malgré quelques piogrès, qu'ils aient été vraiment tranchés. 3.2 L'enquête de VORSC auprès des enseignants de sept pays Cette enquête offre un bon exemple des difficultés suscitées par le développement d'un projet « macro-micro » en recherche comparative. L'Organisation pour la recherche sociale comparative naquit, en 1951 à Oslo, d'une initiative de l'Institut de recherches sociales qui organisa un séminaire international pour tracer le plan directeur d'enquêtes conduites en plusieurs pays à des fins de comparaison et destinées à former sur place des chercheurs. Hyman (182, 183) devait y préciser les principaux avantages d'une recherche comparative transnationale et insister sur la nécessité de développer des projets spécifiquement transnationaux. Dans l'attente de différences entre pays et cultures il convient d'élaborer théories et hypothèses appropriées. La justification théorique de la recherche comparative tient à ce qu'elle fournit l'occasion de vérifier les effets de variations qui ne peuvent être décelées à l'intérieur d'une seule unité nationale ou culturelle. Après de longues discussions les membres du séminaire se mirent d'accord sur un projet de base liant les variations de la « menace », éprouvée par des individus ou des unités, aux variations des « pressions dans le sens de la conformité ». Cette relation devait être testée au niveau du groupe restreint et au niveau national. D'importantes considérations méthodologiques furent dégagées. 3.3 Uétude d'Almond-Verba sur le civisme en cinq pays Un pas important fut franchi en 1958 avec une étude sur la signification du civisme. The Civic Culture (834) représente une innovation dans le domaine de la politique comparée. C'est un grand livre tant par ses apports que par les questions et les objections qu'il suscite. G. Almond et S. Verba désiraient identifier les catégories d'individus qui sont ou ne sont pas actifs et concernés, et les comparer compte tenu de leur milieu social, valeurs et motivations. L'enquête était destinée à analyser certaines des implications empiriques de formulations théoriques générales développées par le Committee on Comparative Politics institué par le Social Science Research Council. Le choix des cinq pays retenus (Mexique, Italie, République fédérale allemande, 110

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Royaume-Uni et États-Unis) permettait d'élucider le passage des formes traditionnelles de politique aux formes modernes. Les auteurs conceptualisèrent des types de relations gouvernement/gouvernés qui orientèrent toute l'étude. Ils limitèrent volontairement l'exploitation des résultats, qui restent susceptibles d'être intégrés dans un cadre analytique plus large. 4 L'organisation de la recherche comparative. Les conditions d'un développement cumulatif De nombreuses enquêtes transculturelles et transnationales, pour la plupart américaines, ont été effectuées. On mentionnera celle qui, amorcée par Lazarsfeld, fut analysée dans un cadre théorique plus large par Lerner (904) et les études de Cantril (529, 531), de McClelland (508), d'Inkeles (757), de Verba (848). Des psychologues comme Osgood et Andersons (339, 492-494) s'efforcèrent d'utiliser leurs tests et techniques à l'étranger. Chez les anthropologues on relève les efforts de Whiting. L'étude d'Almond-Verba ne resta isolée qu'un temps, et d'auties analyses furent faites par Lipset (827-830), Lerner (882), Deutsch (931), etc. Aux États-Unis une part des ressources allouées à la recherche a permis de développer les études comparatives. En Amérique latine, l'apport est surtout venu de l'extérieur. L'Europe, qui offrait un terrain très favorable, a vu surtout se développer des études locales, et certaines des premières tentatives ont été le fait de chercheurs et de fonds américains. Dans cette perspective, un modèle de coopération est constitué par l'étude de Husén (536) avec la collaboration de l'Unesco, de l'U.S. Office of Education et de douze pays. La création par l'Unesco d'un Centre de coordination à Vienne vient à point nommé et permet de dégager des enseignements pour l'avenir: la recherche transnationale exige un cadie institutionnel et une organisation de base. Il existe déjà des éléments sérieux dans les différentes sciences sociales (démographie, économie, anthropologie, sociologie, science politique...). La difficulté réside dans le développement des programmes à long terme, car peu a été fait pour évaluer et standardiser les données accumulées, qui restent stockées et analysées au plan national. Pour pallier ces difficultés, un certain nombre de politiques ont été proposées (celles de Tingsten-DuvergeiLasswell, de Dogan-Lipset, d'Almond-Verba). Des lacunes subsistent. L'actuelle tendance à développer des archives de données sur machines électroniques doit être comprise dans la perspective suivante: constituées à partir des recherches effectuées sur le terrain, de telles archives devraient permettre 111

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aux théoriciens d'élaborer leurs hypothèses; elles ne sauraient donc en ellesmêmes suffire, et il est nécessaire que les données puissent être interprétées. C'est dans ce sens qu'il convient d'orienter les efforts.

SIDNEY VERBA: L'UTILISATION DES SONDAGES DANS L'ÉTUDE COMPARATIVE DE LA POLITIQUE: PROBLÈMES ET STRATÉGIES L'étude porte sur l'utilité des sondages pour la comparaison de vastes systèmes sociaux et politiques. La nature de ce mode de recherche est mieux saisie si on le compare à deux autres démarches, celle qui mène aux ensembles comme tels et celle qui débouche sur des études de cas particuliers; il en cumule les avantages, malgré les limites qui lui sont propres et qui tiennent aux difficultés de sa mise en œuvre comme à son coût élevé. La plupart des sondages présentent deux caractéristiques limitant leur utilité pour l'analyse macro-politique: ils sont centrés sur l'individu et ne sont pas contextuels, en ce sens qu'ils ne tiennent pas explicitement compte du cadre socio-culturel. La recherche multicontextuelle pose des problèmes de comparabilité. Le plus important est, en fait, de savoir si ce que l'on compare est réellement comparable. La question se pose au niveau de la technique comme à celui de la conceptualisation. Les problèmes techniques

Des réponses ne sont comparables que si les stimuli sont les mêmes. Or, il est très difficile, dans un cadre transnational de standardiser les stimuli, ne serait-ce que pour des raisons d'équivalence linguistique (connotations émotionnelles d'un concept, etc.). Cependant, il ne s'agit pas d'obtenir une réplique parfaite, mais seulement une approche de même dimension d'une attitude ou d'un comportement. Il est possible de considérer des questions posées lors d'enquêtes conduites parallèlement dans des langues différentes comme autant d'items alternatifs mesurant la même dimension. Ce problème linguistique n'est d'ailleurs pas propre à la recherche transnationale. Il se pose aussi bien dans un cadre national, mais la recherche transnationale a l'avantage de le rendre plus évident. A ces problèmes linguistiques s'ajoutent des difficultés techniques dans 112

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le secteur des relations enquêteur/sujet interrogé: aux États-Unis, un noir répondra différemment selon que l'enquêteur est blanc ou noir, etc. Ces relations varient de pays à pays comme bien d'autres facteurs d'ailleurs: dans l'enquête conduite par Almond et Verba, 1 % des personnes interrogées aux États-Unis refusaient de faire connaître leur préférence pour un parti; en Italie 35 %. De plus, toute approche théorique est située culturellement: largement développée aux États-Unis la technique du sondage a été transposée dans d'autres pays occidentaux et plus récemment dans des sociétés en voie de développement; certains aspects socio-culturels spécifiques aux ÉtatsUnis peuvent avoir d'importants effets sur son utilisation possible et sur la comparabilité des résultats. Chaque pays présente des particulaiités à tous les niveaux de la recherche. Les problèmes de conceptualisation Même si l'on suppose résolus les problèmes de mesure, il reste à dégager la signification des résultats. A quel point peut-on tenir pour équivalentes des conduites ou des attitudes si l'on tient compte de leur environnement socioculturel particulier? Toute structure ou fonction politique isolée, à laquelle a été conférée une étiquette commune, n'en dépendpasmoinsdesoncontexte. Même s'il est motivé par des raisons totalement différentes, le vote de deux individus peut avoir un résultat identique. Le contexte d'un acte affecte sa signification. D'où la complexité d'une recherche multicontextuelle: on mesure un comportement individuel tel que le vote dans des sociétés qui diffèrent par des aspects intrinsèques au fait de voter. Ces problèmes se situent aux différents niveaux (micio et macro) où l'on utilise la méthode comparative. Les difficultés relatives aux variables d'attitudes et de comportement se retrouvent même qu'il s'agit de variables indépendantes. Les mesures standard (éducation, emploi, revenu, âge, etc.) ont des significations ambiguës. Les stratégies de la recherche comparative Si les mesures sont ainsi immergées dans des contextes structuraux et culturels différents, il faut s'efforcer, au stade de la comparaison, de maintenir leur contexte. Les problèmes de décalage entre données individuelles et niveau global peuvent être résolus en situant l'individu dans son environnement. 113

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La nécessité de trouver des mesures fonctionnellement équivalentes dans des contextes difféients incline à élaborer des théories ou des hypothèses relativement générales, du moins dans un premier temps. Ainsi il est sans doute plus intéressant de comparer des pourcentages de vote que d'étudier les différents modes de participation politique. Une dimension sous-jacente permettra de localiser la multiplicité des mesures. Il importe que celles-ci soient équivalentes dans les limites du problème envisagé, ce qui peut conduire à passer à un autre niveau de généralité. Une autre technique destinée à obtenir une meilleure équivalence consiste à faire éclater une variable dans ses différentes composantes. L'éducation ou Y emploi, par exemple, constituent en fait un faisceau de variables. Pour que les réponses soient équivalentes, il faut définir pour tous les participants un même cadre de iéféience (la référence pouvant d'ailleurs être précisée par le sujet interrogé lui-même). Il est possible, d'autre part, d'incorporer à un projet de recherche contextuel des aspects de structures sociales différentes. Les avantages et les coûts d'une stratégie d'échantillonnage ont été énumérés par Frank Bonilla et José A. Silva Michalena dans leur étude relative au Vénézuela. Ces manipulations de l'échantillonnage soulèvent des objections dans la mesure où l'on estime qu'il ne faut pas construire l'échantillon à partir de suppositions; mais ceci est vrai surtout au stade exploratoire, avant que ne se soient accumulées des données et, en tout état de cause, un échantillon pondéré peut s'avérer préférable. Il est également possible d'échantillonner des unités sociales, dont la multiplicité contribue à éviter « l'erreur individualiste ». L'étude de Miller et Stokes a enrichi la technique des sondages de deux éléments importants: la sélection systématique d'unités à plus d'un niveau (individu et districts électoraux pour le congrès) ; l'interview coordonnée des électeurs ordinaires et des élites politiques. Un grand pas a de la sorte été fait dans l'application de la technique à l'analyse macropolitique. Une constatation se dégage des exemples cités : il est plus facile de regrouper des données individuelles que de scinder des données écologiques. Il apparaît nettement que les projets les plus intéressants sont ceux qui conjuguent les deux types de mesure. On remarquera, d'après les exemples, que les unités politiques sélectionnées sont toutes subnationales, ce qui présente certains avantages: sélectionner une série d'unités locales requiert moins de ressources et permetd'éviter les graves problèmes techniques qui accompagnent la recherche transnationale; le contrôle des variables est notamment plus facile. Il n'en est 114

RÉSUMÉ FRANÇAIS

pas moins possible d'examiner les avantages d'un échantillonnage systématique des nations; même sans le développement de programmes centraux coordonnés, il est concevable de développer un répertoire de données multinationales qui peuvent être liées à des données relatives aux macro-caractéristiques des systèmes, et permettre ainsi un traitement comparatif systématique. Toutes ces approches se fondent cependant sur des techniques d'interviews d'individus. Les mesures demeurent en principe celles d'attitudes et de comportements individuels. Pourtant de nombreux problèmes intéressants sont liés moins aux actions individuelles qu'aux relations entre individus (structures du pouvoir, réseaux de communication etc.,). Les techniques sociométriques se sont développées dans l'étude des petits groupes, et les appliquer à de larges unités a suscité des difficultés considérables; mais les machines électroniques devraient permettre de procéder à des descriptions structurales des types d'interaction. Un élargissement du cadre historique de référence pourrait être un moyen supplémentaire d'améliorer l'efficacité des sondages, quelques-uns des problèmes les plus passionnants de la politique comparative contemporaine étant liés au changement et au développement. Sans doute cet élargissement ne va-t-il pas sans difficultés, mais le fait même que des réponses rétrospectives soient sujettes à caution est intéressant, dans la mesure où elles permettent d'envisager comment des événements politiques passés sont reflétés dans le présent. De même, les « panels » et sondages répétés sont des instruments potentiellement utiles pour l'étude du changement; leurs avantages ne sauraient être surestimés. La compréhension des systèmes politiques doit s'appuyer solidement sur les schémas du développement historique, rétrospectivement et prospectivement. C'est dans cette perspective que pourra être résorbé le décalage entre la micro- et la macro-analyse de la politique.

115

SECOND PART

Comparative survey analysis: an annotated bibliography

Introductory

note

This Bibliography attempts systematic coverage of the production of crossnational and cross-language analyses of data from studies within one distinctive methodological tradition: data from polls, surveys and other field operations aimed at standardized elicitation of information and responses from samples or from functionally identified groups within the given over-all populations. The Bibliography is the result of more than twelve years of record-keeping. A first version was prepared by the Organization for Comparative Social Research in 1954 and printed in the Int. Soc. Sci. J. in 1955 1 . A second, updated and heavily expanded, version was prepared by the International Committee for Social Sciences Documentation in 1962 for the first conference of the International Social Science Council on comparative survey research 2 . This version was later enlarged in a number of directions. Financial support from the National Science Foundation made it possible to develop the Bibliography in further depth: to check through the production of analyses in greater detail and to add systematic annotations to the most important of the entries. A special effort was made to ensure better coverage of the less accessible study reports in the archives of market research organizations: this brought in a good number of new entries but there are still many analyses beyond the reach of the academic research worker. 1 COVERAGE 1.1 Period covered A systematic effort has been made to get information about all pertinent studies up to the end of 1965. A scattering of studies published or made available 119

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

during 1966 have been added, but this has been limited to the theoretically and methodologically more important items: there is no claim to any approximation of complete coverage for this year. 1.2 Categories of items included The Bibliography covers four categories of reports, papers, articles and volumes: 1.2.1 discussions of the conditions for the conduct of standardized sample inquiries in different countries and cultures (section 1.1); 1.2.2 accounts of efforts to store, classify and retrieve data from such operations across different countries (section 1.2); 1.2.3 discussions of organizational, methodological and theoretical issues in the conduct of comparative research and in the analysis of data of this type (section II, general discussions field by field in section III); 1.2.4 presentations of findings of comparative analyses field by field (section III). 1.3 Types of comparisons covered: cross-nation vs. cross-language The Bibliography is limited to cross-national comparisons. To qualify as "comparative" in our sense an analysis must bear on data from populations in at least two territorially distinct national political systems. In a great number of cases this means that the data compared will have been elicited through interview schedules formulated in two or more distinct national languages. Language boundaries do not, of course, always follow political boundaries and there are many intermediary cases: Language Same

Same

Excluded from Bibliography

Marginal a few illustrative cases included

Different

Included in Bibliography

Included in Bibliography

National territory

120

Different

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

It is easy to cite cases of cross-nation comparisons that do not entail cross-language comparisons, at least not at the level of the literary standards in the countries compared: comparisons between Great Britain and the other English-speaking countries, between Austria and Germany, between France and the Suisse Romande or Wallonia, between any number of Spanish-speaking nations of Latin America. Comparative studies across such pairs or multiples of countries have invariably been included: comparisons of such data raise a variety of problems of cross-system analysis even if the language equivalence problems seem less salient. A much more difficult decision had to be reached in the case of multilingual political systems: the upper right-hand cell in our 2 x 2 table. If we were to include all comparisons based on data elicited through interviews in two or more distinct languages, we should have had to change the format of our Bibliography quite considerably: this would have forced us to cite all the cross-sectional surveys carried out on the national populations of Belgium (Flemish and French), Finland (Finnish and Swedish), Israel (Hebrew, Arabic and a variety of other languages), Switzerland (French, German, Italian), the United States (Spanish in parts of New York City and in the Southwest) and several other countries. Such multi-language surveys raise important methodological problems and deserve detailed study: in the present Bibliography we have had to limit ourselves to a few examples, most of them chosen for their value as contributions to the methodology of comparative research in general, e.g., Stern and Lalive d'Epinay: 168. In principle, our Bibliography should not cover comparisons of cultural units communicating in the same standard language as the others within the same overall national polity: we have excluded comparisons of religious or ethnic groups when the field work could be done in the same language for the total population studied. Here again there are intermediary cases: typically, these involve comparisons with or among ethnic groups at some stage of linguistic and/or cultural acculturation (Indians and Japanese in the U.S., Maoris in New Zealand, etc.). Here again, we have found it necessary to be highly selective. The items we have included are those we have judged of particular importance for future cross-national and cross-language research: studies of groups at different stages of acculturation and with different levels of familiarity with the standard language may hold important methodological lessons for the planners of fresh surveys across linguistic boundaries. 121

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1.4 Types of data covered: criteria of inclusion and selection Our lists of substantive comparisons (Part III) go beyond polls and surveys in the strict sense: we have not just included comparisons of data elicited through standardized field interviews of samples of different populations, but have covered a variety of attempts to compare results for groups simply "found at hand", without any deliberate sampling and without any pretense of representativity. We have throughout given highest priority to inquiries based on sampling but we have come across so many examples of methodologically sophisticated comparisons based on " f o u n d " subjects (typically class-room students) that we considered it essential to bring them to the attention of research workers concerned to advance comparative survey research in the stricter sense. We have adopted a similar policy on the criterion of data elicitation: we have given top priority to studies based on standardized field interviews but have added a selection of methodologically suggestive analyses of responses to tests administered in class-room situations or other institutional settings. 1.5 Categories of comparisons excluded from consideration Five categories of substantive cross-national studies have deliberately been kept out of this Bibliography: (a) comparisons based on field observations of entire social units of the type best known from cultural and social anthropology; (b) comparisons based on biographical records for given categories of personnel; (c) comparisons based on official statistics, censuses and other enumerations, administrative registrations and bookkeeping records; (d) comparisons based on analyses of communications sent from given sets of actors or organizations in each political system; (e) comparisons based on the results of intelligence and aptitude tests. Items on the methodology of studies of these five types have been included in Parts I and II when they have been found of particular importance in discussions of the tactics and the strategy of comparative survey research. Substantive studies based on these five types of data have been excluded in this volume, but will, hopefully, be covered in follow-up volumes to be prepared under the auspices of the International Committee for Social Sciences Documentation.

122

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

2 ANNOTATIONS Our accounts of the salient characteristics of the items inventorized in Part III have been standardized on these four points: — we have used a few simple codes to indicate the type of study and the data basis for the comparisons', — we have spelt out in full the countries covered and, when available, the period of the field work; — we have specified, when the information could be found, the population(J) sampled (if any) and the size of the sample within each country covered by the study; — we have finally specified, whenever this was possible, the type of data eliciting instrument used: standardized field interviews, mail questionnaires, individually administered tests, group tests, etc. 2.1 Codes for study characteristics and data bases 2.1.1 Codes used for essentially methodological, organizational or theoretical studies [M] = a methodological contribution, either (a) a general review of methods in the given field, (b) an account of the methodology of a particular study or (c) a study using a methodology or a technique of potential interest in comparative research. [G] = a general discussion either (a) of the theoretical bases for comparative research in the given field, (b) a review of trends in the given field of comparison or (c) an analysis of organizational aspects of comparative research. 2.1.2 Codes used for the data bases of substantive comparisons [P] = primary analysis of data specifically collected for purposes of cross-national or cross-language comparison. [S] = secondary analysis of data from one (a cross-nationally organized study) or more (typically a number of organizationally independent national studies) sources. [P:R] = primary analysis of data generated through a replication in one country of a technical device (a test, scale, or battery of questions) first used in another country. [P:S] = primary analysis of data from one national study with inter123

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

spersed or appended comparisons with results for other countries. [S/C] = secondary analysis based on raw data from each country, whether on punched cards, magnetic tape or in other forms, [S/T] = secondary analysis based on already published or otherwise available tables. [SIT, C] = mixed cases. [0] = comparisons of marginal distributions for opinion data, only very elementary cross-tabulations within each country. These codes could not always be applied with precision: there are a variety of intermediary cases and full information on the distinguishing characteristics of each study was not always available. The distinction between primary and secondary comparative analysis is not absolute. The typical P entry has these characteristics: a) the data for the countries covered were gathered for explicit purposes of comparison; b) the publication reports on a first set of basic analyses of the data thus collected; c) there was some continuity in the intellectual organization of the study from the planning of the data-gathering operations to the presentation of the full report. An example of perfect continuity of intellectual control would be the Almond-Verba five country study (834). An example of a reorganization in the analysis process would be the Buchanan & Cantril (502) nine country survey of ideas about foreign nations: in this case the bulk of the analysis was done by a younger associate under the general supervision of the director of the original data gathering operations. An example of low continuity in the analysis process would be the Latin American mobility study initiated by the UNESCO Latin American Center for Research in the Social Sciences at Rio (CLAPCS): this was designed as a strictly comparative study in four cities but the data were never jointly analyzed by the original directors (Ganon: 657; Oliveira: 660; Hutchinson: 669-70, 725, 610, 690; Germani: 714-716; Graciarena: 721; Iutaka: 726-728). All these cases have been coded P, but particularly atypical analysis arrangements have been noted in the textual abstract. 2.2 Further annotations Beyond these codes for study characteristics and data bases the standard annotations are presented in this order: 124

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

2.2.1 Countries covered Countries are written in full and listed alphabetically in straight P and S cases. In P:R and P:S cases the P country has been given first, the countries covered in later studies or through secondary analysis are given after the colon (e.g., Netherlands: Austria, Great Britain). In all other cases the countries have been listed alphabetically. 2.2.2 Samples Whenever this can be established, brief indications are given about the character of the population(s) studied and the size of the samples interviewed or tested. In most cases this means the obtained sample (N = total number of cases analyzed), but for some studies information has only been at hand for the samples aimed at. 2.2.3 Instruments used. N o attempt has been made at detailed description: the main purpose has been to allow quick identification of major categories of studies. 2.2.4 Additional information The final paragraphs of each abstract give further detail about the organizational context, studies referred to as starting points for the given efforts of comparison ("studies of reference"), major variables, useful data inventories included, etc. N o attempt has been made to standardize these further annotations: the publications vary too much in contents to make this practicable.

3 CLASSIFICATION The classification scheme has been given above pp. 1-5: this is a rough "linear" scheme, and does not do justice to the multiplicity of content facets. Multidimensional coding by major dependent and independent variables would have been vastly preferable but must await the establishment of a routine for the dissemination of bibliographies on cards or tape for mechanical or electronic retrieval. For present purposes we have classified each section III entry by the major field of variation studied and added crossreferences under other categories whenever necessary. In some cases we have 125

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

split up larger research reports into chapters or parts and referred to each under different categories. A particular difficulty with our classification scheme for substantive comparisons results from the overlapping of dimensions: we have classified both by the characteristics of the group studied (school children, youth) and by the field of behaviour (habits, practices, attitudes, opinions) analyzed. Ideally, we should have classified all section III items on both dimensions but since there were so many cases of cross-sectional population sampling this was found impracticable. Here again we have resorted to cross-references whenever necessary but have also taken care to establish a separate index for populations covered (see below).

4 INDEXES To facilitate the use of the bibliography we have finally added three indexes. The first gives a list of all countries covered in at least one study and lists for each country the ones with which it has been compared: this should be particularly useful for any one planning fresh comparative studies who wants to know more about experiences in alternative research sites. The second index is a list of categories of populations and gives the entry references in each case. This index ought to have been cross-tabulated against the country index but this proved too cumbersome for typographical presentation. Again it would have been much more convenient to make the information available on cards or on tape. The final index is a conventional author's index and poses no particular problems.

5 SOME ABBREVIATIONS USED BIPO CELADE CLAPCS DIVO HRAF IFOP IICS INED 126

British Institute of Public Opinion Centro Latino-Americano de Demografía Centro Latino-Americano de Pesquisas em Ciências Sociais Deutsches Institut für Volksumfragen, Frankfurt Human Relations Area Files Institut Français d'Opinion Publique International Institute for Child Studies, Bangkok Institut National d'Etudes Démographiques

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

INRA IPP ISA NORC OCSR

International Research Associates, New York International Population Program of Cornell University International Sociological Association National Opinion Research Center Organization for Comparative Social Research

NOTES 1. Vol. VII No. 4, 1955, p. 622-641. 2. See the report in S. Rokkan, Nr. 159.

127

I. Comparative survey analysis: general context

1 SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS FOR THE UTILISATION OF SURVEY TECHNIQUES : BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED IN THE SPREAD OF THE NEW METHODOLOGY 1.

2.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

128

BERROL, E.; HOLMES, O . "Survey and area approaches to international communication research", Public Opinion Quarterly 16(4), Wint. 1952-53: 567-578. Discussion of the possibilities of combining survey techniques with standard historical and documentary approaches in study of "modernizing" areas. BIESHEUVEL, S. "Methodology in the study of attitudes of Africans", Journal of Social Psychology 47, 1958: 169-184. Unusual problems of validity and rapport encountered. New inventory "to measure attitudes towards Western customs, ethical and legal concepts and administration of justice" is described. BLANC, H. "Multilingual interviewing in Israel", American Journal of Sociology 62(2), 1956 : 205-209. BONILLA, F. "Elites and public opinion in areas of high social stratification", Public Opinion Quarterly 2 2 ( 3 ) , Fall 5 8 : 3 4 9 - 3 5 6 . The imminent extension of poll-type studies to representative samplings of whole nations is examined on the basis of experience in Chile. BONILLA, F. "Survey techniques", in : R. W A R D (ed.) Studying politics abroad: Field research in the developing areas. Boston, Little, Brown, 1964: 134-152. BOSSE, P.C. "Polling civilian Japanese on Saipan", Public Opinion Quarterly 9(1), Spr. 45: 176-182. CARLSON, R.O. Some non-political avenues for approaching a study of political modernization. Paper for the Committee on Comparative Politics of the Social Science Research Council, Conference on Survey Research

GENERAL CONTEXT

in Developing Areas, held in New York, May 10-11, 1963. New York, Social Science Research Council, 1963, 10 p. mimeo. 8. CRESPI, L.P. "The influence of military government sponsorship in German opinion polling", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 4(2), Sum. 50: 152-178. 9. DODD, S.C. A manual of social surveying in "liberated territories". Washington, D.C., American Documentation Institution, 1944, 229 p. A manual for training personnel for polling organizations to be built up from scratch in the "Liberated Areas" of Europe; prepared on basis of experience with the Syrian and Sicilian polls. 10. DODD, S.C. "Toward world surveying", Public Opinion Quarterly 10(4), W i n t . 46-47: 470-483.

Discusses the possible functions of a world association of public opinion reporting agencies. 11. DOOB, L.W. Periodic surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa. Paper for the Committee on Comparative Politics of the Social Science Research Council Conference on Survey Research in Developing Areas, held in New York, May 10-11, 1963. New York, Social Science Research Council, 1963, 18 p. mimeo. 12. DOOB, L.W. "The use of different test items in non-literate societies", Public Opinion Quarterly 21(4), Wint. 1957-58: 499-504.

13. FINK, R. "Interviewer training and supervision in a survey of Laos", International Journal Social Science 15(1), 1963: 21-34. 14. FORTES, M. "A demographic field study in Ashanti", in : F. LORIMER (ed.) Culture and human fertility. Paris, Unesco, 1954: 255-324. 15. FREY, F.W. "Surveying peasant attitudes in Turkey", Public Opinion Quarterly 27(3), Fall 63: 335-355. 16. GIRARD, A. "Opinion surveys in developing nations: introduction", International Social Science Journal 15(1), 1963: 7-20. [Introduction to a special issue]. 17. HALL, E.T. The silent language. New York, Doubleday, 1959, 240 p. Anthropological discussion of problems of communication and understanding in field work in foreign cultures. 18. HAVENS, A.E. "Methodological problems of sociological survey research in Colombia", América latina 7(2), Apr.-June 64: 87-95. 19. HOFFMANN, M. "Research on opinions and attitudes in West Africa", International Social Science Journal 15(1), 1963: 59-69. 20. HOLLSTEINER, M.R. The dynamics of power in a Philippine municipality. Quezon, Community Development Research Council, University of the Philippines, 1963. 21. HOROWITZ, I.L. "The life and death of Project Camelot", Trans-action 3(1), N o v . - D e c . 6 3 : 3-7 a n d 44-47.

129

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22. 23.

24.

25. 26.

HYMAN, H. "World surveys: the Japanese angle", International Journal of Opinion and Attitudinal Research 1(2), Sum. 47: 18-29. IACONO, G. Studying Southern Italians: observations and more general issues. European Conference on Experimental Social Psychology, Italy, Sorrento, 1963. Newark, Del., Center for Research on Social Behavior, University of Delaware, Technical Report n° 1. IKEUCHI, H. Survey research in Japan. Paper for the Committee on Comparative Politics of the Social Science Research Council, Conference on Survey Research in Developing Areas, held in New York, May 10-11, 1963. New York, Social Science Research Council, 1963, 9 p. mimeo. JONES, A.G. "The survey method in under-developed areas", International Social Science Bulletin 5(3), 1953: 530-531. JONES, E.L. "The courtesy bias in South-East Asian survey", International Social Science Journal 15(1), 1963: 70-76.

27. KEESING, F.M.; KEESING, M.M. Elite communication in Samoa: a study of leadership. Stanford, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1956, vn + 318 p. 28. KNUTSON, A.L. "Japanese opinion surveys: the special need and the special difficulties", Public Opinion Quarterly 9(3), Fall 45: 313-319. 29. LEIGHTON, A. Human relations in a changing world. New York, Dutton, 1949, 354 p. Contains an appendix on "The development of the research methods of the Foreign Morale Division" (USA). 30. LERNER, D. "Interviewing Frenchmen", American Journal of Sociology 62(2), Sept. 56: 187-194. 31. LERNER, D. Survey research on political modernization. Paper for the Committee on Comparative Politics of the Social Science Research Council, Conference on Survey Research in Developing Areas, held in New York, May 10-11, 1963. New York, Social Science Research Council, 1963, 21 p. mimeo. 32. LERNER, D.; WIENER, A.J. (eds.) "Attitude research in modernizing areas", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(3), Fall 58. [A special issue.] 33. MAHALANOBIS, P.C. "On large-scale sample surveys", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Ser. B 231, 1944 : 329-451. Early discussion of the introduction of sample surveys into India. 34. MITCHELL, R.E. "Survey materials collected in developing countries: obstacles to comparisons", pp. 210-238 in: S. ROKKAN (ed.) Comparative research across cultures and nations. Paris, The Hague, Mouton, 1968, VIII-238 p .

Detailed review of problems in use of survey data from Latin America and Asia. 35.

130

MUKERJEE, P.K.; GUPTA, S.C. A survey of fourteen villages in U.P. and

GENERAL CONTEXT

Punjab: a study in methodology of research in rural change. New York, Asia Publishing House, 1959, H + 195 p. 36. NEALE, W.C. "The limitations of Indian village survey data", Journal of Asian Studies 17, May 58: 383-402. 37. NEURATH, P. "Social research in newly independent countries: an Indian example", Public Opinion Quarterly 24, Wint. 60 : 670-674. Shows that researchers in underdeveloped countries are under tremendous time pressures in producing policy-relevant data for government planning; that they do not publish elaborate methodological analyses because they lack IBM equipment, etc. 38. PASSIN, H. "The development of public opinion research in Japan", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 5(1), Spr. 51: 20-30. 39.

PETERSEN, W. "Survey ambiguities", New Society 7(178), 24 Feb. 66:11-13.

Offers strong warnings against the use of survey techniques without adequate knowledge of the cultural and social contexts. Gives examples of glaring misapplications in an underdeveloped country (Ceylon). 40. RADVANYI, L. "Ten years of sample surveying in Mexico", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 5(4), Wint. 51-52: 491-510. 41.

RALIS, M . ; SUCHMAN, E.A.; GOLDSEN, R . K . "Applicability of survey

techniques in Northern India", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(3), Fall 58: 245-250. To determine the extent to which the survey method may be valid in other cultures, the Cornell Methodology Project conducted a series of cross-cultural surveys. One of which (a study of Shramdan) is examined. 42. RUDOLPH, L.; RUDOLPH, S.H. "Surveys in India: field experience in Madras State", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(3), Fall 58: 235-244. Certain questions which fall within the purview of survey research in the West can be better answered by the methods of the anthropologists in underdeveloped areas. 43. SCHWARZ, P.A. "Adapting tests to the cultural setting", Educational and Psychological Measurement

23(4), 1963: 673-686.

Difficulty of using American or European tests in Africa; how to build appropriate tests. 44. SHAUL, J.R. "Sample surveys in Central Africa", Journal of the American Statistical Association 47, June 52: 239-253. 45. SHELDON, R.C.; DUTKOWSKI, J. "Are Soviet satellite refugee interviews projectable", Public Opinion Quarterly 16(4), Wint. 52-53: 579-594. The authors discuss problems of social research on inaccessible nations and analyze techniques and hazards of using escapees from a nation as a sample of its total population. 46. STYCOS, J.M. "Interviewer training in another culture", Public Opinion Quarterly 16(2), Sum. 52 : 230-246. 131

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

47.

STYCOS, J.M. "Sample surveys for social science in underdeveloped areas", in : R . N . ADAMS; J . J . PREISS (eds.) Human organization research. Homewood, 111., The Dorsey Press, 1960, 456 p. 48. STYCOS, J.M. "Further observations on the recruitment and training of interviewers in other cultures", Public Opinion Quarterly, Spr. 1955: 68-78. 49. THAPAR, S.D. The problem of public opinion research in India. New Delhi, Central News Agency, 1957, 33 p. 50. WEINER, M. "Political interviewing", in : R.E. W A R D et al. Studying politics abroad. Boston, Little, Brown & Co, 1964: 103-133. 51. 52.

53.

WILSON, E . ; ARMSTRONG, L. "Interviewers a n d interviewing in I n d i a " ,

International Social Science Journal 15(1), 1963: 48-58. WILSON, E . C . "Problems of survey research in modernizing areas", Public Opinion Quarterly 2 2 ( 3 ) , Fall 5 8 : 2 3 0 - 2 3 4 . Underlines problems of sampling, interviewer selection and training, difficulties of establishing rapport, and problems of reliability and validity. WUELKER, G. "Questionnaires in Asia", International Social Science Journal 15(1), 1963: 335-347.

2 AVAILABILITY A N D RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION 2.0 54.

55. 56.

57. 58. 59.

132

General discussions BESHERS, J.M. (ed.) Computer methods in the analysis of large-scale social systems. Proceedings of a conference held at the Joint Center for Urban Studies of the MIT and Harvard University in Cambridge, Mass. Oct. 19-21, 1964. Cambridge, Mass., Joint Center for Urban Studies, 1965, iv + 207 p. Bisco, R.L. "Social science data archives: technical considerations", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 129-150. Bisco, R.L. "Social science data archives: progress and prospects", American Political Science Review 60(1), Mar. 66: 93-109, enlarged version, Social Science Information 6(1), Feb. 67: 39-74. Detailed review of developments through 1965-1966. Specifies computer equipment of each archive. Includes bibliography. GROLIER, E. DE. "Short note on information retrieval systems applicable to archive data", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 178-184. LÉVY, F. "Information storage and retrieval in the social sciences", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 151-177. LÉVY, F. "An outline of two systems: S Y N T O L and the General Inquirer", in : R . L . MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quan-

GENERAL CONTEXT

titative data in cross-national research. London-New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 465-498. 60. MITCHELL, R.E. "Information storage and retrieval : information services", International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. 7. New York, Macmillan and Free Press, 1968: 304-314. 61. ROKKAN, S. (ed.) Data archives for the social sciences. Paris, Mouton, 1966, 213 p. 62. ROKKAN, S. "International efforts to develop networks of data archives", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 9-13. [See also in : S. ROKKAN (ed.) Data archives for the social sciences. Paris, Mouton, 1966: 11-33.] 63. ROKKAN, S. "Second conference on data archives in the social sciences, Paris, 28-30 September, 1964", Social Science Information 4(1), Mar. 65: 67-84.

64. ROKKAN, S.; SCHEUCH, E.K. "Conference on data archives in the social sciences. Organized by the International Social Science Council in cooperation with the International Committee for Social Sciences Documentation at the University of Cologne, 28-29 June 1963", Social Science Information

2(4), D e c . 6 3 : 109-114.

65. ROKKAN, S.; VALEN, H. "Archives for statistical studies of within-nation diiferences", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London-New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966 : 411-418. [See also Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 104-109.] 66. SCHEUCH, E.K. Data archives and retrieval systems for survey research material. Paper for a Conference on Data Archives held by the International Social Science Council in Cologne (Germany), Summer, 1963. Paris, International Social Science Council, 1963, mimeo. 67. SCHEUCH, E.K. A new tool of social research : data archives. Paper delivered at Second Conference on Data Archives in the Social Sciences, Paris, 28-30 September 1964. Paris, International Social Science Council, 1964, 34 p. mimeo. 68. SCHEUCH, E.K.; STONE, P.J. "The General Inquirer approach to our International Retrieval System for survey archives", American Behavioral Scientist 7(10), June 64: 23-28. See the fuller treatment in P.J. STONE et al. The General Inquirer. A computer approach to content analysis. Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1966, xx + 651 p. 69. SCHEUCH, E.K.; STONE, P.J. "Retrieval systems for data archives: the General Inquirer", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London - New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 441-464. 133

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

70.

"The use of libraries of public opinion data", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(2), Sum. 58: 204-206. Report on discussion at 13th AAPOR Conference on current efforts to build data libraries.

2.1 Estimates of the production of survey data 71.

72. 73.

2.2 74.

ABRAMS, P . "The production of survey data in Britain", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 17-25. BROUWER, M. "The 1963 production of sample surveys in Continental Europe", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 26-64. HASTINGS, P . K . "Inventory of American production of sample survey data in 1 9 6 3 " , Social Science Information 4 ( 3 ) , Sept. 6 5 : 6 5 - 7 4 .

Archives and data banks: organization and procedures

Bisco, R.L. "Information retrieval from data archives: the ICPR system", American Behavioral Scientist 7(10), June 64 : 45-47. [Inter-University Consortium for Political Research.] 75. Bisco, R.L. Inter-University Consortium for Political Research, the University of Michigan. Paper for the Conference on Data Archives held in Paris, September 1964. Paris, International Social Science Council, 1964, 22 p. mimeo. 76. CAMPBELL, A. "The archival resources of the Survey Research Center", Public Opinion Quarterly 24(4), Wint. 60: 686-688. [Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan.] Reviews conditions for use by outsiders of data from earlier studies by major academic centre for survey research in the USA. [For later development, see: 75, 91, 92.] 77. CONVERSE, P.E. "The availability and quality of sample survey data in archives within the United States", in : R.L. M E R R I T T ; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. L o n d o n - N e w Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 419-440. 78. CONVERSE, P.E. " A network of data archives for the behavioral sciences", Public Opinion Quarterly 28(2), Sum. 64: 273-286. 79. DATUM. Erster Bericht über DATUM. Bad Godesberg, DATUM, 1965, mimeo. First statement of the plans for DATUM (Dokumentations- und Ausbildungszentrum für Theorie und Methode der Regionalforschung), a German data archive and training organization for research in urban sociology and regional science. 134

GENERAL CONTEXT

80. DEUTSCH, K.W. "The theoretical basis of data programs", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London - New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 27-56. 81.

DEUTSCH, K . W . ; LASSWELL, H . D . ; MERRITT, R . L . ; RUSSETT, B . M . " T h e

Yale political data program", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London-New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 81-94. 82. GARDIN, J.-C. "Les 'Human Relations Area Files' et la mécanographie dans la documentation ethnographique", Cahiers d'Études africaines (3), oct. 6 0 : 150-152.

Evaluative note on the files, discussion of limits of usefulness inherent in system of classification adopted. Brief description of system of analysis under development in the "Division des Aires culturelles" of the École Pratique des Hautes Études on a limited material of a specific geographic sector: "Les systèmes politiques en Afrique noire". 83. HASTINGS, P.K. "International Survey Library Association of the Roper Public Opinion Research Center", Public Opinion Quarterly 28(2), Sum. 6 4 : 331-333.

Describes organization and services of the newly established agency for the processing and dissemination of raw data on cards or tape from sample surveys from a wide range of countries. [See also : 84.] 84. HASTINGS, P.K. "The Roper Center: an international archive of sample survey data", Public Opinion Quarterly 27(4), Wint. 63: 590-598. [Also published in Revue internationale des Sciences sociales 16(1), 1964: 102-109.] Holdings (1964): Approximately 3,200 surveys, USA and other countries, deposited by over 70 co-operating groups. [1966: Holdings doubled.] Access: (1) At Center, access to original card decks; (2) upon request from individual scholars, duplicate decks or cards on a loan-contract basis of from 6-12 months; (3) tabulation of data made by Center's staff. 85. HASTINGS, P.K. "The Roper Public Opinion Research Center: a review of its first three years of operation", Public Opinion Quarterly 25(1), Spr. 61 : 120-126.

Overview of uses made of the Center's materials since it was established in July 1957. 86.

HUMAN RELATIONS AREA FILES. A laboratory

for the study

of man,

1949-

1959. Human Relations Area Files, Report. New Haven, HRAF, no date, 55 p. Administration and organization, origin and development, use of the files, current and future programs. Appendix A: Files now available (geographically ordered, indication of number of pages of texts). 135

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

87.

88.

89.

90. 91. 92.

93.

94. 95. 96.

136

Appendix B : A partial list of publications based on or using the files. Appendix C : Countries included in the research program undertaken by H R A F for the US army 1954-1958. Appendix D : H R A F Press publications. "Inter-University Consortium for Political Research", American Behavioral Scientist 5(6), 1962: p. 7. Early note on a scheme initiated by the Survey Research Center (University of Michigan, USA) for co-operation with a number of universities to promote secondary analysis of survey data. Possibilities of "data banks" for secondary analysis are indicated. LEFCOWITZ, M.J.; O'SHEA, R.M. "A proposal to establish a national archives for social science survey data", American Behavioral Scientist 6(7), Mar. 63: 27-31. Lucci, Y.; ROKKAN, S. A library center of survey research data: a report of an inquiry and a proposal. New York, Columbia University, School of Library Service, 1957, mimeo. Reviews needs for central collection of survey data and discusses problems of organization and utilization. Includes special section on conditions and problems in Western Europe written by S. ROKKAN [See 97], MERRITT, R.; LANE, R.E. "The training functions of a data library", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 115-126. MILLER, W.E. "Inter-University Consortium for Political Research: current data holdings", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 77-84. MILLER, W . E . ; CONVERSE, P . E . " T h e I n t e r - U n i v e r s i t y C o n s o r t i u m

for

Political Research", International Social Science Journal 16(1), 1964: 70-76. MITCHELL, R.E. The program of the International Data Library and Reference Service Survey Research Center, University of California, Berkeley. Paper for the Conference on Data Archives held in Paris, September 1964. Paris, International Social Science Council, 1964, 29 p. mimeo. MITCHELL, R.E. "A social science data archive for Asia, Africa, and Latin America", Social Science Information 4(3), Sept. 65: 85-103. MITCHELL, R.E. "The Survey Research Centre, University of California, Berkeley", International Social Science Journal 16(1), 1964: 86-89. MURDOCK, G.P. et al. Outline of cultural materials. Rev. ed. New Haven, Human Relations Area Files Inc., 1961, xxv + 164 p. Preface outlines history of the Files, and lists some of the publications based on Files materials. A description of the physical aspects of the Files is given and of the processing procedure. The plan and purpose of the Outline are set out its uses in field work and in secondary analysis. The Outline itself is a thematic code with a decimal classification system (actually 707 categories) of all human activities.

GENERAL CONTEXT

97. ROKKAN, S. "Archives for secondary analysis of sample survey data. A review of the situation for Western Europe", International Social Science Journal 16(1), 1964 : 49-62. 98. ROKKAN, S. "P.M. om opprettelse av et senter for utforskning av nordisk folkeopinion" [P.M. on the creation of a center for research on Nordic public opinion], Nordisk Raad 4, session 1956. Kobenhavn, Schulz, 1957: 638-646. 99. RUSSETT, B. "The Yale Political Data Program: experience and prospects", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London-New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 95-107. The rationale for the development of a computer archive of aggregate data by nations. 100.

SCHEUCH, E.K.; BRÜNING, I. "The 'Zentralarchiv' at the University of

Cologne", International Social Science Journal 16(1), 1964: 77-85. 101. 'T HART, H. "The inauguration of the Steinmetz Foundation", Gazette 10(3), 1964: 261-264. Origine, purpose, organization and activities of the Foundation. The holdings are destined to include all products of social inquiry obtained in the Netherlands or with Dutch participation. 102. UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. Survey Research Center. "Microfilm series", Institute for Social Research Newsletter Feb. 62: p. 3. Indicates that basic documents on several Survey of Consumer Finances are available on microfilm and can be used by interested scholars in planning secondary analyses of data at the center. [For later developments see: 75, 91, 92.]

3.2 Collections of basic comparative tabulations across several fields 2.3.1 International collections 103. BANKS, A.S.; TEXTOR, R.B. A cross-polity survey. Cambridge, Mass., The MIT Press, 63, ix + 1406 p. Data for 115 nations, independent on Apr. 1st, 1963. Gives computer print out of 2 x 2 tables of relations between 194 "finished characteristics", derived from 57 basic characteristics. Two-thirds of variables are "of direct political significance". 104. BOUMAN, I. "Polls, International Review on Public Opinion", Gazette 11(2,3), 1965: 237. [See : 113]

105. CANTRIL, H.; STRUNK, M. (eds.) Public opinion, 1935-1946. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1951, 1191 p. 137

AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The first broad collection of poll and survey tabulations from different countries, a standard work of reference. Based on the listings of poll results in the Public Opinion Quarterly. 106.

COULT, A.D.; HABENSTEIN, R.W. Cross-tabulations of Murdoch's

World

Ethnographic Sample. Columbia, Mo., Univ. of Missouri Press, 1965, 549 p. Computer print-out of cross-tabulations of 33 variables for 565 societies. 107. "Ethnographic Atlas", regular features of Ethnology. A quarterly journal of cultural and social anthropology, published by the Department of Anthropology of the University of Pittsburgh, Penn. Information has been presented on more than 700 different societies, covering more than 50 subjects. 108. KAPLAN, B. (ed.) Primary records in culture and personality. Vols I-IL Madison, Microcard Foundation, 1956-57. [S]

109.

110.

111.

112. 138

Collection of instruments and data from projective tests in different cultures. MERRITT, R.L. ; PUCHALA, D.J. (comp. and eds.) Western European attitudes on arms, control, defense and European unity, 1952-1963. New Haven, Conn., Political Science Research Library, Yale University, Jan. 1966, 299 p. mimeo. (Appendix 7 to K. DEUTSCH, Arms control in the European environment.) [S/T] France, Germany (FR), Great Britain, Italy. Collection of tables from surveys conducted in Europe by the United States Information Agency from 1952 to 1963. Gives marginal distributions only. Preface gives examples of importance of controls by education. Subsequently enlarged and printed as Western European perspectives on international affairs: public opinion studies and evaluations. New York, Praeger, 1968, xix-552 p. [See also: 112, 114.] MURDOCK, G.P. "World ethnographic sample", American Anthropologist 59(4), Aug. 57: 664-687. Precoded information in 15 categories on 565 societies. "Opinion à l'étranger (L'). L'opinion internationale. L'opinion dans le monde" [Features sections of], Sondages (Quarterly published by the Institut Français d'Opinion Publique, Paris). At irregular intervals, whole issues or special sections are devoted to presenting compilations of poll results, by topics, from various countries. Under the title "Enquêtes internationales", the results of co-ordinated opinion polls in several countries are presented. [See also : each substantive category.] PARRY, H.; CRESPI, L. Public opinion in Western Europe. Paris, Research Branch/SRE, Jan. 1953, 237 p.

GENERAL CONTEXT

[P] France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Western Germany. Samples: Probability cross-sectional samples. France (N = 1380), Great Britain (N = 1503), Italy (N = 1505), Netherlands (N = 1513), West Germany (N = 1592). Instr.: Questionnaire. Open-ended and multiple-choice questions. Surveys carried out by public opinion institutes in each country. The main opinion areas covered were: European integration and the Schuman Plan, Anti-Americanism and attitudes toward Russia and communism, reactions to the European Defense Community concept, defense morale. Detailed tabulations for each question are presented in appendixes, including percentages of responses of population subgroups for each country and for the European Coal and Steel Community as a whole. 113. POLLS. International Opinion Research Documents, Amsterdam. Quarterly published at the Steinmetz Institute since Spring 1965. The aim of the publication is to make readily available the enormous amount of information gathered continuously by survey organizations in more and more countries all over the world; gives marginal response distributions and a few simple breakdowns. 114. PUCHALA, D.J. (comp.) Western European attitudes on international problems 1952-1961. A summary of USIA public opinion surveys in France, West Germany, Great Britain and Italy. New Haven, Conn., Yale University, Political Science Research Library, Jan. 64, 29 p. mimeo. (Research Memorandum n° 1). [S/T] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy. Samples: (N = 800-1700). A compilation of the answers to identical questions asked in all four countries and in succeeding surveys. The questions concern levels of international amity and hostility and international politics, war and peace. [See also: 109.] 115. "Quarter's polls (The)", Public Opinion Quarterly. [A special section of Public Opinion Quarterly, from 1940 to 1951 and again since 1961.] A compilation, topically arranged, of poll results released by institutes of public opinion research in various countries. [See also: 121.] 116. RUSSETT, B. et al. World handbook of political and social indicators. New Haven, Mass., Yale University Press, 1964, x + 373 p. The first major publication of the "Yale Data Program" developed by Karl DEUTSCH and his associates. Gives rank orders of all nations and autonomous territories for which there are data for a wide range of political, social, economic and cultural variables and discusses sources of errors and possible error margin. In concluding sections, B. RUSSETT and H. ALKER, Jr., give examples of possible analysis techniques and discuss problems of 139

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

117.

118.

inference from correlation and regression coefficient. The Handbook does not include data from comparative sample surveys but the techniques of presentation and analysis may prove useful in future attempts to systematize the findings of cross-national surveys. TEXTOR, R. A cross-cultural summary. New Haven, Mass., H R A F Press, 1968, 2450 p. Computer print-out of the statistically significant cross-tabulations of the attributes of 400 cultures covered in Murdock Ethnographic Atlas. The data were subjected to the Pattern Search and Table Translation Technique first used in A cross-polity survey. [See: 103.] "World opinion", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research. In this section, which appeared regularly in this quarterly review from 1947 to 1952, were published the results of public opinion polls of many countries. An attempt was made to select those which might have the greater interest for the readers in all countries. The results of regional polls were also included.

2.3.2 Single-nation collections 119. Divo. Umfragen. Ereignisse und Probleme der Zeit im Urteil der Bevölkerung [Polls. Today's events and problems through people's opinion], Frankfurt-am-Main, Europäischer Verlagsanstalt. Band I: 1957, 1958, 108 p.; Band II: 1958, 1959, 148 p.; Band III-IV: 1959-60. 1962, 170 p. Germany. 120. Divo. Der Westdeutsche Markt in Zahlen [The West German market in figures]. Frankfurt, Europäische Verlagsanstalt, 1962, xii + 236 p. Basic tables from surveys of the German market for consumer goods. 121. ERSKINE, H . G . (ed.) " A revival: reports from the polls", Public Opinion Quarterly 25(1), Spr. 61: 128-139. USA

122.

123.

124.

140

Poll data on the following topics: the presidential elections, campaign issues, congressional elections, and presidential popularity. FEGIZ, P.L. II volto sconosciuto dell'Italia: died anni di sondaggi DOXA [The unknown face of Italy: ten years of DOXA surveys]. Milano, A. Giuffrè, 1956, xx + vii + 1353 p. Italy Collections of various tables from DOXA surveys. HÂSTAD, E. (ed.) Gallup och den svenske väljarkaren [Gallup and the Swedish electorate]. Stockholm, Geber, 1950. Sweden. Collection of tables bearing on voting and political behavior. INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE D'INFORMATION SOCIALE ET ÉCONOMIQUE. Cinq

G E N E R A L CONTEXT

125.

126.

127.

128.

129.

2.4 130.

131.

années de sondages, questions posées, principaux résultats. Bruxelles, IUISE, 1950, 74 p. Belgium. NEUMANN, E.P. ; NOELLE, E. Antworten. Politik im Kraftfeld der öffentlichen Meinung. [Answers. Politics in the power field of public opinion], Allensbach am Bodensee, Verlag Demoskopie, 1954, 164 p. Germany (F.R.). A collection of tables from polls. NOELLE, E.; NEUMANN, E.P. (eds.) Jahrbuch der öffentlichen Meinung, 1947-1955 [Yearbook of public opinion, 1 9 4 7 - 1 9 5 5 ] , Allensbach am Bodensee, Verlag Demoskopie, 1956, xlii + 412 p. Germany (F.R.). Collection of tables from samples surveys. Cross-sectional quota samples : standard sample of adults over 16 years in the Federal Republic and West Berlin (N = 2000). Deviant samples specified by codes. Tables are grouped into five sections: I. The Germans. II. The Federal Republic. III. German problems. IV. Germany and the world. V. Miscellaneous. NOELLE, E.; NEUMANN, E.P. (eds.) Jahrbuch der öffentlichen Meinung, 1957 [Yearbook of public opinion, 1957], Allensbach am Bodensee, Verlag Demoskopie, 1957, xliiv + 388 p. Germany (F.R.). NOELLE, E.; NEUMANN, E.P. (eds.) Jahrbuch der öffentlichen Meinung, 1958-1964 [Yearbook of public opinion, 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 6 4 ] . Allensbach am Bodensee, Verlag Demoskopie, 1965, xxiv + 642 p. Germany (F.R.). NORSK GALLUP INSTITUTT. Norske meninger 1946-1966 [Norwegian opinion, 1 9 4 6 - 1 9 6 6 ] . Oslo, Pax, 1 9 6 9 , 2 vol. A classified collection of basic tables from all surveys carried out during the first twenty years of operation of the leading Norwegian interview organization. Sections are headed by an article by a social scientist commenting on the findings: contributions by J . GALTUNG, S. ROKKAN et al. General problems of secondary analysis COHEN, R. "New uses for old files. (Abstract of paper, 16th AAPOR Conf. 1961)", Public Opinion Quarterly 25(3), Fall 61: 432-433. Urges reanalyses of file data from applied studies for purposes of methodological inquiry. EVAN, W . M . "Cohort analysis of survey data: a procedure for studying long-term opinion change", Public Opinion Quarterly 23(1), Spr. 59: 63-72. Cohort analysis of a large corpus of questions as a procedure for secondary analysis. 141

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

132. EVAN, W.M. "Cohort analysis of attitude data", in : J.M. BESHERS (ed.) Computer methods in the analysis of large-scale social systems. Cambridge, Mass., Joint Center for Urban Studies of MIT and Harvard University, 1965, iv + 207 p. 133. GLASER, B.G. "Retreading research materials: the use of secondary analysis by the independent researcher", American Behavioral Scientist 6(10), June 63: 11-14. 134. POOL, I. DE S. "Use of available sample surveys in comparative research", Social Sciences Information 2(2), 1963: 16-35. Suggests a technique by which it is possible to use one past survey for measuring one variable, and another past survey for measuring another variable, and still analyze some interrelations among these variables. 135. POOL, I. DE S.; ABELSON, R. "The Simulmatics Project", Public Opinion Quarterly

25(2), S u m . 6 1 : 167-183.

Note on a project for the use of secondary survey data in a programme of electronic processing based on a model "simulating" sequences of opinions change in a population. 136. RILEY, J.W.Jr. "Reflections on data sources in opinion research", Public Opinion Quarterly 26(3), Fall 62: 313-322. Taking his cue from recent developments in the technology of data collection and data processing the author suggests that the field of public opinion research might well pay more attention to available data for the twin purposes of raising better problems for new surveys and interpreting survey results within broader frameworks.

142

II. Organizational,

methodological

and theoretical

issues

in comparative survey research

1

ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURES

137. ABRAMS, M. Problems of the purposes and procedures of cross-national comparisons. Paper for a Round Table Conference on "The uses of sample survey data in comparative cross-national research", held at La Napoule (France), June 29th-July 3rd, 1962. Paris, International Social Science Council, 1962, 9 p. mimeo. 138. ADAMEC, C. "Experiences with an international question", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 1(4), Dec. 47: 40-44. 139. CHRISTIANSEN, B.; ROKKAN, S. (eds.) International seminar on comparative social research. Proceedings 1-5. Oslo, Institute for Social Research, 1951, mimeo. Reports on the early discussions leading to the development of the Organization for Comparative Social Research. [See ROKKAN: 160.] 140. CLELAND, C.H. "Regional project organization and data comparability", Rural Sociology 29, June 64: 194-199. Discussion of intra-national regional research organization, specifically that of the Southern Regional Rural Sociology Project. But the problems encountered and the approaches to solutions could be the same on the inter-national level. 141. CURLE, A. "A Conference on the methodology of sociological surveys", International Social Science Bulletin 3(3), Aut. 51: 629-634. 142. DODD, S.C. "Standards for surveying agencies", Public Opinion Quarterly 11(1), S p r . 4 7 : 115-130.

143. DODD, S.C. et al. Techniques for world polls. Draft report prepared for WAPOR and UNESCO. Paris, Unesco, 1956, mimeo, multiple pag. Incomplete report on problems of cross-national "polling". Includes bibliographies (only English-language titles). Important notes on problems

143

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

of comparative survey analysis in Chap. VI, sect. E.: "Limitations and problems in international questionnaire construction". 144.

DUIJKER, H.C.J.; ROKKAN, S. "Organizational aspects of cross-national

social research", Journal of Social Issues 10(4), 1964 : 8-24. Defines "international" and "cross-national", specifies types of crossnational research, accounts for experiences in seven-nation OCSR cooperation. [See ROKKAN : 160.]

145. DURANT, H. "Experiences in international polling", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 4(2), Sum. 50: 262-269. 146. DURANT, H. "Experiences of random (probability) sampling", Public Opinion Quarterly 15, 1951: 765-766. Report on a conference of Gallup institutes from 10 countries. The experience with random sampling gave same results in different countries as concerns high failure rate. One example of low failure rate (Canada) reported, explained by exceptional nature of the list used. A case reported from Norway of repetition by quota sampling of factual survey first made by probability sample. Very slight divergence in results. Cost of interviewing probability samples stated to be 3-5 times higher. 147. ERWIN, S.; BOWER, R.T. "Translation problems in international surveys", Public Opinion Quarterly 16(4), Wint. 52-53: 595-604. The carrying out of surveys across language barriers raises problems of translation and the use of bilingual personnel, and intensifies the necessity of considering the reliability of procedures and the validity of results. Based on conversations with representatives of several research agencies, this article systematizes some of the experience of those who have worked on international surveys. 148. GALLUP, G. "High speed surveys of reactions to current issues in world opinion centers", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(2), Sum. 58: 183-184. Abstract of speech at 13 th AAPOR Conference. 149. GLASER, W.A. "International mail surveys of informants", Human Organization 25(1), Spr. 66: 78-86. Reports on experiences in gathering data from a number of countries through the use of mail questionnaires. Main examples: worldwide survey on "sheltered workshops" organized by the International Society for Rehabilitation of the Disabled. 150.

HUDSON, B.B.; BARAKAT, M . K . ; LAFORGE, R . "Introduction: problems

and methods of cross-cultural research", Journal of Social Issues 15(3), 1959 : 5-19.

Review of developments within a large scale project of attitude testing in five nationality groups : Egyptian, Syrian, Hebrew, Iraqui, American. [See also: 216, 300, 301, 344, 485, 903, 904.] 144

ORGANIZATIONAL, METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES

151.

152.

153.

153a.

154. 154a. 155.

156.

157. 158.

IUTAKA, S. "Investigaciones comparativos: algunos problemas en América Latina" (Comparative research: some problems in Latin America), América latina 8(4), Oct.-Dec. 65: 80-92. JACOBSON, E. "Methods used for producing comparable data in the OCSR seven-nation attitude study", Journal of Social Issues 10(4), 1954: 40-51. An account of methods used by the Organization for Comparative Social Research. JACOBSON, E.; ROKKAN, S. Preliminary remarks on problems of language comparability in cross-national survey operations. Oslo, Organization for Comparative Social Research, 1952 (doc. OSCR/CO/29), 7 p. A working document for the seven-nation study of teachers'attitudes: proposes procedure for retranslation controls. LEE, A. McC. "Experiences and tasks of international opinion surveying. (WAPOR Conf. 1948)", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 3(2), Sum. 49: 323-328. LEE, A. McC. "Some prerequisites to international opinion surveying", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 2(1), Mar. 48: 54-62. LIPSET, S.M. "Approaches toward reducing the costs of comparative survey research", Social Science Information 2(4), 1963: 33-38. MARSH, R.M. "Training in comparative research in sociology", American Sociological Review 27(1), Feb. 62: 147-149. Review of cross-national comparisons in US doctoral dissertations 1950-1960. MCGRANAHAN, D.V. "Comparative social research in the United Nations", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London-New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966 : 525-544. RADVANYI, L. "Problems of international opinion surveys", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 1(2), June 47: 30-51. ROKKAN, S. "Current sociological research: a note on trends toward international comparability", Transactions of the Third World Congress of Sociology. Vol. VII. London, International Sociological Association, 1956: 51-60.

159.

160.

161.

