Commercial Space Tourism : Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication [1 ed.] 9781608052394, 9781608054305

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Commercial Space Tourism: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions Authored By

Dirk C. Gibson University of New Mexico USA

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DEDICATION This eBook is gratefully dedicated to those whose dedication to the author made it possible. Mark S. Agness was a wonderful brother-in-law and friend and is greatly missed. I wish to thank my children Erica and Mitchell Gibson for their support and understanding, and Grant Gibson for his longsuffering latent love. My long-time friends George Chialtas and John Kuknyo also deserve recognition. Special thanks are hereby extended to my sister Laura and my brothers Dennis and Si-Ming. Very special recognition goes to Lionel Beatwood, Dean Gibson and Laurie (Aunt Noo-noo) Garcia, Sam on the wall and Tiki, Jazzy. My beloved niece Emily (and Cooper) and Corporal Adam Gibson. U.S.M.C., deserve fond mention, along with his wife Jenn and daughter Lilly. I’d like to thank my mentors, John Cordova and Marvin Dale Kleinau. Most of all, my parents Raymond and Betty Gibson should be credited, and this eBook is accordingly dedicated to their loving memory. And to my homies, my BFFs, Pink Paws & Sparkles—Thanks!

CONTENTS Foreword

i

Preface

iii

Acknowledgments

v

CHAPTERS Unit I: THE POTENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SPACE TOURISM 1.

The Potential Significance of Space Tourism

3

2.

The Contemporary Significance of Space Tourism

30

3.

The Contemporary Insignificance of Space Tourism

58

Unit II: THE IMPEDIMENTS TO SPACE TOURISM INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 4.

5.

The Primary Impediments to Space Tourism Industrial Development

90

The Secondary Impediments to Space Tourism Industrial Development 121 Unit III: SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS

6.

The Role of Strategic Communication in the Development of Commercial Space Tourism 149

7.

The Primary Functions of Space Tourism Strategic Communication 163

8.

The Secondary Communication

Functions

of

Space

Tourism

Strategic 187

Unit IV: SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION TACTICS 9.

Space Tourism Strategic Communication Categories & the Typical Tactics

Tactics;

Four 200

10.

Mid-Incidence Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics

239

11.

Occasional & Atypical Tactics; Tactic Categorization & Analysis 266

12.

Conclusion

284

Bibliography

296

Author Index

303

Subject Index

311

i

FOREWORD The new millennium was accompanied by the nascent era of a new and exciting industry unprecedented in the human experience: space tourism. We have witnessed in this past decade the emergence of the space tourism industry which has been characterized by the frenetic proliferation of companies whose aim is to develop reusable launch vehicles intended to provide voyages to suborbital space. The space tourism industry enjoyed the benefits of a stable economy for the better part of the past decade which allowed and encouraged an expectation of success on the part of both the industry participants i.e. the developers of the vehicles, and the target market, or the space tourists. Consequently, the literature regarding this industry has evolved into a genre typified by positive expectation and enthusiastic advocacy. While this characteristic is somewhat desirable as a driver for the space tourism market, it lacks the necessary and appropriate objectivity needed for a realistic and ultimately supportive assesment of the industry. Unfortunately, the burgeoning economy which permitted such enthusiastic expectations for the space tourism market no longer exists. The drastic change in the economy is sure to impact the evolution of at least some parts of the space tourism market. Because of this change in the market and the impact that this change could have on the evolution of space tourism, this publication comes at a useful and critical time. Now is the time for an objective critique of the industry and the solicitation of helpful and creative solutions for obstacles that the industry is facing or might face in the future. This publication does exactly that: it objectively and critically evaluates the space tourism industry and it then proposes both helpful solutions and tactics to implement those solutions intended to address industry impediments. This is primarily an academic endeavor: it critiques space tourism from different perspectives. Dirk Gibson has extensively researched the topic and provides a lengthy repertoire of sources and citations that ensure a thorough grasp of, and background in, the industry. This eBook is divided into two main sections. In the first part, Gibson provides a fairly traditional evaluation of the arguments for and against the activity of space

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tourism. However this evaluation is distinct because the purely academic dialectic is devoid of the characteristic advocacy of previous attempts. Gibson provides academic objectivity and emotional uninvolvement that many of this publication’s predecessors are lacking in. The second part of the eBook renders this publication even more of an anomaly from other publications of this genre. Gibson utilizes his background in public relations to develop and propose a series of "strategic communication solutions to the major obstacles facing space tourism". Again, Gibson engages in an objective and critical academic approach; suggesting solutions that the space tourism industry can utilize as a community for overcoming the many obstacles that it faces in being embraced and supported by the general public. Gibson identifies a numerous list of impediments that the industry faces or could face; followed by a corresponding list of solutions aimed at removing those impediments. He then discusses and critiques these solutions and their possible efficacy. Lastly, Gibson identifies some tactics for implementing these solutions. The net results of this process renders (insert title) an objective and eclectic investigation into the domain of space tourism, and a potential resource for industry participants. It is an honor to be writing the forward to this publication. I find it poignant and serendipitous that emerging out of New Mexico are two premier features that will support and promote the space tourism industry: the Spaceport of America, and this publication by Dirk Gibson.

John George Greco Law Group, in Las Vegas Nevada USA

iii

PREFACE This eBook explores the benefits of a commercial space tourism industry and describes the contemporary state of development in 2012. In addition, the impediments to space tourism enterprise are identified and documented. My central purpose is to describe strategic communication solutions to space tourism industrial impediments through consideration of salient strategic communication functions and tactics. The initial chapter discusses the potential benefits of a space tourism industry. In the second chapter the case is made that contemporary space tourism efforts should be considered as significant, while the third chapter presents the contrary position, that commercial space tourism is currently insignificant. The contradictory cases and factual basis for both chapters are presented to document the complexity and equivocal nature of current space tourism activity, as well as future industrial uncertainty. The impediments and obstacles to development of commercial space tourism are the subject of the second section of this eBook. Chapter four quantifies primary impediments to space tourism such as investment insufficiency and space dangers. Secondary obstacles include legal issues and insurance and are presented in chapter five. The third part of the eBook discusses the purposes behind space tourism strategic communication. The sixth chapter notes that space tourism enterprises may not develop, and suggests strategic communication solutions. Primary strategic communication functions or purposes are discussed in chapter seven and chapter eight covers the secondary functions. These communication functions address the obstacles to commercial space tourism industrial development. Tactics, the focus of the final part of this work, are the building-blocks of strategic communication. The most typical space tourism strategic communication tactics like partnerships and media releases are the subject of chapter nine with the midincidence tactics explored in the ninth chapter. The occasional and atypical tactics

iv

are quantified in chapter ten, where the tactics are also categorized by channel variables. It should be noted that a very recent development might dramatically alter the commercial space tourism status quo. In late May of 2012 a commercial space firm named SpaceX successfully replenished the ISS, under a $1.6 billion contract with NASA. The Dragon capsule may alter the previous reality of commercial space access.

Dirk C. Gibson University of New Mexico Member of National Space Society Department of Communication & Journalism USA E-mail: [email protected]

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Any historical/critical or integrative research project inherently depends on the work of previous scholars, analysts, and reporters. I am greatly indebted to each and every source cited in this eBook, and I hope I have cited each of them appropriately and completely. I am happy to acknowledge the efficient and expert staff at Bentham Science eBooks. Sara Moqeet and Maria Baig were extraordinarily helpful and this publication is largely the result of their patience with and assistance rendered to the author. They helped expedite publication of a manuscript that was not in very good shape. Thanks, Maria. The author expressly asserts that there is no conflict of interest involved in the preparation and publication of this eBook. I want to acknowledge my invaluable index ‘posse,’ Amy Beggin and Darren White and Sophia Kyziridis. Special thanks to Lionel Beatwood for his major contributions to this work. My special friends and roommates, Sparkles and Pinky “Pink Paws” Pinkerton, must be acknowledged their for unwavering support. Mitchell, my most wonderful and perfect son, has survived on my cooking and lots of fast food for four years now. I really love that young man. My daughter Erica has suffered from chronic pain for one-third of her eighteen years after an unsuccessful arthroscopic surgery. A second surgery recently proved unsuccessful. Erica honey, you will never know what an inspiration you are to me. I miss and love you so much, honey.

Unit I: THE POTENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SPACE TOURISM

CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 3-29

3

CHAPTER 1 The Potential Significance of Space Tourism Abstract: Space tourism industry profit projections unanimously portended optimistic and even favorable prospects for the new enterprise. The specific space tourism economic benefits were described and documented from a quartet of salient sources. Space tourismrelated revenue included direct revenue, economic growth, employment and the multiplier effect. The consequences of space tourism industrial development for the U.S. aerospace industry were described. The benefits of commercial space development were investigated. Likely to prosper from the commercialization of space: manufacturing, mining, biomedical research and astronomy. The concept of a safety net was considered; it suggested that an off-planet capacity might be needed because of dangers to the Earth. These terrestrial travails might include resource depletion, comets, asteroids and meteors, environmental degradation, war and biosphere destruction. Seven ways were identified in which space tourism facilitates space development: motivation of alternate commercial space development, generation of consumer interest in space, facilitation of development of space infrastructure, promotion of financing of space development projects, reduction in the cost of space access, encouragement of technological development and the promotion of regulatory reform. Environmental consequences of commercial space tourism industrial development are cause for concern and careful consideration. The Earth may contaminate space, and/or outer space might contaminate the Earth. Space may become polluted and the Earth might be similarly sullied and polluted. Space tourists might commit acts of vandalism in space. Earthside-space tourism operations might produce terrestrial noise pollution and there was the ever-present possibility of explosions. Finally, the pervasive presence of lunar dust was described as a hazard.

Keywords: Asteroid, biomedical research, biosphere, comet, contamination, direct revenue, economic benefit, employment, environmental degradation, infrastructure, lunar dust, multiplier effect, off-planet capacity, resource depletion, safety net, space commercialization, space manufacturing, space mining, space privatization, space tourism. 1. INTRODUCTION It is said that Conrad Hilton first publicly articulated the concept of space tourism, and of course space hotels. As this book is being written in the middle of 2012 the commercial space tourism industry is still trying to evolve into a real entity and shed its identity as an embryonic concept. Whether space tourism ever materializes as predicted, we can identify reasons to consider it a potentially significant travel and tourism genre. Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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This introductory chapter examines the importance of space tourism in a number of ways. Projections and market studies will be examined to ascertain the space tourism industry’s profit potential and the resultant economic benefits will be described and quantified. The consequences of space tourism for the U.S. aerospace industry will be considered, and the importance of space tourism as commercial space development will be documented. Potential threats to the continued habitation of Earth will be demonstrated and the significance of space tourism in creating a ‘safety net’ for the human race will be explored. The unique role of the space tourism industry in enabling outer space activity will be described. And so will possible environmental consequences. 2. SPACE TOURISM REVENUE PROJECTIONS & ESTIMATES Advocates excitedly predict that commercial space tourism is ‘a sure thing,’ a ‘nobrainer,’ because of the inevitable success of this embryonic genre of adventure travel and tourism. This section presents a series of such projections and estimates. “Starting a space tourism business will be much tougher than developing, say, a new type of aircraft. But the market is a huge one and with the entrance of EADS Astrium the competition has now started in earnest,” Aerospace America recently reported [1]. Norris told the Wall Street Journal in 2001, “The market potential is incredible” [2]. We might consider a few quantitative estimates. Space tourism commitments in 2000 exceeded $140 million, D.F.I. International claimed [3]. Research conducted in 2002 decided that the suborbital space tourism market was worth about $700 million assuming 15,000 passengers annually, and that the suborbital share of the market equaled approximately $300 million [3]. Canadian Arrow, a joint venture between Canadian and Indian interests, predicts it will serve 2,000 space tourists in its initial five years of operation, generating revenue of $200 million [1]. “It is estimated that space tourism will generate at least $1 billion a year within 20 years,” claims a market study conducted on behalf of Spaceport America [4]. At a pricepoint between $10,000 and $20,000, nearly one hundred million people will travel to space, resulting in more than $10 billion in profit [4]. Another estimate

Potential Significance

Commercial Space Tourism: … 5

was reported by Butterworth-Hayes, “Depending on how widespread and accessible the operations are, the market could grow to more than $100 billion a year, according to Collins, whose EADS Astrium says it will be able to attract as many as 4,500 paying customers a year by 2020” [5]. The European Space Agency (ESA) is convinced of commercial space tourism’s potential profitability. ESA conducted a number of internal studies recently on space tourism. And, as Aerospace America reported, “In each case, the studies showed the potential for developing the commercial human spaceflight market” [1]. An analysis of the market potential for space tourism firms concluded, “Representative single companies existing in the orbital space tourism industry can achieve a positive Net Present Value (NPV)” [6]. 3. ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROM SPACE TOURISM INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT It appears that the proprietors of space tourism firms might profit from their business ventures if all goes well. But so will others. In this section I will document the economic benefits resulting from space tourism industrial development. The U.S. aerospace industry’s stake will be considered, as well. A. Economic Benefits From Space Tourism Development of the space tourism industry would be economically beneficial in a number of ways. At this point, we will consider: 1) Space tourism-related revenue, 2) Employment, 3) Economic growth and 4) The multiplier effect. Space Tourism-Related Revenue Numerous stakeholders stand to profit from space tourism industrial development, in addition to space tourism firms. In California alone, “space enterprise had a total impact of over $50 billion in 2005, and accounted for over a quarter-million jobs” [7]. Alaska has similarly benefited economically from commercial space activity, according to a news release issued by the Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation (AADC). AADC spending in 2005 amounted to $27.3 million, which “created 271 direct, indirect and induced jobs in Alaska and displaced employment reductions from other industries” [8].

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Other states anticipate similar space spending. In New Mexico, Spaceport America planners predict “an economic impact of nearly $1 billion in the first five years” [9]. Nationwide, commercial space transportation amounted to a $61.3 billion market in 2001 [10]. More recently, “a $180-billion ‘space economy’ on Earth” was mentioned by former NASA administrator Michael Griffin [11]. That figure rose to $220 billion the next year [75]. The Space Foundation recently estimated global space-related revenue at $251 billion in 2007 [12]. Steve Bennett, CEO of Starchaser Industries Inc., predicts considerable revenue for all stakeholders. “The private space industry is going to be worth billions—the big industry of the twentieth century,” Bennett claimed [9]. Economic Growth NASA projects have resulted in economic growth. One study asserted that NASA funding over the course of its entire history was equal to what the Department of Defense receives in a year, yet “space technology has poured trillions of dollars into the U.S. economy” [13]. Space tourism may benefit the economy in another way, by retooling workers for new jobs. By creating new high-paying technical jobs the space tourism industry may offset contemporary deflationary tendencies [14]. Ashford concluded that space tourism in the short term ought to create a substantial number of skilled positions [15]. Employment Employment is perhaps the most tangible sign of economic progress. McCoy estimated that commercial space activity accounted for nearly a half-million jobs in the U.S. in 2001 [16]. “The development of space tourism,” Collins predicted, could create “employment for as many as 10 million people worldwide” [17]. In New Mexico, it is hoped that “the spaceport will create thousands of high-paying jobs, fuel economic growth and fatten a county tax base” [18]. Space advocacy organizations focus on the employment issue. For instance, the Northwest Inland Space Alliance places the following statement on the top of the first page of the website’s home page, “Finding practical applications of high technology to create sustained jobs for Montana and the region” [19].

Potential Significance

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The Multiplier Effect The multiplier effect refers to investment, typically in capital goods and industrial, extractive or agricultural processes, that directly results in subsequent additional spending. A recent analysis described this phenomenon, “The direct impact of spending in the space industry generates a multiplier effect on the rest of the state economy” [4]. “Conservatively, over the next five years the Southwest Regional Spaceport (SRS) could generate more than $5 million of initial spending, which would be multiplied into nearly $10 million of additional output, and nearly $3 million of earnings in the private sector” [4]. B. U.S. Aerospace Industry The American aerospace industry is in a relatively undesirable condition and has been for some time. Foreign competition and setbacks at home led to a precipitous decline in the U.S. aerospace industry’s relative position compared to that of others. Van Pelt offered this assessment--a mature commercial space tourism industry might facilitate development of the private sector launch industry [20]. That boost would certainly be welcome in light of the recent economic fortunes of this American industry. Berinstein’s book included a section entitled, “Save the American Aerospace Industry,” in which she noted that the American aerospace industry has struggled since the Cold War ended [14]. In 2002 there were only three major American companies, critics claimed—Boeing, Lockheed and Orbital. The title of a 2006 Aerospace America report, “Declining Trend for U.S. Launch Capabilities,” nicely foreshadowed the pessimistic conclusions offered in the article [21]. In 2002, Loren Thompson noted, “But the American space business has entered an economic and psychological depression without precedent in its brief history. There is massive over-capacity in both launch vehicles and spacecraft. Companies are losing money, and the workforce—at least, what remains of it—is aging fast” [22]. D.F.I. International added that prospects for near-term recovery of the industry remain bleak [3]. “The U.S. space industry is in an extremely unhealthy state,” another recent analysis concluded [5].

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4. COMMERCIAL SPACE BENEFITS Four factors might justify commercial space development: 1) Manufacturing benefits, 2) Mining opportunities, 3) Medical breakthroughs and 4) Astronomy advancements. Each will be described in detail. A. Manufacturing Benefits “The future also promises more commercial benefits. Much has been said about the potential for creating and manufacturing new materials in the microgravity environment of space,” declared Edward L. Hudgins [10]. Taylor noted that “Certain manufacturing processes can be done better in the absence of gravitational fields, or in a vacuum which space offers” [23]. We will consider: 1) General manufacturing, 2) Biotechnology and 3) Pharmaceutical production. General Manufacturing The microgravity environment of space appeals to manufacturers for a variety of reasons. According to Taylor, “Materials that will not mix on earth—oil and water, certain minerals—will mix in space. This space manufacturing could lead to the production of vastly improved products, more precise manufacturing of products, and new materials-processing techniques” [23]. O’Neill referred to “the advantages of zero gravity for the handling of massive objects, for the heating of materials to very high temperatures without the contamination of containing crucible walls, for the formation of uniform production of light and heavy materials” [24]. Biotechnology Biotechnology and medical research and development in particular would benefit from space manufacturing. A study for the Office of Space Commercialization in the Department of Commerce found that “The microgravity conditions of space enable the growth of large, superior quality crystals that could be the predecessors to synthesized proteins for fighting disease. Materials have been developed without the structural flaws that often accompany their production on Earth” [3]. Pharmaceutical Production Medicines may be improved substantially by research and production conducted in space. It is believed that the environmental characteristics of space would

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enhance pharmaceutical company operations. One study specified that because of space-based electrophesis, “New vaccines and drugs can be produced in volumes that could aid millions of people” [23]. Existing drugs could be improved and made more cheaply, including diabetes and hormone deficiency drugs, and antihemophiliac products, epidermal growth stimulants, antitrypsin products and interferon [23]. B. Mining Opportunities The Earth’s supply of some nonrenewable resources is dwindling. It might be prudent to cultivate and create alternative extraterrestrial sources of important materials, and space is one possible location for additional resources. We will consider two topics: 1) Space mining possibilities and 2) Space mining reservations. Space Mining Possibilities “Enthusiasts point out that space houses abundant resources that could help us overcome shortages here on Earth,” Harrison declared [25]. One of the materials available in space is helium-3, rare on Earth but common on the Moon and quite useful in electrical power generation. Other valuable substances in space include iron, located in abundance in the asteroid belt. One asteroid in particular, Amun, contains billions of dollars worth of iron, nickel, cobalt, and platinum, and other elements such as osmium, iridium and palladium [25]. O’Neill concurred concerning the commercial possibilities of asteroids. He referred to the fact that “Asteroids are attractive targets for a wholly different reason, they’re rich in ‘cheap’ minerals, such as water and steel, that are of great value and utility in space, but outrageously expensive to launch from Earth” [24]. O’Neill also noticed that asteroids contain significant amounts of valuable precious and strategic metals like platinum, osmium, iridium, rhenium and palladium, as well as germanium, gallium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and indium [24]. One recent proposal involves mining the moon for helium-3. Deposited on the moon by solar winds, this element could be a clean and safe energy source [26]. The Canadian Space Agency spent a quarter of a million dollars on a feasibility study of lunar mining [27]. Aerospace America reported, “New research insights regarding atmospheric mining of the outer solar system were developed at NASA

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Glenn. Four major options for the mining of Uranus and Neptune for helium-3 and hydrogen fuels were assessed” [28]. “There is the lure of space-based resources,” Pass and Harrison observed. They specified commercial space applications such as “mining asteroids, moons and planets, and space commerce including manufacturing and tourism” [29]. Space Mining Reservations Although asteroid mining prospects may appear to be favorable there are a few reservations to be aware of when dealing with space mineral extraction. For one thing, it is not in the near future, “The practicality of celestial mining is, of course, still a long way off in the future” [23]. Mining is permitted under outer space law, but there is no clear right to private property or ownership. “The Outer Space Treaty permits persons and companies to remove and appropriate resources in outer space or on celestial bodies, but does not permit them to own resources ‘in place’” [30]. C. Medical Breakthroughs Not only might space manufacturing of medicine improve medical care but the space environment itself might lead to breakthroughs in treatment. Taylor contended that space-based operations could lead to “new treatment methods that promise cures for such dreaded diseases as cancer, diabetes, and malaria, among others” [23]. Again, electrophesis conducted in space may be key, “Scientists have determined that it may be possible to develop new cures or improved treatments for many diseases by using cells, enzymes, hormones or proteins produced by the human body” [23]. Some space-based biomedical research concentrates on space medicine issues. For instance, a program managed by the Ames Research Center sought to better understand how microorganisms react in space. “NASA is preparing to launch a tiny satellite loaded with yeast and anti-fungal drugs early next month in order to better understand how bacteria become nastier in space” [31]. D. Advancements in Astronomy The field of astronomy in particular would benefit greatly from the advent of the space tourism industry. Higher-quality, more-sensitive observation will be

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facilitated, “Much larger, and hence more sensitive, instruments will be feasible. Gamma Ray, X-Ray, ultra-violet, millimetric, infrared and radio telescopes can be far larger, free from the distortions of gravity, and with assembly in space made practical by low transportation cost,” Ashford suggested [15]. Astronomers would appreciate cost advantages as well, because the expenses associated with smaller orbital astronomical instruments will be substantially the same as those used on Earth at the present time, which are typically ten times cheaper than those installed in satellites today [15]. Ashford also noted other astronomical benefits, such as a significant reduction in the lead time for space optical instrument development from about a decade to as little as two years. Astronomers would also be able to visit their instruments and make any needed adjustments. There additionally would be orbital astronomical observatories, specially equipped for astronomical use [15]. 5. THE SAFETY NET The Earth may seem large and limitless but it is actually a relatively fragile biosphere. There may come a time, perhaps in the near future, when our terrestrial home is destroyed or badly damaged to the point where humans must leave here to colonize other places in the universe. It is suggested that space development be adequate to facilitate this mass exodus, with an organized infrastructure already assembled, built and tested through commercial space tourism operations. This section considers two basic factors: 1) Safety net may be needed and 2) Human survival requires space development. A. Safety Net May be Needed The Earth may be doomed. At least five separate, independent threats to the survival of mankind on Earth were identified: 1) Resource depletion, 2) Comets, meteors and asteroids, 3) Environmental degradation, 4) War and 5) Biosphere destruction. Resource Depletion Resource depletion has the potential to bring industrialized, modern technological life to a standstill. Only recently have we begun to understand that the Earth’s

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seemingly inexhaustible supply of resources is in very real danger of depletion [23]. In forty years, the citizens and government of the U.S. consumed more natural resources than all other civilizations in the history of the world. Taylor noted Earth’s imminent “resource exhaustion” [23]. Space resources could supplement those available on Earth. “Space offers room for the expansion of human populations far beyond any numbers that can be supported on Earth. This is another push force. The abundant availability of space may make it possible to accommodate unlimited population growth” [32]. Research has established that in order to avoid the increasing social dysfunction resulting from human activities exceeding the ‘carrying capacity’ of our global ecosystem and also to provide peaceful improvement in the standard of living for an expanding human population we must take advantage of every strategic capability and material resource at our disposal, including space resources [5]. When Jacques Delors was President of the European Union he predicted the emergence of “the coming twenty-first century resource wars” [5]. Collins offered a gloomy conclusion; human life on Earth will become much less civilized as our technological and economic activities approach our planet’s ‘carrying capacity’ [5]. Comets, Meteors & Asteroids Comets, meteors and asteroids have already made an impression on Earth, both figuratively and literally. Van Pelt noted the uncomfortable fact that if the Earth collided with a large comet or asteroid it could mean the end of humanity if we forego an off-planet capacity and remain a one-planet civilization. In our planet’s past history such collisions caused large amounts of dust in the atmosphere to block sunlight for years and killed off all life on Earth. Scientific investigations demonstrated that asteroid impacts have occurred more often in the past than was previously realized, sometimes resulting in the extinction of ninety percent of all living beings on Earth [20]. Hudgins told Congress about asteroid defense, “In the long run, the capacity to travel and work in space could literally ensure the human race’s survival by allowing us to detect, divert or destroy meteors or comets heading toward Earth” [10]. Recent unsettling disclosures on the imminence and significance of these intergalactic perils might be considered. “We have come a long way during the

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past 15 years in our efforts to discover asteroids and comets larger than 1 km. in diameter. Near Earth objects (NEOs) in this size range are significant: If one of these should hit Earth, civilization as we know it would be wiped out, and humanity would be forced back to a much more primitive state,” Ailor contended [33]. Ailor further explained the likelihood of such an event, “Our current civilization has not dealt with a NEO disaster or a NEO threat, but it is inevitable that we will. It is likely that either occurrence will engender great anxiety and fear, and the social consequences could be huge” [33]. Significantly, even objects smaller than one km. “also can have devastating, if not civilization-ending, effects” [33]. The numbers do not favor mankind. Approximately 4,000 objects enter Earth’s atmosphere each year [33]. Experts suspect that over the next twenty-five years there will be approximately 100,000 potentially destructive objects between 140 m. and 1 km. in size of posible concern [33]. Twenty thousand of these objects pose “a potential threat to Earth in the future” [33]. One asteroid, Asteroid 99942 Apophis, was only discovered in 2004 and is about 300 m. in diameter. In 2029 this object will pass within 38,900 km. of the Earth’s center, roughly where geostationary satellites orbit, and in 2036 it could return and strike the Earth [33]. Environmental Degradation “We could find ourselves trapped on an increasingly polluted planet,” Van Pelt gloomily predicted [20]. Schmidt and Zubrin referred to “the environmental problems associated with burning fossil fuels” [34]. An astrosociological essay recognized the “now real question of spacecraft-as-lifeboat. Will climate degradation force us to explore space?” [32]. War War is always a definite possibility when dealing with homo sapiens. The prestigious Bartlett Discussion Symposium on Space Architecture observed, “We can remain on this planet and eventually poison ourselves, blow ourselves to bits competing for territory or possibly experience destruction by a meteor” [35]. Collins agreed, adding that from the international or global perspective it is apparent that national governments have narrowly focus only on their own space

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agencies’ immediate interests. These governments have failed their responsibility to their own citizens and the entire population of our planet to save Earth from fascism and war [5]. The terrible trio of “militarism, nationalism and resource exhaustion” was described by Schmidt and Zubrin [34]. Biosphere Destruction Biosphere destruction is a clear possibility. One such scenario involved the eventual climactic change on Earth caused by intensification of the Sun’s rays: In aeons to come the Sun will continue to evolve and grow brighter, and there will be a warming of our oceans. With this, some of Earth’s limestone will dissolve, releasing more CO2 into the atmosphere, and more water will evaporate. The added CO2 and water vapor will enhance Earth’s greenhouse, producing still more temperature rise, more CO2, more water vapor. All the while, Earth will be radiating heat back to space, and will tend to strike another balance, preventing temperatures from getting still hotter. This balance exists today, limiting Earth’s greenhouse to the 60 degree rise mentioned, but the balance will shift to higher and higher temperatures as the sun slowly brightens. Eventually the balance point will be hot enough to allow the equatorial oceans to boil. With this, all hopes will vanish; in a short time all Earth’s water, and much CO2 from limestone, will enter the atmosphere. An interplanetary explorer will find Earth and Venus all but identical [36]. Schmidt and Zubrin (1996) corroborated Heppenheimer’s frightening tale of solar destruction; the Earth’s biosphere and quite likely the planet itself faces eventual destruction by a natural process—the maturation and extinction of the Sun [34]. A parallel prediction of peril posed by population was provided by George Friedman: Our population is increasing by a billion souls about every dozen years and even the most optimistic demographers admit that the total will exceed ten billion early in the twenty-first century. The greatest increases are in the underdeveloped nations, who have aspirations of substantially raising their standards of living as well. The impact on Earth’s biosphere

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will be beyond anything mankind has ever witnessed—not only the wellpublicized degradation of our fragile environment but the extinction of more species than were killed after the cosmic impact that ended the great age of the dinosaurs and formed the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary some 65 million years ago [37]. Global warming represents the greatest threat to the biosphere, many would contend. McConnell recognized the gravity of this threat to terrestrial survival: Some in space circles have advanced a theory that the NASA budget is small because space is a luxury, compared to other budget priorities. Space policy is better understood in the context of political structure. If there was ever truth to the luxury argument, now global warming has changed the meaning of space for society. Global warming has become the most compelling new societal issue of the era. Today, space finds itself on the critical path of halting global warming and its potential for mass extinctions [32]. B. Human Survival Requires Space Development “The long-term survival of our civilization rests on our continued exploration of the solar system,” Jones claimed [38]. Anderson and Piven concurred, “The longterm viability of the human race is dependent upon space travel. For the species to survive a catastrophic Earth calamity (whether natural or man-made) we must find a way to survive and reproduce beyond our own planet” [39]. The citizens of Earth must develop an off-planet capacity for several reasons. The most basic reason is human survival. The paleontological record reveals that mass extinctions happened on our planet several times in the past. It is quite likely they will reoccur and this could happen at any time [34]. A contemporary popular scientist agreed, “The survival of the human race depends on its ability to find new homes elsewhere in the universe because there’s an increasing risk that a disaster will destroy Earth,” physicist Stephen Hawking told the Associated Press [40]. To summarize, a safety net is needed because the Earth faces possible destruction from a variety of potential dangers. One study concluded that the commercial

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space tourism industry could motivate the human colonization of space, on other planets and throughout the universe. If a disaster threatened Earth in the future, the space tourism industry might provide a safety net for us through infrastructure and space experience [41]. Another study noted, “The exploration of space is something that captivates a great many people around the world. Human expansion into space captivates yet more people. Some are motivated to propagate the species and ensure its survival generations into the future” [42]. Pass and Harrison added, “Human dispersal beyond Earth protects the human species and legacy against obliteration. Dispersed throughout the solar system, humanity can survive cataclysmic events such as major asteroid or comet impacts” [29]. 6. THE CRITICAL ROLE OF SPACE TOURISM Space tourism is not merely intrinsically important for the services provided and the profit attained. We have learned that it may provide a safety net for the human race and provide substantial economic assistance to a sluggish and depressed global economy. And space tourism will lead to the development of commercial space activity. A. How Space Tourism Develops Space The effect of space tourism industrial success on other dimensions of commercial space development was investigated. The findings were encouraging, if the space tourism industry can be successfully developed, because space tourism almost certainly will facilitate other commercial space applications and space exploration in general. Seven specific links between the space tourism industry and other space commerce and development were identified and documented. They include: 1) Space tourism would motivate other commercial space development, 2) Space tourism would generate space-related consumer interest and support, 3) Space tourism would expedite creation of a space infrastructure, 4) Space tourism would finance alternate space development, 5) Space tourism would lower space access cost, 6) Space tourism would accelerate technological development and 7) Space tourism promotes regulatory reform.

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Motivate Other Commercial Space Development The commercial space development community is a diverse one, with perceived stakes including space-based manufacturing, resource extraction, scientific research and of course space tourism. The success of the commercial space tourism industry would be a morale boost to other commercial space entrepreneurs. According to Beardsley, “The Space Transportation Association, an industry lobbying group, recently created a division devoted to promoting space tourism, which it sees as a viable way to spur economic development beyond Earth” [44]. Generate Space-Related Consumer Interest and Support General public and consumer interest in space would be enhanced as a result of space tourism. A mature commercial space travel and tourism industry might strengthen the general American public constituency for space science and exploration activities, which otherwise may be increasingly mitigated by an erosion of general public support [45]. Commercial space tourism could enhance public support for space exploration and development [20]. “The popularization of space travel is expected to strengthen support for space exploration, speed development of the space industry, and have an impact on other areas,” asserted Matsumoto et al. [43]. The empirical evidence elicited by Matsumoto and colleagues was reinforced by the professional opinion of astronaut Buzz Aldrin, “Space tourism will provide the high volume commercial demand for space transportation necessary for space launch to evolve into a normal industry” [46]. Expedite Creation of Space Infrastructure One of the vital ingredients needed to facilitate commercial space tourism development is infrastructure creation. Spaceports, space traffic control facilities, travel destinations and a host of other public space accoutrements are necessary to accommodate space tourists. “My passion about this springs from the way that large-scale space tourism leads to space infrastructure that enables broader national goals, such as a return to the Moon and the exploration of Mars,” Aldrin testified before Congress [46]. The abstract to Anders Lindskold’s Master’s

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Thesis noted, “Space tourism may be the missing link of space travel. With the help of space tourism, we can build an infrastructure in space and radically decrease the launch costs. Through this infrastructure, other commercial ventures will also be possible” [47]. The link between the commercial space sector and infrastructure development was addressed by Aviation Week & Space Technology, “Ultimately, the men and women in and outside of government, who are trying to put together the infrastructure that will accommodate the next generation of space travelers hope there’s a commercial space sector capable enough to bring the cost down for everyone” [48]. Another study bluntly observed, “General PST and tourism would be greatly beneficial to U.S. space capabilities” [45]. Zubrin argued that lower launch costs would facilitate infrastructure development, because industrial innovations will accelerate and motivate technological progress and reduce costs, leading to the creation of the infrastructure for the long-heralded Space Age [49]. Spencer and Rugg agreed that commercial space tourism is the only industry able to establish the technological and financial infrastructure so humanity can become a spacefaring civilization [41]. Finance Space Development Limited governmental financing of space ventures has already been documented. That makes space tourism quite valuable as a potential revenue source, as Schmidt and Zubrin observed, “Tourism has been suggested as a possible free-enterprise method of financing space travel” [34]. Aerospace America recently noted that “The growth of the space tourism market will be an added bonus for the [commercial satellite] market that will not only create new businesses in space, but also help lure more money into the more traditional satellite and launch services market” [50]. The commercial space tourism industry should be able to obtain the investment and attract the talent needed to develop the infrastructure, technologies and orbital vehicles required to effectively support all of the activities that are vital to the long-term survival of the planet, Spencer and Rugg asserted [41]. Van Pelt concurred, adding that space tourism provides an affluent, large market worth billions of dollars annually, whose patronage would necessitate more efficient, reusable orbital vehicles capable of making numerous flights [20].

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Reduce Space Access Cost Cost is perhaps the most substantial impediment to greater outer space commercialization. If access to space were cheaper demand would increase and supply would be easier to accommodate. The commercial space tourism industry may enable the next step in our planetary evolution from a terrestrial to a cosmic civilization. It could reduce the cost of access to space, with human spaceflight becoming part of everyday life for millions of people [20]. “Space tourism has the unique potential, which other smaller-scale space activities do not, to reduce the cost of space travel by two orders of magnitude below space agencies’ expendable launch vehicles,” Collins concluded [5]. The Daily Launch reported that SpaceX could cut the traditional $10,000 per pound cost of lowEarth orbital launch by fifty per cent [12]. The Economist observed, “at less than $10m (sic) it costs half as much as the cheapest existing alternative” [51]. The commercial space cost reduction factor was noted by George Nield, Associate Administrator for Commercial Space Transportation at the FAA. “Anybody who wants to go can buy a ticket. It will be expensive at first, but the price will come down” [52]. “Companies like SpaceX and Orbital Sciences. will significantly cut the costs of those space activities,” Aerospace America predicted [52]. Maryniak agreed; he suggested that “One promising new market could drive launch demand and lower costs by an order of magnitude. That market is public space flight, commonly known today as space tourism” [53]. Virgin Galactic’s Will Whitehorn suggests that ticket prices should be reduced by half within five years [54]. Accelerates Technological Development Space access is expensive because of the cost of eluding gravity. Creation of an inexpensive reusable launch vehicle will be an enormous enhancement to everyone’s commercial space plans. And space tourism is the key to this technological development, “The pace of U.S. commercial space transportation activities is expected to increase with the opening of commercial markets for space tourism and resupply of the International Space Station,” suggested a 2007 study [55]. “Space tourism may solve the single most difficult problem holding up space settlement: safe and inexpensive transportation from the surface of Earth to Low

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Earth Orbit,” the National Space Society observed [56]. FAA space tourism administrator Patricia Smith agreed, “Progress in commercial flight has helped make private human space flight possible. These opportunities for private human space flight will, in turn, lead to further technical progress in commercial space carriers” [5]. The necessity for the invention of reusable space transportation is underscored by Elon Musk, CEO of SpaceX. In a recent interview in Aerospace America, Musk noted this critical truth. “There is a very important and fundamental thing that has to be achieved: creating a reusable orbital launch vehicle. That is at the heart of all this. It is a very, very hard problem. Extremely hard to do. Creating a reusable vehicle is a critical step” [58]. Promotes Regulatory Reform There is a perception among some stakeholders that excessive regulatory activity prevents development of the commercial space tourism industry. Expensive and time-consuming regulations are frequently cited as the reason for space tourism firm failure. “Reforms that help the space industry in general can benefit, both directly and indirectly, private space travel. Regulations that hinder the industry in general will smother commercial synergies that arise in a healthy industry” [10]. B. The Unique Necessity of Space Tourism “The space tourism industry. is the only space activity that can support a high number of flights which is essential to bringing costs down,” claimed a study conducted at the business school of New Mexico State University [4]. Fryxell concurred with the NMSU rationale in a recent media report [59]. A study conducted for Spaceport America found that “Space tourism is the segment of the overall space industry with the biggest potential for growth for the foreseeable future” [4]. Lindskold concluded that “Space tourism is the only activity that can support a high number of flights, which is essential to bringing costs down” [47]. Previous studies have noticed the unique nature of space tourism’s effect on subsequent space development. Collins noted that commercial space tourism has

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the unique potential to overcome the decades of technological stagnation caused by reliance on costly expendable rockets and thereby achieve low-cost access to space [5]. 7. THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF SPACE TOURISM Commercial space tourism industrial development will benefit a great number of stakeholders. But there will be losers as well, particularly if some of the potential negative environmental consequences of space tourism become reality. We might consider eight types of space tourism industrial environmental consequences: 1) Earth may contaminate space, 2) Space may contaminate Earth, 3) Space may be polluted, 4) Earth may be polluted, 5) Vandalism in space, 6) Terrestrial noise pollution, 7) Terrestrial explosions and 8) Lunar dust. A. Earth May Contaminate Space It is possible that human space travel might contaminate alien environments. One source asked the on-point question—“What will happen to alien life if we invade its eco-system? This process is known as ‘forward contamination,’ while bringing alien life to Earth is called ‘backward contamination’” [14]. NASA regularly sanitized spacecraft prior to launch at a cost amounting to about ten percent of total mission expenses [14]. NASA critics pointed to “the Pluto-bound nuclear-powered spacecraft” [60]. One thing is certain about human expansion into space—it is inexorable and permanent. FAA space tourism administrator Smith noted, “Private human space flight will permanently expand the reach of commercial space transportation. The key word there is ‘permanently.’ It has yet to establish its full presence, but when it does, private human space flight will be here to stay” [57]. B. Space May Contaminate Earth On the other hand something from outer space may contaminate Earth. Spencer and Rugg recognized the necessity of cleaning everywhere to avoid potential long-term contamination from biological and other extraterrestrial sources. The Russians discovered with their Mir space station that molds and fungi frequently grew in unreachable places [41]. Space.com. recently speculated that microbial

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life could exist in Venusian clouds and that such life forms might be transportable back to Earth [61]. C. Space May Become Polluted Tourists are sometimes inattentive to others and self-centered in their enjoyment of the travel and tourism experience. This can result in a polluted space tourism environment. Humans tend to throw things out, and the lunar surface contains discarded equipment and the footprints of astronauts forever frozen in time [25]. Harrison offered an extended description of the potential consequences of space tourism; tourism increases the population density in an area, and this alone can negatively affect the local environment. Even sensitive and well-intentioned travelers sometimes unintentionally cause property damage, kill things and leave an impressive volume of solid and liquid waste after their departure. Tourists who are not so well- intentioned are inclined to purloin botanical or geological artifacts to take home as souvenirs, leave their garbage where it falls and similarly desecrate and debase the environment [25]. The Bartlett Discussion referred to “the rubbish that humans leave behind,” and noted that “as the number of visitors increases the ecology of our near orbits will have to be addressed” [35]. The Soviet spacecraft Mir “dumped about 200 bags of rubbish in space during ten years,” according to a blog [62]. D. Earth May Become Polluted Space tourism activity conducted on Earth may result in adverse environmental consequences. The main problem of space tourism might be an increase in atmospheric pollution. Large numbers of spaceplanes ascending to space would produce pollution in the upper atmosphere [15]. The Bartlett Discussion concurred, “It is impossible to ignore the environmental impact that a booming industry in space travel will have on Earth” [5]. Carbon dioxide emissions in particular might present a problem. The Space Review noted in 2007, “Space tourism companies need to document the carbon dioxide emissions resulting from their flights and supporting operations” [63]. Fawkes estimated that “a typical suborbital flight using technology similar to the

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Bristol Spaceplanes Ascender will produce three tonnes (sic) of carbon dioxide per flight per passenger” [63]. Destruction of the ozone layer is another possible effect of space tourism industrial development. Soot and aluminum oxides present in rocket exhaust attacks and destroys upper-atmosphere ozone, concluded a study led by Martin Ross of the Aerospace Corporation. Dan Vergano blogged in “Science Fair” for USA Today that “Future rocket launches, expected to boom in coming decades, may wipe out the ozone layer, warn rocket scientists” [64]. E. Vandalism in Space Tourists are sometimes self-centered and insensitive enough to engage in acts of vandalism at tourism sites. This could happen in space. Commercial lunar space tourism might present unique challenges to preservation of the Moon’s surface. This is a significant issue because the remnants of tourists will remain there, in situ, forever. It is unimaginable to contemplate an insensitive space tourist destroying Neil Armstrong’s initial footprint on the Moon, or someone leaving his name in the dust adjacent to the Apollo 17 landing site as eternal everlasting graffiti [20]. “We should stop and think about space vandalism before it gets started in earnest,” pleaded NewScientist space blogger Michael Brooks. Eugene Hargrove, a University of North Texas philosophy professor, emphasized the necessity for tourists to respect space tourism sites at a NASA Lunar Science Institute conference session on eco-issues in space exploration [65]. The protection of cultural property in space was discussed by Darrin and O’Leary [74]. F. Terrestrial Noise Pollution The immediate vicinity of space tourism launch sites could be relatively noisy places. That was the conclusion of a study by Smitherman and McClure, “Among other environmental considerations, noise is one consideration. STSs capable of orbital flight typically produce high noise levels. For rockets, the rocket exhaust produces a very high characteristic noise level” [66]. “Very many more rocket launches will heighten concern about launch site noise,” added another study [67].