ROKKAN, S. "The development of cross-national comparative research : a review of current problems and possibilities", Social Science Information 1(3), Oct. 62: 21-38. ROKKAN, S. "An experiment in cross-national research co-operation", International Social Science Bulletin 7(4), 1955: 645-652. An account of the activities of the Organization for Comparative Social Research. ROKKAN, S. "Cross-national sociology: an introductory note", Transactions 145

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

of the Sixth World Congress of Sociology. Vol. I. Geneva, International Sociological Association, 1966: 165-172. 162. ROKKAN, S. "International action to advance comparative research: the role of Unesco", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London - New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 545-554. 163. ROKKAN, S.; ALMOND, G.A. "International Conference on Comparative Social Science Research, April 22-24, 1965", Social Science Research Council Items 19(3), Sept. 65: 29-31. [See also in: Social Science Information 4(4), 1965: 139-165.] 164. ROKKAN, S.; SCHEUCH, E. Report on Proceedings of a Round Table Conference on "The uses of sample survey data in comparative cross-national research", held at La Napoule (France), June 29th - July 3rd, 1962. Paris, ISSC, 1962, 19 p. mimeo.

Detailed report on the push of a series of international meetings on comparative social research: gave special emphasis to the need to build up data archives for quantitative information from sample surveys as well as official statistics. [See above: 159.] 165. ROPER, E.; WOODWARD, J.L. "International polling and international democracy", in : Learning and world peace. New York, Harper, 1948 : 384-391.

166.

167. 168.

STAPEL, J. "Results and problems of international polling", International Social Science Bulletin 5(3), 1953 : 535-540. Abstract of paper at WAPOR Conference, 1951. STERN, E. "Comparing results from different cultures", International Social Science Bulletin 5(3), 1953 : 534-535. STERN, E.; LALIVE D'EPINAY, R. "Some polling experiences in Switzerland", Public Opinion Quarterly 11(4), Wint. 47-48: 553-557.

Discusses problems of language equivalence. SUCHMAN, E.A. "Public opinion research across national boundaries", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(2), Sum. 58: 197. Abstract of paper at 13th AAPOR Conference: Refers to Cornell crosscultural methodological project. [See also: 41.] 170. WHITE, J.R. "International surveying: scope and difficulties (WAPOR Conference 1949)", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 4(2), Sum. 50: 284-285. 171. WILSON, E.C. "Adapting probability sampling to Western Europe", Public Opinion Quarterly 14(2), Sum. 50: 215-223. 172. WILSON, E.C. "The problems and gratifications of launching a world poll",

169.

Public Opinion Quarterly 22(2), Sum. 58: 182-183.

Abstract of speech at 13 th AAPOR Conference on International Research Association World Poll. 146

ORGANIZATIONAL, METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES

173.

WILSON, E.C. "World-wide development of opinion research", Public Opinion Quarterly 21(1), Spr. 57: 174-178. Problems in the continuing expansion of international surveys.

2 THE METHODOLOGY OF COMPARATIVE SURVEY ANALYSIS 174.

175.

BHARUCHA-REID, R.P. "Appareance and reality in culture", Journal of Social Psychology 57(1), 1962: 169-193. Critical appraisal of some cross-cultural methods, utilizing as an example one in a series of studies on foreign students: R.D. LAMBERT and M. BOESSLER, Indian Students on an American Campus. Minneapolis, Minn., University of Minnesota Press, 1956. Discusses the methodology used: non-representativity of sample, incomparability of the American and the Indian samples. Comments on the effects of the special conditions of foreign students in USA. Reflections on interpretations at purely linguistic level, problems of within-cultural analysis, etc. CONVERSE, P.E. "New dimensions of meaning for cross-section sample surveys in politics", International Social Science Journal 16(1), 1964: 19-34. The accumulation of survey data on public opinion in many nations should stimulate the development of new research methods to enrich the theoretical import of such materials. In particular need is felt for (a) better means of distinguishing meaningful from meaningless expressions of opinion; and (b) the use of research designs permitting the empirical study of links between the meaningful segments of opinion and variations in elite decision-making. With respect to the first, data are presented showing the ease with which unreliable opinion data are gathered and the narrowness of many "issue publics". With respect to the second, a research design developed by W.E. MILLER, which uses the standard national opinion survey to study legislative representation in the United States is described, and its cross-national transferability discussed. [Author's abstract.]

176.

DUIJKER, H.C.J. "Comparative research in social science with special reference to attitude research", International Social Science Bulletin 7(4),

177.

DURANT, H.; MCINTOSH, A. Scaling techniques for comparisons over time and between countries. Paper for ESOMAR, Evian-les-Bains, France, August 1963. GALTUNG, J. Theory and methods of social research. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1967, 500 p. Includes discussions of cross-national comparisons based on sample surveys.

1 9 5 5 : 555-566.

178.

147

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 179.

180.

HOLLAND, J . B . "The utility of social anthropology as an adjunct of a social survey", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research (5), 1951-52 : 455-464. HYMAN, H . "Research design", in : R . E . W A R D (ed.) Studying politics abroad: field research in the developing areas. Boston, Little, Brown & Co, 1964 : 153-188.

181.

Survey design and analysis. Glencoe, 111., The Free Press, 1955, xxviii + 425 p. 182. HYMAN, H . "The conditions warranting cross-national research", in : B . CHRISTIANSEN, H . HYMAN, R . ROMMETVEIT. Cross-national social research. I. Oslo, Institute for Social Research, May 51: 3-8. 183. HYMAN, H . "The modification of a personality-centered conceptual system when the project is translated from a national to a cross-national study", in : B. CHRISTIANSEN, H . HYMAN, R. ROMMETVEIT. Cross-national social research. I. Oslo, Institute for Social Research, May 51: 26-35. 1 8 4 . JACOBSON, E . ; KUMATA, H . ; GULLAHORN, J . E . "Cross-cultural contributions to attitude research", Public Opinion Quarterly 2 4 ( 2 ) , Sum. 6 0 : HYMAN, H .

205-223. 185.

MELTZER, L . "Comparing relationships of individual and average variables to individual response", American Sociological Review 2 8 ( 1 ) , Feb. 6 3 : 117-123.

186.

MICHAEL, D . N . "The use of culture concepts in the functional analysis of public opinion", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 5(3), A u t . 5 1 : 4 0 7 - 4 1 5 .

Suggests some factors in the individual's cultural environment which in part determines his opinions and demonstrates the function of these factors with evidence from a pilot study on opinions about the atomic bomb. 187. NOWAK, S. Correlational approach to the control of meaning of attitudinal variables in cross-national surveys. Paper for a Round Table Conference on "The uses of sample survey data in comparative cross-national research", held at La Napoule (France) June 29th - July 3rd, 1962. Paris, International Social Science Council, 16 + 3 p. mimeo. 188. RIESMAN, D . ; GLAZER, N. "Social structure, character structure and opinion", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 2(4), Wint. 1948-49 : 512-527. 189. ROKKAN, S . "The use of sample surveys in comparative research: Introduction" (to a special issue on "Data in comparative research)", International Social Science Journal 1 6 ( 1 ) , 1 9 6 4 : 7 - 1 8 . 190. ROMMETVEIT, R. "Some general theoretical considerations concerning crossnational research on tensions. A preliminary analysis in terms of research models", in : B. CHRISTIANSEN, H . HYMAN, R. ROMMETVEIT. Cross-national social research. I. Oslo, Institute for Social Research, 1951: 9-20. 148

ORGANIZATIONAL, METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES

191.

ROMMETVEIT, R.; ISRAEL, J. "Notes on the standardisation of experimental manipulations and measurements in cross-national research", Journal of Social Issues

10(4), 1954 : 61-68.

192.

SCHACHTER, S. "Interpretative and methodological problems of replicated research", Journal of Social Issues 10(4), 1954: 52-60. Discusses and illustrates some interpretative and methodological problems involved in cross-national research by describing aspects of the set of replicated small-group experiments conducted by the Organization for Comparative Social Research in seven European countries. 193. SCHEUCH, E.K. "The cross-cultural use of sample surveys: problems of comparability", pp. 176-209 in: S. ROKKAN (ed.) Comparative research across cultures and nations. Paris, The Hague, Mouton, 1968, viii-218 p. 194. STOETZEL, J. "The contribution of public opinion research techniques to social anthropology", International Social Science Bulletin 5(3), 1953: 494-503.

195.

TERHUNE, K.W. "An examination of some contributing demographic variables in a cross-national study", Journal of Social Psychology 59(2), Apr. 63 : 209-220. Re-analysis of cross-national data obtained by the use of Anderson Incomplete Stories. [See: 339, 492, 493, 494.] 196. VERBA, S. "Use of survey methods in the study of political modernisation. Report of a conference", Social Science Research Council Items 18(1), Mar. 1 9 6 4 : 6 - 7 . 197. WILSON, E.C. "The significance of 'local context' in international opinion research (Abstract WAPOR Conf. 1951)", International Social Science Bulletin 5(3), 1953 : 536. 198. ZELDITCH, M. Jr. "Some methodological problems of field studies", American Journal of Sociology 67(5), Mar. 62 : 566-576. Discusses limitations of sample surveys as a method in establishing crossgroup comparisons.

3

THE LOGIC O F COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS : GENERAL DISCUSSIONS

199.

ABERLE, D.F. et al. "The functional prerequisites of a society", Ethics 60(2), Jan. 50: 100-111. [Reprinted in: R.C. MACRJDIS, B.E. BROWN (eds.) Comparative politics. Homewood, 111., Dorsey Press, 1961: 67-79.] Comparative analysis requires a generalized system of concepts which will enable the scientific observer to define social phenomena. Formulation of the functional prerequisites of a society is a first step on this way.

149

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

200. ACKERKNECHT, E.H. "On the comparative method in anthropology", in : R.F. SPENCER (ed.) Method and perspective in anthropology. Minneapolis, Minn., University of Minnesota Press, 1954: 117-125. 201. ALKER, H.R. Jr. "The long road to international relations theory: problems of statistical nonadditivity", World Politics 18(4), July 1966: 623-655. Discusses possibilities of overcoming difficulties in the use of aggregate national statistics in models of state behaviour at the international level. Suggests an approach to the handling of comparative cross-national statistics due to the "confluence analysis" of the econometricians. 202. ALLARDT, E. "Basic dimensions in the comparative study of social structures", in : Transactions of the Sixth World Congress of Sociology. Vol. I. Geneva, International Sociological Association, 1966: 173-186. [G] Presentation of a "simple structural model" evolved through factor analysis of data from 548 Finnish communes on 41 variables. The choice of the two basic variables: degree of division of labour and pressure toward uniformity is motivated by reference to their theoretical relevance, their explanatory power and their importance in the comparative study of social structure. 203. ALLARDT, E. "Implications of within-nation variations and regional imbalances for cross-national research", in : R.L. MERRITT, S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations: the use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London - New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 337-348. 204. ARENSBERG, C.M. "The community as object and as sample", American Anthropologist 63, 1961 : 247. Discusses strategies of comparative community research within and across national territories. 205. BENDIX, R. "Concepts and generalisations in comparative sociological studies", American Sociological Review 28(4), Aug. 63: 532-539. 206. BEYME, K. VON. "Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der vergleichenden Regierungslehre" [Possibilities and limits of comparative government doctrines], Politische Vierteljahresschrift 7(1), Mar. 66: 63-96. A detailed review of a decade of discussion of the methodology of comparative politics. 207. DEUTSCH, K.W. "Toward an inventory of basic trends and patterns in comparative and international politics", American Political Science Review 54(1), M a r . 6 0 : 34-57.

1. A quantitative method is suggested for the comparative study of two dimensions of national politics and their relationship to each other: "stability" and "capability". The principal variables suggested are: measures of literacy, political participation, relative importance of government sector, 150

ORGANIZATIONAL, METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES

per capita income, and proportion of total national income in the hands of the top 10% of the income receivers; 2. A symbolic representation by means of "country profiles" is proposed : (1) the "measurement profile" based on aggregate statistical data, the class ranking on each variable symbolised by a 0-4 code number; (2) the "rating profile" based on "combined data and judgments as to partly qualitative characteristics"; 3. For the analysis of "integrative capabilities" among countries a measure of the "flow of transactions" between them is useful in additions to the separate background information for each country, of which a long classified list, including desirable ratios, is presented in the appendix. It is proposed to compare the growth ratios of the specific inter-countries transactions with the total foreign transactions of each as well as the total domestic transactions and the outcome considered in the light of the perceptual evaluation of the participants; A specific example of analysis of "transaction flows" is the matrix analysis method applied to an international trade study. 208. EGGAN, F. "Social anthropology and the method of controlled comparison", American Anthropologist 56(5), Pt. 1, 1954: 743-763. [Reprinted in:

F.W. MOORE (ed.) Readings in cross-cultural methodology. See below, 221.] 209. HECKSCHER, G. The study of comparative government and politics. London, Allen and Unwin, 1957, 173 p. A general discussion of the traditional approaches to comparative politics: interesting because of its description of the situation before the recent breakthrough toward systematic "model analysis of variations in political systems" initiated by Almond, Deutsch, Easton, Riggs. 210. HEINTZ, P. "Interkultureller Vergleich" [Intercultural comparison] in : R. KÖNIG (ed.) Handbuch der empirischen Sozialforschung. I. Stuttgart, F. Enke Verlag, 1962: 639-649. 211.

KAHIN, G . M . ; PAUKER, G.J.; PYE, L.W. "Comparative politics of non-

Western countries", American Political Science Review 49(4), Dec. 55: 1022-1041. 212. KALLEBERG, A.L. "The logic of comparison: A methodological note on the comparative study of political systems", World Politics 19(1), Oct. 66 : 69-82.

Criticizes G.A. ALMOND and other scholars within the "comparative politics" movement for their neglect of logical distinctions between classification and comparison. 213. KÖBBEN, A. The cross-cultural method. Why exceptions! Paper presented at the International Social Science Council's. Round-Table Conference on Comparative Research, Paris, April 22-24, 1965. [Reprinted in: 151

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214.

215.

216.

217.

218. 219.

220.

221.

222.

152

S . ROKKAN (ed.) Comparative research across cultures and nations. Paris, The Hague, Mouton, 1968, pp. 17-53.] LAZARSFELD, P.; ROSENBERG, M. (eds.) The language of social research. Glencoe, 111., The Free Press, 1955, xiv + 594 p. See especially Section IV: "Formal aspects of research on human groups", pp. 290-384. LEWIS, O . "Comparisons in cultural anthropology", in : W . L . THOMAS, Jr. (ed.) Current Anthropology: a supplement to anthropology today. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1 9 5 6 : 2 5 9 - 2 9 2 . [Reprinted in : F . W . MOORE (ed.) Readings in cross-cultural methodology, see: 221.] MACLEOD, R. "The Arab Middle East: some social psychological problems", Journal of Social Issues 15(3), 1959: 70-75. Examines the purposes of cross-cullural research and reviews problems arising in comparative studies of the impact of Western ideas and values in the Middle East. [See: 150, 300, 301, 344, 485, 903, 904.] MACRIDIS, R . C . ; BROWN, B.E. (eds.) Comparative politics: notes and readings. Homewood, 111., Dorsey Press, 1961, 577 p. MARSH, R . M . "Comparative sociology 1950-1963: a trend report and bibliography", Current Sociology 14(2), 1966: 3-152. [Whole issue.] MARSH, R.M. "Making comparative research cumulative", Transactions of the Sixth World Congress of Sociology. Vol. I. Geneva, I.S.A., 1966: 203-221. Critical review of earlier and current efforts: RadclifFe-Brown, the newer structuralists, the neo-evolutionists and functionalist-evolutionists, as well as Lipset's value approach. A summary of criticisms is given in the form of a 9-point list of "Requisites of Any Schema for Comparative Analysis". A codification schema for Comparative Analysis is presented and the propositions of a small part of the comparative studies between 1950 and 1963 registered by the author [see 218] are classified according to the schema. The findings strengthen the claim that structural differentiation is a significant variable. Fuller presentation: R . M . MARSH. Comparative sociology. New York, Harcourt, 1967, xvi-528 p. MERRITT, R . L . ; ROKKAN, S . (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966, xv + 584 p. MOORE, F.W. (ed.) Readings in cross-cultural methodology. New Haven, H R A F Press, 1961, ix + 335 p. An attempt to give a view of the development of cross-cultural comparative studies and to present the basic theoretical and methodological problems involved. MURDOCK, G . P . "Anthropology as a comparative science", Behavioral Science (2), 1 9 5 7 : 2 4 9 - 2 5 4 .

ORGANIZATIONAL, METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES

223.

224. 225. 226.

Presents the cross-cultural approach; emphasizes methods of sampling societies for study. MURDOCK, G.P. "The cross-cultural survey", American Sociological Review 5(3), June 40: 361-370. [Reprinted in : F.W. MOORE, Readings in cross-cultural methodology, see above: 221.] NAROLL, R. "A fifth solution to Galton's problem", American Anthropologist 66(4,1), 1964: 863-867. NAROLL, R. Data quality control. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1962, 198 p. NAROLL, R. "The solutions to Galton's problem", Philosophy of Science 28(1), Jan. 61: 15-39. [Reprinted in : F.W. MOORE, Readings

in cross-

cultural methodology, see above: 221.] How to determine the nature of a statistically significant association between traits in a cross-cultural statistical survey. 227.

NAROLL, R . ; ANDRADE, R.G.D'. "Two further solutions to

Galton's

problem", American Anthropologist 63, 1965: 1053-1067. 228. OSGOOD, C.E. On the strategy of cross-national research into subjective culture. Auxiliary contribution to the International Study on the Main Trends of Research in the Sciences of Man. Paris, Unesco, July 1966, 58 p. + i p. mimeo. Also published in Social Sciences Information 6(1), 1967: 5-38. [M] Comprehensive discussion of problems in the organization, methodology and technology of comparative research in the areas. Examples and illustrations from three major comparative studies: H. CANTRIL [see 530], W. LAMBERT, O. KLINEBERG [see 511] and the various projects directed

by C.E. OSGOOD at the Institute of Communication Research, University of Illinois [see: 890, 892, 894], The major points concern: the socio-political context, the design, the language barrier, sampling (of communities, subjects, stimuli and responses), data collection and processing (including technical and administrative issues) and interpretation strategy. Each suggested or exemplified choice of strategy or method is viewed in relation to design and study intent, as well as in terms of repercussions on the national scientific communities and on national or international political levels. For account of Osgood's research projects [see 889], 229. RADCLIFFE-BROWN, A.R. "The comparative method in anthropology". Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 81(1), 1951: 15-22. 230. RAPOPORT, A. "Comments on the comparative method in the social sciences", Philosophy of Science 22(2), Apr. 55: 118-122. [See: SJOBERG, 241.]

153

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231.

RETZLAFF, R.M. "The use of aggregate data in comparative political analysis", Journal of Politics 27, Nov. 65: 797-817. 232. REISS, A.J. Jr. "Some logical and methodological problems in community research", Social Forces 33(1), Oct. 54: 51-57.

233.

ROKKAN, S. "Comparative cross-national research: the context of current efforts", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London - New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966: 3-26.

234.

ROKKAN, S.; DEUTSCH, K . ; MERRITT, R. (Summary report by). "Inter-

national conference on the use of quantitative political, social and cultural data in cross-national comparisons. Yale University 10-20 September 1963", Social Science Information 2(4), Dec. 63: 89-108. 235. ROSE, A.M. "The comparative study of intergroup conflict", Sociological Quarterly (1), Jan. 60: 57-60. 236. SCARROW, H.A. "The scope of comparative analysis", Journal of Politics 25(3), A u g . 6 3 : 565-577.

237. SCHAPERA, I. "Comparative method in social anthropology", American Anthropologist 55(3), 1953: 353-361. With a summary of comments and discussions by M.B. SINGER, ibid. 55(4), 1953: 363-366.

238. SCHEUCH, E.K. "Cross-national comparisons using aggregate data: some substantive and methodological problems", in : R.L. MERRITT; S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London - New Haven, Yale University of Press, 1966: 131-168. 239. SCHEUCH, E.K. Society as context in cross-cultural comparison. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France), Sept. 66, mimeo. Discusses and criticizes different modes of cross-national research organization and design. Emphasizes the dangers of an "ecological fallacy" in cross-national analyses such as those in ALMOND and VERBA'S Civic culture: differences found at the individual level are interpreted as manifestations of differences in higher-level dimensions of "culture" and "society". To avoid such fallacies, it will be essential to develop systematic measures of variation at several levels of each national unit. 240. SEARS, R.E. "Transcultural variables and conceptual equivalence", in : B. KAPLAN (ed.) Studying personality cross-culturally. Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson & Co., 1961: 445-456.

241.

242.

SJOBERG, G. "The comparative method in the social sciences", Philosophy of Science 22(2), Apr. 55: 106-117. A review of attempts to construct "invariant points of reference", or "universals", by Murdock, Parsons, Kluckhohn and others. SNYDER, R.C.; ROBINSON, J.A. National and international

New York, Institute for International Order, 1961. 154

decision-making.

ORGANIZATIONAL, METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL ISSUES

Reviews relevant research, stresses importance of comparative surveys of rank and file and leaders. 243. SUCHMAN, E.A. The comparative method in social research. Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University, Feb. 55, 88 p. mimeo. (Cross-cultural Methods Project). Includes sections on "Logic of the comparative method", "Some current approaches to comparative study", "Cross-cultural studies" (by R. FINK); "The place of ecological analysis in comparative study" (by R.M. WILLIAMS, Jr.); "Correlation methods and comparative study", "Some technical considerations in the use of comparative methods". 244. VAN NIEUWENHUIJZE, C.A.O. Cross-cultural studies. The Hague, Mouton, 1963, 289 p. General discussion, main stress on cross-classification procedures. 245.

WHITING, J.W.M. "The cross-cultural method", in : G. LINDZEY (ed.)

Handbook of social psychology. Cambridge, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1954: 523-531.

Review of problems in cross-cultural data-gathering and analysis, primarily from the point of view of cultural and social anthropology. 246.

WHITING, J.W.M.; ROMNEY, A.K. The problem of independence of cases in

cross-cultural research. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University, Laboratory of Human Development, 1954, 7 p.

155

III. Substantive analysis by field

1

CONDITIONS, ROLES, BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES THROUGHOUT THE LIFE CYCLE

1.1 Mortality, morbidity, attitude to health problems 247.

248.

249.

250.

156

BEHM, H. "Needed research on Latin American mortality in relation to public health", Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 43(4,2), Oct. 65: 338-350. [M] Discusses research to improve basic informations on mortality, and recommends the use of sample surveys in "poor registration areas". A "note on methods" briefly describes the procedures of the "Interamerican Investigation of Mortality". Proposes to relate the data thus obtained with data on medical care characteristics. COWEN, E.L. ; COWEN, R.S. "Comparaison des attitudes d'étudiants américains et français à l'égard de la cécité et de la surdité", Journal de Psychologie normale et pathologique 61(2), avr.-juin 64 : 201-208. [P] France, USA. Samples : Students. Enquêtes (Les) sur la santé et la morbidité. Genève, Organisation Mondiale de la Santé, 1961. (Série: "Rapports techniques", n° 218). [M] MABRY, J . H . The natural history of an international collaborative study of medical care utilization. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France), Sept. 4-11th 66, 28 p. mimeo. [M] Great Britain, USA, Yugoslavia. Description of the functioning of an international, interdisciplinary research team during 30 months. Compares the experiences of this group with those of others and suggests implications for future research organization.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

251.

R.R.; GRIFFITH, G . The Inter-American investigation of mortality. Paper presented at the United Nations World Population Conference, Belgrade 30 Aug. 10-Sept. 1965. (Communication n° 150). [P] Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Great Britain, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, USA, Venezuela. Samples : Deaths in 12 cities over a 2 year period (N = ca. 4.000) per city. Instr. : Questionnaire: Factual home interviews and medical records. Description of methods and preliminary findings from 8 cities after one year of study. [See also: 252.] 252. PUFFER, R . R . ; GRIFFITH, G . W . ; CURIEL, D . ; STOCKS, P . "Investigación internacional colaborativa sobre mortalidad" (International co-ordinated research on mortality), Boletín de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana 5 8 ( 1 ) , Jan. 6 5 : 1 - 1 5 . [P] Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Great Britain, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, USA, Venezuela. Samples : 12 cities : La Plata, Ribeirâo Prêto, Sâo Paulo, Santiago de Chile, Cali, Bogota, Bristol, Guatemala City, Mexico City, Lima, San Francisco, Caracas. Declared deaths between 5-74 years over a two-year period. In four cities : all deaths; in eight cities : random samples : English (N = 8,000); Portuguese (N = 5,000); Spanish (N = 27,000). Instr. : Questionnaire : Factual home interviews by socio-medical personnel and medical records. Description of the organization, purpose and methodology of the investigation. Data locally collected were centrally reviewed and analyzed. "By providing accurate and comparable age-specific death-rates by causes for highly diverse populations the investigation will indicate those areas where further epidemiological research may be profitably developed. In addition, information of value will be obtained for disease prevention, for administration of medical services and for the improvement of health statistics". 253. "Renseignements sur la santé, fournis par les enquêtes auprès des ménages", in : BUREAU INTERNATIONAL DU TRAVAIL. Rapport concernant le cycle d'étude régional sur les enquêtes auprès des ménages organisé conjointement par l'O.I.T. et les Nations Unies. Genève, BIT, 1962: 100-109, mimeo. [M] 254. VELAZQUEZ-PALAU, G . "Needed research on morbidity and health in Latin America", Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 4 3 ( 4 , 2 ) , Oct. 6 5 : 3 6 5 - 3 7 1 . [M] In view of the deficiencies in mortality statistics, experimentation in alternative methods of collecting data is recommended. "Two types are proposed : (a) 'Objective* studies based on household interviews complePUFFER,

157

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mented with clinical and laboratory examinations; (b) 'Subjective' opinion surveys", e.g. home interviews or mail questionnaires asking the respondent's ideas about the most common causes of disease, accidents, quality of available medical care. The latter procedure of value in "defining trends of peoples' attitudes toward their search for health". 1.2 Sexual behaviour and fertility 255.

256.

257.

258.

259.

158

BACK, K.W. ; STYCOS, J.M. The survey under unusual conditions. Methodological facets of the Jamaica human fertility investigation. Ithaca, N.Y., Society for Applied Anthropology, 1959, 52 p. [See also : 271.] CHRISTENSEN, H.T.; CARPENTER, G.R. "Timing patterns in premarital sexual intimacy: an attitudinal report on three modern Western societies", Marriage and Family Living 24(1), Feb. 62: 30-35. [P] Denmark, USA. [See also : 257, 263.] CHRISTENSEN, H.T.; CARPENTER, G.R. "Value behavior discrepancies regarding premarital coitus in three Western cultures", American Sociological Review 27(1), Feb. 62: 66-74. [P] Denmark, USA. Samples : Three samples of students under 30 years. Denmark (N = 235); USA (Middle West) (N = 355); Intermountain (Mormon) (N = 168). Instr. : Questionnaires. Construction of Guttman-type scale of intimacy permissiveness. [See : 256.] "Dimension (La) idéale de la famille et la conjoncture démographique", Sondages {3), 1960: 104-106. [O] Austria, Canada, France, Great Britain, India, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, USA 1938-1960. Instr. : Dissimilar questions. Two tables giving for each country: (1) percentage distribution of respondents according to their "ideal number of children", and actual fertility rate; (2) ranking of countries in decressing order of average "ideal number of children". DOBBELAERE, K. Ideal number of children in marriage in Belgium and the USA. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-llth, Sept. 66, 14 p. mimeo. [P : R] Belgium : USA. Samples : Belgium : Representative samples of households in Louvain (N = 500); USA: Detroit. Instr. : Questionnaire.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

260.

261.

Working hypotheses and indicators of family structure taken from a University of Michigan study: BLOOD, R . O . ; W O L F E , D.M. Husbands and wives. The dynamics of married living. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1960. Questionnaires not the same. Louvain data analysed to test theories of institutional socialization and to avoidance of status incongruency. "Encuestas comparativos de fecundidad en América Latina" [Comparative surveys of fertility in Latin America], América latina 6(4), 1963: 105-112. [G] Documents concerning the project of a joint program of CELADE and Cornell University International Population Program. FREEDMAN, R . ; BAUMERT, G.; BOLTE, M . "Expected family size and family size values in West Germany", Population Studies 1 3 ( 2 ) , Nov. 5 9 : 136-150.

[P : R] Germany : USA. Samples : National probability samples of adults. Instr. : Questionnaire. Questions about expected and ideal family size translated from US study. Data collected in Germany by DIVO in the Spring of 1958. U S study of reference : FREEDMAN, R . ; WHELPTON, P . K . ; CAMPBELL, A .

262.

263.

264.

Family planning, sterility and population growth. New York, McGraw—Hill, 1959. FRIEDENSBURG, L . "Umfrage in der Intimsphäre" [Survey of intimate behaviour], Beiträge Sex-Forschung 4: 95 p. [P : S] Germany : USA. Instr. : Questionnaire. Comparisons with USA based on Kinsey. GLASS, D . V . "Family limitation in Europe: a survey of recent studies", in : C . V . KISER (ed.) Research in family planning. Princeton, N . J . , Princeton University Press, 1 9 6 2 : 2 3 1 - 2 6 2 . [S] Austria, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland. Samples : National cross-sections and special groups : Hungary : women (N = 1,500); Czechoslovakia : married women (N = 10,645), etc. Instr. : Poll questions and questionnaires concerning ideal number of children, number of children planned, attitudes to birth control, etc. [See also : 269, for survey of earlier studies.] MELIKIAN, L . ; PROTHRO, E.T. "Sex behavior of university students in the Arab Near East", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 4 9 ( 1 ) , Jan. 54 : 59-64.

[P : R] Arab Near East : USA. Sample : Students. Instr. : Questionnaire. 159

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Study of reference : FINCER, L. "Sex beliefs and practices among male college students", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 42(1), Jan. 47 : 57-67. 265. MIRO, C.A.; RATH, F.R. "Preliminary findings of comparative fertility surveys in three Latin American cities", Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 43(4,2), O c t . 65 : 36-62.

[P] Brazil, Costa Rica, Panama, 1963-64. Samples : Probability sample of women in capital cities (except in Brazil: Rio de Janeiro), 20-50 years of age. Planned N = 2,300 loss, less than 5 %. Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Comparative analysis (by CELADE) of preliminary findings from three cities: sample characteristics; fertility levels; fertility differentials; ideal no. of children; use of contraceptives. The comparative survey was organized by CELADE with the cooperation of participating countries. Cooperative planning of research design, sampling and interviewing procedures and data processing. Publication of report on national findings in each country. Duplicate set of cards to : CELADE and the International Population Program of Cornell University. The seven participating countries were: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela. [See also: 260, 270, 272, 273.] 266. "Natalité (La) : une enquête internationale", Sondages 9(10), 1947: 115-116 and 133-135. [O] Austria, Canada, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, USA. FebruaryApril 1947. Instr. : Equivalent questions. Cross-national analysis : Tables "ideal number of children" : % distribution and median. Cross-tabulations by: Age: Canada, France, Great Britain, USA. Economic situation: Canada, Great Britain, USA. Ruralurban (differing criteria): Canada, France, Netherlands, USA. Marital status: Great Britain, USA. Educational level: USA. Profession: France. Analysis of French data: multiple breakdowns and separate analysis of feminine opinion. 267. "Problèmes (Les) familiaux modernes", Sondages 13, 1949 : 135-136. [O] Canada, Finland, Great Britain, Norway, USA. April-Sept. 1949. Instr. : Dissimilar questions on different subjects within same area. Artificial insemination (Great Britain, USA). Level of information — for or against. Abortion (Finland). Divorce (Canada, Finland, Italy, Norway). 268. SIMENSON, W. ; GEIS, G. "Courtship patterns of Norwegian and American University students", Marriage and Family Living 18(4), 1956: 334-339. [P] Norway, USA. 160

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : University students. Instr. : Questionnaire. 269. STOETZEL, J. "Les attitudes et la conjoncture démographique : la dimension idéale de la famille". Paper prepared for the 1954 World Population Conference. New York, United Nations, Proceedings of the World Population Conference. Vol. VII, 1955: 1019-1033. [S]

[See 263 for survey of recent studies.] 270. STYCOS, J.M. "Survey research and population control in Latin America", Public Opinion Quarterly 28(3), Fall 64: 367-372. [G]

A trend report on fertility studies in Latin America and a description of the inception of, and organization of cooperation between CELADE and the International Population Program of Cornell University for the coordination of AUK ( = Attitude, Use and Knowledge) surveys in the field of fertility in Latin America. 271. STYCOS, J.M. "Unusual applications of research: studies of fertility in underdeveloped areas", Human Organization 13(1), Spr. 54: 9-12. [M] 272.

STYCOS, J.M.; FELDT, A.; MYERS, G.C. "The Cornell International Popu-

lation Program", The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 42(Part 2), Apr. 64 : 198-211. [G]

The organisation and functioning of the programme is described. A detailed summary of two stages of the CELADE - IPP Fertility Project is given. "Research is currently concentrated geographically in Latin America, substantially on fertility and migration, and methodologically on ecological and sample survey investigations. A major orientation of the program concerns the interplay between broad ecological studies utilizing published data and field projects to explore specific questions generated by these data. Both types of studies are extensive in terms of international coverage and dynamic in their attention to social and demographic changes over time". [See 270.] 273. TABAH, L. "Plan de recherche de sept enquêtes comparatives sur la fécondité en Amérique latine", Population 19(1), 1964 : 95-126. [In Annex, French translation of questionnaire.] [M] Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela. This series of comparative surveys in Latin American capitals was based on the experience gained in earlier surveys in Puerto-Rico and Santiago de Chile. The objectives of the study, the research techniques, the sample characteristics, and the working hypotheses are set out. The 161

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

main focus in on motivations of individual behaviour in the given social environment. 274. YAUKEY, D. Fertility differences in a modernizing country: a survey of Lebanese couples. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1961, 204 p. [P : S] Lebanon, Egypt. 1.3 Family 1.3.1 Organization, roles 275. ADLER, DAW, L. "The contemporary Australian family", Human Relations 19(3), A u g . 1966: 265-282.

[M] Reviews, by way of introduction, some cross-national applications of the HERBST "Day at home" Questionnaires: United States, Mexico, New Zealand. Main body of article reports on a survey of 776 Australian and 537 immigrant children in Australia. Study of reference: P.Q. HERBST, "The measurement of family relationship", Human Relations 5, 1952: 3-35. [See also: 317.] 276.

ARNHOFF, A . ; MEREDITH, G . ; IWAHARA, S. " M a l e - d o m i n a n t a n d equali-

tarian attitudes in Japanese, Japanese-American, and Caucasian-American students", Journal of Social Psychology 64(2), Dec. 64: 225-230. [P : R] Japan : Hawaii. Samples : Psychology students. Japan (N = 145); Hawaii : JapaneseAmericans (N = 75); "Caucasian-Americans" (N = 60). Instr. : Questionnaire. Study of reference : ARNHOFF, A.; MEREDITH, G . ; DENG, J. "Attitudes

of Japanese-American and Caucasian-American students toward marriage roles", Journal of Social Psychology 59, 1963 : 11-15. 277. BARDIS, P.D. "A comparative study of families", Rural Sociology 24(4), Dec. 59: 362-371. [P] Greece, USA. Samples : High-school and college students (N = 152). Four groups compared (n's = 38); Greece: Orthodox students from a provincial high-school of rural Peloponnesus; USA: Mennonite students ofamennonite college in the Midwest, methodist students of an urban public high school in Michigan, and methodist students from a methodist college in the same State. Instr. : Stand. Bardis' Familism Scale. 278.

BLOOD, R . O . ; HILL, R . ; MICHEL, A . ; SAFILIOS-ROTHSCHILD, C .

Comparative

analysis of family power structure; problems of measurement and interpretation. Paper for the Ninth International Seminar of Family Research, Tokyo (Japan), Sept. 65. [M]

162

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

279.

BLOOD, R.O. ; TAKESHITA, Y.J. "Development of cross-cultural equivalence of measures of marital interaction for USA and Japan", in : Transactions of the Fifth World Congress of Sociology, Sept. 1962, vol. 4. Louvain, International Sociological Association, 1964 : 333-334. [M] 280. "Bonheur (Le) et le mariage", Sondages (3), 1960: 107-108. [O] Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, India, Netherlands, Switzerland, Uruguay, USA. December 1959 - January 1960. Instr. : Two poll questions. 281.

CENTRE NATIONAL DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE. Sociologie

comparée

de la famille contemporaine. Paris, CNRS, 1955, 218 p. [G]

282.

283.

A complete record of 11 reports and discussions of the family in France, England and Germany. CHOMBART DE LAUWE, P. "Images of women in society: introduction", International Social Science Journal 14(1), 1962: 7-25. [Introduction to the special issue.] A report on cross-national research in progress in: Austria, Canada, France, Ivory Coast, Morocco, Poland, Yugoslavia. Other articles on the images of women in each of several participating countries. CHRISTENSEN, H.T. "A cross-cultural comparison of attitudes toward marital infidelity", International Journal of Comparative Sociology 3(1), Sept. 62: 124-137.

284.

[P] Denmark (1957-58), USA. Samples : Three samples of students under 30 years. Denmark (N = 235); USA: Middle West (N = 355); Intermountain, Mormon (N = 168). Instr. : Set of questions in larger questionnaire. [See also: 256, 257.] DUMON, W.A. The problem of sampling and instrument construction in a study of the entrepreneurial family in Belgium and the United States. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-11th, Sept. 66, 8 p. mimeo. [P] Belgium, USA. Samples : Random. Self-employed families in Louvain (Belgium) and in Minneapolis (USA). Instr. : Interview. Field work by author in both countries. Discusses difficulty of finding sociologically equivalent samples in both countries, the category designation "self-employed" being only verbally equivalent. One important dimension of self-employment: separation — non-separation of home and work place in relation to the dependent variable family structure, could not be controlled for both countries. 163

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

285.

FOOTE, N.N.; COTTRELL, L.S. Jr. Identity and interpersonal competence. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1955, 305 p. [M] 286. GOODE, W J . "Marital satisfaction and instability : a cross-cultural class analysis of divorce rates", International Social Science Journal 14(3), 1962: 507-526.

[G] 287. GOODE, W.J. World revolution and family patterns. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1963, 432 p. [G] General review of patterns of change in family organization, age of marriage, marriage choice and premarital sexuality. Numerous surveys cited but not systematically compared. 288. HEBER, R.F. A cross-national comparison of children's judgment of parentchild conflict in Germany, England, Finland, United States and Mexico. East Lansing, Michigan State University Library, 1955. [Master's thesis.] [P]

289. HILL, R. "Authority patterns and family stability in Western cultures", Research Previews 5(1), 1957:1-5. (Chapel Hill, N.C., Institute for Research in Social Science). [M] 290. HILL, R. "Cross-national family research. Attempts and prospects", International Social Science Journal 14(3), 1962: 425-451. [G] A review of current and contemplated cross-national research on family. 291. KARLSSON, G. "A reliability test of the Foote observational technique for studying interaction in the family", in : N. ANDERSON (ed.) Studies of the family. Vol. 3. Gottingen, Vandenbroeck and Ruprecht, 1958. [M]

The Foote confrontation interview is an extension and elaboration of the Strodtbeck interaction process technique. The method may be considered of potential value for cross-national research. [See: 285, 310, 311.] 292. KOOY, G.A.; KOTTER, H. "Some problems encountered in an investigation concerning the European rural family", in : Transactions of the Fifth World Congress of Sociology. Louvain, International Sociological Association, 1964 : 319-332.

[M] The story of a failure. Detailed account of problems and difficulties, surmountable and insurmountable, for the purpose of guiding future research. The study was designed to include 14 European countries, the field work was finally completed in only two communities in two countries: 164

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

293.

294.

295.

296.

297.

298.

Germany and the Netherlands. Detailed discussion of problems encountered in the collection of statistical data (incomplete and lacking data, low comparability of data), leading to a plea for action by the International Sociological Association to promote comparability of data for the purpose of sociological research. The conclusion is that most can be expected from small-scale studies such as those made in Germany and the Netherlands. LEICHTY, M.M. "Family attitudes and self-concept in Vietnamese and US children", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33(1), 1963: 38-50. [P] USA, Vietnam. Samples : Children from semi-rural environment. USA : Michigan, 4th, 5th grades (N = 60); Vietnam : similar group. Instr. : Sentence Completion Test. LOCKE, H.J. ; KARLSSON, G. "Marital adjustment and prediction in Sweden and the US", American Sociological Review 17, Feb. 52: 10-17. [P : R] Sweden : USA. Samples : Uppsala couples and Indiana couples. Instr. : Marital prediction instrument. MARRIS, P. Family and social change in an African city. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962, 180 p. [P : R] Nigeria : South Africa. Samples : Lagos, East London. MICHEL, A. Données comparatives sur l'interaction dans la famille française et la famille américaine. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-11th. Sept. 66, mimeo. [P : S] France : USA. Samples : France, wives (N = 550). Instr. : Adapted version of US questionnaire. Study of reference : BLOOD, R.O.; WOLFE, D.M. Husbands and wives. The dynamics of married living. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1960. MISCHEL, W. "Father-absence and delay of gratification: cross-cultural comparisons", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 63(1), July 61 : 116-124. [P] Grenada, Trinidad. Samples : Lower-class negro youth. Instr. : Interview data. MOGEY, J. "Changes in the family : introduction", International Social Science Journal 14(3), 1962 : 411-424. [A special issue.] [G]

299.

Moss, J.J. "Teenage marriage : cross-national trends and sociological factors in the decision of when to marry", Acta Sociologica 8(1-2), 1964: 98-117. [G] Finland, Norway, Sweden, USA, Yugoslavia. A summary of papers given at the 8th International Family Research

165

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Seminar in Oslo, Norway, 1963. Data on age at marriage are compared, the proposed explanatory factors are categorized according to underlying theoretical frameworks. 300. MUHYI, J. "Women in the Arab Middle East", Journal of Social Issues 15(3), 1959 : 45-57. [P] Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, USA. Middle-East — USA, units of comparative analysis. [See also: 150, 216, 344, 485, 903, 904.] 301. NAJARIAN, P. "Adjustment in the family and patterns of family living", Journal of Social Issues 1 5 ( 3 ) , 1 9 5 9 : 28-44. [P] Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, USA. Middle-East — USA, units of comparative analysis. Samples : Secondary school and college students. Random stratified selection of schools in USA, purposive area selection in Middle East. Sample inclusion of students by classes. Middle East (N = Ca. 3,900); USA (N = Ca. 1,660). Instr. : Part of more comprehensive questionnaire group administered. Extensive interviews with students and other informants. [See also: 300.] 302. "Psychologie conjugale. Enquête internationale", Sondages (12), 1946 : 147-148. [O] France, Great Britain, USA. March-May 1946. Instr. : Equivalent poil questions. Comparisons in terms of rank order of type of answers. 303. "Questions familiales", Sondages 14, 1948 : 179-180. [O] Great Britain, Italy, Norway. Instr. : Dissimilar poll questions, concerning the same or neighbouring subjects in the same topic area. 304. ROCHEBLAVE-SPENLÉ, A.M. "Les rôles masculins et féminins dans la famille", in : ROCHEBLAVE-SPENLÉ, A.M. Les rôles masculins et féminins. Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1964: 99-191. [P] France (1960); Germany (1958); Great Britain (1959). Samples : Purposive samples of engineers from the Paris (N = 24), Diisseldorf (N = 24) and London (N = 24) areas: aged 30-40 years married, with at least one child and whose dwelling arrangements included the nuclear family only. Instr. : Separate semi-directive interviews with husbands and wives. 305. ROCHEBLAVE-SPENLÉ, A.M. "Les stéréotypes masculins et féminins", in : ROCHEBLAVE-SPENLÉ, A.M. Les rôles masculins et féminins. Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1964: 19-96. 166

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

306.

[P] France (1957, 1958); Germany (1956). Samples : Students of psychology under 30 years. France : Paris (N = 143); Germany : Cologne, Freiburg, Hamburg (N = 102). Instr. : Questionnaire, group administration. Two open-ended questions, and a traits check list. SAFILIOS-ROTHCHILD, C . A comparison of power structure and marital satisfaction in urban Greek and French families. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-11th Sept. 66, 17 p. mimeo. [P : R] Greece : France (USA). Samples : Random. Greece : Couples living in Athens (N = 250). Final sample for comparative analysis : Wives (N = 133); France : Paris, wives (N = 550). Instr. : Similar questionnaires. The questionnaire used in both studies are adapted versions of BLOOD'S questionnaire. Comparisons o f : 1) Authority scores; breakdowns b y : stages in family cycle, wife's employment status, husband's education, occupation and salary, educational diiference between spouses. 2) Satisfaction scores; breakdowns by : husband's education and salary, wife's employment status, family power structure, length of marriage. Reference to US findings. Studies of reference : France [ 2 9 6 ] ; US : BLOOD and W O L F E . Husbands and wives. The dynamics of family living. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1960.

307.

308.

"Factors associated with success of Chinese families as families", Marriage and Family Living 14, Nov. 52: 286-294. [P] China, USA. STEPHENS, W.N. The family in cross-cultural perspective. New York, HoltRinehart-Winston, 1963, 460 p.

SMYTHE, L.S.C.

[M]

309.

Scale rating of ethnographic material by "judges" or "raters". Includes a Guttman-type scale of menstrual taboos. STRAUS, M.A. "Methodology of a laboratory experimental study of families in three societies", in : H.T. CHRISTENSEN (ed.) Handbook of marriage and the family. Chicago, Rand McNally, 1964, chap. 10.

[M]

310.

311.

"Husband-wife interaction over revealed differences", American Sociological Review 16, Aug. 5 1 : 4 6 8 - 4 7 3 . [M] USA. Samples from three cultures : Navajo Indian, Mormon, Texan. Instr. : Interview, Strodtbeck's interaction process technique. SUSSMAN, M . B . The organization of cross-national family research. A

STRODTBECK, F . L .

167

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

perspective. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-11th Sept. 66, 31 p. mimeo. [M] Discussion and suggestions concerning organizational set-ups and financing, problems of methodology and technique, personal requisites of researchers (it would be desirable for investigators to have a bi-cultural or a multicultural background). Attention is given to the problem of "pragmatic equivalence". Other than questionnaire methods are suggested to handle pragmatic non-equivalence in cross-cultural research: experimental games [see 309], confrontation situations [see: 291, 285], and the revealed diiference technique [see 310]. The use of such techniques would result in the measurement of equivalent concepts by non-equivalent observations. — An "administrative research model" is presented and explicated both in terms of theoretical implications and practical consequences concerning : time schedule; research center; location; staff; budget. 312. YAMAMURA, D.S.; ZALD, M.N. "A note on the usefulness and validity of the Herbst family questionnaires", Human Relations (9), 1956: 217-221. [M]

Validation against results obtained by content analysis of "essays". Discussion of cross-cultural stability. "The Herbst Family Questionnaire is inadequate for most social-psychological problems because of its equation of the functionally significant and insignificant, and because it fails to take into account meaningful components of family life such as deference and respect behavior." 313. ZELDITCH, M. "Role-differentiation in the nuclear family : a comparative study", in : T. PARSONS; R.F. BALES. Family socialization and interaction process. Glencoe, 111., The Free Press, 1955: 307-351. [G] 1.3.2 Child-rearing and patterns of child behaviour 314.

ANCONA, L.; CESA-BIANCHI, M . ; BOCQUET, C. "Identificazione al padre

in assenza di modello paterno: ricerca ai figli degli officiali di marina" [Identification with the father in the absence of the paternal model : research applied to children of navy officers], Archivio di Psicológica, Neurología e Psichiatria

24(4), 1 9 6 3 : 341-361.

[P : R] Italy : Norway. Samples : Children between 7 and 9 years from Tonsberg (Norway) and Genova (Italy). Experimental group: sons and daughters of officers in the merchant marine (N = 20). Control group consisting of children from same socio-economic strata, whose fathers work ashore (N = 20). 168

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

315.

316.

Instr. : Children : P.B. LYNN'S Structured Doll Play Test and a drawing test. Mothers : structured interviews. The findings of the Norwegian study are reported in detail. Study of reference : TILLER, P.O. "Father's absence and personality development of children in sailor families", Nordislt Psykologisk Monograph Series no. 9, 1958. BOEHM, L. "The development of indépendance: a comparative study", Child Development 28(1), 1957: 85-92. [P] Switzerland, USA. Samples : Urban school children 6-15 years old. Switzerland : From a school in poorer section of Geneva (N = 29); USA : From a school in a well-to-do suburb of Chicago (N = 40). Control-group : Germany. Upper middle class children (N = 10). Instr. : Two stories and probing questions: Piaget's "méthode clinique". The research design was not originally a comparative one. "When gathering the American data it became clear that significant comparisons could be made between children of the two cultures. The investigator has interviewed 261 children from kindergarten through high school, 80 Europeans and 181 Americans. In all : 12 stories have been used". BROWN, D.G. "Sex-role development in a changing culture", Psychological Bulletin 55, 1958: 232-242.

[G] A survey of US research results. Arguments in favour of cross-cultural research. 317. BROWN, L.B. "The 'Day at home' in Wellington, New Zealand", Journal of Social Psychology 50, 1959: 189-206. [P : R] New Zealand : Australia. Samples : School children. Instr. : Stand. "Day at home" questionnaire. 318. CLAUSEN, J.A. "Research on socialization and personality development in the United States and France: remarks on the paper by P.-H. Chombart de Lauwe", American Sociological Review 31(2), Apr. 66: 248-257. Discusses, on the basis of P.-H. Chombart de Lauwe, "The interaction of person and society", American Sociological Review 31(2), Apr. 66: 237-247, contrasts in the orientation of research on the family and the socialization process in France and the US. Discusses specifically the problems of cross-national comparisons, lists inherent differences FranceUSA and proposes new research. A product of an initiative taken by the International Seminar of Family Research later tied in with the Research Committee on Family Sociology of the International Sociological Association. 169

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

319.

320.

321.

DENNIS, W. "A cross-cultural study of the reinforcement of child behaviour", Child Development 28(4), 1957: 431-438. [P] Lebanon, USA. Samples : Purposive samples of school children aged 5-10 in Beirut. Four groups: (1) Americans (N = 120); (2) Arabs (N = 240). Equal proportions of : boys and girls; Moslems and Christians; private and public school pupils; and age groups. (3) Armenians (N = 60). Pupils from one private school, from middle class families, equally divided as to age and sex. (4) Jews (N = 60). All from the most-frequented school of the Jewish colony, most social classes represented, approximately equal distribution as to age and sex. Instr. : The Critical Incident Technique. Individual semi-structured interviews in school setting. Analysis in terms of categories of incidents and rewarding persons. Comparisons between four groups, and between "Near Eastern" groups and American group. DEVEREUX, E.C. "Family authority and child behavior in West Germany and the United States — some problems and strategies in a cross-national validation study", in : Transactions of the Fifth World Congress of Sociology. Louvain, International Sociological Association, 1964: 303-312. [M] A discussion of the uses, limitations and advantages of the method of a cross-national validation study versus a replication study, exampliiied by the author's studies in USA and Germany. Problems of strategy and tactics in the planning stage are considered. [For analysis of data from this study, see 321.] DEVEREUX, E.C. J r . ; BRONFENBRENNER, U . ; SUCI, G.J. " P a t t e r n s of p a r e n t

behaviour in the United States of America and the Federal Republic of Germany: a cross-national comparison", International Social Science Journal

14(3), 1 9 6 2 : 4 8 8 - 5 0 6 .

[P] Germany, USA. Samples : Children in 6th school year. Original samples: Cologne (N = 1.221); Dryden (small town of New York State) (N = 134). Crossnational analysis based on subsamples, pair-matched with respect to several demographic characteristics: Germany (N = 72), USA (N = 72), boys (n = 40), girls (n = 32). A rural-urban analysis was performed on the German data. A control study was undertaken in a rural area of Schleswig-Holstein (N = 103). Comparisons were based on pair-matched sub-samples of the urban and rural samples. Instr. : 45 parents'practice items, part of a more comprehensive class-room administered questionnaire. Mostly scaled response alternatives.

170

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

322.

323.

324.

325.

Analysis : Factor analysis of responses of children from contact families of original German sample. Factor scores on emerging nine factors obtained for each child's account of each parent. Same procedure applied to American sub-sample. Then a three-way analysis of variance was employed, which takes into account simultaneously the differences attribuable to sex of child, sex of parent, and culture. FARBER, M.L. "English and American: values in the socialization process", Journal of Psychology 36, Oct. 53: 243-250. [P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : Non-random samples of insurance clerks. Great Britain : London (N = 31) USA : Hartford, Conn. (N = 81). Due to difference in mode of distribution of questionnaires, non-comparability of proportion of return between two countries. Instr. : Questionnaire using Sentence Completion Technique. LANDY, D. Tropical childhood: cultural transmission and learning in a rural Puerto Rican village. Chapel Hill, N.C., University of North Carolina Press, 1959, 291 p. [P : S] Puerto Rico : USA. PROTHRO, E.T. Child rearing in the Lebanon. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1961, 186 p. ("Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs", no. 8). [P : S] Lebanon : USA. Samples : Lebanon : Mothers (N = 468), and their 5 year old children. Instr. : Mothers : interviews. Children : tests. PULVER, U. "Erziehungsauffassungen bei Schweizer Müttern" [Swiss mothers' conception of education], Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Anwendung

21(2), 1962 : 97-112.

[P : R] Switzerland : USA. Samples : Switzerland : Mothers of 6 months old children (N = 35). Instr. : Stand. Parental Attitudes Research Instrument. 326. RAPP, D.W. "Child-rearing attitudes of mothers in Germany and the United States", Child Development 32, 1961: 669-678. [P] Germany (1958); USA (1960). Samples : Non random samples of Protestant "Caucasian" mothers from "intact" homes, obtained through co-operation of comparable organizations in both countries. Germany : Baden (N = 183) 91,5% return of questionnaire. USA: Florida (N = 283) 52,7% return of questionnaire. Instr. : Stand. Shoben's Parent Attitude Survey. Comparisons with other US studies reporting on findings with same instrument. 327.

SCOFIELD, R.W.; CHIN-WANSUN, S. " A comparative study of the differ-

171

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

ential effect upon personality of Chinese and American child-training practices", Journal of Social Psychology 52, 1960 : 221-224. [P] China, USA. 328. STENDLER, C.B. "The learning of certain secondary drives by Parisian and American middle class children", Marriage and Family Living 16(3), A u g . 5 4 : 195-200.

[P] France, USA. Samples : Parents. Instr. : Interviews. 329. WHITING, B.B. (ed.) Six cultures: studies of child rearing. New York, Wiley, 1963, 1017 p. [P] Kenya, India, Mexico, Okinawa, Philippines, USA. Intensive studies of communities of 50-100 families in each culture, based on common theoretical orientation and research instruments. 330. WHITING, J.W.M. et al. Field guide for a study of socialization in five societies. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University, Laboratory of Human Development, 1954, 158 p. Later printed as Field guide for a study of socialization. New York, J. Wiley, 1966, xiv + 176 p. 331. WHITING, J.W.M. et al. Field manual for the cross-cultural study of child rearing. New York, Social Science Research Council, 1953, 53 p. mimeo. [M] 1.4 Education 332. ANDERSON, C.A. "Methodology of comparative education", International Review of Education 7(1), 1961: 1-23. Difficulties and potentials of research in comparative education. 333.

334.

172

BUTCHER, H.J.; AINSWORTH, M . ; NESBITT, J.E. "Personality factors and

school achievement: a comparison of British and American children", British Journal of Educational Psychology 33(3), 1963: 276-285. [P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : School children, 12-14 years. Instr. : Cattell's High School Personality Questionnaire. DEMOS, G.D. "Attitudes of Mexican-American and Anglo-American groups toward education", Journal of Social Psychology 57(2), 1962 : 248-256. [P] USA. Samples : 7th through 12th grade school children. Three comparison groups each (N = 105), equally distributed in three grade groups consisting of a random sample of Mexican-Americans, a random sample of

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

335.

336.

337.

Anglo-Americans, and a sample of Anglo-Americans matched with the Mexican-American sample on age, grade, sex, social class and intelligence. Instr. : Questionnaire. 29 issues incorporated into 5-point attitude scales of successive intervals. "Education (L') de la jeunesse dans quatre pays d'Europe : Allemagne de l'Ouest, France, Grande-Bretagne, Norvège, et aux Etats-Unis", Sondages (4), 1961: 3-63. [P] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Norway, USA (May 1960). Samples : 10 year old school children (N = 2068), 14 year old school children (N = 2074). Random representative samples of approximate equal numbers in each country, by varying sampling techniques. Instr. : Questionnaire — home interviews. The study was initiated and financed by the Saturday Evening Post, coordinated by the American Institute of Public Opinion and executed by national polling agencies. Presentation of data in percentage tables; no controls. For a quick review of result see GALLUP, G . ; HILL, E. " I S European education better than ours?", Saturday Evening Post 24-31 Dec. 1960. HUSEN, T . International study of achievement in mathematics. A comparison of twelve countries. Stockholm, Almquist and Wicksel; New York, Wiley, 1967, Vol. I-II, 304 + 368 pp. [P] Australia, Belgium, England, Finland, France, Germany (two Lânder), Israel, Japan, Netherlands, Scotland, Sweden, United States. Samples : Pupils 13-14 years of age and in pre-university year, (N ranging from 2,510 (Netherlands) to 32,704 (Sweden)), teachers (N ranging from 180 to 3,381) and head-teachers (195 to 1273). Instr. : Mathematics Tests, Attitude Scales, Student, School and Teachers. Questionnaires. Report on major cross-national study of variations in scores for mathematical achievement. Includes detailed analysis of factors affecting such variations: school organization, instructional methods, home background, urban-rural residence, sex, vocational aspirations. One of the most thoroughly reported cross-national studies so far completed. For further analyses see T . HUSEN "Establishing international criteria of comparison in comparative education", International Review of Education (in press). NISIHIRA, S . "Le niveau des connaissances de la jeunesse japonaise. Comparaison avec les pays occidentaux", Sondages (1), 1964: 85-91. [P : R] Japan (1963): France, Germany (FR), Great Britain, Norway, USA (1960). Samples : Japan : Stratified sample of 14 years old school children (N = 900). 173

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAHPY

Instr. : Knowledge test of questionnaire used in Europe and in the USA. Comparative graphic presentations. [See also: 335.] 338. RANCH, S.V. "Une maladie scolaire: enquête pédagogique", Nouvelle Revue pédagogique (8), 1953: 11-24. [P] Belgium, France, Luxemburg. Sample : School children (N = 1690). Instr. : Questionnaire. Subject : Cheating in school examinations.

1.5 Youth [See also : III.2.3] 339.

340.

341.

174

H.H. ; ANDERSON, G . L . "Cultural reactions to conflict : a study of adolescent children in seven countries", in : G . M . GILBERT (ed.) Psychological approaches to intergroup and international understanding. Austin, Tex., Hogg Foundation for Mental Hygiene, University of Texas, 1956: 27-32. [P] Finland, Germany, Great Britain, Mexico, Norway, Sweden, USA. Instr. : Anderson's Incomplete Stories. [See also: 195, 492, 493, 494.] ASAYAMA, SIN-ITI. "Comparison of sexual development of American and Japanese adolescents", Psychologia (1), 1957: 129-131. [P : S I T| Japan, USA. Studies of reference : A.C. KINSEY and associates. BOESCH, E.E. "The Bangkok project : step one", Vita humana 3(2/3), 1960: 123-124. [P : S and P : R] Thailand, Java, Switzerland, Western countries. Thailand : Germany. Samples : Thailand : Bangkok school children in first through fourth school year. Schools chosen to reflect social stratification. Four experimental classes: (N = 285). Germany : Saar : Equivalent groups of school children (N = 40). Instr. : Children : Group and individual testing, great variety of tests, projective and non-projective, individual interviews, etc. Parents: Interviews. Replication in Saar of questions on self-evaluation and aspirations of children. Outline of the first research steps of the International Institute for Child Study in the years 1956-1958. Methodological principles and problems of cross-cultural research are discussed. "The IICS has devoted itself to three main purposes : 1. To gather data about the developmental and educational status of Thai children; 2. To ANDERSON,

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

train and to promote co-operation within an 'inter-cultural' team of research workers in Bangkok and 3. To organise a system of international co-operation for obtaining comparable parallel data from different cultures". 342.

FIEDLER, F.E.; HOFFMAN, E.L. "Age, sex and religious background as

determinants of interpersonal perception among Dutch children: a crosscultural validation", Acta psychologica 20(3), 1962: 185-195. [P : R] Netherlands : USA. Sample : Netherlands : School children, three age groups : 12-13, 14-15 and 16-17 years. One half of each age group Calvinist — others Catholics. Mostly from large cities and geographical areas dominated by members of their religions faith (N = 300). Instr. : Stand. Interpersonal Perception Test. "The present investigation is of interest primarily in terms of the crosscultural comparisons between Calvinists and Catholics and between Dutch and American subjects. Both comparisons indicate the importance of the age and sex factors as determinants of interpersonal perception"... "The results indicate considerable similarities between the Dutch Catholics and Calvinists as well as between Dutch and American subjects." U S study of reference : A.R. KOHN; F.E. FIEDLER : "Age and sex

differences in the perception of persons", Sociometry 24, 1961: 157-164. 343.

FIELD, P . B . ; MALDONADO-SIERRA, E . D . ; COELHO, G . V . " A s t u d e n t - T A T

measure of competence. A cross-cultural replication in Puerto-Rico", Perception and Motor Skills 16(1), 1963: 195-198.