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G. Terrestrial Explosions Explosions are unplanned but quite likely. And when they occur they will be loud and potentially lethal, if they occur within the immediate vicinity of any people. Bystanders might be injured or killed and property damage could be substantial. The potential for this very dramatic environmental effect of space tourism was conceded by at least one study; explosions can produce shock waves, fires and winds [66]. H. Lunar Dust The Moon is not made of green cheese. Instead, “What greets astronauts and spaceships is a complex material comprising ‘sharp, abrasive, interlocking fragile glass shards and fragments,’ [Larry] Taylor says. It grinds machinery and seals and damages human lungs” [68]. Taylor is the Director of the Planetary Geosciences Institute at the University of Tennessee. David S. McKay, chief scientist for astrobiology at the NASA Johnson Center, added that “Some of the stuff that got into the Apollo spacecraft was very finely ground” [68]. Flinn noted, “Dust was everywhere and impossible to brush off. All the lunar astronauts had lung reactions to the dust. Some, like Harrison Schmitt, developed ‘lunar dust hay fever’” [68]. “Now, lunar dust is recognized as a particularly important concern,” according to a recent AIAA publication [69]. The surface of the Moon “is wrapped in a dust layer between four inches to a yard deep—a pulverized blanket produced by a few billion years’ worth of micrometeorites slamming into the surface.” And the dust has “an electric charge,” so that in a micro-gravity environment dust would “crawl up the surfaces of your structure,” Space.com. reported [69]. Lunar dust is studied in an attempt to lessen its negative consequences. NASA formed the Lunar Aerosol Dust Toxicology Advisory Group in 2005, comprised of experts in mineral dust, lunar geology, geochemistry, particulate toxicology and biomedicine. The group was charged by NASA’s Office of the Chief Health and Medical Officer “to provide standards for human exposure to lunar dust in habitats and EVA Suits,” including cutaneous and ocular effects of dust exposure [70]. Empirical research by Jordan, Verhoff, Morgan and Fischer in 2009

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quantified the in vitro toxicity of lunar dust particles, specifically Al2O3 and SiO2 [73]. Discovery Channel claimed that “Astronauts headed to the Moon have more to worry about than rocket rides and radiation exposure. Researchers have discovered that breathing on the lunar surface could be hazardous to their health [due to] sharp-edged, chemically active and ubiquitous” lunar dust [71]. Studies by Chantal Darquenne and colleagues focused on how dust dispersed in the lung in micro-gravity conditions [71]. 8. HIGH HOPES FOR SPACEPORT AMERICA An economic forecast for the New Mexico spaceport was conducted by the Futron Corporation in 2005. This study concluded that by the year 2015 this facility might produce an additional $460 million in economic activity. That estimate was projected to increase to $550 million in spaceport-sponsored spending by 2020. Construction alone is expected to generate $331 million in economic activity. The total? More than a billion dollars, $1,341,000 to be precise [72]. The Futron Corporation study also addressed the employment implications of the New Mexico spaceport. Approximately 2,460 new jobs would be created by the construction phase of the project. If the industry took off, projected 2015 employment levels of 3,460 were determined, rising to 4,320 new positions in 2020. The total projected net employment gain—10,240 [72]. But in the summer of 2012 Spaceport America is still under construction. It is not expected to be ready until mid-2013 [73]. Scaled Composites is conducting tests of WhiteKnight Two and the mother ship. But commercial space tourism remains an incomplete accomplishment at this time. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared.

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Beardsley, Tim. (1999, February). The way to go in space. Scientific American, 280(2), 81. O’Neil, Daniel, Mankins, John, Bekey, Ivan, Rogers, Thomas and Stallmer, Eric. (1999, February). General public space travel and tourism. Volume 2—Workshop Proceedings, NASA/CP-1999-209146, 13, 26. Aldrin, Buzz. (2001, June 26). Space Tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 29, 33. Lindskold, Anders. (1999, May). Space tourism and its effects on space commercialization. Master of Space Studies Program: International Space University. 1998/99, 1. Morring, Frank Jr. (2006, December 11). Aviation Week & Space Technology, 165(23), 94. Zubrin, Robert. (1999). Creating a spacefaring civilization. New York: Penguin Press, 53. Cacares, Marco. (2007, April). ASATS: Bad for business. Aerospace America, 46(4), 18. The Economist. (2008, October 4). St. Elmo’s fire: Some more steps towards the commercialization (sic) of space travel, 86. Canan, James. (2009, January). Aerospace America, 47(1), 17-18. Maryniak, Gregg. (2002). When will we see a golden age of space flight? In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 170. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 6). Whitehorn: Cost of spaceflight should be cut in half after five years. Daily Launch, 4. Larson, Charles. (2007). Federal Aviation Administration commercial space transportation research and development program. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6282, 2. Globus, Al. (2007, March 7). Space tourism leads to space settlement. National Space Society. 1. Retrieved on March 13, 2007 from http://www.nss.org/tourism/settlement.htm. Smith, Patricia Grace. (2005, October 1). Commercial human space flight. VITAL SPEECHES OF THE DAY, 71(24), 756, 758. Canan, James. (2009, April). Conversations with Elon Musk. Aerospace America, 47(4), 15. Fryxell, David. (2006, February). Have spacesuit will travel. Desert Exposure, 8. David, Leonard. (2006, November). New horizons: Journey to a far frontier. Aerospace America, 44(11), 33. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, August 14). Microbes could travel from Venus to Earth, researchers say. Daily Launch, 5. Tiron, Stefan. (n. d.). The last frontier of tourism, 3. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.monochrom.at.space-tourism/ Fawkes, Steven. (2007, February 19). Space tourism and carbon dioxide emissions. The Space Review Accessed on March 11, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/813/1. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 1). Future rocket launches could destroy ozone layer. Daily Launch, 5. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, July 23). Professor makes case against space vandalism. Daily Launch, 5. Smitherman, David, and McClure, Wallace. (1999, February). Space transportation and destination facilities. NASA/CP-1999-209164, 2-3. O’Neil, Daniel, Bekey, Ivan, Mankins, John, Rogers, Thomas, and Stallmer, Eric W. (1998). The prospects for general public space travel and tourism. NASA/STA. NP-199803-11-MFSC. Volume One: Executive Summary, 13.

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[74] [75]

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Flinn, Edward D. (2007, May). Mimicking meteor impacts. Aerospace America, 45(5), 29. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, October 17). Lunar dust seen as a concern for future exploration. Daily Launch, 3. Morrow, Robert. (2006, December). Life sciences. Aerospace America, 44(12), 94. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, July 3). Lunar dust experiment slated for this month. Daily Launch, 5. Futron Corporation. (2005, December 30). New Mexico commercial spaceport economic impact study. Bethesda, Maryland: Futron Corporation, 14, 19-20. Jordan, Jacqueline, Verhodff, Ashley, and Morgan, Julie. (2009). Assessing the in vitro toxicity of the lunar dust environment using respiratory cells exposed to Al2O2 and SiO2 fine dust particles. In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology--Animals. 45(10), 602613. Darrin, Ann, and O’Leary, Beth. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of space engineering, architecture and heritage. New York: CRC Press, Taylor and Hanson Group. Comstock, Douglas A. (2008). NASA partnerships with the emerging commercial space sector. Space 2008: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2008-7646, 1.

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CHAPTER 2 The Contemporary Significance of Space Tourism Abstract: An historical-critical survey of the contemporary state-of-the-art of space tourism industrial development identified eighteen factors suggestive of the significance of this phenomenon. Initially it was discovered that there have already been space tourists, and that some space tourism capacity was presently available. It must be admitted that the space tourism industry was a contemporary phenomenon, albeit at an embryonic stage of development. There appeared to be a trend towards space tourism, and a space tourism movement was identified. Space tourism plans of several firms were described as were numerous instances of contemporary space tourism investment. Space tourism construction and manufacturing was underway and was documented. A number of space tourism firms were accepting reservations and taking deposits, such as Virgin Galactic and Space Adventures. Space tourism test flights were conducted with regularity by several competing vendors. Space tourism licenses and permits were routinely applied for and obtained. Space tourism transportation technological adequacy was documented, and the space tourism infrastructure seemed to be adequate. Space tourism was an inevitable development some sources contended. The proliferation of space tourism firms was observed. The fact that a space tourism market currently existed was noted. The relative safety of space tourism was described.

Keywords: Research and development, spaceport, space hotel, space tourism construction, space tourism deposit, space tourism firm, space tourism industry, space tourism investment, space tourism license, space tourism market, space tourism movement, space tourism permit, space tourism plan, space tourism reservation, space tourism safety, space tourism technology, space tourism vendor, space tourist, test flight, trend to space tourism. 1. INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the optimistic view of the space tourism industry. It argues that the concept is significant at the present time, in 2012. The next chapter disagrees. To appreciate the true significance of the space tourism industry, eighteen topics will be considered. These include: 1) Some space tourism now, 2) Contemporary space tourism capacity, 3) Existing space tourism industry, 4) Trend towards space tourism, 5) Space tourism movement, 6) Space tourism plans, 7) Space tourism investment, 8) Space tourism construction and manufacturing, 9) Space Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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tourism reservations, 10) Space tourism deposits, 11) Space tourism test flights, 12) Space tourism licenses and permits, 13) Space tourism technological adequacy, 14) Space tourism infrastructure adequacy, 15) Space tourism is inevitable, 16) Proliferation of space tourism firms, 17) Existence of space tourism market and 18) Space tourism is safe. 2. SOME CURRENT SPACE TOURISM There have already been a half-dozen space tourists. Plans are underway for more tourists and additional industrial capacity. Space.com. reported that “Two space tourism firms hoping to give fare-paying customers the rides of their lives, are set to take some major steps forward in coming months,” referring to development of Virgin Galactic’s spaceship, SpaceShip Two, and plans by Space Adventures to send more tourists to the ISS on Soyuz spacecraft [1]. The Russian Federal Space Agency also announced that a 2011 Soyuz flight would be devoted entirely to conveying space tourists to orbital space tourism destinations [1]. Space tourism appears to be here to stay. Anderson and Piven noted, “Traveling to space is not exactly a stroll to the park, but it is no longer a journey confined to the imagination, either. Knowledgeable instructors are ready and willing to help, advanced simulators are accessible, spaceports abound, and new spacecraft are making the trip easier and more comfortable than before” [2]. Nearly 2,000 tourists went to the edge of outer space in Russian MiG-29, Su-30 and L-39 high-altitude jets between 1994 and 2000 in trips arranged by Space Adventures [3]. The reality of space tourism was underscored by the Futron Corporation, “Public space travel became a reality in April 2001 when American businessman Dennis Tito paid US$20 million to fly to space,” followed almost exactly a year later by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth [4]. Van Pelt noted that the initial space tourists have taken short vacations to the International Space Station (ISS). The space tourism concept is attracting serious attention from private aerospace companies, governmental space agencies and the tourism industry [5]. “Space tourism is already a reality,” Mithra declared online [6]. Indeed, it is likely that Toyohiro Akiyami, Helen Sherman, Dennis Tito, Mark Shuttleworth,

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Gregory Olsen, Charles Simonyi, Anousheh Ansari, Richard Garrett and Guy Laliberte would concur, since they have all visited space. The Wall Street Journal recently reported that Charles Simonyi’s April 2007 visit to the ISS was the fifth space tourism experience [7]. In mid-2009 there was an unexpected additional space tourism opportunity. According to Vitaly Davidoff, deputy director of Roskosmos, a vacated space aboard the September Soyuz flight to the ISS was made available to Space Adventures, which handled the ticketing [8]. 3. CONTEMPORARY SPACE TOURISM CAPACITY There are several so-called ‘precursor activities’ which involved space tourism in some sense. And there is space tourism access to suborbital and orbital experiences. It is fair to claim that commercial space tourism capacity certainly exists at the present time. John Spencer and the Space Tourism Society “think of tourists as buying experiences,” which means that there is much contemporary space tourism. Museums such as the National Air and Space Museum cater to this topic, and there are space camps and other learning opportunities. A variety of popular media products is available [9]. The landmark study by NASA and the Space Transportation Association concurred, “In a very real sense, space tourism already exists in the United States. It exists in the form of millions of visitors each year to space-oriented museums, to space launch/recovery sites, research and development centers, to a space camp, and in space-related activities” [10]. Numerous private companies have offered space flights on board Soyuz spacecraft, and the same firms additionally provided ‘nearly space’ experiences including microgravity parabolic flights, astronaut training and high-altitude jet fighter flights [5]. O’Neil et al. also perceived contemporary capacity, “At present, there are several Federal government aerospace industry and several purely private sector programs underway that to various extents, can be visualized as providing some initial space travel and tourism capability” [10]. The FAA Office of Commercial Transportation predicted that “We’re on the threshold of seeing what we think will be a very significant market on suborbital spaceflights for space tourism” [1].

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In the former Soviet Union it is possible to partake of space tourism services unavailable elsewhere. Space Adventures took the lead in arranging Soyuz-based trips to the ISS. MirCorp takes tourists to the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center and to view launches. Incredible Adventures “takes clients to 68,000 feet in Russian MiG-31 fighters” [11]. Project Odyssey is further evidence that space tourism is a reality. This joint project between the State of Florida and the Andrews Institute is based on a $500,000 grant, and it amounts to “a first-of-its-kind program for prospective passengers in the newly emerging space tourism industry.” The project “would provide health screening, training and preparation to individuals holding a ticket to space” [12]. 4. EXISTENCE OF THE SPACE TOURISM INDUSTRY There may be a purveyor of space tourism services or two, but does that constitute an industry? There are indications of some degree of industrial development. Architectural Designs editorialized that “The prospect of a substantial space tourism industry is endorsed through contributions from a wide range of specialists” [13]. HobbySpace, a respected Internet-based space advocacy organization, noted that “Starting with Tito’s flight, space tourism has been transformed from a complete fantasy to an actual industry” [14]. Higginbotham added that “I am happy to report that there is in fact a commercial space industry that has emerged in the last few years. There are now in fact large diversified markets. There are many new emerging companies” [3]. Berinstein quantified the space tourism industry’s revenue, and documented the existence of a space tourism industry generating about $2.5 million annually based on demand from approximately 300 people per year [3]. Similar figures were suggested by The Space Review and the AIAA [15, 16]. “The space industry is maturing, and there is a better sense of business realities in current proposals,” contended Jean Toal Eisen [17]. “The new and burgeoning industry of personal spaceflight enjoyed several advances this year,” a recent piece in Aerospace America suggested [18]. John Spencer reacted to a successful SpaceShip One flight by calling the event “the kick-off of the space tourism industry” [19].

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Others agree that the status of space tourism efforts warranted use of the term industry. The web site for Bristol Spaceplanes, David Ashford’s entry in the spaceplane derby, states that the commercial space industry is currently in view [20]. A 2007 appraisal of space tourism developments refers to “the budding personal space travel industry” [21]. There is even a trade association, the U.K.based Farnsborough Aerospace Consortium, to promote common space tourism concerns [22]. 5. TREND TOWARDS SPACE TOURISM Respected astronautics trade publication writer Leonard Davis recently suggested that “In the last few years, personal space travel has become a far more feasible business proposition.” David also noted, “Passenger space travel into Earth orbit may well be accelerated by a new NASA effort to bolster the commercial orbital transportation business” [23]. The commercial space tourism market and industry is expected to enjoy significant growth by 2010, Spencer and Rugg predicted [24]. Space tourism is not a commercial reality in the summer of 2012 as this chapter was written, but it may not be far off. Norman Mineta, the American Transportation Secretary, announced at a news conference in February of 2006 that commercial space travel was possible by 2008 [25]. “The space tourism industry continues to progress, driven by the innovation and ambition of entrepreneurs along with investment by private individuals, institutions and state governments,” a study recently concluded [26]. FAA administrator George Nield predicted, “We are on the threshold of a new era in space transportation. Big, dramatic changes are coming in the next few years” [27]. The AIAA observed, “A team of Italian and U.S. researchers predict outer space will become a frequent tourist destination during this century” [28]. Space tourism development was cast in economic terms by one study, “The Commercial LEO [lower earth orbit] Passenger Travel market is becoming real and is beginning to exert a ‘pull’ for products to supply LEO passenger transportation and infrastructure services. The number of companies demanding transportation and infrastructure is steadily growing” [29]. David added that “The public space travel business is picking up suborbital speed thanks to a variety of private rocket groups and their dream machines” [23].

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“Commercial human spaceflight in the forms of commercial services and space tourism is rapidly emerging after years of contemplation, spurred on by the success of Burt Rutan’s SpaceShip One and the X-Prize,” reported Aerospace America [30]. That article also mentioned increasing interest at the ESA in space tourism. FAA space tourism proponent Smith mentioned in a speech that “What we seem to have right now is a rising capacity among a number of entrepreneurs—a milestone in itself formed out of a creative mix of innovation and inventory—to achieve suborbital and eventually orbital flight for human passengers” [31]. 6. SPACE TOURISM MOVEMENT Is there a space tourism movement? Perhaps it resides within the space commercialization notion. Ashford asserted that many of the small commercial space companies envision space tourism as the primary market for their services, and there is at the present time a growing space tourism movement [32]. Spencer and Rugg noted the necessity to “expand the space tourism movement” [24]. 7. SPACE TOURISM PLANS One way to assess the vitality of an enterprise is to examine the salient planning associated with it. In the case of space tourism, a great deal of planning is underway. We will consider two topics: 1) Variety of plans and 2) Specific corporate plans. A. Variety of Space Tourism Plans “There are already several space-tourism companies that are planning to build suborbital vehicles, orbital hotels, and even lunar cruise ships within the next twenty years” [33]. The Final Program for Space & Robotics 2002 mentioned that “At least a dozen large multinational companies have started efforts towards space tourism” [34]. According to Spencer and Rugg, private sector companies are finally actively participating in the planning, creation, development, financing and operation of space tourism simulations, orbital facilities and spacecraft [24]. “Several other companies, including Rocket Racing League, U.P. Aerospace and Starchaser, have outlined plans for various commercial space projects there,”

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Webb recalled [35]. An unnamed English firm, “a pack of back-shed British celestial innovators,” is planning a test firing of its rocket and expects to begin operations in 2013; two passengers have already made reservations [36]. Plans for a number of spaceports have been announced. CBS News reported in 2006 that “A plan to build the world’s first airport for launching commercial spacecraft in New Mexico is the latest development in the new space race, a race among private companies and billionaire entrepreneurs to carry paying passengers into space and kick-start a new industry, astro tourism” [37]. Pass and Harrison concluded, “Interestingly, the number of spaceports does seem to be increasing around the world. Actual projects and proposed ones include the Mojave Spaceport (CA), Spaceport America (near Truth or Consequences, NM), The Oklahoma Spaceport, the Christmas Island Spaceport (Australia), Spaceport Sweden and Spaceport Singapore” [38]. B. Specific Corporate Space Tourism Plans Virgin Galactic announced plans in December of 2005 to operate space tourism flights from a spaceport located in south-central New Mexico. Virgin signed a twenty-year lease at one million dollars a year for 15,000 acres of state trust land where Spaceport America was constructed beginning in 2009 [39]. “The Virgin Galactic mother ship was doing test flights in about a month’s time,” Sir Richard Branson commented in 2008 [40]. Virgin Galactic President Will Whitehorn remarked, “We’ve actually encountered no show-stoppers at all. It’s all going according to plan. We’re looking at being able to put the SpaceShip Two under the WhiteKnight Two to begin its flight testing in the second half of this year” [41]. Virgin Galactic announced in late February of 2009 that WhiteKnight One would debut at the Experimental Aircraft Association annual air show in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, on July 27, 2009 [42]. Xcor Aerospace Inc. announced plans to enter the space tourism market in 2010 with the Lynx. This craft would ascend to 200,000 feet, with tourists enjoying about a minute and a half of weightlessness for $100,000 per person. Jeff Greason is an Xcor co-founder who referred to the Lynx’s superior propulsion system, “Lynx is . . . relatively environmentally friendly, [because] they are fully reusable,

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burn cleanly and release fewer particulates than solid fuel or hybrid rocket motors” [43]. EADS Astrium “says it will need a production line of rocket planes to satisfy the space tourism market, and anticipates it will be producing about ten planes a year.” The EADS spacecraft seated five passengers, and would be produced within five years of the initiation of contracts [44]. This European aerospace firm concedes that Virgin Galactic would be first but claimed that it will be second to offer space tourism services. U.P. Aerospace, a Connecticut-based firm, announced plans in 2005 to initiate suborbital space tourism flights [45]. “U.P. Aerospace is one of several companies that aim, in the coming years, to offer suborbital and even orbital space access” [46]. U.P. Aerospace executive Eric Heiden claims that launch costs had been reduced to $500,000 [46]. Space Adventures is perhaps the most prominent player in contemporary space tourism. It has arranged each space tourism excursion to date aboard Soyuz spacecraft. Alexei Krasnov of the Russian Federal Space Agency declared that a private mission of the Soyuz will be flown expressly for Space Adventure tourists [47]. SpaceX has constructed its Falcon spacecraft. It took four launches to successfully boost the rocket into the air. Plans underway called for work on two new engine systems and “a new cargo launch vehicle with ambitions for crew launch capability and potential passenger delivery to LEO” [26]. The SpaceX Dragon fared much better in May of 2012. The Transformational Space Corporation (tSpace) is another entrant in the space tourism market. Drop tests of the tSpace capsule have already been conducted successfully. “tSpace plans to develop a crew exploration vehicle that would be compatible for NASA’s crew servicing needs and also be able to serve the orbital space tourism market,” DePasquale, Charania and Olds noted [26]. Bigelow Aerospace may soon be known for the first space tourism hotel. Bigelow used modified NASA TransHab technology in the construction of a space hotel. The company has already launched part of the hotel (Genesis I) into orbit [26].

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Blue Origin was founded by Jeff Bezos, co-founder of Amazon. His spacecraft, New Shepard, is under construction and undergoing testing in west Texas. New Shepard is a vertical-takeoff, vertical-landing rocket system [48]. Blue Origin received FAA permission to begin testing in 2006. The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is also planning space tourism technology. JAXA intends to test its 33-foot long Silent Supersonic Technology demonstrator in 2112. This test represents “part of a bid to launch a commercially viable supersonic project around 2015” [49]. While JAXA is not a private sector corporation, it is an organization of considerable prominence in space development. Similarly Russia is not exactly a corporation, although it may seem to Westerners that it became one. Clearly the most important player in contemporary space tourism, Russia has ambitious plans. Alexei Krasnov, head of operations at the Russian Space Agency, recently declared that Russia intends to construct “a new orbital station after the International Space Station project ends” [50]. Russia already plans the replacement to the Soyuz booster, as a coalition including the Makeev Rocket Design Bureau, RSC Energia and Samara Space Center has designed a rocket with an initial unmanned launch test in 2005 and first manned flight in 2018 [51]. A new launch facility at Vostochny planned for a groundbreaking in 1010 and the beginning of service in 2015 [52]. 8. SPACE TOURISM INVESTMENT Inadequate investment is frequently cited as a primary obstacle to development of the commercial space tourism industry. Numerous examples can be cited of firms going out of business due to insufficient financial backing. Four positive developments can be cited: 1) Capital availability, 2) Entrepreneurs, 3) Firms spending their own money and 4) Public funding. A. Capital Availability D.F.I. International noted an amount in excess of $140 million in space tourism commitments in 2000 [53]. More recently, one study observed that “A surge of capital is entering the commercial space market” [54]. The AIAA recently

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reported, “The entire industry is moving fast with plenty of cash—and a variety of business plans from the smaller players” [55]. The FAA Office of Space Commercialization declared that “Several launch companies have switched to pursuit of suborbital vehicles in a new market: public space travel and tourism. New companies have also started attracting investors in the last four years” [56]. B. Entrepreneurs The proliferation of deep-pocket, New Age entrepreneurs has long distinguished the commercial space market. Richard Branson, Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos and others too numerous to mention characterized the list of space tourism company owners. “Today we actually do see rich moguls funding private spaceships and space stations,” one cybersource claimed recently [14]. Berinstein added that entrepreneurs are competing furiously to develop and construct reusable vehicles to transport space tourists [3]. Branson admits to investing sixty million pounds (US $ 110 million) in spacecraft and ground infrastructure and he envisions making another fourteen million pound investment in developing and licensing SpaceShip One technology [57]. C. Companies Investing Their Money “Bigelow Aerospace expects to invest hundreds of millions of dollars . . . to accommodate paying space tourists by the middle part of the next decade,” Caceres suggested [58]. FAA administrator Smith noted, “A sizeable number of companies are committing resources to private human space flight because they see a profit to be made” [31]. Private firms are investing millions of dollars to develop the commercial space tourism industry, according to the business plan for Spaceport America [59]. In 2008, Aerospace America reported that “New launchers are expensive to design, and it takes years to craft the first prototype. Billions of dollars are expended on new test facilities and test flights, and new engines are works in progress” [60]. D. Public Funding In some instances it is possible to attract public funds for space tourism projects. That was the case in New Mexico with Spaceport America. Aerospace America

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recently reported, “The New Mexico state government has allocated $200 million for the spaceport and related activities” [61]. 9. SPACE TOURISM CONSTRUCTION & MANUFACTURING There is space tourism construction and manufacturing at the present time, in addition to planning and investment. Three kinds of tangible action can be discussed: 1) Spaceports, 2) Transportation technology and 3) Tourist destinations. A. Spaceports We have already learned that the number of spaceports is increasing in anticipation of commercial space tourism. Jeff Foust, the editor of The Space Review, compared the frenetic activity at the Mojave Spaceport to an early Silicone Valley [62]. The Jacksonville Aviation Authority’s Spaceport at Cecil Field anticipates filing final paperwork [63]. A new Soyuz launch site was under construction in Kourou, French Guinea, in 2008, scheduled to be completed in 2008 [64]. B. Transportation Technology Most of the space tourism-enabling work focuses on transportation technology. “We are seeing some real hardware coming out of the hangars,” claimed FAA administrator Nield [27]. David suggested that “The change from fancy artwork and public relations handouts is evident within the hangars of Mojave-based Scaled Composites. Testing continues on the vehicles that will shape a projected suborbital space tourism market” [41]. Webb agreed, adding that “Construction of SpaceShip Two is under way at Scaled Composites” [5]. Private sector efforts were also currently producing the variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) [66]. The Lynx is a two-seat suborbital spacecraft dedicated to providing space tourism opportunities. Tourists will be flown thirty-seven miles into space in a vehicle about the size of a small private jet. Xcor estimated that flights would be available starting in 2010 [67].

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Joining the Lynx in progress is the Falcon, by SpaceX. A blog stirred up some controversy in December of 2008 by claiming that the Falcon rocket would be assembled before the end of 2008 [62]. By early 2009 workers had assembled the Falcon 9 rocket and mated the 5.2-meter payload fairing to the first stage of the rocket [68]. Elon Musk noted in 2009 that his company had more than 600 employees in facilities in California, Texas, Washington, D.C., Cape Canaveral and in the Marshall Islands [69]. C. Tourist Destinations Space tourists will need a destination to maximize the travel experience. Until the present time that destination has been the ISS. However, Bigelow Aerospace plans to change that. Kennedy explained the Bigelow progress to date, “In the commercial arena, self-funded Robert Bigelow launched his first satellite, aboard a Russian launch vehicle, as a first step in developing an orbiting space hotel business” [70]. 10. SPACE TOURISM RESERVATIONS One sure sign of consumer interest is the making of reservations. This was a characteristic of the space tourism market since the 1950s. We will focus on: 1) Virgin Galactic and 2) Space Adventures reservations. But there are other players, as well. Harrison reported that a number of companies were already competing for the space tourist’s dollars and a few even had accepted reservations [9]. One British firm reportedly has two reservations for their space tourism experience, a twenty-minute trip followed by four minutes of weightlessness [36]. A. Virgin Galactic “Branson said that more than 7,000 people had registered their willingness to pay the 115,000 pound (US$ 210,000) fare,” China Daily recently reported [57]. The FAA corroborated the China Daily report [56]. In 2005 a Washington Post story contended that “Nearly 100 people have paid the $200,000 price to reserve a seat” [71]. 38,000 potential space tourists from 126 countries had expressed interest in Virgin Galactic flights by 2006 [72]. In 2007 Branson revealed that 60,000 “registrations of interest” had been received to date [73]. The Independent quantified 158 potential Virgin Galactic patrons

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based on registration data [74]. In January of 2008, Virgin Galactic had “about 85,000 registrations from customers interested in flying aboard SpaceShip Two” [75]. A total of 290 Virgin Galactic customers had registered by early 2009 [41]. B. Space Adventures Customers are patronizing other space tourism firms, as well. Space Adventures, like Virgin Galactic, has already accepted deposits for space tourism services. More than a hundred individuals have registered and paid deposits for a space excursion with Space Adventures [65]. An Internet source referred to “128 potential passengers” for future Space Adventure flights [76]. More than one hundred “Citizen Explorers” have registered with Space Adventures regarding space travel [24]. “Space Adventures reported that 100 candidates have signed up for suborbital flights” [77]. 11. SPACE TOURISM DEPOSITS Deposits also verify the sincerity and purchasing intent of prospective buyers. There is no shortage of individuals willing to place substantial deposits on future space tourism trips. We will examine two firms: 1) Virgin Galactic and 2) Space Adventures. A. Virgin Galactic A 2005 study announced that Virgin Galactic “has already received full payment from its first 100 customers” [78]. A considerable number of people have put down deposits, according to the Denver Post, “Branson has said that 38,000 people from 126 countries have paid a deposit for a $200,000 spaceflight from a proposed spaceport in New Mexico” [72]. Virgin Galactic sources claim that 38,000 people have paid deposits towards the $120,000 ticket, and that ninety passengers have paid in full in advance [37]. One recent account noted that, “Virgin Galactic already has 100 people who have paid $200,000 apiece for flights, which the company says it hopes to begin in 2008 [79]. A second report from 2006 asserted that the company “has pocketed $14 m in deposits from 158 would-be astronauts” [74]. Space News reported in January of 2008 that $30 million in deposits had been collected [75]. Virgin Galactics’ Whitehorn disclosed

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that “We’re just under 290 customers, and we’re holding a shade under $40 million in deposit (sic)” [41]. B. Space Adventures According to one report Space Adventures has received more than 200 deposits of $5000 apiece as down payment for space tourism flights costing $98,000 per person [24]. A 2005 account stated that the firm “has received deposits from over 100 potential customers” [56]. HobbySpace indicated that more than 200 people have either paid a $10,000 deposit or the entire fare for a future space tourism trip [14]. More recently, Space Adventures received a $5 million deposit from Sergey Brin [80]. 12. SPACE TOURISM VEHICLE TEST FLIGHTS Rocket testing is both a practical and symbolic aspect of transportation technology development. Scientists and technicians may labor day and night behind closed doors without public awareness, but rocket tests are a sure way to garner attention and demonstrate the effectiveness of aerospace planning and production. It was suggested that SpaceX’s successful Falcon 1 test had military implications [81]. Armadillo Aerospace recently conducted successful tests of its modular rocket design [18]. We might take the Virgin Galactic/Scaled Composites project as a case for scrutiny. A science reporter for NBC suggested that the age of commercial space travel began with the initial successful SpaceShip One tests [82]. That initial test was on December 17, 2003, igniting for fifteen seconds and reaching an altitude of 67,800 feet [56]. The second powered flight test occurred April 8, 2004, when the rocket reached Mach 1.6 and traveled to 105,000 feet. The next test was June 21, 2004, when Michael Melville piloted the craft at Mach 2.9 to 328,491 feet. The fourth test resulted in a severe roll oscillation and a trajectory excursion of nearly twenty miles [56]. More recently, the SpaceShip Two propulsion systems were successfully examined. “The SpaceShip Two (SS2) suborbital vehicle has successfully completed hot firing tests” [68]. A clandestine test flight of WhiteKnight Two in the early-morning hours of February 5, 2009, was detected by observers [83]. A test flight piloted by Peter Seibold in March of 2009 lasted more than two and a

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half hours and reached an altitude of 18,000 feet [84]. Another test flight was deemed “imminent” in mid-April, 2009 [85]. That promised test flight took place on April 20, according to a spaceblog named Parabolic Arc [86]. The WhiteKnight Two “Eve” aircraft flew to 20,000 feet in a four-hour long excursion, the fourth such test flight [87]. NASA has conducted some tests on the Ares 1 rocket. In April of 2009 AIAA reported that the Ares booster recovery parachute system was successfully tested [85]. Alliant Techsystems shipped four solid rocket motor segments for the Ares booster to the Kennedy Space Center for assembly, the final parts needed [85]. “That same month JAXA briefly fired the two main engines on its heavy-lift booster rocket” [88]. 13. SPACE TOURISM LICENSES & PERMITS Much of the activity involved in space tourism is subject to regulation. That is true for both: 1) Transportation technology and 2) Spaceport facilities. Each will be examined in this section. A. Transportation Technology SpaceX’s Dragon transportation capsule is 4.4 meters long and 3.66 meters in diameter, and seats seven passengers. It carried about a half-ton of “food, supplies, computers, utilities and science experiments” to the ISS, and removed 660 kg. of material in late May of 2012 [116]. Scaled Composites was awarded the initial FAA commercial human spaceflight launch license on April 7, 2004. Xcor Aerospace received the second such license, covering its Sphinx vehicle, on April 21, 2004, two weeks after Scaled Composite’s licensure [56]. B. Spaceports There was in excess of 190 licensed space launches in the U.S. during the past twenty years without injury, death or property damage, Nield of the FAA asserted [27]. He added that the FAA has licensed five American spaceports: Cape Canaveral, Vandenburg AFB in California, Wallops Island (Virginia), the Kodiak

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Launch Complex in Alaska and the Oklahoma spaceport. In June of 2004 the FAA awarded a launch site operator license to the East Kern Airport District to handle Mojave Airport & Spaceport activities [56]. USA Today reported that “The Federal Aviation Administration has licensed 12 spaceports in seven states. One such facility, awaiting final clearance from the FAA, is Spaceport America in New Mexico” [89]. 14. SPACE TOURISM TECHNOLOGY IS ADEQUATE Current technology is adequate to sustain a space tourism business. After all there have already been a half-dozen orbital space tourists and hundreds participating in suborbital excursions. Congressman Nick Lampson contended, “The Nation’s human space flight program has developed technologies and operational procedures that the private sector could make use of to enable American citizens to experience space travel. Space tourism has the potential to become a significant industry” [90]. “With the milestone launches in 2004, SS1 (SpaceShip One) demonstrated that future space tourism for the general public could be made affordable by a fully private space program,” Anderson and Piven asserted [2]. They added that the commercial space tourism industry currently possessed the technologies and the operational experience to send tourists into space [2]. Collins agreed and emphasized the importance of the SpaceShip One flight, “not because it represented a ‘technological development’ in itself, but because it showed that no such breakthrough is needed to enable popular space travel” [91]. In 2008-2009 Arianespace achieved twenty-eight successive successful launches from French Guinea and an additional twenty-one in a row from the Russian Baikonur facility [92]. 15. SPACE TOURISM INFRASTRUCTURE ADEQUACY There are reasons to appreciate the space tourism infrastructure already existing. While admittedly incomplete, at least the basics appears to be in place. Two topics lead to that conclusion: 1) Space tourism infrastructure is adequate and 2) Space tourism infrastructure is developing.