[P : R] Puerto Rico : USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : Stand. Thematic Apperception Test. 344. HUDSON, B.B. (ed.) "Cross-cultural studies in the Arab Middle East and United States : studies of young adults", Journal of Social Issues 15(3), 1959: 1-75. [A special issue.] IP] Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, USA (1953-56). Organization, methods and some findings of a large-scale project of attitude testing. [See each article: 150, 216, 300, 301, 485.] 345. KANDEL, D.; LESSER, G.S. Parental relationships of adolescents in the United States and Denmark. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-11th, Sept. 66, 25 p. + 12 p. annex, mimeo. [P] Denmark, USA (1965). Samples : High school students. Stratified sample of schools to provide ecological variety and between-country equivalence. Final sample used: matched pairs of adolescents and mothers from intact families: Denmark (N = 1070), USA (N = 1,172). Instr. : Questionnaire. Self-administered for mothers. 175

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

346.

KATZ, F.M. "A cross-cultural study of adolescent aspirations", Journal of Social Psychology 57(2), 1962: 277-281. [P] Australia, Great Britain. Samples : School boys aged 14-16 years. Samples drawn from school population of five schools in Southern England (N = 408) and five situated in a comparable area of New South Wales (N = 240). Instr. : Questionnaire, projective techniques and teacher ratings. Follow-up study in England to check actual occupations of subjects. Purpose : "... cross-cultural variations in vocational orientations should provide an indication of cultural variation in the more general framework of aspirational referants". 347. KATZ, E.; ZLOCZOWER, A. "Ethnic continuity in an Israeli town. I. Relations with parents. II. Relations with peers", Human Relations 14(4), 1961: 293-308 a n d 309-327.

[M] Israel. Samples : 24 year-old second generation immigrants (N = 90) from two cultural groups : Yemenites, Ashkenazim. 348. MCGRANAHAN, D.V. "A comparison of social attitudes among American and German youth", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 41, July 4 6 : 245-257.

[P] Germany (FR), USA (1945). Samples : Random samples of young people. Germany : 14-18 years old from Bad-Homburg (N = 191) and two suburbs of Francfort; USA : High-school students from Eastern and Midwestern urban and suburban areas (N = 1,600). Stratified subsample for comparative analysis (N = 200). Also a sample from a single community : Oak Park (N = 163), best match for Bad Homburg sample. 349.

MUSSEN, P . W . ; YOUNG, H . B . ; GADDINI, R . ; MORANTE, L . " T h e influence

of father-son relationship on adolescent personality and attitudes", Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 4(1), 1963: 3-16. [P] Italy : USA. Samples : Adolescent boys of Italian descent. Italy : Florence (N = 108); Palermo (N = 74), Roma (N = 78). USA : Boston (N = 51). Two experimental groups selected on basis of information from home interviews : "sufficient" and "insufficient" in paternal affection, maternal affection kept constant. Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Imagination test based on McCleland's test of need achievement with Winterbottom's technique. Data are part of an extensive cross-cultural longitudinal study of adolescents : the Harvard Florence Project. 350. NEWMAN, R.E. "Personality development in a primitive 'adolescent' group" 176

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BV FIELD

Zeitschrift fur diagnostische Psychologie (6), 1958 : 241-253. [P : S] US Indians, : Western industrial societies. Samples : Two random samples of adolescent Otomi Indians (N = 18). Instr. : Rorschach. Inference : "Storm and stress" and aggressiveness of the second decade of life culturally determined. 351. "Opinions, études, éducation" in : 221.750.000 Consommateurs. Marché commun et Grande-Bretagne. Paris, "Sélection du Reader's Digest", 1964: 35-64. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (FR), Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands. (Jan.-Feb. 63). One question of opinion about young people (16-25 years). Answers trichotomized. Break-downs by : age, sex, education, socio-professional category, place of residence and composition of household. [For other aspects of study, see : 641, 797, 806, 941, 975.] 352.

PIERCE-JONES, J . ; REID, J.B.; KING, F.J. "Adolescent racial and ethnic

group differences in social attitudes and adjustment", Psychological Reports 5(3), 1959 : 549-552.

[P] USA. Samples : Adolescents from three ethnic groups : Anglos (N = 84) LatinAmericans (N = 84); Negroes (N = 84). Instr. : Questionnaire of "self-report" type. 353. RABIN, A.I. "A comparison of American and Israeli children by means of a sentence completion technique", Journal of Social Psychology 49, 1959 : 3-12. [P] Israel, USA. Samples : Children. Instr. : Sentences Completion Technique. 354. REMMERS, H.H. "Cross-cultural studies of teenagers' problems", Journal of Educational

Psychology

53(6), 1962 : 254-261.

[P] Germany (FR), India, Puerto Rico, USA. Samples : Representative random samples of teenagers in school (N = 5,000). Instr. : Questionnaire, "Science Research Associates Youth Inventory". Measuring instrument highly reliable. Rankings of problems similar, amount and intensity of worries vary greatly with cultures. 355. STOETZEL, J. Jeunesse sans chrysanthème ni sabre. Paris, Plon-Unesco, 1954, 340 p. [P : R] Japan : USA. Instr. : Gillespie-Allport Youth Test. Questionnaire, interviews. 177

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

356.

Report on interview and test findings in Japan. Includes a discussion of various translation problems. [See : GILLESPIE and ALLPORT, 536.] STOODLEY, B.H. "Normative attitudes of Filipino youth compared with German and American youth", American Sociological Review 22(5), Oct. 57 : 553-561.

357.

358.

359.

360.

[P : R] Philippines : Germany, USA. Samples : Philippines : High school and University students (N = 770). Instr. : Adaptation of McGranahan's questionnaire. [Study of reference : 348.] SÜLLWOLD, F. "Empirische Untersuchungen über die Sorgen und Probleme von Jugendlichen in Deutschland und den USA" [Empirical investigations of youth troubles and problems in Germany and the USA], Psychologische Rundschau (10), 1959 : 49-66. [P] Germany, USA. Instr. : Stand. Adaptation of Science Research Associates' Youth Inventory. [See also: 354.] TOCHEPORT, G "La transformation pubertaire vue à travers le test de Rorschach", Bulletin de la Société française du Rorschach (10), 1958 : 41-53. [M] Comparison of Rorschach protocols of two groups of resident students in military preparation schools : French boys (N = 188), Muslim boys (N = 39). Presents for conclusion that the Rorschach is a useful means of making cross-cultural comparisons. TYLER, L.E. "A comparison of the interests of English and American school children", Journal of Genetic Psychology 88, 1956 : 175-181. [P : R] Great Britain : USA. Samples : 10-11 years old school children. Great Britain (N = 95). Instr. : Stand. Dreese and Mooney Interest Inventory for Elementary Grades. ZAIDI, S.M.H. "A study of cultural orientation of Pakistan children through their use of common objects", Journal of Social Psychology 52, 1960 : 41-49.

[P : R] Pakistan : Arab countries, Sudan, USA. Samples : 6-11 years old children. Pakistan (N = 88). Instr. : Dennis Common Object Technique. 1.6

361.

Old Age ARNHOFF, F . N . ; LEON, H.V.; LORGE, I. "Cross-cultural acceptance of

stereotypes towards aging", Journal of Social Psychology 63(1), June 64 : 41-58.

[P] Great Britain, Greece, Japan, Puerto Rico, Sweden, USA. 178

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : College students. Proposed (N = 300) obtained (Ns = 184-336). Instr. : Tuckman and Lorge's Attitudes Toward Old People Questionnaire. 362. BURGESS, E.W. "Family structure and relationships", in : E.W. BURGESS. Aging in Western societies. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1960 : 270-298.

[S] Western European countries. 363. FRIIS, H. "Cross-national research on old age", International Social Science Journal 15(3), 1964 : 451-455; [475-480, French ed.] [P] USA, Great Britain, Denmark (1962). Samples : Random of population over 65 years, not living in institutions. Short description of solutions to specific problems concerning crosscultural surveys. Enumeration of organisational procedures : 1960, first request for financial support; 1961-1964, successive working sessions, etc. 364. FRIIS, H. Older people in three industrial societies. A comparative social survey on living conditions and behaviour of the aged in Denmark, Great Britain and USA. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France), 4-11th. Sept. 66, 10 p. mimeo. [P] Denmark, Great Britain, USA (1962). Samples : Area probability. People aged over 65 and living in private households (N's = ca. 2,500). Instr. : Interview. From 75 to 90% "cross-national" questions, the remainder nation-specific. Describes aims, variables and procedures of the survey. Discusses findings in light of common stereotypes about the aged. Reviews experiences gained in the course of the study "one of the few tightly coordinated comparative sample surveys". 365. HAVIGHURST, R.J. "Life beyond family and work", in : E.W. BURGESS (ed.) Aging in Western societies. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1960 : 299-353.

[S] Denmark, France, Germany (FR), Great Britain, Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, USA. Samples : National cross-sections, special groups. Instr. : Questionnaire, poll questions. Descriptive comparisons. 366. HAVIGHURST, R.J. "The sociological meaning of aging", in : Fourth Congress of the International Association of Gerontology, Merano, Italy, July 14-19 1957. Vol. I. Ann Arbor, Mich., University of Michigan, Division of Gerontology, 1958: 118-128. [G]

The author presents results from a Kansas, USA, interview study of adults 40-70 years. Relation between function and structure through the 179

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

367.

368.

life cycle is represented as dependent on the prevalent attitude to old age in society. INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF GERONTOLOGY. Social Research Committee, European section. The need for cross-national surveys of old age. Report of a Conference in Copenhague 19-23 Oct. 1956. Division of Gerontology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 17 p. multigr. [G] Suggestions for areas of comparative cross-national research : 1. Pensions, assistance and levels of living; 2. Work and retirement. 3. Family and institutional care. Papers describing national surveys on different subjects : Great Britain (3), Denmark (3), Italy (2), Netherlands (1). K O G A N , M . "Attitudes toward old people : the development of a scale and an examination of correlates", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 62, 1962 : 44-45. [M]

369.

SHANAS, E. "Some observations on cross-national surveys", Gerontology (2), 1963 : 182-191.

370.

TIBBITS, C. (ed.) Handbook of social gerontology: societal aspects of aging. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1960, 770 p.

371.

TOWNSEND, P. The family of three generations in Britain, the United States and Denmark. Paper presented to an International Research Seminar in Gerontology, Markaryd, Sweden, 1963. [P] Denmark, Great Britain, USA. TOWNSEND, P . "The place of older people in different societies", in : P . V O N HANSEN (ed.) Age with future. Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Gerontology. Copenhagen, 1963. Copenhagen, Munksgaard, 1964 : 36-43. [P] Denmark, Great Britain, USA (1963). Samples : Persons over 65 years living in their homes. In each country (N = ca. 2,500). Instr. : Questionnaire, home interviews. In the context of a general discussion, some findings are presented. [See : 363, 364.] TOWNSEND, P . ; REES, B . The personal, family and social circumstances of old people: report of a survey to pilot a future cross-national survey. London, London School of Economics, 1959. [M] Y O U N G , M . ; GEERTZ, H . "Old age in London and San Francisco : some families compared", British Journal of Sociology 12(2), June 61 : 124-141. [P] Great Britain (1957-1959), USA (1958-1959).

[M]

[G]

372.

373.

374.

180

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : A. Small samples. Random. Women over 60 years, men over 65 years in two suburban communities. Great Britain : Woodford near London (N = 210); USA : Menlo Park near San Francisco (N = 98). B. Large samples : national representative samples Great Britain (N = 900); USA (N = 3,964). Instr. : A. Interview. B. One poll question concerning knowledge of ancestors.

2 PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND CULTURAL ORIENTATIONS 2.0 General studies 375. ALLEN, M.G. "The development of universal criteria for the measurement of the health of a society", Journal of Social Psychology 57(2), 1962 : 363-382. "... through the use of the concept of ego strength ... a rating scale for measuring societies is also presented." 376. ALLEN, M.G. "The study and evaluation of societies in cross-cultural research", International Mental Health Research Newsletter (1-2), 1963:1-4 [G] 377. CATTELL, R.B. "The dimensions of culture patterns by factorization of national characters", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 44, Oct. 49

:

443-469.

[M] 378. CATTELL, R.B. "The principal culture patterns discoverable in the syntal dimensions of existing nations", Journal of Social Psychology 32, 1950 : 215-253.

[M] "Cattell's Index of Pattern Similarity measures degree of similarity between the cultural syntality profiles of two or more societies." 379.

CATTELL, R.B.; BREUL, H . ; HARTMAN, H.P. " A n attempt at more refined

definition of the culture dimensions of syntality in modern nations", American Sociological Review 17(4), 1952 : 408-421.

[G] 380. DUIJKER, H.C J . ; FRIJDA, N.H. National character and national stereotypes. A trend report. Amsterdam, North-Holland Publ. Co., 60, 238 p. ("Confluence", vol. I. A series ed. by the International Committee for Social Sciences Documentation). [M] 181

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Detailed review on studies of national character and national stereotypes. Discusses problems of comparison. 381. FÄRBER, M.L. "The problem of national character : a methodological analysis", Journal of Psychology 30(2), Oct. 50 : 307-316. 381a. FARBER, M.L. "The study of national character, 1955", Journal of Social Issues [M]

11(2), 1955 : 52-56.

Main argument is for adhesion to the "visibility principle"; as concerns data : "An explicit statement of how the observations were made." 382.

GUTTMAN, R. ; GUTTMAN, L. "Cross-cultural stability of an intercorrelation

pattern of abilities : a possible test for biological basis", Human Biology 35(1), 1963 : 53-60.

[M] Israel. Sample : Eighth grade children passing national stipend examinations (N = 13,000). Analysis by ethnic origin. 383. INKELES, A.; LEVINSON, D.J. "National character : the study of modal personality and sociocultural systems", in : G. LINDZEY (ed.) Handbook of social psychology. Vol. II. Cambridge, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1954 : 977-1020. [G]

A general discussion of research strategies in the study of personality characteristics in relation to cultural norms. 384. KLUCKHOHN, F. "Dominant and substitute profiles of cultural orientations", Social Forces 28, 1950 : 376-393. [G]

385.

STOETZEL, J. "Contributions des sondages à l'étude du caractère national", Acta psychologica 15, 1959 : 533-534. 386. WIESBROCK, H. "Über Ethnocharakterologie. Wesen, Forschungsprogramm, Methodik" [On ethnocharacterology. Nature, research program, methodology], Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozial-Psychologie 9(4), 1957 : 547-586. [G]

A comprehensive analysis of the discipline. Numerous bibliographical references to European and American studies, both recent and from before 1939. 2.1 Assessments of personality 2.1.1 Studies of general personality characteristics 387. ALPERT, E. "A multiple score personality test administered to German and 182

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

388.

389.

390.

391.

392.

393.

Austrian students : Cross-cultural vs. intra-cultural differences", Journal of Social Psychology 50, 1959 : 37-46. [P : R] Austria, Germany : USA. Samples : Students. Germany, Austria (small N's). USA : Vassar College Students. Instr. : Stand, personality test. ANDERSON, W.A. "Personality traits of Western Australian University freshmen", Journal of Social Psychology 51, Feb. 60 : 87-91. [P : R] Australia (1958) : USA. Samples : Australia : 290 males, 138 females (N = 428); USA : comparable groups. Instr. : Form A of the Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire. BLUMENFELD, W. "Erfahrungen mit Intelligenz und characterologischen Tests in Peru und ihre Beziehungen zum Problem des vergleichenden Ethnopsychologie" [Experiences with tests of intelligence and character in Peru, and their relations to the problem of psycho-ethnological comparison], in : F. BAUMGARTEN : La psychotechnique dans le monde moderne. Paris, 1952 : 517-527. [P : R] Peru : Germany. BRACHMAN, H . M . ; COSTELLO, C.G. "Cultural a n d sex differences in extra-

version and neuroticism reflected in responses to a children's personality inventory", British Journal of Educational Psychology 32(3), 1962 : 254-257. [P] Canada, Great Britain. Samples : High school students, 14-16 years old. Canada : 261 males, 248 females (N = 509); England : 304 males, 230 females (N = 534). Instr. : Stand. Junior Maudsley Personality Inventory. CATTELL, R . B . ; MESCHIERI, L . "A cross-cultural study of the constancy and difference of 16 P.F. factors in America and Italy", Bollettino di Psicologia (In press). [P : R] Italy : USA. Instr. : Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire. CATTELL, R . B . ; PICHOT, P . ; RENNES, P . "Constance interculturelle des facteurs de personnalité mesurée par le Test 16 P.F. : II. Comparaison franco-américaine" Revue de Psychologie appliquée ( 1 1 ) , 1 9 6 1 : 1 6 5 - 1 9 5 . [P : R] France : USA. Instr. : Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire. CATTELL, R . B . ; TSUJIOKA, B . "Constancy and difference in personality structure and mean profile, in the questionnaire medium, from applying the 16 P.F. test in America and Japan", Australian Journal of Psychology. [P : R] Japan : USA. Instr. : Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire. 183

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

394.

395.

396.

COMREY, A.L. "Comparison of certain personality variables in American and Italian groups", Educational and Psychological Measurement 20, 1960: 541-550. [P : R] Italy : USA. Instr. : Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). COMREY, A . L . ; MESCHIERI, L . ; RAFAELLO, M . ; NENCINI, R . " A comparison of personality factor structure in American and Italian subjects" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1(3), May 6 5 : 2 5 7 - 2 6 1 . [P] Italy, USA. Samples : Italian volunteers about half males, half females, in late teens and early twenties (N = 507). Americans of the same age including a slightly higher proportion of females and married persons. Instr. : Original English and Italian version of factored personality test. GRIEGER, P . "Essai d'une analyse caracterologique des peuples : cas de l'ethnotype libanais", Revue de Psychologie des Peuples 1 0 ( 3 ) , 1 9 5 5 : 269-287.

[P : S] Lebanon : Netherlands. Samples : Lebanon (N = 1,250). Instr. : Questionnaire. Subjects classified in Heymans temperamental categories. Frequency of types compared with data from Netherlands : G. Heymans, E. Wiersma : "Beiträge zur speziellen Psychologie auf Grund einer Massenuntersuchung", Zeitschrift für Psychologie 1906-1909. 397.

398.

GRIFFITH, R . M . ; MIYAGI, O . ; TAGO, A. "Universality of typical d r e a m s :

Japanese vs. Americans", American Anthropologist 60, 1958 : 1173-1179. [P] Japan, USA. Samples : Children. Samples : Students, USA (N = 250), Japan (N = 223). Instr. : Questionnaire. HAVIGHURST, R . J . et al. Studies of children and society in New Zealand. Christchurch, Canterbury University College, Department of Education, 1954.

399.

184

[P : R] New Zealand : USA. Instr. : Emotional Response Test, Moral Ideology Test. US study of reference : R.J. HAVIGHURST, B . L . NEUGARTEN : American Indian and white children: a socio-psychological investigation. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1955, xiii + 335 p. HENDIN, H . Suicide and Scandinavia. A psychoanalytic study of culture and character. New York, Grune and Straton, 1964, xii + 153 p. [P] Denmark, Norway, Sweden. Samples : Suicidal patients, nurses.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Instr.: TAT and tests, psychiatric interviews, informant interviews, content analysis of folk tales, magazine stories, customs. An attempt to account for the differences in suicide rates between Denmark and Sweden on the one hand (high rates) and Norway on the other (low rates), through psychiatric interviews and through various analyses of "national character". 4 0 0 . INKELES, A . ; BAUER, R . W . with the assistance of D . GLEICHER and I . RosTOW. The Soviet citizen. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1959, 533 p. [P : S] URSS : USA and other countries (1950-1951). Sample : Soviet refugees in Europe and in USA. Instr. : Questionnaires (N = 2,718) intensive interviews (N = 329). The study is a part of the Harvard Project on Soviet Social System. 401. INKELES, A.; HANFMANN, E.; BEIER, H . "Modal personality and adjustment to Soviet socio-political system", Human Relations (11), 1958 : 3-22; and in : B . KAPLAN (ed.) Studying personality cross-culturally. Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson Co., 1961, ix + 687 p. [P] USSR (USA). Samples : Soviet refugees after World War II (N = 3,000); USA : control group. Instr. : Questionnaires and "life histories" (N = 51). 4 0 2 . LONDON, I . D . "The young East German and Soviet defector. A report in similarities", Journal of Psychology 43, 1 9 5 7 : 103-109. [S] Germany (DR), USSR. Samples : Defectors. Instr. : Questionnaires (uncertain for Germany). A general discussion of similarities in attitude and behaviour after defection due to "sovietization" and to defector status, based on conclusions of studies of East German defectors ( Y . C . VAN BROEKHUIZEN "Die geistige Situation des jungen Sovietzonenfliichtlings" in : Die Jugend der Sovietzone in Deutschland. Berlin, Kampf Gruppe gegen Unmenschlichkeit, 1955, and several studies by same author of Soviet defectors in : Psychological Reper. (1), 1956 : 285-292; 325-330 and 341-356). 402a. MILGRAM, S. "Nationality and conformity", Scientific American 205, Dec. 1961 : 45-51. [P] France, Norway. Samples : University students. Experiment and test of variations in resistance to majority conformity pressure (French students significantly more resistant than Norwegian). 403. MOURICOU, F. "L'insaisissable Monsieur Meyermueller", Allemagne aujourd'hui mars-avr. 57 : 64-75; mai-juin 57 : 61-73. 185

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

[S] Germany : France. Samples and Instr. : Public opinion polls. 404. PAI, T. ; SUNG, S. M. ; Hsu, F.H. "The application of Thurstone's personality schedule to Chinese subjects", Journal of Social Psychology (8), 1937 : 47-71.

[P : R] China : USA. Instr. : Stand. Thurstone's personality schedule. 405. ROSEN, E.; RIZZO, G.B. "Preliminary standardization of the MMPI for use in Italy : a case study in inter-cultural and intra-cultural differences", Educational and Psychological Measurement 21, 1961 : 629-636. [P : R] Italy : USA. Instr. : Stand. MMPI. 406. ROTVAND, G. L'imprévisible Monsieur Durand. Paris, P. Horay, 1956, 225 p. [M] Collection of public opinion poll results used to characterize modal French personality. 407. SHEN, E. "Differences between Chinese and American reactions to the Bernreuter personality inventory", Journal of Social Psychology (7), 1936 : 471-474.

[P : R] China : USA. Samples : China : High-school students from Hangchow (N = 400) USA: Bernreuter's normative population. Instr. : Stand. Bernreuter personality inventory. Chinese version used, but original scoring key. 408. SPREEN, O. "The translation of personality scales and their adaptation for cross-cultural and clinical use", Acta psychologica 18(5), 1961 : 337-341. [M] 409. SPREEN, O.; SPREEN, G. "The MMPI in a German speaking population : standardization report and methodological problems of cross-cultural interpretations", Acta psychologica 21(3), 1963 : 263-273. [M] 410. TAFT, R. "A cross-cultural comparison of the MMPI", Journal of Consulting Psychology 21, 1957 : 161-164. [P : R] Australia : USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : Stand. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). 2.1.2 Studies of specific personality traits 411. BEIER, H.; HANFMANN, E. "Emotional attitudes of former Soviet citizens as studied by a technique of projective questions", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 53(2), Sept. 56 : 143-153.

186

[P] USA, USSR.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

412.

413.

414.

415.

Samples : USSR : Displaced persons (paid volunteres) (N = 48). Random subsample of the sample of the Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System. USA : Paid volunteers matched to Soviet group in terms of age, sex, educational level, occupational grouping (N = 48). Instr. : Eight projective questions of the California F-scale and one additional question, proceded by "interviews". "The responses were coded according to their content. The findings are discussed in terms of the emotional and evaluative attitudes prevalent in each group, and their implication for the theory of authoritarian personality are pointed out." The content analysis only is discussed in this publication. BLOCK, J. "Studies in the phenomenology of emotions", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 57, 1957 : 358-363. [P] Norway : USA. Instr. : Semantic Differential. CASSEL, R.N.; SANDERS, R.A. "A comparative analysis of scores from two leadership tests for Apache Indians and Anglo-American youth", Journal of Educational Research 55, 1961 : 19-23. [M] USA. Samples : Youth. Two subcultural groups. Instr. : Leadership tests. CATTELL, R.B.; SCHEIER, J.H. The meaning and measurement of neuroticism and anxiety. New York, Ronald Press, 1961: pp. 273-281. [S] A : France, Great Britain, India, Italy, Poland, USA. B : China, India, Japan, Norway, USA. Samples : A. Mostly students, comparable samples : France (N = 422); Great Britain (N = 91); India (N = 350); Italy (N = 308); Poland (N = 113); USA (N = 108). B. College students : China (N = 523); India(N = 724); Japan (N = 192); Norway (N = 149); USA (N = 252). Instr. : A. Stand. : 44 items of Sixteen Personality Factors. Test. B. Morris "Ways to Live", no. 6. Examination of relationships between factor-dimensions of national characteristics. [See also 551.] CATTELL, R.B.; WARBURTON, F. W. "A cross-cultural comparison of patterns of extraversión and anxiety", British Journal of Psychology 52(1), 1961 : 3-15.

[P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : Two groups of undergraduate students of corresponding socioeconomic status. Great Britain : University students and students of College of Advanced Technology (N = 202); USA : (N = 604). Instr. : Stand. Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire measuring firstorder and second-order personality dimensions. 187

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The study was conducted as an experiment to investigate cultural constancy. 416. CHOU, S.K.; CHING-YUAN, M. "Relative neurotic tendency of Chinese and American students", Journal of Social Psychology (8), 1937 : 155-184. [P : R China : USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : Stand. Thurstone Neurotic Tendency Inventory. 417. DENNIS, W. "Animistic thinking among college and high school students in the Near East", Journal of Educational Psychology 48(4), Apr. 57 : 193-198. [P : R] Arab Near East : USA. Sample : Students. Instr. : Stand. Piaget Test of animistic thinking (immanent justice). 418. GARCÍA GARCÍA, M. "Un dato sobre la M-F in Cuba" [A datum on the M-F in Cuba], Revista cubana de Psicología 1(1), 1955 : 11-18. [P : R] Cuba : USA. Samples : Cuba : Students (N = 212). Instr. : Stand. Terman-Miles masculinity-feminity scale. 419. HONKAVAARA, S. "Comparison of the relation of color- and form-reactors at Harvard and London University", Journal of Psychology 46, 1958 : 23-24.

[P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : Students Instr. : Stand. Modified Descoendres color and form test. 420. LUH, C.W.; SAILER, R.C. "The self-estimation of Chinese students", Journal of Social Psychology (4), 1933 : 245-249. [P : R] China : USA. Samples : Students, and school children. Analysis and comparisons in terms of criticism of self, criticism of others. US studies of reference : F.B. KNIGHT; R.H. FRANTZEN, "Pitfalls in rating schemes", Journal of Educational Psychology 13, 1932 : 201-213; L. SWEET, The measurement of personal attitudes in younger boys. New York, Associated Press, 1929. 421. NAIDO, J.C.; FIEDLER, P.E. "Perception of self and significant others by Indian and American students", Indian Journal of Psychology 37(3), 1962: 115-126. [P] India, USA. Samples : Indian students in USA (N = 100), American students (N=100). Instr. : Stand. Semantic Differential. 422. OSGOOD, C.E. "The cross-cultural generality of visual-verbal synesthetic tendencies", Behavioral Science (5), 1960 : 146-169. [M] USA. 188

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : Linguistic subgroups : Anglos, Navajos, Mexican-Spanish, Japanese. Instr. : Semantic Differentials. Scales deferred by visual figures differing in only one respect. 423.

OYAMA, T.; TANAHA, Y.; HAGA, J. "Color affection and color symbolism

in Japanese and American students", Japanese Journal of Psychology 34(3), 1963 : 109-121.

[P] Japan, USA. Sample : Students. Instr. : Stand. Semantic Differential. 424. PLOG, S.C. "The disclosure of self in the United States and Germany", Journal of Social Psychology 65(2), 1965 : 193-203.

[P] Austria and Germany. USA. Samples : University students, institutions selected by geographical location and size. German cultural area : Universities of Hamburg, Innsbruck, Munich (N = 180, women : 90, men = 90). USA : University of California, Brigham Young University, Occidental College, St. Olaf's College, (N = 180, men : 90, women = 90). Instr. : Study-specific test of self-disclosure. Self-rating on four-point scale concerning willingness to discuss questions from 9 topic areas with six target persons. Analysis in terms of national and sex differences. Topic-related and target-related profiles are presented for sex and nationality groups. 425. RICKERS-OVSIANKINA, M.A. "Cross-cultural study of social accessibility", Acta psychologica 19(1), 1961 : 872-873. [P : R] Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Peru, USA. Samples : University students. Instr. : Questionnaire. Social accessibility defined as an enduring personality dimension. "Behaviorally, the dimension refers to a person's capacity for interpersonal commerce. Conceptually, it is rooted in Lewinian topological psychology." 426.

SARNOFF, I . ; LIGHTHALL, F . ; WAITE, R . ; DAVIDSON, K . ; SARANSON, S.

"A cross-cultural study of anxiety among American and English school children", Journal of Educational Psychology 49, 1958 : 129-136. [P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : School children. USA : Milford, Conn. (N = 597); Great Britain : London (N = 533). In choice of schools from which respondents were drawn, matching was attempted with regard to sex and social class. Instr. : Stand. Test Anxiety Scale, General Anxiety Scale and a drawing task. Oral class administration of questionnaire. Purpose of study : further validation of Test Anxiety Scale 189

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

427.

428.

SECORD, P.F.; BEVAN, W. "Personalities in faces : III. A cross-cultural comparison of impressions of physiognomy and personality in faces", Journal of Social Psychology 43, 1956 : 283-288. [P] Norway, USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : 21 photographs to be rated on a 7-point scale. SINGH-PARAS, N.; RETTIG, S. "Cross-cultural differences in habitual

response preferences as an index of anxiety", Journal of Social Psychology 58(1), 1962 : 9-15.

[P] India, USA. Samples : Indian students in India and USA (N = 150), American students (N = 50). Instr. : Questionnaire (in English and in Hindi). 429. STRAUS, M.A. "Mental ability and cultural needs : a psychocultural interpretation of the intelligence performance of Ceylon University entrants", Indian Journal of Psychology 25, 1950 : 21-32. [P : R] Ceylon : USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : Stand. California Test of Mental Maturity. 430. STUART, I.R.; ELIASBERG, W.G. "Personality structures which reject the human form in art; an exploratory study of cross-cultural perceptions of the nude-Cuba vs. United States", Journal of Social Psychology 57,1962: 383-389. [P : R] Cuba : USA. Samples : Students. Cuba (N = 148). Instr. : Stand. California F-scale and 13 reproductions of pictures selected from the collections of the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Louvre and other institutions of comparable reputation. 431. TROW, W.C.; Pu, A.S.T. "Self-rating of the Chinese", School and Society 26, 1927 : 213-216. [P : R] China : USA. Samples : Students. 432.

TSUJIOKA, B.; CATTELL, R.B. " A cross-cultural comparison of second-

stratum questionnaire personality factor structures — anxiety and extraversion — in America and Japan", Journal of Social Psychology 65(2), 1965 : 205-219.

[P] Japan, USA. Samples : Male students. Japan : University of Kansai (N = 300); USA : University of Illinois (N = 117). Instr. : Stand. Sixteen Personality Factors Test. Japan : translated edition. 433.

190

VAN ORDER SMITH, N . ; VINACKE, W.E. "Reactions to humorous stimuli

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

of different generations of Japanese, Chinese and Caucasians in Hawaii", Journal of Social Psychology 34, 1951 : 69-96. [P] Hawaii. Samples : Non-random samples of three-ethnic sub-groups of University students and their parents. Caucasian : younger group (N = 63); older group (N = 65); Japanese : younger group (N = 190); older group (N = 43); Chinese : younger group (N = 46); older group (N = 17), Instr. : Completion of unfinished jokes, rating of jokes. 2.1.3 Studies based primarily on projective and semi-projective tests 434.

ADCOCK, C . J . ; MCCREARY, J . R . ; RITCHIE, J . E . ; SOMERSET, H . C . A . " P e r -

sonality and physique : a Rorschach study with Maori and European subjects", Australian Journal of Psychology (9), 1957 : 158-189. [P] New Zealand. Samples : Cultural subgroups. Instr. : Stand. Rorschach. 435.

436.

ADCOCK, C.J.; RITCHIE, J.E. "Intercultural use of Rorschach", Anthropologist 60, 1958 : 881-892.

American

[M] BLUM, G.S. "Defense preferences in four countries", Journal of Projective Techniques 20, 1956 : 33-41.

[P] Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, USA. Samples : Male students : England (N = 71); Italy (N = 54); Netherlands (N = 28); USA (N = 77). Instr. : Stand. Blacky pictures — Defense preference inquiry (Form M.53). 437. CAUDILL, W. "Japanese-American personality and acculturation", Genetic Psychological Monographs 45, Feb. 52 : 548-597. [M] USA. Samples : Japanese-Americans, Nissei (N = 40); Issei (N — 40), and two samples of American whites, lower middle class and upper middle class. Instr. : Stand. Thematic Apperception Test 438. DEVOS, G. "A comparison of the personality differences in two generations of Japanese Americans by means of the Rorschach-test", Nagoya Journal of Medical Science 17, 1954 : 153-265. [M] USA. Samples : Three Japanese groups (Nissei, Issei, Kitei). Matched US reference groups : normal and pathological groups — the Spiegel sample. Instr. : Stand. Rorschach test. 439. DEVOS, G. "A quantitative Rorschach assessment of maladjustment among Japanese Americans", Genetic Psychology Monographs 52, Aug. 55 : 53-87. [M] USA. Samples : Matched samples of Japanese-Americans and white Americans. 191

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

440.

441.

442.

443.

444.

445.

Instr. : Stand. Rorschach test and Fischer's maladjustment and rigidity scale. "Tentative delineation of properly Japanese and of acculturationdetermined traits. Extensive comparison with various American groups." DEVOS, G.A. "Symbolic analysis in the cross-cultural study of personality", in : B. KAPLAN (ed.) Studying personality cross-culturally. Evanston, Row, Peterson Co., 1961 : 599-633. [M] HANFMANN, E. "Social perception in Russian displaced persons and an American comparison group", Psychiatry 20(2), May 57 : 131-149. [P] USSR, USA. Samples : USSR : Displaced persons, paid informants. USA : Matched group. Instr. : Tests. A part of the Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System. HANFMANN, E.; GETZELS, J.W. Interpersonal attitudes of former Soviet citizens as studied by a semi-projective method. Washington, American Psychological Association, 1955, 37 p. [P] USA, USSR. Samples : USSR : Displaced persons (N = 51). Instr. : "Episodes Test" — incomplete stories about realistic work situations. HELLERSBERG, E.F. "Visual perception and special organization : a study of performance, on the Horn-Hellersberg test by Chinese subjects", in : M. MEAD and R. METRAUX (eds.) Study of culture at a distance. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1953 : 320-328. [M] Samples : Chinese. Instr. : Horn-Hellersberg test — a special technique of projective drawing. Study of reference : E.F. HELLERSBERG, "The Horn-Hellersberg-test and adjustment to reality", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 15, 1945 : 690-710. HENRY, J. et al. "Symposium : projective testing in ethnography", American Anthropologist 57, 1955 : 245-270. [M] HENRY, W.E. "Projective tests in cross-cultural research", in : B. KAPLAN (ed.) Studying personality cross-culturally. Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson C o . , 1961 : 587-596.

[M] 446. HENRY, W.E. "The Thematic Apperception Technique in the study of culture-personality relations", Genetic Psychology Monographs no. 1 : 35 p. 192

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD HONIGMANN, J J . ; CARRERA, R . N . "Cross-cultural use of Machover's Figure Drawing Test", American Anthropologist 59, 1 9 5 7 : 6 5 0 - 6 5 4 . [M] USA. Samples : Eskimo and Cree Indian children. Instr. : Machover's Figure Drawing Test. "If the present small number of cases and modes of analysis allow any general conclusions it would appear that the Machover's technique offers little promise for anthropological field study." 4 4 8 . KALDEGG, A . "Responses of German and English secondary school boys to a projection test", British Journal of Psychology 39, 1948 : 30-53. [P] Great Britain, Germany. Samples : Secondary school boys. England (N = 129), Germany (N = 79). Instr. : Stand. Raven Controlled Projection Test. 449. KAPLAN, B. A study of Rorschach responses in four cultures. Cambridge, Mass., Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology. Vol. 42, no. 2, Harvard University, 1954, 44 p. [M] USA. Samples : In New Mexico (USA) subjects from four cultural groups : Mormon, Navaho, Spanish-American, Zuni (Total N = 156) Instr. : Stand. Rorschach Test. Preliminary analysis : 48 comparisons between pairs of cultures. 450. KAPLAN, B. (ed.) Studying personality cross-culturally. Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson Co., 1961, ix + 687 p. [M] A collection of articles on methodological problems and substantive findings in research on personality characteristics in different cultures. Not directly concerned with sample surveys, but discussions of comparisons of results for Rorschach and other projective tests are highly relevant. 451. KAPLAN, B.; RICKERS-OVSIANKINA, M.; JOSEPH, A. "An attempt to sort Rorschach records from four cultures", Journal of Projective Techniques 20(2), 1956 : 172-180 [M] USA Samples : In New Mexico (USA) subjects from four cultural groups : Mormons, Navaho, Spanish-American, Zuni (Total N = 156) Instr. : Stand. Rorschach Test. Test of modal personality hypothesis. Three attempts at blind sorting of Rorschach protocols : two performed by clinicians (Total N = 24, N = 6), chosen among veterans, and best-known subjects, the third a statistical sorting test based on the "discriminant function" technique (N = 110). 4 5 2 . KERR, M . Personality and conflict in Jamaica. Liverpool, University of 447.

193

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

453.

454.

455.

456.

457.

457a.

194

Liverpool Press, 1952. 221 p. [P : S] Jamaica : England and other countries. Sample : Children. Instr. : Mosaic test, free drawings, Rorschach. LEVY, D.M. "Sibling rivalry studies in children of primitive groups", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry (9), 1939 : 205-215. [M] Guatemala : USA. Samples : Children. Guatemala : Indians. USA : comparison group of white children. Instr. : Doll play. LINDZEY, G. Projective techniques and cross-cultural research. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961, ix + 339p. [M] Summarizes critically much research in this area. Longest chapter reviews published studies of projective tests mainly in non-European societies. 1. The introduction of projective techniques in anthropological research. 2. What is a projective technique? 3. What are the varieties of projective techniques ? 4. What are the theoretical foundations of projective techniques? 5. The interpretative process. Some hazards and general sciences. 6. The case against projective techniques in cross-cultural investigation. 7. The cross cultural applications of projective techniques. 8. The contribution of projective techniques to anthropological research. MCGRANAHAN, D.V.; WAYNE, I. "German and American traits reflected in popular drama", Human Relations (1), 1948. Reprinted in: J.G. MILLER (ed.) Experiments in social process. New York, McGraw-Hill 1950. [PI Germany, USA Samples : High school students. Instr. : Sentence completion test. ORTAR, G.R. "The transfer of psychological diagnostic measures from one culture to another", Acta psychologica 21(3), 1963 : 218-230. [M] PAREEK, U. "Studying cultural differences in personality development" with the help of Rozenzweig P-F study", Journal of All-India 1(2), 1958 : 115-123. [P:R] India, Japan, USA. Instr. : Stand. Rozenzweig P-F. PORTEUS, S.D.; BABCOCK, M.E. Temperament and race. Boston, Badger, 1926, 364p. [P] China, Japan, Portugal. Samples : Matched for I.Q. Instr. : Porteus Maze.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY HELD

458.

RABIN, A.I.; LIMUACO, J. "Sexual differentiation of American and Filipino children as reflected in the Draw-a-Person Test", Journal of Social Psychology 50, 1959: 207-211.

459.

460.

461.

462.

463.

[P] Philippines, USA. Samples : Children. Instr. : Stand. Projective Draw-a-Person Test. RICHARDS, T.W. "The Chinese in Hawaii: a Rorschach report", in : F.L.K. Hsu (ed.) Aspects of culture and personality. New York, Abelard Schuman, 1954, xiv + 305p. [P : R] Hawaii : USA Samples : Hawaii Chinese from highest socio-economic stratum only (N = 35). US reference groups : The Spiegel sample, the Klopfer norms, the Niff and Lids norms. Instr. : Stand. Rorschach test. SHERWOOD, E.T. "On the designing of TAT pictures, with special reference to a set for an African people assimilating Western culture", Journal of Social Psychology 47(2), May 57 : [M] Samples : Swazi : two acculturation groups, both Bantu-speaking. Instr. : Stand. Thematic Apperception Test. STEWART, U.; LELAND, L. "American versus English Mosaics", Journal of Projective Techniques 16, June 52 : 144-145. [P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : Children and adults. Instr. : The Lowenfeld Mosaic Test. A "culture-free" test, using non-verbal material. Significant differences found, but no interpretations given. TAYLOR, W.S. "A note in the cultural determination of reality-fantasy preference", Journal of Personality 15, Mar. 47 : 208-214. [P : R] India : Great Britain, USA Instr. : Stand. Story Completion Test. Religious differences (Hindu vs. Christians) larger than ethnic. TULCHIN, S.H.; LEVY, D.M. "Rorschach test differences in a group of Spanish and English refugee children", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 15, 1945 : 361-368. [P] Great Britain, Spain. Samples : Refugee children (N = 23; N = 46). Instr. : Stand. Rorschach test. Comparisons with findings of A. MAZA with normal Spanish children (Archivos de Neurobiologia (12), Sept.Oct. 32: 693-738) and M. VERR on

a sample of 100 British children. (British Journal of Psychology 25, 1934 : 170-185.)

195

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

464.

VAN DER MEULEN, E.E.C. "Vulgardeutingen bij de Z-test in Indonesie"

[Popular responses in the Z-test in Indonesia], Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Psychologie en haar Grensgebiedett 14, 1959 : 218-231. [P : R] Indonesia : Switzerland Samples : Male Indonesians (N = 431). Instr. : Stand, projective test : Z-test "Outstanding characteristics of the popular responses in both groups were found to be essentially the same." 465. YANG, K.S.; Tzuo, H.Y.; Wu, C.Y. "Rorschach responses of normal Chinese adults", Journal of Social Psychology 60(2), 1963 : 175-186. [P : R] Taiwan : "other cultural groups". Sample : Normal adults from North Taiwan, mostly rural (N = 347). Sample matched against total regional population with regard to sex, age, educational level and occupations. Instr. : Stand. Rorschach. The cross-cultural comparisons of popular responses tend to identify universal versus unique response types. 2.2 Social attitudes 2.2.1 General syndromes 466. EYSENCK, H.J. "Primary social attitudes : a comparison of attitude patterns in England, Germany and Sweden", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 48(4), Oct. 53 : 563-568. [P : R] Great Britain : Germany, Sweden, USA. Instr. : Eysenck's inventory of social attitudes. [See also : 469, 471, 684.] 467. FOA, A.G. "Cross-cultural similarity and difference in interpersonal behavior", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 68(5), May 64 : 517-522. [P] Israel. Samples : Married couples living in Jerusalem (N = 633). Two cultural groups, based on region of origin : Europe or Middle East. Instr. : Brief stories, exemplifying 8 types of behavior. Rating of response on a 5-point scale. Husband and wife were interviewed separately. Type of analysis : Interpersonal behavior defined in terms of three "facets" : 1. Content : acceptance or reject; 2. Object : self or other; 3. Mode : emotional (love) or social (status). 468. GOODMAN, M.E. "Japanese and American children : a comparative study of social concepts and attitudes", Marriage Family Living 20, Nov 58 : 316-319.

[P] Japan, USA. 196

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : 5-13 years old-urban, middle class school children. Japan : Central Honchu (N = 1250); USA : North-East (N = 3750). Instr. : Guided interviews and "topic essays". Quantitative description. 469. KEEHN, J.D. "An examination of the two-factor-theory of social attitudes in a Near-East-culture", Journal of Social Psychology 42, Aug. 55 : 13-20. [P : R] Arab Near East : Western European Culture : Great Britain, Germany Samples : Arab Near East : Students at American University, Beirut (N = 100) Instr. : Slightly modified version of Eysenck's "social attitudes inventory". "It may be concluded from the present study then, (a) that the ToughTender minded factor entering into public opinion inventory items postulated by Eysenck in various Western societies also appears in a similar analysis of a Near Eastern society, and that (b) the Radical and Conservative ideologies are not truly culture free but that the factor identified by Eysenck as R-C probably reflects the major political issues of the cultures which he studied. In this sense, our findings are not at variance with those of Eysenck but point to his conclusions as illustrating a special case of more general phenomena." [See also : 466, 471, 684.] 470. PETTIGREW, T.F. "Personality and socio-cultural factors in intergroup attitudes : a cross-national comparison", Journal of Conflict Resolution (2), 1958 : 29-42. [P : S] South Africa : USA. Sample : South Africa : Students. Non-random sample (N = 627). Instr. : Questionnaire, including California F and E-scales and an A-scale, measuring anti-African attitudes. 471. PROTHRO, E.T.; KEEHN, J.D. "The structure of social attitudes in Lebanon", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 53(2), Sept. 56 : 157-160. [P : R] Arab Near East Sample : Students at American University, Beirut (N = 100). Instr. : California F-scale and Keehn's adaptation of Eysenck's public opinion inventory. "It was found that there was a general factor running through almost all of the F-scale items and this factor was tentatively labeled 'cynicism'. The 'tough-minded-tender-minded' items were poor measures of this factor. A second factor was extracted, which seemed to be the same as that previously identified as a political dimension. Our data suggested that this factor might be better interpreted on a personality dimension, which we tentatively labeled as 'punitiveness' or 'authoritarian aggression.' [See 469.]

197

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 472.

473.

474.

198

PROTHRO, E.T.; MELIKIAN, L . H . "Generalized ethnic attitudes in the Arab Near East", Sociology and Social Research 3 7 , 1 9 5 3 : 3 7 5 - 3 7 9 . [P : R] Arab Near East : USA. Sample : Arab Near East : Students at American University, Beirut. Two groups : (a) regularly enrolled students (N = 130); (b) summer session students (N = 102). Instr. : Group (a) California F-scale and Dodd Social Distance Scale. Group (b) : 20 nationalities on the Dodd scale. This "follow-up study" [see 471], revealed "that there was no correlation between authoritarianism as shown by scores on the F-scale and ethnocentrism as shown by performance on scales of social distance. In interpreting this lack of relationship it must be noted that there is no evidence that either the PEC scale or the social-distance scale taps a meaningful dimension of social attitudes in the Near East." ROKEACH, M . ; BONIER, R . et al. The open and closed mind; investigations into the nature of belief systems and personality systems. New York, Basic Books, 1960, xv + 447p. [P] Great Britain (1954); USA (1952-1956) Samples : Children and students, workers. USA : Middle West and New York. Instr. : Group-administered questionnaires including authors' tests for "dogmatism" and "opinionation", the California F-scale and E-scale, items from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), etc. SIEGMAN, A . W . " A cross-cultural investigation of the relationship between introversion-extraversion, social attitudes, and anti-social behavior", British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 2(3), 1963 : 196-208. [P] Israel, USA. Samples : Students. Israel : Study 2, 1959-1960 subjects of European and middle-class background (N = 40). USA : Study 1, 1956-1957 : Male protestants, University of North Carolina (N = 43) Study 3, 1960-61 : Three groups of students from University of Maryland, of same sociocultural background: Protestant males (N = 31), Protestant females (N = 55) Jewish males (N = 13). Study 4 : 1961-62, University of Maryland : Males (N = 44), Females (N = 70). Instr. : Studies 1 , 2 : California F-scale and different scales measuring prejudice. Studies 2,3 : different religious belief, attitude and behavior scales. Study 4 : Anti-social behavior scale. All studies : Eysenck's Extraversión Scale. "This paper describes a number of studies which were undertaken in order to test Eysenck's theory that the introversion-extraversion factor is a signif-

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

icant source of variance in (1) authoritarian or 'tough-minded' attitudes (2) religiosity and (3) anti-social behaviour." 475. TAPP, J.L. A cross-cultural study of American and Swiss stereopathic and non stereopathic personalities. Ann Arbor, Mich., University Microfilms, 1963 (No.6756).

[P] Switzerland, USA. Samples : Swiss and American "religious liberals" aging between 15 and 30 (Total N = 427). Instr. : Stand. English and validated German versions of the Inventory of Beliefs, the Activities Index, and the Parental Attitude Research Instrument, and a battery of questions about objective personal data. "The study explored cross-culturally the incidence and configurations of stereopathy and non stereopathy. It investigated similarities and differences in the social beliefs, personality needs, family-life and child-rearing attitudes of subjects identified as stereopath (N = 27), or non stereopath (N = 39)..." 2.2.2 The authoritarian personality syndrome 476. ALBINSKI, M. De onderwijzer en de cultuur-overdracht [The teacher and the transfer of culture]. Assen, Van Gorcum, 1959, 91p. [P] Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden. Samples : Primary and secondary school teachers. Instr. : Stand, interview including part of California F-scale. An analysis of the responses to "F-scale" items and other personalityrelated questions in the OCSR survey. [See also 488, 884.] 477. BRENGELMANN, J.C.; BRENGELMANN, L. "Deutsche Validierung von Fragebogen dogmatischer und intoleranter Haltungen" [German validation of scale of dogmatic and intolerant attitudes]; Zeitschrift für experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie (7), 1960 : 451-471. [P : R] Germany : France, Great Britain. 478. COHN, T.S.; CARSCH, H. "Administration of the F-scale to a sample of Germans", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49(3), July 54 : 471. [P : R] Germany : USA. Sample : Germany : Workers in one factory (N = 149) Instr. : Stand. California F-scale. The mean F-score was the highest reported for any group in the literature. Study of reference : T.W. ADORNO, et al. The Authoritarian personality. New York, Harper, 1950. 479. COLADARCI, A.P. "The measurement of authoritarianism in Japanese education", California Journal of Educational Research (10), May 1959 : 137-141. [P : R] Japan : USA. Instr. : Stand. Adapted California F-scale. 199

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

480.

GAIER, E.L.; BASS, B.M. "Regional differences in interrelation among authoritarianism, acquiescence, and ethnocentrism", Journal of Social Psychology 49, 1959 : 47-51.

481.

482.

483.

484.

200

[M] USA. Samples : College students, regional samples. Instr. : Stand. E.E. and Social Acquiescence Scales. "Findings point to the need for caution in accepting results that have hitherto been taken as representative of the 'all-American psychological group'." INSTITUT FÜR SOZIALFORSCHUNG (Frankfurt). Studien über Authorität und Familie. Paris, Alcan, 1936, xxi + 947p. [G] Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland. Instr. : Questionnaire. A pioneering study of authoritarianism : the first formulations of the ideas developed in ADORNO et al. The Authoritarian personality. New York, Harper, 1950. KANWAR, U. "Social structure in authoritarian and non authoritarian personality", Education and Psychology (5), 1958 : 15-23. [P : R] India : USA. KASSOF, A. "The prejudiced personality : a cross-cultural test", Social Problems (6), 1958 : 59-67. [P : S] USSR : USA. Sample : Ukrainian displaced persons. Study of reference : T. ADORNO, et al. See 478. KENNEDY, J.L.; LASSWELL, H.D. "A cross-cultural test of self-image", Human Organization 17(1), 1958 : 41-43. [P] Peru, USA. Samples : Peru : Indians from a hacienda, Vicos (N = 12). USA : Two selected samples of school-children : Public schools (N = ca. 300); parochial school (N = ca. 90). Instr. : Peru : Individual weighing and measuring, individual interviews asking subjects to compare themselves with the target objects : authority figures of frequent contact, remote authority figures and prominent inanimate objects. USA : School records of height and weight. Group-administered paperand-pencil test designed for this investigation. The paper reports the results of two "very preliminary" studies, these being tentative, the emphasis is on methodological considerations. "The hypothesis that perceived 'power' differences influence the self-image with respect to judgment of self-height and weight, although not proven by the data presented, appears to be possible to demonstrate by means of a technique similar to the one used in this study."

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY HELD

485.

486.

487.

488.

489.

MELIKIAN, L. "Authoritarianism and its correlates in the Egyptian culture and in the United States", Journal of Social Issues 15(3), 1959 : 58-69. [P] Egypt, USA. Samples : Egypt : Five groups : Moslem men (N = 443); Moslem women (N = 301); Christian men (N = 143); Christian women (N = 79); al-Ahzar University students (N = 100) (Total N = 1066). USA : Four groups : Protestant males (n = 667). Protestant females (n = 673); Catholic males (n = 221), Catholic females (n = 99) (Total N = 1260). Instr. : Questionnaire with a "multiple-choice'"true and false'' (165 items) and openended questions and items of the California F-scale. Part of a comprehensive study by a cross-cultural research group. [Other reports concerning the project, see 150, 216, 300, 301, 486, 903, 904]. MELIKIAN, L.H. "Some correlates of authoritarianism in two cultural groups", Journal of Psychology 42, 1956 : 237-248. [P] Middle East, USA. Samples : Students. Moslem Arabs from American University, Beirut (N = 90). Second generation, white. Protestants from Colgate and Cornell Universities (N = 97). Instr. : A three-part 189 items questionnaire : Part I. Authoritarianismitems from the California F-scale. Part II. Items constituting an anxiety and hostility scale. Part III. Items making up a "parental acceptance" scale. PROTHRO, E.T.; MELIKIAN, L.H. "The California public opinion scale in an authoritarian culture", Public Opinion Quarterly 17(3), Fall 53 : 353-362. [P : R] Arab Near East : USA Samples : Students at American University, Beirut (N = 130), Christians (n = 70), Moslems (n = 60). Instr. : 22 items from California F-scale and 8-items from the PEC scale (political economic conservatism). Comparison of results between the two groups and with results obtained in American investigations demonstrated that residence in an authoritarian culture produces higher scores on the F-scale. ROKKAN, S. Ideological consistency and party preference : a note on findings from a seven-country survey of teachers' attitudes. Paper, WAPOR Conf. 1956, lip. mimeo. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden. Samples : Primary (N = 300) and secondary school (N = 100) teachers in each country. Instr. : Part of F-scale. [See also : 476, 884.] SIEGMAN, A.W. "A cross-cultural investigation of the relationship between 201

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

490.

religiosity, ethnic prejudice and authoritarianism", Psychological Reports 11(2), 1962 : 419-424. [P] Israel, USA. Samples : Students. USA : Southern Protestants (N = 43); Israel (N = 40). Instr. : Stand, personality and attitude scales. SIEGMAN, A . W . "The effect of cultural factors on the relationship between personality, intelligence and ethnocentric attitudes", Journal of Consulting Psychology 2 2 , 1 9 5 8 : 3 7 5 - 2 7 7 . [G] USA. Sample : Southern students (N = 41). Instr. : Stand, personality and attitude questionnaires and a vocabulary test. "Findings are consistent with the general hypothesis that the negative correlates of ethnocentric attitudes tend to decrease as the culture countenances these attitudes."

2.2.3 Attitudes toward specific authorities (teachers, etc). 491. AINSWORTH, L.H.; AINSWORTH, M.D. "Acculturation in East Africa. I. Political awareness and attitudes towards authority. II. Frustration and aggression. III. Attitudes towards parents, teachers and education. IV. Summary and discussion", Journal of Social Psychology 57(2), Aug. 62 : 391-432. [P] Kenya, Uganda. Samples : Secondary school pupils. Uganda : Four schools in Buganda province (n = 76, n = 50, n = 51, n = 34; N = 221). Kenya : Two schools (n = 63, n = 81; N = 144). 492. ANDERSON, H.H.; ANDERSON, G.L. "Image of the teacher by adolescent children in seven countries", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, July 61 : 481-492. [P] Finland, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Mexico, Norway, Sweden, USA. Instr. : Anderson's Incomplete Stories [See also : 195, 339, and below.] 493. ANDERSON, H.H.; ANDERSON, G.L. "Social value of teachers in Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City, and Los Angeles County, California : A comparative study of teachers and children", Journal of Social Psychology 58(2), 1962 : 207-226. [P] Brazil (1959-1961), Mexico (1953-1961), USA (1961). Samples : First series of studies : Non random samples of school rooms of 7th grade children. Mexico City (N = 900), Rio de Janeiro (N = 200), USA (N = 600). Second series : Non random samples of teachers. Rio 202

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

de Janeiro (N = 88), Mexico City (N = 45), Los Angeles County (N = 50). Instr. : Anderson's Incomplete Stories. Two sets of instructions: "Control group" : "To finish story as they think 7th grade children would finish them" (Brazil, Mexico). "Ideal group" : "to finish each story in a way that would be the best for all persons involved in the story (Brazil, Mexico, USA). Brazil : group administration. Mexico, USA : Distribution of "stories" and instruction by school authorities, individual completion, anonymous return. Analysis reported concern two stories and certain content categories. Comparisons between stories in each location. 494. ANDERSON , H . H . ; ANDERSON, G.L.; COHEN, I.H.; N U T T , F.D. "Image of the teacher by adolescent children in four countries : Germany, England, Mexico and the United States", Journal of Social Psychology 50(1), Aug. 59 : 47-55. [P] Germany, Great Britain, Mexico, USA. Samples : Non random. 7th grade school children from three German, one English, one Mexican and two American cities (Total N = 3,178). Instr. : One of "Anderson's Incomplete Stories". "It is concluded that the 'Anderson's Incomplete Stories' is an instrument sensitive to cross-national similarities and differences, and that children reared in allegedly more authoritarian and dominating cultures hold images of the teacher that are significantly different from those held by children in less dominating, that is more integrative or democratic, cultures." 495. CULVER, W . W . A study of social attitudes of German and American high school students as related to authoritarianism. Ann Arbor, Mich., University Microfilm, 1952, no. 3315. 496. GIBB, C . A . "Teacher behaviour : here and there", Australian Journal of Psychology 9, 1 9 5 7 : 1 3 5 - 1 4 0 . [P : R] Australia : USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : Questionnaire, including items making up four scales of different dimensions of "teacher behaviour". 497. LINDGREN, H.C.; LINDGREN, F . "Expressed attitudes of American and Canadian teachers toward authority", Psychological Reports 7; 1960 : 51-54. [P] Canada, USA. Sample : Teachers. Instr. : Incomplete sentence test. 498. SALLERY, R . D . H . ; LINDGREN, H . C . "Arab attitudes toward authority, a cross-cultural study", Journal of Social Psychology 69(lst half) June 1966 : 27-31. 203

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

[P : R] Arab Near East : Canada, USA. Samples : Teachers, students at American University, Beirut (N = 48). Instr. : Incomplete Sentence Test. "Item analysis of the data indicated that attitudes toward authority vary with the cultural background of the subjects." Study of reference : 497. 2.2.4 Ethnic and national stereotypes [See also : III.9.2] 499. BERREMAN, J.V. "Filipino stereotypes of racial and national minorities ", Pacific Sociological Review 1(1), Spr. 58 : 7-12. [P : R] Philippines : USA. Samples : Philippines (N = 680). Instr. : Stand. Modified Katz and Braly Trait Check List for six groups : Chinese, Japanese, Indians, US whites, US negroes, Spanish. Study of reference : D. KATZ; K.W. BRALY, "Racial prejudice and racial stereotypes", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 30, 1935 : 175-193. 500. BJERSTEDT, k. "'Ego-involved world-mindedness', nationality images and method of research : a methodological role", Journal of Conflict Resolution (4), 1960 : 185. [M] Sweden, Syria, other countries. Samples : Boys in international camps. Instr. : Specific projective techniques, picture-story devices and sentencecompletion tests. Experimentation with unstructured methods destined to supplement checklists of the Katz-Braly type. [See : 499, 515.] 501. BUCHANAN, W. "Stereotypes and tensions as revealed by the Unesco international poll", International Social Science Bulletin 3(3), Aut. 51 : 515-528. [P]

[See below] 502. BUCHANAN, W.; CANTRIL, H. et al. How nations see each other : a study in public opinion. Urbana, 111., Univ. of Illinois Press, 1953, ix + 220p. [P] Australia, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, USA, 1948-1949. Samples : Quota cross-sections of males over 18 years. In Mexico urban residents only. Each country (N = ca. 1,000). Instr. : Standardized interview. The study was planned by Unesco. Execution of national surveys by public opinion polling organizations. The plan of analysis was centrally elaborated, coding and tabulation was done locally for each country. The analysis, interpretation of findings and the writing of the report was the responsibility of a special team. The survey was considered as a pilot study. [For other aspects of study, see : 683.]

204

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

503.

CAMPBELL, D.T.; LEVINE, R.A. " A proposal for comparative cross-cultural research on ethnocentrism", Journal of Conflict Resolution (5), 1961 : 82-108. [M]

504.

505.

506

507.

Detailed and comprehensive methodological considerations precedes the presentation of three outline interview schedules, covering : I and II : survey of out-groups, imagery of out-groups, hostility and power ranking, ascription of typical traits, response of group names to specified traits. III. Childhood training, authority relations, adult beliefs. A commented list of materials to be obtained on situational factors and actual group differences is also given. Primarily anthropological field work. 87-item bibliography. DOOB, L.W. Patriotism and nationalism. Their psychological foundations. New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1964, xiii + 297p. [P] Austria (North Tirol), Italy (South Tirol) Samples : a) 497 children in eight primary school in South Tirol, 740 children in six primary schools in North Tirol, b) 124 boys and girls from commercial secondary school in South Tirol and 101 from similar school in N . Tirol, c) 26 young men in a Catholic seminary in S. Tirol, 22 in a Catholic Seminary ia N . Tirol. Instr. : a) Elicited school compositions; b) c) sentence completion tests. Explorations of cultural identifications and ethnic values in an area of great nationalist tensions. FISCHER, H.; TRIER, J.P. Das Verhältnis zwischen Deutschschweizer und Westschweizer : Eine sozial-psychologische Undersuchung [Differences between German and French-speaking Swiss : a social-psychological investigation]. Bern, Hans Huber, 1962 82 p. [P] Switzerland Sample : Students from 5 Swiss universities (N = 1,500). Instr. : Kent-Rosanoff List. Factor analysis : differences in auto-stereotypes within and between linguistic groups. GRAHAM, M.D. "The effectiveness of photographs as a projective device in an international attitudes survey. I. Responses of 690 Britons to 10 photographs of American types", Journal of Social Psychology 40, 1954 : 93-120. [M] HARTLEY, E.L.; SCHWARZ, S. " A pictorial doll-play approach for the study of children's intergroup attitudes", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research (2), 1951 : 261-270. [M]

508.

HUMPHREY, M.D. "Ethnic images and stereotypes of Mexicans and Ameri-

205

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

cans", American Journal of Economics and Sociology 14(3), 1955 : 305-314. [P]

509.

510.

Mexico, USA. KLINEBERG, O. Tensions affecting international understanding. New York, Social Science Research Council, Bulletin 62, 1950, 227p. [G] Reviews research on stereotypes up to 1949. LAMBERT, W.E.; KLINEBERG, O . "Pilot study of the origin and development of national stereotypes", International Social Science Journal 1 1 ( 2 ) , 1 9 5 9 : 221-238. [P]

511.

512.

513.

206

Belgium, Canada, Netherlands Samples : 6, 10 and 14 years-old school boys from large cities and middle socio-economic strata (n = 40-50 in each age group) Canada : Samples English-speaking and French-speaking communities. Instr. : "Very simple interview" — open-ended questions. Purpose of study "was to try out a series of data gathering and analytic techniques and to determine what type of changes, if any, occur in children's thinking about other people as they grow to their teens". LAMBERT, W . E . ; KLINEBERG, O . Children's views of foreign peoples : a cross-national study. New York, Appleton—Century—Crofts, 1966. [P] Brazil, Canada (English and French), Germany (F.R.), Israel, Japan, Lebanon, South Africa (Bantu), Turkey, USA. Samples : Stratified samples of children 6, 10 and 14 years old : (N = 300) in each setting. Equal numbers for each age, sex and social class group. Stratification criteria : Intelligence (normal), socio-economic level (lower and middle) urban-rural (large urban centers). Instr. : Questionnaire. LANGNER, T . " A test of intergroup prejudice which takes account of individual and group differences in value", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 48(4). Oct 53 : 548-554. [M] USA. Samples : "Anglo's", Spanish-Americans, American Indians. Instr. : Traits attribution list plus a "trait rating list". REIGROTSKI, E.; ANDERSON, N. "National stereotypes and foreign contacts", Public Opinion Quarterly 23(4), Wint. 59-60 : 515-528. [P] Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands. Samples : Belgium (N = 1097; Flemish n : 482, Walloons n = 597); France (N = 2006); Germany (N = 2041); Netherlands (N = 1000) 1956-1957. Instr. : Three-part questionnaire. 1. Choice of 12 descriptive terms to rate

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

four peoples (those included in the research plus Italians) and themselves. 2. Respondent's description of four peoples and own. 3. Rating of which of four peoples were a) easiest, b) most difficult to get along with. The study is a follow-up of the 1948 Unesco-study [see CANTRIL : 502; ROKKAN : 514; ANDERSON : 918, a n d BROUWER : 919]. T h e basic t a b u l a t i o n s

have been stencilled in H. SAUER. Quantitative data on common ideas about foreign peoples. Cologne, Unesco Institute, 1958, 365 p. mimeo. 514. ROKKAN, S. "Sample surveys of common ideas about foreign countries", International Social Science Bulletin 9(1), 1957 : 121-128. [G] Report on a Unesco planning conference which provided the basis for a four-country survey on relationships between the extent of foreign contacts and the character of national stereotypes. [For reports on findings see 513, 918, 919.] 515. TAFT, R. "Ethnic stereotypes, attitudes and familarity", Journal of Social Psychology

49, May 59 : 177-186.

[P : R] Australia : Arab Near East, Hawaii, USA. Samples : Students (N = 100) 1954 : (N = 81). High-school teachers (N = 21). Instr. : Katz and Braly trait check list. 516. "Tensions internationales et stéréotypes", Sondages (2), 1952 : 41-52. [O] Australia, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, USA. Samples : Adults over 18 years. In Mexico : urban population only. Each country (N = ca. 1,000), Germany (N < 1,000). Quota sampling. Instr. : Questionnaire. For Unesco. By Public Opinion Institutes in each country. [See also : 502.] 2.2.5 Social distance scales 517. DODD, S.C. An abstract of the S-theory. Beirut, American University Press, 1937.

[G] 518. DODD, S.C. "A Social Distance Test in the Near East", American Journal of Sociology 41, 1935 : 194-204. 519. EYSENCK, H J . "Opinion and attitude measurement", in : H J . EYSENCK, The psychology of politics. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954 : 71-106 (82-87), [P : R] Great Britain : USA (1928). Instr. : Stand. Bogardus Social Distance Scale. Adaptation of the scale to fit conditions in Britain; change of sequence 207

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

of items, transformation into a 4-point scale. Studies of reference : E.S. BOGARDUS, "Measuring social distance", Journal Applied Sociology 9, 1925 : 299-308; and "A social distance scale", Sociology and Social Research 17, 1933 : 265-271. 520. KEEHN, J.D.; PROTHRO, E.T. "National preferences of University students from twenty-three nations", Journal of Psychology 42, 1956 : 283-294. [P] Africa, America, Europe, Far East, Near East. 521. LAMBERT, W.E. "Comparisons of French and American modes of response to the Bogardus social distance scale", Social Forces 31(2), Dec. 52 : 155-164.

[P : R] France : USA. Samples : France (N = 200). Instr. : Stand. Bogardus Social Distance Scale. Basic reference [see 519]. Control variables : age, sex, occupational status, region, political position. The equidistance of scale items was not found to hold in French sample. 522. PETTIGREW, T.F. "Social distance attitudes of South African students", Social Forces 38, 1960 : 246-253. [P : R] South Africa : USA. Samples : Students. South Africa (N = 627). Instr. : Questionnaire. 523. PROTHRO, E.T.; MELIKIAN, L. "Social distance and social change in the Near East", Sociological and Social Research 37, 1952 : 3-11. [P : R] Arab Near East : USA. Sample : Students at American University, Beirut (N = 130). Christians (n = 70), Moslems (n = 60). USA : Bogardus representative sample, Prothro-Miles "Deep South" sample. Instr.: Dodd's modification of Bogardus Social Distance Scale. Analysis according to religious affiliation of respondents, but not according to national origin of Arab students. Comparisons with findings of American studies and with those of Dodd's 1935-study [see 518, and for Bogardus, 519]. 524.

TRIANDIS, H . C . ; DAVIS, E.E.; TAKEZAWA, S.I. "Some determinants of

social distance among American, German and Japanese students", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2(4), 1965 : 540-551. [P : R] Japan (1962) : USA (1963); Germany (1962); USA (1963). Samples : Students matched for socio-economic background and other variables. Japan, Tokyo (N = 100), USA, Illinois (N = 90), Germany, Hannover (N = 88), USA ( I l l i n o i s ) ( n = 93). Instr. : Triandis Social Distance. Questionnaire, personality inventories,

208

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

questionnaire on parental education and Semantic Differential Scales on home atmosphere. 525.

TRIANDIS, H.C.; TRIANDIS, L.M. " A cross-cultural study of social dis-

tance", Psychological Monographs: General and Applied. 76, 1962 (Whole no. 540), 21 p. [P] Greece, USA. Samples : Students. Greece (N = 78), USA : Illinois (N = 91). Instr. : A social distance scale. 2.3 Norms, goals, values. [See also: III 1.5. Youth.] 23.1 Value systems and cultural orientations 526. ABDEL-MEGUJD SARHAN, E.D. Interests and culture. A comparative study of interests, concerns, wishes, likes, dislikes and happiest days of Egyptian and American children. New York, Columbia University Teachers' College, Contributions to Education no. 959, 1950 : 123 p. [P : R] Egypt : USA. Samples : School children. 527. BERRIEN, F.K. "Japanese vs. American values", Journal of Social Psychology

65(2), 1965 : 181-191.

[S I T] Japan, USA. Studies of r e f e r e n c e : ARNHOFF [276], GOODMAN [468, 539], MCCLELLAND

[568], WHITEHILL [767]; and ARNHOFF, A. "Need patterns in two genera-

tions of Japanese - Americans in Hawaii", Journal of Social Psychology 50, 1959 : 75-79; VOGEL, E.F. Japan's New Middle Class. Berkeley, Calif., Univ. Calif. Press, 1963; and three unpublished studies : BERRIEN, F.K. "Democracy in village Japan", Technical Report 12. Contract Nonr. 404(10). New Brunswick, N.J., Rutgers University, 1963. BERRIEN, F.K. "Values of Japanese and American students", Technical Report 13. Contract Nonr. 404(10), 1964. New Brunswick, N.J., Rutgers University, 1964. MCGINNEW, E. "Attitudes towards civil liberties among Japanese and American University students", Technical Report, Contract Nonr. 3720(01). College Park, Md., University of Maryland, 1963. 528. BRONFENBRENNER, U. "The role of age, sex, class and culture in studies of moral development", Religious Education 57(4), 1962. [G] 529. CANTRIL, H. "A study of aspirations", Scientific American 208(2), 1963 : 41. [P : R] Brazil, Cuba, Germany (F.R.), Philippines : USA. Instr. : Stand. Self-anchoring scale of ca. 145 items, destined to measure concerns and aspirations cross-nationally. Summary presentation of data. [See below.]

209

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

530. CANTRIL, H. The pattern of human concerns. New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1965, xvii + 427 p. [P] Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Germany (F.R.), India (2 samples), Israel (2 samples), Japan, Nigeria, Panama, Philippines, Poland, USA, Yugoslavia. Samples : Random national cross-sections and samples of different population subgroups : urban, capital city, etc. (N's varying from 480 to 5,720; Total N = 23,875). In Israel one purposive sample of Kibbutzim members (N = 300). Instr. : Self-Anchoring Striving Scale. Each respondent asked to "define" himself and his country, with reference to the scale, at three points in time : present, past and future. Crossnational comparisons in terms of content of "hopes and fears" and in terms of expressed progress (present vs. past) and expressed level of aspirations (future vs. present). [For a methodological discussion of the study, see 228.] 531. CANTRIL, H.; FREE, L.A. "Hopes and fears for self and country", American Behavioral Scientist 6(2), Suppl. Oct. 62 : 32 p. [P : R] Brazil : USA. Samples : Representative. Instr. : Stand. Self-Anchoring Striving Scale. This scale has also been administered to representative samples of the population in Cuba, Philippines, West Germany, Israel, Panama, Dominican Republic and Yugoslavia, and further data are being gathered in India, Nigeria and Poland. 532. DANZIGER, K. "Choice of models among Javanese adolescents", Psychological Reports (6), 1960 : 346. [P : R] Java : Europe, USA. Sample : High school students (N = 537). Instr. : Questionnaire. Analysis in terms of choice of personalities from "private world" or from public life. Intervening variables controlled : age, family income. 533. DENNIS, W. "Uses of common objects as indicators of cultural orientations", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 55, 1957 : 21-28. [P] Lebanon, Sudan, USA. Samples : groups of children. Lebanon (N = 900), Sudan (N = 58), USA (N = 120). Instr. : Stand. "Uses-test". Categorizing of responses; differences in frequencies of categories were found indicative of cultural circumstances and orientations. 534. "Evolution (L') de l'humanité", Sondages (3), 1960 : 108-111. 210

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

[O] Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, India, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, Uruguay, USA. Distribution of answers on questions concerning intelligence, health, happiness, sexual attitude, religious attitude, honesty, as regards own country and humanity in general. 535. GAIER, E . L . ; LITTUNEN, Y . "Modes of conformity in two subcultures : a Finnish-American comparison", Acta sociologica 5 ( 2 ) , 1 9 6 1 : 6 5 - 7 5 . [P : R] Finland : USA. Samples : Students. Finland (N = 451); USA : Southern Whites (N = 223); Southern Negroes (N = 221). Instr. : Questionnaire adapted from Riesman. The Finnish group is considered as exemplifying a European subculture. Theoretical setting : Riesman's hypothesis concerning "inner-directed" and "other-directed" cultures. Questionnaire adapted from : D . RIESMAN, Faces in the crowd. New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1952. 536. GILLESPIE, J . M . ; ALLPORT, G . W . Youth's outlook on the future; a crossnational study. Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday, 1955, ix + 61 p. [P] Egypt, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, USA. Samples : Secondary school students. Instr. : Questionnaire and "autobiography" about future. 537. GLICKSMAN, M.; W O H L , J. "Expressed values of Burmese and American university students", Journal of Social Psychology (1), 1965 : 17-25. [P] Burma, USA. Samples : Business students. University of Rangoon (N = 84), University of Toledo (N = 84) Instr. : Topic essay. 538. GOLDSCHMIDT, W.; EDGERTON, R.B. "A picture technique for the study of values", American Anthropologist 63, 1961 : 26-47. [M] "Initial test of a method of eliciting cultural values... sketches... created specifically for the particular cultural milieu... would be changed for a new culture." 539. GOODMAN, M.E. "Children as informants : the child's eye view of society and culture", American Catholic and Sociological Review 2 1 ( 2 ) , Sum. 1 9 6 0 : 136-145.

540.

[M] Japan, USA. Samples : Urban school children in 1-8 grades. Japan (N = 1,250); USA (N = 3,750). Instr. : Topic essays. GRINDER, R.E.; M C M I C H A E L , R.E. "Cultural influence on conscience development, resistance to temptation and guilt among Samoans and 211

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Caucasians", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66(5), 1963 : 503-507. [M] Hawaii. Samples : Children in 6th and 7th grade in a rural public school. Two cultural groups : Caucasian Americans (N = 15) and Samoans (N = 19). Instr. : Stand, behavioral test of temptation and projective story completion items. "The tentative findings suggest the desirability of further research with representative samples to determine the usefulness of classifying societies into either shame or guilt cultures." 541. HUANG, S.C. A comparison of selected values among Formosan and American adolescents. Ann Arbor, Mich., University Microfilms, no. 2773, 1963. [P] Formosa, USA. 542.

HYMAN, H . H . ; PAYASLIOGLU, A . ; FREY, E.W. "The values of Turkish

College Youth", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(3), Fall 58 : 275-291. [P : R] Turkey : USA. Samples : All male Turkish students at the Faculty of Political Science and at Robert College. Samples obtained : 68% and 72% of student groups (N = 658). Instr. : Gillespie and Allport Questionnaire — condensed and supplemented Analysis : Comparisons of the two groups and at faculty between various priority classes. Some comparisons in text with results obtained elsewhere with the same instrument (Mexico, France, USA, Japan (355), Israel) but n o tables. [See GILLESPIE a n d ALLPORT, 536.]

543. JONES, L.V.; BOCK, R.D. "Multiple discriminant analysis applied to 'Ways to Live' ratings from six cultural groups", Sociometry 23, 1960: 162-176. [S] China (1948), India, Japan, Norway, USA. Samples : Students. Random, subsamples of Morris original samples (N = 117). USA : Negro (N = 117), White (N = 117). Instr. : Stand. Morris "Ways to Live" Schedule. [See also : 551.] 544. KEATS, V.A. "Attitudes towards idealized types in Australia and Malaya", Journal of Social Psychology 57(2), 1962 : 353-362.

[P] Australia, Malaya. Samples : Students. Australia University students other than Malayans (N = 243), Malayans, mostly between 14 and 20 years old (N = 586) of three racial groups: Chinese (N = 298), Indians (N = 159, Malays (N = 129). Instr. : Malaya : One question in other-purpose questionnaire asked respondents to rank, in order of importance, heroes, saints, men of

212

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

science or learning, artists. Australia : Subjects asked to indicate if'they felt positively, negatively or were indifferent to the types of persons signified as well as to other stimuli and also to indicate preference and degree of difference perceived. Comparative analysis by the multidimensional unfolding technique, analysis of perceptual distorsion by multidimensional scaling applied only to the Australian sample. 545. KLUCKHOHN, C. "A comparative study of values in five cultures". Foreword to E.Z. VOGT, Navajo Veterans. Cambridge, Mass., Peabody Museum, Harvard University, 1952, 223 p. [G]

546. KLUCKHOHN, C. "Toward a comparison of value-emphases in different cultures" in : L.D. WHITE, The State of the social sciences. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1956 : 116-132. [M]

Following a model from linguistics, proposes binary opposition of cross-cultural value-emphases. 547.

KLUCKHOHN, F.; STRODTBECK, F.L.

Variations

in value

orientations.

Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson, 1961, 437 p. [M] USA. Samples : Five subcultural groups in the Southwest : Mormon, Navaho, Spanish-American. Texan and Zuni. Instr. : Questionnaire. For further analysis of cross-cultural data of the same type see E.Z. VOGT and E.N. ALBERT The people of Rimrock: a comparative study of values in five cultures. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Univ. Press, 1966. 548. LAWLOR, M. "Cultural influences on preference for designs", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 51, 1955 : 690-692. [M] Great Britain, West-Africa. Samples : England : Nurses (N = 56), and West Africans (N = 56). Instr. : Stimulus : Eight West African designs. Subjects asked to designate the two best and the two least liked designs. "An attempt to determine the extent to which the frequently demonstrated agreement between individual aesthetic choices is really a general factor related to the aesthetic material and independent of social and cultural influences. The preferences of the two groups were quite distinct, little evidence was found of a general agreement which depended on the designs rather than the judges." 549.

LURIA, Z . ; GOLDWASSER, M . ; GOLDWASSER, A. "Response t o transgression

in stories by Israeli children", Child Development 34(2), 1963 : 271-280. [P : R] Israel : USA. 213

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Samples : Children 11-13 years. Israel : two groups : living in Kibbutz or in agricultural settlements. USA : Jewish, Gentile. Instr. : 4 incomplete stories-involving specific moral transgression. 550. MELIKIAN, K . H . ; PROTHRO, E . T . "Goals chosen by Arab students in response to hypothetical situations", Journal of Social Psychology 46, Aug. 57 : 3-9. [P : R] Arab Near East : USA. Samples : Male and female students. Near East : At the American University, Beirut. Two samples : 1952 (N = 87), 1956 (N = 229). USA : California (N = ca. 95). Instr. : Six hypothetical situations — written presentation and response. Reliability of the technique was established by comparison of the data for the two Arab groups. "Hypothetical situations" and categorization of responses as well as data on California students from : G . F . LEHNER ; B. SABER "Use of hypothetical situation in personality assessment", Journal of Personality 21, 1952 : 91-102. 551. MORRIS, C. Varieties of human value. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1956, 209 p. [P : R] Canada, China, India, Japan, Norway, USA (Negro), USA (White). Samples : College students. Instr.: Stand. Morris "Ways to Live" Schedule — Rating of the "13 ways to live" on a 7-point scale. [See also : 543.] 552. NALL, F.C. "Role expectations : a cross-cultural study. II". Rural Sociology 27(1), Mar. 6 2 : 28-41. [P] Mexico, USA. Samples : Mexican and US high school students from Ciudad Juarez (Mexico) and El Paso (Texas). Instr. : Short stories. Three Guttman-type scales were constructed to measure the "universalism-particularism" dimension and the "self-collectivity" dimension of role orientations. The scores of the following groups were compared : Mexicans and US nationals; Mexicans and US national by ethnic subgroups : AngloAmericans and Spanish-Americans; Mexicans, Anglo-Americans and Spanish-Americans by linguistic subgroups : English-speaking, Spanishspeaking and bi-linguals. 553. "Opinions, études, éducation", in : 221.750.000 consommateurs. Marché commun et Grande-Bretagne. Paris, Sélection du Reader's Digest, 1964 : 35-64. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Luxemburg, Netherlands (Jan.-Feb. 63). 214

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

One question concerning satisfaction with level of education attained. Two choice alternatives. Break-down by : age, sex, education, socio-professional category and place of residence. 554. RETTIG, S.; PASAMANICK, B. "Invariance in factor structure of moral value judgements from American and Korean college students", Sociometry 25(1), Mar. 62 : 73-84. [P] Korea, USA. 555. RETTIG, S.; PASAMANICK, B. "Moral codes of American and foreign academic intellectuals in an American university", Journal of Social Psychology 51, 1960 : 229-244.

[P] India, Korea, USA (other nations). Samples : Scientists and students connected with Ohio State University. American subjects from one research institution (N = 411). All Indians (N = 78), all Koreans (N = 40), Subjects of different nationalities (N = 40). Instr. : Individual interviews. Rating of 35 "morally prohibited activities by the modified "Magnetic Board Rating Technique". 556. RETTIG, S.; PASAMANICK, B. "Moral codes of American and Korean college students", Journal of Social Psychology 50(1), Aug. 59 : 65-73. [P] Korea, USA. 557. RETTIG, S.; SINGH, P.N. "The risk hypothesis in judgements of unethical behavior : a cross-cultural replication", MANAS (9), 1962 : 3-23. Also published in : The Israel Annals of Psychiatry and Related Disciplines 1(2), 1963 : 225-234.

[P : R] India : USA. Samples : Indian students in USA. Instr. : Questionnaire. Findings : Cross-cultural invariance. 558. RODD, W. "Cross-cultural use of the 'study of values' ", Psychologia (2), 1959 : 157-164. IP : R] Taiwan : China, Japan, USA. Samples : Chinese in Taiwan. Instr. : Allport, Vernon, Lindzey Study of Values questionnaire. Study of reference : G.W. ALLPORT, P.E. VERNON, "A test for personal values", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 26, 1931 : 231-248; G.W. ALLPORT, P.E. VERNON, G. LINDZEY, Manual of directions: study of

values. New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 1951. 559. SARMAN, E.A. A study of the interests and concerns of Egyptian children. New York, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1949. [P : R] Egypt, USA. Sample : Children. 215

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Instr. : Three-wishes questionnaire. 560.

SINGH, P . N . ; HUANG, S.C.; THOMPSON, G . G . " A comparative study of

selected attitudes, values and personality characteristics of American, Chinese and Indian students", Journal of Social Psychology 57(1), 1962 : 123-132.

[P] China, India, USA. Samples : Students at American University (N's = 37). Instr. : Four questionnaires. 561. STOODLEY, B. "A cross-cultural study of structure and conflict in social norms", American Journal of Sociology 65, July 59 : 39-48. [P : R] Philippines : USA. Samples : Students. Philippines (N = 127), USA (N = 196). Instr. : Questionnaire. Conflict between universalistic and particularistic norms. The questionnaire was adapted from that of S. STOUFFER, in "An analysis of conflicting social norms", American Journal of Sociology 14(6), 1949 : 107-177. 562. TURNER, R.H. "Preoccupation with competitiveness and social acceptance among American and English students", Sociometry 23, 1960 : 307-325. [P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : Questionnaire incorporating two 28-item Guttman-type scales. [A fuller report in : R.H. TURNER, The social context of ambition. San Francisco, Chandler, 1964.] 563. UDRY, J.R. "Structural correlates of feminine beauty preferences in Britain and the United States : a comparison", Sociology and Social Research 49(3), Apr. 65 : 330-342. [P : R] USA : Great Britain. Samples : USA : Random subsamples of 101,000 ballots (N = 6,162), Great Britain (N = 4,355). Instr. : Article with 12 pictures of girls (different types of faces, narrow range of beauty), in national mass-circulation papers. Mail-in responses: Preferences in rank-order, back-ground data. Study of reference : A.H. ILIFFE, "A study of preferences in feminine beauty", British Journal of Psychology 51, Mar. 60 : 267-273. 564.

ZURCHER, L.A.; MEADOW, A.; ZURCHER, S.C. "Value orientation, role

conflict and alienation from work", American Sociological Review 30(4), A u g . 65 : 539-548.

[P] Mexico, USA. Samples : Bank employees in Nogales, Mexico and Nogales, Arizona, USA. Instr. : Stand. Stouffer-Toby Role Conflicts, Pearlin Alienation from Work Scale. Test-group-administered. 216

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY HELD

2.3.2 Need-achievement studies 565. BRADBURN, N.N. "N-achievement and father dominance in Turkey", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67(5), 1963 : 464-468. [P : S] Turkey : USA. Samples : Junior executives. Instr. : Questionnaire. Comparisons between three Turkish groups varying in degree of father domination and between the Turkish and the American group. 566. DEROSSI ZACCONE, F . "Valori culturali e sviluppo delle motivazioni : II 'need for achievement' e il 'need for affiliation' in uno studio su 281 soggetti" [Cultural values and development of motivations : the need for achievement and need for affiliation in a study of 281 subjects], Rivista di Psicologia sociale 29(1), 1962 : 101-111. 567.

[P : R] Italy : Poland, Turkey, USA. A.C. "Anomie and achievement motivation : a study of personality development within cultural disorganization", Social Forces 37, KERCKHOFF,

1959 : 196-203.

568.

[P] USA Samples : Wisconsin school children in grades 5-8 from two cultural groups: Chippewa Indians (N = 63) and White Americans (N = 76). Instr. : Stand. Thematic Apperception Test. MCCLELLAND, D . C . The achieving society. New York, Van Nostrand, 1961, vii + 512 p. [P] 1) Brazil, Germany, India, Japan. Samples : Adolescent urban school boys and their mothers : Sons Mother

N = N =

Brazil

Germany

India

378

392

152

Japan 150

130

300

0

115

Instr. : Sons: Group-administered tests of n-achievement, imaginative stories, spontaneous drawings, etc. Mothers: Individual interviews on values and attitudes and Winterbottom schedule on independent and mastery training. [P] 2) Italy, Poland, Turkey, USA. Samples : Business men and comparison groups of professionals (N = 750).

Managers Professionals Total

n n = N

=

Italy 68 107

Poland 3.

Turkey 17

USA

48

48

31

175

79

65

62

31

217

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Instr. : Questionnaire. Also extensive analysis of the relationship between economic development and group measures of n-Achievement obtained through content analysis of imaginative products (folk tales, children's readers, etc.) from a wide variety of primitive and advanced cultures. 569.

MCCLELLAND, D . C . ; ATKINSON, J . W . ; CLARK, R . A . ; LOWELL, E . L .

The

achievement motive. New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953, 384 p. [M]

Instr. : Projective test. Brief stories suggested by pictures. Two experimental conditions: relaxed or aroused, in terms of achievement. Some cross-cultural comparisons are given in support of McClelland's approach to "achievement motive" (n-Ach) through fantasy. 570. MCCLELLAND, D.C. et al. "Obligations to self and society in the United States and Germany", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 56(2), Mar. 58 : 245-255. [P] Germany, USA. 571. ROSEN, B.C. "The achievement syndrome and economic growth in Brazil", Social Forces 42, 1964 : 341-364. [P : R] Brazil : USA. Brazil (1960); USA (1956-1959). Samples : Brazil : School boys 9-11 years (and "many of their mothers"). Sao Paulo : "purposive" sample from "representative" schools (N=212). Rio Claro (small city in Southern Brazil), total age group coverage in five schools (N = 134). USA : Boys 6-14 years (and mothers) living in 4 North-Eastern states, from 6 racial and ethnic groups (N = 427) School boys 9-11 years in three small Connecticut towns. Almost total age group coverage (N = 367). Instr. : Thematic Apperception Test to measure achievement motivation. Interviews and questionnaires to obtain data on achievement values. 572. ROSEN, B.C. "Socialization and achievement motivation in Brazil", American Sociological Review 27(5), 1962 : 612-624.

[P : R] Brazil : USA. Samples : Boys and mothers. US criterion group matched by age and social class. Instr. : Observation, interviews and stand, tests. Thematic Apperception Test. Combination of authoritarianism, excessive protectiveness, and early indulgence is seen as partly responsible for the finding that Brazilian boys, on the average, have low achievement motivation when compared to United States peers. 573. TEDESCHI, J.T.; KIAN, M. "Cross-cultural study of the TAT assessment for 218

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

achievement motivation : Americans and Persians", Journal of Social Psychology 58(2), 1962 : 227-234. [P] Iran, USA. Samples : Volunteers, male students at Utah State University in 1961. Equal groups (N = 30). Instr. : Stand. Thematic Apperception Test. One random group from each national sample was given test under relaxed conditions, the other under aroused conditions. "The results show that Americans and Persians are not significantly different in strength of the need for achievement as assessed by the TAT either in the relaxed or the aroused conditions of presentation." 574. WILLIAMS, J.S. Maori achievement motivation. Wellington, Victoria University, 1960, 113 p. (Monographs on Maori social life and Personality no. 5). [M] New Zealand. Samples : Ethnic subgroups : Maori and European. Instr. : Questionnaire. Two "factors" resulting from factor analysis of Maori answers used to construct scale of "Maoriness". 2.3.3 Social desirability of personality traits 575.

COWEN, E.L.; FRANKEL, G. "The social desirability of trait-descriptive

terms : applications to a French sample", Journal of Social Psychology 63(2), Aug. 64 : 233-240. [P : R] France : USA. Sample : France : Psychology students (N = 67). Instr. : Translated and abbreviated form of original list of 209 trait-descriptive adjectives. 576. DIERS, C J . "Social-desirability ratings of personality items by three subcultural groups", Journal of Social Psychology 67(1), 1965 : 97-104. [P] Canada : sub-cultural groups. Samples : Psychology students of University of British Columbia, males and females (N = 226) Hungarian immigrant university students, males (N = 70), Canadian juvenile delinquents, females (N = 40). Instr. : Stand. Edwards Personal Preference Scale. Social-desirability ratings of 135 statements. Group administration. Correlation of the ratings with all other ratings reported by KLETT and YAUKEY [582],

577.

FARBER, M.L. "English and Americans : a study in national character", Journal of Psychology 32, 1951 : 241-249. [P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : Non random samples of insurance clerks. Great Britain : London 219

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

(N = 31), USA : Hartford, Conn. (N = 81) Due to difference in mode of distribution, non-comparability of proportions of questionnaires returned between two countries. Instr. : Questionnaire using Sentence Completion Technique. Analysis in this report concerned only with responses to one item of questionnaire : "The qualities I admire most in persons are..." 578. FUSTER, J.M. "A study of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule on Indian College students", Journal of Social Psychology 57(2), 1962 : 309314.

[P : R] India : USA. Samples : Male and female students at St Xavier's College, Bombay (N = 288), US. reference group : Edwards normative population. Instr. : Stand. Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. US reference : A.L. EDWARDS, The social desirability variable in personality assessment and research. New York, Dryden, 1957. 579. GHEI, S.N. "The reliability and validity of Edwards Personal Preference Schedule : a cross-cultural study", Journal of Social Psychology 61(2), Dec. 63 : 241-246. [P : R] India : USA. Sample : Students in four different institutions in a large city in India (N = 214). Instr. : Stand. Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Comparisons with the scores of several comparable US samples, among them Edwards normative sample. 580. IWAWAKI, S.; COWEN, E.L. "The social desirability of trait-descriptive terms : applications to a Japanese sample", Journal of Social Psychology 63(2), Aug. 64 : 199-206. [P : R] Japan : USA. Samples : All cadets in Introductory Psychology Course at Japan Defense Academy (N = 65). US reference groups : Cowen's college group. Instr. : A list of trait-descriptive adjectives. In the Japanese study the original 209 adjectives were reduced to 148 due to translation problems. "Social-set" rating frame. 581. IWAWAKI, S.; COWEN, E.L. "The social desirability of trait-descriptive terms : further applications to a Japanese sample under a personal set", Journal of Social Psychology 63(2), Aug. 64 : 207-214.

[P : R] Japan : USA Samples : Cadets of Japan Defense Academy. Not identical with that in first study but "demographically comparable" (N = 65). US reference group : Cowen's college group Instr. : Same list of trait-descriptive adjectives as in the first study, but in a "personal-set" rating frame. 220

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

582.

583.

KLETT, C J . ; YAUKEY, D. W. " A cross-cultural comparison of judgments of

social desirability", Journal of Social Psychology 49, 1959 : 19-26. [P : R] Arab Near East: Norway, USA. Samples : High School and College students. Near East : American University, Beirut (N = 198), Norway: Oslo (N = 86), USA: Japanese Americans (N = 60) and USA : These reference groups : Edward's normative college group, high school students (N = 206), hospitalized veterans (N = 118). Instr. : Stand. Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. High degree of agreement among groups. Studies of reference : FUJITA, "Applicability of the E.P.P.S. to Nisei", Psychological Report (3), 1957 : 518-519; O. LOVAAS (583); A.L. EDWARDS, "The relationship between the judged desirability of a trait and the probability that the trait will be endorsed", Journal of Applied Psychology 37, 1953 : 90-93 and reference in [576] LOVAAS, O.T. "Social desirability ratings of personality variables by Norwegian and American college students", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology

57, 1958 : 124-125.

[P] Norway, USA. Samples : High-school and college students, Norway : average age : 17 years (N = 86), USA : somewhat older (N = 152). Instr. : Stand. Edwards Personal Preference Scale. 2.4 Mental health and mental disorders 2.4.0 General studies 584. CARSTAIRS, C.M. "Cross-cultural psychiatric interviewing", in : B. KAPLAN (ed.) Studying personality cross-culturally. Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson Co., 1961:301-311 [M]

585.

586.

DUNHAM, H.W. "Methodology of sociological investigations of mental disorders", International Journal of Social Psychiatry (3), 1957 : 7-17. [M] GRUENBERG, E.M. "Problems of data collection and nomenclature", in : C.BRANCH; E . BEIER; R . ANDERSON; C . WHITMER, (eds.) The

587.

epidemiology

of mental health. Brighton, Utah, 1955 : 63-70. [M] HUNT, R.G. "Socio-cultural factors in mental disorders", Behavioral Science (4), 1959 : 96-106. [G]

Summarizes and evaluates recent empirical studies on socio-cultural factors in mental disorders. 221

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

588. HYDE, R.W.; CHISHOLM, R.M. "The relation of mental disorders to race and nationality", New England Journal of Medicine 231, 1944 : 612-618. [G] 589. KENNEDY, D. A. "Key issues in the cross-cultural study of mental disorders", in : B. KAPLAN (ed.) Studying personality cross-culturally. Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson and Co., 1961 : 405-426. [M]

590. LEIGHTON, A. "Psychiatric disorder and social environment : an outline for a frame of reference", Psychiatry 18, 1955 : 367-383. [G] 591. MACMILLAN, A. "The Health Opinion Survey : Technique for estimating prevalance of psycho-neurotic and related types of disorders in communities", Psychological Reports 3,1957 : 325-339, and a Supplement, Monogr. : 7 p. [M]

592.

MCQUOWN, N. "Linguistic transcription and specification of psychiatric interview materials", Psychiatry 20, 1957 : 79-86. [M] 593. MURPHY, J.M. "Social science concepts and cross-cultural methods for psychiatric research", in : J.M. MURPHY; A.H. LEIGHTON (eds.) Approaches to cross-cultural psychiatry. New York, Cornell University Press, 1965, 406 p. [G] Review of literature, discussion of characteristics of units of comparison and their significance, proposal for classification of socio-cultural environments. 594. OPLER, M.K. (ed.) Culture and mental health. Cross-cultural studies. New York, Macmillan, 1959, 533p. [G] 595. PASAMINICK, B. "Thoughts on some epidemiologic studies of to-morrow", in : P.H. HOCH and J. ZUBIN (eds.) The future of psychiatry. New York, 1962.

[G] 596. ROSE, A.M. (ed.) Mental health and mental disorder. A sociological approach. New York, W.W. Morton and Co., 1955, xiv + 626p. [G] 597. SODDY, K. (ed.) Cross-cultural studies in mental health. Identity : Mental health and value systems. Chicago, 111., Quadrangle Books, 1962, 271p. [G] 598. WITTKOWER, E.D.; FRIED, J. "A cross-cultural approach to mental health problems" American Journal of Psychiatry 116, Nov. 59 : 423-428. [G] 222

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

599. WITTKOWER, E.D. ; FRIED, J. "Some problems of trans-cultural psychiatry", in : M.K. OPLER (ed.) Culture and mental health. Cross-cultural studies. New York, Macmillan Co., 1959 : 489-500. [See also in : International Journal of Social Psychology (3), 1958 : 242-252.] [P] Thirty-five countries. Samples : Psychiatrists and social scientists (informants). Instr. : Letters and brief questionnaires. Subject of inquiry : frequency and nature of mental illness. Discussion of possible reasons for differences noted, some theoretical and practical conclusions regarding the possibility for future research. 600. WOODS, F.J. "Cultural conditioning in mental health", Social Casework 39, 1958 : 327-333. [G]

Review of literature dealing with Negro and Latin American. 2.4.1 Field studies 601. BARABEE, P.; MEERING, O. VON. "Ethnic variations in mental stress in families with psychotic children", in : A.M. ROSE (ed.) Mental health and mental disorders. New York, W.W. Norton and Co., 1955 : 161-167. [M] USA. Samples : Ethnic subgroups : Irish, Italian, Jewish, "Yankee-American". Families with a psychotic child (N = 69), mostly from Boston metropolitan area, the "ethnic" families of lower socio-economic level, "Yankee" families belonging to middle level; "Ethnic" families (n's = 18, "Yankee" families (n = 15). Instr. : Semi-structured interviews with patients and relatives. Also : case records and communications from informants : doctors, social workers, etc. Analysis of the experience of stress in male child in the area of intrafamilial emotional relations. 602. BUHLER, C. "National differences in World Test projective patterns", Journal of Projective Techniques 16, 1952: 42-55 [P] Netherlands : Austria, Great Britain, Norway, USA Samples : Disturbed children Instr. : Stand, projective test : World Test. 603.

COMMISSION DE LA LIGUE FRANÇAISE D'HYGIÈNE MENTALE. " A t t i t u d e d e la

société à l'égard des maladies mentales" [Public opinion in regard to mental illness], Hygiène mentale 48, 1959 : 14-43. [S] France, Great Britain, USA. France (present analysis N = 301 , Great Britain : Two groups : Television viewers and non-television viewers, purposive sample (N = 800). USA : random sample (N = 3,500). 223

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Instr. : Questionnaire, USA : intensive interviews, France : interviews and mail response; Great Britain : group administration. Studies of reference, texts quoted in comparative analysis : France : First-hand publication of partial analysis of findings of survey by Mme VOILLAUME. Great Britain : Study by Audience Research Division of B.B.C. Findings as presented in WHO/MENT/138: Studies by NORC, findings from publications by S.A. STAR. Comparative analysis focused on: 1. Historical developments: the progressive rejection of mental illness; 2. The low level of public information; 3. Socio-cultural variations in tolerance towards mental illness. 6 0 4 . EATON, J . W . ; WEIL, R J . "The mental health of the Hutterites", in : A.M. ROSE (ed.) Mental health and mental disorder. A sociological approach. New York, W.W. Norton and Co., 1955: 223-239. [P : S] USA : Denmark, Formosa, Germany, Norway, Sweden, USA (other communities). Samples : Hutterite communities in Middle West. Comparisons with findings of 9 other communities studied for incidence of mental illness and frequency of each diagnostic category. 605. FANTL, B.; SCHIRO, J . "Cultural variables in the behavior patterns and symptom formation of 15 Irish and 15 Italian female schizophrenics", International Journal of Social Psychology (4), 1959 : 2 4 5 - 2 5 3 . [P USA. 606. LEIGHTON, A . H . et al. The Stirling County study of psychiatric disorder and socio-cultural environment. Vol. 1-3. New York, Basic Books Inc. Vol. 1. My name is legion. Foundations for a theory of man in relation to culture. 1959, 452 p. Vol. II. People of Cove and Wood Lot. Communities from the view-point of social psychiatry. 1960, 473 p. Vol. III. The character of danger. Psychiatric symptoms in selected communities. 1963, 545p. [M] Canada (10 years project). Samples : English and French-speaking communities in "Stirling County" Nova Scotia. Probability samples of general population, total coverage of patient population; purposive samples of key informants : teachers, doctors, etc. Instr. : Questionnaire-individual administration, psychiatric interviews, tests. Family Life Survey, socio-cultural items, health section (N = 1015). Bristol Health Survey, psychiatric items (19 % of adult population). Child Rearing Survey : Mothers of children between 3-7 years (N = 102), open-ended questions Fact-finding questionnaire: Household Inventory. Interviews with informants 224

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

607.

608.

609.

Two community variables : integration-disintegration; ethnic subcultures: English-French. M U R P H Y , J . M . "Cross-cultural studies of the prevalence of psychiatric disorders", World Mental Health 14(2), 1962 : 53-65. [S] Canada, Mexico, Nigeria, USA (two studies). Samples : Canada, Nova Scotia: Adults, probability sample (N = 1010). Mexico : Urban adult Mestizos, probability sample from one area (N = 302). Adult Indians, probability sample from one provincial town (N = 59). Nigeria : Systematic sample of adults in study area in Western Nigeria (N = 357). USA : A section of New York City, numerous ethnic groups represented in probability sample (N = 1,600). Alaska : Eskimo village. Instr. : (1) Questionnaire interview : (2) interviews about respondents with informants : (3) hospital records. A preliminary comparative analysis of investigations of prevalence of psychiatric symptoms. Principal variable of "socio-cultural environment" used in analysis: integration-disintegration. In summary, "an effort to explore 'interactions' between universal biological factors such as age and sex, and variable socio-cultural factors such as disintegration and rapid change." Studies of reference : Canada : See 606. Mexico : T.S. LANGNER, "Psychophysiological symptoms and the status of women in two Mexican communities", in J . M . M U R P H Y ; A.H. LEIGHTON (eds.) Approaches to cross-cultural psychiatry. New York, Cornell University Press, 1965, 406p. Nigeria : A.H. LEIGHTON, et al. Psychiatric disorders among the Yoruba : a report from the Cornell-Aro Mental Health Research Project (in press). USA: New York : L . SROLE, I . S . LANGNER, et al. Mental health in the Metropolis. The Midtown Manhattan study. Vol. I. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1962, xii + 428p. T.S. LANGNER, S.T. MICHAEL, Life stress and mental health. The Midtown Manhattan study. Vol. II. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1963, vi + 517p. Eskimos : C.C. HUGHES, An Eskimo village in the modern world, thaca N.Y., Cornell University Press, 1960. M U R P H Y , J . M . ; LEIGHTON, A . H . (eds.) Approaches to cross-cultural psychiatry. New York, Cornell University Press, 1965, 406p. [G] O P L E R , M . K . ; SINGER, J . L . "Ethnic differences in behavior and psychopathology : Italian and Irish", International Journal of Social Psychology (2), 1956 : 11.

[P] USA. Samples : Ethnic subgroups : Irish and Italian. 225

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ROSE, A . M . Attitudes of youth toward mental illness. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France), 4-11th Sept. 66, mimeo. [P] Finland, India, USA. Samples : 15-16 year old youth in schools. Finland : Helsinki, one school (N = 166), India : Ahmedabad, four schools (N = 348). USA : Minneapolis (N = 470). Instr. : Questionnaire. 6 1 1 . ROTONDO, H . "Psychological and mental health problems of urbanization based on case studies in Peru", in : P. HAUSER (ed). Urbanization in Latin American. Paris, Unesco, 1961 : 2 4 9 - 2 5 7 . [P : S] Peru : Chile, Sweden, USA. Samples : Peru : Two areas studied : 1) Slum area of Lima. Stratified sample of domestic units (N = 239). 2) Small rural village on the coast. Random 25 % sample of adults (N = 124). Instr. : Health questionnaire : Cornell Medical Index, and "other methods" Studies of reference: U S A , 604; and L. SROLE; S . LANGNER, The Midtown Manhattan study. Vol. I and II, see 607: 612. "Sommeil (Le). Une enquete internationale", Sondages 13, 1948 : 155-156. [O] Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA (May 1948). Instr. : Two poll questions. Two tables by sex : 1) Incidence and intensity of sleep problems; 2) Solutions adopted. 613. WEINSTEIN, E . A . Cultural aspects of delusion : a psychiatric study of the Virgin Islands. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1962, 215p. 610.

[G]

2.5 Deviant tendencies, delinquency study of self-reported crime", in : Scandinavian Studies in Criminology. Vol. I. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget,

614.

CHRISTIE, N . ; ANDENAES, J . ; SKIRBEKK, S. " A

615.

[N] Norway. Sample : Men meeting for pre-military classification in three areas, Spring 1961. Instr. : Questionnaire. The same interview schedule used in Denmark, Finland and Sweden under a programme of studies co-ordinated by the Scandinavian Research Council for Criminology. First Swedish report: NYQUIST, L. Nordisk Tidsskrift for Kriminalvidenskap 48, 1960 : 113. MASLOW, A . H . ; DIAZ-GUERRERO, R . "Delinquency as a value disturbance'

1965 : 8 6 - 1 1 6 .

226

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

in : J.G. 228-240.

PEATMAN;

E.L.

HARTLEY

(eds.) Festschrift fur Gardner Murphy :

[G]

616

Mexican "values" partly illustrated by findings of survey research. American "values" and sex role behaviour "stated" without supporting evidence. No quantitative measure of juvenile delinquency. Evokes "authorities" for assumption of "far less juvenile delinquency in Mexico than in USA". SHIRASA, T . ; AZUMA, T . "The applicability of an American delinquency scale to Japanese subjects", Journal of Clinical Psychology 17(3), 1961 : 291-292.

[P : R] Japan : USA. Discriminative power of scale as high as in the original American sample. Discussion on possibility of cross-cultural research on personality tendencies. 3 MARKET CONDITIONS, LEVELS OF LIVING, CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND OPINIONS. 3.0 General studies BUREAU INTERNATIONAL DU TRAVAIL. Rapport concernant le cycle d'études régional sur les enquêtes auprès des ménages organisé conjointement par VOIT et les Nations Unies ( Vienne, 16-27 Octobre 1961). Genève, 1962, 134p. ronéo. [M] Discussion of family budget studies according to purpose : to establish price indexes, to estimate expenditure of private consumption (with a classification programme for private expenses in Europe), to study food consumption, to furnish information on the labour force, on leisure activity and on health. 618. KAPFERER, C. "The use of sample surveys by OECD", International Social Science Journal 16(1), 1964 : 63-69. A review of contributions by OEEC/OECD to organizational and methodological advances in the field of cross-national research by sample methods. Reference to both published documents, working documents and recommendations. Comparative sample surveys undertaken by the organization [see 638], cross-national surveys instigated by OEEC/OECDcentered activities but carried out by other organisms are described and discussed. Questions of method are reviewed in conjunction with the projects. Weight is given to the appropriate place of the sample survey method in relation to other procedures of investigation.

617.

227

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

619.

MORGAN, J. "A review of recent research on consumer behavior", in : L.H. CLARK (ed.) Consumer Behavior. New York, Harper, 1958 : 93-219. [G] Exhaustive review and trend report of US studies, also mentioning studies not published, cross-national annotated bibliography, including information on size and composition of samples, type of analysis, findings, and availability of reports.

3.1 Levels of income, levels and patterns of consumption and non-consumption Major conceptual and methodological problems of conducting consumer expenditure surveys in West Pakistan. Karachi, Government of West Pakistan, Bureau of Statistics, n.d. 621. ALLEN, R . G . ; BOWLEY, A . L . Family expenditure. Westminster, P.S. King and Son, 1955, [S] Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, Great Britain, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Switzerland, USA. International comparisons of income elasticity based on twenty surveys of family expenditure from 1918 to 1929. Samples varied in populations represented : national populations, specific strata of national population (workers), specific strata in one or two major cities. 622. BUREAU INTERNATIONAL DU TRAVAIL. "Enquêtes d'après-guerre sur les dépenses familiales", Revue internationale du Travail 74(6), déc. 5 6 : 642-666. [M] An evaluation of post-war surveys on family expenditures in various countries. Multi-national comparative tabulations. 623. BUREAU INTERNATIONAL DU TRAVAIL. Principales caractéristiques des récentes enquêtes sur les conditions de vie des familles. Genève, 1955, 86p. ronéo, (éd. provisoire). [G] 40 countries Standardized annotations of national surveys. 624. COMMUNAUTÉS EUROPÉENNES. Office statistique. Budgets familiaux des ouvriers de la CECA, 1956-57. Luxembourg, Service des publications des Communautés européennes, 1960, 438p. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R., not including the Saar), Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Saar. Samples : Families of workers in coal and iron mines and in steel industry. Each geographical and professional unit represented by at least 50 households (N = ca. 2,000). Main criteria for inclusion in sample : — Four household members, two children under 14 years. — Head of family : only wage-earner; citizen of country where he works; earnings close to average of group; rejoining his home every night. 620.

228

AFTAL, M .

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Instr. : Household account books and questionnaire interviews on personal data. The surveys are executed by national statistical institutes in each country. The results were transmitted to the Statistical Office of the High Authority, charged with the analysis of the data and the publication of the findings. 625. CRAMER, J.S. "La comparaison internationale des enquêtes 'budgets de famille'", Revue économique (Paris) 12(2), mars 61 : 255-267. [S] A history and review of international comparisons of family budgets. Discussion of the curves of Engel adjusted by Houthakker [628] and by Goreux [627], "The conclusion to be drawn... is that the comparison of the Engel curves between a great number of very different countries permits interesting observations of details but do not lead to the discovery of generally valid laws". The author is in favour of limited, carefully organized comparative studies, of which the survey of CECA [624] is cited as a model. 626. DEVAXJX, A. "Le budget familial en Allemagne occidentale, aux Pays-Bas et en France", Etudes et Conjoncture 11(9), sept. 56 : 862-884. [S] France, Germany (F.R.), Netherlands. Samples. : Three types : A. Budget surveys. 1) Mostly small samples of co-operating households, selected according to specific characteristics to provide representativity of desired kind. Records of expenditure by "household account books". Account books returned by mail at regular intervals or collected by interviewer who may or may not verify and supplement data. Varying length of accounting periods per household. Germany : Yearly surveys 1950-1955 : principal social groups of wage earners with medium income (N = 250-300). Netherlands : 1951. Different social strata (N = 3,000). Accounting period : 12 months, 1952-1954. (1) Skilled workers in limited income/ category, family of four members, of which two children below 14 years (N = 120); (2) Employees, slightly higher income level, same family composition (N = 120). From 1955 : Manual workers, employees, agricultural workers, same limits of income levels as earlier, same family composition (N = 250). Accounting period : 3 months. France : 1954. Workers and employees of Paris region (N = 1,509). Accounting period, 12 months. 2) Larger random samples : reporting of major expenditures to interviewer based on memory or privately kept accounts. France : 1954. Urban households of certain cities (N — 1941). B. Surveys on certain expenditure items : major household equipment, holidays, etc.

229

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Germany : Local surveys by university research institutes. C. Opinion surveys on consumption needs and aspirations. France : 1954. Urban families (N = 3,000). Separate examination of the findings of the surveys in each country, evaluation of changes over time. Concluding section on dissimilarities of the structure of the budgets in the three contries, seen in a time perspective. One comparative tabulation. 627. GOREUX, L.M. Comparaison internationale des courbes d'Engel. Communication au 19è Congrès Européen de la Société d'Econométrie, Luxembourg, 1957. [S] India, Japan, USA. Successive surveys in one country and some twenty recent surveys in different countries. 628. HOUTHAKKER, H . S . "An international comparison of household expenditure patterns, commemorating the centenary of Engel's law", Econometrica 25(4), O c t . 57 : 5 3 2 - 5 5 1 .

[S : T] About thirty countries, some forty surveys (1907-1955). Samples : N's vary greatly. Most samples are limited to city dwellers. Sampling criteria are not uniform. A special effort was made to include all post-world War II surveys. Elasticities of expenditure on food, clothing, housing, etc. were found to be "similar but not equal". 629. KLEIN, L . R . "British and American consumers. A comparison of their situations and finances", Bankers' Magazine 179(1332), Mar. 55 : 241-246. [S] Great Britain, USA. Data from the Surveys of Consumer Finances conducted by the Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan and the Savings Surveys conducted by the Institute of Statistics of the University of Oxford. 630. LYDALL, H. ; LANSING, J.B. "A comparison of the distribution of personal income and wealth in the United States and Great Britain", American Economic Review 49(1), Mar. 59 : 43-67. [S] Great Britain, USA. On the basis of the Savings Surveys in Great Britain (1952-1955) and the Surveys of Consumer Finances in the United States, both using similar methods, comparisons are made of the level of income before taxation and its distribution among households and of the ownership of capital, both physical and financial assets, by households and by occupation. 631. MAYNES, E.S. Obtaining data on consumption, savings, family budgets in underdeveloped countries. Mimeographed paper presented at the American Statistical Association Meeting, Aug. 1960. [P : R] India : USA. 230

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

632.

SCHULZ, T. "Household expenditure in France and in England", Bulletin of the Oxford University Institute of Statistics 13(8), Aug. 51 : 229-242. [S I C] France (1949, 1960), Great Britain (1948). Samples : France : Urban families, lower income salary and wage earners, 3 to 5 family members, including dependent children (N = 843). Subsample of Paris wage earners, with two children. Great Britain : Comparable sample (N = 65). Instr. : Household account books. Accounting period : France : one week; Great Britain : four weeks. Interviews, and in Great Britain earlier records of same families. 633. STRAW, K.H. "Consumers net worth, the 1953 Savings Survey", Bulletin of the Oxford University Institute of Statistics 28 (2), Feb. 56 : 1-59. [S] Great Britain, USA. A descriptive study of the distribution over subgroups of the population. Comparisons with US data. US data source : Surveys of Consumer Finances by the Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan. 634. WILLIAMS, F . "International comparisons of patterns of family consumption ' ' in : L . H . CLARK (ed.) Consumer Behavior. Research on Consumer Reactions1 New York, University Press, 1955 : 270-307, bibliogr. [M] History of international comparisons. Frame of reference of current research. Discussion of techniques of comparing consumer expenditure, insistence on importance of the presentation of separate figures within income groups by family size or family type. Mention of effect of cultural differences on outlay for food, of the problem of goods and services supplied by states or local communities and the problem of taxes. Review of national and multinational data on income elasticity. In conclusion a survey of plans for future studies, and an examination of the work of the expert group of ILO and the United Nations. A bibliography of 175 post-war national surveys, with annotations covering : dates of inquiries, samples and methods, availability of reports on findings. 3.2 Markets for specific products 635.

CENTRE EMILE BERNHELM, Bruxelles. Les méthodes d'études comparées du consommateur européen. Liège, Vaillant-Carmanne, 1959, 82p. [M] 636. JURÉEN, L. "Long-term trends in food consumptions : a multi-country study", Econometrica 24(1), Jan. 56 : 1-21 [S IT] European countries (especially Great Britain and Sweden), USA. Empirical findings obtained from different countries often show great

231

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

637.

638.

639.

640.

641.

232

discrepancies. This multi-country study suggests that such discrepancies in many cases are due not only to the application of different statistical methods, to differences in respect of geographical position, consumption habits, etc., but are the result of the structural disparity in the general economic situation, country by country. KAPFERER, C. Market research. Methods in Europe. Paris, OEEC/EPA, (Project no. 261), 1956. [M] Reviews methods of consumer surveys in Western Europe. Multi-lingual glossary of technical terms. List of market research institutes in Europe. Extensive bibliography. Moss, L. Le comportement de l'acheteur de produits alimentaires. Paris, OECE, 1958, 196p. [P] Austria, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Netherlands, Norway. Samples : Random samples of certain categories of housewives. Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Surveys : carried out in each country by local market research organisations. Report written in 1955. Details on the organisation and the methods of the surveys together with the statistical tables have been published separately in : Appendix A, B, by the Social Survey, London. ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COOPERATION. European Productivity Agency. Market research on a European scale. Paris, Conference, 29th- June-lst July 1959. Project no. 5/39. Paris, OEEE, 60, 136p. [M] See particularly the two contributions by C . KAPFERER : "Methods of market research on a European scale" (pp. 25-34) and in the Appendix, "European co-operation in the field of market and business cycle research" (pp. 89-110). R E A D E R ' S DIGEST. Products and people. The Reader's Digest European surveys. London, Reader's Digest Assoc. Ltd., 1964, 55 tables. With appendix : U.W. KITZINGER : "The New Europeans. A commentary on Products and people", 21p. [See also French version : 641 and in German : Menschen und Märkte. Expertenband mit ergänzenden Tabellen und Kommentaren zur Sieben-Länder-Untersuchung — Düsseldorf, Das Beste, 1963, xx + 187p.] R E A D E R ' S DIGEST. 221.750.000 Consommateurs. Marché commun et GrandeBretagne. Paris, "Sélection" du Reader's Digest, 1964, 246p. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands. Samples : Random samples of adults (over 21 years) (N = 12,500). Luxemburg (N = ca. 500). Other countries (N = ca. 2,000). Instr. : Standardized interviews

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

642.

Study organized and financed by Reader's Digest. Field work by national market research organizations. Analysis locally according to pre-established tabulation plan. Cards centralised in France, ready for computer handling and available for further exploitation by arrangement with "Selection" du Reader's Digest. Non-published cross-tabulations are available on request. The most important part of report concern questions about consumption patterns and preferences, living conditions, household equipment, opinions about products of diiferent countries, etc. Breakdown by background variables for most questions. [Concerning the numerous questions in other areas : See 351, 797, 806, 941, 975.] U N I T E D NATIONS FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION. Recueils d'enquêtes sur la consommation alimentaire. Rome, FAO, 1958. [G]

643.

644.

3.3 645.

646.

Description of some fifty surveys from the period 1 9 5 0 - 5 8 , permitting analysis by income and family size WOLPERT, H . W . "The image of American firms and brands in the European Common Market", Public Opinion Quarterly 2 4 ( 3 ) , Fall 6 0 : 5 1 9 - 5 2 1 . [P] France, Germany (F.R.) Samples : National random samples of middle and upper income groups. France (N = 363), Germany (N = 372) Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Qualitative description of findings. No tables. W R I G H T , F . C . African consumers in Nyasaland and Tanganyika. London, H.M.S.O., 1955, 116p. [P] Nyasaland, Tanganyika (1952-1953). Samples : Africans. An enquiry into the distribution and consumption of commodities. Housing : conditions and opinions BELGIQUE. MINISTÈRE DU TRAVAIL. "Enquête sur la situation des logements des travailleurs dans les industries de la CECA", Revue du Travail (.Bruxelles) 6 0 ( 8 ) , août 1 9 5 9 : 1 0 3 7 - 1 0 7 0 . [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (avril-mai 1958). Description of study published in Informations statistiques 6(13), mai-juin 1959: 61-138. Reproduction of 14 of 44 tables. [See below 647.] COMMUNAUTÉ EUROPÉENNE DU CHARBON ET DE L ' A C I E R . "Enquête sur la situation des logements des travailleurs dans les industries de la communauté", Informations statistiques 5 ( 2 ) , mars-avr. 1 9 5 8 : 1 1 7 - 1 4 0 . [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands. Samples : Workers employed on Feb. 1-1958 in the coal mines, iron mines

233

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

and steel industries. (Universe = 1,500,000). Sample (N = 40,000). Identical random sampling procedures in all countries. Geographical stratification. France (N = 10,200) Belgium (N = 4,870), Germany (N = 18,000), Italy (N = 3,650), Luxemburg (N = 1,200), Netherlands (N = 2,150). Instr. : Interviews. Two questionnaires : 1) For workers living in collective households (ca. 5 %). 2) For workers in private households. Themes covered : Description of dwellings, rental and ownership conditions, distance from dwelling to place of work, judgments of workers with regard to their dwelling conditions, personal data. A description of procedures and methods published before the beginning of the field work. The survey was planned by a working group (Dec. 1957Jan. 1958) consisting of members of the National Institutes of Statistics, the field work was to be executed by these institutes, the data processing was to be the responsibility of the High Authority. 647. COMMUNAUTÉ EUROPÉENNE DU CHARBON ET DE L'ACIER. "Enquête sur la situation des logements des travailleurs dans les industries de la C E C A . Résultats préliminaires", Informations statistiques 6(3), mai-juin 1959 : 61-138. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (April-May 1958). — 44 comparative tables by country and industry with totals for the community. 648. UNITED NATIONS. Economic Commission for Europe. The European housing situation. Geneva, U.N., 1956, 56p. [S] All European countries. Instr. : Statistical sources, official information, results of factual sample surveys. (Spain : 10 % sample). 3.4 Labour market 649.

COMMUNAUTÉS EUROPÉENNES. Office Statistique. "Une enquête par sondage sur les forces de travail dans les pays de la CEE en 1960 (résultats complets et définitifs)", Informations statistiques no.2bis, 1963 : 1-278. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (1960) Content : Chapters : 1. Labor statistics existing in 1960. 2. Manpower sample surveys. 3. The OSCE-survey-preparation execution, exploitation. 4. The OSCE-survey-the tables of findings. 5. Conclusions. Annexes : The questionnaires. 650. EYQUEM, B. "Une enquête par sondage sur la population active dans les pays de la CEE", Informations statistiques 8(4), oct.-déc. 61 : 495-509. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (Sept.-Nov. 1960).

234

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : Two stage sampling : 1) Municipality; 2) Household or dwelling unit. Stratification criteria for first stage vary from country to country. Sampling units : Belgium (N = 8,573), France (N = 21,387), Germany (N = 180,392), Italy (N = 73,478), Luxemburg (N = 948), Netherlands N = 9,765). Instr. : Questionnaire. Common sections for all countries. Field work and card punching by national institutes of statistics of six countries. Centralisation of cards and tabulation by the Office Statistique des Communautés européennes. Description of organization, procedure and methods of study. No findings, data exploitation not finished. Review of organizational efforts to promote use of sample surveys in the field of manpower statistics, and standardization of methods. Characteristics of the national sample surveys of member countries : France, Germany, Italy, USA. Annexed : Questionnaire as used in Luxemburg. 651.

ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT.