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A. Space Tourism Infrastructure is Adequate During the last forty years private firms have developed much of the economic and technological infrastructure necessitated by commercial space ventures and gained considerable experience in the space environment [9]. Sarsfield concurred, adding that “The United States already has a vibrant commercial launch services infrastructure” [93]. There are international infrastructural opportunities as well. Virgin Galactic has an agreement to use the Kiruna, Sweden, spaceport facilities, “Swedish officials say the Kiruna facility, already known for launching suborbital sounding rockets and atmospheric balloons, has sufficient infrastructure to accommodate Virgin Galactic and that no further investment is needed” [94]. B. Developing Space Tourism Infrastructure Commercial space tourism projects are addressing infrastructure needs. Virgin Galactic has already invested in spacecraft technology and ground launch facilities [57]. The State of California conducts commercial space enterprise through the California Space Authority, which annually administers the California Space Infrastructure Program. In 2006 thirty-six projects were submitted for potential funding [95]. There remains considerable work to be accomplished on space tourism infrastructure. Yet the task may not be that daunting according to one recent study. Snead suggested that “Fortunately, the U.S. aerospace industry now has the ability to develop, deploy and operate an integrated space logistics infrastructure that would turn the U.S. into a true spacefaring nation during the next 25 years” [96]. 16. SPACE TOURISM IS INEVITABLE The proponents of commercial space tourism fervently believe in and advocate their cause. There is some belief in the inevitability of development of the commercial space tourism industry. Susan Thorogood noted in Architectural Design that “Doubtless, a time will come when space tourism is as established as terrestrial tourism” [97]. Congressional testimony by the FAA’s Patricia Grace

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Smith nicely summarized this perspective, “We believe that space transportation, including the development of non-astronaut space travel, is an inevitable outcome that warrants the necessary groundwork now to make the glorious opportunity to experience and explore space available to all who aspire to go” [31]. “Space tourism will come,” declared NASA administrator John Mankins. He added that “It is as inevitable as the Panama Canal” [24]. Space expert Van Pelt contended that space tourism is not science fiction but the logical next chapter in the evolution of space development [5]. An editorial in the Federal Air Surgeon’s Medical Bulletin asserted that “Manned commercial space flight is a coming attraction, and the FAA Office of Aerospace Medicine will be very much involved in making it safe for adventurers to travel beyond the ozone layer” [98]. Florida Congressman Weldon noted that “Commercial spaceflight is inevitable and has a major role to play in our economy and technological advancement” [99]. The preface to David’s 2006 study of spaceports began with this claim: With the era of space tourism getting under way in earnest, ambitious plans for commercial spaceports are beginning to take shape in the U.S. and around the world. As these facilities spring up, there is some concern that the market may not be able to justify and sustain them. Yet optimists in the industry are moving forward with these plans, asserting that despite today’s economic difficulties, growth in the commercial sector is inevitable [100]. 17. PROLIFERATION OF SPACE TOURISM FIRMS Virgin Galactic and Space Adventures might be the two best-known firms interested in providing space tourism services but they are far from alone. In addition to these firms and the previously-mentioned Xcor, other companies may soon make their presence felt. Leonard David spotlighted a list of private space launch developers, such as SpaceX, Armadillo Aerospace, SpaceDev, Rocketplane Global, Xcor Aerospace, Scaled Composites and Blue Origin [100]. Our investigation into the seeming proliferation and growth in the number of space tourism firms will include three subjects: 1) The number of firms, 2) Space tourism firms and 3) Growing number of firms.

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A. The Number of Space Tourism Firms How many space tourism firms are there? That depends on how you define things, of course. Harrison observed that several companies developed vehicles to take tourists to space [9]. More recently, a Futron Corporation study concluded that several private sector companies are developing relatively small, reusable launch vehicles that are designed to serve both commercial and government customers [78]. Zukowski added that “Space tourism has become a buzz phrase for the new millennium, with various companies large and small proposing new vehicles” [101]. Time magazine noted, “Dozens of private firms are making plans—and in some cases actually building spacecraft—to carry paying customers to the edge of Earth’s atmosphere and beyond” [102]. “Two new companies have announced publicly that they are organized to provide space-related terrestrial and atmospheric trips and to position themselves to offer 100 kilometer altitude trips within five years” [10]. The same study added, “And five private companies are also working on the design of new surface-LEO vehicles” [10]. “There are actually more than a dozen companies developing rocket planes to take ordinary (albeit extremely wealthy) people out of the atmosphere and into space,” a 2006 travel agency publication noted [103]. Lindskold observed, “A number of private companies are at the moment trying to construct their own space vehicles. This is highly visible in the X-Prize competition, which has 16 competitors” [104]. Smith estimated in a speech that America’s Space Prize, offered by Bigelow Aerospace, has attracted more than thirty companies [31]. After it was announced that American space policy would be commercialized, “Fifty firms told NASA they were interested” [115]. I tend to use broader and more inclusive definitions, so that rocket manufacturers are included in this study although they don’t directly provide space tourism services. At last count there were 235 firms directly or indirectly involved in the provision of space tourism. The precise daily number was somewhat fluid because firms come into existence and come to attention and sometimes go out of business. B. Space Tourism Firms There are several prominent players in the space tourism industry, and most have been named before this point in this chapter. The Wall Street Journal recently

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mentioned Space Adventures, Virgin Galactic, Blue Origins and Bigelow Aerospace [7]. Virgin Galactic, Scaled Composites, Blue Origin, SpaceX and Xcor Aerospace were discussed by Bradbury [74]. The Futron Corporation observed, “Several other companies are currently actively developing suborbital space tourism vehicles, including Oklahoma-based Rocketplane Ltd., Texas-based Armadillo Aerospace (funded by computer gaming magnate John Carmack), Washington-based Blue Origin (funded by Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos), California-based SpaceDev and Xcor Aerospace, and other ventures based in Canada, Russia and Romania” [78]. A slightly different list was offered by DePasquale, Charania and Olds, who noted that “The orbital space tourism industry is beginning to gain traction with significant progress made by leading companies such as Space Adventures, Virgin Galactic, Rocketplane-Kistler, Space Exploration Systems (SpaceX), and Bigelow Aerospace” [26]. The Futron Corporation listed the following “Suborbital Vehicles (and developers);” Armadillo (Armadillo Aerospace), Ascender (Bristol Spaceplanes), Astroliner (Kelly Space and Technology), Canadian Arrow (Canadian Arrow), Cosmopolis XXI (Myasischev Design Bureau), Millenium Express (Third Millenium Aerospace), Pathfinder (Pioneer Rocketplane), Proteus (Scaled Composites, LLC), SC-1 and SC-2 (Space Clipper International), Space Cruiser (Vela Technology Development), Starchaser (Starchaser Industries) and Xerus (Xcor) [4]. A list of “Commercial Spacecraft” was also included in the Futron Corporation report. Listed were; K-1 (Kistler Aerospace), SA-1 (Space Access), Starbooster (Starcraft Boosters, Inc.) and Neptune (Interorbital Systems). C. Growing Number of Space Tourism Firms An increasing number of space firms is striving to develop the space tourism industry [24]. A recent piece in the AIAA Daily Launch was entitled, “Number of Commercial Spaceflight Developers Growing,” and the story conveyed precisely that message [105]. 18. SPACE TOURISM MARKET CURRENTLY EXISTS Is there an adequate market for orbital space tourism in 2012? There are indications that there is indeed a viable space tourism market. A half-dozen orbital

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space tourism veterans might agree, along with the hundreds of suborbital space tourists to date. In October of 1991 there were signs of an adequate space tourism market. A study concluded that “The Commercial LEO Passenger Travel market is real and beginning to exert a demand for LEO passenger services” [29]. A year later another authority observed that space tourism existed then, “There’s already a developing commercial space tourism industry” [3]. The FAA claimed that “Recently, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in commercial suborbital spaceflight” [56]. “Investors are looking for the next frontier of profitability and space tourism is getting a lot of attention,” declared Steve Bennett, CEO of Starchaser Industries [106]. The Second International Symposium for Personal Spaceflight concluded that “Engineers and businessmen worldwide are gearing up for a potentially lucrative industry of suborbital commercial space travel” [107]. A very important opinion was expressed by respected space industry analyst Charles Lurio, “Spaceflight is poised for explosive market growth—analagous to PCs (in the 1970s)” [108]. Another study was conducted at the International Space University and confirmed the potential profitability of a space tourism industry [109]. 19. SPACE TOURISM IS SAFE That might be a bit of an overstatement. If space was completely without risk adventure tourists would not be interested in such travel. We analyze five topics that suggest that space tourism was safe: 1) Launch safety, 2) Trip safety, 3) Soyuz is safe, 4) Regenerative spacecraft skin and 5) Solar storm shields. A. Launch Safety Evidence of launch safety and reliability can be easily produced and might be carefully considered. In 1996 there were four successful launches by Sea Launch, and Boeing’s Delta Rockets were launched four times within two months [30]. That same year American military rocket launches were perfect—“46 successful space launches

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in a row. Never before in the history of U.S. military or civil space programs had there been an unbroken string of successful launches like that” [27]. FAA regulation was credited with an unblemished launch record. Smith mentioned in a speech that “Overall to date we have licensed 172 launches. Every one of them has been a success in part because of an unrelenting focus on safety” [31]. Smith later told the Wall Street Journal, “Since 1989, we have licensed 181 launches with zero accidents” [7]. More recent launch figures can be considered. Aerospace American counted a total of 311 successful launches in 2008 [110]. B. Trip Safety Not only have launches been relatively safe but travel in space has been virtually without incident. Most mishaps have occurred during launch and the few remaining accidents have been reentry concerns. Camhi recalled 115 successful shuttle flights as well as the two devastating tragedies [111]. And it should be recalled that one of the shuttle accidents was a launch failure, with the other happening during reentry. C. Soyuz is Safe The safety of the Soyuz system was called into question by two consecutive very rough landings in late 2008 and early 2009. Both reentries were characterized by off-target, physically-jarring landings. A Russian External Commission investigated the dangerous descents of the TMA-10 and TMA-11 Soyuz missions and blamed an explosive bolt for the mishaps [112]. Subsequent retrofits and safe landings appear to have corroborated the commission’s conclusions. D. Regenerative Spacecraft Skin One of the primary dangers confronting space tourists in space is collisions between spacecraft and space debris. However, Russian scientists developed a regenerative skin for spacecraft use. Pravda reported that scientists at The Central Research Institute for Mechanical Engineering created the outer spacecraft skin. The AIAA noted, “The skin is able to regenerate after suffering minor damage caused by collisions with space garbage” [113].

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E. Solar Storm Shields Fortunately scientific progress was made in the battle against adverse space weather. Material useful in “shielding astronauts from deadly solar storms” was developed at the University of Strathclyde in the U.K. Two mini-magnetospheres housed in outrider satellites in front of spacecraft would mimic the Earth’s magnetic field as solar storms approached. “They have tested it in a laboratory and discovered that it offers almost total protection” [114]. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, June 23). Space tourism firms taking “major steps” forward. Daily Launch, 4. Anderson, Eric, and Piven, Joshua. (2005). The space tourist’s handbook. Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 12, 52. Berinstein, Paula. (2002). Making space happen: Private space ventures and the visionaries behind them. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company, 5, 51, 114-15. Futron Corporation. (2002, October). Space tourism market study: Orbital space travel & destinations with suborbital space travel. Bethesda, Maryland: Futron Corporation, 6, 8. Van Pelt, Michel. (2005). Space tourism: Adventures in Earth orbit and beyond. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company, xii, 3, 201. Mithra, S. (2006). Is space tourism feasible? WiseGEEK. 1. Retrieved on January 1, 2006 from http://www.wisegeek.com/is-space-tourism-feasible.htm. How safe is the race to send tourists into space? (2007, April 17). The Wall Street Journal, pp. A1, A3. Retrieved on April 29, 2008 from http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB117683067961072819-YQND5SFtUYviyXs3xDm. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 20). Roscosmos, Space Adventures looking to fill open Soyuz seat. Daily Launch, 4. Harrison, Albert A. (2001). Spacefaring-The human dimension. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, xvi, 11, 207-8. O’Neil, Daniel, Bekey, Ivan, Mankins, John, Rogers, Thomas, and Stallmer, Eric W. (1998). The prospects for general public space travel and tourism. NASA/STA. NP-1998-0311-MFSC, 1. Executive Summary, 2, 6, 12. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, October 13). Russia’s openness to space tourism discussed. Daily Launch, 3-4.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, December 5). Project Odyssey to screen health of space tourists. Daily Launch, 4. Toy, Maggie. (2000, March). Editorial: Space architecture. Architectural Designs, 70(2), 2. HobbySpace. (2006, July 31). An interview with Glenn Reynolds. 2, 6. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.hobbyspace.com/Admin/archive/Interviews/Advocacy/GlennReynolds.html. The Space Review. (2005, December 19), 1. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, August 17). Good news for space tourism. Daily Launch, 4. Eisen, Joan T. (2006, December). Aerospace America, 45(12), 14. Douglas, J. Paul. (2007, December). Aerospace America, 45(12), 92-93. Tabarrok, A. (2004, November 18). Is space tourism ready for takeoff? Probably not. Tech Central Station. 1, 4. Retrieved on January 3, 2006 from http://www2.techcentral station.com/1051/printer.jsp?CID=1051-111804C. Bristol Spaceplanes. (n. d.). News. Projects, 1. David, Leonard. (2006). Making the business case for public space travel: Experts look at new NASA effort, lessons from adventure tourism. MSNBC.com. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11393875/print/1/displaymode/1098/, 1. California Space Authority. (2006, Fall). CSA is OK with UK. The California Space Authority enters into its second international agreement. Spacebound, 20, 1. David, Leonard. (2006, July 8). Tourism update: Jeff Bezos’s spaceplane plans revealed. SPACE.com., 1. Spencer, John, and Rugg, Karen L. (2004). Space tourism: Do you want to go? Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books, 20, 30, 56, 64, 167, 199. MSNBC.com. (2006, February 9). Key year in space tourism timeline: 2008. Transportation secretary says his agency is ready to issue test licenses. 1. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11260973/print/1/displaymode/1098/ DePasquale, Dominic, Charania, A.C., and Olds, John R. (2006). The emerging orbital space tourism industry: New insight into demand and prospects for success. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7478, 1-2. Canan, James. (2009, January). Conversations with George C. Nield. Aerospace America, 47(1), 17. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, March 11). Researchers predict growth of space tourism. Daily Launch, 5. Hopkins, Joe, Andrews, Dana, and Andrews, Jason. (2001, October). LEO passenger travel requirements discussion. Proceedings of the International Aeronautics Association. IAA01-IAA-1-3-05, 1, 12. Ehrlich, Carl F. (2006, December). Space transportation. Aerospace America. 44(12), 89. Smith, Patricia Grace. (2000, June 26). Going public 2000: Moving toward the development of a large space travel and tourism business. 2. Retrieved on May 17, 2007 from http://ast.faa.gov/aboutast/speeches/2000June 26DCGoPub.htm. Ashford, David. (2002). Spaceflight revolution. London: Imperial College Press, 58, 155. Feldman, Heather. (2003). Dennis Tito: The first space tourist. New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 17. Final Program. (2002). Space & Robotics 2002. Retrieved on January 26, 2006 from http://www.spaceandrobotics.com/space2002.html, 1.

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[99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115] [116]

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Weldon, Dave. (2008, June). Commentary. Scale back the spaceflight gap. Aerospace America. 46(6), 6. David, Leonard. (2006, June). Spaceports: Field of dreams. Aerospace America, 46(6), 7. Zukowski, John. (2000, March). Architects in space. Architectural Design, 20(2), 9. Time. (2000, January 5)., 27. Where no tourist has gone before. (2006, April 12). Cruise Network Inc., 1. Lindskold, Anders. (1999, May). Space tourism and its effects on space commercialization. Master of Space Studies Program: International Space University, 25. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, April 1). Number of commercial spaceflight developers growing. Daily Launch, 2. Associated Press. (2007, January 22). Starchaser gets a contract. Space tourism company will do analysis for ESA. Business Outlook, p. 2. Romo, Rene. (2008, October 8). Governor makes a final push for spaceport tax. Albuquerque Journal, p. B4. Maney, Kevin. (2006, March 26). New Mexico goes a little pie in the sky with spaceport idea. USAToday, p. A13. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, November 11). Studies focus on suborbital tourism. Daily Launch, 3. Caceres, Mario. (2009, April). GEO comsats up, launch programs down. Aerospace America, 47(4), 21. Camhi, Elaine. (2007, April). The wrong time for belt tightening. Aerospace America, 45(4), iii. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 9). Safe Soyuz landing affirms mitigation after ballistic landings. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 14). Russian scientists develop regenerative skin for spacecraft. Daily Launch, 5. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, November 4). Method developed to shield astronauts from solar storms. Daily Launch, 2. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, March 18). Fifty firms interested in NASA stimulus money for commercial spaceships. Daily Launch, 4. Sheridan, Kerry. (2012, May 26). SpaceX capsule has “new car” smell, astronauts say. AFP. Retrieved on May 26, 2012 from http://news.yahoo.com/spacexs-dragon-makeshistoric-space-station-dock-021031185.html.

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CHAPTER 3 The Contemporary Insignificance of Space Tourism Abstract: A systematic analysis of the published literature on commercial space tourism resulted in the identification of ten major factors indicative of the relative insignificance of this industry and the tourist activity at the present time. Initially, there has been a severely limited number of space tourists, with only a few pioneers to date. There is currently little space tourism activity, and there is no contemporary space tourism industry. Presently there is an inadequate space tourism infrastructure. The space tourism market remains unproven. Contemporary space transportation technology inadequacy limits space access. Historically, most commercial space ventures have failed. The American space access gap was documented, as the retirement of the space shuttles left the U.S. without space access until the Ares/Orion replacement systems are ready as scheduled in 2014 or later (as is most likely, given the current projected two-year delays). Reliance on Russian space tourism access may be an issue, in light of Russian reliability issues, Russian lead time requirements, and Russian space industry problems. Transportation dangers were identified and documented, including rocket safety, space tourism risks, launch failures, accidents in space, reentry accidents, spacecraft damage, and earth weather. Finally, we identified the limiting factor of cost or pricepoint. Both suborbital and orbital space tourism pricepoints were surveyed and documented.

Keywords: American space gap, commercial reusable launch vehicle, entrepreneurship, european space agency, federal aviation agency, government regulation, insurance, launch site, leadtime requirement, market study, orbital space tourism, personal spaceflight Federation, spacecraft, space pioneer, space Shuttle, suborbital space tourism, pricepoint, rocket, rocket safety, vision for space exploration. 1. INTRODUCTION This chapter was finalized in June of 2012. At that time the commercial space tourism industry was struggling to emerge, although the global economic recession beginning around 2007 did not facilitate this emergence. When you read this chapter you will know a good deal more about the nature of the commercial space tourism industry than I did at the time of writing. The relative insignificance of space tourism will be discussed at this point. All of the extant information pointing to limits or industrial failure of space tourism will be organized and presented. Ten major factors indicative of the overall contemporary unimportance of space tourism will be described and documented; Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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1) Limited number of tourists, 2) No current space tourism industry, 3) Inadequate space tourism industrial infrastructure, 4) Unproven market, 5) Inadequate transportation technology, 6) Most space tourism ventures has failed, 7) Space access gap, 8) Russian space tourism service is unreliable, 9) Transportation dangers, and 10) Pricepoint (cost). 2. LIMITED NUMBER OF TOURISTS There has only been a handful of space tourists to date. To demonstrate the paltry nature of the space tourism clientele, three topics will be explored; 1) Only pioneers, 2) Little space tourism now, and 3) Space tourism is unlikely and far-fetched. A. Only Pioneers to Date Civilians who have made serious inquiries about traveling to space date back to 1988. The late John Denver, an American singer, wanted to visit the now-defunct Mir space station owned by the Soviets. He dropped the idea when he learned he would have to expend about $10 million and spend weeks in training [1]. One notable civilian to fly into space was Toyohiro Akiyama, who was a Japanese journalist for the Tokyo Broadcasting System, after his station paid $12 million to send him to Mir in December 1990. The television station used the trip to highlight its 40th anniversary and had Akiyama perform live broadcasts during his week-long stay, but he is not considered as a space tourist because the company paid for the trip. Michel Van Pelt, in his book Space Tourism: Adventures in Earth Orbit and Beyond, claimed that Akiyama cannot be considered the first space tourist because he did not travel solely for recreation and did not purchase the trip, but his flight proved that ordinary citizens can travel to space without difficulty [1]. British citizen Helen Sherman (a chemist) was the next civilian to visit space after she won a contest sponsored by the Moscow Narodny Bank. The contest was created for symbolic reasons, a way to strengthen ties between the United Kingdom and Soviet Union [1]. The bank paid $10 million to allow Sharman to spend eight days in orbit on Mir in 1991, but she is not considered the first space tourist. Space tourism pioneers Akiyama and Sherman will be celebrated as the initial non-astronaut space sojourners. But Dennis Tito deserves the designation of 'first

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space tourist' as the first private citizen to personally pay for his space tourism experience. Tito determined his own itinerary in space; photography, enjoying his favorite music, and floating in the microgravity environment. He was the initial space tourist [2]. Tito's launch into space though controversial inspired others to pursue outer space. Mark Shuttleworth (a South African millionaire) journeyed to space in 2002 to become the second space tourist. Gregory Olsen, Charles Simonyi (twice) Richard Garriott and Anousheh Ansari have also visited space as tourists. Future space tourism pioneers include Sergey Brin, co-founder of Google, who paid a $5 million deposit to reserve a seat on a future flight [3]. B. Little Space Tourism Now The head of the newly-formed Personal Spaceflight Federation (PSF) says the industry is still at the starting gate. “We’re still in the developing capabilities phase,” said Bretton Alexander, Vice-President of Corporate and External Affairs at tSpace (Transformational Space Corp.) and the first president of Washingtonbased PSF [4]. Eilingsfeld and Abitzsch claimed that “At present, still no opportunities exist for booking commercial space trips, either in Europe or anywhere else” [5]. Contemporary space tourism expeditions have been Russianled. But a gloomy perspective was offered by Russian cosmonaut Sergei Andeyev, “‘I think tourist projects are a bit too early for space,’ Andeyev is quoted as saying. ‘With ordinary tourism, you go buy a tour and you fly off. You get certain conditions: if you don’t like your room, you can change it; if you don’t get enough fruit at the hotel, you can go out and buy more,’ he added. ‘All of these things that surround tourism are not envisaged here’” [6]. C. Space Tourism is Unlikely and Far-Fetched The distinguished radio astronomy pioneer from Harvard University, Edward Purcell, made many classic pessimistic assumptions at the dawn of the space age about how space flight might be accomplished. Then in 1960, he wrote the boldest denial of interstellar flight on record, a questionable honor, “All this stuff about traveling around the universe in space suits--except for local exploration which I have not discussed—belongs back where it came from, on the cereal box” [7].

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Other declarations of the absurdity of space travel have been made by qualified experts over the years. Sir Richard Van der Woolley was the Astronomer Royal of England in 1956 when he reportedly remarked, “Space travel is utter bilge” [8]. Even champions of commercial space activity have doubted that space tourism will be a likely development, “However, space tourism was considered to be one of the last commercial ventures which might evolve from our efforts in space exploration and habitation,” ardent space advocate and U.S. Congressman Nick Lampson commented [9]. 3. NO CONTEMPORARY SPACE TOURISM INDUSTRY EXISTS Not only would it be inaccurate to describe the current level of space tourism as meaningful or encouraging, there is reason to doubt that a credible space tourism industry currently exists. Three main points lead to that conclusion; 1) No space tourism industry now, 2) Not close, and 3) Nascent and embryonic. A. No Space Tourism Industry Now Is there a space tourism industry at the present time? According to a study recently commissioned by the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Office of Space Commercialization, “To date these commitments--which have largely consisted of somewhat vague agreements to travel on Russian launch vehicles--do not constitute an ‘industry’ in a traditional economic sense” [10]. An earlier analysis concurred, adding that “Space tourism exists only as an emergent concept, and is afforded limited official recognition” [11]. According to a recent essay in The Space Review, “Maybe we can’t have an association yet because we really don’t have an industry” [12]. Even commercial space tourism advocates and entrepreneurs readily concede that there is not a credible industry just yet. Jeff Greason, CEO of Xcor, realized that “New Mexico is gambling on the emergence of a new, entrepreneur-led spaceflight industry. Of course, the industry might not develop as fast as we all hope. That’s why it’s a gamble” [13]. Industry analyst Butterworth-Hayes suggested that “Starting a space tourism business will be much tougher than developing, say, a new type of aircraft such as a very light jet” [14].

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“A lack of progress in space tourism’s development is expected to mean that there will be no changes in U.S. rules for this industry,” the AIAA Daily Launch reported [15]. Schwartz reported in the New York Times, “While NASA has been sliding towards the gap, a collection of companies known as the new space industry has been growing up. But none are ready to step up to the task of getting astronauts to the station” [15]. B. Not Close Space tourism critics point to the fact that the initiation of routine space tourism services appears to be a distant reality. “It is a business with an uncertain future,” stated BBC economics correspondent Andrew Walker, who added that “It will be expensive and in the early stages consumer demand for it will therefore be fairly limited” [16]. FAA space tourism advocate Patricia Smith cautioned that, “After all, it is only recently that private companies have gotten their hands on human space flight” [17]. Fryxell noted, “Space tourism has been touted as ‘the next big thing’ almost as long as the notions of flying cars and jetpacks,” yet never has materialized as predicted [18]. Henry R. Hertzfeld, a senior research staff scientist at the Space Policy Institute of George Washington University, has reservations about the space tourism industry idea. “I tend to be a skeptic on this,” he admits; he warns about using the term “space tourism” because it could be “seriously misleading” to compare a trip to outer space with a sojourn to Paris or London [18]. Noting that SpaceX’s Falcon 1 was supposed to be ready by 2003, Hertzfeld concluded that “I hesitate to make grandiose economic projections based upon existent vehicles” [18]. Burt Rutan’s SpaceShip One won the X-Prize with three test flights but there nevertheless were difficulties. Marco Caceres, senior space analyst at the Teal Group, recalled that “It flew to space three times, and each time there were significant problems.” This craft will be used for Virgin Galactic’s flights, but Caceres doubts the projected sixty daily flights will occur, “I’d be very impressed if they get where they’re launching three or four times a year” [18]. C. Nacsent & Embryonic The terms used to describe the space tourism industry all indicate a state of incomplete development. “The fledgling space tourism industry” was referred to

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by Chang, who also mentioned “the infant industry” [19]. “The nascent space tourism industry” was alluded to by Congresswoman Sheila Jackson Lee [20]. Caceres referred to “a nascent space tourism market” [21]. Rosanna Sattler, Chair of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce Space Enterprise Council, noted a “nascent space tourism industry” [22]. Space tourism proponent John Spencer is president of the Space Tourism Society. He recently remarked, “Right now, it’s just a fantastic time. It’s at the birthing phase” [23]. A study by DePasquale, Charania & Olds was titled, “The Emerging Orbital Space Tourism Industry,” and it claimed that “The orbital space tourism industry is still very much in its embryonic stage” [24]. 4. INADEQUATE SPACE TOURISM INFRASTRUCTURE Space tourism necessitates things like spaceports, spacecraft and space destinations. Also required are a myriad of logistic concerns, like space traffic control, Earth-bound facilities, space facilities and much more. This section covers infrastructure needs in two ways; 1) Infrastructure is needed, and 2) Infrastructure is lacking. A. Infrastructure is Needed Ironically not all space tourism infrastructure is in space. Indeed, much is located here on Earth, like launch sites, production facilities and most of the administration and management. The landmark NASA/STA study identified a half-dozen necessary ground elements of the commercial space tourism infrastructure, “Passenger transit facilities, cargo/luggage collection, office/sales activities, vehicle processing, vehicle servicing, passenger embarkation/disembarkation, and site logistics and facilities” [25]. A considerable amount of the commercial space tourism infrastructure will of course be located in space. Research has identified a variety of space infrastructure items both stationary and mobile. According to Ashford, the combination of spaceplane, orbital space station and heavy lift vehicle has been collectively referred to as a “mature orbital infrastructure” [26]. Orbital space tourism infrastructure requirements include the orbital delivery system for the

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Earth to/from orbit transportation vehicle, the orbital destination facilities, and inspace orbital transfer vehicles to transport cargo, personnel and tourists between orbital destination points [25]. Mobile commercial space assets will be especially important to the infrastructure of space tourism. Ashford observed that providing low-cost space access necessitates other types of vehicles besides spaceplanes. Orbital space stations will be needed to serve as lodging, fuel facilities and maintenance depots for large interplanetary spacecraft. These space stations will be assembled in space from modules launched individually from Earth. Large rockets (often referred to as heavy lift vehicles) are also needed to launch modules too large for the spaceplanes [26]. B. Inadequate Infrastructure Inadequate infrastructure impedes the development of commercial space markets. Space infrastructure includes spaceports, traffic control systems, orbital transportation, communication systems, power, and all-weather operational capacity, one authority suggested [27]. Similarly, Zubrin perceived what would be needed for a mature space tourism industry; if space tourism is ever to be as affordable and popular as air travel, a worldwide launch infrastructure that supports hundreds of flights per day would be required [28]. Infrastructural inadequacy was shown by a study by the Arrowhead Center at New Mexico State University concluded, “There is very little infrastructure” [29]. The NASA/STA study also found the need for infrastructure development, “Entirely new processes and hardware must be envisioned,” it noted [25]. This study identified six types of infrastructure needs; “Personnel transfers to and from the Station, Recreational facilities, Extravehicular activity, Orientation and training programs for tourists, Large-scale rescue capability, and High-volume logistics capability” [25]. Further information about space tourism infrastructure will be presented later, in chapter five on the barriers to space tourism. 5. UNPROVEN SPACE TOURISM MARKET “In the case of the New Space industry, a ‘full-blown cost-benefit analysis’ cannot be undertaken without knowledgeable input from industry representatives. No

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market yet exists from which to extrapolate impacts as the result of introduction or change in the regulatory landscape,” Dittmar asserted [30]. Some doubt the existence of such a market, because space tourism should be among the last commercial space industries to develop, long after the creation of orbiting factories and the initiation of space mining. It is uncertain whether or not tourists will be attracted by the dangerous and spartan conditions that space scientists and explorers accept [31]. Harrison concluded that many people are interested in the idea of spaceflight, but their excitement is mitigated since they do not perceive it as a reasonable possibility for themselves [31]. The Futron Corporation conducted a “Space Tourism Market Study” in 2002. It noted the dearth of information about the potential market size for the commercial space tourism market [32]. The study explained the consequences of uncertain market size-the most significant impediment is inadequate investment, as private space tourism companies compete to obtain the funding to construct their space vehicles. This financial difficulty results from the inability to document a sufficiently-sized market for space tourism firms to obtain the necessary investment [32]. 6. VERY LIMITED TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS Currently the only vehicle providing orbital public space travel flights is the Russian Soyuz. The shuttle had the capability but never hosted space tourists. This reality places a rigid supply constraint on orbital public space travel. Three topics will be examined to facilitate our understanding of the technology barrier to space tourism; 1) Transportation is a primary space tourism obstacle, 2) Only Russia and U.S. provide space access, and 3) Alternative delivery systems are inadequate and unproven. A. Transportation Limits Space Tourism “The single biggest inhibitor to commercial demand is the paucity of opportunities to access space,” contended one recent study [33]. According to Congressional hearings, “The single greatest technical barrier to the development of a viable space tourism industry is that Commercial Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLVs) to transport tourists to orbit do not yet exist” [34]. This government document also concluded that “Ultimately, a self-sustaining space tourism industry will not be realized until the space transportation problem is solved” [34].

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B. Only Russia and the U.S. Possess Space Access In mid-2012 only Russian and American delivery systems are capable of facilitating space tourism services. Chinese space efforts continue to evolve into more sophisticated and advanced modes, and the Japanese space program also shows great promise. The European Space Agency’s recent ATV docking with the ISS shows tremendous potential but there are still only two countries capable of delivering humans to space and bringing them back safely. At the present, the only means of orbital astronaut or public transportation are the space shuttle and the Soyuz rocket, Van Pelt declared [1]. That was also the finding of the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics of the Committee on Science, U.S. House of Representatives, “Now, apart from the Space Shuttle and the Russian Soyuz Rocket, we don’t have, at this time, vehicles that can transport tourists to space” [34]. The Futron Corporation noted that currently the only vehicle offering orbital space travel is the Russian Soyuz [32]. “The only way into orbit at the moment is through the Russian Soyuz system, and prices have been going up as demand for space on the capsules has increased,” declared Tom Shelley, Space Adventure’s Vice President of Marketing [35]. C. Alternative Delivery Systems are Inadequate & Unproven The Sophron Foundation conducted a study, “Near-Term Prospects for Space Tourism.” It noted that although several firms are soliciting funds to develop suborbital vehicles, particularly those companies pursuing the X-Prize, for the purposes of this report there is only one practical candidate for near-term suborbital space travel, the X-34 [36]. Harrison added that even if determined efforts begun today could create meaningful progress on reusable space vehicle technology in the near-term, relatively few private companies have initiated such activity. NASA has only recently viewed space tourism as a realistic possibility [31]. The Futron Corporation reported that there are no vehicles at this time capable of serving the suborbital space tourism market, but several promising space vehicles are under development [32]. Berinstein noted Japanese progress— the Japanese have a much better chance of developing space tourism than do American firms. The only reusable space vehicle in the world now is Japanese [27].

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Aerospace America provided a bleak progress report in 2006, “In the orbital area, developments are progressing more slowly. Companies are attempting to breathe life into decades-old NASA and Russian spaceplane or capsule designs that never progressed beyond experimental phases. Some companies have converted these designs into scale models or artist’s renderings, but none has announced firm launch dates” [37]. Hertzfeld of the Space Policy Institute contended that no vehicle exists that can reliably take passengers to space and back on a regular basis [18]. “SpaceX has been working toward a successful launch vehicle since its establishment in 2002. After several delays, the company’s Falcon vehicle has had two demonstration launches; however, neither successfully reached orbit. Despite a healthy manifest, the company still has a long way to go,” Camhi noted [38]. SpaceX finally succeeded, but not until the fourth attempt [39]. More recent reports depict a similar situation. Space News observed that “After the shuttle retires in 2010, the space station will be dependent on European, Japanese and Russian spacecraft” [40]. Simonetta Di Peppo, ESA Director of Human Spaceflight, “believes Europe needs to develop its own crew ship because there are too few means of getting into space at the moment. And the supply of seats will be severely restricted in the next few years as the US shuttle is retired” [41]. One expert suggested that the Chinese Shenzhou rocket system might be used to provide space access in an emergency [35]. 7. MOST SPACE TOURISM VENTURES HAVE FAILED Commercial space tourism is not a new concept. Unfortunately, most firms in this industry have failed. In this section we will consider; 1) Historical failures, and 2) Contemporary failures. A. Historical Space Tourism Firm Failures There have been several previous unsuccessful attempts at initiating commercial space tourism. For instance, in the 1980s Seattle-based Society Expeditions Co. Ltd. planned to offer space tourism expeditions on the Phoenix E rocket, manufactured by Pacific American Launch Systems. One hundred and eighty-six people made reservations for a $50,000 trip. But when Pacific American encountered unexpected cost pressures the entire enterprise collapsed [42].

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“The history consists mostly of failures and the successes have been only partial at best,” concluded a study of the commercial space tourism industry [43]. The key role of investment was noted by a business plan written for Spaceport America, “For new space companies, it is difficult to cope with the inherent risks that arise. Without cash flow, no company can stay in business. It is vital to build up activities which generate large cash flow as soon as possible” [29]. B. Contemporary Space Tourism Firm Failures Some authorities agree that there will be attrition in the ranks of commercial space tourism firms and vendors. “Most of this first generation of competitors probably will not make it to market,” Butterworth-Hayes asserted [14]. Space commerce consultant Thomas Matula provided a critical assessment of spaceport and space tourism firm viability, “At the moment I feel there are way too many spaceports chasing too few credible firms. Really, only Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin have any chance of making it in suborbital tourism . . . and they have already selected their spaceports. None of the other firms really have the deep pockets needed to take their systems to market” [4]. Berinstein concurred, adding that “Most space businesses will fail until the industry really gets going. That’s normal and OK. Some of the people who fail may start over and succeed the next time” [27]. Elaine Camhi, Editor-in-Chief of Aerospace America, noted critically that “To be sure, there are other commercial space launch ventures as well some with bright promise, others with bright intentions, but many are meant for space tourism and none are even viable yet” [38]. The recent flight of SpaceX’s Dragon may eventually alter these calculations and conclusions. The long-term perspective on space tourism commercial failure was provided by Van Pelt. Development of reusable rockets has continued for several decades now, without appreciable success. NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Japanese Space Agency (JAXA) are planning, designing and testing vehicles, performing design trade-off analysis and developing new materials and rocket engine technology. Until recently only very limited research activities with small, unmanned experimental vehicles have been launched. Several of these projects have not progressed past the paper studies phase, have been delayed because of budget problems, or were cancelled [1].