Man-

power statistics 1954-1964. Paris, O E C D , 1965, 176p. [M] Tabulations for member countries based on census results, census projections, other total population statistics and, for certain countries, on sample survey findings. Monthly surveys : Canada, Germany, Japan, USA. Surveys at other intervals : France, Italy, Sweden. 652. ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION. Labour force statistics, sample survey methods. Paris, O E E C (Technical Assistance Mission no. 105), 1954. [M] 653. U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Conducting a labor force survey in developing countries. Washington, D.C., Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1964, Report no. 263. [M]

4 STRATIFICATION, MOBILITY AND CLASS RELATIONSHIPS 4.0 General studies 654.

BARBER, B . Social stratification : a comparative analysis of structure and process. New York, Harcourt, 1957, xvi + 540p. [G]

General text, includes a variety of references to evidence of differences between countries in stratification structure. 235

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

655.

656.

BLAU, P.M. ; DUNCAN, O. "Some preliminary findings on social stratification in the United States", Acta sociologica 9(1-2), 1965 : 4-24. [P : R] USA : Denmark, Great Britain, Sweden. CARLSSON, G.; GLASS, D.V.; SVALASTOGA, K. (eds.) "Social stratification

and mobility", Acta sociologica 9(1-2), 1965 : 1-182. [A special issue with an introduction by D.V. GLASS, pp. 1-3.]

657.

658.

659.

660.

661.

[M] Papers from a seminar at Lund and Copenhagen in May 1964 under the Research Committee on Social Stratification and Social Mobility of the International Sociological Association. GANÓN, I. "Estratificación social de Montevideo" (Social stratification in Montevideo), Boletim do CLAPCS 4(4), 1961 : 303-330. [P] Uruguay A component study of the CLAPCS "Four City Project". GLASS, D.Y. "Proposal for the empirical study, on a cross-national basis, of social mobility and social stratification", Communications!Papers. Social Stratification and Social Mobility. Vol. I. Oslo, International Sociological Association, 1953, 3p. mimeo. [M] The first detailed proposal of a standard instrument for mobility surveys, under the programme launched by the International Sociological Association. ODAKA, K. ; IKUTA, S. (eds.) "Proceedings of the International Symposium on Social Stratification and Social Mobility in East Asian countries", East Asian Cultural Studies (Tokyo) 4(1-4), Nov. 1965 : 1-226. Reports and papers from the first East Asian Conference organized as a result of the initiative taken by the International Sociological Association. Includes trend reports on research on stratification and mobility in Taiwan, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaya, Philippines, Thailand and VietNam. No direct comparisons but much information for future crossnational analyses. OLIVIERA, T. Estratificafäo social no Brasil (Social stratification in Brasil). Säo Paulo, 1965. [P] A component study of the CLAPCS "Four City Project". RINDE, E.; ROKKAN, S. (eds.) First International Working Conference on social stratification and social mobility : preliminary papers and proposals. Oslo, International Sociological Association, 1951, 154p. [G]

The initial discussions which led to the development of the ISA programme of comparative research on social stratification and mobility.

236

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD SMELSER, N . J . ; LIPSET, S . M . (eds.) Social structure and mobility in economic development. Chicago, Aldine, 1966, 448 p. [G] A collection of papers on the relationships between economic growth, social-structural change, and individual mobility. 663. SVALASTOGA, K. Social differentiation. New York, McKay, 1965, xiv + 174 p. [G] Review of theories and models of social differentiation, indicators of status and prestige, measurements of life chances and life style, and techniques of mobility analysis. Includes a number of comparative tables : prestige measurements for 8 countries (p. 27), social mobility rates for 13 countries (p. 121), classification of countries by predominant pattern of mobility (p. 123), "long distance" mobility rates for 8 countries (p. 124). Develops further the discussions within the programme of the International Sociological Association (pp. 1 4 3 - 1 4 5 ) . [See LIPSET-BENDIX, 7 3 5 ; MILLER, 662.

739.]

4.1

Ranking of occupations

664.

ANDERSON, C.A. "The social status of university students in relation to type of economy : an international comparison", in : INTERNATIONAL SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. Transactions of the Third World Congress of Sociology. Vol. 5. London, International Sociological Association, 1956 : 51-63. [G] 665. CONGALTON, A . A . "Social grading of occupations in New Zealand", British Journal of Sociology (4), 1 9 5 3 : 4 5 - 5 9 . [P : R] New Zealand : Great Britain. Study of reference for Great Britain: J . R . H A L L ; D.C. JONES, "The social grading of occupations", British Journal of Sociology 1(1), Mar. 50: 31-55. 666. COOK, D.R. "Prestige of occupations in India", Psychological Studies (Mysore) 7(2), 1962 : 31-37. 667. DAVIS, J. "A comparison of occupational status in Soviet Russia and the United States in 1926", American Journal of Sociology 23(6), May 27 : 947-952. [P : R] USSR : USA. Samples : Students and workers, USSR : Two groups of students : younger, 12-16 years (N = 72); older, 16-19 years (N = 21). Workers (N = 19), USA : High school and college students (N = 368). Instr. : Questionnaire.

237

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

668.

669.

670.

D'SOUZA, V.S. "Social grading of occupations in India", Sociological Review (10), 1962 : 145-159. [P : R] India : Great Britain. Samples : India : Bombay University students and graduates (N = 214). Thirty occupations, same as in HALL and JONES. Overall coefficient of rank (r = .975); Study of reference : J.R. HALL; D.C. JONES, "The social grading of occupations", British Journal of Sociology 1(1), Mar. 50 : 31-55. HUTCHINSON, B. et al. Mobilidade e trabalho. Rio de Janeiro, Centra Brasileiro de Pesquisas Educacionais, 1960. [P : R] Brazil : Great Britain. Includes comparisons of occupational rankings. HUTCHINSON, B. "The social grading of occupations in Brazil", British Journal of Sociology (8), June 57 : 176-189. [P : R] Brazil : Great Britain (1950). Sample : Sao Paulo students (N = 700). Instr. : Questionnaire. Twenty five of the thirty occupations ranked are equivalent to those of the British study. Overall correlation .916. The empirical grading is shown to coincide — apart from five exceptions — with the a priori grading destined for use in the social mobility project. The author announces subsequent extension of study to take in respondents from other strata of the Sao Paulo population. Study of reference J . HALL a n d D . C . JONES [See 665.]

671.

672.

INKELES, A.; ROSSI, P.H. "National comparisons of occupational prestige", American Journal of Sociology 61(4), Jan. 56 : 329-339. [S : T] Great Britain, Germany (F.R.), Japan, New Zealand, USA, USSR. Samples : Non-equivalent. Instr. : Questionnaire. "Despite the heterogeneity in research design there exists among the six nations a market degree of agreement on the relative prestige of matched occupations..." The data have "strongly supported the structuralist expectation concerning the influence of industrialisation in producing uniformity... there is a relatively invariable hierarchy of prestige associated with the industrial system, even when it is placed in the context of larger social systems which are otherwise differentiated in important respects." Deviations from this regularity seemed to involve mainly the agricultural occupations and personal services. MCDONAGH, E . C . ; WERMLUND, S . ; CREWTHER, J . F . " R e l a t i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l

status as perceived by American and Swedish university students", Social Forces 38(1), Oct. 59 : 65-69. [P] Sweden, USA. 238

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : Random University students. Instr. : Questionnaire. This study used identical questionnaires and coding procedures to check the findings of earlier comparative studies based on secondary analysis. The investigation concerned only eight occupations, all at the professional level. Four dimensions of status were explored. 673. MITCHELL, J.C. "Occupational prestige and the social system : a problem in comparative sociology", International Journal of Comparative Sociology 5(1), Mar. 64 : 78-90. [G]

674.

A discussion of the major national and comparative studies of occupational prestige, with an attempt to reconcile the frameworks used by different authors. Data from two prestige ratings (1954, 1959) by students in Northern Rhodesia are used to illustrate the influence of "political components", and findings from an unpublished study of African secondary school pupils are presented as suggestive evidence of a traditional-modernistic dimension. Methodological issues are raised, and suggestions made for future research with a particular recommendation for comparative research on the basis of material from widely different societies. MONTAGUE, J.B. Jr.; PUSTILNIK, B. "Prestige ranking of occupations in an American city with reference to Hall's and Jones' study", British Journal of Sociology 5(2), June 5 4 : 154-160. Also in : Class and Nationality. English and American studies. New Haven, College and University Press, 1963.

[P : R] USA : Great Britain. Samples : USA : Spokane, Washington. Random. Adults. Great Britain : Non-random. Special groups : professional, managerial, members of voluntary organizations, adult education classes, etc. (N = 1076). Subsample of males (N = 706) used as reference group for comparative analysis. Instr. : USA : Questionnaire interviews. Ranking of 30 occupations on a 5-point scale Great Britain : Mail questionnaires. Rank ordering of occupations. The Spokane study was designed to test the conclusions of the British study: 1) On the tendency of respondents to differ more on prestige rankings in the middle than in the polar regions of occupational hierarchy (not confirmed). 2) On the high level of correspondence between the rankings accorded by the sample and a previously established classification (confirmed, although there was a significant difference between the correlation coefficients). 3) That little difference exists between rankings by various occupational groups (confirmed). Study of reference : HALL and JONES [665]. 239

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

675.

RAMSEY, C.E.; SMITH, R.J. "Japanese and American perceptions of occupations", American Journal of Sociology 65(5), Mar. 60 : 475-482. [P] Japan (1958), USA (1958). Samples : High school seniors. Paired schools located in Tokyo and New York, and in rural centers of 20,000 inhabitants. Instr. : Questionnaire. Five-point scale rating of "prestige" and "social importance" of 23 occupations. "In sum, the prestige rankings reveal little in the way of cross-cultural differences generally, although differences in the rank of particular occupations are theoretically interesting." The prestige rankings in the study are compared with those of previous studies of American and Philippine respondents. "Again the general relationships are high and positive." Equally striking are the correspondences in the interrelationship of such variables as prestige and social importance, with each other and with income.

676.

SARAPATA, A.; WESOLOWSKI, W. "The evaluation of occupations by

Warsaw inhabitants", American Journal of Sociology 66(6), May 61 : 581-591.

[P : S] Poland : Germany, Great Britain, USA. 677. STEPHENSON, R.M. "Stratification, education and occupational orientation: a parallel study and review", British Journal of Sociology 9(1), 1958 : 42-52. [P : S] USA (1951); Great Britain (1951). Samples : 13-14 years old school children Great Britain : Greater London area, boys only (N = 700) USA : Medium sized, semi-industrial communities in New Jersey N = 1,000. Instr. : Questionnaire. Social status ratings assigned on basis of father's occupation. The Hall-Jones scale of prestige rating used in Great Britain, the Edwards scale in USA. British study of reference : H.T. HIMMELWEIT "Social status and secondary education since the 1944 Act : Some data for London", in : D.V. GLASS (ed.) Social Mobility in Britain [see 718], Further evidence is presented based on findings of other American and British surveys. 678. TAFT, R. "The social grading of occupations in Australia", British Journal of Sociology (4), 1953 : 181-188. [P : R] Australia : Great Britain, USA. Studies of reference : Great Britain : HALL and JONES [665]. USA : CATTELL, 1942, DEEG a n d PATTERSON, 1947.

679. THOMAS, E.M. "Re-inspecting a structural position on occupational prestige", American Journal of Sociology 67(5), Mar. 62 : 561-565. [P : S] Indonesia (1961) : Germany, Great Britain, Japan, New Zealand, USA, USSR.

240

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : Indonesia : High school students of a West Java City of one million inhabitants (N = 939). Instr. : Questionnaire. Correlation coefficients above .90 between the Indonesian study and the national data presented by INKELES and Rossi [671]. The author criticizes the Inkeles-Rossi interpretation of the high correlation of occupational rankings for different countries, and particularly rejects the predominant explanatory value accorded to the "factory system". THOMAS a priori identified six "dimensions" of occupational prestige and suggests that the societies compared hold the same attitudes in general on the six "dimensions". He argues that all the "dimensions" are not of equal importance from one society to another, and that this differential in weighting could account for the less than perfect correlation between pairs of nations. 680. TIRYAKIAN, E.A. "The prestige evaluation of occupations in an underdeveloped country : the Philippines", American Journal of Sociology 63, 1958 : 390-399. [P : R] Philippines : Germany, Great Britain, Japan, New Zealand, USA. Samples : Philippines : Non representative, but "typical" samples of urban and rural respondents (N = 641). Instr. : Questionnaire. Ranking of 30 occupations, "familiar" and representative of occupational structure and maximally similar or equivalent to the list used in previous studies in other countries. Average rank correlation of cross-national comparisons, .94. 681. WOOD, J.R.; WEINSTEIN, E.A. "Industrialization, values and occupational evaluation in Uruguay", American Journal of Sociology 72(1), July 66 : 47-57. [P : S] Uruguay. Samples : 463 students from seven cities. Instr. : Class-room questionnaires. Tests INKELES-ROSSI theory [671], through analysis of variations within a country. Communities chosen to reflect variations in "industrial exposure"

4.2 Class characteristics, values, attitudes. [See also: III.7.1, Electoral studies.] 682. BAKER, W.D. A study of selected aspects of Japanese social stratification; class differences in values and levels of aspirations. Doctoral dissertation. Dept. of Sociology Columbia Univ., 1956, 120 p. [Ann Arbor (Mich.), University Microfilm, 1956, Mich. 3552], [P : R] Japan : USA. 241

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 683.

684.

242

BUCHANAN, W . ; CANTRIL, H . et al. "National patterns of class consciousness", in : W. BUCHANAN; H. CANTRIL, HOW nations see each other: a study in public opinion. Urbana, 111., University of Illinois Press, 1953, ix + 220 p. [P] Australia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, USA. Samples : Quota sampling. Males over 18 years. In Mexico urban residents only. Each country (N = ca. 1,000). Instr. : A section of questionnaire interviews. Two comparative tables in the text: percentage distribution and breakdown by occupational groups (index), The higher incidence of D.K. responses in one country (Norway) as well as among certain professional strata in different countries is interpreted as a relative lack of class consciousness in the first case, and in the latter case as a sign of "uncertainty resulting from shifting of class lines due to local economic developments". The influence of socio-economic status, education and sex is considered cross-nationally (Figures in each of the national tables in the Appendix). A three-cell typology of the nations on a dimension characterized by "distinct" or "rigid" class lines was obtained by using as a basis for the "index of class discreteness", the correlation between "subjective class lines" and "objective" ones, as measured by interviewers' judgment of respondents' socio-economic status. The replies to the three questions concerning national versus class allegiance are given in a 9-nations percentage table. The influence of different factors are discussed separately for each type of "loyalty". Cross-national consistence was evidenced for the finding that respondents higher on "education", "subjective status", "objective status", are more "likely than others to feel they have something in common with both reference groups. International class bonds and national unity are not mutually exclusive"... "The term 'social class' (then) has a real meaning to people in all these countries..." The "figures point to a sense of isolation felt by the less privileged everywhere".

In Appendix B, there is a comparison of the findings on class identification of this survey and those of numerous US polls and of polls in Sweden, France and England at different periods. [See also : 502.] CENTERS, R. "Some comparative data on class consciousness in Sweden and France" App. 1. The psychology of social class. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1 9 4 9 : 2 2 1 - 2 2 5 . [S : T] France (1947), Sweden (1943), USA (1945-47). Samples : National representative samples. France (N = 2,500), US \ : White males (N = 1,200). Analysis of opinion poll data. "To the extent that the data (US-Sweden)

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

are comparable, the Swedish data indicate the same sort of relationship between economic stratification and class identification as that found for Americans." As concerns the French respondents the author concludes that "a cleavage along stratification lines is clearly evident". 685. CLIGNET, R.P.; FOSTER, P. "Potential elites in Ghana and the Ivory Coast: a preliminary comparison", American Journal of Sociology 70(3), Nov. 64: 349-362. Bibliogr.

[P] Ghana (1961), Ivory Coast (1963). Samples : Male secondary school students at comparable school levels. Ghana : Stratified random sample of schools (N = 775), 45 % of relevant population. Ivory Coast : Samples from all schools (N = 259), 82% of population. Instr. : Questionnaire. Social background, career aspirations, expectations and perception > of future roles. 686. FAUNCE, W.A.; SMUCKER, M J . "Industrialization and community status structure", American Sociological Review 31(3), June 66 : 330-399. [P] Costa Rica, Guatemala, Michigan, (USA). Samples : all households in selected village in each country (Michigan village : sample of 123 out of 266). Correlative study of factors affecting prestige rankings of occupations in three culturally distinct community settings. 687. GOODMAN, M.E. "Values, attitudes and social concepts of Japanese and American children", American Anthropologist 59, 1957 : 979-999. [P] Japan : USA. Samples : School children, grades 1-8. Japan, Central Honshu (N = 1,250); USA, North East (N = 3,750). Instr. : "Topic essays". Theme : occupational aspirations. 688.

HAVIGHURST, R.J.; GOUVEIA, A.J. Socio-economic development and secon-

dary education in Brazil. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-11 Sept. 1966, 12 p. + 17 tables, mimeo. [P : S] Brazil : USA. Samples : Students in "Middle Schools' from five states in capital cities and four size categories of other cities (N = 16,156). Instr. : Questionnaire. This report concerning Brazil is part of a research project on secondary education in transitional societies. 689. HIMMELWEIT, H.T. "Socio-economic background and personality", International Social Science Bulletin 7(1), 1955 : 29-35. [P : R] Great Britain : USA.

243

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Some conclusions drawn from data provided by two British surveys, forming a part of the general study on social stratification undertaken by the London School of Economics, and investigating the psychological aspects of social differentiation. A few comparative remarks are based on the findings of the replication of the London study in Seattle and Spokane (Washington, USA). [See also : 696, 697, 698, 699.] 6 9 0 . HUTCHINSON, B . "Class self-assessment in a Rio de Janeiro population", América latina (6), 1 9 6 3 : 5 3 - 6 4 . [P] Brazil. A component study of the CLAPCS "Four city project". [See also : 692, 713, 714, 721, 725, 726, 727, 728, 733.] 691. INKELES, A. "Industrial man : the relation of status to experience, perception and value", American Journal of Sociology 66(1), July 60 : 1-31. [S I C] Numerous countries. Instr. : Questions from national opinion polls and surveys. Data from an international compilation of national poll findings edited by H. CANTRIL [105] and from comparative surveys undertaken by Unesco (683) and International Research Associates. The samples of countries differed from one survey to the other, the sample subgroups were non-equivalent, the questions were only approximately the same, and the stratification criteria were sometimes other than that of occupational status, most significant for the theory. But "the emergence of the expected pattern even if weakly manifested", in the presence of so many potentially randomising influence, "may be taken as highly suggestive of the probable predictive power of the theory". "Perceptions, attitudes and values relating to a wide range or situations (work satisfaction, personal competence, child-rearing values, etc.) are shown to be systematically ordered in modern societies. The average proportion of persons holding a particular view may be distinctive of a given country, but within all modern societies the order or structure of response is the same, following the typical status ladders of occupation, income and education. The findings support the theory that the standard institutional environments of modern society induce standard patterns of response, despite the countervailing randomising effects of persisting traditional patterns of culture." [See also : 757.] 692. IUTAKA, S. "Estratificación social y oppotunidades educacionales entre metrópolis latino-americanas : Buenos Aires, Montevideo y Sáo Paulo" [Social stratification and educational opportunities in three Latin American metropolis : Buenos Aires, Montevideo and Sáo Paulo], América latina 5(4), 1 9 6 2 : 5 3 - 7 2 .

[P] Argentine, Brazil, Uruguay. 244

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Data from the CLAPCS co-ordinated comparative survey the "Four City Project". [For references to other reports, see 690.] 693. KAHL, J.A. "Social stratification and values in metropolis and provinces : Brazil and Mexico", América latina (1), 1965 : 23-34. [P] Brazil (1960), Mexico (1963). Samples : Non-random samples of male adult working population exclusive of two categories : casual labourers and university-trained professionals. Brazil : Rio de Janeiro and small provincial towns (N = 600). Mexico : Mexico City and towns with less than 10,000 inhabitants (N = 700). Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. The purpose of the study was to test the sociological model opposing two types of societies : the traditional and the modern. Data on the "crystallization" of the stratification system are presented for four types of communities on the traditional-modern continuum. Conclusions : "The data indicated that the structure of stratification in the various communities was more similar than the model would predict, for the pattern of relationship between occupation, education, parental status and self-identification were parallel." 694. LAMBERT, W.; KLINEBERG, O. "Cultural comparisons of boys' occupational aspirations", British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 3(1), 1964 : 56-65.

[P] 11 "cultural settings" : "Bantu (South Africa), Brazil, English Canada, France, French Canada, Germany, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, Turkey, USA. Samples : School boys 6, 10, 14 years old (N = 50 in each age group) from large cities, half working class families, half middle class families. Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Indices of filial aspirations. Reliable differences were found for culture and age variations. The indices were significantly related to independent measures of cultural attitude toward achievement. "The results are interpreted as support for the hypothesis that cultures vary in the freedom given children to modify established levels of the family's social standing and that filial aspiration indices reflect these cultural differences." 695. LIPSET, S.M. "Trade unions and social structure", Industrial Relations 1(1), 1961 : 75-89. Also in First New Nation. New York, Basic Books, 1963 : 183-184.

[S/C,T] Germany, USA. Instr. : Opinion poll questions. Comparisons on the subject of "the relative weight given to occupational prestige as compared with the size of the income". The question asked in USA concerned the personal preference for future job choice of a son as between a $ 75 white collar job and a $ 100 skilled labor job; in Germany, 245

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

it concerned the respondent's perception of the prestige accorded by the population to the two occupations : that of a book-keeper earning 300 D.M. and that of a foundry-worker earning 450 D.M. In both countries, the status of the respondent (indicated in the US by educational level, in Germany by manual-non-manual occupational level), influence his answer in the direction of preference for prestige. But the majority of the American respondents preferred the higher-paid lower status job... The majority of the German respondents ranked the lower paid white collar job higher. Findings from a similar study from Poland, close to the German results, is quoted as supporting evidence of the underlying difference in value systems and its relationships to the status system. 696. MONTAGUE, J.B. Jr. "Anxiety among English and American boys", in: J.B. MONTAGUE, Class and nationality. English and American studies. New Haven, College and University Press, 1963 : 208-213. [P : R] USA : Great Britain. Samples : Same as in [697], Instr. : Part of 210 items questionnaire. "Response-choice worries" checklist for several areas : parents and siblings, self-adequacy, material symbols of status, girls. "There is considerable consistency of response by nationality groups. In each area, nationality differences are greater than class differences... When compared by social class, the greatest differences are found between the two working classes... Social differences within the nationality groups are consistently small." 697. MONTAGUE, J.B. Jr. "Conceptions of the class structure as revealed by samples of English and American boys", in : J.B. MONTAGUE, Jr. Class and nationality. English and American studies. New Haven, College and University Press, 1963 : 181-192. [P : R] USA : Great Britain. Samples : Purposive samples of school boys 13 and 14 years old. Great Britain : London (N = 600). USA, Seattle and Spokane (N = 744). Samples of schools selected to assure approximate representativeness in terms of occupations of boys' fathers. Instr. : Part of 210 item questionnaire, class-room administration. Classification of respondents into three "social classes" based on fathers' occupations coded according to modified Edwards Census classification for both national samples. Class differences were found to be more evident than national differences. The three factors most frequently considered responsible for upward mobility are given for the two national groups and for the six strata. National differences were found in the ordering but not in the selection of determining factors.

246

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD MONTAGUE, J.B. Jr. " A cross-national study of attitudes by social class", in : J.B. MONTAGUE, Jr. Class and nationality. English and American studies. New Haven, College and University Press, 1 9 6 3 : 1 9 3 - 2 0 0 . [P : R] USA : Great Britain. In 22 attitudinal areas mean differences between rankings by nationality was compared with mean differences between rankings by social class. 699. MONTAGUE, J.B. Jr. "Prediction of attitudes from a knowledge of social class", in : J.B. MONTAGUE, Jr., Class and nationality. English and American studies. New Haven, College and University Press, 1963 : 201-207. [M] Great Britain, USA. In this summary of an unpublished Master's thesis by Bernard PHILLIPS (Pustilnik), a different approach to the analysis of national versus class differences is demonstrated on the same attitudinal material. The technique used is a comparison of two different coefficients of relative predictability of attitudes for both national samples using social class as "predictor". 700. PEARLIN, L.I.; K O H N , M.L. "Social class, occupation and parental values : a cross-national study", American Sociological Review 3 1 ( 4 ) , 1 9 6 6 : 4 6 6 - 4 7 9 . [P] Italy, USA. Samples : Parents of fifth grade children of middle class and working class in Turin, Italy, and Washington, D.C., US study reported in M.L. K O H N , "Social class und parental values", American Journal of Sociology 64(4), Jan. 59 : 337-351. 701. ROGOFF, N. "Social stratification in France and in the United States", American Journal of Sociology 58, 1953 : 347-357. [S/T] France (1950), USA (1940, 1949). Samples : France (N = 2,230), USA, 1940 (N = 5,217), 1949 (N = 1,097) Instr. : Standardized interviews. Analysis of subjective class identification as related to objective status. Studies of reference : France : INED, survey 1950. USA, 1940 : "The people of the United States: a self-portrait". Fortune Magazine 1940; 1949: 698.

CENTERS [ 6 8 4 ] .

702.

RUNCIMAN, W.G. "Industrial man : the relation of status to experience, perception, and value", American Journal of Sociology 66(4), Jan. 61 : 367-368. With a rejoinder by A. INKELES, ibid. : 368. [M] (A letter to the Editor, referring to A. INKELES' article in American Journal of Sociology 66(1), July 60 : 1-31). Raises questions about the timing of surveys compared. Recent surveys suggest that the deviant "ladder pattern" for security among the British respondents in 1946, essentially reflected the closeness to the war experience, rather than in a dissimilar question wording. The author calls for systematic collection of trend data.

247

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Inkeles, in his rejoinder, raises the question of "How far can we allow presumably momentary, or at least transitory, situational factors to enter into theory concerning the presumed regularity in the structure of response manifested from country to country?" 703. RUNCIMAN, W.G. "Problems of research on relative deprivation", Archives européennes de Sociologie 2(2), 1961 : 315-323. [G] Proposes a comparative study of satisfaction with own vs. group's status in society; a note preparatory to the author's own British survey reported in W.G. RUNCIMAN, Relative deprivation and social justice. A study of attitudes to social inequality in twentieth-century England. London, Routledge, 1966, xiv + 338 p. 704. TIRYAKIAN, E.A. "Occupational satisfaction and aspiration in an underdeveloped country : the Philippines", Economic Development and Cultural Change (7), 1959 : 431-444.

[P : S] Philippines (1954-55) : USA (1947). Samples : Philippines : gainfully employed persons in five areas of Luzon (N = 641). USA : NORC survey on national cross-section. Instr. : Standardized interviews. "Comparison between factors which made an occupation desirable in the Philippines with those which are cited by American respondents... The desirable features of occupations in the Philippines show a notable overlap with those in the United States." 705. WILLIAMSON, R.C. "Some variables of middle and lower class in two Central American cities", Social Forces 41(2), 1962 : 195-207. [P] El Salvador, Costa Rica. Samples : Heads of households, males or females. El Salvador (N = 229), 79 middle class, 150 lower class. Costa Rica (N = 245), 109 middle class and 136 lower class. Instr. : Standardized interviews. Areas of investigation : communication and socialization, social mobility, rationalism and secularism; family planning, friendship vs. kinship orientation, conformity, optimism and the statu quo, marriage adjustment. 4.3 Social mobility. [See also: 701.] 706. ANDERSON, C.A. "A skeptical note on the relation of vertical mobility to education", American Journal of Sociology 66(6), May 61 : 560-570. [S/Tl Great Britain (1949), Sweden (1949), USA. Samples : Great Britain : National stratified random sample of adult civilians aged 18 and over (N = 9,296). Sweden : National random 248

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

sample of men and Stockholm-Boras group of men. USA : National sample of white males. Education is but one of many factors influencing mobility, and it may be far from a dominant factor. "The author interprets the findings as suggesting that ability, whether hereditary or not, and associated motivation, varying independently of schooling, plays a powerful role in generating mobility." In the three countries for which data exist, mobility independent of schooling occurs frequently, but the possibility that cross-national data would "indicate something about varying functions of educations", could not be in detail explored. Because of the differences in the classifications used in each country "one cannot draw explicit comparisons, though one might infer that education has more influence in the United States". 707. BOLTE, K.M. Sozialer Aufstieg und Abstieg: eine Untersuchung über Berufsprestige und Berufsmobilität [Social ascent and descent : a study on occupational prestige and occupational mobility]. Stuttgart, Enke Verlag, 1959, x + 253 p. [P : S/T] Germany : Western European countries, USA. Cross-national comparisons are made at three points in the analysis : 1) Occupational prestige ranking. The findings obtained in SchleswigHolstein are compared with those of other German studies, and with those of the major national and comparative studies. The structural equivalence of the scales seem established but specific national or regional deviations are of interest; 2) Relationship between fathers' and sons' occupations. The indices of association obtained for both the younger and older groups of men from Schleswig-Holstein have values close to those found in the cross-national comparisons (in D.V. GLASS (ed.) Social mobility in Britain) between England and Wales, Italy, France, and the USA; 3) Extent of mobility. Comparisons of rates, for the region studied and for the whole of the Federal Republic (based on material from Divo). An outflow table gives the absolute figures from two German and two USA surveys and from single surveys in France, Sweden and Switzerland. In a subsequent table actual mobility is expressed in relation to random mobility. A cross-national comparison of mobility rates is thus obtained independently of differences in economic structure. This method of comparison reveals greater cross-national differences, which become further accentuated by the reclassification into 5 instead of 3 occupational strata [see below]. 708. BOLTE, K.M. "Vom Umfang der Mobilität in unserer Gesellschaft" [The rate of mobility in our society]. Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und SozialPsychologie

10(1), 1958 : 39-57.

[M]

249

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

For the purpose of diachonic and cross-national comparisons of rates of mobility the author proposes : 1) a measure that expresses actual mobility in terms of random mobility in order to control differential weight of the chosen strata; 2) the use of more occupational classes. The threestep classification into manual, non-manual, and farm occupations is inadequate to express important movements within groups, and perhaps characteristic cross-national differences. The use of five occupational classes instead of three in the comparison of mobility rates for Germany and the United States resulted in a greater distance between the two populations on a "closed" — "open" society scale. 709. CARLSSON, G. Social mobility and class structure. Lund, C.W.R. Gleerup, 1958, xi + 197 p. [P : S/T]. Sweden : Great Britain, Germany. The most extensive study of inter-generational mobility in Sweden. Based on census and birth register data, not on sample survey. Includes a number of comparisons with findings for Britain and other countries. 710. FELDMESSER, R.A. "Social status and access to higher education : a comparison of the United States and the Soviet Union", Harvard Educational Review 27(2), Sept. 57 : 92-106.

[S] USA, USSR. Comparison of the distribution of status levels of college students with that among the same status levels of all persons of college age reveals that "though status privilege in access to higher education exists in both the USSR and the United States, it is more pronounced in the latter." 711. Fox, T.G.; MILLER, S.M. "Economic, political and social determinants of mobility : an international cross-sectional analysis", Acta sociologica 9(1-2), 1965 : 76-92. [S/T] Twelve countries. Aggregate cross-national analysis using survey-based estimates of intergenerational mobility. 712. Fox, T.; MILLER, S.M. "Occupational stratification and mobility", in : R.L. MERRITT, S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London - New Haven, Yale University Press, 1965 : 217-238. [M]

713.

Illustrative data from Great Britain, Japan, Netherlands, USA. GARMENDIA, D.J. "Algunes consideraciones metodologicas sobre una investigación de estratificación y movilidad sociales", Boletim do Centro Latino-Americano de Pesquisas em Ciencias Sociais 4(4), 1961 : 331-348. [M]

The "Four City Project" of CLAPCS. [For references to other reports, see 690.] 250

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

714.

715.

716.

717.

718.

719.

720.

721.

722.

GERMANI, G . La movilidad social en la Argentina [Social mobility in Argentina]. Buenos Aires, Instituto de Sociología, 1963. [P] Argentina. Part of data from CLAPCS "Four City Project". [See 713.] GERMANI, G . "Les effets de la mobilité sociale sur la société", Sociölogie du Travail 7(4), oct.-déc. 65 : 384-415. [S] Argentina, Brazil : Western European countries, USA. GERMANI, G . "Social stratification and social mobility in four Latin-American cities : a note on the research design", América latina (3), 1963 : 91-93. [M] GIROD, R. "Mobilité sociale en Suisse : changements de milieu d'une génération ä l'autre", Revue de Vlnstitut de Sociologie (1), 1957 : 19-32. [M] Contribution to the international survey organized by the International Sociological Association. GLASS, D . V . (ed.) Social mobility in Britain. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954, 412p. [P] England and Wales : France, Italy, USA,. A pioneering study of rates of occupational mobility : the model for the series of comparative studies initiated by the International Sociological Association, cf. S . M . MILLER [739], [See also : 722, 723.] GLASS, D . V . ; KÖNIG, R . (eds.) Soziale Schichtung und Mobilität [Social stratification and mobility]. Köln, Westdeutscher Verlag, 1961, 345p. Bibliogr. [G + M], Includes a number of important articles on comparative stratification and mobility. Papers from a Conference organized by the International Sociological Association. GOODMAN, L . A . "On the statistical analysis of mobility tables", Americau Journal of Sociology 70, Mar. 65 : 564-565. [M] Denmark, Great Britain. Reanalysis of data from surveys conducted by D . V . GLASS [718] and K . SVALASTOGA [748] to test out new procedures. GRACIARENA, J.; SAUTU, M.A. "La investigación de estratificación y movilidad social en el gran Buenos Aires", Boletim do Centro Latino-Americano de Pesquisas em Ciencias Sociais 4(4), 1991 : 279-302. [M] Argentina A component study of the CLAPCS "Four City Project". [See 713.] HALL, J.R. "A comparison of the degree of social endogamy in England and Wales and the U S A " , in : D . V . GLASS (ed.) Social mobility in Britain. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954 : 344-364. [P : S/T] England and Wales : USA.

251

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

723.

724.

725.

726.

252

On the basis of an overall cross-national comparison of indices of association of occupational origins of brides and grooms and a comparison by three occupational groups, the author concludes : "The results of the analysis suggest that the pattern and degree of status association between brides and grooms is probable about the same in the USA as in England and Wales." HALL, J.R.; ZIEGEL, W. "A comparison of social mobility data for England and Wales, Italy, France and the USA", in : D.V. GLASS (ed.) Social mobility in Britain. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954 : 260-265. [P : S/T] England and Wales : France, Italy, USA. Indices of association are used to measure intergenerational mobility. The cross-national comparisons are made for all "occupational-social status categories" and separately for three occupational groupings (nonmanual, skilled manual and routine non-manual, semi-skilled and unskilled manual). HAVIGHURST, R.J. "Education, social mobility and social change in four societies : a comparative study", International Review of Education 4(2), 1958 : 167-185. Also in : Edugao e Ciencias sociais (2), 1957 : 103-121. [S/C, T] Australia, Brazil, Great Britain, USA. Focuses on intergenerational mobility. HUTCHINSON, B. "Social mobility rates in Buenos Aires, Montevideo and SÜO Paulo. A preliminary comparison", América latina 5(4), 1962 : 3-20. [P] Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay. Samples: Argentina, Uruguay : Heads of households; Brazil, Sao Paulo: Adult males. Instr. : Questionnaire. The Buenos Aires and Montevideo data are part of the findings of the CLAPCS co-ordinated Four-City Study (see 690). The Sao Paulo data are from an earlier study by Hutchinson. A reclassification of the occupational data was necessary to achieve comparability with the Sao Paulo survey. Intergenerational mobility is compared using two, three and six occupational categories. Comparisons of the proportions of mobility due to structural changes in each city, and indices of association by city are given. Differences among the samples are sometimes evident, the most importan; being the greater social rigidity evidenced in the Sao Paulo sample, but to draw conclusions concerning such differences seems hazardous. [For references to other reports, see 690]. IUTAKA, S. "Mobilidade social e oportunidades educacionais em Buenos Aires e Montevideo : une analise comparative" [Social mobility and educational opportunities in Buenos Aires and Montevideo : a comparative analysis], América latina 5(2), 1963 : 21-39. [P] Argentina, Uruguay.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Data from the CLAPCS co-ordinated comparative survey the "Four City Project". [See 725.] 727. IUTAKA, S. "Social mobility and differential occupational opportunity in urban Brazil", Human Organization 25(2), Sum. 66 : 126-130. [P] Brazil. A component study of the CLAPCS "Four City Project". [See 725.] 728. IUTAKA, S. "Social stratification research in Latin America", Latin American Research Review 1(1), Fall 65 : 7-34. [M] A review and trend report, with a summary of present state of research by country and a bibliography of recently completed research. A short discussion of the implications for comparative programs of transplanting the conceptual frame from one culture to another. A step-by-step evaluative description of the CLAPCS (project) on social stratification and mobility referred to as the "Four City Project". The decision to conduct the study was made in 1957, the first seminar held in 1959. The field research was carried out by national institutions in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay in the period 1959-1961. "The research was basically independent, each country conducting its own. Certain factors were common to all... Nevertheless the project lacked a basic design. The team established the design in a "democratic way". The project lacked a central team to define the boundaries of comparison." Once the data had been collected, the CLAPCS carried out the comparative analysis. The author summarizes the various types of problems met in the course of this first comparative project in Latin-America and concludes that "light has been thrown on several topics", "similarities between the countries seem to be more frequent than differences", and also that "the project has the great merit of calling attention to the possibilities of doing similar studies". [See 725.] 729. JANOWITZ, M. "Social stratification and mobility in West Germany", American Journal of Sociology 64(1), July 58 : 6-24. Also published in German, Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozial-Psychologie (10), 1958. [P : S / T ] G e r m a n y (1955) : U S A (1947).

Sample : Germany : Area probability national sample (N = 3,385). Analysis of German data collected by Divo. Some comparisons of intergenerational mobility in Germany and USA. US study of reference : "Jobs and occupations, a popular evaluation", a survey conducted by the National Opinion Research Center. 730. JANSON, C.-C. "Project Metropolitan", Acta sociologica 9(1-2), 1965 : 110-115.

[M] 253

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Plan for longitudinal cohort analysis of education and mobility in four Scandinavian metropolitan areas. 731. KNOX, J.B.; HILL, V. "Family size, status and mobility : some Argentine and American data", Eugenics Quarterly 11(2), June 64 : 90-95. Bibliogr. [B] Argentina, USA. Samples : University students. Instr. : Questionnaire. 732. KUIPER, G. Occupational stratification and mobility in the Netherlands. A paper for the Working Conference on Social Stratification and Mobility. London, International Sociological Association, 1957. [P] Contribution to the international survey organized by the International Sociological Association. 733. LABBENS, J.; SOLARI, A.E. "Movilidad social en Montevideo", Boletim do Centro Latino-Americano de Pesquisas em Ciencias Sociais 4(4), 1961 : 349-376.

[P] Uruguay. A component study of the CLAPCS "Four City Project". [See 825], 734. LIPSET, S.M. "Research problems in the comparative analysis of mobility and development", International Social Science Journal 16(1), 1964 : 35-48 Also published in Spanish in América latina 7(2), 1964 : 21-37. [M] 735. LIPSET, S.M.; BENDIX, R. Social mobility in industrial society. Berkeley, Calif., University of California Press, 1958, xxi + 309p. [S/C, T] USA : Western Europe plus a few comparisons with Asian countries. A. Intergenerational mobility rates. Samples : Males representing populations of : whole nations, single cities, special groups, including religious groups and elites. The type of mobility studied limited to shifts across the manual, nonmanual dividing line. Numerous re-analyses were necessary to achieve comparability. A major conclusion of the examination of mobility trends and social structure is that "the amount of social mobility is largely determined by the more or less uniform structural changes of industrialized societies and is therefore much the same in all such societies" (but) "it should be emphasized that the consequences of that mobility have been most diverse" The data presented (in the cross-national comparative section) raise questions about the validity o the widely accepted belief that the United States is "the land of opportunity". This image is discussed against the background of data on the actual patterns of mobility in USA. 254

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

B. Differential consequences of rates of mobility on political values : voting behavior. Western Europe, USA. Samples : Socio-professional categories (workers, middle class people). Voting data by social origin and in one case by consumption pattern. C. Causes and dimensions of social mobility. 1. Community structure. USA : Sweden, Germany, Netherlands. Samples : Oakland, Calif., Stockholm, Karlsruhe, one Dutch plant. Findings of European studies corroborate conclusions of Oakland study that : "The majority of the manual working class is recruited from smaller urban communities and rural areas." 2. Community size and occupational structure. Austria (1931), Belgium (recent), USA (NORC, 1947), California (recent). Samples: National: USA, cities: Germany, Austria (Lazarsfeld): suburbs. 3. Relationship of mobility to intelligence and motivation. a) Intelligence. Western Europe, USA. "The evidence does not permit any definite conclusions about the precise effect of intelligence as a factor in social mobility... There can be no doubt, however, that the discrepancy between the distribution of intelligence in a given generation of youth and the distribution of social positions in the parental generation is a major dynamic factor affecting mobility ..." b) Motivation Western Europe, USA. Review of great number of both sociologically and psychologically oriented studies. Summary of converging findings. D. Intra-generational mobility. (Appendix). USA : Great Britain, Japan. Comparison with these recently available data confirm the findings of the Oakland study and an earlier US study. This material is found to support the major conclusions of the comparative analysis of intergenerational mobility. 736.

LIPSET, S.M.; ROGOFF, N. "Class and opportunity in Europe and the U S " , Commentary

18(6), D e c . 54 : 562-568.

[S/T, C] Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Sweden, USA. For annotation, see [735], the analysis in this paper being an earlier version based on the same data. 737. LIPSET, S.M.; ZETTERBERG, H. "A theory of social mobility", in : Transactions of the Third World Congress of Sociology. Vol. III. London, International Sociological Association, 1956 : 155-177. [S/T and C] 255

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

738.

For annotations, see [735], MATRAS, J. "Comparison of intergenerational occupational mobility patterns : an application of the formal theory of social mobility", Population Studies

14(2), N o v . 6 0 : 163-169.

[M] The utility of Markov chain analysis, as applied to movement between social classes by S.J. PRAIS, is demonstrated on the mobility data presented in LIPSET a n d BENDIX [735],

739.

256

MILLER, S.M. "Comparative social mobility", Current Sociology 9(1), 1960 : 1-89. [S/T] 18 countries : Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Puerto Rico, Sweden, USA, USSR (emigrants). The first systematic attempt to collate and compare the data produced in different countries as a result of the effort made by Committee on Stratification and Mobility under the International Sociological Association. Detailed comparisons are included for rates of upward and downward occupational mobility from father to son. "The varied connections of upward and downward pattern mobility form the most important new element . . . " A four-cell typology of mobility patterns is presented with a classification of the 18 countries. The cross-national comparison of data does not show any "clear-out relationship between the rates for manual into non-manual movement and for manual into elite mobility ... These data support again the notion of asymmetry of mobility, for from one indicator of mobility (manual into non-manual) we cannot indicate movement along another indicator (manual into elite)". A four-cell typology of patterns of elite mobility (long-range up-mobility into elite and down-mobility from elite) is presented, with the empirical distribution of the nations. Separate treatment is given to mobility of farmers and farm workers. Indices of association are presented for five strata, and a classification of the countries made along a scale of consistency of association. Finally a synthesis of the principal indexes is presented in the form of "national profiles" of mobility. A detailed comparison is made with the finding of the Lipset-Bendix study [735]—some of which are supported others "attenuated"—the "convergence" of rates, if real, should not distract attention from the need for causal analysis of the kind of divergences found to occur. Attention is called to the neglected area of downward mobility, and it is suggested that the rate for downward movement is a suitable indicator of

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

740.

741.

742.

"social fluidity", of the degree of "openness" of a society. The statistical appendix contains the basic data on intergenerational mobility for each of 17 countries (Sweden not included) in absolute figures and percentages in the form of standard outflow tables. Extensive annotated bibliography. MILLER, S.M.; BRYCE, H. "Soziale Mobilität, wirtschaftliche Wachstum und Struktur" [Social mobility, economic growth and structure], in : D.V. GLASS und R. KÖNIG (eds.) Soziale Schichtung und soziale Mobilität (Sonderheft : Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozial-Psychologie). Köln, Westdeutscher Verlag, 1961 : 303-315. [S] Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Puerto Rico, Sweden, USA, USSR. Seven economic indicators from Simon Kuznets and Colin Clark are analyzed in an attempt to account for variations in mobility patterns. [See 712.] NIHON SHAKAI-GAKKAI CHODA IIN-KAI. Nihon Shakai

no Kaisö-teki

Kozö

[Modern Japanese society : its class structure]. Tökyö, Yöhikaku, 1958, 408p. [P] Report on Japanese mobility survey undertaken under the programme of the International Sociological Association. Contains detailed comparisons with findings from other countries. NISHIRA, S. "Cross-national comparative study on social stratification and social mobility", Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics 8(3), 1 9 5 7 : 181-191.

743.

[P : S/T] Japan : Britain, France, Sweden USA. Data from the survey of social stratification and social mobility carried out by the Japan Sociological Association, as part of the ISA-program. "Status scores" were compared for Japan, USA and Britain, by occupational categories and mean scores by country. Subjective evaluation of social status : a comparison of the distributions by self-assessment regrouped in 3 status classes for France, Great Britain, Japan, Sweden, USA. Social mobility : Comparisons of intergenerational occupational mobility for France, Great Britain, Japan and USA. Two cross-national tables : percentage of sons having fathers in same occupation, percentage of subjects being higher, on the same level or lower than their fathers. ODAKA, K.; NISHIRA, S. "Some factors related to social mobility in Japan", Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics 10(3), 1959 : 283-288. [P : S/T] Japan : Britain, France, USA.

257

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

A component study of the ISA program. Intergenerational occupational mobility: a cross-national comparative table of indices of succession and a comparative table of occupational mobility are presented. The Japanese data are analyzed by father's educational level. Some findings on intra-generational mobility for Tokyo are analyzed, and also relations between mobility patterns and attitudes. 744. ROGOFF RAMSOY, N. "Evner, utdannelse og yrkesvalg i norsk samfunnstruktur" [Intelligence, education and the choice of occupation within Norwegian social structure]. Tidsskrift for Samfunnsforskning 2(4), 1961: 217-237. [P : S/T] Norway : Finland, Great Britain, Sweden. Samples : Norway : All young men meeting for military selection board in 1950 (84 % of boys born in 1931), among those not meeting most were fishermen and seamen). (N = 19,000). Finland : Men and women, no age limitation (N = 4,750). Sweden : Men between 27 and 33 years (N = 4,500). Subsample of youngest age group used for comparisons. Instr. : Norway : Interviews and tests. Comparison of level of education by father's occupation in Norway and Great Britain. Comparative outflow table of social mobility : Norway, Finland and Sweden. Studies of reference : Great Britain : Report of the Crowther Commission (1959) as published in The Observer 13 Aug. 61, p.ô.Sweden : G. CARLSSON

[709] Finland : Data from a sample survey by Tauno HELLEVUO as quoted in S.M. LIPSET and H.L. ZETTERBERG "A theory of social mobility", in :

Transactions of the Third World Congress of Sociology, vol. Ill, London, 1956 : 165-167.

745. ROGOFF RAMSOY, N. "On the flow of talent in society", Acta sociologica 9(1-2), 1965 : 152-174. [P : S] Norway (1950), USA (1955). Samples : Norway : 19 year old recruits; USA : public high school seniors. Focus on relationship between intelligence, education, mobility aspirations and (for Norway only) actual mobility. 746. SARAPATA, A. "Distance et mobilité sociale dans la société polonaise contemporaine" Sociologie du Travail 8(1), Jan-Mar. 66 : 4-19. [P : S] Poland : USA, Germany (F.R.) and other industrialized countries. Samples: Random. Poland: National and various cities: Warsaw, Lodz, Plock. Instr. : Analogous questionnaires. 747. SOROKIN, P. Social and cultural mobility. Glencoe, 111, The Free Press, 1959.

[G] A primary presentation of scattered mobility data for a variety of countries. 258

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

747a.

748.

749.

750.

750a.

750b.

751.

K . "Gedanken zu internationalen Vergleichen sozialer Mobilität" [Thoughts on international comparisons of social mobility], in : D.V. GLASS, R . KÖNIG (eds.) Soziale Schichtung und soziale Mobilität. Köln, Westdeutscher Verlag, 1961 : 284-302. [M] Illustrative data from European countries, Japan, USA. SVALASTOGA, K. Prestige, class and mobility. Copenhagen, Gyldendal Scandinavian University Books, 1959, 466p. [P : R] Denmark. "The basic study of Denmark. Considerable attention is paid to important methodological problems of general significance." (Miller.) Replicates features of the initial British study [718], includes several comparative tables. SVALASTOGA, K . "Social mobility : the Western European model", Acta sociologica 9(1-2), 1965 : 175-182. [M] Illustrative material from nine Western European countries. Discusses possibility of fitting a "log-normal distribution" model to the observed rates of mobility in Western Europe : considers nine countries and relates mobility rates to (a) percent of population outside agriculture; (b) rate of economic growth; (c) access to higher education; (d) differential fertility; (e) strength of egalitarian parties. SVALASTOGA, K.; CARLSSON, G. "Social stratification and social mobility in Scandinavia", Sociological Inquiry 31(1), 1961 : 23-46. [S] Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden. TURNER, R. "Sponsored and contest mobility and the school system", American sociological Review 25, Dec. 1960 : 855-867. [G] Discussion of differences between types of mobility : suggests detailed comparative research. For fuller report see R.H. TURNER. The social context of ambition, 1964, [see also 562], TURNER, R. "Acceptance of irregular mobility in Britain and the United States", Sociometry 29(4) Dec. 1966 : 334-357. [P] Britain, US. Samples : National cross-section (N's 512 (Britain) and 1469 (USA)). Instr. : Eight questions about attitudes to upward mobility added to regular surveys. VERSICHELEN, M . Sociale mobiliteit : een studie over differentiele levenskansen [Social mobility : a study of differential life chances]. Gent, Rijksuniversiteit, (Studie- en Onderzoekcentrum voor Sociale Wetenschappen, n° 1), 1959, 169P. [P] SVALASTOGA,

259

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

5 OCCUPATIONS AND WORK ORGANIZATIONS 5.1 752.

Occupational adjustment, work satisfaction AUBERT, V.; HALDORSEN, G . ; TILLER, P.O. Lcereres holdning til

yrkesrollen

og oppdragelsesspdrsmal [Teachers' attitudes to their occupational role and to educational issues]. Oslo, Institute for Social Research, 1956, 35p. [Reprinted from Norsk Pedagogisk Arbok.] [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden. Samples : Primary and secondary school teachers. Instr. : Standardized interviews. Analysis of opinions on occupational role and status of teachers. Part of the OCSR comparative study. [See also : 476, 488, 885, 870.] 753. BARBICHON, G. Adaptation and training of rural workers for industrial work. Paris, OECD, 1962, 139p. Bibliogr. [M] Includes a section discussing the choice of methods in the study of the acculturation of rural workers : overall observation of community, special hasards of questionnaire methods, interviews, non-directive interviews, group discussions, free compositions by school children, etc. The appendices contain : an inventory of current research in France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, a proposal for a more comprehensive inventory of research projects and measures dealing with the adaptation and training of rural workers, and a proposal for crossnational research. 754. BLANCHENBERG, P. VON. The position of the agricultural hired worker. Paris, OECD, 1962, 290p. [G] Eight European countries. Based mainly on global statistics and on some data from labour force sample surveys. The discussion of certain topics, such as the social position of agricultural workers, is oriented by the findings of different national sample surveys of occupational prestige (Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands). No comparisons of quantitative findings are made. 755. CHANEY, F.B. "A cross-cultural study of industrial research performance", Journal of Applied Psychology 50(3), June 66 : 206-210. [P : R] Great Britain : USA. Sample : Scientists, Great Britain (N = 220). Instr. : Questionnaire. The purpose of the study was to determine the cultural generality of selected US findings for scientific creativity. 260

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD 756.

757.

758.

R.; FOSTER, P. "Ethnicité et emploi de bureau", Sociologie du Travail (2), 1965 : 151-161. [M] Ivory Coast (1963). Samples : Men employed in industrial firms : length of employment and level of qualification controlled. Two ethnic groups, at different levels fo acculturation : Agnis (N = 28), Bébés (N = 50). Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. INKELES, A . The modernization of man. General description of the Harvard Project on the Sociocultural Aspects of Development. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France) 4-11th Sept. 66, 26p. Printed in : M. WEINER (ed.). Modernization : the dynamics of growth. New York, Basic Book, 1966. [P] Argentina, Chile, India, Israel, Nigeria, Pakistan. Planned for : 1963. Samples : Random, stratified. (Max. N = 1,000 per country). Peasants and workers from different "settings". Main stratification criteria : 1) Individual level : Sex (males), age (20-35 years), education, skill; 2) Plant level : Type of management (modern — traditional), location of factory (urban — rural). Possible additional samples : skilled workers, members of nonindustrial urban occupational groups, unique national groups. Further additional samples if use of self-administered version of questionnaire : factory employees and management personnel, management trainees, students in technical institutions and in agricultural training courses. Instr. : Standardized interview, largely fixed-choice questions. Predicted interview duration : Up to six hours, spread over two-three sessions. Detailed description of the design of a project of the Center for International Affairs Harvard University (Project Director : Alex Inkeles), preceded by a discussion of the concept of modernization of attitudes as used in the research. In addition to the main focus on attitudes relevant to the work setting, other aspects of life will be explored; family, friends, community, nation. The project began in Sept. 1961. Field work was programmed for 1964 and analysis scheduled to start in 1964 and continue till April 1966. First analysis report : D.H. SMITH; A. INKELES. "The OM Scale : a comparative social psychological measure of individual modernity", Sociometry 26(4), Dec. 1966 : 353-388. CLIGNET,

LE PLAE, C. "Différences culturelles entre instituteurs d'expression française et flamande", Bulletin de l'Institut de Recherches économiques et sociales (Louvain) 21(7), 1955 : 709-754. [P] Belgium. Samples : Teachers. Comparison of two cultural groups. Instr. : Questionnaire. Analysis of data from the OCSR comparative survey. [See also : 476, 488, 752, 885, 870.] 261

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY L E PLAE, C. "Différences culturelles entre instituteurs flamands, francophones et hollandais", Bulletin de l'Institut de Recherches économiques et sociales CLouvain) 2 2 ( 7 ) , 1 9 5 6 : 7 3 1 - 7 4 1 . [P] Belgium, Netherlands. Samples : Teachers. Instr. : Questionnaire. Comparative analysis of data from the OCSR survey. [See 758.] 760. M O R I N , J . "Une étude psycho-technique du travailleur marocain : l'application du test de pliage de fil de fer " Journal de Psychologie normale et pathologique 5 2 , 1 9 5 5 : 1 8 2 - 1 9 6 . [P : R] Morocco : France. Samples : Workers. Instr. : Wire-bending test. 761. ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. Steel workers and technical progress. A comparative report on six national studies. E.P.A. Project no 164. Industrial version no 2. Paris, O E C D , June 1959,65 p. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands. Samples : Workers in plants where technical change had recently occured, or was in progress. One plant studied in each country, three in Belgium. Size of plants varied, but all of the larger category. Type of innovation varied between countries both in terms of process to be modernized and the modernization itself. Also : Managers, foremen, trade union officials. Instr. : Interviews, (records and other documentary material, direct observation). Two comparative tabulations concerning workers (perception of the consequences of change and their attitude to change. 762. PUIG-ARYELO, H . A . A quantitative cross-cultural study of job satisfaction in the US, Italy and Puerto Rico. Ann Arbor, University Microfilm (Mich.), 1962, no 62, 395p. [P : R] Italy, Puerto Rico : USA. Samples : Industrial workers. Italy (N = 196), Puerto Rico (N = 398), USA : Michigan. Instr.: Questionnaire. Translation of TRIER'S questionnaire. 763. RABINOWITZ, R . W . The Japanese lawyer : a study in the sociology of the legal profession. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University, 1955. [Doctoral dissertation.] [P : S] Japan : Western countries. 764. RÜSCHEMEYER, D. "Rekrutierung, Ausbildung und Berufsstruktur. Zur Soziologie der Anwaltschaft in den Vereinigten Staaten und in Deutschland" [Recruitment, education and structure of the profession. On the sociology of the legal profession in the United States and Germany], in : D.V. GLASS 759.

262

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

and R. KÖNIG (eds.) Soziale Schichtung und soziale Mobilität. Köln, Westdeutscher Verlag, 1961 : 122-144. [S] Germany, USA. Instr. : Survey data and statistical data on total groups. 765. SPIND ER, G.D. "American character revealed by the military", Psychiatry 11(3), 1948 : 275-281.

[S] Germany, USA. Samples : USA : Soldiers and veterans. Germany : Prisoners of war (N = 4,000). Instr. : Questionnaire — interview — and participant-observer data. Qualitative analysis. Studies of reference : USA : What the soldier thinks. A digest of War Department studies of the attitudes of American troops. War Department 1944-45, no 1-26. Germany : H.V. DICKS, The psychological foundation of the Wehrmacht. Research Memorandum, London, War Office, Directorate of Army Psychiatry, 1944. 766. TRIANDIS, H.C. "Factors affecting employee selection in two cultures", Journal of Applied Psychology 47(2), 1963 : 89-96.

[P] Greece, USA. Samples : Students : Greece, USA (N's = 100); and personnel directors : Greece (N = 20), USA (N = 34). Instr. : "Structured" questionnaire. 767. WHITEHILL, A.M. Jr. "Cultural values and employee attitudes : United States and Japan", Journal of Applied Psychology 48(1), 1964 : 69-72. [P] Japan, USA. Samples: Production workers. Japan (N = ca. 1,000); USA (N = ca. 1,000). Samples from four roughly comparable plants in each country. Instr. : Questionnaire. Comparison of responses in following areas : employment continuity, economic involvement, personal involvement identification with organization, status transfer, motivational sources. Presentation of data : Percentages of total samples, no breakdowns or cross-tabulations. 768.

ZDRAVOMYSLOV, A.; YADOV, V. Investigation of young workers'attitude

to

their work. Paper for the Eighteenth International Congress of Psychology, Moscow, 1966, and for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France), 4-11th. Sept. 66, 10p. mimeo. [P] Great Britain, Poland, USA, USSR. Samples : USSR : Stratified sample of workers under 30 in 25 Leningrad enterprises (N = 2,665). Instr. : Questionnaire. Semi closed and open questions, five-point scales. Information from factory files, including foreman's opinion. Report of USSR-study only. The other studies are referred to as having 263

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

similar program of investigation. Apart from a concluding remark no crossnational comparisons made. 5.2 Administrative and organizational behaviour. [See also : 250] 769. A cross-cultural anthropological analysis of a Technical Aid Program. Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institution, 1951. [P] Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Peru. A preliminary report based on cross-cultural comparison of data from four countries. Tentative hypotheses and conclusions were formulated to be tested in three additional countries. [See also 774]. 770. BERGER, M. Bureaucracy and society in modern Egypt. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1957, 231p. [G] Egypt. A test of Western bureaucratic theory through the collection of interview data from a sample of Egyptian civil servants, and through analysis of other background data. 771. BERGER, M. "Bureaucracy East and West", Administrative Science Quarterly 1(4), Mar. 57 : 518-529. [G] Egypt (1954).

Sample : Higher civil servants (N = 249). Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. The study raises questions about the "adequacy of bureaucratic theory developed in the West, as a guide for the study of non-Western bureaucracies". A need is revealed to "break the unitary concepts of bureaucratic behavior, attitudes and professionalism into several parts". "When we try to compare bureaucratic and professional predispositions in the East and the West we find that there may be differences of attitude and behavior in spite of the similarity in structure. As in other values, similarity in structure and form, often the results of culture diffusion, does not mean similarity of institutional or behavioral patterns." Hypotheses derived from a Mertonian model of "bureaucratic behavior are not verified". Data presented : Fathers' occupation, bureaucratic scale (trichotomized) by exposure (to West) scale (dichotomized), responses on two questions concerning loyalty to hierarchy by exposure, professionalism index by exposure, and bureaucratic scale position by position on professionalism index. 772.

FARMER, R.M.; RICHMAN, B.M. " A model for research in comparative

management", California Management Review 1(2), 1964 : 55-68. 773. FOSTER, G.M. "Relationships between theoretical and applied anthropology, a public health program analysis", Human Organization 11(3), Fall 52 : 5-16. 264

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

[P] Brazil (1951), Chile (1951, 1952), Colombia (1951), El Salvador (1952), Equator (1952), Mexico (1951, 1952), Peru (1951). Samples : Random or total group coverage. Population in health center areas (interviews,) nursing students (tests), health center personnel. Instr. : Questionnaire interviews, non-directive interviews, interviews with informents (ethnographic technique), tests, observational methods, analysis of organizations (hospitals and health education programs). Organizational framework : Institute of Social Anthropology personnel in collaboration with "a special survey team" of the Health and Sanitation Division of the Institute of Inter-American Affairs. Research setting : Health Centers of the Servicio Cooperativo Inter-Americano de Salud Publico. Only a small part of the field data are presented. No quantitative findings. Stresses importance of comparing reactions to similar institutions in different cultural settings. 774. FRENCH, J . R . ; ISRAEL, J . ; As, D . "An experiment on participation in a Norwegian factory", Human Relations 13(1), 1960 : 3-19. [P : R] Norway : USA. Sample : Four experimental groups of workers in a Norwegian factory (N = 36). Instr. : Two interviews : pre- and post experimental. Group discussions. Change of managerial procedures. A replication of the COCH and FRENCH experiment (COCH, L . ; FRENCH, J.R. "Overcoming resistance to change", in : D. CARTWRIGHT; A . ZANDER (eds.) Group dynamics : research and theory. Evanston (111.), Row, Peterson; London, Tavistock Publications, 1953 : 319-353) "using a more precise theory of participation and more careful empirical methods. A secondary purpose was to discover whether the general results... will hold in a different culture". 775. GRANICK, D. The European executive. Garden City (N.Y.), Doubleday Anchor Books, 1962, 384p. [P : S] Western Europe (1959 : Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain) ; USA. Samples : Purposive samples of industrial firms, broad geographical coverage, different types of ownership conditions represented. Instr. : Personal interviews by author with middle and top management. Mainly qualitative analysis and comparisons. In the appendix data on : educational background of the French interviewers, secondary survey data on education of Belgium "cadres" and of British executives, and of first jobs held by education, age and present situation. Secondary data also on ratios of various categories. 265

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 776.