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8. SPACE ACCESS GAP The American space shuttle fleet was retired in 2011, eliminating that space tourist transportation option. The replacement American launch technology (the Orion/Ares rocket system) is not expected to be available until 2015, leaving Russian spacecraft as the only available way to get to space. We will consider five aspects of this U.S. space gap; 1) Space gap part of VSE, 2) NASA had time to plan, 3) Congressional waivers needed, 4) Shuttle service life extension discussions, and 5) Gap length. A. Space Gap Was a Planned Part of VSE American aerospace policy is summarized in the Vision for Space Exploration (VSE). An American space access gap was always a planned event. John Logsdon, of the Space Policy Institute, recalled that “When the Vision for Space Exploration was announced in 2004, a multiyear gap was part of the plan; the shuttle replacement, the crew exploration vehicle (CEV), was to be ‘fully operational . . . no later than 2014’,” [44]. Caceres noted that “Central to the VSE is the termination of the space shuttle program in 2010 and the development of a follow-on system called Orion/Ares 1 by 2016” [45]. B. NASA Had Time to Plan VSE was researched and written in 2003 and 2004. That was ten years ago. Joel Kearns, NASA Space Operations Missions Directorate transition manager, stated the obvious when he admitted, “NASA officials have had six years to plan for what comes after the shuttle” [46]. C. Congressional Waivers Needed During the space gap the official American space access policy will depend on leased Russian Soyuz seats. This policy requires Congressional ratification in the form of waivers being granted to allow NASA to purchase limited cargo and human access to the International Space Station. The AIAA Daily Launch referred to “a waiver NASA needs to get astronauts to the International Space Shuttle after the space shuttles are retired” [47]. This legislative process involved some lively debate, reported in both the AIAA Daily Launch and Space News [47]. Discussion centered on the advisability of

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relying on the Russians. Congressional approval of the waiver was obtained in late September of 2008, “The measure also included a provision that allows the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to buy seats on Russia’s Soyuz spacecraft until 2016” [48]. D. Shuttle Service Life Extension Discussions There was some official discussion of extending the service life of the shuttle fleet in an attempt to reduce the access gap. The Orlando Sentinel leaked an e-mail from Michael Griffin in late August 2008 “to study how the agency could fly the space shuttle beyond its planned retirement in 2010.” However, the need for vendors to convert to production of Orion/Ares 1 material would make extension of the shuttle’s service life too expensive, on the order of $4 billion annually [49]. E. Gap Length What will be the duration of the U.S. space access gap? Four years, five years, six years or even longer? No one really knows now how long production of the Orion/Ares 1 spacecraft will take. Logsdon noted that the VSE planned on shuttle termination in 2010, followed by the Constellation system in 2014 [44]. That is a four-year gap. Jean-Jacques Dordain, Director-General of the ESA, also predicted an American space hiatus between 2010 and 2014 [50]. Caceres contended that “The reality is that the agency will not have its own space transportation system for at least five years, from 2011-2015” [45]. And the gap may last even longer than that. George C. Nield is Associate Administrator for the Commercial Space Transportation unit at the FAA. He observed, “There will be a gap of five years or more when NASA won’t be flying people into space, but commercial companies will be” [51]. Jones reported in Aerospace America that “The gap in U.S. astronaut access to LEO may realistically stretch to five or more years” [52]. Caceres noted a gap of six or seven years, from 2010 to 2016 [45]. 9. RUSSIAN SPACE TOURISM SERVICE UNRELIABILITY The Russians will have a virtual monopoly on manned space access after shuttle flights are terminated. This may have geopolitical consequences far exceeding the effects on national space programs. We will consider five issues; 1) Russian

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reliability issues, 2) Russian lead time requirements, 3) Russian space industry problems, 4) Reliance on Russians is cause for concern, and 5) Reliance on Russians is acceptable space policy. A. Russian Reliability Issues Limited American rocket technology has put potential space tourists into a very difficult situation. Especially considering Russian disinterest in continuing to ferry space tourists. One recent media report claimed that “Top Russian space officials had expressed doubt recently that they could continue to offer seats to tourists after 2009, citing increased demand for trips to the space station, due in part to NASA’s retirement of the space shuttle in 2010” [3]. An Associated Press (A.P.) account reported that “Russia said Friday that it may stop selling seats on its spacecraft to ‘tourists’ starting in 2010 because of the planned expansion of the International Space Station crew [to] six or even nine by 2010. Russia will have fewer seats available for tourists on its spacecraft” [53]. A 2007 blog noted that “The Russian Space Agency Roscosmos has announced no further space tourists will fly to the International Space Station aboard a Soyuz TMA until 2009 with all of the seats for the remainder of the year and throughout 2008 having been already assigned” [54]. Space.com. reported that “Today’s launch of a paying civilian into orbit may be the last for some time,” because the increase in the ISS crew from six to nine “could mean that professional station astronauts will need every spare seat on the Russian Soyuz spacecrafts” [55]. B. Russian Lead Time Requirements Former NASA head Michael Griffin quantified the lead time needed for Russian space preparations. “The Russians need a three-year lead time to build a sufficient quantity of their expendable, but very dependable, Soyuz and Progress spacecraft” [55]. According to Space News, Griffin added that “NASA needs this legislative authorization in 2008 because Russia requires 36 months lead time to fabricate new Soyuz vehicles and thus we need to finalize contractual agreements late this year if we expect to fly in the spring of 2012” [56]. C. Russian Space Industry Problems The Russian space industry is beset with problems. Russian space analyst Andrei Kislyakov described “major problems plaguing the Russian space program,”

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noting “a series of failures involving the most advanced Russian launch vehicles and spacecraft [which] point to a major crisis” [57]. Eighty percent of Russian production equipment for the space rocket industry is at risk of malfunctioning at any time, Kislyakov added [57]. Recent Russian launch failures can be cited. The April 2007 launch of an Israeli satellite went awry, and the March 2008 launch of the new Proton M Breeze rocket was unsuccessful [58]. These incidents seem to verify Kislyakov’s concerns. Anatoly Perminov, a Roskosmos official, recently admitted that the Soyuz spacecraft may suffer from a design flaw that caused two relatively rough landings for the Soyuz capsule [59]. “Our politicians who talk about the space program don’t understand a thing about it. I state today that Russia does not have a real space program,” argued Russian cosmonaut Yuri Baturin [60]. Other Russian space program experts echo Baturin’s criticism. Igor Marinin, an editor at Space News, conceded that “Unfortunately, we can’t say right now that Russia has a powerful space program . . . For a very long time we simply lived on the verge of extinction” [60]. D. Reliance on Russians Causes Concerns Reliance upon the Russians for American space access has been questioned in U.S. aerospace circles. Congressman Dave Weldon explained his reservations, “At this time, we don’t really know for certain what it will cost us to rely on the Russians. If our past experience on the service modules during the 1990s serves as a guide, relying on the Russians will cost us much more money than we anticipate. And frankly, I’m increasingly uncomfortable giving unnecessary leverage to a country that has been supplying military weaponry to Ahmadinejad’s Iran and Chavez’s Venezuela” [61]. Similarly, Michael Griffin decried the shape of things to come, admitting “his greatest regret and concern” over the fact that “We will be largely dependant on the Russians, and that is a terrible place for the U.S. to be. I’m worried, and many others are worried” [62]. A year later, Griffin commented in a radio interview, “We should be mad as hell and not going to take it any more. It is, I am tempted to use the word disgusting, but at the very least, it is unseemly” [63]. The

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geopolitical implications of this dependency were explained by Caceres, “This leasing arrangement with the Russians may not be a good situation for NASA. It leaves our spaceflight program at the mercy of the Russian government” [45]. E. Reliance on Russians is Acceptable Space Policy Others fail to share these concerns and accept Russian primacy in space access at the present time. A front-page story in the New York Times on October 6, 2008, reported that reliance on Russian spacecraft was expected and not problematic. The story noted that the Russians did not “blackmail” the U.S. after the Columbia accident in 2003 created a temporary American dependency [64]. Russian assurances have been made about continuation of space tourism services. Vitaly Davidoff, Deputy Director of Roskosmos, recently declared, “Russia would honor its commitments to fly crews to the station” [64]. “NASA has contracted with Russia’s space agency, Rosaviakosmos (sic), to pay $21.8 million per passenger for rides on Soyuz TMA missions,” Caceres noted. He concluded, “Our understanding is that the Russians intend to honor the agreement through 2011, and that they would then extend the contract with NASA or negotiate a new one” [45]. 10. TRANSPORTATION DANGERS Space travel is inherently and decidedly dangerous. It is ironic that the danger is the very lure for those inclined to enjoy this and similar types of adventure-oriented travel and tourism. We will analyze seven dimensions of rocket danger; 1) Rocket safety, 2) Space tourism risks, 3) Launch failures, 4) In-flight accidents, 5) Reentry incidents, 6) Spacecraft damage, and 7) Earth weather. We will discover why Tabarrok contended that “The vision is enticing but the facts suggest that space tourism is not yet ready for market . . . the problem is safety” [65]. A. Rocket Safety It might seem obvious to some, but there are risks inherent to travel in outer space. Because of the unavoidably dangerous nature of this type of tourism legal liability issues must be confronted. According to a recent FAA regulatory proposal, “Space flight remains inherently risky” [66]. Spaceflight proponents agree; Michael Kelly admitted that “There are going to be fatalities. It’s a risky business” [67]. Another

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study added that “Space is relatively dangerous to reach and return” [2]. “One thing we have learned is that sooner or later space technology can fail,” declared Bruce Gagnon, coordinator of Global Network [37]. “Outer space is lethal and improvident,” Harrison claimed. He added that, “Transportation to and from outer space is extremely dangerous, and we should rejoice that so few spacefarers have lost their lives thus far” [31]. Douglas reminded us that “Spaceflight is an inherently risky business” [68]. According to The Economist, “Rocket science is difficult and risky” [69]. A 2001 study concluded, “Rocket engines are very highly loaded mechanical/thermodynamic systems confining combustion gases almost as hot as the surface of the sun. Occasional failures are to be expected and significant portions of these failures are catastrophic (i.e. result in an explosion that damages nearby engines and systems). We believe catastrophic engine failures are unavoidable in the foreseeable future” [70]. Space tourist Dennis Tito calculated that eleven of the 415 spacefaring people to date died during the experience, a 3% fatality figure [71]. Tabarrok asserted, “Simply put, rockets remain among the least safe means of transportation ever invented.” Out of 440 U.S. launches since 1980, “Nearly five percent of those rockets have experienced total failure, either blowing up or wandering so far off course as to be useless” [65]. Van Pelt noted that of the 240 human space missions before 2005, “the average of fatal accidents is 1 per 60 flights” [1]. The space shuttle had two catastrophic accidents in the initial 113 trips [65]. NASA’s safety goal calls for 99.9% launch reliability [72]. “There is a 1/7 chance of losing a vehicle during its 3,000 flight lifetime”, Hopkins, Andrews and Andrews claimed [70]. Burt Rutan suggested that if rockets were 500 times safer than they are today, one out of 10,000 launches would fail catastrophically [65]. A March, 2009, U.P. Aerospace launch from Spaceport America soured, “when the rocket failed to reach space after takeoff” [73]. Spaceport America Director Steve Landeene says he doesn’t know why the rocket didn’t reach space [73]. A month earlier the Orbiting Carbon Observatory satellite “failed to reach orbit” [74].

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B. Space Tourism Risks An apt conclusion about space tourism dangers was provided by Anderson and Piven, “A visit to space is not like a visit to Space Mountain. Danger lurks in every corner of the galaxy, and every trip features its share of risks. To many tourists, the risk is part of the appeal” [75]. Rick Tumlinson concurred, adding “But we have to not be in denial that space is dangerous. People will die” [76]. “Space tourism companies must prepare now for how they will handle their first loss of life,” according to a recent report in the NewScientist.com. [77]. “Space tourism is romantic but is it realistic?,” asked the blogsite Marginal Revolution. It continued, “On the basis of 40 years of data, I argued that rockets are dangerous and show no signs of the sort of safety improvements that are required to sustain a serious space tourism industry” [78]. A newspaper website noted that “It will be a risky business for many years to come” [79]. “Space tourism operators need to get real about the extraordinary risks they face,” the FAA recently emphasized [80]. C. Launch Failures Rocket launches remain the single most dangerous aspect of this mode of transportation. My research to date has identified twenty-eight serious launch accidents between the 1960s and the present time. Eighteen of these involved American craft, five were French (Ariannespace), and five were Soviet or Russian. The most notable launch failure involved the demise of the seven crew members of the space shuttle Challenger in 1986. It is very likely that I have understated launch failures significantly, because Tabarrok reported that in the 1960s there was a 12.8% failure rate, but I have only discovered one launch failure from that time frame [65]. D. In-Flight Accidents There have not been as many potentially problematic incidents during spaceflight, to this day. Seven such situations have come to my attention, and some have been dramatic events. The 1970 oxygen tank explosion aboard Apollo XIII nearly aborted the lives of three American astronauts in addition to their mission. In 1975 the Soyuz 18 crew was saved by their emergency escape rockets. More recently,

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in 2009 the crew of the ISS had to take protective measures when threatened by space debris [81]. Two of these incidents affected the U.S. program, one was a solely Russian affair, two were international, one involved the U.S. and Russia and in the other case the Chinese ran a satellite into the moon. E. Reentry Incidents Return from space has been the deadliest time for space travelers. While I am only aware of six such incidents they have been responsible for eleven deaths. A 1967 Soviet reentry accident killed one cosmonaut, and three cosmonauts perished in another bad landing four years later in 1971. The 2003 Columbia accident cost seven American lives. Five of these accidents have plagued the Soviets or Russians, and one was an American accident. F. Spacecraft Damage The spacecraft used in space tourism must be completely safe and reliable. Tests of the Virgin Galactic space transportation system caused “problems with the rudder on its WhiteKnight Two prototype Virgin Mothership Eve, which Flight identified last year and Virgin Galactic denied” [82]. During a 2009 test flight, “an apparent crosswind” resulted in “some slight damage to the vehicle’s tail” [83]. During the 2009 Atlantis mission to repair the Hubble telescope, there was takeoff damage, and subsequent additional trouble in space. “The shuttle already has an ugly stretch of nicks from Monday’s launch,” one source reported [83].“Since reaching orbit, the astronauts’ shuttle Atlantis has apparently already sustained a slight impact to one of its wings,” the AIAA noted [83]. G. Earth Weather The potential dangers associated with space weather have been documented. But it would be a mistake to ignore the possibility of Earth weather interfering with space tourism operations. Both launches and reentry can be affected by terrestrial storms. There have been numerous instances of aborted rocket launches, the missions scratched by inclement weather. “Powerful winds have caused delays in hoisting a Russian-built rocket bound for the international space station onto its launch pad at Baikonur,” the A.P. reported [84]. Similarly, shuttle landings have been at the mercy of mother nature, as the American astronauts who repaired the Hubble telescope discovered in 2009 [85].

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We can combine the information concerning launch, flight and reentry accidents. Table 1 presents a comparative analysis of the types and timing of such mishaps. Table 1: Rocket Launch, Flight and Reentry Accident Occurrence Decade

Launch

Flight

Reentry

Total

1960s

1

0

1

2

1970s

1

2

1

4

1980s

5

0

0

5

1990s

4

0

0

4

2000s

17

5

4

26

Totals

28

7

6

41

This data is disturbing in one respect. The incidence of all three types of rocket accidents has been the greatest most recently. Even if we have undercounted 1960s and 1970s-era rocket failures, it nevertheless appears that rocket dangers have not substantially decreased over time, and may have in fact increased. 11. PRICEPOINT The pricepoint for both suborbital and orbital space tourism is relatively high at the present time. Suborbital package rates and estimates have varied from $15,000 to a quarter of a million dollars. Orbital space tourism experiences typically cost millions of dollars. In this section we will examine; 1) Suborbital space tourism pricepoints, and 2) Orbital space tourism pricepoints. A. Suborbital Space Tourism Pricepoints There has been a wide variety of published pricepoints for suborbital space tourism services. Jay Penn of the Aerospace Corporation remarked that “We think we can get the price down to around $15,000 per passenger” [86]. A blog noted that Penn’s estimate was $5,000 less than the contemporary price of $20,000 [87]. The Kankoh-maru, Japan’s reusable rocket, could carry one million space tourists annually at a price of approximately $20,000 [88]. Some authorities consider this Japanese technology the most promising of the space tourism vehicles. A second estimate suggests that Kankoh-maru seats would cost 2.95 million Japanese Yen, or about $23,700 [14]. Kazuyoshi Yajima noted that Kankoh-maru was designed

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by the Japanese Rocket Society and built by Kawasaki Heavy Industry, and there would be a charge $25,000 per person [89]. Other potential space tourism purveyors can be identified and their pricepoint examined. EADS Astrium, for instance, plans to charge anywhere from $50,000 to $200,000 [14]. Another very broad estimate range was suggested by an A.P. story--$25,000 to $250,000 [90]. A 2008 study by the International Space University pinpointed a pricepoint of $70,000 [91]. “Rocketplane Ltd. announced that it had entered into an agreement with tourism company Incredible Adventures, of Sarasota, Florida, to market tourist flights on Rocketplane’s XP vehicle, at a ticket price of $95,500” [92]. There are more expensive space tourism opportunities available. Van Pelt referred to a pricepoint of $100,000 [1]. An FAA report by the Office of Commercial Space Transportation mentioned estimated ticket prices “of around $100,000 to $200,000 per flight” [92]. Most recently, the February 2009 issue of Aerospace America reported that Virgin Galactic is asking $200,000 for its suborbital space tourism experience [93]. Dr. Chirinjeev Kathuria plans to charge $250,000 for a 15-20 minute suborbital flight on his Canadian Arrow rocket [94]. B. Orbital Space Tourism Pricepoints It costs a bit more to sojourn into space. An estimate from way back in 1987 might be considered--$50,000 for the round-trip, with the price lowering to $5,000 with increased demand [95]. Anderson and Piven speculated that orbital tourism might cost a half-million dollars, in thirty years’ time [75]. “A few million dollars a ticket” was a relatively informal pricepoint estimate [27]. The American space shuttles never carried space tourists. It would have cost at least $8.4 million apiece to offset the expenses of tourists, without profit [96]. Derek Webber, Director of Spaceport Associates, envisioned a pricepoint in “the order of $10 million per trip” [97]. Costs have increased. Ashford noted that “In very round numbers, the present cost per person for a few days in space is $20 million” [26]. That is what Dennis Tito and Mark Shuttleworth paid. Gregory Olsen also paid $20 million [90]. NASA’s former

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contract with Rosaviakosmos (sic) paid $21.8 million per passenger for rides on the Soyuz [45]. Simonyi paid $25 million for his thirteen-day trip in 2007 [98]. Recent space tourist Richard Garriott, the son of U.S. astronaut Owen Garriott, paid “some $30 million to follow in his father’s footsteps” [99]. Space Adventures published a price list on its website, announcing an increase in the price of flights to the ISS to $35-45 million per person. Spacewalks cost between $45-55 million [100]. Hammer reported that $40 million “is the price of a ride to the International Space Station on a Russian Soyuz space capsule” [101]. Most recently, the going rate for orbital transportation was established by the Russian space program. NASA would pay $51 million per seat on Soyuz spacecraft en route to the ISS [102]. Space tourism is not at the present time a frequent occurrence, nor is there a real commercial industry yet. The existing firms face an uncertain future as the global economic slowdown continues. The joint study by NASA and the Space Transportation Association cautioned that space tourism might not flourish under any of three conditions, and one was, “A marked and prolonged downturn in our Country’s economic circumstances” [25]. 12. AUTHOR’S NOTE The last two chapters collectively have served a dialectical purpose. At the present time there are good reasons for optimism regarding opportunities for space tourism and appreciate the prospects for further industrial development. However, there are equally compelling factors documenting the deficiencies and difficulties confronting embryonic commercial space enterprises. My intent is not to confuse readers or complicate our perspective on space tourism, but rather to present the most accurate contemporary depiction of this phenomenon. Therefore both sides of this topic have been explored as completely as possible. Just as in a court of law, the case for and against commercial space tourism have been made. Only time will tell the final tale. 13. NOTES 1.

Civilian interest in space travel extends much farther back than 1988. In 1954, a “Moon Register” was established by Thomas Cook in the

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UK to preserve reservations for those desiring travel to our lunar neighbor. Despite a complete lack of advertising, Cook’s list boasted more than a thousand registrants A decade later, the blockbuster outer space movie 2001: A Space Odyssey repopularized space, and both Pan American Airways and Trans World Airlines took reservations for trips to the Moon, at a five dollar registration cost [103]. 2.

There has been considerable official discussion of the possibility of extending the service life of the space shuttle fleet. The Senate Budget Committee recommended that an extension be granted, and offered $2.5 billion in the 2011 NASA budget [55]. U.S. Congressman Alan Grayson wrote to President Barack Obama, “We leave ourselves vulnerable to various threats that may arise that may require orbital launch capability,” and he personally lobbied Obama Chief of Staff Rahm Emmanual [104]. Another representative, Bill Posey, introduced a bill that would extend the life of the shuttle program until the replacement system was ready. Posey said such an extension might cost $1.5 billion annually, not the $2.5 billion estimate offered by NASA [105]. Posey’s bill received little political support, not even garnering the vote of U.S. Congresswoman Suzanne Kosmos, in whose congressional district the Kennedy Space Center is located [106].

The State of Florida braced for the economic blow resulting from the elimination of the shuttle program in the Spring of 2009. It was estimated that job losses would range from as few as 3,500 to as many as 10,000 [107]. But other states suffered as well. It was reported on May 1, 2009, that 160 contract employees on the shuttle program were fired, with an additional 900 layoffs expected by September, 2009. The cuts occurred in Utah and New Orleans, and it was hoped that there would only be 400 layoffs, with 350 position eliminated through attrition and 150 workers transferred to other projects [108]. A joint House/Senate effort to extend the shuttle removed the “hard deadline” planned for the shuttle retirement and provided $2.5 billion to fund flights throughout 2011 [109]. NASA prepared a report suggesting

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extension of the shuttle system through 2012 or 2015 [109]. Aerospace America Editor Elaine Cahmi editorialized: Questions are voiced, for example, concerning the viability of the projected timetable for delivery of Ares 1 and about the wisdom of standing down the space shuttle program in 2010, which leaves the U.S. without its own human space transportation capability until 2015 (although some argue that the date is quite optimistic). Others see jobs and funds flowing to Russia—for the purchase of rides on their Soyuz rockets—at a time when both are critically needed at home [62]. However, shuttle extension may not be as easy as it might seem. Chris Scolese, acting NASA Administrator, remarked that NASA and Lockheed Martin were already shutting down space shuttle production lines in mid-May of 2009 [41]. Scolese told the House Committee on Science and Technology that it would now take three years to restart those production lines. Congressman Grayson asked Scolese what options the administration was considering on space shuttle program extension, and Scolese replied, “None” [41]. 3.

The American space gap may extend well beyond four or five years. There are already signs that the Ares/Orion system is considerably behind an overly optimistic schedule, as Ms. Cahmi just told us. And without massive cost overruns there appears to be little chance of on-schedule delivery. Three issues must be considered; 1) Current specific delays, 2) Need for additional funds, and 3) Overall delay length estimates.

A. Specific Delays The Ares 1/Orion project has been slipping behind schedule for some time. NASA Spaceflight reported that “The Constellation Program (CxP) test flight, Ares I-X, has slipped three weeks to a NET (No Earlier Than) July 31—with the potential for more delays”. The reason? “Continued fallout from a lack of funds within the Constellation program” [110]. Four days after that announcement, Flight International revealed that “NASA’s first firing test of the five-segment solid rocket motor, DM-1,

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for the Ares 1 crew launch vehicle, has been delayed up to six months . . . Tests of the demonstration motors DM-2 and DM-3 were planned in August and September [2009], respectively, and they are now likely to be delayed toward the end of the year, if not to 2010” [111]. B. Need for Additional Funds The original estimated cost of the Constellation program was approximately $30 billion. The AIAA Daily Launch reported in 2009 that that amount has increased to $44 billion and is still rising, according to NASA studies [112]. The day after that revelation, Jeff Hanley (NASA Exploration Mission Systems Director) admitted that the original $28 billion pricetag had risen to a revised estimate of $36 billion [113]. The Congressional Budget Office released its report on the Constellation project progress in mid-April, 2009, and used several scenarios to assess the adequacy of schedule compliance, “but each one predicted schedule slips, unless NASA receives increased funding” [114]. The Constellation Acceleration Study, a NASA internal analysis, recommended an additional $3.8 billion in allocations to the Constellation program [115]. C. Overall Delay Length Estimates It must be conceded that the Constellation project schedule is in serious trouble. NASA Spaceflight observed, “NASA’s Constellation Program (CxP) will conduct a ‘Content and Schedule’ summit in the next few months, after it was evaluated their current schedules are ‘broken.’ The meeting will aim to protect against a slip that it estimated to be as serious as 18 months, or outright cancellation for Ares 1” [116]. The delay may be even longer than NASA admits. “Internal estimates place Ares 1 and Orion first flight in 2017, not 2015 as in the public schedule” [117]. In April of 2009, NASA officials were reportedly informing employees and contractors that there would be a two-year delay in the first launch [118]. 4.

The begining of the second decade of 2000 is not a particularly auspicious time to invent and popularize a new mass-market travel and tourism opportunity. Global economic prospects have been receding for several years, and the current world-wide economic recession could

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become a depression. The consequences of this pervasive global downturn may be serious for the space tourism industry. The U.S. aerospace industry took a hit when General Dynamics announced the elimination of 1,200 jobs in March, 2009 [119]. Concerns about the global aerospace industry were voiced by Ian Godden, CEO of the Society of British Aerospace Companies, “The biggest risk that the aerospace industry still faces is a collapse of liquidity and finance, rather than a collapse in the order books. However, we are increasingly concerned that the rhetoric of availability of funds from the bank is not evident and that this may have an impact on orders” [120]. “New space companies will probably also have a hard time finding large investors,” declared Space Review editor Jeff Foust, “but this has always been the case. There are companies who are finding some success in raising relatively small amounts of money . . . others seeking larger amounts . . . in the tens of millions of dollars . . . from institutional investors have found their work to be much more difficult” [121]. MSNBC.com. science writer Alan Boyle noted that “The economic downturn has forced the Rocket Racing League and other ventures to scale back their suborbital ambitions” [122]. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4]

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[70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] [91]

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Hopkins, Joe, Andrews, Dana, and Andrews, Jason. (2001, October). LEO passenger travel requirements discussion. Proceedings of the International Association for Aeronautics. IAA-01-IAA-1-3-05, 1. Tito, Dennis. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 91. Sarsfield, Liam P. (2002). The arrival of tomorrow: NASA in the 21st century. In Hugdins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 38. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 5). Although rocket fails to reach orbit, launch seen as a success. Daily Launch, 4. Dorr, Robert F. (2009, April). Changing course in a deepening crisis. Aerospace America, 4(4), 10. Anderson, Eric, and Piven, Joshua. (2005). The space tourist’s handbook. Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 82, 133. Tumlinson, Rick. (2000). A conspiracy of dreamers. In O’Neill, E. (Ed.). The high frontier: Human colonies in space, p. 91. Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books. Young, Kelly. (2006, October 19). Space tourism firms must face up to safety risks. NewScientist com. news service. 1. Retrieved on March 16, 2006 from http://space.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn10339&print=true. Marginal Revolution. (2006). Romance and realism in space tourism, 1. Antczak, John. (2004, October 11). Regulations being developed by FAA. http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2004/10/11/biz_spacetourism11.html. Accessed on March 2, 2006, 2. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, July 28). FAA official warns of space tourism safety risks. Daily Launch, 4. Associated Press. (2009, March 13). Albuquerque Journal, p. 7A. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 22). WhiteKnight Two suffers tail damage during fourth test flight. Daily Launch, 3. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 14). Debris misses shuttle as NASA clears heat shield. Daily Launch, 2. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 27). Simonyi may be last space tourist for years. Daily Launch, 3. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 22). Atlantis landing today “iffy” due to weather. Daily Launch, 1. Sample, Ian. (2002, October 31). Space tourism ‘viable at $15,000 a seat.’ New Scientist. 1. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.newscientist.com/article/ns?id=dn2983&print=true. Piquepaille, Roland. (2002, November 2). Space tourism ‘viable at $15,000 a seat?’ 1. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.primidi.com/2002/11/02.html. Collins, Patrick. (2006). The economic benefits of space tourism. JBIS. 59, 6. Yajima, Kazuyoshi. (2000, March). A new era of space medicine for space tourism. Architectural Design, 70(2), 22. Schneider, Mike. (2006, February 21). Into the beyond and out of this world. Albuquerque Journal, p. B5. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, November 4). Studies focus on suborbital tourism. Daily Launch, 3.

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[98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [112] [113]

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Office of Space Commercialization. Federal Aviation Administration. (2005, February). Suborbital reusable launch vehicles and emerging markets, 1. David, Leonard. (2009, February). Taking wing: Liftoff for public space travel. Aerospace America, 47(2), 25. Joseph, George. (2005, December 30). Indian finalises (sic) tourist spacecraft design. Rediff.com. 1. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://us.rediff.com/cms/print.jsp?docpath=/news/2005/dec/30space.htm. Taylor, L.B. Jr. (1987). Commercialization of space. New York: Franklin Watts, 104. Beardsley, Tim. (1999, February). The way to go in space. Scientific American. 280(2), 82. David, Leonard. (2006, February 16). Making the business case for public space travel: Experts look at new NASA effort, lessons from adventure tourism. MSNBC.com. 1. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11393875/print/1/displaymode/1098/ Danilova, Maria. (2007, April 8). Billionaire rides rocket with Russians. Albuquerque Journal, p. A8. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, October 13). Soyuz launches with astronaut’s son. Daily Launch, 3. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, January 2). Space Adventures offering spacewalk package. Daily Launch, 3. Hammer, Mike. (2008, January 11). Now you can buy a ticket to ride—for a price. Fifty years after the first U.S.-launched rocket, commercial space travel takes off. USA WEEKEND, p. 7A. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 14). NASA to pay $51 million for each Soyuz seat after 2012. Daily Launch, 4. Gibson, Dirk C. (2006, Spring). Outer space public relations purposes, practices and problems. Public Relations Quarterly, 51(1), 29. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 12). Grayson wants Obama to extend shuttle until replacement is ready. Daily Launch, 5. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 2). Posey introduced bill to extend shuttle to 2015. Daily Launch, 5. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 20). Long shuttle extension seen as unlikely. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 11). Loss of Kennedy Space Center expected to “devastate” Florida’s space coast economy. Daily Launch, 6. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 1). NASA lays off 160 as part of shuttle program shutdown. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 29). Budget resolution would eliminate hard deadline for shuttle retirement. Daily Launch, 5. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, March 23). Ares test flight delayed at least until end of July. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, March 27). Ares 1 rocket motor test delayed. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 2). Cost for Constellation has “ballooned” to $44 billion. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 3). Constellation program woes. Daily Launch, 4.

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[114] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 17). CEO report finds NASA needs more money to keep current schedule. Daily Launch, 4. [115] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 22). Constellation study may be used to extend shuttle service. Daily Launch, 3. [116] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, March 30). “Broken schedule” threatening Ares 1 program. Daily Launch, 4. [117] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 3). Despite rise in cost, officials confident in 2015 target for Ares 1, Orion. Daily Launch, 4. [118] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 22). NASA’s internal Ares V launch date may be delayed by two years. Daily Launch, 3. [119] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, March 6). General Dynamics cuts 1,200 jobs. Daily Launch, 2. [120] Butterworth-Hayes, Philip. (2009, April). Liquidity crisis looming for Europe’s aerospace companies. Aerospace America, 47(4), 4. [121] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, October 21). Editor speculates on financial crisis’ effect on space industry. Daily Launch, 3. [122] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 9). Economy slows development of Rocket Racing League. Daily Launch, 4.

Unit II: THE IMPEDIMENTS TO SPACE TOURISM INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 90-120

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CHAPTER 4 The Primary Impediments to Space Tourism Industrial Development Abstract: The primary impediments to commercial space tourism industrial development were reported in this chapter. Insufficient investment was the single greatest impediment for several reasons. Investors were not attracted to commercial space projects. There were several obstacles to obtaining adequate investment, and inadequate investment cancelled space tourism plans. The second impediment to space tourism enterprise was space dangers. Dangers included space weather, radiation, debris, asteroids and meteors, space traffic congestion and outer space hazards. Excessive regulation was the third impediment. The negative consequences of excessive regulation were documented. Transportation dangers, the fourth impediment discussed, were identified and quantified. The fifth impediment involved medical and health issues. Space medical & health risks were described and the empirical space health record to date was examined. The significance of legal issues in space tourism was noted and the adequacy of contemporary commercial space law discussed. Pricepoint was the seventh primary impediment. This primary obstacle deterred commercialization of space tourism. Space tourism revenue did not exceed cost. The necessity for coalitions impeded space tourism. Commercial space cooperation was necessary, and coalitions must be international and include the public and private sectors and the travel and tourism industry. Problems with international cooperation were noted. Infrastructure inadequacy was identified as another primary impediment. Five types of needed space tourism infrastructure were located and it was observed that there was inadequate infrastructure. Politics was another obstacle to commercial space enterprise. Politics obstructed space tourism development and determined policy. Inadequate transportation was the final primary impediment.

Keywords: Acceleration, bone demineralization, coalition, communications infrastructure, deceleration, decompression, gravity, landing, microgravity, National Aeronautic and Space Administration, parabolic flight, radiation, solar flare, Space Adaptation Syndrome, space danger, space law, space sickness, space weather, takeoff, traffic control. 1. INTRODUCTION Commercial space tourism would benefit a number of stakeholders and result in economic advantages. However, there are substantial impediments to realization of a viable space tourism industry. This chapter and the following one are devoted to an enhanced understanding of the obstacles to commercial space tourism. Space tourism would be enjoyable for those inclined towards adventurous pursuits. It would be a boon for space tourism service providers, their suppliers Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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and related businesses, their employees and the local economies and tax bases where space tourism facilities are sited. But there are more than twenty different impediments or obstacles to the development of a viable commercial space tourism industry. This chapter describes and documents the primary obstacles to commercial space tourism. I identified and quantified the eleven most important barriers, which include: 1) Inadequate investment, 2) Space dangers, 3) Excessive regulation, 4) Transportation dangers, 5) Medical and health issues, 6) Legal issues, 7) Pricepoint, 8) Need for coalitions, 9) Inadequate infrastructure, 10) Politics and 11) Inadequate transportation technology. These are summarized in Table 1. Table 1: Primary Impediments to Development of Commercial Space Tourism Category Number

Category Title

Total Occurrence Frequency

1

Investment

107

2

Space Dangers

88

3

Regulation

81

4

Transportation Danger

76

5

Medical/Health

63

6

Legal Issues

56

7

Pricepoint

52

8

Coalitions Needed

47

9

Inadequate Infrastructure

47

10

Politics

42

11

Inadequate Transportation Technology

41

Total

11 Categories

700 Occurrences; 52 Per Category

2. INSUFFICIENT INVESTMENT Although many obstacles to space tourism development have been identified, lack of capital is probably the most significant. According to Ashford the primary obstacle to development of a commercial space tourism industry is finding the necessary investment [1]. McCoy agreed, noting that while a number of issues needed to be addressed before the space tourism business reaches its potential, the failure to secure adequate financial support is the greatest single impediment [2].

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Four main topics will be explored to facilitate our understanding of the investment barrier to space tourism. They include: 1) Investment is the biggest barrier, 2) Investors are not attracted to space investment, 3) Specific obstacles to space tourism investment and 4) Inadequate investment cancelled space tourism projects. A. Investment is the Primary Space Tourism Development Barrier “The first space vehicles designed specifically to carry paying space tourists” are not imminent, a 2006 Aerospace America report noted. Why? “The major challenge facing these companies has not changed—how to keep enough cash coming in to sustain technical and marketing work on vehicles that are not yet generating revenues” [3]. “Private launch companies have not been able to convince investors and lenders to support their efforts,” former astronaut Buzz Aldrin testified at the Space Tourism hearings held by the House Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics of the Committee on Science [4]. Lack of investment is also considered the most significant barrier to space tourism by another space analyst—inadequate capitalization remains the most significant impediment confronting the developers of the next generation of spacecraft, reusable launch vehicles. These complex space transit systems are very capital-intensive, with investors unlikely to receive a return for quite some time [5]. B. Space Tourism Does Not Attract Investment In the relatively brief history of the space tourism concept, one recurrent theme has been the disinterest of investors in this specialized sector. “What about the much-discussed space tourism market?” Poole asked. His own answer was, “Although speculative projections abound, so far investors have been reluctant to commit” [6]. Berinstein agreed, adding that it is extremely difficult to obtain financing for commercial space firms [7]. Livingston concurred and noted that in the 1990s the Lockheed Martin VentureStar project “was unsuccessful in attracting Wall Street investors” [8]. C. Specific Obstacles to Space Tourism Investment Space tourism development investment has lagged for multiple reasons according to the experts. There is not one solitary reason for the undercapitalization of this

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emerging industry. Aldrin told Congress that the obstacles to space tourism financing include insufficient market research, regulatory uncertainty, technical risk, inadequate market size and the structure of the American aerospace industry [9]. Similarly, Berinstein noted numerous barriers, including the risks of space travel, the dynamic regulatory environment, inadequate proven markets, the lack of destinations and the inadequate business experience of most space firms [7]. A half-dozen obstacles to space tourism investment will be documented: 1) Long return on investment, 2) Risk, 3) Insufficient market data, 4) High cost, 5) Suboptimal return on investment and 6) Legal issues. Initially investors might be turned off by relatively lengthy return-on-investment (ROI) schedules. Van Pelt realized that even under very optimistic space tourism market growth predictions it would take too long to recover their investments [10]. Schmidt and Zubrin concurred with Van Pelt in their analysis of excessive investment duration: like other commercial space projects, terrestrial investors would not survive to receive a return on their investment [11]. Investors tend to be risk-aversive unless the risk is handsomely rewarded. Yet space commercial development is extremely risky. Space travel is dangerous. And if space tourism is to attract the necessary investment every aspect will have to be proven safe. It is very difficult to prove that something is safe [7]. Insufficient ‘hard’ market data exists at the present time to justify extensive space tourism investment according to the accountants. Congressional hearings on space tourism elicited the remark by Congressman Nick Lampson that “I don’t think that there has been enough data to suggest that commercial space tourism is yet viable” [12]. Van Pelt agreed, adding that detailed space tourism market studies are desperately needed to facilitate reliable demand forecasts and to encourage investors [10]. The high cost of commercial space ventures must be considered another formidable obstacle to the attraction of investment. According to one study venture capital funds demand such immense returns on investment that the mass participation of these financiers is unlikely until the cost of space access is reduced substantially [5]. Berinstein described NASA plans for private sector investment of between $6.5 and

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$13 billion in the next generation of reusable launch vehicles. However, NASA was allowing return on investment of between two and five per cent, far below what was necessary to attract capital from private suppliers [7]. Adequate return on commercial space investment is debatable, it appears. That was the conclusion of a market study by Eilingsfeld and Abitzsch, which found that “Even over a period of 500 years, this orbital space tour venture still has a negative NPV (Net Present Value) of almost $3 billion!” [13]. The final obstacle to space tourism investment involves legal issues. Contracts and other legal points of controversy can frighten investors away [14]. D. Inadequate Investment Cancelled Space Tourism Plans It is possible to consider a couple of cases where inadequate investment resulted in the cancellation of planned commercial space ventures. Four such examples of investment-induced ineffectiveness will be considered. Initially, in the 1980s Max Hunter attempted to begin commercial development of a vertical takeoff, vertical landing (VTVL) spacecraft vehicle named Phoenix, but the Pacific American Launch Systems company failed to obtain the necessary investment [15]. A German firm named MBB wanted to develop the Sanger turboramjet engines, but “MBB was unable to attract the required funding” [1]. MBB went out of business. Lockheed Martin tried to develop its VentureStar technology, investing $350 million corporate dollars into the project. A study commissioned by the U.S. Department of Commerce concluded, “Private investors viewed the project as too risky from a technology and market perspective.” This study also found that “Lockheed Martin, for example, was unable to find private backing for its VentureStar launch program, and many smaller firms have faced the same difficulty in securing adequate investment” [16]. A Russian space transportation project was imperiled midway through 2009 because of insufficient investment. Vladimir Nesterov, Director General of the Khrushchev State Research and Production Space Center, declared that “Hardware and testing-related costs, combined with the difficult worldwide

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financial climate, have been the real challenges.” As a result, “Russia’s Angara rocket needs a cash injection of billions more roubles to deliver the planned 2011 first flights of its 1.2 and A5 versions”. 3. SPACE DANGERS A diverse array of frightening yet fascinating dangers confront space travelers. These are not your everyday typical terrestrial terrors. Six primary space dangers will be identified, explained and quantified. These include: 1) Space weather, 2) Radiation, 3) Space debris, 4) Asteroids and meteors, 5) Outer space hazards and 6) Space traffic congestion. Table 2 quantifies these dangers. Table 2: Space Dangers Category Number

Category Name

Total Occurrence Frequency

1

Space Weather

8

2

Radiation

13

3

Space Debris

33

4

Asteroids & Meteoroids

22

5

Space Hazards

7

6

Space Traffic Congestion

12

Total

6 Categories

88 Total Occurrences

A. Space Weather Solar-caused space storms can cause serious space weather problems. A 2007 study reported that “Eruptions accompany the most intense solar storms. Space storms produce the most penetrating radiation” [17]. The Associated Press referred to “the more powerful but less common geomagnetic storms that can knock out satellites, harm astronauts in orbit and disrupt power and communications on Earth” [18]. Sietzen mentioned “space weather that could affect the safety of astronauts” [19]. The significance of space weather was signaled by a recent report in Aerospace America: Our planet is extremely vulnerable to solar activity, a sitting duck subject to bursts of highly energetic particles from our home star, the Sun. These

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incoming blasts have the potential to wreak havoc on both Earth and space operations. To protect ground and space-based assets against these barrages, and to protect space travelers from the accompanying radiation, government programs are seeking to gain a clearer view and better understanding of space weather [20]. Space storms are little-understood phenomenon. That is why the recent close observation of a solar storm across Canada elicited interest from space stakeholders. Dr. Jonathan Rae and a research team from the University of Alberta observed the space weather phenomenon in 2007. Magnetic ripples in the ionosphere traveling at speeds of 100,000 kilometers per hour were detected, along with a strong characteristic auroral display. B. Radiation Radiation exposure in outer space far exceeds the dosage received on Earth and there is a qualitative difference as well. “A passenger spending a few days in orbit will receive as much radiation as most people receive in a year on the ground,” Collins contended [21]. Van Pelt concurred and estimated that astronauts in low Earth orbit receive as much radiation in a week as most people are exposed to in a year on Earth [10]. But it is the quality or lethal nature of space radiation that concerns us the most. “Nonreplaceable and nonreproducing cells such as those in the spinal column are destroyed by ionizing radiation in space,” one study noted [22]. Van Pelt observed that the Sun periodically emits sudden bursts of extreme radiation, called solar flares, particle events or coronal mass ejections. These sporadic solar events result in massive doses of radiation, “thousands of milli-sieverts, up to 20,000, which could easily be fatal” [10]. A 2009 study emphasized “The need to protect astronauts from the harmful effects of space radiation in the form of energetic particles” [23]. Wolfe advocated “protection from cosmic radiation” [24]. Heppenheimer agreed, “There is danger from heavy atomic nuclei, such as iron, which stream in as high-energy cosmic rays. They destroy cells like hot needles as they pass through the body. Their effect on the brain is particularly damaging” [25]. Heppenheimer estimated that space travelers would lose ten per cent of their brain capacity after three years in space.