777.

HAIRE, M . ; GHISELLI, E.E. ; PORTER, L . W . "Cultural patterns in the role of the manager", Institute of Industrial Relations 2(2), 1 9 6 3 : 9 5 - 1 1 7 . [P] 14 countries. Samples : Purposive samples of managers (N = 3,500) (Min. per country : 200). Instr. : Questionnaire. LAUTERBACH, A . "Perceptions of management : case materials from Western and Northern Europe", Administrative Science Quarterly 2(1), June 57 : 97-109.

778.

779.

780.

781.

266

[P] Germany, Great Britain, Norway, Sweden. Samples: Managers (N = 75). Researchers and civil servants, union officers and shop stewards (N = 59). (Total N = 134). Germany (N = 45); Great Britain (N = 36); Norway (N = 26); Sweden (N = 27). Instr. : Interviews. "Suggestive case materials." Statements from interviews with the manager group. Focus on perception of the managerial function in relation to ownership. The study is considered as exploratory with the purpose to help formulate hypotheses for later cross-national research on representative samples of managers. In conclusion, elements of a research design for such a study are presented. LAUTERBACH, A. Enterprise in Latin America. Business attitudes in a developing economy. Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press, 1966, xviii + 207p. [P] Chile (1959 and 1963). Argentina, Brazil (Southern and Central), Bolivia, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru (1959-1960), Brazil (North-East), El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Venezuela (1960-1963). Samples : Non-random samples of cross-sections of managers (N = 324) and of "experts" (N = 79). Instr. : Semi-structured interviews. Two "somewhat different" questionnaires for the two periods (pre-1962 and 1962-1963). "Nature of data obtained essentially qualitative." LIKERT, R . "Trends toward a world-wide theory of management", Proceedings of CIOS XIII. International Management Congress, 1 9 6 3 : 1 1 0 - 1 1 4 . [G] Includes a summarization of findings of replications in India of surveys in the area of supervisory leadership originally undertaken by the Michigan Survey Research Center. Conclusions of comparable research in England and Japan are also considered. OBERG, W. "Cross-cultural perspectives on management principles", Academy of Management Journal 6(2), 1963 : 129-143. [G] ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. Evaluation

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

of supervisory and management training methods. Co-ordination of research. Paris, OECD, June 1963, 159p. [M] Belgium, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland — and European Coal and Steel Community. Samples : Trainees, and in certain studies control groups. Instr. : Tests (stand.), questionnaires, non-directive and semi-directive interviews. Measurement at one or several stages with reference to training experience : before, immediately after and at later period. National monographs, general section with methodological considerations based on the several studies. 782. ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION. The training of workers within the factory. Survey of industrial in-plant training programmes in seven European countries. London-Paris, O E E C , Mar. 1957, 96p. [M] Austria, Belgium, France, Great Britain, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Netherlands. Samples : Samples of plants. Purpose : not representativeness, but inclusion of different types of plants having a system of training in operation. Instr. : Informative interviews with directors, foremen, instructors and workers. In all countries use of a uniform "check-list", rather than a questionnaire, for the recording of information obtained. 783. ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. Technical information and the smaller firm. Facts and figures on practices in European and American industry. Paris, O E C D , 1960, 68p. [P] Austria, Belgium, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Norway, USA (1955-1956). Samples : Unit : Establishment. Method of drawing sample differed between countries. Austria (N = 284); Belgium (N = 200); Germany (N = 214); Great Britain (N = 581); Italy (N = 286); Norway (N = 231); USA (N = 401). Industries represented : metal manufacture, engineering, electrical manufacture, textiles and food manufactures. Instr. : Four-part identical questionnaires. The Social Survey of the Central Office of Information, London, acted as co-ordinating body : over-all planning of inquiry and drafting of schedule. In each country a "controlling committee" including representatives of industries, concerned national research organisations, the productivity centre and the interviewing institute. 784. RICHARDSON, S.A. "Organizational contrasts on British and American ships", Administrative Science Quarterly 1(2), Sept. 56 : 189-207 [P] Great Britain, USA. Samples : Interview study 1948 : (a) Sea-men, all ranks in deck departments and (b) union officials (N = 72). 267

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

785.

786.

5.3 787.

788.

789.

268

Instr. : Participant observer data (1947) author's diary notes (1937-1946), semi-structured interviews in port (1948). A study of 40-men cargo ships as examples of organizational variation due to cultural differences in social systems adapted to similar tasks under similar conditions. Description of differences found in training, social control and stratification. SCOTT, W.H. Office automation ; administrative and human problems. Paris, OECD, 1965, 102p. [M] France, Germany, Great Britain, Sweden. Four monographs. Introduction, with a brief description of methods, and conclusion, broadly comparative, including some remarks on attitudes in the different countries by W.H. SCOTT. WHYTE, W.F.; WILLIAMS, L.K. "Supervisory leadership : an international comparison", Proceedings of CIOS XIII. International Management Congress 1963 : 481-488. Unions and labour-management

conflict

"Droit de grève (Le). L'opinion dans le monde", Sondages 21, 1946 : 271-280. [O] Brazil, USA. Instr. : Dissimilar poll questions on similar subjects. Only comparable questions in a compilation in the topic area of : trade unionism and work conflicts. All other questions concerned different subjects in each country. "Liberté et la garantie du travail (La)' in : "A l'étranger. Les problèmes du travail", Sondages 16, 1947 : 205-210. [O] USA, Great Britain (July 1947). N o breakdowns. RAFFAELE, J.A. Labor leadership in Italy and Denmark. Madison, Wis., University of Wisconsin Press, 1962, x -I- 436 p. [P] Denmark, Italy (1957-1959). Samples : Non-random samples. Four groups in each country : workers, union leaders, employers, "industrial relations segment of general public". (a) Workers : Denmark. Male workers : 1) from a random selection of ten plants, seven in Copenhague, three in the province; 2) from "labour school" at Esbjerg. Italy : Non-systematic interviews (small N's). (b) Union leaders : stratification by : region, industrial concentration, federation. Italy (N = 50), Denmark (N = 35).

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

(c) Employers : Stratification by : region, industry. Italy (N = 35), Denmark (N = 35). (d) "Industrial relations group" : same locations as union leader and employers. Italy (N = 30), Denmark (N = 35). Instr. : A combination of methods : (1) Written questionnaires — personal remittance, mail return; (2) semi-directive interviews; (3) information about "action situations" involving the different groups. The interview schedules for each of four groups appear in appendix The main section presenting much quantitative material dealing separately with each country : labour leadership, group images of labor leaders and employers, collective bargaining relationships. In the concluding section : a qualitative comparative analysis, and an 11-points discussion of the "implications for international labor interpretation". Extensive use of secondary data from sample surveys.

6 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL PARTICIPATION

6.1 Leisure, time budgets 790.

791.

(ed.) Compte rendu des travaux de la réunion du Groupe international d'Etudes des Sciences sociales du Loisir. Portoroz (Yougoslavie) 20-30 juin 1960. Institut de l'Unesco pour l'Education, Hambourg, 1961, Bulletin n° 10, 131p. ronéo. [M] Countries represented : Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (F.R.), Switzerland, Yugoslavia. Report on the fifth session of the Group, first comprehensive view of the research by the Group members in the course of the last three years. Account of the state of research in each country. Tabulations of characteristics of national studies : organizational framework and methods (community studied, population, size and composition of sample), subjects covered. The discussion of a joint report gives occasion for the examination of methodological problems of cross-national comparison and a proposal for a common plan of analysis. [See also : 794, 795.] BUREAU INTERNATIONAL DU TRAVAIL. "Renseignement sur les activités de loisir fournis par les enquêtes auprès des ménages", in : B . I . T . Rapport concernant le cycle d'étude régional sur les enquêtes auprès des ménages, AHTIK, V .

269

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

organisé conjointement par VOIT et les Nations Unies. Genève, 1962 : 79-99, mimeo. [M] After a general discussion, a description of several Dutch surveys, with precise details about organizational set-up, costs, method and a review of findings. 792. "Distraction et culture", Sondages 17, 1947 : 222-224. [O] Czechoslovakia (1947), Hungary (1947). Instr. : Dissimilar questions in same subject area. —Single-nation tables. Czechoslovakia : breakdowns by profession. 793. DONALD, M.N.; HAVIGHURST, R.J. "The meanings of leisure", Social Forces 37(4), May 59 : 355-360. [P : S/C] New Zealand, USA. Samples : New Zealand : Stratified random samples of households (192). Rural town (5,000 inhab.) and its trading territory. All adults over 16 years present in sampled household (N = 626). USA : Stratified random sample : Kansas City, men and women between 40-70 years. Instr. : Interviews, non-identical questionnaires. New Zealand : Pretest of 16 statements of meaning on urban/suburban sample (N = 200 . 12 statements retained, reformulated for final interview schedule. USA : "Social role interview". Re-analysis of Havighurst's Kansas City data. Overlapping of eight most frequent categories of "meaning" in both countries. Meanings were related to : content of activity, sex, age, social class and (USA sample only) personality variables (adjustment complexity) and personal lifetime mobility. The New Zealand and the American results are substantially the same. "The differences in the meanings or values people find in their leisure seem to depend more upon their personalities than upon their age, sex, or social class characteristics." Studies of reference : A.A. CONGALTON (ed.) Hawera — a social survey. The Hawera Star Publishing Co., Hawera, N.Z., 1954 and R J . HAVIGHURST, "The social competence of middle aged people", Genetic Psychology Monographs 56, 1957 : 297-375. 794. DUMAZEDIER, J. Vers une civilisation du loisir? Paris, Éd. du Seuil, 1962, 319p. [G] General discussion of recent research on leisure, numerous references to sample surveys in different countries. Specifically discusses the survey of leisure use in various European countries sponsored by the International Study Group on Leisure and the Social Sciences. 270

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

795.

HENNION, R. "Co-ordinated research on leisure in various European countries", International Social Science Journal 12(4), 1960 : 585-595. [G] A report on the International Study Group on Leisure and the Social Sciences and the research planned, carried out or evaluated in 11 European countries and in Israel. 796. MAYNTZ, R. "Leisure, social participation and political activity", International Social Science Journal 12(4), 1960 : 561-574. [G] A general discussion of findings of survey research in Germany, Great Britain, Sweden, USA. 797. READERS' DIGEST. "Loisirs et voyages", in : 221.750.000 Consommateurs. Marché commun et Grande-Bretagne. Paris, "Sélection" du Reader's Digest, 1964 : 153-172. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (Jan.-Feb. 1963). Numerous questions in eight areas. Breakdowns by background variables. [For other aspects of study, see 351, 641, 806, 941, 975.] 798. SZALAI, A. "Differential evaluation of the time budgets for comparative purposes", in : R.L. MERRITT, S. ROKKAN (eds.) Comparing nations. The use of quantitative data in cross-national research. London-New Haven, Yale University Press, 1966 : 239-258. [M] Review of the evolution of time measurement and time values : Greece, Rome, industrial society. Discussion of methodology of time-budget studies with specific reference to international and intercultural comparability. Different temporal frames of reference : 24 hours, week, year, lifetime. Discussion of concepts evolved in the course of empirical research among industrial workers in the Budapest region. Variation of "time pressure" factor by length of commuting time : ^ hour — 5 V2 hour. Differential "compressibility-expandibility" or "elasticity" of various activity categories. Except for items with a more or less compulsory fixation of duration for physiological or social reasons (sleep, presence at job site) the elasticity varies in a systematic way for different social and demographic groups. The different values may be considered as characteristics of given groups. 799. SZALAI, A. "Trends in comparative time-budget research", American Behavioral Scientist 9(9), May 66 : 3-8. [G] Reviews background of 12-country time-budget study organized by the European Co-ordination Center at Vienna from 1964 on. 271

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

800.

6.2 801.

802.

272

A. et al. Recherche comparative internationale sur les budgets-temps. Report presented to the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France). 4-11th, Sept. 66. Vienna, Centre Européen de Coordination/Centre for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences, 88p. Later published as "Multinational comparative time-budget research project", American Behavioral Scientist 10(4), Dec. 1966 : 1-31. (Appendix of tabulations are not included and are available in four series at Sage Publications, 275 South Beverly Drive, Beverly Hills, California). [P] Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany (F.R.) (national cross-section and one city sample), Hungary, Poland, USA (several cities and one-city samples), USSR, Yugoslavia (samples in two cities). 1965-66. Samples : Random samples of adults between 18 and 65 living in private house-holds. 13 study sites (Tot. N = 24,392). 1) The typical site, all countries except France and Belgium : a city of 30,000 — 290,000 inhabitants (N's = 689 — 2,765). 2) Several cities with population over 50,000 inhabitants; France (N = 2,802), USA (N = 1,244). 3) National crosssection, Belgium N = 2,078. Instr. : Self-report schedule and interview. Report on the origin and organization of this pilot study and a step-bystep description of the planning and execution stages. Presentation of some findings and preliminary comments. It should be noted that the study has been extended to : Germany (D.R.), city of Hoyersverda; Peru, city of Lima-Calloa. In these sites the study is in the field work or analysis stage. SZALAI,

Use of alcohol BRUUN, K . "Tenaringarnasalkoholbruk i Norden" [Teenagers' consumption of alcohol in the Nordic countries], Alkoholpolitik 28(4), 1965 : 164-175. [P] Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden (1960 and 1964). Samples : Fourteen-year olds in 1960 in four capitals, reinterviewed in 1964. (N varying from 148 to 175). BRUUN, K . ; HAUGE, R. Drinking habits among Northern youth : a crossnational study of male teenage drinking in the Northern capitals. Helsinki, The Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies, distributed by Rutgers University Centre of Alcohol Studies, New Brunswick, 7, 1963 : 97p. [P] Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden (All 1960). Samples : In four capitals, random samples of boys born in 1941, 9143 and 1945. Instr. : "Field interviews". A descriptive study. Variations in drinking behavior between age groups more marked than between countries.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

6.3

Religion [See also : 822]

803. ARGYLE, M. Religious behaviour. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958; Glencoe, 111., Free Press, 1959, 196p. [S/T] Great Britain, USA. Samples : National representative samples and special groups. Instr. : Poll questions and specially designed survey questions. Reviews survey and other data on religious activity for both countries for the period 1948-1952. Uses evidence from surveys in several countries over a longer period of the relationships of various aspects of sexual behaviour, political behaviour, class position, etc. to religious commitment. 804. DUOCASTELLA, R. "La practica religiosa y las clases sociales "[Religious practice and social classes], Arbor 38(144), Dec. 57 : 375-387. [S] France (1954-1956), Spain (1955). Samples : Lille, Lyon, Mataro. 805. GLADSTONE, R.; GUPTA, G . C . "A cross-cultural study of the behavioral aspects of the concept of religion", Journal of Social Psychology 60(2), 1963 : 203-211. [P] India, USA. Samples : College students. Instr. : Essay. 806. READER'S DIGEST. "Opinions, études, éducation", in : 221.750.000 consommateurs. Marché commun et Grande-Bretagne. Paris, "Sélection" du Reader's Digest, 1964 : 35-64. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (Jan.-Feb. 1963). One question concerning religion and child education. Four-choice responses. Breakdowns by : age, sex, education, socio-professional category, and composition of house-hold. [For other aspects of study, see 351, 641, 797, 941, 975.] 807. "Religion dans le monde (La). Une enquête internationale", Sondages (3), 1948 : 31-34. [O] Australia, Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA. Instr. : Two equivalent questions for all countries, third question : five countries. No breakdowns. Dichotomized tables. Graph. 8 0 8 . SWANSON, C . E . The birth of the gods. Ann Arbor, Mich., University of Michigan Press, 1960, 260p. [S] HRAF-type data from 50 societies to test a number of hypotheses. 273

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

7 PUBLIC AFFAIRS 7.0

Overall studies

809.

DEUTSCH, K.W. "Toward an inventory of basic trends and patterns in comparative politics", American Political Science Review 54, 1960 : 34-57. [G] 810. HYMAN, H. Political socialization : a study in the psychology of political behavior. Glencoe, 111., The Free Press, 1959, 175p. [G] General review of studies of the political "learning process'.' Includes tables from surveys in a number of different countries. Few explicit comparisons. 811. PINNER, F.A. "Parental overprotection and political distrust", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 361, Sept. 65 : 58-70. [S]

Belgium, France, Netherlands. Samples : High-school and university students. 812. ROKKAN, S.; VALEN, H. "Parties, elections and political behaviour in the Northern countries : a review of recent research", in : O. STAMMER (ed.) Politische Forschung. Köln, Westdeutscher Verlag, 1960 :103-136. Bibliogr.: 237-249.

[G] Discusses trends in research on political statistics in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden and suggests themes for comparative analysis. 7.1 Electoral studies 814. ALFORD, R.R. Party and society. Chicago, Rand McNally, 1963, 400p. [S] Australia, Canada, Great Britain, USA. Analysis of the party preferences of voters by social class, religion and region. Data from the files of the Roper Center and the Survey Research Center at Berkeley: polls and surveys from 1936 onwards. 815.

BERELSON, B.R.; LAZARSFELD, P . F . ; MCPHEE, W.N. "Summary of findings

from similar election studies", in: B.R. BERELSON; P.F. LAZARSFELD; W.N. MCPHEE, Voting : a study of opinion formation in a presidential campaign. Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1954 : 327-342. [P : S] USA (1948) : Great Britain (1951). Compares relationships found to hold in the US studies (mainly Elmira, N.Y.), with similar findings in British 1951 studies (mainly the Bristol survey). 274

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

816. CAMPBELL, A.; VALEN, H. "Party identification in Norway and the United States", Public Opinion Quarterly 25(4), Wint. 61 : 505-525. [S] Norway (1957), USA (1956). The data from Norway were part of a study of the parliamentary elections. US data from a national survey of the electorate carried out by the Survey Research Center, University of Michigan. For further elaboration see : A. CAMPBELL "Comparative research on the psychology of vote", paper, Conference on Comparative electoral behavior, Ann Arbor, April 1967, 27p. 817. CANTRIL, H. The politics of despair. New York, Basic Books, 1958, xv + 269p. [P] France, Italy. Instr. : Polls, surveys of political opinion. See also an earlier version : Faith, hope and heresy : the psychology of the protest voter. Princeton, N.J., Institute for International Social Science Research, 1958, 226p. 818. CARTER, R.E. Jr.; KLINE, F.G. "Secret ballots and extreme candidates : a cross-national voting study", Polls 1(4), 1966 : 1-7. [P] Chile, USA (1964). Samples : Random selection of households in a few neighborhoods in Concepción, Chile (N = 196) and Minneapolis, Minn. USA (N = 238 + 146). A comparative methodological study : systematic comparison of preferences expressed in regular interviews vs. through use of secret ballots in two countries. Secret ballot technique produces lower "no-answer" rates and better estimates of vote distribution. 819. DAUDT, H. Floating voters and the floating vote : a critical analysis of American and English election studies. Leiden, H.E. Stenfert Kroese, 1961, 171p. [S/T] Great Britain, USA. A critical discussion of the findings of P. LAZARSFELD and a number of other electoral analysts on the level of participation and articulateness of the between-party waverers : Daudt's conclusion is that the "floaters" are not necessarily the most passive. Interesting example of new analysis based on published tables. 820. DOGAN, M. "Le comportement politique des femmes dans les pays de l'Europe occidentale", in : La condition sociale de la femme. Bruxelles, Institut de Sociologie Solvay, 1956 : 147-186. [S/T] Western European countries. Data from electoral statistics and opinion surveys. 821. DOGAN, M. "Le vote ouvrier en Europe occidentale", Revue française de Sociologie (1), janv.-mars 60 : 25-44. 275

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

[S/T] Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden. Mostly data from national public opinion polls (1946-1958). Analysis of working class vote according to : relative importance of workers in the national population, socio-economic stratification inside the working class and, for certain countries, subjective class identification and social mobility. 822. DOGAN, M. "II voto delle donne in Italia e in altre democrazie" [The women's vote in Italy and in other democracies], Tempi moderni 2(11-12), Jan.-Feb. 59 : 621-644. [S/T] Italy : Western European countries. Samples : National and local. Instr. : Poll data, other survey data, electoral statistics. Characteristics of female voting : international constants, Italy, Germany, Influence of religion on vote : Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands. Other factors analyzed are : marital status (Sweden, Norway); class and marital status (Great Britain, only the working class). Consequences of the introduction of votes for women : analysis for 10 European countries. 823. EYSENCK, H . J . "Voting attitudes and social class", in : H . J . EYSENCK, The psychology of politics. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954 : 7-37. [S] Great Britain, USA. Samples : National cross-sectional; Great Britain (N = 8,911); USA (1,000); USA : one community study Studies of reference : Great Britain : British Institute of Public Opinion; USA : Centers [684]; P.F. LAZARSFELD et al. The people's choice. New York, University Press, 1948. 824. FOGARTY, M.P. "From 1950. Is a new orientation in sight", in : M.P. FOGARTY, Christian democracy in Western Europe, 1820-1953. Notre Dame, Ind., University of Notre Dame Press; London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957 : 340-376. [S/T] The argument in this chapter is partly illustrated by findings of sample surveys. Comparative data on religious behavior (1939-1952 : Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands) based on counts and sample survey data. Political views of churchgoers (Germany, 1952), catholics (France, 1952). Votes by : sex, income (Germany, 1952), professional category (Netherlands, 1948; France, 1952). Supporters of parties by : sex, age, consumption pattern, place of residence, France (1952). 825. JANOWITZ, M . ; LIEPELT, K . ; SEGAL, D . R . An approach to the comparative analysis of political partisanship. Paper for the Sixth World Congress of Sociology, Evian (France), 4-11th Sept. 66, 22p. mimeo. [S] Germany (1963-1964), Great Britain (1964), USA (1961 and 1964). 276

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : National cross-sections. Several surveys in each country. Germany (N = 12,676), Great Britain (N = 56,280), USA (N = 11,146). The differential effects in the three countries of socio-economic stratification on political affiliation is shown for a four-and eigth-strata classification of the samples. Additional dimensions found of importance in accounting for the variances of political alignment were : race in USA, religion in Germany, and sex in Great Britain. Important demonstration of the potentialities of the "tree analysis" technique in the establishment of contrasts in the sources of within-nation variance. This analysis has subsequently been extended in two papers presented at the Conference on comparative electoral behavior, Survey Research Centre of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, April 1967 : K. LIEPELT The infrastructure of party support in Austria and West Germany, 26p. mimeo; D.R. SEGAL Class strata and parties in W. Germany and the United States, 41 p. mimeo. 826. JONG, J . J . DE. Overheid en onderdaan [Authority and subject], Wageningen, Zomer en Keuning, 1956, 216p. [S/C, T] European countries. Reviews evidence for a number of European countries of relationships between class position, religious commitment and electoral behavior. 826a. LIPSET, S . M . Political man : the social bases ofpolitics. Garden City, N . Y . , Doubleday, 1960, 432p. [ S / T , C] Survey data from the Americas, Asia, and Europe. 827. LIPSET, S.M. "Socialism — left and right — East and West", Confluence 7(2), S u m . 58 : 172-192.

[S/T, C] Secondary analysis based on qualitative trend data, electoral and other total counts and sample survey data from different sources. Attempts to pinpoint economic growth factors: (a) correlates percentage strength of parties by countries with GNP, (b) offers evidence for the small contributions of religious factors to the variance in CP strength, (c) brings in evidence from the findings of the nine-country survey How nations see each other accounting for variations in communist strength, (d) shows that poll data from Italy, France, India, as a whole and by region, indicate that communist strength is most marked among the poorest strata. Survey data are also presented to illustrate the salience of a "time perspective" of social change operative in determining the political adherence patterns of both the poorest and the better of working class groups. "The discrepancy between the status and role of Western labor and socialist movements and that of their non-communist equivalents in the industrially 277

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

828.

under-developed and semi-developed countries ..." is pointed up and some of its political consequences and strategical implications for the labour movement are set out. LIPSET, S . M . ; LAZARSFELD, P.F.; BARTON, A.H.; LINZ, J . "The psychology of voting : an analysis of political behavior", in : G. LINDZEY (ed.) Handbook of social psychology. Vol II. Cambridge, Mass.. Addison-Wesley, 1954 : 1124-1175. [M]

Three sections. 1 Interpretation of cross-sectional static voting statistics. 2. Short-term changes studied by panel technique, detailed methodological exposition. 3. Discussion of how to analyse and take into account long term historical contexts. Data from numerous countries used as illustrations. 829. LIPSET, S.M.; LINZ, J. The social bases of political diversity. Stanford, Calif., Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, 1956, 2 vol., multipl. pag. mimeo. [S/C, T] Numerous countries. A large unpublished collection of tables and comments on the voting of different socio-economic and occupational groups. Parts of this has since been published in S . M . LIPSET, Political man [see 826a]. 830. LIPSET, S.M.; ROKKAN, S. (eds.) Party systems and voter alignments. New York, Free Press; London, Collier-Macmillan, 1967, xviii + 554 p. [G]

A collection of detailed presentations of ecological and survey findings for 12 countries. The introduction presents an attempt at a systematic exploration of the variations in party systems and voter alignments in W. Europe. 831. ROKKAN, S. The case for comparative secondary analysis : an example from political sociology. Paper, ESOMAR Conference, Sept. 56, 5 p. mimeo. [S/C, T] Norway, France, Sweden. Analysis of survey data for relationships between sex, age, marital status and voting : secondary analysis for Norway, rearrangement of already published findings for other countries. 832. RUNCIMAN, W . G . " A method for cross-national comparison of political consensus", British Journal of Sociology 13(2), June 6 2 : 151-155. [M]

Illustrative survey data from : Australia, Canada and Great Britain. Questions unidimensionality of "consensus". Fourfold tables of left-right vote by manual, non-manual categories. Comparison of different situations (between countries and over time) by graph showing proportion of manual and non-manual voters voting left or right in successive elections. Limits of validity of method: comparability of left-right classification of political parties. 278

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

833. THAYER, J.R. "The contributions of public opinion polls to the understanding of the 1953 elections in Italy, West Germany and Japan", Public Opinion Quarterly 19(3), Fall 55 : 259-278. [S/T] Germany (F.R.), Italy, Japan. 7.2 Participation and decision-making 7.2.1 Studies at national or aggregate level 834. ALMOND, G.A.; VERBA, S. The civic culture. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1963, 562p. [P] Great Britain, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Mexico, USA. Samples : National cross-sectional samples. Mexico : limited to section of urban population. Instr. : Standardized interviews and intensive interviews with selected "active" citizens (Tot. N = 5,000) One of the most systematically planned and most conscientiously controlled cross-national survey operations so far registered. Focuses on the characteristics of family and school background, associational connections, motivations, perceptions, and action strategics of the 'active' citizenship in each country and seeks to explain variations in levels and types of participation as reflections of "national political culture". 835. CONVERSE, P.E. ; DUPEUX, G. De Gaulle and Eisenhower : the public image of the victorious general. Paper to the IPSA Congress, Paris, IPSA, Sept. 62, 68p. mimeo. [See also a French version, Revue française de science politique 12(1), m a r s 62 : 54-92.]

836.

[P] France, USA. Comparison of data from : IFOP 1958 survey and Survey Research Center, 1956 survey. [See also : 836.] CONVERSE, P.E.; DUPEUX, G. "Politicization of the electorate in France and the United States", Public Opinion Quarterly 26(1), Spr. 62 : 1-23. [P] France (Fall 1958); USA (six elections 1952, 1956, 1958, 1960).

Samples : Random national cross-section samples (N's between 1,0002,000).

Instr. : Stardardized interviews. "Informal cross-national collaboration prior to the 1958 French survey led to a French interview schedule permitting more rigorous comparative analysis than unrelated studies usually offer." Cross-national comparative graphs and tables concern : (a) Rates of political participation; (b) Newspaper reading for political information : percentage frequency, and index by educational level; (c) Respondent's characterization of father's political behavior; (d) Selected issue character279

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

istics in terms of : crystallisation, polarization and party-relatedness, separately for total sample and "actives", and for "actives" "identified" and "unidentified". For further development of this type of analysis of dimensions of preference and directions of participation in multiparty systems see : P.E. CONVERSE "The problem of party distances in model of voting change", in : K . JENNINGS and H. ZIEGLER (eds.). Electoral processes. New York, Prentice-Hall, 1966. 837. DEUTSCH, K. "Social mobilization and political development", American Political Science Review 55, 1961 : 493-514. [G] Seven indicators of social mobility, chosen partly on grounds of data availability and convenience, partly because they are less closely correlated than some others. The first six indicators consist of : percentage of population exposed to modernity, to mass media, having changed residence, living in urban zones, active in non-agricultural occupations, being literate; the seventh indicator is per capita income. The author notes the particular interest of deviant cases : countries showing substantital discrepancies across major indicators. Two notions of thresholds for the indicators are proposed : the threshold of significance and the treshold of criticality. A quantitative model is presented using a hypothetical example, illustrating rates for each indicator through a 30-years time span. In the appendix: aggregate statistical figures for selected indices for 19 countries. One of the tables presents extrapolations ("projected figures") for 1945 and 1955 for all the 19 countries. 838. DUVERGER, M. "La participation des femmes aux élections", in : M. DUVERGER. La participation des femmes à la vie politique. Paris, Unesco, 1955, 240p. [S/T] France, Germany (F.R.), Norway, Yugoslavia Samples : France, Norway : national representative samples. France (N = 3,050); Norway (N's = 2,300, 2,700). Instr. : Electoral statistics and surveys : France : IFOP-1953 polls for Unesco and questions from earlier IFOP polls. Germany : Opinion-survey 1949, survey of Unesco Institute for the Social Sciences 1953, etc. Norway : Questions from Gallup Institute polls from 1946-1953 and from a survey by the Institute of Social Research. Annexe III. "La participation des femmes françaises à la vie politique". Results of a sample survey of June 1953 by IFOP for Unesco. [See 841.] Annexe IV. "La participation des femmes norvégiennes à la vie politique". Extract of an analysis of Norwegian poll results since 1 9 4 6 by E. GRONSETH. 280

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

839.

840.

The politics of mass society. Glencoe, 111., The Free Press, 1959; London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960, 256p. [S/T, C] A general theory of "mass politics" with illustrative tables from sample surveys in France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, USA, most of them for associational membership and political affiliation MILBRATH, L. Political participation. Chicago, Rand McNally, 1965, viii + 195p. KORNHAUSER, W .

[G]

841.

842.

Detailed review of findings for extent and characteristics of political participation in a number of countries : most detailed data from Norway and USA. "Psychologie politique des femmes (La). Comparaisons internationales", Sondages 16(3), 1954 : 32-48. [S] France : Great Britain, Italy, USA. Sample : France (N = 3,050). Other chapters present the results of the study in France. [See also 838.] ROKKAN, S. (ed.) Approaches to the study of political participation. Bergen, Michelsen Institute, 1962 (reprint of special issue of Acta sociologica 6(1-2), 1962 : 1-170). [G]

843.

Papers from Unesco Seminar on political participation held in Bergen in 1 9 6 1 . Introduction by S. ROKKAN outlines a model for comparative crossnational research on participation. Only one paper explicitly cross-national but most of them contain copious references to studies in other countries. [See also 846.] ROKKAN, S. "Citizen participation in political life : Introduction", International Social Science Journal 12(1), 1960 :1-99. [Introduction to the special issue.] Collection of articles on various forms of citizen participation in politics. Includes : "England and Wales", by A . H . BIRCH; "Finland", by E. ALLARDT and P . PESONEN; "France", by G . D U P E U X ; "Israel", by E. GUTMANN; "New Zealand", by R.S. MILNE; "Norway and the United States", by S . ROKKAN a n d A . CAMPBELL [ 8 4 5 ] .

844.

ROKKAN, S. "The comparative study of political participation. Notes toward a perspective on current research", in : A. RANNEY (ed.) Essays on the behavioral study of politics. Urbana, 111., University of Illinois Press, 1962 : 47-90. [M]

Includes general discussion of the uses of official counts vs. sample surveys in political statistics. Sets out paradigms for cross-system comparisons and 281

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

845.

846.

847.

848.

specifies "macro" - variables to be taken into account in analyzing variations in rates of participation over time and across nation-states. ROKKAN, S.; CAMPBELL, A. "Norway and the United States", in a special issue : "Citizen participation in political life", International Social Science Journal 12(1), 1960 : 69-99. [P : S] Norway, USA. Primary analysis of participation data from a nation with cross-sectional survey concluded in Norway in 1957. Tables systematically compared with similar tables from US presidential survey, conducted in 1956 by Survey Research Center, University of Michigan. ROKKAN, S. ; H0YER, S. "Comparative research on citizen participation in politics", International Social Science Journal 14(2), 1962 : 351-363. [G] Review of papers and discussions at the UNESCO Seminar held at the Chr. Michelsen Institute, Bergen, in June 1961. [See 842.] VERBA, S. Comparative studies of political socialization. Paper delivered at the meeting of the American Political Science Association, Sept. 1964, n.p. mimeo. [G] VERBA, S. Cross-national program in political and social change. Stanford, Institute of Political Studies, 1965, 52p. mimeo + appendices [P] India, Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, USA. Prospectus for five-country comparative survey to follow up the earlier s t u d y b y ALMOND a n d VERBA [see 834].

849. VERBA, S. "Organizational membership and democratic consensus", Journal of Politics

27(3), A u g . 1965 : 467-497.

[P] Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, USA. Same data as presented in ALMOND and VERBA [834].

850.

VERBA, S. "Political participation and strategies of influence : a comparative study", in : Approaches to the study of political participation. Ed. by S. ROKKAN. Bergen, The Chr. Michelsen Institute, 1962 : 22-42. [P] Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, USA. Samples : National random samples in each country (N = ca 1,000). Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Analysis of answers to one series of questions. Preliminary findings, for full report on study see ALMOND and VERBA [834],

7.2.2 Studies at community level 851. 282

CLIFFORD, R.A. The Rio Grande Flood : a comparative study of border

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

852.

communities in disaster. Washington, D.C., National Academy of Science, N.R.C., 1956, 145p. [P] Mexico, USA. Two communities : Eagle Pass, Piedras Negras. Differential responses to same disaster examined. FORM, W . H . ; ANTONIO, W . V . D ' . "Integration and cleavage among community influentials in two border cities", American Sociological Review 2 4 ( 6 ) , D e c . 59 : 804-814.

853.

854.

855.

[P] Mexico, USA. El Paco and Ciudad Juarez. Differences between the types of integration and cleavage were found. INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OF VALUES IN POLITICS. Reports 1962-66. Philadelphia, 133 South 36th Street, n.d., all mimeogr. [P] India, Poland, USA, Yugoslavia. Extensive collection of planning documents, conference reports, pretest, analyses, etc. Round Tables, Dubrovnik, 1965; Philadelphia, 1966; Poland, 1966. A number of papers on cross-national methodology have been prepared. Focus of study : attitudes and values of officials and politically active citizens in communities at different levels of economic growth. Prior to the first roundtable, critical inventories of the relevant research in each country were prepared by the participating scholars. Following the survey of 4 , 0 0 0 community leaders and the gathering of multiple aggregative data on local levels of economic development and community activeness, the final analysis was organized into three major phases : (1) development of the value and other scales for the individual leaders; (2) selection of indicators for economic development and "activeness" for the key communities; and (3) testing various hypotheses. MILLER, D.C. "Decision-making cliques in community power structures : a comparative study of an American and an English City", American Journal of Sociology 6 4 ( 3 ) , Nov. 5 8 : 2 9 9 - 3 1 0 . [P] Great Britain, USA. Two models : (1) The stratified pyramid that fits the description of Southern City (USA) is not appropriate for English City and only partially for Pacific City (USA). (2) An institutional ring or cone model is illustrated graphically with data from English City. "An continuum of power structure is suggested ... with Southern City, Pacific City and English City ranged in the order named along such a continuum." MILLER, D.C. "Industry and community power structure : a comparative study of an American and an English City", American Sociological Review 23, Feb. 58 : 9-15. [P] Great Britain, USA. 283

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

856.

857.

Samples: One half of identified leaders, "top influentials" in two paired cities : "English city" (N = 16), "Pacific City" (N = 22), from nine institutional sectors. Instr. : Standardized interviews, written questionnaires, interviews with informants, newspaper records. Additional secondary data from study of another American community : "Southern City" (F. HUNTER, Community power structure. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1953). "Business men do exert a predominant influence in community decision making in Pacific City and Southern City". However, in English City, the hypothesis is rejected. "Much of difference explained by two major factors : difference in occupational prestige values, difference in structure of city government". REYES, E.P. "Comparative approach to community studies : problems and suggestions", Philippines Sociological Review 5(2), Apr. 57 : 40-60. [G] WALTON, J. "Substance and artifact : the current status of research on community power structure", American Journal of Sociology 71(4), Jan. 66 : 430-438.

[M] Systematic analysis of methods and findings of 33 community power studies of 55 communities (most in USA, two in Mexico : C. Juarez, Tia Juana, one English). Shows how findings vary with methodology and choice of research sites. Urges strict controls of comparability of instruments and systematic sampling of communities through stratification of the possible universes. 7.3 858.

859.

284

Mass opinions, attitudes, ideologies "Abolition de la peine de mort (L'). Une enquête internationale", Sondages (12), 1947 : 139. [O] Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Sweden, USA (All June 1947). Instr. : Same questions. One multi-nation table, dichotomised coding opinions. Breakdown for French data only : sex, "cultural" level, profession, and twofold by sex and culture. "Allocations familiales (Les)", Sondages 16, 1947 : 205-210. [O] Canada, Norway. Instr. : Dissimilar questions. Tables, nation by nation. Norway : breakdown by sex, and political affiliation.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

860.

861.

"Démocratie dans le monde (La). Une enquête internationale", Sondages (8), 1947 : 83-86. [O] Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA. (All April 1947). Instr. : Same questions. One multi-nation table giving distribution of four types of definitions. Multi-nation tables and graphs on frequency of attribution of the qualification "democratic" or "non-democratic" to each country on a list (entire list not presented in all countries). Breakdowns by profession and attitudes to specific countries for the French data only. ERSKINE, H.G. (ed.) "The Quarter's polls", Public Opinion Quarterly 25(4), Wint. 61 : 657-665.

862.

863.

864.

865.

[O] Great Britain, Switzerland, USA. (All May 1960). Instr. : Five poll questions. Three identical questions on opinions concerning the Eichman trial in all three countries, one questions asked in Great Britain and USA concerning effect on attitude to Germany and one "level of information" question asked only in the USA. "Gouvernements devant l'opinion (Les)", Sondages 15, 1947 : 183-188. [O] Denmark, Finland, France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA (All 1947). Instr. : Different questions. One comparative table. Tables by nation and graphs of evolution of opinion. Breakdowns by economic situation and various measures of political affiliation for Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden; and by the same variables plus sex for Great Britain. "Influence des partis au pouvoir (L'). Une enquête internationale", Sondages (2), 1949 : 20[O] Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, USA. Instr. : One poll-question. The question asked : "Do you think it makes a great difference which party is in power." One comparative table. "Rôle de l'Etat dans la vie économique (Le)", Sondages 16, 1947 : 210-212. [O] Belgium, Czechoslovakia (Sept.-Nov. 46; Apr.-July 47); Hungary (July 1947). Instr. : Dissimilar questions. Opinions concerning : principle of economic planning (Belgium) current plan (Czechoslovakia, Hungary). Tables nation by nation. "Service militaire (Le)", Sondages 15, 1947 : 183-188. [O] Canada, Finland, Great Britain, USA (1947). Instr. : Dissimilar questions. Single nation tables. Evolution of opinion : USA. Breakdown by political affiliation : Finland. 285

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

866.

"Service militaire obligatoire (Le)", Sondages 3(29), 1949 : [O] Australia (1943, 1945, 1946, 1948), Great Britain (1947, 1948). Instr. : Similar questions. Single-nation tables. Great Britain : Breakdowns by sex, age, economic status, political affiliation.

7.4 Elite opinions, attitudes, ideologies. [See also : 2.2.3.] 867.

ABEGGLEN, J.C.; MANNARI, H. "Leaders of modern Japan : social origins and mobility", Economic Development and Cultural Change (9), Oct. 60 : 109-134.

868.

869.

[P : S] Japan, USA. Instr. : Japan : mail questionnaires Within Japan and Japan-United States comparisons of political, business and intellectual elites. ALMOND, G.A. et al. The appeals of communism. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1954, xxix + 415p. [P] France, Great Britain, Italy, USA. Samples : Defectors from communist parties. Effort to include large proportion of persons with long tenure in the party, having held middle and highranking positions in party hierarchy, who had left in recent years. "This is not a special selection of ex-communists." France (N = 50), Great Britain (N = 50), Italy (N = 51), USA (N = 64). As illustrative material for the analysis of "neurotic susceptibility" to communism : case stories of communist patients of American psychoanalysts (N = 35). Instr. : "Depth" interviews. ANDERSON, B.; MELEN, C.O. "Lazarsfeld's two step hypothesis : data from some Swedish surveys", Acta sociologica 4(2), 1959 : 20-34 [G]

Analyzes data on political communication in two communities of central Sweden. Attention is especially focused on the part played by opinion leaders. Investigations were prepared on the basis of Lazarsfeld's two step hypothesis. The data confirm Lazarsfeld's theory concerning the important part played by informal communication in public opinion formation. 870.

AUBERT, V . ; FISHER, B . R . ; ROKKAN, S. " A comparative study of teachers'

attitudes to international problems and policies", Journal of Social Issues 10(4), 1954 : 2 5 - 3 9 .

[P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden. Samples : Primary and secondary school teachers. Instr. : Standardized interviews. 286

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

871.

871a.

872.

873.

874.

875.

876.

877.

A preliminary report on OCSR study. Focuses on relationship between feelings of threat from external enemies or from war and attitudes to military preparedness. [See also : 476, 488, 752, 758, 759, 885.] BONILLA, F. "Las elites culturales en América Latina" [The cultural elites in Latin America], Revista Paraguaya de Sociología 2(3), May-Aug. 65 : 66-81. [S] Brazil, Chile, Mexico. Data from separate national elite studies are used to illustrate the argument. DEUTSCH, K . W . et al. France, Germany and the Western Alliance : a study of elite attitudes on European integration and world politics. New York, Scribner, 1967, xi + 374p. DIVO. Was denken die Volksvertreter. Ergebnisse aus einer internationalen Untersuchung politischer Führungsschichten in 7 Ländern [What do the representatives think. Findings from an international survey of elites in seven countries]. Frankfurt am Main, Divo, July 58, mimeo. [P] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, India, Italy, Japan, USA. Samples : Parliamentarians. [See 875.] FREE, L . A . "Polling decision-makers : an experiment in political psychology", Public Opinion Quarterly 22(2), Sum. 58 : 184-186. [M] Speech at 13th AAPOR Conference on "international leadership surveys" conducted by the Institute for International Social Research. FREE, L . A . A compilation of attitudes of Philippine legislators. Princeton, N.J., Institute for International Social Research, 1960. [P] Philippines. A survey in the frame of the comparative analysis of attitudes of parliamentarians on international issues. [See : 875.] FREE, L.A. Six allies and a neutral. Glencoe, 111., Free Press, 1959, 210p. [P] France : Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, India, Italy, Japan, USA. Samples : Parliamentarians. Instr. : Standardized interviews. Attitudes on international issues FREE, L . A . Some international implications of the political psychology of Brazilians. Princeton, N.J., Institute for International Social Research, 1961, 73p. [P] Brazil Designed as part of a comparative analysis of attitudes of parliamentarians on international issues, this survey covers a national cross-section of the Brazilian public and also of the national legislature. [See 875.] GOLDRICH, D. "Peasants' sons in city schools : an inquiry into the politics 287

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

of urbanization in Panama and Costa Rica", Human Organization 24(4), Wint. 64 : 328-333. [P] Costa Rica, Panama. Samples : Vocational school students. Instr. : Questionnaire. 878. H U N T , W . H . ; CRANE, W. W.; WAHLKE, J . C . "Interviewing political elites in cross-cultural comparative research", American Journal of Sociology 70(1), July 64 : 59-68 [M| Based on authors' individual experiences in three "separate but related" research projects in Austria (N = 53), France (N = 62), USA (N = 474). Discussion and three-country tabulations concerning : failure to interview, place of interview, interviewers' ratings of respondents' co-operativeness and frankness. European respondents' reactions to "behavioral research" is seen in relation to American attitudes and discussed in terms of its bearing on comparability of data. Equivalence and comparability of data is illustrated with specific problems at the level of transliterations. At a more complex conceptual level the authors had opted for conceptual equivalence rather than operational equivalence. 879. JONASSEN, C . T . " A comparison of political beliefs of college students in Norway and the United States", Acta Sociologica 9 ( 3 - 4 ) , 1 9 6 6 : 2 0 1 - 2 0 8 . [P : R] Norway : US. Samples : 408 students at University of Oslo (N = 408) compared to US College students (N = 4,505) at 11 eleven universities. Instr. : Standardized interviews. Compares Norway and US on per cent of "conservative" leanings. US study : R . K . GOLDSEN, et ah What college students think. Princeton, Van Nostrand, 1966 880. LASSWELL, H . D ; LERNER, D . ; ROTHWELL, C.E. The comparative study of elites : an introduction and bibliography. Stanford, Calif., Stanford Univ. Press, 1952, iii + 72p [G + M] Monograph introducing series of elite studies of the Hoover Institute's research project on Revolution and the Development of International Relations. (RADIR Project). A review and discussion of elite concepts by Lasswell, description of research procedures of the RADIR studies (range, locus and technique of observation) by Lerner. 881. LERNER, D . ; GÖRDEN, M. European leaders look at world security. Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Center for International Studies, 1960,150p. mimeo. [P] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain. Instr. : Structured interviews in the various elite categories. 288

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

For further details see : M. GORDEN, European security : British and French elite perspective. Ph. D. diss. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1963; M. KRAMER, The passing of nationalism in Europe : a study based on French, British and German elite panel surveys, 1956-1961 Ph. D. diss. M.I.T., 1963. See also : D. LERNER, "Interviewing European elites", Polls 2(1), 1966 : 1-7.

882. LIPSET, S.M. "University students and politics in underdeveloped countries", Comparative Education Review 10(2), June 66 : 132-162. [G] 883. MCGINNIES, E. Attitude toward civil liberties among Japanese and American university students. Technical Report no 1. University of Maryland, 1963. (Contract Nr. 3720 101, NR 171-250 Office of Naval Research). [P] Japan, USA (1962, 1963). Samples : University students (N's : ca. 300). Instr. : Questionnaire. 884. MOSKOS, C.C.Jr.; BELL, W. "Igualdad, democracia y guerra fría en la zona británica del Caribe" [Equality, democracy and cold war in the British Caribbean], Revista de Estudios Políticos 137, Sept.-Oct. 64 : 125-155. [P] Barbados, British Guiana, Jamaica, Trinidad (all 1961-62). Samples : Political leaders (N = 112) Instr. : Interviews. 885. ROKKAN, S. Party identification and opinions on issues of domestic and international policy. Cambridge, Mass., Center for International Studies, 1955, 51p. mimeo. [Summary published as "Party preferences and opinion patterns in Western Europe : comparative analysis", International Social Science Bulletin 7(4), 1955 : 575-596.] [P] Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden. Samples : Teacher (N = ca. 400 in each country) Intr. : Standardized interviews. Report on findings of OCSR-survey initiated at the Institute for Social Research, Oslo. 886. WALKER, K.N. "La socialización política en las universidades latinoamericanas", Revista Latinoamericana de Sociología 1(2), July 65 : 200-219. [P] Argentina, Colombia, Puerto Rico. Samples : University students. The studies in Colombia and Puerto Rico were part of the "Comparative Study of National Development" conducted by the Institute of International Studies, University of California.

289

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

8 LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION 8.0 Meaning systems 887.

DOOB, L.W. "The effect of language on verbal expression and recall", American Anthropologist

59(1), Feb. 57 : 88-100.

[P] South Africa. Samples : Linguistic groups : Afrikander, Ganda, Leo, Zulu. Secondary school students. Instr. : Questionnaire. Attitude on 20 issues. Half of the statements in English, rest in own language. Subjects requested to recall statements in English or in native language. 888. KUMATA, H.; SCHRAMM, W. "A pilot study of cross-cultural methodology", Public Opinion Quarterly 20, 1956 : 229-238. [P : R] Japan, Korea : USA. Samples : Students. Instr. : Semantic Differential Technique. Factor structure found quite similar to English. 889. MACLAY, H.; WARE, E.E. "Cross-cultural use of the semantic differential", Behavioral Science 6(3), 1961 : 185-190. [M] USA. Samples : Hopi (N = 28), Navaho (N = 29), Zuni (N = 26). Instr. : Semantic Differential Technique with seven concepts on fifteen scales. Discussion of the cross-cultural validity and utility of the semantic differential technique. Although the question whether there is a basic set of semantic dimensions that could be considered as universal has not been finally settled, only a similarity of factor structure having been established, the authors decide to move on to a further question. "Can the instrument organize and classify cultures in a scientifically interesting way?" To explore this area predictions were made, based on anthropological knowledge of the three societies, concerning the ordering of the societies and their mutual closeness and distance with regard to the location of concepts in semantic space. The conclusion is promising for the instrument's ability to reflect gross cultural divisions. "Zuni, Hopi and Navaho were distinguished at a statistically significant level, and they were also grouped internally as predicted." Furthermore, the authors "believe it (the instrument) can now function as an auxiliary method and that it shows promise of becoming useful device in studies of covert culture". 890. 290

OSGOOD, C.E. On the strategy of cross-national research into subjective

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

culture. Document for the International Study on the Main Trends of Research in the Sciences of Man. Paris, Unesco, 1966, 58 p. mimeo. [M] Between 15 and 20 language-culture communities. Samples : Male high-school students aged 13-16. Composition of sample with the purpose of maximizing equivalence. Pre-testing in US had shown non-variance of factor structure under the influence of variables such as : age, sex, political affiliation, etc. Instr. : Semantic Differential Technique. The paper includes a description of methods and procedures of the permanent program directed by Osgood at the Institute of Communication Research, University of Illinois. The US staff" consists of four senior people, ten graduate students and clerical staff in communication with about 50 people in other countries. The main project began in 1960. The following phases can be distinguished : 1) The tool-making stage based on nearly 10 years of unicultural research in general semantics followed by crosslinguistic testing. First, inside USA, using different linguistic subgroups; then, abroad, first in Finland; 2) The tool-using stage, presently in course. An atlas of affective meanings of some 500 concepts is being developed. The aim is to cover 22 language communities. Data now available for 15. Instrument construction comprised the following steps : (1) Qualifier elicitation : 100 nouns presented to 100 boys in each community with instruction to give their first qualifier for each; 2) Qualifier sampling. Computer analysis of 10,000 responses to generate a set of qualifiers; (3) Opposites elicitation, by a small number of sophisticated subjects : 50 pairs obtained; (4) Concept on-scale differentiation. The original 100 nouns rated against the set of 50 scales by 200 new boys; (5) Scale sampling. By factor analytic procedures the major factors extracted and the scales most highly representative of each factor in each language assembled as a measuring instrument. [For main subject of paper, see 228.] 891. OSGOOD, C.E. "Semantic differential technique in the comparative study of cultures", American Anthropologist 66(1), 1964 : 171-200. 892. OSGOOD, C.E. "Semantic space revisited", Word 15, 1960 : 192,199. [G] 893. OSGOOD, C.E.; MIRON, M.S. Studies on comparative psycholinguistics. Urbana, 111., University of Illinois, Dec. 1962. 894.

OSGOOD, C . E . ; MIRON, M . S . ; ARCHER, W . K . The cross-cultural

generality

of meaning systems. Urbana, 111., University of Illinois, Institute of Communication Research, [G] Cross-cultural and cross-linguistic comparisons between Americans, Greek, Japanese, Korean, and several Southwest American Indian groups 291

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Navajo, Zuni, Hopi), have already been made and significant agreements in meaning systems have been found. [See also : C.E. OSGOOD, Crosscultural studies of meaning system. Contribution to the 16th International Congress of Psychology. Bonn, German Society of Psychology, 1960, section XVIII 3.] 895. OSGOOD, C.E.; Suci, G J . ; TANNENBAUM, P . H . The measurement of meaning. Urbana, 111., University of Illinois Press, 1957, 342 p. [P] Japan, Korea, USA. A full description of the semantic differential technique as developed by Osgood and associates. Includes a factor analysis of the scores of students from the three countries on 30 concepts and 20 scales. Few scales differed in their factor composition as a function of language differences. 896. PROTHRO, E.T. "Arab-American differences in the judgment of written messages", Journal of Social Psychology 42, Aug. 55 : 3-11. [P : R] Arab Near East : USA. Samples : Arab Near East : Two groups of students : (a) Bilingual volunteers from American University Beirut (N = 60); (b) All students in two classes of Islamic College, monolinguals (N = 79). US reference group : GRICE'S Indiana students. Instr. : Stand. Items from GRICE-REMMERS generalized attitude scale. Presented in English to group (a), in Arabic translation to group (b). Subjects asked to sort items according to Thurstone's technique. Theoretical frame of reference: Osgood's work in its double aspect of measuring cognitive difference and using these as indices of personality differences. Study of reference : GRICE, H . H . "The construction and validation of a generalized scale designed to measure attitude toward defined groups", Bulletin of Purdue University. Studies in Higher Education 26, 1934 : 37-46. 897. ROSEN, E . " A cross-cultural study of semantic profiles and attitude differences : Italy", Journal of Social Psychology 4 9 , May 5 9 : 1 3 7 - 1 4 4 . [P : R] Italy : USA. Samples : University students. Instr. : Semantic Differential Technique. Attitudes towards 27 concepts on 20 scales. Cross tabulations by sex. "Results showed that it is possible to predict differences between the groups, thus providing evidence for the validity of the technique when applied across cultures and language." 898. Suci, G.J. "A comparison of semantic structures in American Southwest culture groups", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61(1), July 60 : 25-30. [P] USA.

292

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

Samples : English, Hopi, Navaho, Spanish and Zuni speaking subjects. Instr. : Semantic Differential Technique. Factor analysis. 899. TANAKA, Y. A test of congruity hypothesis across three language-culture communities. Urbana, 111., University of Illinois, Institute of Communications Research, 1963, 103 p. [G] 900.

TANAKA, Y . ; OYAMA, T . ; OSGOOD, C . E . " A c r o s s - c u l t u r e a n d c r o s s - c o n c e p t

study of the generality of semantic space", Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour 2(5-6), 1963 : 392-405. [P] Japan, USA. Instr. : Semantic Differential Technique. 901. TRIANDIS, H.C.; OSGOOD, C.E. "A comparative factorial analysis of semantic structures in mono-lingual Greek and American college students", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 57, 1958 : 187-196. [P] Greece, USA. Samples : Monolingual students. Instr : Semantic Differential Techniques. 8.1 Mass communication, overall studies 902. BONILLA, F. A comparative study of the audience for mass media in three Latin American capitals. New York, Columbia University, 1953. [P] 903. GLOCK, C.Y. "The comparative study of communication and opinion formation", Public Opinion Quarterly 16(4), Wint. 52-53 : 512-526. [G] The problems which urgently need attention if we are to understand the influence of the mass media and informal channels of communication in the formation of opinion on a comparative world-wide basis. Discussion based on some aspects of the Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University Study in seven Middle Eastern countries. [See 150, 216, 495, 300, 301, 904.] 904. LERNER, D. The passing of traditional society : modernizing the Middle East. Glencoe, 111., The Free Press, 1958, xiii + 466 p. [S/C] Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey (all 1949-1951). Field work (sample surveys) carried out by staff of Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University. Focus on role of new communication media in process of modernization. Major dependent variables : index of "empathy", "world-mindedness". [See 903.] 905. SCHRAMM, W. Mass media and national development. The role of information 293

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

906.

in the developing countries. Stanford, Stanford University Press; Paris, Unesco, 1964, 333 p. [French edition: Paris, Unesco, 1966.] [G] A panoramic view of conditions and possibilities based on data from multiple sources, among them media statistics, content analyses and survey analyses : material from numerous countries, national and cross-national studies are integrated into a common perspective. The need for research on the role of the mass media in national development is demonstrated and a distinction is made between that part of research results which has universal applications (approach and methods) and the part that needs testing in different cultural environments (general theory and special findings). The plea is for continued study and the most open and multidimensional approach. WORLD ASSOCIATION FOR PUBLIC OPINION RESEARCH. "Three experiments in the spreading of knowledge about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Cambridge, Grenoble, Uppsala", International Social Science Bulletin 5(3), 1953 : 583-601. [P] France, Great Britain, Sweden (all 1952). Samples : Random. Two different but equivalent samples, '"before-after" (N = 500), in each of three cities : Grenoble, Cambridge, Uppsala. Instr. : Similar questionnaires. This "experimental" study undertaken for Unesco is one of the first cross-national opinion polls. Field work, coding, analysis and national reports by IFOP, BIPO and the Swedish Gallup Institute. Regrets expressed concerning insufficient level of standardization of instrument and lack of possibility of coordination at data treatment stage. Between the two surveys a three to four weeks information campaign took place in each city. The questionnaire concerned level of information about Declaration, relative importance of rights, opinions about specific rights, intensity of adhesion and desire to participate in diffusion of knowledge about declaration, means of maintaining peace and attitudes towards the United Nations. Before-after and city-by-city analysis. Appreciation of general effect of information campaign, but no evaluation of the contribution of each medium utilised nor of the depth of penetration of the campaign.

8.2 Press 907.

294

ROKKAN, S.; TORSVIK, P. "Der Wähler, der Leser und die Parteipresse" [The voter, the reader and the party press], Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozial-Psychologie 12(2), 1960 : 278-301. English version in : Gazette 6(3), 1960 : 311-326.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

[P : S] Norway : Sweden. Instr. : Standardized interview. Analysis of the "newspaper loyalties" of the voters for the different parties in Norway : data for nation-wide election survey 1957. Comparisons with similar analyses for Sweden : J. WESTERSTAHL ; C.G. JANSON. Politisk press. Gothenburg, Institute of Political Science, 1958. 8.3

Films, Radio, Television

908.

BUREAU OF APPLIED SOCIAL RESEARCH. Methodological

considerations

in

international broadcasting research. New York, The Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University, 1951, 250 p. mimeo. [M]

909.

DODD, S.C. et al. A pioneer radio poll in Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. Palestine Govt. Printer, 1943, 104 p. [P]

910.

MASLING, J.M. The preparation of a prospective test for assessing attitudes toward the International Motion Picture Service film program. Philadelphia, Penn., Institute for Research in Human Relations, 1952 (Rep. no. 10). [M]

911.

Picture Cartoon Test developed for US State Department, to assess film programs in India and Thailand. PAULU, B. "Audiences for broadcasting in Britain and America", Journalism

Quarterly

32(3), S u m . 55 : 329-334.

[S] Great Britain, USA. Based on reports of the BBC's Department of Audience Research and on various American sources; specifically mentionned: P. LAZARSFELD and A. KENDALL, Radio-listening in America. (Report on a survey conducted by the National Opinion Research Center). New York, Prentice Hall, 1948, viii + 178 p.

9 9.1

INTERCULTURAL A N D INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES Culture contact

9.1.1 Acculturation 912. DOOB, L.W. "An introduction to the psychology of acculturation". Journal of Social Psychology 45, 1957 : 143-160. [P] Kenya, South Africa, Uganda.

295

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

913.

914.

915.

916.

917. 296

Samples : Adult males : Leo (N = 47), Zulus (N = 106), Ganda (N = 136). Instr. : Interview, schedule composed of direct and projective questions, three formal tests. Rorschach plates, two experiments. A pilot study. Of two contact variables used "education" was more discriminating than "leadership". DOOB, L.W. Becoming more civilized: a psychological interpretation. New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1960, 333 p. [G] Psychological processes, specified in terms of 27 related hypotheses. Data from African tribesmen, Jamaican peasants, the Middle East and USA. EISENSTADT, S.N. The absorption of immigrants: a comparative study based mainly on the Jewish community in Palestine and the State of Israel. Glencoe, 111., Free Press, 1955, 275 p. [G] Reviews and criticises three main indices of full absorption : "acculturation"; satisfactory... personal adjustment of immigrants; complete dispersion of immigrants as a group within the main institutional spheres of the absorbing society. Case studies of modern migrations. EISENSTADT, S.N. "The process of absorption of new immigrants in Israel", Human Relations (5), 1952 : 223-246. [P] Israel. Samples : Origin groups. Panel representative of most ecological settings. Families (N = ca. 1,000) from : Bulgaria (N = 125), Eastern and Central Europe (N = 224), North Africa (N = 317), Turkey (N = 91), Yemen (N = 102), Yugoslavia (N = 95). Instr. : Repeated intensive interviews with panel. Extensive interviews with larger sample for background information. Systematic observation. General problem of research : conditions of successful adaptation. Focus of present analysis : immigrant's motivations and predispositions to action in new field. Main attribute of positive orientation : high level of frustration-toleration. Concrete attributes : 1. Ego-integrity; 2. Flexibility of aspirations. Analysis by country of origin. Intervening variables : family solidarity, Jewish identification. Analysis goes beyond identification of cultural variations to establish causal patterns. HALLOWELL, A.I. "The use of projective techniques in the study of the socio-psychological aspects of acculturation", Rorschach Research Exchange and Journal of Projective Techniques 15(1), 1949: 24-44. [M] TAFT, R. "The assimilation of Dutch male immigrants in a Western Aus-

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY HELD

tralian community", Human Relations 14(3), 1961 : 265-281. [P : S] Australia. Samples : Origin groups : Dutch and British immigrants. 9.1.2 Impact and extent of international contact 918. ANDERSON, N. "Opinion on Europe", European Yearbook/Annuaire européen 5, 1957 : 143-160. [P] Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands. Opinions concerning the neighbour peoples and a United Europe. The contact variable was found to be more important than other background variables [see 513, 919], 919. BROUWER, M. "International contacts and integration-mindedness : a secondary analysis of a study in Western Europe", Polls 1(2), Sum. 65 : 1-11. [S] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Netherlands. By treating separately opinion holders and non-opinion holders, controlling for education and decomposing the contacts index into constituent parts the author arrives at results that modifies the conclusions of the primary analysis [see 918]. New perspectives of this analysis is seen as a recommendation for the development of archives for survey data. 920. DAVISON, W.P.; GEORGE, A.L. "An outline for the study of international political communications", Public Opinion Quarterly 16(4), Wint. 52-53 : 501-511. [G]

921. GALTUNG, I.E. "The impact of study abroad. A three-by-three-nation study of cross-cultural contact", Journal of Peace Research (3), 1965 : 258-276.