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The AIAA reported the fact that “Dangerous levels of radiation in space could bar astronauts from a mission to Mars and limit prolonged activity on the Moon” [26]. In late 2008, “Europe’s GIOVE-B navigation satellite suffered a complete shutdown of its functions Sept. 9 in what program managers now believe was what they call a ‘sudden event upset’ that was caused when its onboard computer failed after exposure to a temporary spike in radiation” [27]. Recent research revealed that a toroidal magnetic shield might be affixed to spacecraft to lessen the cosmic radiation threat [23]. American astronauts wore multisensor microdosimeter monitors to warn of excessive radiation exposure, thanks to work conducted at the U.S. Naval Academy and the National Space Biomedical Research Institute [28]. C. Space Debris Space debris was identified in a 1998 study as being a potential obstacle to space tourism. “Concern regarding space debris collisions was expressed,” concluded a joint study conducted by the Space Transportation Association and NASA [29]. How likely is such a collision? According to Ashford, more possible than we might prefer; one recent estimate claimed that a permanent space station would be struck by a one-centimeter particle about once every 200 years. He added that if there were one hundred space hotels in operation, one would be damaged every other year [1]. Another fact to consider—“There are approximately 2700 discarded satellites. We live in a world where the sky is already a celestial dumping ground, with orbital junk that may not come down for another 100 years,” Stefan Tiron argued [30]. The importance of space debris was made clear by its inclusion in a National Science and Technology Council fact sheet, “National Space Policy:” The United States will seek to minimize the creation of space debris. The design and operation of space tests, experiments and systems, will minimize or reduce accumulation of space debris consistent with mission requirements and cost effectiveness. It is in the interest of the U.S. Government to ensure that space debris minimization practices are applied by other spacefaring nations and international organizations. The

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U.S. Government will take a leadership role in international forums to adopt policies and practices aimed at debris minimization and will cooperate internationally in the exchange of information on debris research and the identification of debris mitigation options [31]. A March 13, 2009, incident at the ISS underscored the dangers of space debris. A section of a rocket motor five inches in length and about the size of a grapefruit came within three miles of the ISS at 20,000 miles per hour. The astronauts on board the station were evacuated to a safety module for eleven minutes. The AIAA called this event “the closest call ever in the station’s history” [89]. Reactions from NASA were varied and relatively low-key. Eugene Stansberry, NASA Orbital Debris Program manager, declared “We do take it very seriously. And the problem is getting worse, because there’s more stuff up there” [89]. The NASA Chief Scientist for Orbital Debris, Nicholas Johnson, added that “A particle as small as a fraction of an inch can disrupt or disable spacecraft operations” [89]. Kathy Bolt at NASA Mission Control noted, “It’s a low probability of a hit. However, the object is rather large, based on what we can track”. D. Asteroids & Meteors An asteroid equivalent to the Nagasaki atomic explosion hit in the mid-Pacific Ocean on October 1, 1990. Earlier, on February 12, 1947, an asteroid struck near Vladivostok, ten times as destructive as the Nagasaki bomb had been. Still earlier, the Tunguska, Siberia, blast from an asteroid walloped the largely-deserted tundra with twenty-four megatons of power [15]. According to Zubrin, “It is now conclusive that asteroid impacts on Earth have been responsible not just for the extinction of the dinosaurs but for other mass extinctions as well” [15]. Estimates of the current magnitude of the asteroid threat are unsettling. There are approximately 200 known asteroids whose path leads them near the Earth at some point, “and it is estimated that there are at least 2,000 of them out there.” There have been recent close calls, as Zubrin recalled: on March 23, 1989, a relatively small asteroid called ‘1989 FC’ darted by at a distance of 720,000 km., after plummeting through a point in space that was occupied by the Earth less than six hours earlier [15].

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In addition to asteroids, meteors deserve some consideration as well. Their potential for damage to space tourism facilities and space tourists justifies this attention. A seismometer left on the Moon by American Apollo astronauts has recorded “collisions of meteoroids with the lunar surface” [32]. E. Space Traffic Congestion Traffic congestion on Earth can be out-of-this-world. The result has been popularly dubbed, road rage. Similarly, the prime outer space real estate for satellites is relatively crowded and dense with occupants. “An actual saturation of the geosynch orbit, or shortage of desirable satellite location along its arc,” was described by Heppenheimer as far back as the late 1970s [25]. The congestion problem is exacerbated by the fact that satellite distribution is not even, but clustered in a few desired spots. They include the western U.S., a section above the Atlantic Ocean and another over central Asia [25]. More recently, continuation of the same trend was reported by Scientific American, “Low-Earth orbit is rapidly becoming a space enterprise zone, because satellites that close can transmit signals to desktop or even handheld receivers” [33]. F. Outer Space Hazards Space monsters have yet to be discovered in human exploration of outer space thusfar. Nevertheless, there are hazards intrinsic to the extreme and harsh environment of space to be reckoned with by tourists. Two kinds of space hazards will be considered: 1) Outer space environment and 2) Black holes. Space itself is an extreme and unforgiving environment. Conducting commercial operations like space tourism is still a new experience and the hazards are largely unknown. Ashford admitted that we might expect some unanticipated new hazards resulting from space operations [1]. For instance, an Iridium communications satellite inexplicably collided with a Russian satellite in 2009 [34]. “Black holes are anything but black,” one media account reported in 2006. It added, “So strong is their gravitational pull that nothing—not even light—can escape” [35].

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4. EXCESSIVE REGULATION Red tape plagues the space tourism industry. Excessive regulation is repeatedly singled out as an obstacle to space tourism development. FAA Commercial Space Transportation administrator Patricia Grace Smith noted that “The evolution of a vital and viable commercial space tourism business” requires “an acceptable regulatory regime” [36]. Why? Livingston supplied the answer; U.S. government agencies and Congress have created barriers to space commerce, and several obstacles can be attributed to American government laws and regulations [8]. A. American Space Tourism Regulation The U.S. government is the dominant culprit in creating excessive regulations. The Economist suggested that “Unfortunately, due to the eccentricity of American government regulations on the testing of experimental spacecraft, Virgin Galactic cannot receive any short-term payment from NOAA for its work” [37]. Dittmar concurred, adding that “In the case of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), agency execution of federal regulations and agency policies has sometimes had the unfortunate result of limiting or at least failing to enhance commercial enterprise associated with the nascent non-governmental spaceflight industry” [38]. Virgin Galactic President Will Whitehorn remarked, “A space sector ‘unlocked’ from government management and constraints could soon represent a large and viable business sector, as has happened with cell phones and the Internet” [39]. Hudgins concluded, “America’s general regulatory regime and that part of it in particular that governs commercial space activities is the principal barrier to the expansion of those activities” [40]. B. Negative Effects of Excessive Space Tourism Regulation It is frequently alleged, somewhat vaguely, that regulation is harmful. Seldom are specific regulatory burdens described, however. In this section five negative effects of space tourism regulation will be documented: 1) Regulation cancelled space tourism projects, 2) Regulation causes harmful uncertainty, 3) Regulation impedes new industries, 4) Regulation causes delays and 5) Regulation is costly.

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Past space tourism projects were cancelled due to the burdens imposed by regulation. For instance, J.P. Aerospace was refused a launch permit and lost business in 2000. Similarly, the 1982 launch of the private rocket Conestoga cost an additional (and unexpected) $250,000 and an extra six months to acquire necessary permits [41]. The British Broadcasting Corporation News (BBC News) reported, “For the most part, Rutan has stayed diplomatically silent about his dealings with the FAA. He is acutely aware that regulations could strangle the dream of developing a private space transportation industry” [42]. Any space tourism project is at the whim of regulators, “National and international regulatory issues will affect general public space travel and tourism significantly,” suggested the NASA/STA study [29]. Uncertainty in and of itself has detrimental consequences on business plans and operations and space tourism is no exception. Hudgins provided this testimony to the House Subcommittee on Space & Astronautics, “Further, the fact that the regulatory regime continues to change introduces uncertainty to a sector in which uncertainties in technologies are already a major problem. This uncertainty concerning the regulatory regime itself is a major barrier to investments and the expansion of private space activities” [40]. Jeff Greason, the CEO of Xcor, pointed to continual regulatory change, “The regulatory process never stops. Every couple of months there’s a new guideline, a new rulemaking or the revision of an old one, and you have to watch these things every minute” [43]. Dittmar added that “Emerging markets can be made or broken solely on the basis of the regulatory environment in which they are born. Similarly, changes in the regulatory environment can increase or retard technological adoption and diffusion” [38]. In light of the compelling case against regulatory uncertainty, no wonder that the House Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics of the Committee on Science noted, “Government’s role in developing a space tourism industry will be one of creating a stable regulatory environment” [44]. New industries necessitate special regulatory attention. If space businesses are to survive the impediments must be overcome. To the greatest extent possible the main obstacles to commercial space firms must not become incorporated into new

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laws and regulations governing space commerce, Livingston declared [48]. A recent study agreed, suggesting in addition that “Over-regulation can make it difficult for companies to make a profit” [44]. California Congressman Dana Rohrbacher championed the space commerce movement and introduced and secured passage of commercial space legislation [45]. “Regulation in a developmental area like commercial space is a means of strangling enterprise,” he claimed [46]. “There is a concern that too much regulation initially may stifle the development of this novel business,” Smitherman and McClure concluded [47]. Delays caused by regulation negatively impacted upon space tourism projects. Schmidt and Zubrin commented that OCST regulations necessitating safety inspections, clearances, permits, and approvals were extensive and expensive for each space launch operation, irregardless of the launch vehicle. These regulations might become problematic with frequent SSTO spaceship operations [11]. The Strom Thurmond National Defense Authorization Act of 1999 introduced new delays in commercial space projects involving international activity, and the effect was to “prohibit or seriously delay export approvals” [8]. Virgin Galactic suffered delays in order placement for the SpaceShip Two spacecraft because of U.S. export control laws known collectively as ITAR (International Traffic in Arms Regulations). Speaking of ITAR, Hudgins argued that “This law is harming the private space sector in general and certainly will hinder the emergence of private space travel” [40]. Elon Musk, CEO of SpaceX, also reported delays in international space tourism projects involving New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Canada [38]. Private space launches in the United States are governed by law and regulations. As a result there can be a lengthy delay between filing the application for permission to launch and the actual launch. This delay depresses the market for commercial launches, Berinstein contended [7]. Most recently, in January of 2007 the Spaceport America timetable was delayed for up to a year in part by an environmental impact study [14]. Cost is the final negative consequence of regulation. Regulatory compliance can be expensive. And that can make the difference between survival and failure for marginal firms in developing industries like commercial space tourism.

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“Commercial space entrepreneurs are concerned that the costs of complying with existing regulations for certifying passengers aboard aircraft would be too expensive,” Congress was told in 2003. Space pioneer Burt Rutan has claimed, “The cost of compliance could be ten times as great as the vehicle’s development costs” [44]. Zubrin agreed, adding that “A crowd of skunks capable of spoiling the space tourism picnic are standing by in the form of the Federal Aviation Administration and a host of other regulatory agencies,” which means that “This will no doubt be very expensive and time-consuming” [15]. Hudgins asserted, “The slowness of getting a launch approval from the DOT’s AST can be costly to business. Space businesses can be impaired by the AST’s bureaucratic restrictions, resulting in a loss of business as well as opportunity” [40]. “It resulted in cost overruns,” Burt Rutan told Congress when asked about the effect of FAA regulations [49]. A potential arrangement between Ariannespace and Northrup Gruman was approved by the U.S. Department of State in December, 2005, thirteen months after the deadline. The result was unfortunate for taxpayers, “NASA officials were repeatedly warned that the delay would cost millions of dollars” [3]. Back in 1982, Space Services, Inc. tried to test-launch a privately-built rocket, but had to get approval from six different agencies at a cost of $250,000, a price that probably looks like a bargain today [8]. 5. TRANSPORTATION DANGERS The dangers posed by space transportation systems were discussed in chapter three. I noted that rockets were a relatively unsafe method of transportation and quantified their potential lethal risk. Without repeating myself it is possible to underscore the gravity of the dangers involved in space transportation. Entrepreneur David Ashford conceded that there are some entirely novel hazards from high-speed space flight, including use of toxic combustible fuel, re-entry heating, instability and lack of control at high speeds and angles of incidence [1]. According to Zubrin the danger posed by space travel is different. Space travel necessitates the harnessing and use of a huge amount of energy. Any system that can generate such energy is potentially a terrible weapon of mass destruction with lethal potential in excess of the world’s nuclear arsenals [15]. The failure rate for rockets is between four and five percent, Tabarrok noted [50].

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6. MEDICAL & HEALTH CONSEQUENCES Space tourists must be mindful of the potential medical consequences of sojourning off-planet. The health effects might be severe. We will examine this topic in three ways: 1) Space medical and health risks, 2) The empirical space health record and 3) Nine major space medical health effects. A. Space Medical and Health Risks The quality of the health consequences potentially resulting from space tourism provides stark evidence of the risks encountered in that lethal environment. Space development advocate Albert Harrison referred to the standard risks of space travel, such as acceleration, deceleration, microgravity and cosmic radiation. These hazards can result in harmful biomedical consequences including the space adaptation syndrome, muscular deconditioning, suppressed immune systems, bone demineralization and radiation poisoning [50]. Extreme decompression in space could cause sudden death from the rapid evaporation of body fluids, which could happen if passengers and crew failed to wear pressurized suits. Also, exposure to low or no pressure, temperature and humidity extremes and reduced effectiveness of medications could be problematic as a result of space tourism activity [7]. A series of space-induced medical physiological effects was described by Van Pelt, who observed that space sojourners would experience twenty per cent reductions in blood plasma and red blood cells. Muscles might atrophy if space tourists neglect to exercise regularly and the heart may lose volume as heartbeats decrease. Bone mass is reduced approximately one per cent for each month in space due to lessened calcium in the body and kidney stones are more likely to form as a consequence. Magnesium is lost due to reduced bone and muscle mass. Two-thirds of spacefarers had space sickness, with disorientation another common space symptom [10]. B. The Empirical Space Medical Record Governmental space travel has documented space-related medical problems, to an extent. We can examine the health effects suffered by Soviet cosmonauts and American astronauts to identify potential space-related medical maladies.

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“One of the major issues concerning general public space travel and tourism (especially during early, relatively short duration trips), is the prevention and/or the amelioration of space sickness in ‘zero gravity.’ Nearly half of all people who have gone into space have experienced nausea and become ill because of the lack of gravity,” determined the NASA/STA study [29]. Because of the prevalence of this illness, the study concluded that “We must learn how to reduce, if not eliminate, general public passenger space sickness discomfort” [29]. Other research has corroborated these NASA/STA conclusions. For instance, Collins admitted that “Approximately half the people who have traveled on the space shuttle are said to have vomited within the first few hours of their trip” [21]. A similar assessment was provided by Van Pelt, “About two out of every three people going into orbit have had trouble with it” [10]. Most recently, an American astronaut named Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper “collapsed twice Friday, a day after she returned to Earth in the shuttle Atlantis” [51]. C. Nine Main Space Health Effects At the present time I have identified nine general categories of negative medical consequences associated with human space flight. It is unfortunately impossible for us to consider these nine broad varieties of negative health effects due to space limitations. Nevertheless, some information about the relative importance of these space-induced medical problems can be observed, in Table 3. Table 3: Main Health Consequences of Human Exposure to Space Category Number

Category Title

Total Occurrence Frequency

1

Radiation

13

2

Gravity

12

3

“Space Sickness”

10

4

Emotional/Mental

8

5

Motion Illness

8

6

Sleep Disorders

6

7

Space Adaptation Syndrome (SAS)

6

8

Acceleration & Deceleration

4

9

Time Orientation

3

Total

9 Categories

70 Total Occurrences

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7. LEGAL ISSUES Commercial space tourism involves a number of legal dimensions. The complexity of law at the global or intergalactic level should not be underestimated. This section examines: 1) Importance of legal issues in space tourism, 2) Adequacy of commercial space law, 3) Property rights, 4) Legal liability issues and 5) Space law resources. A. Importance of Space Tourism Legal Issues The tourism industry is particularly susceptible to consumer lawsuits. One recent story on tourism noted that terrestrial adventure travel has been characterized by lawsuits from tourists who suffered accidents such as falling from a horse or out of a raft. This litigious tendency portends increased financial risk for travel agents, tour operators and vendors. The possibility of expensive penalties must be addressed while considering the economics and practicality of space tourism [7]. Another study added that the contemporary legal environment poses several serious impediments to the commercial space industry. These obstacles include two categories of impediments, regulatory issues and legal liability [52]. B. Adequacy of Commercial Space Law The adequacy of the contemporary legal framework for space tourism is contested. Dunstan contended, “Some 40 years into the space age, we are still struggling with the optimal legal regime for the high frontier” [53]. The Sophron Foundation concurred, adding that because of the undeveloped condition of the commercial space tourism industry the situation is legally undetermined [54]. White disagreed, suggesting instead that “Existing national and international laws provide a rudimentary framework for commercial activities and settlement in outer space and on celestial bodies” [55]. C. Property Rights Property rights is a contemporary space tourism issue. Space property rights are significant [7]. A recent study of “Individual Rights and Property Rights” of general public space tourists concluded, “Potential tourist attractions in space may include

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captured asteroids or salvaged satellites. a legal framework should be in place before property rights’ issues arise” [56]. In an important recent study, Gangale criticized proposals to codify commercial space property rights, observing that “an outer space property rights convention is counterproductive” [57]. D. Liability Issues Concern over liability litigation could deter potential space tourism vendors. Space News recently addressed this issue in “The New Space Liability Myth: Why Lawyers Will Not Scuttle the Industry,” and concluded that responsible companies would not suffer unduly from liability litigation [58]. Young disagreed, expressing concerns over accidents, “But the potential for accidents could also create a cottage industry for personal injury lawyers,” she noted [59]. E. Space Law Resources Those stakeholders interested in commercial space law can avail themselves of a variety of helpful resources. Perhaps most important is the National Center for Remote Sensing, Air and Space Law at the University of Mississippi School of Law [60]. The Journal of Space Law has been published there since the 1970s. The International Institute of Space Law regularly conducts a session on the “Law of Outer Space” at the International Aeronautical Congress annual meeting. This topic has attracted a number of ad hoc resources, as well. For instance, the United Nations International Institute of Air and Space Law Workshop was convened at the Hague in 2002 [61]. More recently, the University of Nebraska-Lincoln conducted the “Space and Telecommunications Law Conference 2008” [62]. 8. PRICEPOINT The high cost of space delivery systems, rockets in particular, is a major impediment to commercial space development of all kinds. We have already learned that cost is a barrier to investment and it is also a factor in reducing public demand. Four pricepoint issues will be discussed: 1) Cost is a major barrier, 2) Pricepoint deters commercialization, 3) High cost and 4) Space tourism revenues fail to exceed costs.

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A. Pricepoint is a Primary Barrier Space tourism requires substantial investment and the result is a very high pricepoint. This substantial cost both deters supply and inhibits demand. Aldrin noted, “No progress has been made in solving the greatest obstacle to space development—the high cost of space access” [9]. The Futron Corporation asked why people would not consider space tourism and found that “Respondents most often cited that the trip was too expensive” [63]. The financial impediment remains the most influential factor affecting human space access. Without adequate investment the other factors are irrelevant. The basic problem is that space development is costly and the return on investment is slow [7]. Schmidt and Zubrin added that “The purchase price of a spaceship clearly is the significant economic driver” [11]. According to McCoy, numerous private firms are developing vehicles to take civilians to space, including companies like Mir Corp, Kelly Space & Technology, Pioneer Rocketplane and Space Adventures. McCoy added that these companies might be on the brink of developing reusable space vehicles or decades away from achieving this objective. These new technologies all appear feasible but unmet expense is still the problem [2]. B. Pricepoint Deters Commercialization The high cost of space access limits all space endeavors but private sector initiatives are especially affected. For-profit firms have no tax revenue and investment capital is scarce. That is why Van Pelt concluded that for entirely commercial ventures the initial expense of large-scale space tourism is the greatest impediment [10]. NASA administrator W. Michael Hawes concurred, adding “It is clear that the cost of space access must be lowered dramatically to realize the full potential of the space tourism market and commercial space endeavors in general” [64]. Another study suggested, “However, present costs are still too high to attract major traffic from such uses as low-priced passenger transit to and from space, space manufacturing, [and] rapid worldwide package delivery via suborbital flight” [65]. C. High Cost “Spaceflight is still very expensive,” admitted space advocate Van Pelt [10]. We have already learned from numerous sources in chapter three the reality that space

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access and travel is exceptionally cost-intensive. The eleven suborbital pricepoints identified ranged from $15,000 to $250,000 for suborbital flight, and orbital space tourists to date paid between $8.4 million and the current price in excess of $60 million. D. Space Tourism Costs Exceed Revenues An unfortunate combination of high cost and limited market is manifested in the space tourism industry at the present time. As a result revenue projections fail to match expenses resulting in a negative revenue projection. Perhaps this partly explains the investment difficulties experienced by space tourism entrepreneurs. In light of the expensive maintenance and refurbishment program applied to the space shuttle such vehicles could never convey tourists into space [10]. A study by Eilingsfeld and Abitzsch quantified the “price gap,” or “revenue gap,” at $50,000 per ticket, approximately 400% of the demand (cost) price [13]. 9. NEED FOR COALITIONS AND COOPERATION The commercial development of space is truly an international concern. Not only does collaborative space development reduce the costs to any single country, it is appropriate to consider space as a global and not a national prerogative. In this section we will consider six issues: 1) Cooperative efforts are necessary, 2) Coalitions must be international, 3) Coalitions must include both public and private sector involvement, 4) Coalitions must include the travel and tourism industry, 5) Private sector must take the initiative and 6) Problems with international space cooperation. A. Coalitions are Necessary Space tourism coalitions are absolutely necessary. Congressional testimony by Hawes suggested that “The challenge before NASA, the Administration, our International Partners, Congress, other governmental agencies, and the aerospace and tourism industries is to work together to enable space tourism” [65]. Berinstein agreed, adding that the commercial space industry needs to connect with the rest of the world and elicit greater involvement from salient stakeholders. Alliances, partnerships, joint ventures, coalitions and other collaborative arrangements including the widest possible spectrum of stakeholders are needed [7].

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In light of the difficulty of financing, planning and implementing space projects, cooperative action seems logical. Harrison asserted that space development requires the active involvement of physical, biological and social scientists, government and the private sector, technology developers and experts from the humanities, management and labor, different groups of space stakeholders and people from every nation [50]. B. Coalitions Must be International Commercial space development should be an international affair. “In order to reach the low launch costs needed to create a space tourism business, the economies of scale possible from accessing the entire global market will also be very important,” Collins et al. observed. Their study concluded, “Thus, from a business point of view, a collaborative, international civic project has the best possibility of success through supplying the global market” [66]. Former NASA Director Griffin realized, “Still another requirement for long-term leadership in space is the ability to build and maintain a strong international coalition of spacefaring nations” [67]. A recent study conducted by an international team of scholars (eight authors from five countries) decided that international space development is optimal space policy. “Future commercial and governmental space initiatives may often be so financially demanding, technically difficult and organizationally complex that they will require creation of international industrial partnerships” [68]. C. Coalitions Must Include Public and Private Sectors Aldrin advocated government/corporate partnerships. He suggested that a government-directed public/private partnership could develop the infrastructure needed for both planetary exploration and space tourism [7]. Aldrin added that a public/private partnership would be particularly helpful in developing the next generation of launch systems, with both commercial and civil aerospace functional capacity [9]. The day may soon be approaching when private sector firms cooperate with the federal government to offer public space travel and tourism services [2]. Each

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sector has something vital to offer in space development enterprises, Sarsfield noted, “The government has a role to play in developing advanced technology for launch systems, but the private sector is best suited to providing launch services” [69]. Flight International emphasized the value of public/private sector cooperation, “Spaceflight’s 2009 challenge is to realise (sic) the potential of government and private-sector programmes (sic) that progressed in 2008 to achieve greater future activity” [70]. A recent example of these partnerships involves NASA and PlanetSpace Inc., “Earlier this month, NASA entered into a deal with PlanetSpace Inc. to share technical information as the company attempts to develop rocket ships to ferry tourists” [71]. D. Coalitions Must Include the Travel and Tourism Industry It is vitally important that space tourism plans include the conventional travel and tourism industry. One study specified the necessity that “a complete spectrum of businesses and people become engaged; financial, airline, cruise, terrestrial travel and tourism, and aerospace” [29]. E. Private Sector Must Take Initiative We have discussed public/private partnerships to develop commercial space opportunities. In these coalitions it should be the private sector firms taking the initiative. Spencer and Rugg mentioned the need to accept the private sector as the primary agent and operator of the commercial space tourism industry [72]. F. International Space Cooperation Problems Cooperation has an instinctively nice cachet, a pleasant aura. And cooperating with those from other nations seems a very politically-correct and genuinely desirable thing to do. But it is not as easy to achieve harmonious international space activity as it may seem. There may in fact be substantial limits to effective international cooperative commercial space development. “But cooperation is not easy,” declared Jean-Jacques Dordain, Director General of ESA. He added, “Every time you work with a new partner the problems are different, especially the problems surrounding national interests, where you have to

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reconcile these with the common sense. There are problems of technology and structure, even at the most basic level, when a partner uses a non-metric system, for example” [73]. A Russian news agency (RIA Novosti) recently announced, “Russia and Europe will not continue the joint development of a new manned reusable spacecraft, an official from Russia’s space agency (Roscosmos) said”. The reason? The “approaches” taken by the partners are “very different” [74]. 10. INFRASTRUCTURE Space tourism infrastructure needs are quite comparable to those necessitated by modern airports. Take-offs and landings must be accommodated and ticketing and luggage handling facilitated. In the case of space tourism there are both terrestrial and outer space infrastructure requirements. Infrastructure issues have already been discussed in the chapters on the significance and insignificance of space tourism. At this point we will consider four infrastructure issues: 1) Infrastructure is needed, 2) Inadequate infrastructure, 3) Cost barrier and 4) Developing infrastructure needs. A. Infrastructure is Needed The importance of space infrastructure is beyond argument and a matter of consensus. However the full range of infrastructure needs is seldom realized. We will now consider five aspects of space tourism infrastructure: 1) Communications, 2) Ground facilities, 3) Rocket facilities, 4) Traffic control and 5) Commercial infrastructure. Communications needs must be addressed. “Greatly expanded communications efforts are needed to develop space travel and tourism groups and to promote entertainment in such related applications as movies, prizes, CDs and books,” one study asserted [29]. George Pavlik, Director of Space Systems for L-3 Communications East, concurred, adding “The communications infrastructure on ISS is just as important as the media products it enables” [16]. Space tourism ground services necessitate significant planning and development. The landmark NASA/STA study identified the required elements of “Ground support systems.” These include:

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Passenger transit facilities, such as lobbies, waiting rooms, amenities, lodging, parking. Cargo/luggage collection. Office/sales activities. Vehicle processing, including on-site transportation, positioning, repair and maintenance shops and facilities. Vehicle servicing, including cosmetic maintenance, fueling, cleaning. Passenger embarkation/disembarkation. Site logistics and facilities, including propellant storage and distribution systems, warehouses, hangars [29]. Rocket infrastructure must also be provided. Schmidt and Zubrin realized that commercial spacecraft and spaceports require services in addition to fuel supplies and maintenance and repair facilities [11]. A 2009 source added, “You have to have rockets capable of doing it, and you need to build infrastructure at both ends” [76]. Traffic control will be necessary. If there is a meaningful volume of space tourism activity the resulting flights will have to be protected by a traffic control system. An FAA administrator realized that “But when there are flights into space every day, twice a day, we will have to work out a traffic control system” [75]. A recent report observed “what several specialists see as an emerging issue for spaceflight in the twenty-first century: a need to overhaul the way people manage traffic in space” [77]. Commercial infrastructure will also be needed. The Space Review declared that “A commercial space transportation infrastructure is required to enable and sustain all our space goals” [78]. A recent article in Space News added, “The next Space Age is characterized by increasing national reliance on space infrastructure and an innovative, dynamic and profitable commercial space sector” [79]. B. Inadequate Infrastructure Information presented in chapter three indicated the inadequacy of the contemporary space tourism infrastructure. There is no need to repeat that information but additional information can be considered. The FAA described the need for radical change to revolutionize our space infrastructure, “To exploit space to the fullest, however, requires a fundamental transformation in U.S. space transportation capabilities and infrastructure” [80]. Another study examined “Ground infrastructure,” and concluded that “Existing infrastructure does not provide any similarity to commercial air travel in terms of access, comfort,

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efficiency, timeliness, availability, safety, cost, etc. Entirely new processes and hardware must be envisioned to even approach the features and environment now enjoyed by commercial airline passengers” [29]. C. Cost Barrier The biggest barrier to infrastructure is cost. Rockets, spaceports and related systems are quite expensive. The construction and development of Spaceport America, for example, is estimated at $170 to $230 million [52]. D. Developing Infrastructure Needs Infrastructure needs sometimes develop over time. In other words, after the initial capital outlays for infrastructure development there will be subsequent additional infrastructure needs arising over the years. Kohl noted that “There is likely to emerge a need for certain infrastructure services” [81]. 12. POLITICS There may well be a political variable in commercial space development. This study of politics in space tourism involves two topics: 1) Politics is a significant barrier to space tourism and 2) Politics affects space policy decisions. A. Politics Impedes Space Tourism Development The main contemporary challenge confronting commercial space pioneers is political, proclaimed one of those pioneers, Bristol Spaceplane’s Ashford [1]. A 2002 study of space tourism’s potential reached this decision--there exists adequate demand for commercial space tourism, but politics remains an obstacle without unequivocal policy direction [54]. Thompson suggested that “The space business has lost its way over the last generation because of a political leadership that has no vision for the sector and few scientific credentials for shaping one” [82]. B. Politics Affects Space Policy Decisions One thing is clear—politics definitely shapes space policy decisions. This fact of space tourism corporate reality was emphasized by Berinstein--significant political

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factors influence the commercial space industry [7]. Livingstone exemplified the effects of space policy politics, “Strong political pressures are likely to mandate the continued development and operation of the space station” [8]. The Bartlett Discussion concluded that “Space is a political issue before it is an economic concern. It not only reflects cultural agendas, but also unifies nations” [83]. Parabolic flight is another term for suborbital space travel. The Sophron Foundation observed how space tourism was obstructed by politics; parabolic flight provides a half-minute of weightlessness in high-altitude subsonic aircraft and NASA could have offered this service for over forty years. This was considered for a long time to be one of the most lucrative services to privatize. However, the political opposition of NASA and its political supporters derailed this possibility [54]. Politics affects both public and private sector space policy decisions. At the present time there is a worldwide rush to develop and market spaceports, and the site location decisions are subject to political considerations. McConnell asserted that “The very localized, regional space states—home to NASA centers and jobs—drive many major budget decisions at NASA and in Congress today” [84]. Political influence can even extend to the termination of space projects; the Space Exploration Initiative suffered a dramatic political demise [7]. 13. INADEQUATE TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGY Rocket launches have always been iffy. Two French Ariane rockets failed to take off, one in mid-1985 and another in May of 1986. That same month an American Delta missile launch was unsuccessful, exploding seventy-one seconds after liftoff from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. A year earlier a Titan missile launch failed from a military base in California [85]. Scientific American reported the same things about the 1990s. The initial Boeing Delta 3 exploded within seconds of launch from Cape Canaveral in August of 1998. Two weeks earlier a Lockheed Martin Titan 4A “had detonated” over the Atlantic Ocean east of Florida. European Arianespace “had a costly failure of a new launcher in 1996” [33]. Aldrin told the Congressional Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics that “Between late summer 1998 and spring 1999, the

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United States experienced three Titan IV-related failures and two Delta III commercial launch failures” [9]. More recently there were at least twenty-eight aborted or unsuccessful launches between 1960 and the present time, the vast majority since 2000. Considerable attention has already been paid to the space transportation technology issue in chapter three. The U.S. space gap has been discussed and the limited space access acknowledged. There is little doubt that contemporary space tourism opportunities are severely limited by transportation technology limitations. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Ashford, David. (2002). Spaceflight revolution. London: Imperial College Press, 6, 48, 53, 92, 96, 152. McCoy, Tidal W. (2002). Structure of the space market. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, pp. 137, 139. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. Iannotta, Ben. (2006, November). Turning space travel into tourism. Aerospace America, 44(12), 36. Aldrin, Buzz. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 30, 33, 45. Schlather, Mark. (2002). The legislative challenge in space transportation financing. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, pp. 196-97, 208. Poole, P.W. Jr. (2002). Is this any way to run space transportation? In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free- market frontier. p. 65. Berinstein, Paula. (2002). Making space happen: Private space ventures and the visionaries behind them. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company, 19, 50, 70-71, 122, 140, 149, 271, 345, 432. Livingstone, David. (2002). Barriers to space enterprise. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, pp. 64, 70, 72-74, 79, 81. Aldrin, Buzz, and Jones, R. (2002). Tourism and the future of space travel. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 187.

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Van Pelt, Michel. (2005). Space tourism: Adventures in Earth orbit and beyond. New York: Praxis Publishing Company, 7, 12-13, 43, 54-56, 77, 112-13, 203. Schmidt, Stanley, and Zubrin, Robert. (Eds.). (1996). Islands in the sky. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 12, 21-22, 253. Lampson, Nick. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 92. Eilingsfeld, F., and Abitzsch, D. (1999). The cost of capital for space tourism ventures. Conference Proceedings of the 51st International Astronautical Congress, 8-9. Webb, Andrew. (2007, January 8). Where in Albuquerque to buy a ticket to ride. Albuquerque Journal, p. A3. Zubrin, Robert. (1999). Creating a spacefaring civilization. New York: Penguin Press, 16, 43, 64, 131, 134, 215. D.F.I. International. (2002, December). Market opportunities in space: The near-term roadmap. Contract No. GS-10F-0184J. Office of Space Commercialization, U.S. Department of Commerce, 8, 22, 50. Blachowski, Thomas. (2007, December). Energetic components. Aerospace America, 45(12), 67. Associated Press. (2008, July 25). Study: Magnetic explosions cause northern lights. Albuquerque Journal, p. A2. Sietzen, Frank Jr. (2007, July). Home on the Moon. Aerospace America, 45(7), 32. David, Leonard. (2007, March). Space weather: Fury from the Sun. Aerospace America, 45(3), 30. Collins, Patrick. (2000, March). Space tourism: The key to the coming economic boom. Architectural Design, 70(2), 20. Matloff, Gregg, and Mallove, Eugene. (1989). The starflight handbook. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 170. Shepard, Simon G., and Shepard, John P.G. (2009, January/February). Toroidal magnetic spacecraft shield used to deflect energetic charged particles. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 46(1), 177-83. Wolfe, Howard. (2000, March). Space resort. Architectural Design, 70(2), 44. Heppenheimer, T.A. (1979). Toward distant suns: A bold new prospectus for human living in space. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 63, 149. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, April 1). Radiation concerns. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, October 2). Radiation spike forces European navigation satellite into safe mode. Daily Launch, 3. Morrow, Robert. (2006, December). Life sciences. Aerospace America, 44(12), 86. O’Neil, Daniel, Mankins, John, Bekey, Ivan, Rogers, Thomas and Stallmer, Eric. (1999, February). General public space travel and tourism. Volume 2—Workshop Proceedings, NASA/CP-1999-209146, 7-8, 10, 12-13. Tiron, S. (2005). The last frontier of tourism. 3. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.monochrom.at/space-tourism/ National Science and Technology Council. (2006, September 19). National space policy. Fact Sheet, 1-24.

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O’Neill, Gerard. (Ed.). (2000). The high frontier: Human colonies in space. Ontario, Canada: Apogee Books, 50. Beardsley, Tim. (1999, February). The way to go in space. Scientific American, 280(2), 8283. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, February 12). Russian, Iridium satellite collide in space. Daily Launch, 1. Fleck, John. (2006, April 25). ‘Black holes’ set deep space on fire. Albuquerque Journal, p. D1. Smith, Patricia Grace. (2000, June 26). Going public 2000: Moving toward the development of a large space travel and tourism business. 1. Retrieved on May 17, 2007 from http://ast.faa.gov/aboutast/speeches/2000June 26DCGoPub.htm. The Economist. (2008, October 4). St. Elmo’s fire: Some more steps towards the commercialisation (sic) of space, 86. Dittmar, Mary. (2006). A framework for government-commercial economics in the new space industry. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7206, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, April 7). Space business sector could grow, Virgin Galactic president says. Daily Launch, 5. Hudgins, E.L. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 4, 13, 81. Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). (2002). Space: Free-market frontier. 1, 7. Personal spaceflight revolution beckons. (2004, October 4). BBC News. 2. Retrieved on May 17, 2007 from http://news.bbc.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/sci/tech/3713102.stm. Foust, Jeff. (2005, May 16). Entrepreneurial space and policy. The Space Review. 3. Retrieved on April 12, 2006 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/357/1. Commercial Human Spaceflight. (2003, July 24). U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 4. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=9844. O’Neil, Daniel, and Young, L.B. (1999, February). Passengers, crew, life support and insurance considerations. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 19. Werner, E. (2004). Senate dispute may scuttle space tourism bill. Space.com. 1. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.space.com/news/spacetourism_bill_041014.html. Smitherman, David, and McClure, Wallace. (1999, February). Space transportation and destination facilities. NASA/CP-1999-209164, 8. BBC News. (2002, April 25). Questions & answers: Space tourism: Dream or reality?” 2. Tabarrok, A. (2004). Is space tourism ready for takeoff? Probably not. Tech Central Station. 1. Retrieved on January 3, 2006 from http://www2.techcentral station.com/1051/printer.jsp?CID=1051-111804C. Harrison, Albert. (2001). Spacefaring: The human dimension. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, xii, 271. Associated Press. (2006, September 23). Astronaut fine after collapsing. Albuquerque Journal, p. A9. Calhoun-Seneghor, Keith, Rappaport, Carl S., and Pace, Scott. (1999). Certification, regulation, legislative policies and environmental issues. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 29.

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[53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68]

[69] [70] [71]

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Dunstan, John E. (2002). Toward a unified theory of space property rights: Sometimes the best way to predict the weather is to look outside. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Freemarket frontier, p. 223. Sophron Foundation. (2002). Near-term prospects for space tourism. Interglobal Spacelines, 5, 11, 15. White, W. (2002). The legal regime for private activities in outer space. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: The free-market frontier, p. 83. U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 3-4. Gangale, Thomas. (2007). A limited international agreement on property rights. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA-6072, 1. Griffith, Doug. (2002, February 4). The NewSpace liability myth: Why lawyers will not scuttle the industry. Space News, 9(5), 1. Young, Kelly. (2006, October 19). Space tourism firms must face up to safety risks. NewScientist.com. News Service. 1. Retrieved on March 16, 2006 from http://space.newscientist,com/article.ns?id=dn10339&print=true. Vinyard, Todd. (2007, January 21). Space law center draws worldwide focus to Ole Miss. Djournal.com. Retrieved on December 19, 2007 from http://www.djournal.com/pages/archive.asp?ID=235553. United Nations Programme on Space Applications. (2002). United Nations/International Institute of Air and Space Law workshop. 1. Retrieved on December 19, 2007 from http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SAP/act2002/spacelaw/presentations/index.html. University of Nebraska-Lincoln. (2007). Space and telecommunications law conference 2008. Retrieved on December 17, 2007 from http://law.unl.edu/spacelaw/conference. Futron Corporation. (2005, December 30). New Mexico commercial spaceport economic impact study. Bethesda, Maryland: Futron Corporation, 34. Hawes, W. Michael. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 25-26. Marzwell, Neville. (1999, February). Financial, economic, business planning and market requirements to start a viable space tourism business. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 30. Collins, Patrick. (2006). Space future: The economic benefits of space tourism. JBIS, 59, 34, 10, 12. American Aerospace (2008, March). 46(3), 7. Eckert, Paul, Foley, Kevin, Sallaberger, Christian, Korn, Paula, Lavitola, Maria S., Makushenko, Yuri, Matsuyama, Koichi, and Richards, Robert. (2006). International industrial cooperation in space: A key to the future. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7525, 1. Sarsfield, Liam P. (2002). The arrival of tomorrow: NASA in the 21st century. In Hugdins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 38. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, January 14). Flight International makes predictions for 2009. Daily Launch, 1. Associated Press. (2007, February 23). NASA will consider working with Virgin. Albuquerque Journal, p. B4.

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Spencer, John, and Rugg, Nancy L. (2004). Space tourism: Do you want to go? Ontario: Apogee Books, 201. Hayes-Butterworth, Philip. (2008, November). Conversations with Jean-Jacques Dordain. Aerospace America, 46(11), 17. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, January 28). Russia, Europe no longer collaborating on manned spacecraft. Daily Launch, 3. Canan, James W. (2009, January). Conversations with George C. Nield. Aerospace America, 47(1), 18. Aerospace America (2009, September). 47(8), 19. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, March 14). Need to manage7space traffic discussed. Daily Launch, 2. Marketing space to the general public. (n. d.). The Space Review. 2. Retrieved on May 10, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/223/1. Fuller, Joseph. (2008, February 25). Message to presidential candidates: Space matters. Space News, 18(8), 42. Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. (2005, January). U.S. space transportation policy. Fact sheet. Kohl, Ronald. (2007). The space-based civilian workforce: What are their jobs, what is their training and where will they come from? Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6070, 1. Thompson, Loren. (2005). The faltering space sector: A mirror of America’s decline. VITAL SPEECHES OF THE DAY, 69(2), 77. The Bartlett Discussion. (2000, March). Space architecture. Architectural Design, 70(2), 87. McConnell, Kathleen M. (2007). The future of democracy and space: Increased democratization of governmental decision making. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6075, 2. Taylor, L.B. Jr. (1987). Commercialization of space. New York: Franklin Watts, 111.

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CHAPTER 5 The Secondary Impediments to Space Tourism Industrial Development Abstract: The secondary impediments to commercial space tourism were discussed in this chapter. Insurance for risky activities like space tourism was a significant issue. Insurance of various types was both required and costly. It was also difficult to obtain and thus a potential barrier to space tourism. The second secondary impediment involved standards. There were several types and a number of potential problems, such as who should set them? Risk perception was the third secondary impediment. The significance of risk perception was established, as risk perceptions inhibited space tourism and deterred investors. The lack of government support was another secondary barrier to space tourism. Governments did not support space tourism: instead, they sometimes obstructed space tourism. Inadequate public awareness about space tourism opportunities was noted. Public awareness was necessary: limited public awareness of space tourism was an impediment to space tourism demand and insufficient investor awareness inhibited investment. There was a prevalent perception that governments dominated space. In fact, governments have dominated space and there was a government attitude to control space. The popular public perception was that space belongs to government. The space tourism market remained unproven, another secondary impediment. It was thought that there was significant market potential. Stakeholder conflict was the eighth secondary impediment. There were basic questions, such as should space be developed? Other stakeholder conflicts involved ethics, space law, the environment, priorities, access, politics, intra-organizational conflict and cultural conflict. The final two secondary impediments were the supply/demand catch 22 and the NIMBY phenomenon.

Keywords: Brand, brand awareness, cultural conflict, International Space Society, liability, liability insurance, maximum probable loss, National Space Society, NIMBY, Office of Commercial Space Transportation, politics, priorities, risk perception, stakeholder, United Nations Outer Space Treaty, Soyuz, Spaceport America, space ethics, Suborbital Institute, supply and demand. 1. INTRODUCTION Successful development of a commercial space tourism industry is not imminent and certainly not a sure thing in the Summer of 2012. The global economic recession has cast doubt on the viability of many established businesses and produced a restrictive and volatile financial market for investors. It is a precarious time for those seeking to launch new businesses, with consumers reluctant to spend on all but the most essential items. Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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The secondary impediments to development of commercial space tourism will be examined in this chapter. These were not manifested as frequently as the eleven primary obstacles identified in the previous chapter, but they are nevertheless deserving of careful consideration. Any of these secondary barriers, alone or in combination, would be sufficient to derail optimistic space tourism development plans. The secondary obstacles to commercial space tourism industrial development include: 1) Insurance, 2) Standards, 3) Risk perception, 4) Lack of government support, 5) Insufficient public awareness, 6) Perception that space is the government’s domain, 7) Unproven market, 8) Stakeholder conflict, 9) Supply/demand catch 22 and 10) NIMBY. For more information on the relative significance of these obstacles see Table 1. Table 1: Secondary Impediments to Development of Commercial Space Tourism Category Number

Category Title

Total Frequency of Occurrence

12

Insurance

25

13

Standards

20

14

Perception that Space is Risky

20

15

Government Does Not Support

19

16

Lack of Public Awareness

19

17

Perception that Space is Government Domain

17

18

Unproven Market

15

19

Stakeholder Conflict

14

20

Supply/Demand Catch 22

11

21

NIMBY

2

Total

10 Categories

162 Total Occurrences; 1.62 Per Category

2. INSURANCE It seems ironic that insurance, which is intended as a means of documenting and providing financial responsibility in business transactions, could be an impediment to development of commercial space tourism. The availability and expense of insurance could be a major factor in the success or failure of this industry. To better understand the role of insurance in space tourism, five topics will be explored: 1) Insurance is a significant issue, 2) Insurance is required, 3) Insurance is costly, 4) Insurance is difficult to obtain and 5) Insurance is a barrier to space tourism.

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A. Insurance is a Significant Issue Insurance is an important aspect of commercial space tourism. D.F.I. International claimed that “Insurance concerns loom large as well. Currently, the United Nations Outer Space Treaty holds nations liable for any damages wrought by their space activities. Yet once a vibrant commercial launch business develops, companies will have to take responsibility. The potential financial liability is enormous, however, and insurance may be prohibitively expensive or entirely unavailable” [1]. Hamill, Mangan and Kearney observed, “Industry uses insurance to indemnify risk. Users of public facilities like the Space Station can be required to carry insurance that covers liability for any damage to the ISS or crew. This shifts the burden of insuring safety compliance to a commercial company that would presumably work with the hardware developer to insure that risk is minimized in a cost-competitive way” [2]. Will Whitehorn, President of Virgin Galactic, admitted that New Mexico was chosen for a spaceport location because “To have nobody on the ground under the flights will be helpful for liability-insurance reasons” [3]. “Another area of concern is the important one of insurance and the viability of coverage,” Marzwell added [4]. B. Insurance is Required There is another reason to consider insurance significant to space tourism—it is required. Participants in the X-Prize competition, for instance, must be adequately insured [5]. Taylor noted the reality that “Many companies, especially the young, entrepreneurial types, could not survive such a catastrophic event without insurance,” and as a result “One industry that is expected to develop by leaps and bounds in the immediate years ahead is space insurance” [6]. One source noted that “Insurance isn’t just a good idea. Financiers require it” [5]. The National Space Society referred to “government requirements for liability insurance,” and “the liability conditions specified in the Outer Space Treaty” [7]. C. Insurance is Costly “In the beginning rates are going to be very high. They are going to be very high,” declared Raymond Duffy, Senior Vice-President at Willis Inspace [8]. A report in Space News suggested that “Policy costs will be extremely high until companies

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fly without incident at least three times” [8]. O’Neil et al. predicted as much a decade ago, “Passenger, vehicle and crew insurance could become available, but it would be expensive until transports are proven to be reliable by repeated usage over time” [9]. A 2005 study added that, “Insurance availability is limited and premium expenses for private space launches are high” [10]. The National Space Society believes that liability insurance requirements are an excessive expense: Liability insurance premiums are one of the largest cost components of an individual launch vehicle mission, averaging about ten percent of the total cost. Since the reason for this is primarily due to poor launch vehicle reliability, improving reliability should decrease insurance premiums; however, the need for such large liability coverage needs to be questioned. Most, if not all, launch accidents happen in restricted zones and yield little if any collateral damage, yet government requirements for liability insurance are based on worst-case scenarios that have not happened in the entire history of rocketry [7]. D. Insurance is Difficult to Obtain “All commercial space entrepreneurial ventures are anticipating that they will be able to purchase third-party liability insurance,” a Congressional investigation noted [11]. However, that anticipation may be frustrated by the reality of unavailable space tourism insurance. Bretton Alexander, an executive at tSpace and president of the Personal Spaceflight Association, observed that “We want to make sure insurance is available, that it’s affordable and that [the industry] can withstand an accident” [12]. “Today, the commercial aviation insurance industry is not willing to provide liability insurance for RLVs up to the FAA-determined maximum probable loss (MPL),” it was recently suggested [13]. Reifert noted the difficult decisions Incredible Adventures faced when offered unaffordable insurance premiums to indemnify zero-gravity flights aboard the Russian Space Agency’s IL-76 MDK vehicle [14].

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E. Insurance is an Impediment to Space Tourism Because of the high cost and unavailability, insurance poses an impediment to space tourism developers. “The insurance industry and the lack of a distinct FAA regulatory regime are some of the key obstacles to the growth of the suborbital RLV industry,” according to a statement from the Suborbital Institute [13]. The Sophron Foundation concurred, “Any rational space tourism entrepreneur (and even more importantly, his/her investors) will be concerned with insurance and liability issues” [15]. A recent story in Space News noted that “The personal spaceflight business— also known as space tourism—will face high hurdles from the insurance business in its early years, according to several industry experts” [8]. 3. STANDARDS The promulgation and codification of appropriate standards and regulations governing space tourism is a critical concern for this emerging industry. To better understand the role of standards in the space tourism context, six main topics will be considered: 1) Standards are needed, 2) Types of standards, 3) Problems with standards, 4) Who should set standards, 5) Government standards and 6) Industry standards. A. Standards are Needed Standards are needed to govern rocket safety, space tourism firm services, space tourist qualifications and a host of other aspects of this dangerous business. A Congressional committee concluded that “Some basic standards are essential, however, and needed by those wishing to insure and finance their space endeavors. Basic licensing for commercial activities, certification of space ships and their operators and safety requirements and building codes will help establish a clean and safe record for all involved, and help the industry avoid disasters” [16]. Another study noted “The establishment of initial suborbital flight regulations and the establishment of the rules of the road, standards, and regulations that industry needs to follow, are also required” [17]. “We need to begin to look at what we can do from the governmental perspective to support space. Setting standards and creating a level playing field just as happens on Earth is the first thing to do,” Buzz Aldrin told Congress [18]. Aldrin

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added, “The fact is that the time has come to open space to the American people. And to do so, we need to set standards. Standards need to be set for visitors to the Space Station” [18]. The same Congressional hearings featured the testimony of commercial space advocate Rick Tumlinson, who called for “non-political and realistically achievable minimum standards for professional guests who need to visit Alpha. Seriously, real standards should be set, and soon” [16]. The X-Prize Foundation concurred, noting that “The group of entrepreneurs believes that adherence to new and rigorous safety standards that go beyond the letter of the law will be essential to promote the safety and growth of the industry. Accordingly, the group has expressed its intent to initially focus on standards and procedures in areas critical to vehicle safety, medical requirements and training for passengers and crew” [19]. B. Types of Standards There is a wide variety of standards salient to space tourism. D.F.I. International concluded, “The hurdles to building a space tourism industry are not just technical. There are regulatory, legal, insurance and of course financial challenges as well. Any passenger launch vehicle would have to receive government certification” [1]. Smitherman and McClure mentioned two types of standards; “physical/medical screening” of passengers, and “standards, codes and certification need to be modeled after existing Earth-and space-based facilities and transportation systems” [20]. The Sophron Foundation suggested the establishment of initial regulations for health concerns that should be promulgated before the beginning of regular commercial space tourism services for the general public [15]. C. Problems with Standards Standards, regulations and laws are necessary, of course, but each is limited. Circumstances vary tremendously from situation to situation and it is difficult to create standards salient to all scenarios. For instance, sometimes stakeholders hold opposite or irreconcilable stakes, “It will be important to craft standards for flight testing that provide adequate protection of public safety while taking into account the economic and technical challenges of new vehicle development,” D.F.I. International concluded [1].

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All of the space tourists to date were adequately trained before they flew into space but this will change, Harrison warned. He added that the space tourism industry cannot develop if too many potential paying customers are disqualified [21]. After Dennis Tito flew to the ISS on the Soyuz spacecraft, “The situation brought about by the Tito flight highlighted that the existing guidelines for crew selection were inadequate. The Space Station Multilateral Crew Operations Panel (MCOP) is working to define criteria for selection, training, assignment and certification of future crew,” noted the House of Representatives Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics [22]. D. Who Should Set Standards? This is perhaps the single most important detail of the space tourism standards debate. Who sets the standards? Industry representatives lobby vigorously for input into these decisions if not the right to make the choices themselves. In light of the self-interest inherent to stakeholder status, the standard-setter has tremendous power. Some favor industrial domination of standard-setting systems. O’Neil and Young suggested that “Industry should take the lead in developing standards, policies and regulations that ensure the safety of passengers without crushing the profit potential” [23]. Others prefer a more active governmental role in the creation of standards. Congressman Nick Lampson asked Rick Tumlinson during the space tourism hearings, “Who should set the safety and reliability standards to be met by the space tourism industry? Anybody?” Tumlinson replied, “There is a real role there for government.” He added, “The fact is that the government has a role in setting those kind of standards. Just as it does on a cruise ship or even if you wanted to do in the—compare to the experimental aircraft industry, for example. So there is a government role in setting those sort of standards” [16]. The FAA concurred with Tumlinson: The Secretaries of Transportation and Defense shall establish common public safety requirements and other common standards, as appropriate, for launches from Federal and non-Federal launch sites. The Secretaries of Transportation and Defense shall coordinate these requirements with

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the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and other departments and agencies as appropriate. The Secretaries of Commerce and Transportation shall encourage, facilitate and promote U.S. commercial space transportation activities, including commercial human space flight [24]. E. Government Standards Different entities within the American government have set standards regarding space travel. We will consider space tourism standards of NASA and FAA. Tito testified to Congress regarding NASA standards: However, space travel is not routine and continues to pose significant risks. In order to carry out our responsibility to ensure the well-being of the general public and our astronauts, NASA maintains and will continue to maintain strict design and operational safety requirements, including criteria for the selection, training and certification of Space Shuttle and ISS crew members. These requirements and precautions still need to be carefully controlled, even as we welcome opportunities for space tourism [25]. An important interchange on the topic of space tourism standards occurred on June 26, 2001, during Congressional hearings. Congressman Nick Lampson asked Dennis Tito a typically lengthy Congressional question: Okay. Let me ask you this one. In a—in an April 14 Associated Press article, you are quoted as saying that “Dennis Tito is probably the best person alive to open up tourism, to set the example, to actually set the criteria. We shouldn’t have private individuals like the character John Candy in the comedies who comes in with plaid shorts and his goofy or Chevy Chase character.” You go on to say that, “Space Station guests should be serious.” “Not just wealthy people looking for a joyride.” However, in your testimony, your talk about free market capitalism allows any of us with a dream to know that no challenge is too difficult or goal too lofty. Which is it? Should flights go to the highest bidder or should somebody be empowered to set standards of good taste and seriousness? [25].

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Tito’s answer struck the middle ground between unrestricted capitalism and government regulation: I totally agree with NASA that standards have to be set. And that people have to be qualified. Flying into space, again, as I said earlier, is not something like stepping onto an airplane and taking off. So, yes, criteria have to be established and that is what NASA is doing. Given that one meets those criteria and those criteria are reasonable, that they don’t—the bar isn’t as high as would be required for a Shuttle Commander. Then it should go to the highest bidder. That is the free market. That is capitalism [25]. The FAA is responsible for commercial space tourism standards at the present time. The Office of Commercial Space Transportation (AST) was transferred to FAA in 1995, and it is responsible for licensing both rocket launches and launch sites under Title 49, U.S. Code, Subtitle IX, Sections 70101-70119. The FAA published “Human Space Flight Requirements for Crew and Space Flight Participants: Final Rule,” on December 15, 2006 in the Federal Register. This initial space tourism regulation set standards for crew, space vehicles, passengers, informed consent and financial responsibility. F. Industry Standards Commercial space proponents requested input into the creation of the standards governing their new industry. And they have created their own industry associations to assist in the promulgation of space tourism standards. CBS News reported that “Space entrepreneurs formed a group last month called the Industry Consensus Standards Organization to set their own safety standards for space fliers” [26]. The Personal Spaceflight Association was created to “act as a form of self-regulation.” PSA is similar to “the International Standards Organization (ISO), which sets standards and practices for technology management” [27]. 4. RISK PERCEPTION It is not so much the actual danger levels associated with space tourism but perceptions of risk that matter. Potential space tourists will make their decisions

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based upon their perceptions of the risks involved no matter what the actual risk may be. This analysis of the risk perception impediment to space tourism includes four subjects: 1) The significance of risk perception, 2) Public risk perception deters space tourism, 3) Investor risk perception deters investment and 4) Risk perceptions can be changed. A. The Significance of Risk Perception We know that human beings respond not to reality but to their perceptions of reality. It is fair to state that perceptual reality is more consequential then actual reality in terms of people’s decision-making heuristics. D.F.I. International realized that “The space industry’s challenge is as much about perception of risk and reward as it is about solid business plans” [1]. The Space Review observed, “Manned suborbital spaceflight is still a new and risky endeavor. Understanding these risks and figuring out how to mitigate and cope with them will be one of the key challenges the industry faces” [28]. Some level of risk is an undeniable factor of space tourism. “Even after the technologies needed to make travel and tourism affordable have matured and the systems have been developed, tested and deployed, uncertainties and risks will remain,” O’Neil et al. suggested [29]. Rick Homans, a New Mexico state government official involved in the early stages of Spaceport America, observed that “The lay person thinks this is a rocket going into space. kinda with a lot of risk” [30]. “Space travel is an intrinsically risky activity,” the Futron Corporation concluded [31]. The difference between real risk and risk perception was discussed by the National Space Society: In addition to the real measurable risks associated with launch vehicle reliability, both the private and public sector have been led to believe that outer space itself is inherently dangerous, because of (1) the ‘effects of weightlessness,’ an artificial risk created by government space agencies’ preoccupation with micro-gravity, an environment not conducive to humans; (2) space radiation, a true hazard whose risk has been

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temporarily heightened by the short-term need to make spacecraft walls thin to reduce launch weight [7]. B. Public Risk Perception Deters Space Tourism The grim specter of potential catastrophe creates the perception that space tourism is risky. Schmidt and Zubrin observed, “However, the bad news is: Perceived risk is high” [32]. “It’s not just financial risk that worries the likes of Lockheed and Boeing. People are horrified at the thought of death and injury these days, much more so than they were in the past,” Berinstein contended [5]. Van Pelt concurred, adding “Not many people will be comfortable making a space flight that is 10,000 times more dangerous than flying on an airplane” [33]. Anders Lindskold wrote a Master’s Thesis on space tourism and space commercialization. He investigated “the reasons why people are not interested in going to space,” and found that “about 1/3 said safety was their main concern” [35]. C. Investor Risk Perception Deters Investment Risk perceptions not only inhibit space tourism demand but they leave investors unconvinced of the attractiveness of commercial space investment opportunities. That was the conclusion of the NASA/STA study, “The perceived level of risk and uncertainty in a general public space travel and tourism venture will, of course, have a direct bearing on the availability and cost of money for that venture” [9]. Jay Coleman promoted sponsorships for the X-Prize competition, and he noted that “Sponsors, most of the time, are risk-aversive. For a lot of corporate America, and a lot of other sponsors around the world, the question always came back to the risk: what if something doesn’t work?” [28]. D. Risk Perception Can be Changed One of the premises of the American advertising and public relations industries is the belief that public attitudes and behaviors can be altered by strategic communication. This may be necessary to alter public risk perceptions. O’Neil and Young observed, “Many people will be afraid to go to space, and the public will have misconceptions about space travel. Through education, advertising and public relations demonstrations, general PST and tourism interests could put space travel into proper perspective as has been previously done for land, air and water

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trips” [23]. Calhoun-Senghor, Rappaport and Pace advocated that space tourism proponents “Assure Congress, the media, the financial community and the public that the business is safe” [34]. 5. INADEQUATE GOVERNMENT SUPPORT The lack of governmental support is an obstacle to the development of this industry. “By their reluctance to adopt low-cost spaceplanes and space tourism, NASA and other space agencies have become the biggest obstacles to true space commercialization,” Ashford contended [36]. Research by Smitherman and McClure found that “The Government needs to take a proactive approach to promote general PST and tourism.” They concluded that “A change to the administration’s space policy that would identify general PST and tourism as a national goal would go a long way toward eliminating barriers” [20]. Four issues ought to be considered: 1) Government does not support space tourism, 2) Government opposes and limits space tourism, 3) Government poses an obstacle to space tourism and 4) Government support would be beneficial to the space tourism industry. A. Government Does Not Support Space Tourism “I have to say that NASA’s refusal to actively encourage passengers on the Shuttle is a major hurdle,” proclaimed Aldrin in Congressional testimony [18]. Ashford added there is persuasive evidence that national governmental space agencies are uninterested in low-cost space access in general and space tourism in particular [36]. In agreement was Berinstein, who recalled that after four decades of space flight America has no regulatory program to facilitate space tourism [5]. The impediments to space business are consequences of the way that important space policies fail to assist the space commerce private sector, Livingstone noted. He added that it is readily apparent that the commercialization of space is not very important to the United States government. This perception influences the business community and other important stakeholders to similarly devalue private sector space initiatives [37]. The attitude behind governmental lack of support for space tourism was discovered by Collins, “The truth is that NASA and other space

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agencies, and the policy-makers who decide their budgets and oversee them, have no interest in making space accessible to the public” [38]. B. Government Opposes and Limits Space Tourism The landmark joint study on space tourism conducted by NASA and the Space Transportation Agency was clear and convincing in describing governmental opposition to space tourism, “The Government’s control of these technology investments is seen as a general barrier to PST and tourism business creation because the Government seems primarily interested in lowering the cost of existing launch services to meet present needs, and not in opening new markets such as general PST and tourism” [20]. According to Collins, the fledgling commercial space tourism industry suffered from government treatment, “In the face of resistance from space agencies, it cannot get started” [39]. Not only do American governments limit commercial space tourism, but so do governments elsewhere. The U.K. Department of Trade and Industry Select Committee issued a report criticizing the British National Space Centre, because “The BSNC had previously blocked funding of Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd.” [40]. C. Government Poses an Obstacle to Space Tourism “Perhaps the biggest snag is the government itself,” The Economist recently suggested [41]. Hudgins agreed and added, “Since the beginning of the Space Age, the activities of NASA, U.S. government policies, and international treaties have systematically hindered or barred many private space endeavors. The past two decades have seen numerous policies struggle to free the private sector, some successful, some not” [42]. D. Government Support Would Benefit Space Tourism The commercial space tourist industry would benefit greatly from the cessation of government opposition and neglect. Even better would be the prospect of proactive governmental assistance and support. American astronaut-emeritus Aldrin agreed, adding “Until NASA becomes an advocate for space tourism, or Congress intercedes and mandates the DoD or NASA to develop reusable space transportation. the current establishment structure will not produce what we need” [18].

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6. LACK OF PUBLIC AWARENESS The general public in 2012 is unaware of the existence of the embryonic space tourism industry. There is not widespread understanding that citizens can take space flights. Four main topics will be considered at this point: 1) Public awareness of space tourism is necessary, 2) Limited public awareness, 3) Lack of awareness is an obstacle to space tourism and 4) Awareness is necessary for investment. A. Public Awareness of Space Tourism is Necessary “Worldwide awareness and support” were considered necessary to space tourism industrial development, according to Spencer and Wolff [43]. Subsequent research by Smitherman and McClure corroborated Spencer and Wolff’s findings; they recognized the immediate need to “initiate a nationwide awareness campaign on the potential for PST and tourism” [20]. The National Aerospace Development Center noted, “Creating public awareness is critical in the advancement of realizing a new era of opportunity in aerospace” [44]. Another team of scholars concluded that there is a need to “inform the general public about space travel and tourism possibilities; such communications should focus on the idea that ordinary people—not just astronauts—should be able to go on a space trip in the relatively near future as a result of government-private sector cooperation.” This study recommended that “A carefully planned public relations and merchandising campaign is needed to improve public awareness of this opportunity” [9]. B. Public Awareness is Limited The lack of public awareness about the possibility of commercial space tourism presents a problem. According to McCoy, “The conclusion reached by many of our civil space leaders regarding this clearly negative absolute and relative trend is that the electorate is insufficiently and/or inaccurately informed about the space program’s activities and value” [45]. A recent publication on space architecture in Architectural Design noted that “Few people are aware that space travel for ordinary people is imminent, and even when presented with the arguments, many seem unable to accept the idea” [46].

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“A long-term integrated development effort. building worldwide public awareness and support,” is necessary, Spencer and Wolff contended [43]. Andrew Case, a Director of The Suborbital Institute, claimed that “We need to raise awareness of this emerging high-technology industry” [47]. Interest in space tourism is not a barrier but inadequate awareness does inhibit demand, “Polls consistently find that public interest in going to space continues to be large, real and widespread. However, few realize that it is possible,” O’Neil et al. suggested [9]. One study recommended “Closing the gap between brand awareness which is strong and brand appreciation (and understanding of NASA) which is low” [48]. C. Lack of Public Awareness is an Impediment It stands to reason that if potential space tourists are unaware of the current tourism possibilities they will not avail themselves of them. According to a recent media report, “Patti Grace Smith, associate administrator for the FAA’s office of commercial space transportation, indicated passenger awareness is one of the ‘hurdles’ in the way of making space travel as routine as aviation” [49]. Reifert concurred, adding that “One of the greatest obstacles to opening space to the masses lies in a lack of general knowledge as to what’s possible” [14]. D. Awareness is Necessary for Investment A consistent theme in this study has been the investment barrier to space tourism industrial development. And awareness is a factor in investment because the investment community appears to be inadequately informed about commercial space investment opportunities. Commercial space pioneer Gerard O’Neill recalled, “Wall Street is slowly becoming aware of the new industries space may deliver and is watching with wary expectations as it ever so slowly starts to mature” [50]. “Many in the investment community have a low awareness of the space industry,” suggested John Higginbotham, Chairman of SpaceVest [1]. It is clear that the financial industry is in need of education on commercial space. Collins suggested, “From market research, it is known that space-tourism services will be immensely popular, but most people, including investors, still have no idea how feasible they are. Additional publicity is therefore needed” [39].

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7. GOVERNMENT DOMINATES SPACE Outer space has been the purview of nation-states since the beginning of space exploration and governments have dominated space. There is a widespread perception that space is the domain of governments and off-limits to civilians. We will examine this barrier to space tourism in three ways: 1) Governments have dominated space, 2) Governments want to own space and 3) Public perceptions of space as governmental property. A. Governments Have Dominated Space It is true that governments have controlled space. “For nearly 50 years, space was the domain of nation states,” D.F.I. International recalled [1]. “Governments rather than private parties own the ISS. If an American citizen offers NASA money for a ride to the station, a number of problems would arise,” Hudgins testified to Congress [42]. Lewis added that “In general, the Outer Space Treaty assumes that domination of space activities by governments that characterized the 1960s was a permanent feature” [51]. “The growth of the commercial space industry has been limited by government regulations,” recalled Congressman James Sensenbrenner. He added, “Historically, we’re used to governments dominating space activity” [50]. A recent piece in Aerospace America noted “NASA’s current monopoly on American’s dreams of flying in space” [52]. B. Governments Want to Control Space The governmental attitude favors preservation of their dominion over space. That was the conclusion of the Sophron Foundation, “It should be recognized that there are some (though by no means all, or even a majority) within the U.S. government who view space (or at least the human spaceflight segment thereof) an exclusive province of (federal) science and national security, and private-sector activities of any kind as interlopers” [15]. The governmental preference for exclusive space control is not confined to the U.S. Ashford noted that the needed changes in government attitude are substantial and should not be taken for granted. Governmental space agencies will have to relinquish their monopoly over space policy [36].

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C. Public Perceives Space as Governmental Property The public has been conditioned to accept space as belonging to governments yet space is not “the exclusive province of governments” [4]. Legal scholar Dunstan noticed “the overarching impression of the public that space remains the domain solely of government entities,” and concluded, “Only by changing this fundamental belief can space entrepreneurs hope to convince the public markets that investment in space tourism is sound” [53]. Maryniak agreed, adding that “The public expectation that space flight is the province of government is nearly universal and tends to frame the discussion of the future of space activities” [54]. The Sophron Foundation observed a strong connection in American public opinion between NASA and space [15]. This study optimistically concluded that the contemporary equation in the public mind between national governments and space policy ought to diminish over time, which should improve significantly the possibility of developing markets and attracting investors [15]. The same situation was reported in the U.K., “We have become so used to the idea that space travel is expensive, risky, suitable only for the super fit—and of necessity a government monopoly—that it is difficult to imagine ‘everyday’ space activity” [36]. Tumlinson added that “Our culture has completely bought into the idea of an elitist, government run space program” [16]. 8. UNPROVEN MARKET Supply and demand. In general, demand for a product or service must exist before supply can be created. At this point, we will consider three main factors concerning space tourism demand: 1) Inadequate proven market, 2) Significant market potential and 3) Pricepoint inhibits demand. A. Inadequate Proven Market Size Formal and informal market surveys conducted in Japan, Europe and the United States over the last two decades have hinted at the existence of space tourism demand. Without such an obvious market there is insufficient incentive for space tourism firms to invest significant resources. “Although these studies indicate that the market for space tourism could be in the billions of dollars per year, it has yet to materialize,” according to Congressional testimony [22]. O’Neil et al. contended that

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“Major uncertainties that will affect the initiation of general public space travel and tourism business start-ups include: market demand and elasticity” [9]. There remains ambiguity concerning the actual bona fide space tourism market. That is why a Congressional committee concluded, “A variety of market surveys and forecasts suggest a difference of opinion on the future prospects of public space travel. Early market research on the demand for space tourism indicated the general public’s interest in traveling to space. While the findings were promising, these surveys did not indicate a potential market” [11]. Smitherman and McClure referred to “a consensus that more detailed market surveys were needed before major investors would be willing to advance the large sums” [20]. B. Significant Market Potential Initially, we might take cognizance of the space tourism market potential. One study concluded that eleven million Americans stated their intention to become space tourists if the price were equivalent to one year’s salary. Another study found that half a million space tourists would sign up for a $50,000 trip [9]. C. Pricepoint (Cost) Prevents Market Formation The high pricepoint of space travel restricts formation of a large space tourism market and limits spaceflight to professional astronauts, Van Pelt asserted [33]. Another study agreed, noting that “Commercial demand is also inhibited by the high cost of space access. The cost of launch, at $10,000 per pound, has traditionally been cited as the major contributor” [2]. Hudgins offered a similar perspective in Congressional testimony, “Surveys by the Space Transportation Association and other groups and scholars suggest that a majority of Americans would take a trip into space if they could afford it” [42]. 9. STAKEHOLDER CONFLICT In light of the diversity of space tourism stakeholders and the oftentimes vastly different nature of their stakes it should not be unusual to discover instances of stakes conflict. A recent analysis identified the types of key NASA publics as including Congress, space policy leaders, the aerospace industry, the media, NASA itself, educators, children and the general public [48]. McConnell referred

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to “a traditional set of players and intermediaries,” including industry, academia, technical associations and the military [49]. She added, “Several thousand of these interested parties and organizations have been catalogued in informal databases and in a Directory of Space Actors” [49]. Harrison observed government agencies, scientific organizations, industrial firms and a variety of other constituencies whose legitimate interests NASA must accommodate [21]. Sometimes these stakeholders perceive conflict between their interests and those of others. Each of these space commerce stakeholders has its own needs and perceptions, Harrison noted, and they frequently are mutually exclusive [21]. Berinstein referred to the fact that individuals and groups possessed very different opinions, with totally differing perspectives on issues such as cost, whether the public or the private sector should take the initiative and whether or not space hazards are prohibitive for space tourists. The irreconcilable must be reconciled for space enterprise to succeed [5]. The FAA admitted that “There’s always a challenge in writing regulations and attempting to please different constituents be they the public, industry or the safety community” [55]. Nine types of space tourism stakeholder conflict have been identified and exemplified. They include: 1) Should space be developed?, 2) Space ethics, 3) Space law, 4) The environment, 5) Priorities, 6) Intra-organizational conflict, 7) Access, 8) Politics and 9) Cultural conflict. A. Should Space be Developed? The initial type of stakeholder clash involves the economics of outer space tourism. Should space be developed, and is space tourism an appropriate commercial enterprise? And if so, who will provide the space tourism services? It is a simple matter of economics. The big question for some—should space be developed? Is space tourism a beneficial recreational option or a dangerous temptation? There are strong feelings on both sides. One source neatly summarized the position advocated by the opponents of space tourism, “I’ve had some people object because they don’t like the idea of injecting capitalism and private enterprise and private property and profit into what should be holy and pure, such as space exploration” [5].

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B. Ethics Ethics is an appropriate and primary consideration in any human endeavor. When ethics issues are ignored or paid insufficient attention problems oftentimes result. Space tourism ethics issues need to be identified, researched and unequivocally addressed in space tourism public policy and corporate practices. At this time the nearest thing to space ethics in the space community is public policy analysts, Berinstein suggested. Fyfe believed that this will result in suboptimal appreciation of the ethical aspects of space tourism development [5]. There currently are no organized professional space ethics programs. However, space policy analysis necessitates some ethical consideration. It should be impossible to conduct a policy analysis without noting the ethical aspects [5]. C. Space Law Conflict may be inevitable when it comes to space law. The stakes are serious ones and stakeholders may be motivated to pursue their interests in any possible venue. That would certainly not exclude litigation. Human activity in space is regulated by a number of international treaties. Most notable are The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1967), The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1972), The Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched Into Outer Space (1975) and The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. D. Environmental Issues There is some environmental opposition to commercial space development. The notion of commercial space development infuriates environmentalists and other stakeholders of the opinion that we ought to leave space alone [5]. Zubrin noted the result of human space development, “Humans will go to the outer solar system. If they are successful, they conquer the frontier that is their only true home, and a frontier conquered is a frontier destroyed” [56].

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E. Priorities This was an issue since the beginning of the American space program. Space exploration and development is very expensive and there are always competing priorities. Critics of the space program chide NASA for being an expensive luxury of little practical benefit. “Our society today is willing to make huge investments only if a near-term payback is expected or if some urgent need, such as a ‘war on poverty’ or national security, is served. What the U.S. government spends on social causes, including social security, would pay for a million-dollar starship in 3 years,” one source concluded [32]. Aldrin was asked, “Some people believed that it was more important to feed the poor than send a man to the moon. Having experienced the lunar environment, do you feel that the Apollo programme (sic) was worth the massive funding it received?” “Yes it certainly was,” Aldrin replied. “At the time, there was no greater goal, and our achievement has yet to be matched in any field of endeavor, in my opinion. Our effort spurred a technological and educational push that led to incredible advancements. I believed then, as I do now, that our nation can afford to fulfill social as well as technological and educational leadership responsibilities” [57]. F. Space Access Who gets to go to space? Questions of access are inevitable. And some in the federal government have taken a most restrictive and uncharitable perspective on the access question. Interglobal Spacelines Inc. described how the attitudes of government officials could limit access to space. It must be admitted that there are some space specialists within the American government who consider outer space to be their exclusive domain and who consequently regard private-sector initiatives of any kind as misdirected [15]. G. Politics Politics appears to be an inevitable aspect of organized human existence. The space movement has been affected by politics. Unfortunately, the political effect on commercial space development was seldom beneficial.

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The American experience with the ISS served as a case in point. Bob Walker, part of the American team working on the ISS project, recalled that “When we finally got to what would become the International Space Station (ISS), we ran into a series of problems. Many of them were not created by NASA, many were created on Capitol Hill. These conflicts reduced some of the capabilities that we had hoped the station would have” [58]. H. Intra-Organizational Conflict The next instance of stakes clash is a most pernicious one as it resides within one agency. And perhaps importantly this tendency has been observed specifically regarding space tourism in a federal regulatory agency—the FAA. It is charged with advancing the interest of two potentially conflicting stakeholders, commercial space firms and the public and safety advocates. This is because the FAA is responsible both for promoting the space tourism industry and regulating such activity to guarantee the public safety and otherwise protect the public interest. Transportation Secretary Norman Mineta recognized these dual roles in 2006, “We have an important role to play in ensuring the safety of commercial spaceflights, especially for passengers,” he stated, adding that “But we also have an obligation to encourage innovation and support new developments” [59]. Patti G. Smith, FAA’s Associate Administrator involved with space commercialization, agreed with Mineta. She added that “Our first concern will be the safety of the uninvolved public, making sure that as this thing grows and develops that we’re doing everything we can to protect the folks on the ground, to make sure that the people who go into space understand the risks. It will be a risky business for many years to come, no doubt” [60]. Henry Hertzfeld, a Senior Research Staff Scientist at the Space Policy Research Institute Center for International Science and Technology Policy at George Washington University, also recognizes and deplores the dual FAA role, “I believe the time has come to separate these activities. Promotion of U.S. industry has traditionally been the province of the U.S. Department of Commerce. If the DOT/FAA is to regulate space without conflict, the promotional activities should be transferred elsewhere” [61].

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I. Cultural Clash Sometimes in a moment in time at a certain place cultures come together. These encounters frequently result in cultural clash, as recently occurred during commercial space activity. Manuna, Brazil, was the scene of a conflict in 2008 involving villagers who “farmed communally, played drums made of tree trunks and revered spirits in the wilderness,” the AIAA Daily Launch reported [62]. A roadblock was manned by approximately sixty villagers carrying machetes and scythes seeking to prevent development of “an aging rocket base into a worldclass space center” [62]. A judge issued an injunction preserving the villagers’ rights pending investigation into land titles. A similar encounter took place in Palaverkadu, India, in January of 2009. Local fishermen were prevented from going to sea during recent launch activity surrounding the Chandrayaan-1 space mission. Sometimes the fleet was grounded for three weeks at a time. The fishermen requested that the Office of the Assistant Director for Fisheries at Ponneri compensate them for their losses [63]. 10. SPACE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT CATCH 22S The space tourism industry faces a conundrum or two in its struggle for development. O’Neil et al. referred to “the chicken or egg problem,” where investment in space tourism awaits industrial development yet that development presupposes prior investment [29]. Ashford offered a similar perspective, “A catch-22 must be overcome. Low-cost space transportation depends on maturity, whose development depends in turn on a commercial incentive, which depends on high traffic levels, which depends in turn on space tourism” [36]. “Developers have not found a way out of the launch vehicle ‘Catch 22 trap:’ 1) individual launch costs can only be greatly reduced by spreading the huge cost of launch vehicle development over a large number of flights; 2) the market to demand a large number of flights can only exist once individual launch costs are greatly reduced” [7]. Congressional testimony referred to “the ‘catch-22’ situation in which many commercial space ventures have found themselves. In essence, the industry’s ‘supply’ elements—low cost, reliable, human-rated space transportation and the financial backing for the technology—will not materialize until its ‘demand’—a clear market—becomes evident” [22].

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A ‘circular’ circumstantial scenario was postulated by O’Neil et al. “As is often the case in the creation of a new kind of business, issues and arguments tend to be circular: both markets and financing are dependent on each other already being in place” [9]. Congressman Bart Gordon noted that “We have not had any meaningful space tourism without highly reliable, as well as low cost transportation. And we won’t have a space tourism industry until the private sector demonstrates the ability and financial commitment to build and operate commercial space vehicles and habitations both safely and affordably” [22]. One particular conundrum paired low-cost transportation with mass markets for space tourism. On the one hand mass markets depended on transportation, “To enable the development of broadly-accessible, ‘mass markets’ for public space travel and tourism, new, much lower-cost and much higher safety/reliability transport vehicles are needed” [9]. Yet rocket manufacturers were reluctant to invest until the market existed, “The space launch market must be of sufficient size for a new vehicle to secure a high enough number of flights to amortize development, production and associated costs” [64]. 11. NIMBY The Not-In-My-Backyard phenomenon, popularly referred to as NIMBY, designates situations where local residents object to the location of a public facility in their neighborhood, or literally in their back yard. The undesired entity may be an airport, a jail, a solid waste dump or anything else someone might not want to live near. In some cases space tourism facilities may be considered NIMBY material. The infrastructure required for space tourism could result in placement of spaceports, factories or related structures adjacent to residential neighborhoods. The problem is that these facilities might interfere with the environment. For instance, as one study noted, “For rockets, the rocket exhaust produces a very high characteristic noise level, and for flights in departure or return, the impact of supersonic shock waves must be considered” [29]. This study added that “Explosions, caused by the uncontrolled combustion of propellants, may produce a blast with the potential of causing damage by crushing forces and wind. Debris.