[P] Egypt, India, Iran (1963). Samples : Stratified random samples of male students returned home after two or more years of study abroad. Stratification criteria : one half of sample to have returned home before 1960, two-thirds to be classified "natural science" oriented, one third as "social science", one third to have studied in each of three lost countries : Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, USA. Instr. : Standardized interviews. The data are from a study initiated and sponsored by Unesco on the role as culture carriers of students from the East who have studied in the West. A full report of the study will be presented in a forthcoming Unesco publication. 297

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

922. GULLAHORN, J.T. ; GULLAHORN, J.E. "An extension of the U-curve hypothesis", Journal of Social Issues 19(3), 1963 : 33-47. [G] A W-curve "more approximately describes and characterizes temporal patterning of individual reactions to foreign settings, and subsequently to their own home cultures". 923.

JACOBSEN, K.D. ; ROKKAN, S. ; VETO, N. Kontakt og samarbeid mellem de

nordiske folk [Contact and co-operation among the Nordic peoples]. Oslo, Institutt for Samfunnsforsking, 1956. 124 p. mimeo. [S/C, T] Denmark, Norway, Sweden. Review of Nordic commercial survey data on extent of contacts across boundaries, attitudes to co-operation. Includes listing of studies covered. 924. JACOBSON, E.H. "Sojourn research : a definition of the field", Journal of Social Issues 19(3), 1963 : 123-129.

[G] Research strategies in the comparative study of the effects of foreign travel : personality, culture and sojourn maturity. 925. KELMAN, H.C. "Reaction of participants in a foreign specialists' seminar to their American experience", Journal of Social Issues 19(3), 1963 : 61-114. [P] Sixteen countries. 926. LUNDSTEDT, S. "An introduction to some working problems in crosscultural research", Journal of Social Issues 19(3), 1963 : 1-9. [G] The study of human behaviour in cross-cultural exchange is now a defined field. Reappraisal of cultural shock. Challenges U-curve hypothesis. 9.2 Attitudes to own and other countries. [See also: 109, 112, 114.] 927. ANSBACHER, H.L. "The problem of interpreting attitude survey data. A case study of the attitude of Russian workers in war-time Germany", Public Opinion Quarterly 14(1), Spr. 50 : 126-138. [M] France, Italy, USSR. Samples : Foreign workers in camps in Germany. French (N = 801), Italians (N = 436), Russians (N = 998) (All May-June 1945). Instr. : Questionnaire. A reinterpretation of survey data first analyzed by the US Strategic Bombing Survey. 928. "Attrait de l'étranger en France et aux Pays-Bas (L')", Sondages 9(7), 16 avr. 47 : 71-72. [O] France (Jan. 1946, Aug. 1946, Mar. 1947); Netherlands (1946, Feb. 1947). 298

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

By nation tables : attitudes towards emigration, countries of choice and for France; ranking of countries where things are going best/worst at the moment, breakdowns. 929. "Avenir de l'Allemagne (L') : Enquête internationale", Sondages (4), 1947 : 35-37. [O] Canada, Great Britain, Netherlands, USA; France and Norway some questions only. (Dec. 1946 - Jan. 1947). Instr. : Same questions. Multi-nation tabulations : sympathy-antipathy toward German people. Future orientation of Germany : dichotomized; pacific, democratic vs. aggressive. 930. "Avenir démocratique de l'Allemagne (L')", Sondages 15, 1947 : 189. [O] Czechoslovakia (Jan. 1947). Democratic and pacific future of Germany. Comparative dichotomized tabulation. (Canada, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, USA). [See above.] 9 3 1 . DEUTSCH, K . W . ; MERRITT, R . L . "Effects of events on national and international images", in : H.C. KELMAN (ed.) International behaviour. New York, Holt, 1965 : 132-187. [S/N

Presents abstract model of sources of change in images. Tested against survey data from France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, USA. Summarizes evidence from many surveys. Preparatory study for the larger project reported in K . DEUTSCH et al. France, Germany and the Western Alliance. New York, Scribner, 1967, xi + 374 p. [See 871a.] 932. "Impérialisme des grandes puissances (L'). Une enquête internationale", Sondages 7, 1946 : 83. [O] Australia, Canada, France, USA (All Feb. 1946). One multi-nation table. 933. "Impérialisme des grandes puissances (L'). Une enquête internationale", Sondages 14, 1947 : 167-168. [O] Australia (March), Canada (Mar.-July), France (Mar.-July), Great Britain (July), Norway (July), Netherlands (July), USA (Mar.-July), 1947. Multi-nation tabulation. France : breakdowns by profession, sex, attitude on current political issues. 9 3 4 . LUMSDEN, M. "Perception and information on strategic thinking", Journal of Peace Research 3, 1966 : 255-277. [P] Cyprus, Norway. Samples : Two samples of Cypriot high school students (N = 34 + 43), and 30 psychology students in Oslo. 299

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

935.

936.

937.

938.

939.

300

Experiment to test the differences in reactions to proposed strategic games. "Malaise européen (Le). Enquête internationale", Sondages 11, 1948 : 131. [O] Belgium, Canada, France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA. Instr. : Same questions. Multi-nation tabulations; desire to emigrate, country of choice. "Niveau de vie et émigration", Sondages 3, 1960 : 101-102. [O] Austria, Canada, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Greece, India, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switserland, Uruguay, USA (Dec. 1959-Jan. 1960). Instr. : Three identical questions. In 1970 : (1) Which country will have the highest standard of living? (2) In which country will life be most pleasant? Distribution for France, comments on other countries. (3) Willingness to emigrate and country of choice; multi-nation tabulation. PARRY, H.J. "The image and reciprocal image in Western Europe and Japan", Public Opinion Quarterly 24(3), Fall 60 : 517-519. [P + S] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy (Feb. - Mar. 1960), Japan. Samples : European countries : national representative samples (N's : ca. 1,200). Instr. : Two identical questionnaires. Half of respondents given open-ended questions. Abstract of a paper presented at the 15th AAPOR Conference on the image of America. Parallel material from Japan. Italian data not analysed. Trend and cross-national comparative analysis. Discussion of differences of response to open-end and closed-end questions. "Problème allemand (Le). L'opinion allemande. L'opinion d'autres peuples à l'égard de la réunification et du réarmement", Sondages 18(1), 1956 : 33-41. [O] Belgium (Dec. 1954), Canada (Mar. 1955), Germany (F.R.) (1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956); Norway (Jan. 1955). Instr. : Different questions. Single-nation tabulations. Some breakdowns by sex. "Psychologie des villes et des campagnes. Enquête internationale", Sondages 12, 1946 : 148-149. [O] France (May 1946), USA (Apr. 1946). Instr. : Two identical questions. (1) Reproaches of city dweller towards rurals; (2) Vice-versa. France :

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY H E L D

940.

941.

942.

943.

9.3

tabulation of types of reproaches by size of community of residence, and illustrative statements. USA : rank order of type of answers (no frequencies). "Puissance scientifique et militaire des nations (La)", Sondages 3,1960:100. [0] Austria, Canada, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Greece, India, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, USA (All Dec. 1959-Jan. 1960). Instr. : Two identical questions. Estimate of which country will be top in 1970 : (1) In science; (2) Military power. Distribution for France, comments on choice of others. READERS' DIGEST. "Jugements réciproques" and "Opinions, études, éducation", in : 221.750.000 consommateurs. Marché commun et GrandeBretagne. Paris, "Sélection" du Readers' Digest, 1964 : 65-79 and 35-64. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (All Jan. - Feb. 1963). a) Questions, with trait and attribute check list, concerning opinion about (1) inhabitants of Common Market countries and Great Britain, Japan, Sweden, USA; (2) Products of some countries. Tables and graphs by country of self-image and image of others, b) Questions concerning willingness to emigrate and country of choice in case of obligation to emigrate. Breakdowns by : age, sex, education, socio-professional category, place of residence and marital status. Also by answer to two questions : (1) Having been abroad, (2) Speaking at least one foreign language. Graphs by country: country chosen. [For other aspects of study, see : 351, 640, 797, 806, 975.] "Risques de crise économique aux Etats-Unis (Les). Enquête internationale", Sondages 11, 1948 : 131. [O] France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, USA (All Mar. 1948). Instr. : Same questions. One multi-nation table, dichotomized. SCHWARTZMAN, S . ; M O R A Y ARAUJO, M . "The images of international stratification in Latin America", Journal of Peace Research 3, 1966 : 225-243. [P] Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Norway. Samples : University students, 327 Latin Americans, 35 Norwegians. Study of the perceived ranks of different nations on various dimensions. Opinions and attitudes on international politics, war and peace. [See also : 109, 112, 114.]

944. ABT, C.C. "National opinion and military security : research problems", Journal of Conflict Resolution 9 ( 3 ) , Sept. 65 : 3 3 4 - 3 4 4 . [G] 301

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Discusses strategy of research on officials vs. élite vs. mass opinion. 945. ALMOND, G.A. "Public opinion and the development of space technology", Public Opinion Quarterly 24(4), Wint. 60 : 553-572. [S/T] A study on the attitudes of people in various countries toward the new technological revolution. Data were available from International Research Associates (New York), the British Institute of Public Opinion, the French Institute of Public Opinion, DIVO in Germany, Istituto Italiano dell' Opinione Pubblica, etc. [See : 981.] 946. CAMPBELL, C.T.; CAIN, L.S. "Public opinion and the outbreak of war," Journal of Conflict Resolution 9(3), Sept. 65 : 318-329. [S/T] Canada, Great Britain, USA. Commercial poll results used to test L.F. RICHARDSON'S model of the propagation of aggressive attitudes. Comments by A. RAPOPORT, pp. 329-330 and P.E. CONVERSE, pp. 330-333.

947.

DAVIS, M.; VERBA, S. "Party affiliation and international opinions in Britain and France, 1947-1956", Public Opinion Quarterly 24(4), Wint. 60 : 590-604.

948.

949.

950.

951.

[S/T] France, Great Britain. Reviews survey data on within-party splits on foreign policy issues. The data used consist of the results of all available questions on international issues asked by the French and British Gallup organizations between 1947 and 1956. "Défense de la Scandinavie (La)", Sondages 3, 1949 : 28 [O] Denmark, Norway, Sweden (All Dec. 1948). Instr. : Identical questions. DODD, S.C. "A barometer of international security", Public Opinion Quarterly 9(2), Sum. 45 : 194-200. [G] "Énergie atomique (L'). Une enquête internationale", Sondages 19, 1948 : 231. [G] Australia, Canada, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA (all Oct. 1948). Instr. : Same question. Multi-nation dichotomized tabulation. ERSKINE, H.G. (ed.) "The cold war : report from the polls", Public Opinion Quarterly

25(2), S u m . 61 : 300-315.

[S/T] Data from affiliates of the World Gallup Poll on the following topics : foreign aid and technical assistance, propaganda, summit meetings, trade, questions on the UN and general world attitudes toward the USA. 302

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

952. ERSKINE, H.G. (ed.) "The polls : atomic weapons and nuclear energy", Public Opinion Quarterly 27(2), 1963 : 155-190. [S/T]

953.

954.

955.

956.

957.

Among some 200 tabulations of answers to single questions 17 are multi-national comparisons ranging from two to thirteen countries, mostly concerning samples of national populations, but also of capital or major cities : with one exception (one table : education), no breakdowns in comparative tabulations, but numerous and divers breakdowns in US tables, most frequent : education. ERSKINE, H.G. (ed.) "The polls : peace and space", Public Opinion Quarterly 25(3), Fall 61 : 478-489. [S/Tl Data from affiliates of the World Gallup Poll and from NORC on the following topics : the Cuban situation, disarmament and nuclear control, the German occupation military strength and defense, questions of scientific and space advance, and public assessment of the possibility of war. "États-Unis d'Europe (Les). Une enquête internationale", Sondages 20, 1947 : 255-267. [O] (A) Brazil, France, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA. (B) France, Netherlands, Sweden, USA (All Sept. 1947). Instr. : Same questions. (A) Principle of a United States of Europe : multi-nation tabulation : trichotomized. (B) Eventual composition of a United States of Europe : multi-nation table : percentage including each country. "États-Unis, l'URSS et la guerre (Les). Une enquête internationale", Sondages 10(7), avr. 48 : 79-80. [O] Brazil, Canada, France, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA. Two multi-national tabulations and one graph. Breakdowns by political affiliation : France, Italy, Netherlands, Sweden, and profession : France. "Étude internationale par sondages d'opinion, dans douze pays d'Europe, portant sur un certain nombre de questions concernant l'Union de l'Europe occidentale", Sondages nov.-déc. 1950 : 738-741. [O] Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland. EVAN, W.M. "An international public opinion poll on disarmament and "inspection by the people" : a study of attitudes toward supranationalism", in : S. MELMAN (ed.) Inspection for disarmament. New York, Columbia University Press, 1958 : 231-250. [P] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, India, Japan, USA (all Mar. 1958). Samples : National representative. France (N = 287), Germany (N = 282), 303

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

958.

Great Britain (N = 1,000), India : two states and one territory (N = 250). Japan (N = 200), USA (N = 1,610). Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Two validation groups : American scientists (N = 32), American legionnaires (N = 76). Three opinion questions concerning disarmament inspection, assumed to imply increasing levels of implication and one three-point scale question measuring anxiety about likelihood of "nuclear" war. Rank order comparison of nationals on "High Disarmament Inspection Scores" and "very worried" about war. Breakdowns by : sex, profession (manual, non-manual; engineers and scientists, non-engineers, scientists), party affiliation. EYSENCK, H.J. "War and aggressiveness : a survey of social attitude studies" in : T.H. PEAR (ed.) The psychological factors of peace and war. London, Hutchinson, 1950 : 49-81. [S]

959.

960.

GALTUNG, J. Atoms for peace. A comparative study of student attitudes. Oslo, Institute for Social Research, 1960, 40p. [P] Brazil, France, Hawaii, Japan, Norway, Poland, USA. Samples : Students : Brazil (N = 298), France (N = 389), Hawaii (N = 208), Japan (N = 500), Norway (N = 300), Poland (N = 269), USA (N = 416). Instr. : Questionnaires. A descriptive analysis. GORDEN, M.; LERNER, D. "The setting for European arms controls : political and strategic choices of European elites", Journal of Conflict Resolution 9(4), Dec. 65 : 419-433.

[P] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain (1954, 1955, 1959, 1961). Successive interviews with elites. 961. "Guerre et la paix (La)", Sondages 3, 1949 : 27 [O] Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, USA (All Aug. 1948-Jan. 1949). Instr. : Same question. Eventuality of an another world war within ten years. One multi-nation dichotomized tabulation. 962. "Guerre est-elle pour demain (La). La popularité de l'ONU. Deux enquêtes internationales", Sondages 16, 1947 : 199. [O] (A) Australia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Sweden, USA. (B) Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Netherlands Norway, Sweden, USA. Instr. : Same two questions. 304

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

963.

964.

965.

966

967.

968.

969.

(A) Probability of war within ten years : multi-national tabulation; (B) Attitude to UNO : multi-national tabulation. HALLE, N.H. "Social position and foreign policy attitudes", Journal of Peace Research 3(1), 1966 : 46-74. [P] France, Norway, Poland (1964-65). Samples : National representative. France (N = 1,209), Norway (N = 1,000), Poland (N = 2,700). Instr. : "Fairly identical" questionnaires. Main explanatory variable : the "center-periphery" index. This index for social position, tested over some years in Norway, is used for the first time in a comparative study, and proved to "work" quite as well in the two very different foreign national setting. For details on index construction see : J. GALTUNG, "Foreign policy opinion as a function of social position", Journal of Peace Research 1(3, 4), 1964 : 206-231. IKLE, F.C. The social impact of bomb destruction. Norman, Okl., University of Oklahoma Press, 1958, 250p. [S] Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Japan, Netherlands. KELMAN, H. (ed.) International behavior. New York, Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1965, xiv + 626p. A collection of papers, some of them comparative. LENTZ, T.F. "Japan vs. USA : a comparative public opinion study", Journal of Peace Research (3), 1965 : 288-294. [P] Japan, USA. Samples : Secondary school students. Japan (N = 3,144), USA (N = 260). Instr. : Questionnaire. "International opinionaire", of the Peace Research Laboratory in Saint-Louis, USA. A progress report. Marginal tabulations of responses to questionnaire items and "comments". LERNER, D.; GORDEN, M. European leaders look at world secutiry. Cambridge (Mass.), Center for International Studies, MIT, 1960. [P] France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain (1954, 1955, 1959, 1961). [See also 960.] "Opinion publique (L') et l'Europe des Six. L'opinion française. Quelques réactions étrangères", Sondages 25(1), 1963 : 61-107. [O] France, Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands. More detailed analysis of the French results of February 1962, comparison with results of a later national survey (June 1962). Evolution of opinion as juged by results from different national surveys (1960-1963) in the other three countries. "Opinion publique et l'Europe des Six. Enquête internationale en Allemagne, Belgique, France, Italie, Luxembourg, Pays-Bas", Sondages 25, 1963 : 7-58. 305

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

970.

971.

972.

973.

[P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (All Feb.-Mar 62) Samples : National representative samples of adults (Total N = 6,334). Instr. : Same questionnaires. Survey carried out by institutes of the International Gallup group for the "Communautés européennes". Most tables and graphs comparative, some breakdowns by personal background data, a few by behavioral and attitudinal variables. "Opposition de l'Ouest et de l'Est (L')", Sondages 1, 1956 : 1-31. [O] Australia, Belgium, Canada, Finland, Great Britain, Italy, Norway, USA (Period : End 1954, 1955, Jan.-Feb. 1956). Instr. : Some questions same in two countries, rest different. Two nation comparative tabulations and single-reaction tables. Some breakdowns by background and attitudinal variables and, for USA, by level of education and social position (defined by inclusion in Who is Who). OWEN, J. "The polls and newspaper appraisal of the Suez crisis", Public Opinion Quarterly 21(3), Fall 57 : 350-354. [M] During the Suez crisis, the New York Times carried several reports from England and France which purposed to show how the populations of those countries backed their governments in their stand on the Nasser problem. In comparing these reports with survey results, the author finds that they described a French unanimity which did not exist and implied that the British government enjoyed a degree of support it did not have. "Plain people, Europe in the Spring", Time Apr. 12, 1948. [P] France, Germany (US zone), Great Britain, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland. Instr. : Questionnaire interviews. Topics : (A) Estimation of situation as compared with year before; (B) Beliefs opinions and attitudes concerning : (1) Likelihood of war in next 30 years; (2) International balance of power; (3) The Marshall Plan; (4) Future US aid to Europe; (5) UNO as a peace-maintaining institution; (6) A Western European Union; (7) Different human rights and freedoms. Marginal tabulations, no breakdowns or cross-tabulations. [See also : 980, 982.] POOL, I. DE S. Communication and values in relation to war and peace. New York, Institute for International Order, 1961. [G]

974.

306

A general review of research. RABIER, J.R. L'information des Européens et l'intégration de l'Europe. Bruxelles, Institut d'Études européennes. Université libre de Bruxelles, 1965, 71p. [5] Western Europe.

SUBSTANTIVE ANALYSIS BY FIELD

975.

976.

977.

978.

The argument is supported by findings of several opinion surveys. [See : 969, 975.] READER'S DIGEST. "Opinions, études, éducation", in : 221.750.000 consommateurs. Marché commun et Grande-Bretagne. Paris, "Sélection" du Reader's Digest, 1964 : 35-64. [P] Belgium, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands (Jan.-Feb. 63). Three questions concerning the Common Market. One information question. One question on estimation of advantage to own country asked of "informed" respondents only. Breakdown by background variables and by "having been abroad last three years". One "for-against" question on nine options of the Common Market. No breakdowns. [For other aspects of study, see : 351, 641, 797, 806, 941.] "Relations Est-Ouest et les chances de paix (Les). Opinions internationales", Sondages 3, 1960 : 97-98. [O] Austria, Canada, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Greece, India, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, USA (All Dec. 1959-Jan. 1960). Instr. : Two identical questions. Possibility of a pacific solution of East/West conflict. Marginal distribution for France, comments on relative position of other countries. Danger of world war : same presentation. "Rôle de l'organisation des Nations Unies (Le). Opinions internationales", Sondages 22(3), 1960 : 98-99. [O] Austria, Canada, France, Germany (F.R.), Great Britain, Greece, India, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, USA (All Dec. 1959-Jan. 1960). Instr. : Two identical questions. (1) Three-point scale evaluation of activity of UNO : Distribution for France, most favourable responses for other countries; (2) Importance of our contribution to the success of UNO : same presentation. STERN, E. "On the Time international study (WAPOR Conference 1948)", International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research 3(2), Sum. 49 : 329-333. [M] Discusses problem of identity of meaning of population breakdowns in cross-national comparative analysis, liberal versus functional equivalence of questions and relation to cultural frame of reference. Suggests direct personal communication between participating research organizations and particularly the use of previously prepared tabulation forms as an aid in mutual understanding.

307

A N ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

978a.

979.

980.

Development in children of concepts and attitudes about their own and other nations : a cross-national study. Paper, XVIII Int. Congress of Psychology, Moscow, Aug. 1966, 17 p. mimeo. [P] Britain, Belgium, Austria, Greece. Sample : School children. Instr. : Paired comparison test for judgments of size, distance and preference. Initial report based on British and Belgian data only. Includes presentation of further study in the same four countries plus the Netherlands on impact of information about nationality on preferences among photographed faces of young men. TERHUNE, K . W . "Nationalistic aspiration, loyalty and internationalism", Journal of Peace Research 3, 1 9 6 5 : 2 7 7 - 2 8 7 . [P] Canada, Colombia, Egypt, Great Britain, Germany, Guinea, Iran, India, Japan, Korea, Nigeria, Venezuela. Samples : Foreign students at Michigan State University and the University of Michigan from six geographical-cultural regions : North America (N = 17), South America (N = 30), Western Europe (N = 36), SubSahara Africa (N = 5), Middle East (N = 33), Far East (N = 56). Instr. : Mail questionnaire. Construction of Guttman type scales of nationalism and international cooperation. Loyalty assessed by hypothetical situation requiring choice relating to fifteen pairs of words. Rating on a seven point scale of the concepts : "nationalism", "internationalism", "United Nations".

TAJFEL, H . ; JAHODA, G .

WALLACE, D . ; WOODWARD, J . L . ; STERN, E . ; BARIOUX, M . ; YLVISAKER, H .

"Experience in the 'Time' international study : a symposium", Public Opinion Quarterly 12(4), Wint. 48-49 : 708-721. Articles by Max BARIOUX on techniques used in France, by E. STERN on translation problems, by H . YLVISAKER on special problems in Germany, and a summary of the experience from a methodological and technical point of view by WALLACE and WOODWARD. [See also: 972, 982.] 981. WILSON, E . C . World poll on satellite launching. New York, International Research Association, 1957. [P] Great number of countries. Data have been used by Almond for a secondary analysis. [See 945.] 982. WOODWARD, J. et al. Where stands freedom ? A report of the findings of an international survey of public opinion. New York, Time Inc., 1948. [P] Canada, Brazil, France, Germany (US zone), Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Sweden, Switzerland, USA.

308

APPENDIX

Indexes

Countries compared *

Africa Europe, 520 Far East, 520 U.S.A., 520 Americas Asia, 826a Europe, 826a Arab countries Pakistan, 360 Sudan, 360 U.S.A., 360 Arab Near East (see also Near East) Australia, 515 Canada, 498 Europe, 469 Hawaii, 515 Norway, 582 United Kingdom, 469 U.S.A., 264, 417, 472,487, 498, 515, 523, 550, 582, 896 Argentina Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 251, 252, 273, 692, 715, 725, 778, 943 Chile, 251, 252, 757, 778, 943 Colombia, 251, 252, 273, 778, 886 Costa Rica, 273 El Salvador, 778 Europe, 715 Guatemala, 251, 252, 778 India, 757 Israel, 757 Mexico, 251, 252, 273, 778

Nigeria, 757 Norway, 943 Pakistan, 757 Panama, 273 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 251, 252, 778 Puerto Rico, 886 United Kingdom, 251, 252 Uruguay, 692, 725, 726 U.S.A., 251, 252, 715, 731 Venezuela, 251, 252, 273, 778 Asia Americas, 826a U.S.A., 735 Australia Arab Near East, 515 Belgium, 739, 970 Brazil, 724, 739, 807 Canada, 612, 807, 932, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 Czechoslovakia, 807, 962 Denmark, 612, 739, 807, 961, 962 Europe, 735, 826 bis Finland, 739, 807, 961, 962, 970 France, 502, 516, 612, 683, 739, 807, 932, 933, 950, 962 Germany, 502, 516, 683, 739, 962 Hawaii, 515 Hungary, 739, 962 India, 739 Italy, 502, 516, 683, 739, 961, 962, 970 Japan, 739 Malaya, 544

* This index has been prepared by Mrs. Annie Viet.

311

INDEXES

Mexico, 502, 516, 683 Netherlands, 502, 516, 612, 683, 739, 807, 933, 950, 961, 962 New Zealand, 317 Norway, 502, 516, 612, 683, 739, 807, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 Puerto Rico, 739 Sweden, 612, 739, 807, 950, 961, 962 United Kingdom, 346, 502, 516, 612, 678, 683, 724, 739, 807, 866, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 U.S.A., 388, 410, 496, 502, 515, 516, 612, 678, 683, 724, 739, 807, 932, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 U.S.S.R., 739 Austria Belgium, 481, 735, 782, 783, 956, 978a Canada, 258, 266, 267, 282, 936, 440, 976, 977 Czechoslovakia, 263 Denmark, 956 Finland, 267 France, 258, 263, 266, 282, 481, 782, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Germany, 263, 387, 481, 638, 782, 783, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Greece, 936, 940, 976, 977, 978a Hungary, 263 India, 258, 936, 940, 976, 977 Italy, 263, 504, 638, 782, 783, 956 Ivory Coast, 282 Luxemburg, 956 Morocco, 282 Netherlands, 258,263,266,481,602,638, 782, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Norway, 258, 263, 267, 602, 638, 783, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Poland, 282 Sweden, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Switzerland, 258, 263,481, 936,940, 956, 976, 977 United Kingdom, 258, 263, 266, 267, 602, 782, 783, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977, 978a Uruguay, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 258, 266, 387, 424, 602, 735, 783, 936, 940, 976, 977 Yugoslavia, 282 Barbados British Guiana, 884 Jamaica, 884

312

Trinidad, 884 Belgium Australia, 739, 970 Austria, 481, 735, 782, 783, 956, 978a Brazil, 739 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 510, 935, 938, 970 Czechoslovakia, 621, 800, 864 Denmark, 621, 739, 790, 821, 956 Europe, 772, 781 Finland, 621, 739, 790, 821, 970 France, 338, 351, 476, 481,488, 513, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 752, 761, 775, 781, 782, 790, 797, 800, 806, 811, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 935, 941, 956, 969, 975 Germany, 351, 476, 488, 513, 553, 621, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 752, 761, 775, 782, 783, 790, 797, 800, 806, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 938, 941, 956, 969, 975. Greece, 978a Hungary, 739, 800, 864 India, 739 Italy, 351, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 761, 782, 783, 797, 806, 821, 824, 935, 941, 956, 969, 970, 975 Japan, 739 Luxemburg, 338, 351, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Netherlands, 351,476,481,488, 510, 513, 553, 621, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 752, 759, 761, 781, 782, 797, 806, 811, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 935, 941, 956, 969, 975 Norway, 476, 488, 621, 739, 752, 781, 783, 821, 870, 885, 935, 938, 956, 970 Poland, 621, 800 Puerto Rico, 739 Saar, 624 Sweden, 476,488, 739,752,781,821, 870, 885, 935, 956 Switzerland, 481, 621, 781, 790, 956 United Kingdom, 351,488,553, 621, 641, 739, 752, 761, 775, 781, 782, 783, 797, 806, 821, 870, 885, 935, 941, 956, 970, 975, 978a U.S.A., 259, 284, 621, 735, 739, 775, 783, 800, 935, 970 U.S.S.R., 739, 800

COUNTRIES COMPARED

Yugoslavia, 790, 800 Bolivia Argentina, 778 Brazil, 778 Chile, 778 Colombia, 778 El Salvador, 778 Guatemala, 778 Mexico, 778 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 778 Venezuela, 778 Brazil Argentina, 251, 252, 273, 692, 715, 725, 778, 943 Australia, 724, 739, 807 Belgium, 739 Bolivia, 778 Canada, 694, 807, 858, 955, 982 Chile, 251, 252, 773, 778, 871, 943 Colombia, 251, 252, 273, 769, 773, 778 Costa Rica, 265, 273 Cuba, 529, 530 Czechoslovakia, 807, 858 Denmark, 739, 807 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530 El Salvador, 773, 778 Equator, 773 Europe, 715 Finland, 739, 807 France, 694, 739, 807, 858, 954, 955, 959, 982 Germany, 511, 529, 530, 568, 694, 739, 982 Guatemala, 251, 252, 778 Hawaii, 959 Hungary, 739 India, 530, 568, 739 Israel, 511, 530, 694 Italy, 739, 955, 982 Japan, 511, 530, 568, 694, 739, 959 Lebanon, 511, 694 Mexico, 251, 252, 273, 493, 693, 769,773, 778, 871, 982 Netherlands, 739, 807, 858, 954, 955 Nigeria, 530 Norway, 739, 807, 943, 954, 955, 959 Panama, 265, 273, 530 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 251, 252, 769, 773, 778

Philippines, 529, 530 Poland, 530, 959 Puerto Rico, 739 South Africa (Bantu), 511, 694 Sweden, 739, 807, 858, 954, 955, 982 Switzerland, 982 Turkey, 511, 694 United Kingdom, 251,252,670,724,739, 858, 982 Uruguay, 692, 725 U.S.A., 251, 252, 493, 511, 529, 530, 531, 571, 572, 688, 694, 715, 724, 739, 787, 807, 858, 954, 955, 959, 982 U.S.S.R., 739 Venezuela, 251, 252, 273, 778 Yugoslavia, 530 British Guiana Barbados, 884 Jamaica, 884 Trinidad, 884 Bulgaria Belgium, 800 Czechoslovakia, 800 France, 800 Germany, 800 Hungary, 800 Poland, 800 U.S.A., 800 U.S.S.R., 800 Yugoslavia, 800 Burma U.S.A., 537 Canada Arab Near East, 498 Australia, 612, 807, 932, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 Austria, 258, 266, 282, 936, 940, 976, 977 Belgium, 510, 935, 938, 970 Brazil, 694, 807, 858, 955, 982 China, 551 Colombia, 979 Czechoslovakia, 807, 858, 962 Denmark, 612, 807, 860, 863, 961, 962 Egypt, 979 Finland, 267, 807, 865, 961, 962, 970 France, 258, 266,280, 282, 534, 612, 694, 807, 858, 860, 863, 929, 932, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 955, 962, 976, 977, 982 Germany, 280, 534, 694, 936, 938, 940, 962, 976, 977, 979, 982 Greece, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977

313

INDEXES

Guinea, 979 Hungary, 962 India, 258, 280, 534, 551, 936, 940, 976, 977, 979 Iran, 979 Israel, 694 Italy, 935, 955, 961, 962, 970, 982 Ivory Coast, 282 Japan, 551, 694, 979 Korea, 979 Lebanon, 694 Mexico, 607, 982 Morocco, 282 Netherlands, 258,266,280, 510,534,612, 807, 858, 860, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977 Nigeria, 607, 979 Norway, 258, 267, 534, 551, 612, 807, 859, 860, 863, 929, 933, 935, 936, 938, 940, 950, 955, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977 Poland, 282 South Africa, 694 Sweden, 612,807,858, 860,863,935,936, 940, 950, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977, 982 Switzerland, 258,280, 534,936,940, 976, 977, 982 Turkey, 694 United Kingdom, 258,266,267,280, 390, 534, 612, 807, 858, 860, 863, 865, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 946, 950, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977, 979, 982 Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 258, 266, 267, 280, 497,498, 534, 551, 607, 612, 694, 807, 858, 860, 863, 865, 929, 932, 933, 935, 936, 940, 946, 950, 955, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977, 982 Venezuela, 979 Yugoslavia, 282 Ceylon U.S.A., 429 Chile Argentina, 251, 252, 757, 778, 943 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 251, 252, 773, 778, 871, 943 Colombia, 251, 252, 773, 778 El Salvador, 773, 778 Equator, 773 Guatemala, 251, 252, 778 India, 757 Israel, 757 Mexico, 251, 252, 773, 778, 871 314

Nigeria, 757 Norway, 943 Pakistan, 757 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 251, 252, 611, 773, 778 Sweden, 611 United Kingdom, 251, 252 U.S.A., 251, 252, 611, 818 China Canada, 551 India, 414, 543, 551, 560 Japan, 414, 457, 543, 551, 558 Norway, 414, 543, 551 Portugal, 457a Taiwan, 558 U.S.A., 307, 327, 404,407, 414,416,420, 431, 543, 551, 558, 560 Colombia Argentina, 251, 252, 273, 778, 886 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 251, 252, 273, 769, 773, 778 Canada, 979 Chile, 251, 252, 773, 778 Costa Rica, 273 Egypt, 979 El Salvador, 773, 778 Equator, 773 Germany, 979 Guatemala, 251, 252, 778 Guinea, 979 India, 979 Iran, 979 Japan, 979 Korea, 979 Mexico, 251, 252, 273, 769, 773, 778 Nigeria, 979 Panama, 273 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 251, 252, 769, 773, 778 Puerto Rico, 886 United Kingdom, 251, 252, 979 U.S.A., 251, 252 Venezuela, 251, 252, 273, 778, 979 Costa Rica Argentina, 273 Brazil, 265, 273 Colombia, 273 El Salvador, 705 Guatemala, 686 Mexico, 273 Panama, 265, 273, 877

COUNTRIES COMPARED

U.S.A., 686 Venezuela, 273 Cuba Brazil, 529, 530 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530 Germany, 529, 530 India, 530 Israel, 530 Japan, 530 Nigeria, 530 Panama, 530 Philippines, 529, 530 Poland, 530 U.S.A., 418, 430, 529, 530 Yugoslavia, 530 Cyprus Norway, 934 Czechoslovakia Australia, 807, 962 Austria, 263 Belgium, 621, 800, 864 Brazil, 807, 858 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 807, 858, 962 Denmark, 621, 807, 962 Finland, 621, 807 France, 263, 800, 807, 858, 962 Germany, 263, 621, 800, 962 Hungary, 263, 792, 800, 804 Italy, 263, 962 Netherlands, 263, 621, 807, 858, 962 Norway, 263, 621, 807 Poland, 621, 800 Sweden, 807, 858, 962 Switzerland, 263, 621 United Kingdom, 263,621, 807, 858, 962 U.S.A., 621, 800, 807, 858, 962 U.S.S.R., 800 Yugoslavia, 800 Denmark Australia, 612, 739, 807, 961, 962 Austria, 956 Belgium, 621, 739, 790, 821, 956 Brazil, 739, 807 Canada, 612, 807, 860, 863, 961, 962 Czechoslovakia, 621, 807, 962 Finland, 621,739,740,750,790,801,802, 807, 821, 862, 961, 962 France, 365, 612, 739, 740, 754, 790, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 956, 962

Germany, 365, 425, 604, 621, 73», 740 754, 790, 821, 956, 962 Hungary, 739, 740, 962 India, 739 Italy, 425, 739, 740, 789, 821, 862, 956, 961, 962 Japan, 425, 739, 740 Luxemburg, 956 Netherlands, 365, 612, 621, 739, 740, 754, 807, 821, 860, 862, 956, 961, 962 Norway, 399, 604, 612, 621, 739, 740, 750, 801, 802, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 923, 948, 956, 961, 962 Peru, 425 Poland, 621 Puerto Rico, 739, 740 Sweden, 365,399,604,612,655,739,740, 750, 801, 802, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 923, 948, 956, 961, 962 Switzerland, 365, 621, 790, 956 Taiwan, 604 United Kingdom, 363, 364, 365, 371, 372, 425, 612, 621, 655, 720, 739, 740, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 956, 961, 962 U.S.A., 256, 257, 283, 345, 363, 364, 365, 371, 372, 425, 604, 612, 621, 655, 739, 740, 807, 860, 862, 863, 961, 962 U.S.S.R., 739, 740 Yugoslavia, 790 Dominican Republic Brazil, 530 Cuba, 530 Egypt, 530 Germany, 530 India, 530 Israel, 530 Japan, 530 Nigeria, 530 Panama, 530 Philippines, 530 Poland, 530 U.S.A., 530 Yugoslavia, 530 Egypt Brazil, 530 Canada, 979 Colombia, 979 Cuba, 530 Dominican Republic, 530 France, 536 Germany, 530, 536, 979

315

INDEXES

Guinea, 979 India, 530, 921, 979 Iran, 344, 904, 921, 979 Iraq, 300, 301 Israel, 530, 536 Italy, 536 Japan, 530, 536, 979 Jordan, 300, 301, 344, 904 Korea, 979 Lebanon, 274, 300, 301, 344, 904 Mexico, 536 New Zealand, 536 Nigeria, 530, 979 Panama, 530 Philippines, 530 Poland, 530 South Africa, 536 Syria, 300, 301, 344, 904 Turkey, 904 United Kingdom, 979 U.S.A., 300, 301, 344 (1953-56), 485, 526, 530, 536, 559 Venezuela, 979 Yugoslavia, 530 El Salvador Argentina, 778 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 773, 778 Chile, 773, 778 Colombia, 773, 778 Costa Rica, 705 Equator, 773 Guatemala, 778 Mexico, 773, 778 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 773, 778 Venezuela, 778 Equator Brazil, 773 Chile, 773 Colombia, 773 El Salvador, 773 Mexico, 773 Peru, 773 Europe Africa, 520 Americas, 826a Arab Near East, 469 Argentina, 715 Asia, 735, 826a Belgium, 772, 781 316

Brazil, 715 Far East, 520 France, 772, 781 Germany, 707, 772 Italy, 822 Japan, 747a Java, 532 Near East, 520 Netherlands, 781 Norway, 781 Sweden, 781 Switzerland, 781 United Kingdom, 772, 781 U.S.A., 336, 520, 532, 636, 707, 715, 735, 747 bis, 775 Far East Africa, 520 Europe, 520 Near East, 520 U.S.A., 520 Finland Australia, 739, 807, 961, 962, 970 Belgium, 621, 739, 790, 821, 970 Brazil, 739, 807 Canada, 267, 807, 865, 961, 962, 970 Czechoslovakia, 621, 807 Denmark, 621, 739, 740, 750, 790, 801. 802, 807, 821, 862, 961, 962 France, 736, 739, 740, 790, 807, 821. 862. 962 Germany, 339, 492, 621, 736, 739, 740. 790, 821 Hungary, 739, 740, 962 India, 610, 739 Italy, 739, 740, 821, 862, 961, 970 Japan, 739, 740 Mexico, 339, 492 Netherlands, 621, 739, 740, 807,821,862, 961, 962 Norway, 267, 299, 339, 492, 621, 739, 740, 744, 750, 801, 802, 807, 821, 862, 961, 962. 970 Poland, 621 Puerto Rico, 739, 740 Sweden, 299, 339, 492, 736, 739, 740, 744, 750, 801. 802, 807, 821, 862, 961, 962 Switzerland, 621, 790 United Kingdom, 267, 339, 492, 621, 736, 739, 740, 744, 807, 821, 862, 865, 961, 970

COUNTRIES COMPARED

U.S.A., 267, 299, 339,492, 535, 610, 621, 736, 739, 740, 807, 862, 865, 961, 962, 970 U.S.S.R., 739, 740 Yugoslavia, 299, 790 France Australia, 502, 516, 612, 683, 739, 807, 932, 933, 950, 962 Austria, 258,263,266,282,481,782,936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Belgium, 338, 351, 476, 481, 488, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 752, 761, 775, 781, 782, 790, 797, 800, 806, 811, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 935, 941, 956, 969, 975 Brazil, 694, 739, 807, 858, 954, 955, 959, 982 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 258, 266, 280, 282, 534, 612, 694, 807, 858, 860, 863, 929, 932, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 955, 962, 976, 977, 982 Czechoslovakia, 263, 800, 807, 858, 962 Denmark, 365, 612, 739, 740, 754, 790, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 956, 962 Egypt, 536 Europe, 772, 781 Finland, 736, 739, 740, 790, 807, 821, 862, 962 Germany (F.R.), 109,112, 114, 263, 280, 304, 305, 335, 337, 351, 365, 403, 476, 477, 481, 488, 502, 516, 534, 536, 553, 624, 626, 641, 643, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 694, 736, 739, 740, 752, 754, 761, 775, 782, 785, 790, 797, 800, 806, 821 bis, 838, 839, 870, 871a, 872, 875, 881, 885, 918, 919, 931, 936, 937, 940, 941, 956, 957, 960, 962, 967, 968, 969, 972, 975, 976, 977, 982 Greece, 280, 306, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Hawaii, 959 Hungary, 263, 739, 740, 800, 962 India, 258, 280, 414, 534, 739, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977 Israel, 536, 694 Italy, 109, 112, 114, 263, 351, 414, 502, 516, 536, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 718, 723, 739, 740, 761, 782, 797, 806, 817, 821, 824, 839, 841, 862, 868, 872, 875, 927, 931, 935, 937, 941, 942, 955, 956, 962, 969, 972, 975, 982

Ivory Coast, 282 Japan, 337, 536, 694, 739, 740, 742, 743, 872, 875, 937, 957, 959 Lebanon, 694 Luxemburg, 338, 351, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646, 646, 647, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Mexico, 502, 516, 536, 683, 982 Morocco, 282, 760 Netherlands, 112,258,263,266,280, 351, 365, 476, 481, 488, 502, 516, 534, 553, 612, 624, 626, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 739, 740, 752, 754, 761, 781, 782, 797, 806, 807, 811, 821, 824, 858, 860, 862, 870, 885, 918, 919, 928, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 941, 942, 950, 954, 955, 956, 962, 968, 969, 975, 976, 977 New Zealand, 536 Norway, 258, 263, 335, 337, 402a, 476, 488, 502, 516, 534, 612, 683, 739, 740, 752, 781, 807, 821, 831, 838, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 959, 962, 963, 976, 977 Poland, 282, 414, 800, 959, 963 Puerto Rico, 739, 740 Saar, 624 South Africa, 536, 694 Spain, 804 Sweden, 365, 476, 488, 612, 684, 736, 739, 740, 741, 752, 781, 785, 807, 821, 831, 858, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 906, 955, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 962, 972, 976, 977, 982 Switzerland, 258, 263, 280, 365, 481, 534, 781, 790, 936, 940, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Turkey, 694 United Kingdom, 109,112,114,258,263, 266, 280, 302, 304, 335, 337, 351, 365, 414, 477, 488, 502, 516, 534, 553, 603, 612, 632, 641, 683, 718, 723, 736, 739, 740, 742, 743, 752, 761, 775, 781, 782, 785, 797, 806, 807, 821, 839, 841, 858, 860, 862, 863, 868, 870, 872, 875, 881, 885, 906, 929, 931, 933, 935, 936, 937, 940, 941, 942, 947, 950, 956, 957, 960, 962, 967, 968, 972, 975, 976, 977, 982 Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 248, 258, 266, 280, 296, 302, 328, 335, 337, 365, 392, 414, 502, 516, 521, 317

INDEXES 534, 536, 575, 603, 612, 683, 684, 694, 701, 718, 723, 736, 739, 740, 742, 743, 775, 800, 807, 835, 836, 839, 841, 858, 860, 862, 868, 872, 875, 929, 931, 932, 933, 936, 939, 940, 942, 950, 954, 955, 957, 959, 962, 976, 977, 982 U.S.S.R., 739, 740, 800, 927 Yugoslavia, 282, 790, 800, 838 Germany (JF.R.) Australia, 502, 516, 683, 739, 962 Austria, 263, 387,481,638, 782,783,936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Belgium, 351, 476, 481, 488, 513, 553, 621, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 752, 761, 775, 782, 783, 790, 797, 800, 806, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 938, 941, 956, 969, 975 Brazil, 511, 529, 530, 568, 694, 739, 982 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 280,511,534,694,936,938,940, 962, 976, 977, 979, 982 Colombia, 979 Cuba, 529, 530 Czechoslovakia, 263, 621, 800, 962 Denmark, 365, 425, 604, 621, 739, 740, 754, 790, 821, 956, 962 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530, 536, 979 Europe, 707, 772 Finland, 339,492,621,736,739,740,790, 821 France, 109,112,114, 263, 280, 304, 305, 335, 337, 351, 365, 403, 476, 477, 481, 488, 502, 513, 516, 534, 536, 553, 624, 626, 641, 643, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 694, 736, 739, 740, 752, 754, 761, 775, 782, 785, 790, 797, 800, 806, 821, 824, 838, 839, 870, 871a, 872,875,881, 885, 918, 919, 931, 936, 937, 940, 941, 956, 957, 960, 962, 967, 968, 969, 972, 975, 976, 977, 982 Greece, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Guinea, 979 Hungary, 263, 739, 740, 800 India, 280, 354, 530, 534, 568, 739, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977, 979 Iran, 979 Israel, 511, 530, 536, 694 Italy, 109, 112, 114, 263, 351, 425, 502, 516, 536, 624, 638, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 739, 740, 761, 782, 783,

318

797, 806, 821, 824, 833, 834, 839, 849, 850, 872, 875, 931, 937, 941, 956, 962, 969, 972, 975, 982 Japan, 337, 425, 511, 530, 536, 568, 671, 680, 694, 739, 740, 833, 872, 875, 937, 957, 964, 979 Korea, 979 Lebanon, 511, 694 Luxemburg, 351, 553, 524, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Mexico, 339,492,494, 502, 516, 536, 683, 834, 849, 850, 982 Netherlands, 112,263,280, 351, 365,476, 481, 488, 502, 513, 516, 534, 553, 621, 624, 626, 638, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 735, 739, 740, 752, 754, 761, 782, 797, 806, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 936, 940, 941, 956, 962, 964, 968, 969, 975, 976, 977 New Zealand, 536, 671, 680 Nigeria, 530, 979 Norway, 263, 335, 337, 339, 476, 488, 492, 502, 516, 534, 604, 621, 338, 383, 739, 740, 752, 777, 783, 801, 738, 870, 885, 936, 938, 940, 956, 976, 977 Panama, 530 Peru, 389, 425 Philippines, 356, 529, 530, 680 Poland, 530, 621, 676, 746, 800 Puerto Rico, 354, 739, 740 Saar, 624 South Africa (Bantu), 511, 536, 694 Sweden, 339, 365,466,476,488,492,604, 735, 736, 739, 740, 752, 777, 785, 821, 870, 885, 936, 940, 956, 962, 972, 976, 977, 982 Switzerland, 263, 280, 365,481, 534, 621, 790, 936, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Taiwan, 604 Thailand, 341 Turkey, 511, 694 United Kingdom, 109,112,114,263,280, 304, 335, 337, 339, 351, 365, 425, 448, 466, 477, 488, 492, 494, 502, 516, 534, 553, 621, 641, 671, 676, 680, 683, 736, 739, 740, 752, 761, 775, 777, 782, 783, 785, 797, 806, 821, 825, 834, 839, 949, 850, 870, 872, 875, 881, 885, 931, 936, 937, 940, 941, 956, 957, 960, 962, 964, 967, 968, 972, 975, 976, 977, 979, 982

COUNTRIES COMPARED

Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 261, 262, 280, 321, 326, 335, 337 339, 348, 354, 356, 357, 365, 387, 424 425, 455, 466, 478, 492, 494, 502, 511, 516, 529, 530, 534, 536, 570, 604, 621, 671, 676, 680, 683, 694, 695, 707, 729, 735, 736, 739, 740, 746, 764, 765, 775, 783, 800, 825, 834, 839, 849, 850, 872, 875, 931, 936, 940, 957, 962, 976, 977, 982 U.S.S.R., 671, 739, 740, 800 Venezuela, 979 Yugoslavia, 530, 790, 800, 838 Germany (D.R.) U.S.S R , 402 Ghana Ivory Coast, 685 Guatemala Argentina, 251, 252, 778 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 251, 252, 778 Chile, 251, 252, 778 Colombia, 251, 252, 778 Costa Rica, 686 El Salvador, 778 Mexico, 251, 252, 778 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 251, 252, 778 United Kingdom, 251, 252 U.S.A., 251, 252, 453, 686 Venezuela, 251, 252, 778 Great Britain see United Kingdom Greece Austria, 936, 940, 976, 977, 978a Belgium, 978a Canada, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 France, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Germany, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 India, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Japan, 361 Netherlands, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976,977 Norway, 535, 936, 940, 976, 977 Puerto Rico, 361 Sweden, 361, 936, 940, 976, 977 Switzerland, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976,977 United Kingdom, 280, 361, 534,936,940, 976, 977, 978a Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 277, 280, 306, 361, 525, 534, 766, 901, 936, 940, 976, 977 Grenada

Trinidad, 297 Guinea Canada, 979 Colombia, 979 Egypt, 979 Germany, 979 India, 979 Iran, 979 Japan, 979 Korea, 979 Nigeria, 979 United Kingdom, 979 Venezuela, 979 Hawaii Arab Near East, 515 Australia, 515 Brazil, 959 France, 959 Japan, 276, 959 Norway, 959 Poland, 959 U.S.A., 459, 515, 959 Hungary Australia, 739, 962 Austria, 263 Belgium, 739, 800, 864 Brazil, 739 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 962 Czechoslovakia, 263, 792, 800, 864 Denmark, 739, 740, 962 Finland, 739, 740, 962 France, 263, 739, 740, 800, 962 Germany, 263, 739, 740, 800 India, 739 Italy, 263, 739, 740 Japan, 739, 740 Netherlands, 263, 739, 740, 962 Norway, 263, 739, 740, 962 Poland, 800 Puerto Rico, 739, 740 Sweden, 739, 740, 962 Switzerland, 263 United Kingdom, 263, 739, 740 U.S.A., 739, 740, 800, 962 U.S.S.R., 739, 740, 800 Yugoslavia, 800 India Argentina, 757 Australia, 739 Austria, 258, 936, 940, 976, 977

319

INDEXES

Belgium, 739 Brazil, 530, 568, 739 Canada, 258,280,534,551,936,940,976, 977, 979 Chile, 757 China, 414, 543, 551, 560 Colombia, 979 Cuba, 530 Denmark, 739 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530, 921, 979 Finland, 610, 739 France, 258, 280, 414, 534, 739, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977 Germany, 280, 354, 530, 534, 568, 739, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977, 979 Greece, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Guinea, 979 Hungary, 739 Iran, 921, 979 Israel, 630, 757 Italy, 414, 739, 872, 875 Japan, 414, 457, 530, 543, 551, 568, 627, 739, 848, 872, 875, 957, 979 Kenya, 329 Korea, 555, 979 Mexico, 329, 848 Netherlands, 258,280,534, 739, 936,940, 976, 977 Nigeria, 530, 757, 848, 979 Norway, 258,414,534,543,551,739,936, 940, 976, 977 Okinawa, 329 Pakistan, 757 Panama, 530 Philippines, 329, 530 Poland, 414, 530, 853 Puerto Rico, 354, 739 Sweden, 739, 936, 940, 976, 977 Switzerland, 255, 280, 834, 936, 940, 976, 977 United Kingdom, 258,280,414,462, 534, 668, 739, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977, 979 Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 258, 280, 329, 354, 414, 421,428, 457, 462, 482, 530, 534, 543, 551, 555, 557, 560, 578, 579, 610, 627, 631, 739, 807, 848, 853, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977 U.S.S.R., 739

320

Venezuela, 979 Yugoslavia, 530, 853 Indonesia (see also Java) Switzerland, 464 Iran Canada, 979 Colombia, 979 Egypt, 344, 904, 921, 979 Germany, 979 Guinea, 979 India, 921, 979 Iran, 979 Japan, 979 Jordan, 344, 904 Korea, 979 Lebanon, 344, 904 Nigeria, 979 Syria, 344, 904 Turkey, 904 United Kingdom, 979 U.S.A., 344, 574 Venezuela, 979 Iraq Egypt, 300, 301 Jordan, 300, 301 Lebanon, 300,301 Syria, 300, 301 U.S.A., 300, 301 Israel Argentina, 757 Brazil, 511, 530, 694 Canada, 511, 694 Chile, 757 Cuba, 530 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530, 536 France, 536, 694 Germany, 511, 530, 536, 694 India, 530, 757 Israel, 536, 694, 757 Italy, 536 Japan, 511, 530, 536, 694 Lebanon, 511, 694 Mexico, 536 New Zealand, 536 Nigeria, 530, 757 Pakistan, 757 Panama, 530 Philippines, 530 Poland, 530 South Africa, 511, 536, 694

COUNTRIES COMPARED

Turkey, 511, 694 U.S.A., 353, 474, 489, 511, 530, 536, 549, 694 Yugoslavia, 530 Italy Australia, 502, 516, 683, 739, 961, 962, 970 Austria, 263, 504, 638, 782, 783, 956 Belgium, 351, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 761, 782, 783, 797, 806, 821, 824, 935, 941, 956, 969, 970, 976 Brazil, 739, 955, 982 Canada, 935, 955, 961, 962, 970, 982 Czechoslovakia, 263, 962 Denmark, 425, 739, 740, 789, 821, 862, 956, 961, 962 Egypt, 536 Europe, 822 Finland, 739, 740, 821, 862, 961, 970 France, 109,112,114, 263, 351, 414, 502, 516, 536, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 718, 723, 739, 740, 761, 782, 797, 806, 817, 821, 824, 839, 841, 862, 868, 872, 875, 927, 931, 935, 937, 941, 942, 955, 956, 962, 969, 972, 975, 982 Germany (F.R.), 109,112, 114, 263, 351, 425, 502, 526, 536, 624, 63 ,641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 739, 740, 761, 782, 783, 797, 806, 821, 824, 833, 834, 839, 849, 850, 872, 875, 931, 937, 941, 956, 962, 969, 972, 975, 982 Hungary, 263, 739, 740 India, 414, 739, 872, 875 Israel, 536 Japan, 425, 536, 739, 740, 833, 872, 875, 937 Luxemburg, 351, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Mexico, 502, 516, 536, 683, 834,849, 850, 982 Netherlands, 112,263,351, 501, 526,624, 638, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 739, 740, 761, 782, 797, 806, 821, 824, 862, 935, 941, 942, 955, 956, 961, 962, 969, 975 New Zealand, 536 Norway, 263, 303, 314, 502, 516, 638, 683, 739, 740, 783, 821, 862, 935, 955, 956, 961, 970 Peru, 425 Poland, 414, 566, 568

Puerto Rico, 739, 740, 762 Saar, 624 South Africa, 536 Sweden, 739, 740,821, 862,935,955,956, 961, 962, 972, 982 Switzerland, 263, 956, 972, 982 Turkey, 566, 568 United Kingdom, 109,112,114,263,303, 351, 414, 425, 502, 516, 641, 683, 718, 723, 739, 740, 761, 782, 783, 797, 806, 821, 834, 839, 841, 849, 850, 862, 868, 872, 875, 931, 935, 937, 941 942, 956, 961, 962, 970, 972, 975, 982, U.S.A., 349, 391, 394, 395, 405, 414, 425, 502, 516, 536, 566, 568, 683, 700, 718, 723, 739, 740, 762, 783, 834, 839, 841, 849, 850, 862, 868, 872, 875, 897, 931, 935, 942, 955, 961, 962, 970, 982 U.S.S.R., 739, 740, 927 Ivory Coast Austria, 282 Canada, 282 France, 282 Ghana, 685 Morocco, 282 Poland, 282 Yugoslavia, 282 Jamaica Barbados, 884 British Guiana, 884 Trinidad, 884 United Kingdom, 452 Japan Australia, 739 Belgium, 739 Brazil, 511, 530, 568, 694, 739, 959 Canada, 511, 551, 694, 979 China, 414, 457, 543, 551, 558 Colombia, 979 Cuba, 530 Denmark, 425, 739, 740 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530, 536, 979 Europe, 747 bis Finland, 739, 740 France, 337, 536, 694, 739, 740, 742, 743, 872, 875, 937, 957, 959 Germany, 337, 425, 511, 530, 536, 568, 671, 680, 694, 739, 740, 833, 872, 875, 937, 957, 964, 979 Greece, 361

321

INDEXES

Guinea, 979 Hawaii, 276, 959 Hungary, 739, 740 India, 414, 457, 530, 543, 551, 568, 627, 739, 848, 872, 875, 957, 979 Iran, 979 Israel, 511, 530, 536, 694 Italy, 425, 536, 739, 740, 833, 872, 875, 937 Korea, 888, 895, 979 Lebanon, 511, 694 Mexico, 536, 848 Netherlands, 712, 739, 740, 964 New Zealand, 536, 671, 680 Nigeria, 530, 848, 979 Norway, 337, 414, 543, 739, 740, 959 Panama, 530 Peru, 425 Philippines, 530, 680 Poland, 530, 959 Portugal, 457a Puerto Rico, 361, 739, 740 South Africa, 511, 536, 694 Sweden, 361, 739, 740, 742 Taiwan, 558 Turkey, 511, 694 United Kingdom, 337,361,425,671,680, 712, 735, 739, 740, 742, 743, 872, 875, 937, 957, 964, 979 U.S.A., 337, 340, 355, 393, 397,414, 423, 425, 432, 437, 457, 468, 479, 511, 527, 530, 536, 539, 543, 551, 558, 580, 581, 616, 627, 671, 675, 680, 682, 687, 694, 712, 735, 739, 740, 742, 743, 747 bis, 767, 848, 867, 872, 875, 883, 888, 895, 900, 957, 959, 966 U.S.S.R., 671, 739, 740 Venezuela, 979 Western countries, 763 Yugoslavia, 530 Java Europe, 532 Switzerland, 341 Thailand, 341 U.S.A., 532 Western countries, 341 Jordan Egypt, 300, 301, 344, 904 Iran, 344, 904 Iraq, 300, 301 Lebanon, 300, 301, 344, 904

322

Syria, 300, 301, 344, 904 Turkey, 904 U.S.A., 300, 301, 344 (1953-1956) Kenya India, 329 Mexico, 329 Okinawa, 329 Philippines, 329 South Africa, 912 Uganda, 491, 912 U.S.A., 329 Korea Canada, 979 Colombia, 979 Egypt, 979 Germany, 979 Guinea, 979 India, 555, 979 Iran, 979 Japan, 888, 895, 979 Nigeria, 979 United Kingdom, 979 U.S.A., 554, 555, 556, 888, 895 Venezuela, 979 Lebanon Brazil, 511, 694 Canada, 511, 694 Egypt, 274, 300, 301, 344, 904 France, 694 Germany, 511, 694 Iran, 344, 904 Iraq, 300, 301 Israel, 511, 694 Japan, 511, 694 Jordan, 300, 301, 344, 904 Netherlands, 396 South Africa, 511, 694 Sudan, 533 Syria, 300, 301, 344, 904 Turkey, 511, 694, 904 U.S.A., 300, 301, 319, 314, 344, 511, 533, 694 Luxemburg Austria, 956 Belgium, 338, 351, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Denmark, 956 France, 338, 351, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Germany, 351, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646,

COUNTRIES COMPARED

647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Italy, 351, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Netherlands, 351, 553, 624,641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956, 969, 975 Norway, 956 Saar, 624 Sweden, 956 Switzerland, 956 United Kongdom, 351, 553, 641, 797, 806, 941, 956, 975 Malaya Australia, 544 Mexico Argentina, 251, 252, 273, 778 Australia, 502, 516, 683 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 251, 252, 273, 493, 693, 769, 773, 778, 871, 982 Canada, 607, 982 Chile, 251, 252, 773, 778, 871 Colombia, 251, 252, 273, 769, 773, 778 Costa Rica, 273 Egypt, 536 El Salvador, 773, 778 Equator, 773 Finland, 339, 492 France, 502, 516, 536, 683, 982 Germany, 339, 492, 494, 502, 516, 536, 683, 834, 849, 850, 982 Guatemala, 251, 252, 778 India, 329, 848 Israel, 536 Italy, 502, 516, 536, 683, 834, 849, 850, 982 Japan, 536, 848 Kenya, 329 Netherlands, 502, 516, 683 New Zealand, 536 Nigeria, 607, 848 Norway, 339, 492, 502, 516, 683 Okinawa, 329 Panama, 273 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 251, 252, 769, 773, 778 Philippines, 329 South Africa, 536 Sweden, 339, 492, 982 Switzerland, 982