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may land upon structures in populated areas, and fires where the uncontrolled combustion of propellants results in heat, or thermal radiation, must be controlled. Toxic vapors must be eliminated” [29]. At this point in the lifespan of this emerging industry the NIMBY phenomenon is not a major factor in the U.S., because the launches have all occurred in Russia. But if this industry develops as expected in the U.S. these issues will become salient. One study noted, “Very many more rocket launches will heighten concern about launch site noise and atmospheric pollution, and heighten concern regarding space debris collisions. These concerns must be realistically addressed” [29]. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

D.F.I. International. (2002, December). Market opportunities in space: The near-term roadmap. Contract No. GS-10F-0184J. Office of Space Commercialization, U.S. Department of Commerce, 11, 23, 31. Hamill, Doris, Mangan, Philip, and Kearney, Michael. (2002). Space commerce: An entrepreneur’s angle. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, pp. 156, 163. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. Reid, T.R. (2005, December 15). N.M. plans launchpad for space tourism. WashingtonPost.com. 2. Retrieved on January 2, 2006 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/12/14/AR2005121402340_pf Marzwell, Neville. (1999, February). Financial, economic, business planning and market requirements to start a viable space tourism business. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 31. Berinstein, Paula. (2002). Making space happen: Private space ventures and the visionaries behind them. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company, 8, 129-30, 161, 349, 371, 429. Taylor, L.B. Jr. (1987). Commercialization of space. New York: Franklin Watts, 103. National Space Society. (n. d.). About us. 6-7. Retrieved on January 3, 2007 from http://www.nss.org/about/index.html. Clark, Colin. (2008, February 11). Space tourism insurance to be expensive. Space News, 19(6), 15. O’Neil, Daniel, Bekey, Ivan, Mankins, John, Rogers, Thomas, and Stallmer, Eric W. (1998). The prospects for general public space travel and tourism. NASA/STA. NP-199803-11-MFSC. Volume One: Executive Summary, 7-10, 12-13, 15.

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Arrowhead Center for Business, New Mexico State University. (2005). Business plan for the Southwest Regional Spaceport, 20. Commercial human spaceflight. (2003, July 24). U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 3, 5. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=9844. David, Leonard. (2007, February). Private spaceflight industry foresees steady progress in 2007. SPACE.com, 1. Morris, Jefferson. (2003, February). Trade association promoting suborbital RLV market. Aerospace Daily. 1-2. Retrieved on April 29, 2007 from http://tgvrockets.com/press/aerospacedaily.htm. Reifert, Jane E. (2006). Everything I know about space tourism I learned from Russia. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7476, 2, 6. Sophron Foundation. (2002). Near-term prospects for space tourism. Interglobal Spacelines, 3, 9-10, 64. Tumlinson, Rick. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 65, 68, 91. Space Future. (n. d.). General public space travel and tourism volume 2: Workshop proceedings. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.spacefuture.com.pr/archive/general_public_space_travel_and_tourism. Aldrin, Buzz. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 33, 64. X-Prize Foundation. (2005, January). Space entrepreneurs resolve to create industry group to promote safety standards and growth of the personal spaceflight industry. News Release, 1. Smitherman, David, and McClure, Wallace. (1999, February). Space transportation and destination facilities. NASA/CP-1999-209164, 4, 8-10. Harrison, Albert. (2001). Spacefaring-The human dimension. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 98. U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 4. O’Neil, Daniel, and Young, L.B. (1999, February). Passengers, crew, life support and insurance considerations. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 20-21. Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. (2005, January 6). U.S. space transportation policy. Fact Sheet, 7. Tito, Dennis. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 68, 80, 26. CBS News. (2005, February 10). Space tourism risky business 1. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/02/10/tech/printable672890.shtml. Leahy, Bart. (n. d.). The new age of space advocacy: Enter the professionals. SPACE.com., 5. Foust, Jeff. (2004, October 4). Dealing with the risks of space tourism. The Space Review, 4. Retrieved on March 11, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/239/1.

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O’Neil, Daniel, Mankins, John, Bekey, Ivan, Rogers, Thomas and Stallmer, Eric. (1999, February). General public space travel and tourism. Volume 2—Workshop proceedings. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 2, 6. David, Leonard. (2006, January 2). New Mexico spaceport—Getting down to business. 4. SPACE.com. Retrieved on January 3, 2006 from http://www.space.com/news/060102_nm_spaceport.html. Futron Corporation. (2002, October). Space tourism market study: Orbital space travel & destinations with suborbital space travel. Bethesda, Maryland: Futron Corporation, 26. Schmidt, Stanley, and Zubrin, Robert. (Eds.). (1996). Islands in the sky. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 9, 193. Van Pelt, Michel. (2005). Space tourism: Adventures in Earth orbit and beyond. New York: Praxis Publishing Company, 9, 38. Calhoun-Seneghor, Keith, Rappaport, Carl S., and Pace, Scott. (1999). Certification, regulation, legislative policies and environmental issues. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 34. Lindskold, Anders. (1998/99). Space tourism and its effects on space commercialization. Master’s Thesis: International Space University, 3. Ashford, David. (2002). Spaceflight revolution. London: Imperial College Press, 14, 57, 124, 149-50. Livingstone, David. (2002). Barriers to space enterprise. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 70. Collins, Patrick. (2006). Space future: The economic benefits of space tourism. JBIS, 59, 2. Collins, Patrick. (2000, March). Space tourism: The key to the coming economic boom. Architectural Design, 70(2), 19-20. Spencer, John, and Rugg, Nancy L. (2004). Space tourism: Do you want to go? Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books, 36, 175. The Economist. (2007, April 21). Commercialising (sic) space. 383, 14-15. Hudgins, E.L. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 3, 11-12. Spencer, John, and Wolff, Howard. (1999, February). Early precursors. NASA/CP-1999209146, 36, 175. National Aerospace Development Center. (2006). Our programs, 1. McCoy, Tidal W. (2002). Structure of the space market. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 132. Armstrong, Rachel. (2002). Architectural Design, 70(2), i. The Suborbital Institute. (2005, February 10). Suborbital spaceflight news. 1. Retrieved on March 20, 2007 from http://www.suborbitalinstitute.org/news.html. Garver, Lori, and Williams, Robin-Marie. (2006). When perception becomes reality. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 20067311, 10. McConnell, Kathleen M. (2007). The future of democracy and space: Increased democratization of governmental decision making. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6075, 2. O’Neill, Gerard. (Ed.). (2000). The high frontier: Human colonies in space. Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books, 160, 165.

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Lewis, John S. (2000). Asteroid resources, exploitation and property and mineral rights. In O’Neill, Gerard. (Ed.). The high frontier, p. 143. Jones, Thomas D. (2006, October). Aerospace America, 44(10), 25. Dunstan, James. (2002). Towards a unified theory of space property rights. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 224. Maryniak, Gregg. (2002). When we will we see a Golden Age of Flight? In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 14. Space.com. (n. d.). FAA sets up plan for spaceflight permits. MSNBC.com. Retrieved on April 12, 2007 from http://www.msnbc.com/id/7983128/print/1/displaymode/1098/ Zubrin, Robert. (1999). Creating a spacefaring civilization. New York: Penguin Press, 181. Aldrin, Buzz. (2000, March). Questions and answers with Buzz Aldrin. Architectural Design, 70(2), 32. Walker, Andrew. (2004, October 4). Unknown future of space tourism. BBCNEWS. 1. Retrieved on March 16, 2007 from http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3715002.s MSNBC.com. (2006, February 9). Key year in space tourism timeline: 2008. Transportation secretary says his agency is ready to issue test licenses. 1. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11260973/print/1/displaymode/1098/ Smith, Patricia Grace. (2000, June 26). Going public 2000: Moving toward the development of a large space travel and tourism business. 1. Retrieved on May 17, 2007 from http://ast.faa.gov/aboutast/speeches/2000June 26DCGoPub.htm. Commercial Space Watch. (n. d.). Debate on space tourism heats up in Congress. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.comspacewatch.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=12957. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, October 8). Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, January 26). Daily Launch, 4. Aldrin, Buzz, and Jones, Ron. (2002). Tourism and the future of space travel. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, p. 179.

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CHAPTER 6 The Role of Strategic Communication in the Development of Commercial Space Tourism Abstract: The development of the commercial space tourism industry was not inevitable. Although a potentially profitable enterprise for several stakeholders, there was absolutely no assurance that commercial space tourism would take off. This chapter initially assessed the alleged inevitability of commercial space tourism by applying five factors. Initially, we sought to ascertain whether an industry existed at the present time in dichotomous terms, yes or no? The relative degree of development was the second criterion used to consider the inevitability of space tourism industrial development. Next, timeline estimates for the arrival of the commercial space tourism industry were accumulated and arranged on a chronological continuum. The fourth criterion involved the existence of substantial impediments to realization of space tourism enterprises; eleven primary impediments and ten secondary obstacles were identified and quantified. Fifth and finally the fact that some impetus was necessary to facilitate and catalyze commercial space tourism was documented. The second main section of this chapter suggested that strategic communication promoted commercial space tourism development. Two rationales supported this conclusion: there were communication solutions to space tourism impediments, and communication could be used to provide the impetus for industrial initiatives. The final section of this chapter described its transitional nature. The first part of this book documented space tourism impediments. Now the second section will demonstrate strategic communication solutions.

Keywords: Advertising, ATV, Augustine Commission, commercial space tourism development, communication function, communication tactic, elite market, impediment, impetus, investor relations, lobbying, marketing, persuasion, public awareness, public awareness campaign, public opinion, public relations, social influence, SpaceShip Two, strategic communication, supply elasticity. 1. INTRODUCTION This chapter is a transitional chapter between the two main parts or sections of this book. The initial chapters dealt with the desirability of commercial space tourism industrial development, and whether or not the contemporary space tourism industry could be characterized as being significant or consequential. The last two chapters documented a series of twenty-one impediments to the development of commercial space tourism. But our focus now changes because strategic communication will be the topic of the rest of this book. Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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By strategic communication I mean planned, purposive professional communication, such as that produced by the public relations, advertising and mass communication industries. We will examine in detail the strategic communication practiced to date on behalf of both commercial firms and nonprofit space advocacy organizations. Space tourism communication will be our focus after this chapter, not space tourism itself. Three main topics will be examined in this chapter as we analyze the role of strategic communication in facilitating the development of the commercial space tourism industry. They include: 1) Space tourism development is not inevitable, 2) Strategic communication promotes space tourism industrial development and 3) Transitional chapter. 2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL SPACE TOURISM IS NOT INEVITABLE The commercial space tourism industry may or may not develop into a mature, fullscale mass-market enterprise. One thing is certain—there have been and remain significant impediments to commercial space tourism, and the industry will not develop naturally or spontaneously. Space tourism is not inevitable. To appreciate the tenuous nature of this potential industry’s chances of survival and prospering, five main topics will be considered: 1) Does space tourism exist--Yes or no?, 2) Degrees of development, 3) Timeline, 4) Impediments and 5) Impetus is needed. A. Yes/No? An initial way to test the inevitability of commercial space tourism—does it already exist, in some substantial manner? If there are already strongly suggestive antecedents, it is more likely that we could consider space tourism inevitable. The simplest way to test the reality and vitality of something is to ascertain if it in fact exists. Sometimes this can be achieved using a crude dichotomous test, like, ‘Yes or No?’ But answering this question with respect to commercial space tourism is difficult and perhaps too complex to be reduced to an either/or situation. In 2012, is there a meaningful space tourism industry? That depends, to offer an equivocal answer. A half-dozen paying tourists have enjoyed orbital space tourism, and hundreds have taken supersonic jet excursions

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to the Earth’s upper atmosphere, experiencing a minute or two of weightlessness. But is it fair to claim that this represents a viable commercial space tourism industry? I am inclined to be skeptical on this point at this point in time. While there is certainly some limited space tourism capability at the present time, the impediments are overwhelming and large-scale mass-market commercial space tourism is still somewhere in the future. And while there is and has been considerable commercial space tourism progress there is at present no mature space tourism industry or well-established popular track record. B. Degree of Development Maybe a dichotomous, yes-or-no measurement of commercial space tourism is inappropriate. After all there have been a half-dozen orbital and many more suborbital space tourists and ambitious plans are underway in several countries. Those facts make it difficult to completely negate the existence of some commercial space tourism activity at the present time. But there is an alternative way to assess the vitality of the commercial space tourism industry—the degree of development. The current era of commercial space tourism was dubbed the ‘elite market.’ At a price tag of between $20 million and $64 million seats on Soyuz rockets are not inexpensive. Clearly only the very wealthy can currently afford space tourism. Commercial space tourism could become a popular, ‘mass-market’ venture. If launch costs can be reduced significantly it is quite likely that thousands or millions of people might desire to sojourn into space. That degree of development of commercial space tourism is the optimal scenario for most stakeholders who promote and maximize the industry. C. Timeline Plato warned against writing. One of his reasons was the permanence of the written word and the problems it could cause the writer later. Predictions are an especially problematic genre of written communication, and the question of when space tourism industrial development might occur elicited a very wide range of estimates. We will consider eight types of estimates: 1) Elapsed estimates, 2) “Very soon,” 3) 2012, 4) 2013, 5) 2014, 6) 2015, 7) 2020 and 8) 2025.

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Elapsed Estimates Some entrepreneurs were perhaps too optimistic when they estimated that commercial space tourism would begin to take off as early as 2003. Time Europe reported in 2000 that “128 potential passengers have plunked down a refundable deposit of $6,000 to fly on Space Adventures' suborbital flights, which are to begin sometime between 2003 and 2005” [1]. This story added that “Industry experts predict that regular suborbital tourist trips will be operating by 2004 and that large-scale and affordable tourism to orbiting hotels is less than 20 years away” [1]. Space and Tech is an Internet source which noted in March of 2003 that “Space Adventures reports that 100 candidates have already signed up for suborbital flights. Test flights for the C-21 are expected to begin by 2004. The first tourist flights of the vehicle are planned for 2005-06” [2]. One space tourism market study showed that commercial space tourism would begin in 2006 and that it would reach full market maturity within 40 years [3]. At least two companies, Rocketplane Incorporated and Starchaser Industries Limited, said they would begin launching tourists into space by 2006 but the companies have since pushed back those dates to 2008 and 2009, respectively. The FAA observed that Starchaser Industries had “plans to begin flight operations from the Southwest Regional Spaceport as early as 2006” [4]. One Internet source noted of Virgin Galactic, “The current goal is to begin flights in 2007” [5]. The FAA reported that “Space Adventures expects to offer suborbital flights by the 2007 timeframe” [4]. A chart prepared by the Office of Commercial Space Transportation showed that the “estimated first operations flight” for Virgin Galactic, Rocketplane Ltd. and Xcor Aerospace was expected in 2007 [4]. In 2004 it was predicted that space tourism vehicles “may be ready for flight in 2007 or 2008” [6]. According to a former U.S. transportation secretary, 2008 was going to be a successful year for space tourism. Then-Transportation Secretary Norman Mineta said, “This timeline isn't based on science fiction. It is a timeline based on the reality of where commercial space is today and where we expect the state of commercial space to be within two short years” [7]. It was reported in 2006 that

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“Virgin Galactic plans to begin operations in 2008, first launching out of Mojave, Calif., before moving to Spaceport America south of Truth or Consequences in 2009” [8]. “2008 really will be the year of the spaceship,” Sir Richard Branson proclaimed [9]. Virgin Galactic said in 2005 that it would be sending tourists up into space by 2008 and that by 2020 it would have seen more than 100,000 passengers per year [8]. A spaceblog named The Leading Edge contended that “Virgin Galactic is the first real commercial offering. If everything goes according to plan they will be up and running in around 2008 offering you a space flight for a mere $200,000 (US)” [10]. Several estimates of the initiation of commercial space tourism services predicted that such tourism would begin in 2009. Chang noted that “If all goes well, Virgin officials say, the spaceship will be unveiled by early next year, with the maiden commercial launch in 2009” [12]. USA Today reported that Virgin Galactic “plans to build space-faring aircraft to take rich people on two-hour suborbital voyages at $200,000 a ticket, starting in 2009” [13]. “The personal spaceflight industry is on track for test flights of SpaceShip Two in 2008, with the first commercial flights in 2009,” suggested a story in Aerospace America [14]. A 2007 newspaper account noted that Virgin Galactic “plans to begin two-stage launches of small craft from Spaceport America to the edge of Earth’s atmosphere by the end of 2009” [15]. John Gedmark, Executive Director of the Personal Spaceflight Federation, stated in 2007 that “We anticipate these activities will lead to vigorous flight testing in the following year, with the first commercial suborbital passenger flights in 2009” [16]. Would commercial space tourism really begin in 2010? That was the expert opinion of a half-dozen very knowledgeable sources. For instance, The Washington Post reported, “Virgin expects to be launching three seven-passenger flights per day over New Mexico by 2010” [17]. The Economist suggested that Blue Origin will have both cargo and human-rated space transportation, and “SpaceX’s programme (sic) includes being able to deliver cargo and crew to the International Space Station by 2010” [18]. “Virgin Galactic hopes to be flying customers by 2009 or 2010 at an estimated $200,000 a ride,” according to USA Today [19].

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“Going operational is now pegged for 2010,” Aerospace America reported about Spaceport America [20]. A 2009 piece in Aerospace America included this estimate; “Right after 2010” [11]. Robert Bigelow has offered a $50 million prize to the first company to travel to his space module by 2010 [21]. 2011 was the year that Virgin Galactic was supposed to initiate space tourism, according to a 2010 media report [35]. 2011 was also indicated by Romo’s journalistic work as the beginning of Virgin Galactic’s commercial space tourism services [36]. “Very soon” “Very soon” is a relatively imprecise time frame. Nevertheless, because of the expertise of a source using that very term, we include it as well. George C. Nield was Associate Administrator for the Office of Commercial Space Transportation at the FAA. In January of 2009 he offered his opinion about the imminence of space tourism, “the beginning of commercial human spaceflight, of suborbital space tourism. Our office is working with a half-dozen companies right now.” He concluded, “Its going to happen very soon, in the next three or four years” [11]. 2012 A couple of commercial space transportation vehicles are scheduled to become operational in 2012. But 2012 is also expected to be a significant year for space hotels. FAA administrator Nield noted that Bigelow “envisions having stations on orbit by 2012 that you can get to if you have rockets to ride” [11]. In October of 2009, “Space Adventures said on Friday it will be able to send two space tourists into orbit on Soyuz spacecraft from 2012 onwards,” the Russian news agency RIA Novosti reported [37]. Virgin Galactic is also likely to initiate space tourist activity in 2012 [38]. Rick Homans speculated about a 2012 start on Spaceport America space tourism operations [39]. 2013 The Independent, a British newspaper, has publicized developments involving an unnamed U.K.-based aerospace technology developer. In 2008 it reported preparation to “launch the biggest rocket ever flown in this country, the experiment being a waymark on the journey to realize a grand plan of putting tourists into space by 2013” [22].

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Bigelow Aerospace Director Mike Gold testified to the Augustine Commission that his firm could produce “a stripped-down version of NASA’s future spaceship. as soon as 2013” [40]. Bigelow might encounter competition. It was reported in 2009 that, “An international spaceflight company plans to launch paying customers on week-long orbital trips by 2013” [41]. The firm was Excalibur Almaz Limited. 2014 One expert gave an estimate expressed as a range. Nield suggested in 2009 that it would take three to five years for space tourism to begin, resulting in a time frame between 2012 and 2014. Nield told Aerospace America, “I believe we will be seeing several space tourism flights every week, once a day, maybe even more often than that, with several companies involved. It is quite likely that in the next three to five years we will see a number of companies conducting hundreds of launches and carrying thousands of people to space every year” [11]. 2015 Some expected the industry to “mature” by 2015, allowing tourists to fly into space for just $10,000 each [23]. University of Rome professor Silva Ciccarelli estimated that “suborbital trips will likely be available to tourists by 2015, while tourism in space hotels is predicted to become a reality by 2025” [24]. And a Japanese firm is expected to enter the space tourism industry in 2015. The AIAA recently referred to “a bid to launch a commercially viable Japanese supersonic project around 2015” [25]. 2020 The ESA plans on adapting the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) into a humanrated spacecraft. This move resulted in “a stepping-stone to a human transport system in 2020” [26]. Additionally, the AIAA reported in 2008, “By 2020, space tourism could become a $700 million industry” [27]. 2025 We already learned about the research by Ciccarelli and colleagues at the University of Rome and the U.S. They concluded that space tourism junkets to space hotels would likely be initiated in 2025 [24].

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D. Impediments Much of the first part of the book was spent documenting the impediments and obstacles to commercial space tourism. I identified twenty-one barriers to development of commercial space tourism, and these were divided into primary and secondary impediments based upon their frequency of occurrence. The primary impediments were discussed in chapter four and the secondary or less frequently observed obstacles were the subject of chapter five. I am not alone in perceiving a considerable number of impediments to commercial space tourism industrial development. Spacefuture.com. reported that the NASA/STA study “concluded that the obstacles facing establishment of a space tourism industry could be overcome” [28]. In the words of the NASA/STA study, “Substantial obstacles remain that prevent the immediate creation of a large scale business” [29]. The study specified some of these impediments; market demand and supply elasticity, transport vehicle and operational costs, trip price, safety, reliability, comfort, insurance and regulatory issues [29]. Wooster, Simmons and Hofstetter categorized these obstacles: Exploring and expanding humanity into space is a challenging endeavor. Many intertwined obstacles must be overcome in order to make this happen. Some of the barriers are financial in nature, in terms of being able to provide sufficient resources to both initiate and sustain human activities in space. Some are political or public in nature, revolving around gaining or maintaining public and political support to allow such activities to move forward. Others are primarily technical in nature, involving the design, development and operation of the systems required to transport humans into space and support them there [30]. FAA administrator Smith referred to “the many technical, practical and economic issues that will have to be overcome before we have routine travel to and from space. a true commercial space industry” [31]. Rasky et al. concluded, “A number of roadblocks still exist. Affordable and responsive transportation to and from space, development of demand for space use, identification of financing of space projects, an evolving regulatory, legal and insurance environment and the role of government are all issues that must be addressed for this promise to be realized”

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[32]. A blog named Space Law Probe observed that “As we’ve seen, challenges include issues involving taxation, regulation, licensing, legislation, politics and more, and includes the catastrophe of a fatal test accident” [33]. E. Impetus is Necessary Commercial space tourism is not going to happen by itself. Like all outcomes requiring planning, investment and collaborative effort, development of a vibrant space tourism industry will not be a spontaneous occurrence but rather the result of deliberate decisions and dedication to the effort. In other words someone will have to take the initiative and make it happen if it is to happen. The public sector cannot be relied upon to create commercial space tourism nor can it be expected to reduce launch costs appreciably. The Sophron Foundation concluded that neither governments nor the aerospace industry are going to reduce the cost of access to space on their own because they have little incentive to do so [3]. Berinstein noted the problem with private sector developmental efforts--the key to commercial space development is identifying an incentive. Private firms could obtain the money to do it but there is no compelling reason that they should [34]. “Consequently, specific efforts need to be made to set up space tourism services, because they won’t happen as a natural consequence of present-day space activities,” observed one source [28]. Ashford was asked what it would take to break the mold of conventional thought on commercial space development policy. He concluded that the case to be made for the spaceplane approach to low-cost space access is so overwhelming that it certainly will occur once enough people begin to take it seriously [23]. 3. STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION PROMOTES SPACE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT Strategic communication is one of the most effective methods of changing public opinion and motivating public behavior. Professional public relations, advertising and internal organizational communication activity can produce measurable change in desired target markets. There has in fact already been substantial strategic communication practiced on behalf of a variety of space tourism

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stakeholders. This communication is the subject of the second half of this book. At this point, we will consider two distinct benefits of space tourism strategic communication: 1) Space tourism strategic communication overcomes impediments and 2) Space tourism strategic communication provides necessary impetus. A. Communication Solutions for Space Tourism Impediments Twenty-one impediments to the development of the commercial space tourism industry have been identified, exemplified and quantified. On the face of it these obstacles might seem insurmountable. Fortunately, strategic communication can offer specialized remedies through theory-based and precisely-targeted communication practices. Investment inadequacy, for example, is amenable to investor relations tactics. The barriers involving the government, such as excessive regulation, politics, standards and lack of government support, can all be addressed through lobbying, another traditional public relations specialty. The need for coalitions and stakeholder conflict both can be solved through consensus-building techniques. The medical/health dangers of space, space dangers, transportation dangers and the public perception that space is risky fall within the category of risk communication. Inadequate public awareness and the perception that space belongs to the government can be rectified through basic public awareness campaigns. Pricepoint and unverified market concerns could be resolved through advertising and marketing campaigns. B. Communication Can Provide Impetus Nothing happens by itself. That is, human activity does not occur in the absence of volition and motive. That is especially true of large-scale social endeavors like development of a commercial space tourism industry. The creation of a new industry requires vision, planning, investment, management, a body of industrial knowledge and the required technology and infrastructure. In the case of space tourism, all of this and more are needed for a commercial industry to develop. Also needed is a spark, a catalyst, some concrete impetus to galvanize and motivate action.

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Fortunately, that is the domain of strategic communication. Advertising, marketing and public relations practices and campaigns can inform and persuade key publics in a manner likely to result in effective social influence. Persuasion can provide the impetus needed to spur the development of a viable commercial space tourism industry. 4. THE TRANSITION CHAPTER This section marks the midway point of this book, in terms of a rough division of content. We therefore look backwards and forwards, through both a review and a preview. Two topics will be discussed: 1) Review of space tourism impediments and 2) Preview of space tourism strategic communication. A. The Impediments to Commercial Space Tourism We are cognizant of the potential benefits of space tourism development which were discussed in the initial chapter. The level of development of that industry was analyzed in two chapters. Chapter two presented the case that contemporary commercial space tourism did exist in a meaningful manner while the third chapter presented the opposite perspective on commercial space tourism. The focus of the first part of the book was on the impediments to space tourism. Twenty-one were discussed, with the primary impediments covered in chapter four and the secondary ones discussed in chapter five. The importance of these impediments cannot be overstated; individually or collectively they could prevent development of commercial space tourism if left unaddressed. B. Strategic Communication Promotion of Commercial Space Tourism We now turn our attention to strategic communication on behalf of this emerging travel specialty. The rest of this book discusses professional communication purposes and practices. First we will examine the purposes or functions behind the use of space tourism strategic communication, and then strategic communication tactics will be considered. All strategic communication is based on intended functions or purposes. What does the communicator want to accomplish? I have identified thirty-one space

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tourism strategic communication functions. These have been organized into primary and secondary functions based upon frequency of occurrence and will be explained and exemplified. In addition to functions, strategic communication necessarily involves tactics, or practices. I have identified the use of approximately 215 space tourism strategic communication tactics to date. These tactics have been quantified and placed into one of four frequency-based categories: 1) Typical, 2) Mid-Incidence, 3) Occasional and 4) Atypical. Each of these categories of tactics and the tactics themselves are the subject of upcoming chapters. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Jackson, James. (2000, October 30). Destination: Outer space. Time Europe Magazine. 2, 4. Retrieved on March 16, 2007 from http://www.time/europe/magazine/2000/1030/travel/moon.html. Space and Tech. (2003, March 14). Russian firm displays suborbital space tourism spacecraft, 1. Retrieved on March 20, 2007 from http://wwwspaceandtech.org. Sophron Foundation. (2002). Near-term prospects for space tourism. Interglobal Spacelines, 3, 58. Office of Space Commercialization. Federal Aviation Administration. (2005, February). Suborbital reusable launch vehicles and emerging markets, 8, 27. HobbySpace. (n. d.). Space tourism: Personal spaceflight for you. 1. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.hobbyspace.com/Admin/archive/.html. Boyle, Alan. (2004, December 23). Private spaceflight bill signed into law. After long struggle, law opens way for tourism. MSNBC.com. 1. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.com.msn.com/id/6682611/print/1/displaymode/1098/ MSNBC.com. (2006, February 9). Key year in space tourism timeline: 2008. Transportation secretary says his agency is ready to issue test licenses. 1. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11260973/print/1/displaymode/1098/ Webb, Andrew. (2006, September 30). Virgin Galactic wants to take passengers 60 miles up. Albuquerque Journal, p. C1. Malik, Tariq. (2008, January 28). Virgin Galactic unveils suborbital spaceliner design. Space News, 19(4), 7.

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[10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]

[22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30]

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The Leading Edge. (2005, September 24). Space tourism. 1. Retrieved on January 12, 2006 from http://theleadingedge.blogspot.com/2005/09/space-tourism.html. Canan, James. (2009, January). Conversations with George C. Nield. Aerospace America, 47(1), 16-18. Chang, Alicia. (2007, April 13). Meet the ‘Odd Couple’ of space adventures. Business Outlook, p. 10. Maney, Kevin. (2006, March 26). New Mexico goes a little pie in the sky with spaceport idea. USAToday, p. A13. Douglas, J. Paul. (2007, December). Aerospace America, 45(12), 93. Spaceport lease to cost Virgin $27.5 million. (2007, March 27). Albuquerque Journal, p. C1. David, Leonard. (2009, February). Taking wing: Liftoff for public space travel. Aerospace America, 47(2), 25. Reid, T.R. (2005, December 15). N.M. plans launchpad for space tourism. WashingtonPost.com. Retrieved on January 2, 2006 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/12/14/AR2005121402340_pf The Economist. (2008, October 4). Saint Elmo’s fire: Some more steps towards the commercialisation (sic) of space travel. 86. Wheeler, Larry. (2007, February 20). Space rockets onto thrill seeking tourists’ wish list. USA Today, p. A1. David, Leonard. (2008, June). Spaceport: Field of dreams. Aerospace America, 46(6), 33. DePasquale, Dominic, Charania, A.C., and Olds, John R. (2006). The emerging orbital space tourism industry: New insight into demand and prospects for success. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7478, 3. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, July 16). Independent U.K. company developing space tourism rocket. Daily Launch, 4. Ashford, David. (2002). Spaceflight revolution. London: Imperial College Press, 67, 152. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, March 11). Researchers predict growth of space tourism. Daily Launch, 3. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, June 18). JAXA to flight test supersonic demonstrator in 2012. Daily Launch, 3. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, July 22). ESA plans to expand ATV into manned vehicle. Daily Launch, 1. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, November 4). Studies focus on suborbital tourism. Daily Launch, 3. Space Future. (n. d.). General public space travel and tourism volume 2: Workshop proceedings. 2. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.spacefuture.com.pr/archive/general_public_space_travel_and_tourism_volume. O’Neil, Daniel, Bekey, Ivan, Mankins, John, Rogers, Thomas, and Stallmer, Eric W. (1998). The prospects for general public space travel and tourism. NASA/STA. NP-199803-11-MFSC, 1. Executive Summary, 4. Wooster, Paul, Simmons, Willard L., and Hofstetter, Wilfried K. (2007). Opening space for humanity: Applying open source concepts to human space activities. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6208, 1.

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Smith, Patricia G. (2005, October 1). Commercial human space flight. VITAL SPEECHES OF THE DAY, 71(24), 1. Rasky, Daniel, Harper, Lynn, Newfield, Mark, and Smith, Charles. (2007). Opportunities and challenges for supporting commercial space at NASA. AIAA-2007-6154, 5. Space Law Probe. (2007, December 16). We’ll always have spaceports. 1. Retrieved on December 19, 2007 from http://spacelawprobe.blogspot.com. Berinstein, Paula. (2002). Making space happen: Private space ventures and the visionaries behind them. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company, 117. Hennigan, W.J. (2010, November 10). Preparing to build a space fleet. Los Angeles Times, p. 7A. Romo, Rene. (2010, April 5). Paving the way. Albuquerque Journal, p. A1. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, October 5). Space Adventures able to send tourists to ISS starting in 2010. Daily Launch, 1. Firm secures spots for flights. (2011, March 2). Albuquerque Journal, A8. Heild, Colleen. (2011, January 16). Not ready for takeoff. Spaceport America faces delays, tough questions. Albuquerque Journal, A1. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, August 18). Bigelow proposes “Orion light” spacecraft. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, August 19). Almaz Limited using Soviet-era spacecraft to launch customers into space. Daily Launch, 3.

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CHAPTER 7 The Primary Functions of Space Tourism Strategic Communication Abstract: Strategic communication activity is guided by purposes, which are referred to as communication functions because they designate the rhetorical intent or function served by the communication activity. In the space tourism context, thirty-one different communication functions being served by the communication were identified. In this chapter the sixteen most prevalent functions were identified, quantified and exemplified. They include: 1) Investor relations, 2) Lobbying, 3) Information management, 4) Attitude change, 5) Education, 6) Creation of awareness, 7) Public interest campaigns, 8) Credibility enhancement, 9) Image creation and defense, 10) Coalition building, 11) Crisis management, 12) Public information campaigns, 13) Public advocacy, 14) Public referendum campaigns, 15) Promotion of space tourism and 16) Marketing public relations.

Keywords: Alliance, American aerospace industry, attitude, attitude change, Challenger, credibility, crisis, crisis management, coalition-building, education, image, image creation, image defense, information, information management, interpersonal communication, public advocacy, public referendum, public interest campaigns, X-Prize Foundation. 1. INTRODUCTION We are already aware of the existence of impediments or obstacles to development of a commercial space tourism industry. Although space tourism would provide substantial benefits to a wide variety of stakeholders, there are nevertheless significant barriers to industrial development at the present time. These impediments were identified and discussed in the last two chapters. The impediments to space tourism are not insurmountable, however, in spite of the number of such obstacles and their documented consequences. In fact it is possible to identify strategic communication solutions to the major obstacles. These solutions are referred to as rhetorical functions, or the purposes served by professional theory-based communication. The primary functions are discussed in this chapter and the secondary or less prevalent ones are the subject of the next chapter. The sixteen primary functions are identified and quantified in Table 1. Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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Table 1: Typical Space Tourism Strategic Communication Functions Category Number

Category Title

Total Frequency of Occurrence

1

Investor Relations

142

2

Lobbying

67

3

Information Management

52

4

Attitude Change

29

5

Education

27

6

Public Awareness

27

7

Public Interest Campaigns

21

8

Credibility Enhancement

19

9

Image Creation & Defense

18

10

Coalition Building

18

11

Crisis Management

18

12

Public Information Campaigns

18

13

Public Advocacy

17

14

Public Referendum Campaigns

16

15

Promote Space Tourism Industry

13

16

Marketing Public Relations

11

Total

16 Categories

513 Total Occurrences; 32.06 Per Category

2. INVESTOR RELATIONS Investor relations is an absolute necessity for the development of the commercial space tourism industry. That accounts for the strategic importance of this public relations function. Two issues will be considered: 1) Needed for space tourism development and 2) Contemporary investor relations practices. A. Necessary for Space Tourism Development Tumlinson noted “the need to garner public support and keep the funds flowing,” which resulted in “a public relations campaign” [1]. O’Neil et al. added, “A carefully planned public relations campaign” is required and is “essential not just from the standpoint of informing eventual clients, but also from that of satisfying the concerns of potential investors” [2].

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B. Investor Relations Practices A wide variety of investor relations practices is available to space tourism investment analysts and strategic communication practitioners. Xcor Aerospace “seeks government contracts to develop technologies that can be adapted to its real goal of developing its own passenger rocket” [3]. Antczak recalled, “In Oklahoma, a state tax credit was key to getting Rocketplane Ltd. funded to begin work on a reusable launch vehicle for tourism flights” [3]. Some investor relations techniques are as simple as having one person announce loudly at a reception or other gathering his or her intent to invest funds in space tourism and commercial space development. This tactic was actually used on one occasion by Gerard O’Neill [4]. The global financial community could attempt to capitalize on the development of the space tourism industry, “Banks could begin offering Space Accounts for future travelers” [5]. For a more complete account of space tourism investment sources and investment relations practices, see Gibson, Lopez and Krause (2009), who discussed nineteen different funding strategies and options, as well as ten investment relations strategic communication practices [55]. 3. LOBBYING In light of the substantial regulatory barriers to space tourism, lobbying is an essential purpose of space promotion efforts. Four main topics will be considered 1) Lobbying is necessary, 2) Lobbying organizations, 3) Successful space lobbying and 4) Space lobbying tactics. A. Lobbying is Necessary The space tourism industry needs lobbying. According to Smitherman and McClure, it is necessary to “work for regulatory, tax and legislative policies which will encourage this new business by better defining the playing field for commercial investors” [6]. Undoubtedly, commercial space lobbying is required. B. Space Lobby Organizations Numerous space commercialization nonprofit support organizations seek to promote activities like space tourism. For example, the Space Studies Institute

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was a prominent pro-space lobbyist; in terms of space solar power no organization accomplished as much as the SSI, O’Neill claimed [4]. The Space Frontier Foundation also conducted important pro-space lobbying—some contend that the Space Frontier Foundation (www.space frontier.org) was considerably more aggressive than NSS in advocating private enterprise in outer space [7]. The American aerospace industry employs professional lobbyists to advocate larger budgets and less regulation. Private space organizations and foundations also lobby the White House and Congress to allocate more funding to space science and to allow greater freedom and enhanced support to private enterprise in space. Perhaps the most prominent citizen group was ProSpace: The Citizen’s Space Lobby, Spencer and Rugg suggested [7]. An early lobbyist group, The L5 Society developed into a grassroots movement characterized by private citizens planning and acting to create the initial wave of private sector rocket businesses seeking to commercialize space [7]. C. Space Lobbying Successes The pro-space community successfully lobbied the White House, Congress and others on several occasions. When unfavorable Moon legislation was proposed it was the L5 Society that campaigned against it in the U.S. Senate and got it killed [8]. Similarly, ProSpace was often successful; it was Prospace that along with other organizations facilitated passage of the Space Commercialization Act [4]. Debate over the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act revealed the behindthe-scenes lobbying efforts of space advocacy groups. MSNBC reporter Alan Boyle described “months of behind-the-scenes negotiations” [9]. These negotiations were discussed by U.S. Representative Sherwood Boehlert, Chair of the House Science Committee, “This bill, which has been painstakingly negotiated with all interested parties, strikes the proper balance” [10]. D. Space Lobbying Tactics Pro-space lobbying may take many shapes and assume many forms. We will examine a variety of lobbying tactics including: 1) Multimedia presentations, 2)

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Unified voice, 3) Dress codes, 4) Interpersonal communication, 5) Advisory boards, 6) Lobby Week and 7) Miscellaneous tactics. Rick Homans was the New Mexico Secretary of State for Economic Development when Spaceport America was constructed to accommodate space tourism. His office tried to persuade county officials near the Spaceport to support the project using a computer-simulation video during a three-hour presentation [11]. A unified voice is necessary in lobbying, to avoid impressions of fractured constituencies and to project unison. Homans stated, “We want to have as unified a voice as possible to both the FAA and to Congress on new legislation that might be considered” [12]. Is it going too far to impose a dress code on lobbyists? ProSpace didn’t think so. Men were required to wear suits or blazers and women should have been adorned in business suits or business dresses. Even the types of acceptable shoes, accessories and jewelry were specified [8]. Interpersonal communication, known as face-to-face interaction (or face-time) is one of the most important pro-space lobbying techniques. O’Neill recalled that ProSpace had a significant effect on the determination of American space policy through long-term relationships with other salient stakeholders [4]. Professional lobbyists work on Congresspersons and their staffs to support items favorable to their organizations [8]. Virgin Galactic owner Richard Branson decided to locate his company’s primary spaceport in New Mexico after the state’s governor (Bill Richardson) called him and made a pitch for the business [13]. An advisory board is a traditional lobby technique although of course it serves a number of other purposes as well. The most prestigious space advocacy groups include important space stakeholders. The Rocket Racing League’s advisory board, for instance, included Robert S. Walker, former U.S. Congressman and Chair of the Commission on the Future of the U.S. Aerospace Industry [14]. A high-octane week-long blitz technique was originated by ProSpace as part of its arsenal of lobby tactics. Called “March Storm,” ProSpace volunteers overwhelmed Capitol Hill--both House and Senate members and their staffs were

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lobbied continually. After one March Storm session most of the legislation advocated was passed [4]. There are numerous additional lobbying techniques. The California Space Authority uses letters, resolutions and a day-long version of ProSpace’s March Storm [15]. ProSpace also uses letters, e-mail, chat rooms, web sites, flyers and the telephone [8]. 4. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT Information management, also known as news management or censorship, is a common organizational behavior. In the case of human space travel NASA engaged in this practice, most notably after the Challenger accident in 1986. Kauffman recalled, “It controlled all information coming out of the agency, especially the remarks of the astronauts and their wives” [16]. 5. ATTITUDE CHANGE Attitude change is one of the most commonly observed public relations functions in the space tourism industry. For space tourism to succeed numerous attitudes need to be changed. To understand the role of attitude change in facilitating space tourism, four issues will be considered: 1) Specific attitudes require change, 2) Lack of public support, 3) Public misconceptions and 4) Investor relations implications of attitude change. A. Specific Attitudes Require Change There are a half-dozen space tourism-related attitudes requiring change. These include: 1) Space is exotic, 2) Space is too risky, 3) Basic perceptions of space, 4) Extra-Earth activity, 5) Commercial space and 6) Space is too expensive. Some see space as too weird, too exotic a travel destination. Congressional testimony noted in 2001, “I think if going to have (sic) space tourism, people have to stop thinking about space as exotic and far away. And they have to start thinking about space in terms of a place they can actually go” [17]. “To change public perceptions of risks and viability,” one study recently concluded, attitude change is necessary [2].