United Kingdom, 251,252, 339,492,494, 502, 516, 683, 834, 849, 850, 982 U.S.A., 251, 252, 329, 339, 492, 493, 494, 502, 508, 516, 536, 552, 564, 607, 683, 834, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 982 Venezuela, 251, 252, 273, 778 Middle East U.S.A., 486 Morocco Austria, 282 Canada, 282 France, 282, 760 Ivory Coast, 282 Poland, 282 Yugoslavia, 282 Near East (see also Arab Near East) Africa, 520 Europe, 520 Far East, 520 U.S.A., 520 Netherlands Australia, 502, 516, 612, 683, 739, 807, 933, 950, 961, 962 Austria, 258, 263,266,481, 602, 638,782, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Belgium, 351,476,481,488,510,513,553, 621, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 739, 752, 759, 761, 781, 782, 797, 806, 811, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 935, 941, 956, 969, 975 Brazil, 739, 807, 858, 954, 955 Canada, 258,266,280,510, 534, 612, 807, 858, 860, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977 Czechoslovakia, 263, 621, 807, 858, 962 Denmark, 365, 612, 621, 739, 740, 754, 807, 821, 860, 862,956, 961,962 Europe, 781 Finland, 621, 739, 740, 807, 821, 862, 961, 962 France, 112, 258, 263, 266, 280, 351, 365, 476, 481, 488, 502, 513, 516, 534, 553, 612, 624, 626, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 739, 740, 752, 754, 761, 781, 782, 797, 806, 807, 811, 821, 824, 858, 860, 862, 870, 885, 918, 919, 928, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 941, 942, 950, 954, 955, 956, 962, 968, 969, 975, 976, 977 Germany, 112, 263, 280, 351, 365, 476, 481, 488, 502, 513, 516, 534, 553, 621 624, 626, 638, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 323

INDEXES

650, 683, 735, 739, 740, 752, 754, 761 782, 797, 806, 821, 824, 870, 885, 918, 919, 936, 940, 941, 956, 962, 964, 968, 969, 975, 976, 977 Greece, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Hungary, 263, 739, 740, 962 India, 258, 280, 534, 739, 936, 940, 976, 977 Italy, 112, 263, 351, 436, 502, 516, 624, 638, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 683, 739, 740, 761, 782, 797, 806, 821, 824, 862, 935, 941, 942, 955, 956, 961, 962, 969, 975 Japan, 712, 739, 740, 964 Lebanon, 396 Luxemburg, 351, 553, 624, 641, 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 797, 806, 941, 956,969, 975 Mexico, 502, 516, 683 Norway, 258, 263, 476, 488, 502, 516, 534, 602, 612, 621, 638, 683, 739, 740, 752, 781, 807, 821, 860, 862, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 961,962, 976, 977 Poland, 621 Puerto Rico, 739, 740 Saar, 624 Sweden, 365,476,488, 612, 735,739,740, 752, 781, 807, 821, 858, 860, 862, 870, 885, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 961, 962, 976, 977 Switzerland, 258, 263, 280, 365, 481, 534, 621, 781, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 United Kingdom, 112,258,263,266,280, 351, 365, 436, 488, 502, 516, 534, 553, 602, 612, 621, 641, 683, 712, 739, 740, 752, 761, 781, 782, 797, 806, 807, 821, 858, 860, 862, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 941, 942, 950, 956, 961, 962, 964, 968, 975, 976, 977 Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 258, 266, 280, 342, 365, 436, 502, 516, 534, 602, 612, 621, 683, 712, 735, 739, 740, 807, 858, 860, 862, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 942, 950, 954, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977 U.S.S.R., 739, 740 New Zealand Australia, 317 Egypt, 536 France, 536 324

Germany, 536, 671, 680 Israel, 536 Italy, 536 Japan, 536, 671, 680 Mexico, 536 Philippines, 680 South Africa, 536 United Kingdom, 665, 671, 680 U.S.A., 398, 536, 671, 680, 793 U.S.S.R., 671 Nigeria Argentina, 757 Brazil, 530 Canada, 607, 979 Chile, 757 Colombia, 979 Cuba, 530 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530, 979 Germany, 530, 979 Guinea, 979 India, 530, 757, 848, 979 Iran, 979 Israel, 530, 757 Japan, 530, 848, 979 Korea, 979 Mexico, 607, 848 Pakistan, 757 Panama, 530 Philippines, 530 Poland, 530 South Africa, 295 United Kingdom, 979 U.S.A., 530, 607, 848 Yugoslavia, 530 Venezuela, 979 Norway Arab Near East, 582 Argentina, 943 Australia, 502, 516, 612, 683, 739, 807, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 Austria, 258, 263,602, 638, 783,936,940, 956, 976, 977 Belgium, 476, 488, 621, 739, 752, 781, 783, 821, 870, 885, 935, 938, 956, 970 Brazil, 739, 807, 943, 954, 955, 959 Canada, 258,267, 534, 551, 612, 807,859, 860, 863, 929, 933, 935, 936, 938, 940, 950, 955, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977 Chile, 943 China, 414, 543, 551

COUNTRIES COMPARED

Cyprus, 934 Czechoslovakia, 263, 621, 807 Denmark, 399, 604, 612, 621, 739, 740, 750, 801, 802, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 923, 948, 956, 961, 962 Europe, 781 Finland, 267, 299, 339, 492, 621, 739, 740, 744, 750, 801, 802, 807, 821, 862, 961, 962, 970 France, 258, 263, 335, 337, 402a, 476, 488, 502, 516, 534, 612, 683, 739, 740, 752, 781, 807, 821, 831, 838, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 959, 962, 963, 976, 977 Germany, 263, 335, 337, 339, 476, 488, 492, 502, 516, 534, 604, 621, 638, 683, 739, 740, 752, 777, 783, 821, 838, 870, 885, 936, 938, 940, 956, 976, 977 Greece, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Hawaii, 959 Hungary, 263, 739, 740, 962 India, 258, 417, 534, 543, 551, 739, 936, 940n 976, 977 Italy, 263, 303, 314, 502, 516, 638, 683, 739, 740, 783, 821, 862, 935, 955, 956, 961, 970 Japan, 337, 414, 543, 551, 739, 740, 959 Luxemburg, 956 Mexico, 339, 492, 502, 516, 683 Netherlands, 258,263,476,488, 502, 516, 534, 602, 612, 621, 638, 683, 739, 740, 752, 781, 807, 821, 860, 862, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 961, 962, 976, 977 Poland, 621, 959, 963 Puerto Rico, 739, 740 Sweden, 299, 339, 399,476,488,492,604, 612, 739, 740, 744, 750, 752, 777, 781, 801, 802, 807, 821, 831, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 907, 923, 935, 936, 940, 948, 950, 954, 955, 956, 961, 962, 976, 977 Switzerland, 258, 263, 534, 621, 781, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Taiwan, 604 United Kingdom, 258,263,367, 303, 335, 337, 339, 488, 492, 502, 516, 534, 602, 612, 683, 739, 740, 744, 752, 777, 781, 783, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 956, 961, 970, 976,977

Uruguay, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 258, 267, 268, 299, 335, 337, 339, 412, 414, 427, 492, 502, 516, 534, 543, 551, 582, 583, 602, 604, 612, 621, 683, 739, 740, 745, 774, 783, 807, 816, 840, 845, 860, 862, 863, 879, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 959, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977 U.S.S.R., 739, 740 Yugoslavia, 299, 838 Nyasaland Tanganyika, 644 Okinawa India, 329 Kenya, 329 Mexico, 329 Philippines, 329 U.S.A., 329 Pakistan Arab countries, 360 Argentina, 757 Chile, 757 India, 757 Israel, 757 Nigeria, 757 Sudan, 360 U.S.A., 360 Panama Argentina, 273 Brazil, 265, 273, 530 Colombia, 273 Costa Rica, 265, 273, 877 Cuba, 530 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530 Germany, 530 India, 530 Israel, 530 Japan, 530 Mexico, 273 Nigeria, 530 Philippines, 530 Poland, 530 U.S.A., 530 Venezuela, 273 Yugoslavia, 530 Paraguay Argentina, 778 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 778 Chile, 778

325

INDEXES

Colombia, 778 El Salvador, 778 Guatemala, 778 Mexico, 778 Peru, 778 Venezuela, 778 Peru Argentina, 251, 252, 778 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 251, 252, 769, 773, 778 Chile, 251, 252, 611, 773, 778 Colombia, 251, 252, 769, 773, 778 Denmark, 425 El Salvador, 773, 778 Equator, 773 Germany, 389, 425 Guatemala, 251, 252, 778 Italy, 425 Japan, 425 Mexico, 251, 252, 769, 773, 778 Paraguay, 778 Sweden, 611 United Kingdom, 251, 252, 425 U.S.A., 251, 252, 425, 484, 611 Venezuela, 251, 252, 778 Philippines Brazil, 529, 530 Cuba, 529, 530 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530 Germany, 356, 529, 530, 680 India, 329, 530 Israel, 530 Japan, 530, 680 Kenya, 329 Mexico, 329 New Zealand, 680 Nigeria, 530 Okinawa, 329 Panama, 530 Poland, 530 United Kingdom, 680 U.S.A., 329, 356, 458, 499, 529, 530, 561, 680, 704 Yugoslavia, 530 Poland Austria, 282 Belgium, 621, 800 Brazil, 530, 959 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 282

326

Cuba, 530 Czechoslovakia, 621, 800 Denmark, 621 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530 Finland, 621 France, 282, 414, 800, 959, 963 Germany, 530, 621, 676, 746, 800 Hawaii, 959 Hungary, 800 India, 414, 530, 853 Israel, 530 Italy, 414, 566, 568 Ivory Coast, 282 Japan, 530, 959 Morocco, 282 Netherlands, 621 Nigeria, 530 Norway, 621, 959, 963 Panama, 530 Philippines, 530 Switzerland, 621 Turkey, 566, 568 United Kingdom, 414, 621, 676, 768 U.S.A., 414, 530, 566, 568, 621, 676, 746, 768, 800, 853, 959 U.S.S.R., 768, 800 Yugoslavia, 282, 530, 800, 853 Portugal China, 457a Japan, 457a Puerto Rico Argentina, 886 Australia, 739 Belgium, 739 Brazil, 739 Colombia, 886 Denmark, 739, 740 Finland, 739, 740 France, 739, 740 Germany, 354, 739, 740 Greece, 361 Hungary, 739, 740 India, 354, 739 Italy, 739, 740, 762 Japan, 361, 739, 740 Netherlands, 739, 740 Norway, 739, 740 Sweden, 361, 739, 740 United Kingdom, 361, 739, 740 U.S.A., 323, 343, 354, 361, 739, 740, 762

COUNTRIES COMPARED

U.S.S.R., 739, 740 Saar Belgium, 624 France, 624 Germany, 624 Italy, 624 Luxemburg, 624 Netherlands, 624 South Africa Brazil, 511, 694 Canada, 511, 694 Egypt, 536 France, 536, 694 Germany, 511, 536, 694 Israel, 511, 536, 694 Italy, 536 Japan, 511, 536, 694 Kenya, 912 Lebanon, 511, 694 Mexico, 536 New Zealand, 536 Nigeria, 295 Turkey, 511, 694 Uganda, 912 U.S.A., 470, 511, 522, 536, 694 Spain France, 804 United Kingdom, 463 Sudan Arab countries, 360 Lebanon, 533 Pakistan, 360 U.S.A., 360, 533 Sweden Australia, 612, 739, 807, 950, 961, 962 Austria, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Belgium, 476, 488, 739, 752, 781, 821, 870, 885, 935, 956 Brazil, 739, 807, 858, 954, 955, 982 Canada, 612, 807, 858, 860, 863, 935, 936, 940, 950, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977, 982 Chile, 611 Czechoslovakia, 807, 858, 962 Denmark, 365, 399, 604, 612, 655, 739, 740, 750, 801, 802, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 923, 948, 956, 961, 962 Europe, 781 Finland, 339, 492, 736, 739, 740, 744, 750, 801, 802, 807, 821, 862, 961, 962 France, 365, 476, 488, 612, 684, 736,739,

740, 742, 752, 781, 785, 807, 821, 831, 858, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 906, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 962, 972, 976, 977, 982 Germany, 339, 365, 466, 476, 488, 492, 604, 735, 736, 739, 740, 752, 777, 785, 821, 870, 885, 936, 940, 956, 962, 972, 976, 966, 982 Greece, 361, 936, 940, 976, 977 Hungary, 739, 740, 962 India, 739, 936, 940, 976, 977 Italy, 739, 740, 821, 862, 935, 955, 956, 961, 962, 972, 982 Japan, 361, 739, 740, 742 Luxemburg, 956 Mexico, 339, 492, 982 Netherlands, 365,476,488,612, 735,739, 740, 752, 781, 807, 821, 858, 860, 862, 870, 885, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 956, 961, 962, 976, 977 Norway, 339, 399, 476, 488, 492, 604, 612, 739, 740, 744, 750, 752, 777, 781, 801, 802, 807, 821, 831, 860, 862. 863, 870, 885, 907, 923, 935, 936, 940, 948, 950, 954, 955, 956, 961, 962, 976, 977 Peru, 611 Puerto Rico, 361, 739, 740 Switzerland, 365, 781, 936, 940, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Syria, 500 Taiwan, 604 United Kingdom, 339,361, 365,466,488, 492, 612, 655, 706, 736, 739, 740, 742, 744, 752, 777, 781, 785, 807, 821, 858, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 906, 935, 936, 940, 950, 956, 961, 962, 972, 976, 977, 982 Uruguay, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 294, 339, 361, 365, 466, 492, 604, 611, 612, 636, 655, 672, 684, 706, 735, 736, 739, 740, 743, 807, 858, 860, 862, 863, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977, 982 U.S.S.R., 739, 740 Switzerland Austria, 258,263, 481, 936,940,956,976, 977 Belgium, 481, 621, 781, 790, 956 Brazil, 982 Canada, 258,280, 534,936,940,976,977, 982

327

INDEXES

Czechoslovakia, 263, 621 Denmark, 365, 621, 790, 956 Europe, 781 Finland, 621, 790 France, 258, 263, 280, 365, 481, 534, 781, 790, 936, 940, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Germany, 263, 280, 365, 481, 534, 621, 790, 936, 940, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Greece, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Hungary, 263 India, 258, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Indonesia, 464 Italy, 263, 956, 972, 982 Java, 341 Luxemburg, 956 Mexico, 982 Netherlands, 258,263,280, 365,481, 534, 621, 781, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Norway, 258, 263, 534, 621, 781, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977 Poland, 621 Sweden, 365, 781, 936, 940, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Thailand, 341 United Kingdom, 258,263,280, 365, 534, 621, 781, 861, 936, 940, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 258, 280, 315, 325, 365, 475, 534, 621, 861, 936, 940, 976, 977, 982 Western countries, 341 Yugoslavia, 790 Syria Egypt, 300, 301, 344, 904 Iran, 344, 904 Iraq, 300, 301 Jordan, 300, 301, 344, 904 Lebanon, 300, 301, 344, 904 Sweden, 500 Turkey, 904 U.S.A., 300, 301, 355 (1953-1956) Taiwan China, 558 Denmark, 604 Germany, 604 Japan, 558 Norway, 604 Sweden, 604 U.S.A., 541, 558, 604 Tanganyika Nyasaland, 644

328

Thailand Germany, 341 Java, 341 Switzerland, 341 Western countries, 341 Trinidad Barbados, 884 British Guiana, 884 Grenada, 297 Jamaica, 884 Turkey Brazil, 511, 694 Canada, 511, 694 Egypt, 904 France, 694 Germany, 511, 694 Iran, 904 Israel, 511, 694 Italy, 566, 568 Japan, 511, 694 Jordan, 904 Lebanon, 511, 694, 904 Poland, 566, 568 South Africa, 511, 694 Syria, 904 U.S.A., 511, 542, 565, 566, 568, 694 Uganda Kenya, 491, 912 South Africa, 912 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Australia, 739 Belgium, 739, 800 Brazil, 739 Bulgaria, 800 Czechoslovakia, 800 Denmark, 739, 740 Finland, 739, 740 France, 739, 740, 800, 927 Germany (D.R.), 402, 671, 739, 740, 800 Hungary, 739, 740, 800 India, 739 Italy, 739, 740, 927 Japan, 671, 739, 740 Netherlands, 739, 740 New Zealand, 671 Norway, 739, 740 Poland, 768, 800 Puerto Rico, 739, 740 Sweden, 739, 740 United Kingdom, 671, 739, 740, 768 U.S.A., 400, 401,411,442,483, 667, 671,

COUNTRIES COMPARED

710, 739, 740, 768, 800 Yugoslavia, 800 United Kingdom Arab Near East, 469 Argentina, 251, 252 Australia, 346, 502, 516, 612, 678, 683, 724, 739, 807, 866, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 Austria, 258,263,266,602,782,783, 936, 940, 956, 976, 977, 978a. Belgium, 351, 488, 553, 621, 641, 739, 752, 761, 775, 781, 782, 783, 797, 806, 821, 870, 885, 935, 941, 956, 970, 975, 978a Brazil, 251, 252, 670, 724, 739, 807, 858, 982 Canada, 258, 266, 267, 280, 390, 534, 612, 807, 858, 860, 863, 865, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 946, 950, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977, 979, 982 Chile, 251, 252 Colombia, 251, 252, 979 Czechoslovakia, 263, 621, 807, 858, 962 Denmark, 363, 364, 365, 371, 372, 425, 612, 621, 655, 720, 739, 740, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 863, 956, 961, 962 Egypt, 979 Europe, 772, 781 Finland, 267, 339, 492, 621, 736, 739, 740, 744, 807, 821, 862, 865, 961, 970 France, 109, 112, 114, 258, 263, 266, 280, 302, 304, 335, 337, 351, 365, 414, 477, 488, 502, 516, 534, 553, 603, 612, 632, 641, 683, 718, 723, 736, 739, 740, 742, 743, 752, 761, 775, 781, 782, 785, 797, 806, 807, 821, 839, 841, 858, 860, 862, 863, 868, 870, 872, 875, 881, 885, 906, 929, 931, 933, 935, 936, 937, 940, 941, 947, 950, 956, 957, 960, 962, 967, 968, 972, 975, 976, 977, 982 Germany (F.R.), 109, 112, 114, 263, 280, 304, 335, 337, 339, 351, 365, 425, 448, 466, 477, 488, 492, 494, 502, 516, 534, 553, 621, 641, 671, 676, 680, 683, 736, 739, 740, 752, 761, 775, 777, 782, 783, 785, 797, 806, 821, 825, 834, 839, 849, 850, 870, 872, 875, 881, 885, 931, 936, 937, 940, 941, 956, 957, 960, 962, 964, 967, 968, 972, 975, 976, 977, 979, 982 Greece, 280, 361, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977, 978a

Guatemala, 251, 252 Guinea, 979 Hungary, 263, 739, 740 India, 258, 280, 414, 462, 534, 668, 739, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977, 979 Iran, 979 Italy, 109, 112, 114, 263, 303, 351, 414, 425, 436, 502, 516, 641, 683, 718, 723, 739, 740, 761, 782, 783, 797, 806, 821, 834, 839, 841, 849, 850, 862, 868, 872, 875, 931, 935, 937, 941, 942, 956, 961, 962, 970, 972, 975, 982 Jamaica, 452 Japan, 337, 361, 425, 671, 680, 712, 735, 739, 740, 742, 743, 872, 875, 937, 957, 964, 979 Korea, 979 Luxemburg, 351, 553, 641, 797, 806, 941, 956, 975 Mexico, 251, 252, 339,492,494, 502, 516, 683, 834, 849, 850, 982 Netherlands, 112,258,263,266,280, 351, 365, 436, 488, 502, 516, 534, 553, 602, 612, 621, 641, 683, 712, 739, 740, 752, 761, 781, 782, 797, 806, 807, 821, 858, 860, 862, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 941, 942, 950, 956, 961, 962, 964, 968, 975, 976, 977 New Zealand, 665, 671, 680 Nigeria, 979 Norway, 258, 263, 267, 303, 335, 337, 339, 488, 492, 502, 516, 534, 602, 612, 621, 683, 739, 740, 744, 752, 777, 781, 783, 807, 821, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 956, 961, 970, 976, 977 Peru, 251, 252, 425 Philippines, 680 Poland, 414, 621, 676, 768 Puerto Rico, 361, 739, 740 Spain, 463 Sweden, 339, 361, 365,466,488,492, 612, 655, 706, 736, 739, 740, 742, 744, 752, 777, 781, 785, 807, 821, 858, 860, 862, 863, 870, 885, 906, 935, 936, 940, 950, 956, 961, 962, 972, 976, 977, 982 Switzerland, 258, 263, 280, 365, 534, 621, 781, 861, 936, 940, 956, 972, 976, 977, 982 Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.A., 250,251, 252, 266, 267, 280, 302,

329

INDEXES

322, 333, 335, 337, 339, 359, 361, 363, 364, 365, 371, 372, 374, 414, 415, 419, 425, 426, 436, 461, 462, 466, 473, 492, 494, 502, 516, 519, 534, 562, 563, 577, 602, 603, 612, 621, 629, 630, 633, 636, 655, 671, 674, 676, 677, 678, 680, 683, 722, 696, 697, 698, 699, 706, 712, 718, 689, 723, 724, 735, 736, 739, 740, 742, 743, 750b, 755, 768, 775, 783, 784, 788, 803, 807, 815, 819, 821, 823, 825, 834, 839, 841, 849, 850, 854, 855, 858, 860, 861, 862, 863, 865, 868, 872, 875, 911, 929, 931, 933, 935, 936, 940, 942, 946, 950, 957, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977, 982 U.S.S.R., 671, 739, 740, 768 Venezuela, 251, 252, 979 West Africa, 548 United States of America Africa, 520 Arab countries, 360 Arab Near East, 264, 417, 472, 487, 498, 515, 523, 550, 582, 896 Argentina, 251, 252, 715, 731 Asia, 735 Australia, 388, 410, 496, 502, 515, 516, 612, 678, 683, 724, 739, 807, 932, 933, 950, 961, 962, 970 Austria, 258, 266, 387, 424, 602, 735, 783, 936, 940, 976, 977 Belgium, 259, 284, 621, 735, 739, 775, 783, 800, 935, 970 Brazil, 251, 252, 493, 511, 529, 530, 531, 571, 572, 688, 694, 715, 724, 739, 787, 807, 858, 954, 955, 959, 982 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 258,266, 267,280,497,498, 511, 534, 551, 607, 612, 694, 807, 858, 860, 863, 865, 929, 932, 933, 935, 936, 940, 946, 950, 955, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977, 982 Ceylon, 429 Chile, 251, 252, 611, 818 China, 307, 327, 404, 407, 414, 416, 420, 431, 543, 551, 558, 560 Colombia, 251, 252 Cuba, 418, 430, 529, 530 Czechoslovakia, 621, 800, 807, 858, 962 Denmark, 256, 257, 283, 345, 363, 364, 365, 371, 372, 425, 604, 612, 621, 655, 739, 740, 807, 860, 862, 863, 961, 962 Dominican Republic, 530

330

Egypt, 300, 301, 344, 485, 526, 530, 536, 559 Europe, 336, 520, 532, 707, 715, 735, 747 bis, 772 Far East, 520 Finland, 267, 299, 339, 492, 535, 610, 621, 736, 739, 740, 807, 862, 865, 961, 962, 970 France, 248, 258, 266, 280, 296, 302, 328, 335, 337, 365, 392, 414, 502, 516, 521, 534, 536, 575, 603, 612, 683, 684, 694, 701, 718, 723, 736, 739, 740, 742, 743, 775, 800, 807, 835, 836, 839, 841, 858, 860, 862, 863, 868, 872, 875, 929, 931, 932, 933, 935, 936, 939, 940, 942, 950, 954, 955, 957, 959, 962, 976, 977, 982 Germany, 261, 262, 280, 321, 326, 335, 337, 339, 348, 356, 357, 365, 387, 424, 425, 455, 466, 478, 492, 494, 502, 511, 516, 529, 530, 534, 536, 570, 604, 621, 671, 676, 680, 683, 694, 695, 707, 729, 735, 736, 739, 740, 746, 764, 765, 775, 783, 800, 825, 834, 839, 849, 850, 872, 875, 931, 936, 940, 957, 962, 976, 977, 982 Greece, 277, 280, 361, 525, 534, 766, 901, 936, 940, 976, 977 Guatemala, 251, 252, 453 Hawaii, 459, 515, 959 Hungary, 739, 740, 800, 962 India, 258, 280, 329, 414, 421, 428, 457, 462, 482, 530, 534, 543, 551, 555, 557, 560, 578, 579, 610, 627, 631, 739, 805, 848, 853, 872, 875, 936, 940, 957, 976, 977 Iran, 344, 574 Iraq, 300, 301 Israel, 353, 474, 489, 511, 530, 536, 549, 694 Italy, 349, 391, 395, 405, 414, 425, 436, 502, 516, 536, 566, 568, 683, 700, 718, 723, 739, 740, 762, 783, 834, 839, 841, 849, 850, 862, 868, 872, 875, 897, 931, 935, 942, 955, 961, 962, 970, 982 Japan, 337, 340, 355, 361, 393, 397, 414, 423, 425, 432, 437, 457, 468, 479, 511, 527, 530, 536, 539, 543, 551, 558, 580, 581, 616, 627, 671, 675, 680, 682, 687, 694, 712, 735, 739, 740, 742, 743, 747 bis, 767, 848, 867, 872, 875, 883, 888, 895, 900, 957, 959, 966

COUNTRIES COMPARED

Java, 532 Jordan, 300, 301, 344 Kenya, 329 Korea, 554, 555, 556, 888, 895 Lebanon, 300. 301, 319, 324, 511, 533, 694 Mexico, 251,252. 329, 339,492,493,494, 502, 508, 516, 536, 552, 564, 607, 683, 834, 848, 849. 850, 851, 852, 982 Middle East, 486 Near East, 520 Netherlands, 258.266,280, 342, 365,436, 502, 516, 534, 602, 612, 621, 683, 712, 735, 739, 740, 807, 858, 860, 862, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 942, 950, 954, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977 New Zealand, 398, 536, 671, 680, 793 Nigeria, 530, 607, 848 Norway, 258,267,268,299,335,337,339, 412, 414, 427, 492, 502, 516, 534, 543, 551, 582, 583, 602, 604, 612, 621, 683, 739, 740, 745, 774, 783, 807, 816, 840, 845, 860, 862. 863, 879, 929, 933, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 959, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977 Okinawa, 329 Pakistan, 360 Panama, 530 Peru, 251, 252, 484, 611 Philippines, 329, 356, 458, 499, 529, 530, 561, 680, 704 Poland, 414, 530, 566, 568, 621, 676, 746, 768, 800, 853, 959 Puerto Rico, 323, 343, 361, 739, 740, 762 South Africa, 470, 511, 522, 536,694 Sudan, 360, 533 Sweden, 294,299, 339,361,365,466,492, 604, 611, 612, 636, 655, 672, 684, 706, 735, 736, 739, 740, 742, 807, 858, 860, 862, 863, 935, 936, 940, 950, 954, 955, 961, 962, 976, 977, 982 Switzerland, 258, 280, 315, 325, 365, 475, 534, 621, 861, 936, 940, 976, 977, 982 Syria, 300, 301, 344 Taiwan, 541, 558, 604 Turkey, 511, 542, 565, 566, 568, 694 United Kingdom, 250, 251, 252, 258, 266, 267, 280, 302, 322, 333, 335, 337, 339, 359, 361, 363, 364, 365, 371, 372, 374, 414, 415, 419, 425, 426, 436, 461, 462, 466, 473, 492, 494, 502, 516, 519,

534, 562, 563, 577, 602, 603, 612, 621, 629, 630, 633, 636, 655, 671, 674, 676, 677, 678, 680, 683, 689, 696, 697, 698, 699, 706, 712, 718, 822, 723, 724, 735, 736, 739, 740, 742, 743, 750b, 755, 768, 775, 783, 784, 788, 803, 807, 815, 819, 823, 825, 834, 839, 841, 849, 850, 854, 855, 858, 860, 861, 862, 863, 865, 868, 872, 875, 911, 929, 931, 933, 935, 936, 940, 942, 946, 950, 957, 961, 962, 970, 976, 977, 982 Uruguay, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 U.S.S.R., 400, 401, 411, 442, 483, 534, 602, 667, 671, 710, 739, 740, 768, 800 Venezuela, 251, 252 Vietnam, 293 Western countries, 350 Yugoslavia, 250, 299, 530, 800, 853 Uruguay Argentina, 692, 725, 726 Austria, 936, 940, 976, 977 Brazil, 692, 725 Canada, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 France, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Germany, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 777 Greece, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 India, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Netherlands, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Norway, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Sweden, 936, 940, 976, 977 Switzerland, 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 United Kingdom, 280, 534,936,940,976, 977 U.S.A., 280, 534, 936, 940, 976, 977 Venezuela Argentina, 251, 252, 273, 778 Bolivia, 778 Brazil, 251, 252, 273, 778 Canada, 979 Chile, 251, 252, 778 Colombia, 251, 252, 273, 778, 979 Costa Rica, 273 Egypt, 979 El Salvador, 778 Germany, 979 Guatemala, 251, 252, 778 Guinea, 979 India, 979 Iran, 979 Japan,979 Korea, 979

331

INDEXES

Mexico, 251, 252, 273, 778 Nigeria, 979 Panama, 273 Paraguay, 778 Peru, 251, 252, 778 United Kingdom, 251, 252, 979 U.S.A., 251, 252 Vietnam U.S.A., 293 West Africa United Kingdom, 548 Western countries Japan, 763 U.S.A., 350 Yugoslavia Austria, 282 Belgium, 790, 800 Brazil, 530 Bulgaria, 800 Canada, 282 Cuba, 530 Czechoslovakia, 800

332

Denmark, 790 Dominican Republic, 530 Egypt, 530 Finland, 299, 790 France, 282, 790, 800, 838 Germany, 530, 790, 800, 838 Hungary, 800 India, 530, 853 Israel, 530 Ivory Coast, 282 Japan, 530 Morocco, 282 Nigeria, 530 Norway, 299, 838 Panama, 530 Philippines, 530 Poland, 282, 530, 800, 853 Sweden, 299 Switzerland, 790 United Kingdom, 250 U.S.A., 250, 299, 530. 800, 853 U.S.S.R., 800

Populations

Adults, 261, 263, 266, 267, 278, 302, 303, 351, 365, 374, 403, 406, 461, 465, 513, 516, 529, 530, 531, 534, 553, 606, 607, 612, 621, 641, 650, 684, 691, 695, 701, 706, 729, 744, 746, 787, 788, 792, 797, 800, 803, 806, 807, 823, 825, 834-836, 838, 841, 850, 858-866, 928-930, 932, 933, 935-942, 945, 946, 948, 950-957, 961-963, 968-972, 975-977. Age groups, adults see Adults Age groups, children, 288, 293, 317, 324, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 359, 360, 361, 382, 398, 426, 447, 452, 453, 458, 461, 463, 473, 484, 492, 493, 494, 504, 526, 532, 549, 559, 567, 568, 572, 687, 696, 697, 698, 699 Age groups, children, disturbed, 602. Age groups, children, rural, 321, 323, 540, 549 Age groups, children, urban, 314, 315, 319, 321, 341, 342, 468, 510, 511, 539, 571, 677, 689, 694, 801 Age groups, old people, 363, 364, 366, 372, 374 Age groups, young adults, 344, 347, 395, 614, 744 Age groups, youth, 297, 340, 349, 350, 352, 354, 355, 413, 500 Agricultural workers, 626, 759 Bank employees, 564 Children, see Age groups, children Civil servants, 770, 771, 777. Class, lower, 297, 511, 694, 700, 705 Class, middle, 437, 511, 626, 643, 694, 700, 705, 735 Class, upper, 459, 643

covered

Couples, 274, 294, 306, 310, 467 Delinquents, 576 Displaced persons see also Refugees, 927 Economically active persons, 693, 704 Elites see also Parliamentarians, 735, 834, 852, 854, 855, 867, 869, 871, 878, 881, 882, 884, 960, 967 Employers, 789 Engineers, 304 Executives, 564, 568, 674, 772, 776, 777, 778, 781, 782 Families see also Couples, 284, 291, 292, 295, 312, 915 Foremen, 782 Households, urban, 259, 611,625, 626,632, 686, 705, 725, 793, 818 Housewives, 638 Insurance clerks, 322, 577 I.Q. groups, 457 bis, 511 Lawyers, 763, 764 Members of Communist Party, former, 868 Members of voluntary organizations, 674 Men, 464, 502, 674, 683, 684, 693, 706, 725, 735, 916 Mental patients see also Children, disturbed, 399, 438, 606 Military, 765 Newspaper readers, 563 Nurses, 399, 548, 774 Office workers, 756 Parents see also Families, 328, 433, 700 Parliamentarians, 872, 874, 875, 876 Peasants, 757 Professionals see also Lawyers, 568, 674 Recruits, 614, 744, 745 Refugees from USSR and Eastern Europe 333

INDEXES

see also Displaced persons, 400, 401, 402, 411, 441, 442, 463, 483 Religious groups, 475, 485, 486, 487, 489, 504, 523, 549, 604, 735, 824 Scientists, 555, 599, 755 Seamen, 784 Students, 248, 256, 257, 268, 277, 283, 301, 305, 343, 345, 346, 348, 354, 356, 358, 387, 388, 390, 397, 402a, 407, 410, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 423, 424, 425 , 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 436, 448, 455, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 480, 486, 487, 489, 490, 491, 496, 498, 504, 505, 515, 522, 523, 524, 525, 532, 535, 536, 537, 542, 543, 544, 550, 551, 552, 555, 560, 561, 562, 574, 575, 576, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 610, 667, 668, 670, 672, 675, 679, 681, 685, 688, 731, 745, 766, 805, 811, 877, 879, 883, 886, 888, 890, 895, 896, 897, 901, 921, 934, 943, 959, 966, 979

334

Subgroups, cultural or ethnic, 297,434,437, 438, 449, 451, 459, 460, 484, 512, 535, 543, 547, 567, 573, 576, 601, 609, 756, 758, 887, 889, 898, 912, 915, 917 Teachers, 476, 488, 497, 498, 752, 758, 759, 870, 885 Trade-union officers, 777, 789 Urban residents, 530, 607, 621, 628, 674, 746, 800, 834, 906 Voters, 814 Wage earners, 626, 632 Women, 263, 300, 822, 826 Women, housewives, 638 Women, married, 263, 296, 306 Women, mothers, 324, 325, 326, 345, 568, 571, 572, 606 Women, urban, 265 Workers, 473, 478, 621, 624, 645, 646, 647, 667, 735, 757, 760, 762, 767, 768, 775, 782, 789, 821 Youth see Age groups, youth

Abdel-Meguid Sarhan, E.D., 526 Abegglen. J.C.. 867 Abelson, R„ 135 Aberle, D.F., 199 Abrams, M., 137 Abrams, P., 71 Abt, C.C., 944 Ackerknecht, E.H., 200 Adamec, C„ 138 Adcock, C.J., 434, 435 Adler, Daw L., 275 Adorno, T., 481, 483 Aftal, M., 620 Ahtik, V., 790 Ainsworth, L.H., 491 Ainsworth, M.D., 333, 491 Albert, E.N., 547 Albinski, M., 476 Alford, R.R., 814 Alker, H.R., Jr., 116, 201 Allardt, E., 202, 203, 843 Allen, M.G., 375, 376 Allen, R.G., 621 Allport, G.W., 536, 558 Almond, G.A., 163, 212, 239, 834, 868, 945 Alpert, E., 387 Ancona, L., 314 Andenaes, J., 614 Anderson, B., 869 Anderson, C.A., 332, 664, 706 Anderson, G.L., 339, 492, 493, 494 Anderson, H.H., 339, 493, 493, 494 Anderson, N., 513, 918 Anderson, W.A., 388 Andrade, R.G.d', 227 Ansbacher, H.L., 927

Antonio, W.V.d', 852 Archer, W.K., 894 Arensberg, C.M., 204 Argyle, M., 803 Armstrong, L., 51 Arnhoff, A., 276, 527 Arnhoff, F.N., 361 As, D., 774 Asayama, S.-I., 340 Atkinson, J.W., 569 Aubert, V., 752, 870 Azuma, T., 616 Babcock, M.E., 457a Back, K.W., 255 Backer, W.D., 682 Banks, A.S., 103 Barabee, P., 601 Barakat, M.K., 150 Barber, B., 654 Barbichon, G., 753 Bardis, P.D., 277 Barioux, M., 980 Barton, A.H., 828 Bass, B.M., 480 Bauer, R.W., 400 Baumert, G., 261 Behm, H., 247 Beier, H„ 401, 411 Bell, W„ 884 Bendix, R., 205, 735 Berelson, B.R., 815 Berger, M., 770, 771 Berreman, J.V., 499 Berrien, F.K., 527 Berrol, E., 1 Beshers, J.M., 54

INDEXES

Bevan, W., 427 Beyme, K. von, 206 Bharucha-Reid, R.P., 174 Biesheuvel, S., 2 Birch, A.H., 843 Bisco, R.L., 55, 56, 74, 75 Bjerstedt, A, 500 Blanc, H., 4 Blanchenberg, P. von, 754 Blau, P.M., 655 Block, J., 412 Blood, R.O., 259, 278, 279, 296, 306 Blum, G.S., 436 Blumenfeld, W., 389 Bock, R.D., 543 Bocquet, C., 314 Boehm, L., 315 Boesch, E.E., 341 Boessler, M., 174 Bolte, K.M., 707, 708 Bolte, M., 261 Bonier, R., 473 Bonilla, F., 4, 5, 871, 902 Bosse, P.C., 6 Bouman, I., 104 Bower, R.T., 147 Bowley, A.L., 621 Brachman, H.M., 390 Bradburn, N.N., 565 Braly, K.W., 499 Brengelmann, J.C., 477 Brengelmann, L., 477 Breul, H„ 379 Bronfenbrenner, U., 321, 528 Brouwer, M., 72, 919 Brown, B.E., 217 Brown, D.G., 316 Brown, L.B., 317 Bruce, H., 740 Brüning, I., 100 Bruun, K., 801, 802 Buchanan, W„ 501, 502, 683 Buhler, C., 602 Burgess, E.W., 362 Butcher, H.J., 333 Cain, L.S., 946 Campbell, A., 76, 261, 816, 843, 845 Campbell, C.T., 946 Campbell, D.T., 503 Cantril, H., 105, 502, 529, 531, 539, 683, 817 336

Carlson, R.O., 7 Carlsson, G., 656, 709, 750 Carpenter, G.R., 256, 257 Carrera, R.N., 447 Carsch, H„ 478 Carstairs, C.M., 584 Carter, R.E., Jr., 818 Cassel, R.N., 413 Cattell, R.B., 377, 378, 379, 391, 392, 393, 414, 415, 432 Caudill, W., 437 Centers, R., 684 Cesa-Bianchi, M., 314 Chaney, F.B., 755 Chin-Wansun, S., 327 Ching-Yuan, M., 416 Chisholm, R.M., 588 Chou, S.K., 416 Christensen, H.T., 256, 257, 283 Christiansen, B., 139 Christie, N., 614 Chombart de Lauwe, P.-H., 282, 318 Clark, R.A., 569 Clausen, J.A., 318 Cleland, C.H., 140 Clifford, R.A., 851 Clignet, R.P., 685, 756 Coch, L„ 775 Coelho, G.V., 343 Cohen, I.H., 494 Cohen, R., 130 Cohn, T.S., 478 Coladarci, A.P., 479 Comrey, A.L., 394, 395 Congalton, A.A., 665, 793 Converse, P.E., 77, 78, 92, 175, 835, 836, 946 Cook, D.R., 666 Costello, C.G., 390 Cottrell, L.S., Jr., 285 Coult, A.D., 106 Cowen, E.L., 248, 575, 580, 581 Cowen, R.S., 248 Cramer, J.S., 625 Crane, W.W., 878 Crespi, L.P., 8, 112 Crewther, J.F., 672 Culver, W.W., 495 Curiel, D., 252 Curie, A., 141 Danziger, K., 532

AUTHORS

Daudt, H., 819 Davidson, K., 426 Davis, E.E., 524 Davis, J., 667 Davis, M., 947 Davison, W.P., 920 Demos, G.P., 334 Deng, J., 276 Dennis, W., 319, 417, 533 Derossi Zaccone, F., 566 Deutsch, K.W., 80, 81, 116, 207, 234, 809, 837, 871a, 931 Devaux, A., 626 Devereux, E.C., Jr., 320, 321 Devos, G.A., 438,439,440 Diaz-Guerrero, R., 615 Dicks, H.V., 765 Diers, C.J., 576 Dobbelaere, K., 259 Dodd, S.C., 9, 10, 142, 143, 517, 518, 909, 949 Dogan, M., 820, 821, 822 Donald, M.N., 793 Doob, L.W., 11, 504, 887, 912, 913 D'Souza, V.S., 668 Duijker, H.C.J., 144, 176, 380 Dumazedier, J., 794 Dumon, W.A., 284 Duncan, O., 655 Dunham, H.W., 585 Duocastella, R„ 804 Dupeux, G., 835, 836, 843 Durant, H„ 145, 146, 177 Dutkowski, J., 45 Duverger, M., 838 Eaton, J.W., 604 Edgerton, R.B., 538 Edwards, A.L., 578, 582 Eggan, F., 208 Eisenstadt, S.N., 914, 915 Eliasberg, W.G., 430 Erskine, H.G., 121, 861, 951, 952, 953 Evan, W.M., 131, 132, 957 Erwin, S., 147 Eyquem, B., 650 Eysenck, H J . , 466, 519, 823, 958 Fantl, B., 605 Färber, M.L., 322, 381, 381a, 577 Farmer, R.M., 772 Faunce, W.A., 686 Fegiz, P.L., 122

Feldmesser, R.A., 710 Feldt, A., 272 Fiedler, F.E., 342, 421 Field, P.B., 343 Fincer, L., 264 Fink, R., 13, 243 Fischer, H., 505 Fisher, B.R., 870 Foa, U.G., 467 Fogarty, M.P., 824 Foote, N.N., 285 Form, W.H., 852 Fortes, M., 14 Foster, G.M., 773 Foster, P., 685, 756 Fox, T.G., 711, 712 Frankel, G., 575 Frantzen, R.H., 420 Free, L.A., 531, 873, 874, 875, 876 Freedman, R., 261 French, J.R., 774 Frey, E.W., 542 Frey, M„ 15 Fried, J., 598, 599 Friedenburg, L., 262 Friis, H., 363, 364 Frijda, N.H., 380 Fujita, 582 Fuster, J.M., 578 Gaddini, R„ 349 Gaier, E.L., 480, 535 Gallup, G., 148, 335 Galtung, I.E., 921 Galtung, J., 129, 178, 959, 963 Ganön, I., 657 Garcia Garcia, M., 418 Gardin, J.C., 82 Garmendia, D.J., 713 Geertz, H., 374 Geis, G., 268 George, A.L., 920 Germani, G., 714, 715, 716 Getzels, J.W., 442 Ghei, S.N., 579 Ghiselli, E.E., 776 Gibb, C.A., 496 Gillespie, J.M., 536 Girard, A., 16 Girod, R„ 717 Gladstone, R., 805 Glaser, B.G., 133 337

INDEXES

Glaser, W.A., 149 Glass, D.V., 263, 656, 658, 718, 719 Glazer, N., 188 Gleicher, D., 400 Glicksman, M., 537 Glock, C.Y., 903 Goldrich, D., 877 Goldschmidt, W., 538 Goldsen, R.K., 41, 879 Goldwasser, A., 549 Goldwasser, M., 549 Goode, W.J., 286, 287 Goodman, L.A., 720 Goodman, M.E., 468, 539, 687 Görden, M., 881, 960, 967 Goreux, L.M., 627 Gouveia, A.J., 688 Graciarena, J., 721 Graham, M.D., 506 Granick, D., 775 Grice, H.H., 896 Grieger, P., 396 Griffith, G., 251, 252 Griffith, R.M., 397 Grinder, R.E., 540 Grolier, E. de, 57 Gruenberg, E.M., 586 Gullahorn, J.E., 184, 922 Gullahorn, J.T., 922 Gupta, G.C., 805 Gupta, S.C., 35 Gutmann, E., 843 Guttman, L., 382 Guttman, R., 382 Habenstein, R.W., 106 Haga, J., 423 Haire, M., 776 Haldorsen, G., 752 Hall, E.T., 17 Hall, J., 668 Hall, J.R., 722, 723 Halle, N.H., 963 Hallowell, A.I., 916 Hanfmann, E., 401, 411, 441, 442 Hartley, E.L., 507 Hartman, H.P., 379 H&stad, E„ 123 Hastings, P.K., 73, 83, 84, 85 Hauge, R., 802 Havens, A.E., 18 Havighurst.R.J., 365,366,398,688,724,793 338

Heber, R.F., 288 Heckscher, G., 209 Heintz, P., 210 Hellersberg, E.F., 443 Hellevuo, T., 744 Hendin, H„ 399 Hennion, R., 795 Henry, J., 444 Henry, W.E., 445, 446 Herbst, P.Q., 275 Heymans, G., 396 Hill, E., 335 Hill, R., 278, 289, 290 Hill, V., 731 Himmelveit, H.T., 677, 689 Hoffman, E.L., 342 Hoffmann, M., 19 Holland, J.B., 179 Hollsteiner, M.R., 20 Holmes, O., 1 Honigmann, J.J., 447 Honkavaara, S., 419 Horowitz, I.L., 21 Houthakker, H.S., 628 Hoyer, S., 846 Hsu, F.H., 404 Huang, S.C., 541, 560 Hudson, B.B., 150, 344 Hughes, C.C., 607 Humphrey, M.D., 508 Hunt, R.G., 587 Hunt, W.H., 878 Husen, T., 336 Hutchinson, B., 669, 670, 690, 725 Hyde, R.W., 588 Hyman, H„ 22, 180, 181, 182, 183, 542, 810 Iacono, G., 23 Ikeuchi, H., 24 Ikle, F.C., 964 Ikuta, S., 659 Iliffe, A.H., 563 Inkeles, A., 383, 400, 401, 671, 691, 702, 757 Israel, J., 191, 774 Iutaka, S„ 151, 692, 726, 727, 728 Iwahara, S., 276 Iwawaki, S., 580, 581 Jacob, P., 853 Jacobsen, K.D., 923 Jacobson, E„ 152, 153, 184, 924 Jahoda, G., 978a

AUTHORS

Janowitz, M., 729, 825 Janson, C.-C., 730 Jonassen, C.T., 879 Jones, A.G., 25 Jones, E.L., 26 Jones, L.V., 543 Jong, J.J. de, 826 Joseph, A., 451 Jureen, L., 636 Kahin, G.M., 211 Kahl, J.A., 693 Kaldegg, A., 448 Kalleberg, A.L., 212 Kandel, D„ 345 Kanwar, U., 482 Kapferer, C„ 618, 637, 639 Kaplan, B„ 108, 449, 450, 451 Karlsson, G., 291, 294 Kassof, A., 483 Katz, D., 499 Katz, E., 347 Katz, F.M., 346 Keats, V.A., 544 Keehn, J.D., 469, 471, 520 Keesing, F.M., 27 Keesing, M.M., 27 Kelman, H.C., 925, 965 Kendall, A., 911 Kennedy, A.D., 589 Kennedy, J.L., 484 Kerokhoff, A.C., 567 Kerr, M., 452 Kian, M., 573 King, F.J., 352 Klein, L.R., 629 Klett, C.J., 582 Kline, F.G., 818 Klineberg, O., 509, 510, 511, 694 Kluckhohn, C„ 384, 545, 546, 547 Knight, F.B., 420 Knox, J.B., 731 Knutson, A.L., 28 Köbben, A., 213 Kogan, M., 368 Kohn, A.R., 342 Kohn, M.L., 700 König, R „ 719 Kooy, G.A., 292 Kornhauser, W., 839 Kötter, J., 292 Kramer, N., 881

Kuiper, G., 732 Kumata, H„ 184, 888 Labbens, J., 733 Laforge, R., 150 Lalive d'Epinay, R., 168 Lambert, R.D., 174 Lambert, W.E., 510, 511, 521, 694 Landy, D., 323 Lane, R.E., 90 Langner, T.S., 512, 607, 611 Lansing, J.B., 630 Lasswell, H.D., 81, 484, 880 Lauterbach, A., 777, 778 Lazarsfeld, P.F., 214, 815, 823, 828, 911 Lawlor, M., 548 Lee, A.McC, 153a, 154 Lefcowitz, M.J., 88 Lehner, G.F., 550 Leichty, M.M., 293 Leighton, A.H., 29, 590, 606, 607, 608 Leland, L., 461 Lentz, T.F., 966 Leon, H.V., 361 Le Plae, C„ 758, 759 Lerner, D., 30, 31, 32, 880, 881, 904, 960, 967 Lesser, G.S., 345 Levine, R.A., 503 Levinson, D.J., 383 Levy, D.M., 453, 463 Levy, F., 58, 59 Lewis, O., 215 Liepelt, K., 825 Lighthall, F., 426 Likert, R., 779 Limuaco, J., 458 Lindgren, F., 497 Lindgren, H.C., 497, 498 Lindzey, G., 454, 558 Linz, J., 828, 829 Lipset, S.M., 154 bis, 662, 695, 734, 735, 736, 737, 744, 826a, 827, 828, 829, 830, 882 Lityunen, Y., 535 Locke, H.J., 294 London, I.D., 402 Lorge, I., 361 L0vaas, O.T., 582, 583 Lowell, E.L., 569 Lucci, Y., 89 Lüh, C.W., 420

339

INDEXES

Lumsden, M., 934 Lundstedt, S.f 926 Luria, Z., 549 Lydall, H., 630 Mabry, J.H., 250 MacLay, H„ 889 MacLeod, R., 216 Macmillan, A., 591 Macridis, R.C., 217 Mahalanobis, P.C., 33 Maldonado-Sierra, E.D., 343 Mannari, H., 867 Marris, P., 295 Marsh, R.M., 155, 218, 219 Masting, J.M., 910 Maslow, A.H., 615 Matras, J., 738 Maynes, E.S., 631 Mayntz, R., 796 Maza, A., 463 McClelland, D.C., 568, 569, 570 McCreary, J.R., 434 McDonagh, E.C., 672 McGinnew, E., 527 McGinnies, E., 883 McGranahan, D.V., 156, 348, 455 Mcintosh, A., 177 McMichael, R.E., 540 McPhee, W.N., 815 McQuown, N., 592 Meadow, A., 564 Meering, O. von, 601 Melen, C.O., 869 Melikian, K.H., 550 Melikian, L.H., 264, 472, 485, 486, 487, 523 Meltzer L., 185, Meredith, G., 276 Merritt, R.L., 81, 90, 109, 220, 234, 931 Meschieri, L., 391, 395 Michael, D.N., 186 Michael, S.T., 607 Michel, A., 278, 296 Milbrath, L„ 840 Milgram, S., 402a Miller, D.C., 854, 855 Miller, S.M., 711, 712, 739, 740 Miller, W.E., 91, 92, 175 Milne, R.S., 843 Miro, C.A., 265 Miron, M.S., 893, 894 340

Mischel, W., 297 Mitchell, J.C., 673 Mitchell, R.E., 34, 60, 93, 94, 95 Miyagi, O., 397 Mouricou, F., 403 Mogey, J., 298 Montague, J.B., Jr., 674, 696, 698, 699 Moore, F.W., 221 Mora y Araujo, M., 943 Morante, L., 349 Morgan, J., 619 Morin, J., 760 Morris, C., 551 Moskos, C.C., Jr., 884 Moss, J.J., 299 Moss, L., 638 Mukerjee, P.K., 35 Murdock, G.P., 96, 110, 222, 223 Murphy, J.M., 593, 607, 608 Müssen, P.W., 349 Muyi, J., 300 Myers, G.C., 272 Naido, J.C., 421 Najarian, P., 301 Nail, F.C., 552 Naroll, R., 224, 225, 226, 227 Neale, W.C., 36 Nencini, R., 395 Nesbitt, J.E., 333 Neugarten, B.L., 398 Neumann, E.P., 125, 126, 127, 128 Neurath, P., 37 Newman, R.E., 350 Nisihira, S„ 337, 742, 743 Noelle, E., 125, 126, 127, 128 Nowak, S„ 187 Nutt, F.D., 494 Nyquist, L., 614 Oberg, W., 780 Odaka, K., 659, 743 Oliveira, T., 660 Opler, M.K., 594, 609 Ortar, G.R., 456 Osgood, C.E., 228,422, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 900, 901 O'Shea, R.M., 88 Owen, J., 971 Oyama, T., 413, 900 Pai, T., 404 Pareek, U., 457 Parry, H.J., 112, 937

AUTHORS

Pasamanick, B., 554, 555, 556, 595 Passin, H., 38 Pauker, G.J., 211 Paulu, B„ 911 Payaslioglu, A., 542 Pearlin, L.I., 700 Pesonen, P., 843 Petersen, W., 39 Pettigrew, T.F., 470, 522 Pichot, P., 392 Pierce-Jones, J., 352 Pinner, F.A., 811 Plog, S.C., 424 Pool, I. de S„ 134, 135, 973 Porter, L.W., 776 Porteus, S.D., 457a Prothro, E.T., 264, 324, 471,472,487, 520, 523, 550, 896 Pu, A.S.T., 431 Puchala, D.V., 109, 114 Puffer, R.R., 251, 252 Puig-Aruelo, H.A., 762 Pulver, U., 325 Pustilnik, B., 674 Pye, L.W., 211 Rabier, J.R., 974 Rabin, A.I., 353, 458 Rabinowitz, R.W., 763 Radcliffe-Brown, A.R., 229 Radvänyi, L., 40, 157 Rafaello, M., 395 Raffaele, J.A., 789 Ralis, M., 41 Ramsey, C.E., 675 Ranch, S.V., 338 Rapoport, A., 230, 946 Rapp, D.W., 326 Rath, F.R., 265 Rees, B., 373 Reid, J.B., 352 Reigrotski, E., 513 Reiss, A.J., Jr., 232 Remmers, H.H., 354 Rennes, P., 392 Rettig, S., 428, 554, 555, 556, 557 Retzlaff, R.M., 231 Reyes, E.P., 856 Richards, T.W., 459 Richardson, S.A., 784 Richman, B.M., 772 Rickers-Ovsiankina, M., 425, 451

Riesman, D., 188, 535 Riley, J.W., Jr., 136 Rinde, E., 661 Ritchie, J.E., 434, 435 Rizzo, G.B., 405 Robinson, J.A., 242 Rocheblave-Spenle, A.M., 304, 305 Rogoff Rams0y, N., 701, 736, 744, 745 Rokeach, M., 473 Rokkan, S„ 61, 62, 63, 65, 89, 97, 98, 129, 139, 144, 153, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 189, 220, 233, 234, 488, 514, 661, 812, 830, 831, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 870, 885, 907, 923 Rommetveit, R., 190, 191 Romney, A.K., 246 Roper, E., 165 Rose, A.M., 235, 596, 610 Rosen, B.C., 571, 572 Rosen, E., 405, 897 Rosenberg, M., 214 Rossi, P.H., 671 Rostow, I., 400 Rothwell, C.E., 880 Rotondo, H., 611 Rotvand, G., 406 Rudolph, L., 42 Rudolph, S.H., 42 Runciman, W.G., 702, 703, 832 Ruschemeyer, D., 764 Russett, B.M., 81, 99, 116 Saber, B., 550 Safilios-Rothschild, C., 278, 306 Sailer, R.C., 420 Sallery, R.D.H., 498 Sanders, R.A., 413 Saranson, S., 426 Sarapata, A., 676 Sarman, E.A., 559 Sarnoff, I., 426 Sarpata, A., 746 Sauer, H., 513 Sautu, M.A., 721 Scarrow, H.A., 236 Schachter, S„ 192 Schapera, I., 237 Scheier, J.H., 414 Scheuch, E.K., 64,66,68,69,100,164,193, 238, 239 Schiro, J., 605 Schramm, W., 888, 905 341

INDEXES

Schulz, T „ 632 Schwarz, P.A., 43 Schwarz, S., 507 Schwartzman, S., 943 Scofield, R.W., 327 Scott, W.H., 785 Sear, R.E., 240 Secord, P.F., 427 Segal, D.R., 825 Shanas, E., 369 Shaul, J.R., 44 Sheldon, R.C., 45 Shen, E., 407 Sherwood, E.T., 460 Shirasa, T., 616 Siegman, A.W., 474, 489, 490 Simenson, W., 268 Singer, J.L., 609 Singh, P.N., 557, 560 Singh-Paras, N., 428 Sjoberg, G., 241 Skirbekk, S., 614 Smelser, M.J., 662 Smith, D.H., 757 Smith, R.J., 675 Smucker, M.J., 686 Smythe, L.S.C., 307 Snyder, R.C., 242 Soddy, K „ 597 Solari, A.E., 733 Somerset, H.C.A., 434 Sorokin, P., 747 Spinder, G.D., 765 Spreen, G., 409 Spreen, O., 408, 409 Srole, L., 607, 611 Stapel, J . , 166 Star, S.A., 603 Stendler, C.B., 328 Stephens, W.N., 308 Stephenson, R.M., 677 Stern, E „ 167, 168, 978, 980 Stewart, U „ 461 Stocks, P., 252 Stoetzel, J „ 194, 269, 355, 385 Stone, P.J., 68, 69 Stoodley, B.H., 356, 561 Stouffer, S., 561 Straus, M.A., 309,429 Straw, K.H., 633 Strodtbeck, F.L., 310, 547

342

Strunk, M „ 105 Stuart, I.R., 430 Stycos, J.M., 46, 47, 48, 255, 270, 271, 272 Suchman, E.A., 41, 169, 243 Suci, G.J., 321, 895, 898 Süllwold, F., 357 Sung, S.M., 404 Sussman, M.B., 311 Svalastoga, K „ 656, 663, 747, 748, 749, 750 Swanson, C.E., 808 Sweet, L., 420 Szalai, A., 798, 799, 800 Tabah, L „ 273 Taft, R., 410, 515, 678, 917 Tago, A., 397 Tajfel, H „ 978a Takeshita, Y.J., 279 Takezawa, S.I., 524 Tanaka, Y., 423, 899, 900 Tannenbaum, P.H., 895 Tapp, J.L., 475 Taylor, W.S., 462 Tedeschi, J.T., 573 Terhune, K.W., 195, 979 Textor, R.B., 103, 117 Thapar, S.D., 49 't Hart, H „ 101 Thayer, J.R., 833 Thomas, E.M., 679 Thompson, G.G., 560 Tibbits, C., 370 Tiller, P.O., 314, 752 Tiryakian, E.A., 680, 704 Tocheport, G., 358 Torsvik, P., 907 Townsend, P., 371, 372, 373 Triandis, H.C., 524, 525, 766, 901 Triandis, L.M., 525 Trier, J.P., 505 Trow, W.C., 431 Tsujioka, B., 393, 432 Tulchin, S.H., 463 Turner, R.H., 562, 750a, 750b Tyler, L.E., 359 Tzuo, H.Y., 465 Udry, J.R., 563 Valen, H„ 65, 812, 816 Van Broekhuizen, Y.C., 402 Van der Meulen, E.E.C., 464 Van Nieuwenhuijze, C.A.O., 244 Van Order Smith, N., 433

AUTHORS

Velazquez-Palau, G., 254 Verba, S., 196, 239, 834, 847, 848, 849, 850, 947 Vernon, P.E., 558 Verr, M „ 463 Versichelen, M., 751 Vetti, N., 923 Vinacke, W.E., 433 Vogel, E.F., 527 Vogt, E.Z., 547 Wahlke, J.C., 878 Waite, R., 426 Walker, K.N., 886 Wallace, D., 980 Walton, J., 857 Warburton, F.W., 415 Ware, E.E., 889 Wayne, I., 455 Weil, R.J., 604 Weinstein, E.A., 613, 681 Wermlund, S., 672 Wesolowski, W., 676 Westerstähl, J., 907 Whelpton, P.K., 261 White, J.R., 170 Whitehill, A.M., Jr., 767 Whiting, B.B., 329 Whiting, J.W.M., 245, 246, 330, 331 Whyte, W.F., 786 Wiener, A.J., 32 Wiener, M., 50 Wiersma, E „ 396 Wiesbrock, H „ 386

Williams, F., 634 Williams, J.S., 574 Williams, L.K., 786 Williams, R.M., Jr., 243 Williamson, R.C., 705 Wilson, E.C., 51, 52, 171, 172, 173, 197,981 Wittkower, E.D., 598, 599 Wohl, J., 537 Wolfe, D.M., 259, 296, 306 Wolpert, H.W., 643 Wood, J.R., 681 Woods, F.J., 600 Woodward, J.L., 165, 980, 982 Wright, F.C., 644 Wu, C.Y., 465 Wuelker, G „ 53 Yadov, V., 768 Yamamura, D.S., 312 Yang, K.S., 465 Yaukey, D.W., 274, 582 Ylvisaker, H„ 980 Young, H.B., 349 Young, M„ 374 Zaidi, S.M.H., 360 Zald, M.N., 312 Zdravomyslov, A., 768 Zelditch, M „ Jr., 198, 313 Zetterberg, H.L., 737, 744 Ziegel, W„ 723 Zloczower, A., 347 Zürcher, L.A., 564 Zürcher, S.C., 564

343