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Basic perceptions of space are the third specific public attitude warranting alteration. Marzwell suggested this fact. “A change in the public’s basic perception of space travel is necessary at an early stage in business development” [18]. People are unaccustomed to considering human enterprise in space. According to O’Neil et al. “We should all appreciate that what is being discussed here is nothing less than a fundamental change to our views of, and participation in, extra-Earth activities” [2]. Space as a profit center is a new concept, one that may take some time to gain acceptance. Berinstein realized the fact that most people are unaccustomed to considering outer space as profitable. They are uncomfortable thinking about using space resources [8]. The excessively high cost of space access is seen as an insurmountable obstacle. That attitude needs to change. Spencer and Rugg observed that businesspeople believe commercial space projects involving people going to space will cost billions of dollars and can only be afforded by countries. That perception is not accurate [7]. B. Lack of Public Support “Recent space exploration has fallen on hard times. It has lost popular support,” Schmidt and Zubrin contended [19]. It seems that the American public space constituency has eroded or completely disappeared. According to a 2006 survey, “positive perception of the space program is not universally shared” [20]. Sarsfield noted that “Sending astronauts into space attempts to engage the public in the human drama of spaceflight. The public does not, however, seem terribly interested” [21]. C. Public Misconceptions The collective misperceptions about commercial space development like space tourism, for instance, may limit actual activity. “Many people will be afraid to travel into space, and the public will have misconceptions about space travel. Through education, public relations and advertising demonstrations, general PST and space tourism interests could put space travel into proper perspective,” asserted O’Neil and Young [5]. Livingston concurred and added, “Misperceptions about space commerce also create barriers to space enterprise. The barriers caused

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by misperceptions especially limit the progress of space commercialization. Misconceptions are the most insidious barriers because they often influence the preliminary thoughts about a project” [22]. D. Investor Relations Implications Space tourism investment efforts require attitude change. Aldrin observed negative perceptions by members of the financial community of a small and decreasing near-term market for commercial space transportation [23]. Another study noted “the current skepticism among the investment community that is currently inhibiting the raising of capital necessary to develop low-cost space transportation systems” [24]. 6. EDUCATION OF STAKEHOLDERS Strategic communication can be equated with education according to several space advocacy organizations and other expert commercial space stakeholders. The joint NASA/STA study referred to “education, marketing and demonstrations” as necessary strategic communication tactics [5]. FAA space tourism administrator Smith concurred, “We must assume every opportunity to educate the public to this concept” [25]. Some space advocacy organizations proclaim that they are intrinsically educational. The X-Prize Foundation, for example, self-identifies on its Home Page as follows, “The X-PRIZE Foundation is a 501© (3) educational non-profit organization dedicated to furthering education” [1, 26]. In very similar terms, the National Space Society proclaims that it “is an independent, educational, grassroots nonprofit organization dedicated to the creation of a spacefaring civilization” [27]. The International Association of Space Entrepreneurs provides “networking and educational events that are rotated through various locations around the world” [28]. CNES, the French national space agency, states that “CNES makes every effort to disseminate information about its programmes (sic) as widely as possible and to make the public aware of the contribution space activities make to our daily lives” [29]. Space Day is celebrated internationally on the initial Friday of May. The public sector is also involved in educational space-related activity. NASA developed a

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relatively sophisticated, four-level Education Strategic Framework. Inspire, Engage, Educate and Employ are the quartet of levels [30]. 7. PUBLIC AWARENESS Public awareness is one of the initial barriers confronting potential purveyors of commercial goods and services. Before someone can be persuaded to purchase something they must be aware of the existence of the product or service. Five topics will explain space tourism awareness campaigns: 1) Awareness is required for public support, 2) Space tourism requires awareness, 3) Space commercialization requires awareness, 4) Awareness results from publicized successes and 5) Awareness techniques. A. Awareness is Required for Public Support “When people just simply don’t know, they can’t value whatever it is,” a recent Aerospace America article by Jones asserted [20]. He added that “The economic impact of space activity is more important to our future—and to public support of NASA—than even science or exploration. The industry message, then, should emphasize how space generates jobs, growth and tax receipts” [20]. B. Space Tourism Requires Awareness Space tourism industrial development depends on public awareness. Public interest assumes awareness. “Public communications and marketing can make a significant difference in raising this level of awareness. High profile public figures and senior space-responsible Federal officials could play a very effective role in promotion and education campaigns relating to general public space travel and tourism” [2]. C. Space Commercialization Requires Awareness “Decision makers must be aware that real opportunities exist. Consequently, a key challenge in moving industries into space is to confront and dispel the widespread lack of knowledge about the microgravity environment and its enabling characteristics,” a study commissioned by the Office of Space Commercialization concluded. It added, “Through a focused and sustained public and private sector

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effort, the message of opportunities for research in space can be effectively delivered” [31]. D. Awareness Results from Publicized Successes It has become clear that successful space tourists have created awareness of the activity. That was the conclusion of a government analysis, “Clearly, the public’s interest and enthusiasm for space tourism has increased dramatically because of Dennis Tito’s flight” [10]. Another study noted that the Shuttleworth and Tito space tourism flights were significant in raising public awareness and documenting potential market demand [7]. E. Awareness Techniques There are numerous awareness-enhancement practices available. We have already observed that successful space tourism trips are an excellent way to create awareness. Former astronauts are also effective; astronauts who have contributed to creating media and public awareness of the possibilities inherent in the space experience by giving speeches and being interviewed include U.S. Senator John Glenn, Dr. Buzz Aldrin, Dr. Story Musgrave and Rick Searfoss [7]. Besides speeches, interviews and the symbolic value of astronaut experiences there are still other awareness techniques. For instance, Spencer and Rugg observed the use of celebrities, movies and television programs. They added that obtaining the participation and active involvement of celebrities and convincing television and movie producers to program space tourism and space-themed shows could be the key to the development of the commercial space tourism industry [7]. The value of demonstration trips as an awareness-inducing tactic was advocated by D.F.I. International, “Suborbital voyages would undoubtedly increase public awareness about space tourism” [31]. Spencer and Rugg also suggested demonstrations, and additionally described a series of awareness-inducing practices such as space tourism-themed expos, conferences, award shows, theme parks, resorts, orbital and space cruise immersive simulation centers, movies, television, books and websites to “expand public awareness of the commercial space tourism industry” [7].

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“Space tourism advocates have held several conferences and seminars to increase awareness,” noted a 2001 Congressional study [32]. Spencer and Rugg added an important suggestion about mass media awareness efforts; it is only through enhanced media exposure that public awareness will be created and maximized to stimulate market demand for space tourism services [7]. It must be concluded that awareness is critical to commercial space tourism industrial development. 8. PUBLIC INTEREST CAMPAIGNS Public interest in space was high in the 1960s and 1970s when American and Soviet national space programs competed for space accomplishments and international bragging rights. But now there is no U.S.S.R., and America lacked its own human access to space for at least a half-dozen years beginning in 2012. A. Public Interest in Space is Minimal We can consider Taylor’s claim, “But in the 1970s, public interest began to wane” [33]. And it has not been rekindled since then. B. Successful Space Tourism Stimulates Public Interest Successful tourists Tito and Shuttlesworth motivated others into considering space as a tourist destination. Tito testified before Congress that “Based on the extensive worldwide media coverage and public reaction, it would be fair to say that my taxi flight to the ISS captured the attention and imagination of millions of people around the globe and renewed their interest in human space flight” [34]. 9. CREDIBILITY CAMPAIGNS All organizations must enjoy credibility with key stakeholders. This is equally true for commercial space tourism firms. Four topics will advance our understanding: 1) Space tourism credibility issues, 2) Credibility is needed for space tourism development, 3) Credibility is needed to attract investment and 4) Credibility enhancement practices. A. Space Tourism Credibility Issues Credibility problems are a cause for concern. “There has been a persistent lack of credibility because now it is generally thought that only NASA and the Russian

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government can send people to space and that they must be highly trained professional astronauts,” concluded the NASA/STA study of space tourism [35]. B. Credibility is Needed for Space Tourism Development Simply put, you have to have ‘cred,’ and be taken seriously for any chance of space tourism development. Early pro-space lobbying efforts were recalled by O’Neill, “We knew we couldn’t simply ‘tell the truth about space and the space program,’ as Muncy put it, we had to make it credible” [4]. The D.F.I. International study concurred; “the development of credible and convincing value propositions, not hype and obsolete technology” should be characteristic of space tourism messages [31]. C. Credibility is Needed to Attract Investment Investment may depend upon credibility. “The challenge is essentially that of overcoming the credibility barrier to obtaining the required investment,” Ashford asserted [36]. Collins agreed and added, “As with all new ideas, the essential step is to persuade investors that they are credible” [37]. D. Credibility Enhancement Practices Credibility with the media is one of the most important strategic communication practices in promoting the space tourism industry. O’Neill recalled “the credibility we were gaining in the media.” This resulted in gaining “White House and Congressional support” for favored legislation [4]. 10. IMAGE CREATION AND DEFENSE Image creation and defense are two very basic practices. Three topics will be considered: 1) New space tourism image is needed, 2) Image needed for investor relations and 3) Events hurt image. A. New Space Tourism Image is Needed “Purveyors of space tourism services can influence few of these factors,” Berinstein realized. She added that they can however depict space tourism in a positive manner [8].

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Sarsfield added, “If space exploration is to inspire, it must produce new images and information that truly challenges normal thought patterns” [21]. B. Image is Needed for Investor Relations A new image of space travel may be needed, especially when it involves space tourism. Lindskold observed, “Another problem is the images created by governmental agencies of space being a place where only governmental astronauts and scientists can go.” He added, “All in all, people in general can’t really picture what space tourism is all about. Creating a vision of space tourism so strong and appealing that financial sources will jump at the idea is one of the challenges today” [38]. C. Events Hurt Image “The explosion of space shuttle Challenger on January 28, 1986, and the subsequent poor handling of the crisis by NASA’s Public Affairs Office, changed the image of NASA from an exemplary federal agency to one which could do nothing right,” Kauffman recalled [39]. This is a particularly problematic plight for an industry like space tourism, with an enormous potential for a serious accident; in a commercial space venture, when a spacecraft is lost so is a substantial portion of your investment. If people are killed or maimed then the immediate problems include not only a tarnished image for the entire industry but most likely a great volume of litigation and expense [8]. 11. COALITION BUILDING We will consider the public relations function of coalition building in two main ways: 1) Coalition building techniques and 2) Space coalition builders. The necessity for commercial space coalitions will soon be apparent. A. Coalition Building Practices Seven coalition building practices applicable to space tourism will be discussed. They include: 1) Associations, 2) Alliance construction, 3) Lobbying, 4) Networking, 5) Broad definitions, 6) Joint investment and 7) International coalitions. Associations are relatively formal organizations of stakeholders with similar stakes and goals. In the case of space tourism, “Because it could yield benefits for

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NASA, the space industry and the public, NASA and a consortium of firms known as the Space Transportation Association are working to develop space tourism” [40]. Alliances frequently are ad hoc, reactive responses to a dynamic environment. When the Air Force wanted to build the DC-X rocket, an uneasy alliance was motivated. “This project forced the supporters of O’Neill to work with those who came from the military side of space” [1]. Space tourism advocates attempt to create professional relationships and alliances through lobbying activity. O’Neill noted that SSI had developed a lot of political savvy on space subjects as lobbyists, and they also proved adept at locating Congressional allies (4). Relational communication is quite important, particularly in lobbying. Networking has long been employed by investor relations practitioners who desire to coalesce individuals into small groups and turn small groups into large collective units. One of the California Space Authority’s reported “Activities and Successes” for 2005 was “Networking Events.” The specific networking tactics reported included “Issues Forums, Roundtables, and Town Hall Meetings” [15]. Relatively broad definitions are not merely a matter of semantics. Indeed, when advocates select the broadest possible interpretation they demonstrate their awareness of the desirability of inclusiveness as opposed to policies of an exclusive and discriminatory nature, thereby creating a more extensive network of affiliates. “Because of the magnitude of tax dollars at risk, the government should be considering the broadest range of commercial, military and civil market needs, including the tourism market, as we begin the process of defining the next generation of space transportation vehicles” [23]. Combining resources is yet another way to create mutual and cooperative arrangements. “Supporting space exploration through the private sector requires assembling large numbers of investors and combining corporate might. However, to many investors, space is not all that attractive right now,” Harrison noted [40]. Schlather agreed, “In splitting the cost of developing such a public/private program,

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NASA has said it looks toward a partnership similar to the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program. Within that program, Boeing and Lockheed each put up two-thirds of the money against one-third in federal funding” [41]. .

International coalitions are especially attractive in the space tourism industry because of the importance of global markets. PlanetSpace, for instance, is a coalition involving an Indian company named Kathuria and Canadian Arrow, from that U.K. country [42]. Similarly, The Spaceship Company is a combination of Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic and an American company, Scaled Composites, with the recent addition of funding from an Abu Dhabi investment firm [43]. B. Space Coalition Builders If effective space tourism-related coalitions are to be conceptualized and created, who will be the coordinator? There appear to be several candidates in the space tourism coalition sweepstakes, including NASA, the Office of Commercial Space Transportation in the FAA, the Office of Space Commercialization in the Department of Commerce and a host of others. The clear front-runner is the Office of Commercial Space Transportation in the FAA. It is FAA regulations that govern commercial space tourism industrial development. FAA policy developments will be of critical importance to all space tourism stakeholders. NASA is another prime candidate for coordinator. According to one team of experts, “Beginning in 2000, NASA’s strategy reduced to establishing public/private partnerships to use space assets for commercial purposes” [44]. Michael Griffin, former NASA chief, recently requested “a type of joint venture between NASA and private companies. The agency expects private partners to kick in corporate research dollars and venture capital funds” [43]. Here is the status of the industry at the midpoint of 2012, “Since the X–Prize competition, the players have formed new allegiances with wealthy benefactors, crafted new joint ventures, and in some cases turned for help to NASA” [43]. The Office of Space Commercialization in the Commerce Department might also perform coordination tasks. It noted in a web document, “The Office of Space

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Commercialization maintains an active dialogue with U.S. industry through direct meetings with space companies and participation in industry conferences, seminars and related activities” [45]. Currently there exist the Aviation and Space Stakeholders Coalition, the Aviation Coalition, the Coalition for Space Exploration, the Industry Technology Leadership Team and the National Aviation Association Council. In 2007 the creation of the Space Exploration Alliance was announced. Initial members included ProSpace, the Space Frontier Foundation, the National Space Society and the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), among the thirteen charter members [46]. And most recently the Personal Spaceflight Federation was created to serve as the industry’s trade association. 12. CRISIS COMMUNICATION Crises are inevitable in the space tourism industry. Sooner or later a fatal accident is destined to happen in spite of the very best, state-of-the-art precautions. Space travel is simply inherently dangerous. Three factors will be discussed: 1) Crisis communication is necessary, 2) NASA crisis communication and 3) Crisis communication practices. A. Crisis Communication is Necessary The future likelihood that space tourism will encounter tragedy was noted by Berinstein. The commercial space tourism firms will need effective public relations assistance because there are going to be accidents, injuries, deaths and other negative events capable of tarnishing the desired organizational image [8]. B. NASA Crisis Communication Effective crisis communication can prevent public relations damage after an accident. That was the case after the Challenger tragedy when NASA public relations staff effectively performed crisis response duties. Kauffman described “NASA’s handling of the Columbia crisis [that] ultimately helped to maintain confidence and trust in the space agency” [39].

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C. Crisis Communication Practices NASA handled the Columbia accident in 2003 much more professionally than the Challenger tragedy was dealt with twenty years earlier. Crisis communication tactics were explained by Kauffman, “NASA demonstrated that it learned from its poor handling of the Challenger explosion; it responded to the Columbia disaster with a well-rehearsed crisis plan that stressed promptness, openness and candor. The agency effectively used television and the Internet to communicate with its stakeholders” [16]. 13. PUBLIC INFORMATION In some cases the act of informing the public can accomplish organizational communication objectives. Four topics will be examined: 1) Public information is needed, 2) Information will increase space tourism demand, 3) Information pressures the government and 4) NASA public information. A. Public Information is Needed The more educated people are about something, the more favorable an opinion they tend to have of it. That is true of space tourism and other commercial space endeavors. “If the space industry can make common cause in educating the nation about its needs, then getting government to embrace a viable business model for the sector should be a top priority” [47]. B. Information Will Increase Space Tourism Demand Effective space tourism marketing will substantially increase consumer demand, FAA administrator Smith predicted in a 1999 speech at the Capitol Hill Club [25]. A study by Barrett confirmed Smith’s belief. “As space tourism develops and more information enters the public domain, a significant proportion of the ‘maybe’ respondents would convert to wanting to undertake space travel” [48]. C. Information Pressures the Government Public dissemination of information does more than merely educate the public. It can also exert pressure on the government as a lobbying tool. According to Collins,

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“Additional publicity is therefore needed to put pressure on governments to be more constructive towards the founding of this promising new industry” [37]. D. NASA Public Information There is a precedent for space tourism-related public information campaigns. NASA conducted communication efforts of this type in the past. Harrison recalled that “NASA has always maintained education and information programs. These include programs that disseminate information to the press and the public, and workshops for teachers” [40]. 14. PUBLIC ADVOCACY Public advocacy is rhetorical activity performed in public situations where the collective interests of the space tourism community are promoted. This section will discuss six aspects of this function: 1) Space advocacy is needed, 2) The space advocacy community, 3) The Office of Space Commercialization, 4) Investor relations advocacy, 5) A ‘Champion’ is needed and 6) Advocacy message factors. A. Space Advocacy is Necessary “The STA and other supporters of space tourism might want to focus more specifically on how to foster a public dialogue on the risk issue,” remarked FAA administrator Smith [25]. Harrison added that nonprofit space advocacy organizations could have a potent effect in winning public support and lobbying to promote commercial space activities [40]. B. Space Advocacy Community There is some belief at present in a sizeable and healthy space advocacy community. Others disagree, such as Berinstein, who contends that the American outer space advocacy community is relatively small and consists of a number of competing organizations. Among the most prestigious and visible of these are the National Space Society, The Planetary Society, The Space Frontier Foundation and ProSpace [8]. Perhaps the most encouraging recent development was the creation of the Space Exploration Alliance, a coalition of thirteen prominent space advocacy groups.

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C. Office of Space Commercialization At least one federal agency positions itself as a space community advocate. The Office of Space Commercialization offers this self-description on its website, on the “Frequently Asked Questions” page, “The Office of Space Commercialization was established at the Commerce Department to serve as an advocate for the U.S. commercial space industry within government policy discussions affecting space” [49]. D. Investor Relations Advocacy The paucity of capital available to commercial space tourism firms has already been documented. Investor relations-oriented advocacy is therefore perfectly understandable. Tito told Congress, “I intend to be an advocate in the national and international financial community to encourage long-term utilization of and investment in space” [34]. E. Champion is Needed The space tourism industry and the entire space commercialization community are in need of a white knight, someone or something to show them the way. O’Neil and Young suggested, “To break through the barriers, space advocacy groups must identify and inculcate champions” [5]. Someone larger than life. F. Advocacy Message Factors Consideration has been given to the appropriate messages and themes for public advocacy communication. O’Neill described his message techniques. A category of slogan was created and called “cultural cruise missiles,” because they codified a complete concept in a slogan that would then be launched into the culture to seek its own targets [4]. 15. PUBLIC REFERENDUM CAMPAIGNS The State of New Mexico financed construction of Spaceport America through a combination of state, county and corporate money. The county contributions necessitated taxpayer passage of a public referendum. The April 3, 2007 referendum held in Dona Ana County, where voters were asked to approve a tax

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increase of one-quarter of one per cent, or 25 cents over $100 in purchases (a monthly tax increase of $2.50 per household) passed by a wide margin [50]. Similarly, voters in Sierra County “have indicated they would put on the ballot this year a special local tax to help support the spaceport” [51]. It passed, but the third referendum effort failed in Otero County. 16. PROMOTION OF SPACE TOURISM INDUSTRY “Several organizations are doing their part to promote space tourism and study the problems around it,” Lindskold asserted [38]. One such organization is The Suborbital Institute, whose website begins with this declaration, “The Suborbital Institute (SOI) is a trade association aimed at promoting the cause of practical human suborbital rocket powered flight” [52]. In February of 2005 the Personal Spaceflight Industry “announced their intent to organize an industry federation to design and uphold the standards and processes necessary to ensure public safety and promote growth of the personal spaceflight industry” [53]. 17. MARKETING PUBLIC RELATIONS In the case of the space tourism industry marketing public relations is intended to create and define a healthy market of space tourists. This section will consider three main topics: 1) No contemporary marketing plan, 2) Marketing plan is needed and 3) Precursor activities. The role of space tourism marketing will become evident. A. No Contemporary Marketing Plan “True believers in space exploration must find a way to communicate the value of that enterprise to the public. Today, a comprehensive marketing strategy for carrying out that mission does not exist,” an article in Aerospace America suggested [20]. B. Marketing Plan is Needed Since there is no marketing plan at present and since one is necessary for successful development of the space tourism industry, we might conclude that space tourism marketing is needed. That was Berinstein’s point--to attract the

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desired volume of space tourists, a massive international high-profile marketing effort is needed [8]. But who will write this plan? Marzwell contended that “The main conclusion is to stimulate a rising tide of interest by using present assets to create a market pull. This includes creating market demand and interest to enhance expectation” [18]. Another study found that “Overcoming psychological barriers requires education, marketing and demonstrations” [2]. According to Leonard David, “But getting personal spaceflight off the ground—and keeping it there—also requires marketing savvy. Knowing the needs, expectations and fears of your space passenger is critical” [54]. C. Precursor Activities There is one particular promotional tactic of special interest to space tourism promotion, and that is precursor activities. These include space-theme Earth activities, virtual reality space experiences and the like. Anything that simulates off-planet reality in any way is a precursor activity. “Earth-based space travel and tourism already exists and is flourishing,” noted the NASA/STA study. It added that “However, to serve as an effective ‘precursor’ to public in-space travel, terrestrial space travel and tourism must enlarge its marketing focus from children and adolescents of the ‘Star Wars’ approach to emphasize average, typically very successful professional adults” [35]. The Space Transportation Association made a promotional trip to Asia, where simulationbased presentations were considered effective [7]. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1]

Tumlinson, Rick. (2000). A conspiracy of dreamers. In Gerard O’Neill, (Ed.). High frontier: Human colonies in space, p. 157. Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books.

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O’Neil, Daniel, Bekey, Ivan, Mankins, John C., Rogers, Thomas F., and Stallmer, Eric W. (1999). General public space travel and tourism. Volume I. Executive Summary. NASA/ST. NP-1998-03-11-MSFC, 9, 12, 16. Antczak, John. (2000). Regulations being developed by FAA. 1. Retrieved on March 20, 2006 from http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2004/10/11/biz_tourism11.html. O’Neill, Gerard. (Ed.). (2000). The high frontier, 152-53, 155, 158-59, 165. O’Neil, Daniel, and Young, Lawrence B. (February, 1999). Passengers, crew, life support and insurance considerations. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 4, 20. Smitherman, David, and McClure, Wallace. (1999, February). Space transportation and destination facilities. General public space travel and tourism. Volume 2—Workshop Proceedings. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 10. Spencer, John, and Rugg, Karen L. (2004). Space tourism: Do you want to go? Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books, 50-51, 67, 77, 157, 159, 186-87. Berinstein, Paula. (2002). Making space happen: Private space ventures and the visionaries behind them. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company, 8, 98, 166, 310, 35, 364. Boyle, Alan. (2005, December 5.). All systems go for new spaceflight law. MSNBC. 1. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5490410. Space bill rockets toward Congressional approval. (2004, March 4). U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science. 4-5. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.house.gov/science/press/108/108-195.htm. Associated Press. (2007, January 17). State pitches space to counties. Albuquerque Journal, p. C3. Webb, Andrew. (2006, May 4). Conference to discuss commercialization. Albuquerque Journal, p. C3. Maney, Kevin. (2006, March 22). New Mexico goes a little pie in the sky with spaceport. USA Today, p. 14A. Associated Press. (2006, October 30). N.M. team signs for rocket races. Business Outlook, p. 10. California Space Authority. (2006, Winter). Spacebound! 19, 5, 7. Kauffman, James. (2005). Lost in space: A critique of NASA’s crisis communications in the Columbia disaster. Public Relations Review, 31, 273. Weldon, Dave. (2004, July 24). Commercial human spaceflight. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science, 89. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.spaeref.com/news/viewers.html?pid=9844. Marzwell, Neville. (1999, February). Financial, economic and market requirements to start a viable space tourism business. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 34. Schmidt, Stanley, and Zubrin, Robert. (Eds). (1999). Islands in the sky. New York; John Wiley & Sons, 4. Jones, Thomas. (2006, October). Space exploration’s biggest challenge: Explaining why. Aerospace America, 44(10), 20-22. Sarsfield, Liam. (2002). The arrival of tomorrow: NASA in the 21st century. In E.L. Hudgins, (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier, 35. Livingstone, David M. (2002). Barriers to space enterprise. In Hudgins, Space: Freemarket frontier, p. 77. Aldrin, Buzz, and Jones, Ron. (2002). Tourism and the future of space travel. In E.L. Hudgins, (Ed.). Space: Free market frontier, pp. 180, 183. Sophron Foundation. (2002, June 8). Near-term prospects for space tourism. Interglobal Spacelines, Inc., 22.

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[25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44]

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Smith, P.G. (1999, June 24). Going public: Moving toward the development of a large scale space tourism business. 1-2. Retrieved on August 7, 2006 from http://ast.faa.gov/aboutast/speeches/99jun24.html. X-Prize Foundation. (2006). 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.xprizefoundation.org/newsreleases/ National Space Society. (2002). About the National Space Society (NSS). 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.nss.org/about. International Association of Space Entrepreneurs. (2003). Programs: Online and offline. 1. Retrieved on April 10, 2007 from http://www.spaceentrepreneurs.org/review/programs,programs/html. CNES, “History,” (2008). Retrieved on May 15, 2010 from http://www.cnes.org. Armstrong, Raymond C., Jr. (2007). Educating and inspiring young people for the next generation of exploration. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-1038, 4. D.F.I. International. (2002, December). Market opportunities in space: The near-term roadmap. Contract No. GS-10F-0184J. Office of Space Commercialization, U.S. Department of Commerce, 11, 23, 31. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. (2001, June 26). Space Tourism. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 1. Taylor, L.B. Jr. (1987). Commercialization of space. New York: Franklin Watts, 17. Tito, Dennis. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 21-22. O’Neil, Daniel, Bekey, Ivan, Mankins, John, Rogers, Thomas, and Stallmer, Eric W. (1998). The prospects for general public space travel and tourism. NASA/STA. NP-199803-11-MFSC. Volume One: Executive Summary, 4, 10. Ashford, David. (2000, March). How soon will space tourism start? Architectural Design, 70(2), 17. Collins, Patrick. (2000, November). Space tourism—The key to the coming economic boom. Architectural Design. 70(2), 19. Lindskold, Anders. (1998/99). Space tourism and its effects on space commercialization. M.A. Thesis. International Space University, 4, 43. Kauffman, James. (1991, Spring). NASA’s PR campaign on behalf of manned space flight, 1961-63. Public Relations Review, 17(1), 57, 66. Harrison, Albert. (2001). Spacefaring: The human dimension. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 206, 275, 316. Schlather, Mark. (2002). The legislative challenge. In E.L. Hudgins, (Ed.). Space: Freemarket frontier, p. 202. Joseph, G. (2003). Indian finalises (sic) tourist spacecraft design. rediff.com. 1. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://us.rediff.com/cms/print.jsp?docpath=/news/2005/dec/30space.htm. Iannotta, Ben. (2006, November). Turning space travel into tourism. Aerospace America, 44(11), 36-37, 39. Hamill, Doris, Mangan, Philip, and Kearney, Michael. (2002). Space commerce: An entrepreneur’s angle. In E.L. Hudgins, (Ed.) Space: Free-market frontier, p. 188.

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Office of Space Commercialization, U.S. Department of Commerce. The Office of Space Commercialization. 1. Retrieved on June 27, 2006 from http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov.space/about/ American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2000). Coalition participation. 1. Retrieved on February 6, 2007 from http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=136. Thompson, Loren B. (2002, November 15). The faltering space sector: A mirror of America’s decline. Vital Speeches of the Day, 69(3), 18. Barrett, Olly. (1999). An evaluation of the potential demand for space tourism in the United Kingdom. 18. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www/spacefuture.com/pr/archive/an_evaluation of the potential demand for space. Office of Space Commercialization. Frequently asked questions. 1. Retrieved on June 27, 2006 from http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/space/about/faq.html. Romo, Rene. (2007, January 5). Three counties to meet over N.M. spaceport. Albuquerque Journal, p. D3. Webb, Andrew. (2007, January 8). Where in Albuquerque to buy a ticket to ride. Albuquerque Journal, p. A3. The Suborbital Institute. (2005, April 5). 1. Retrieved on April 29, 2007 from http://www.suborbitalinstitute.org/about.html. X-Prize Foundation. (2008, February 8). Space entrepreneurs resolve to create industry group to promote safety standards and growth of the personal spaceflight industry. News Release. David, Leonard. (2005, June 26). Space tourism: Marketing to the masses. Ad Astra. 1. Retrieved on January 3, 2006 from http://www.space.com/adastra/050606_isdctourism.html. Gibson, Dirk C., Lopez, Cassandra, and Krause, Erica. (2009). The capital investment impediment to commercial space tourism: Investment sources & investor relations solutions. Space 2009: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2009-6577, 5-12.

CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 187-199 187

CHAPTER 8 The Secondary Communication

Functions

of

Space

Tourism

Strategic

Abstract: In addition to the relatively common primary space tourism strategic communication functions discussed in the last chapter there was an additional set of such purposes. These secondary functions were not as prevalent as the primary ones but they are nevertheless deserving of mention and serious consideration. They include, in order of quantitative significance: 1) Stakeholder conflict resolution, 2) Altering perspectives, 3) Attention arousal, 4) Adjusting expectations, 5) Influencing perceptions, 6) Refutation, 7) Creating involvement, 8) Community relations, 9) Rumor response, 10) Customer relations, 11) Environmental scanning, 12) Obtaining feedback, 13) Risk management, 14) Influencing media coverage and 15) Reputation management.

Keywords: Arousal, attention, community relations, conflict, conflict resolution, customer relations, environmental scanning, Futron Corporation, refutation, involvement, influencing media coverage, media, perception, perspective, refutation, reputation, reputation management, rumor, Stakeholder Value Network Model, The Space Show. 1. INTRODUCTION The previous chapter introduced us to the notion of strategic communication functions. These elements of professional symbolic interaction are the guiding factors, the purposes behind the activity. I created a list of thirty-one strategic communication functions observed in the commercial space sector and rankordered them by frequency of occurrence. The sixteen most common functions were discussed in the last chapter. At this point we will consider the fifteen less common strategic communication purposes. Although not nearly as frequently noted as the more prevalent primary functions, these strategic communication functions were sometimes observed in contemporary space tourism promotional efforts. They are listed and quantified in Table 1. Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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Table 1: Secondary Functions of Space Tourism Strategic Communication Category Number

Category Title

Total Frequency of Occurrence

17

Stakeholder Reconciliation

10

18

Altering Perspectives

9

19

Arousing Attention

8

20

Adjusting Expectations

8

21

Influencing Perceptions

8

22

Community Relations

8

23

Refutation

7

24

Creating Involvement

6

25

Rumor Response

3

26

Customer Relations

2

27

Environmental Scanning

1

28

Obtaining Feedback

1

29

Risk Management

1

30

Influencing Media Coverage

1

31

Reputation Management

1

Total

16 Categories

74 Total Occurrences; Mean Average = 4.9

2. STAKEHOLDER RECONCILIATION Interested parties involved in space tourism have differing perspectives, values and goals. It is not easy to reconcile occasionally conflicting stakeholder stakes. We will examine three subjects: 1) The necessity of stakeholder dialogue, 2) Associations encourage stakeholder reconciliation and 3) The Stakeholder Value Network Model. A. The Necessity for Stakeholder Dialogue Dialogue between stakeholders might be the single most valuable reconciliation tool. “Clearly, facing the challenge of new vehicle development will require an intensive national dialogue involving all stakeholders,” concluded the D.F.I. International study, Market Opportunities in Space: Near-Term Roadmap [1]. B. Associations Encourage Stakeholder Reconciliation The use of stakeholder-specific associations has proven effective in overcoming stakeholder-perceived differences and promoting perceptions of stakes similarity.

Secondary Functions

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For instance, the California Space Authority “engaged 345 stakeholders representing 141 organizations in the statewide effort” [2]. C. The Stakeholder Value Network Model The Stakeholder Value Network Model was created by scholars at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This very important model is a systematic way to identify and quantify the relative significance of stakeholders. Although designed originally to be applied to Earth observation campaigns it can be easily adapted for use in related contexts. “We have created a comprehensive stakeholder model for an Earth observation campaign that is both qualitative and quantitative in nature. Our model is a useful tool for articulating and representing the numerous scientific, social, economic and political needs and objectives of each stakeholder,” the MIT researchers explained [3]. 3. ALTERING PERSPECTIVES Perspective is an important factor, as it is known to influence perception and demeanor in some cases. A favorable perspective on something makes acceptance of positive information easier and facilitates persuasion. The importance of an appropriate perspective on aerospace issues is underscored by the Aerospace States Association (ASA), “ASA was formed to promote a state-based perspective on Federal aerospace policy development and to support state aerospace initiatives that enhance student/teacher outreach and economic development opportunities” [4]. Due to the substantial differences in stakeholder values and stakes there are going to be multiple perspectives on virtually every commercial space issue. That is why organizations like ASA are necessary. Another remedy for perspective clash is to arrange meetings to discuss differences. D.F.I. International conducted such a workshop and explained the purpose, “The workshop was designed to encourage qualified and prospective market participants to share opinions and perspectives. for accelerated development in space” [1]. A great deal of attention is traditionally paid to governmental perspectives. Jean T. Eisen, a member of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and

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Transportation staff, observed that “Commercial space has not been forgotten on Capital Hill, but it is not the top priority. Congressional perspectives are evolving in response to developments both in the marketplace and in the public policy arena” [1]. “We need to begin to look at what we can do from the government perspective to support space,” the House Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics was told by Dennis Tito [5]. The Office of Commercial Space Transportation at FAA declared that one of its missions is to “provide an FAA safety research perspective” [6]. 4. ATTENTION AROUSAL Attention is a prerequisite to effective informing or persuading. No matter what the purpose of any space tourism strategic communication, without the attention of the members of a target audience there can be no successful communication. Space tourism commercial communicators must attract the attention of audiences or abandon the effort. What is needed is “a space program that engages the public’s attention,” Harrison observed [7]. Dennis Tito remarked to Congress that “In the short term, I believe we need to find ways to include the general public in our human space flight activities,” and he recalled that his flight “captured the attention and imagination of millions of people around the globe” [5]. Educational tactics emphasizing the electronic media are a proven space communication tactical option. David Livingstone, host of The Space Show, offered this assessment: Sufficient feedback, testimonials and growth from The Space Show confirm, on a regular basis, the importance to people everywhere of the format and type of information, educational quality, diverse subject matter and guests, and the understanding being learned about space, its resources, uses and value. The program concept is on the cutting edge of space science, commercial development, and the use of electronic media to get the information in the hands of extremely large numbers of people in ways that it can be readily understood and appreciated by the listeners and program participants. It is a proven attention getter and it inspires

Secondary Functions

Commercial Space Tourism: … 191

and grows an audience. This type of programming is but one of many methods that can engage the public in a higher-level awareness and action for space development [8]. The ability to attract attention is a valuable asset. The Spaceward Foundation concedes that “Our projects attract a lot of attention, and are the ultimate in technology competition, education and outreach” [9]. Again, attention arousal is a critical strategic communication function. 5. ADJUSTING EXPECTATIONS Expectations play a role in our mindset, perceptions and behavior. Some expectations about commercial space activities warrant alteration. For instance, “The public expectation that space flight is the province of government is nearly universal and tends to frame the discussion of the future of space activities,” Maryniak asserted [10]. Unsatisfied public expectations about the imminence of commercial space tourism must be contended with, “Part of the popularity of the 1960s Apollo/Moon program was that people thought it would soon be possible to make trips to the Moon themselves” [11]. Other unsatisfied public space expectations were induced by the government, “Early efforts to ‘sell,’ the space program created high expectations that have not been matched by recent progress” [7]. Space tourism promoters must be wary of repeating the mistakes of the past and over-promising. Spencer and Rugg noted that “However, we must be careful not to promise too much too soon. We must build reasonable expectations” [12]. The salience of expectations to contemporary aerospace is exemplified by ButterworthHayes, who explains how EADS Astrium faced serious challenges, including “managing client expectations of the recently launched A350 XWB” [13]. 6. INFLUENCING PERCEPTIONS Although the perceptual organs are the domain of medical science, perception itself is studied by those in psychology, psychiatry and persuasion, among others. It is no overstatement to refer to perception as an absolute and primary

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prerequisite to strategic communication of any sort. According to Berinstein, there is a need to make fundamental changes in how people view themselves in relation to space [14]. D.F.I. International described the need “to measure public perceptions of risk” on space tourism [1]. “Always a threat is the perception held by some members of the public that space business is not a solid reality, that it is based upon the dreams of visionaries but has limited practical value,” contends the business plan for the New Mexico spaceport [15]. The importance of the space sojourns by Tito and other space tourism pioneers was explained by the Sophron Foundation, “The primary benefits of flying non-traditional astronauts on the Space Shuttle will be in terms of altering public perceptions” [16]. The good news is that inaccurate public perceptions can be changed. The XPRIZE Foundation claimed, “The Ansari X-Prize changed the way the world perceives spaceflight. The revolutionary event surpassed our highest expectations, creating significant developments in the personal spaceflight industry” [17]. Maryniak concurred, adding that “Governments can play an important role in changing the perception that was created by their historical involvement in space flight” [10]. 7. COMMUNITY RELATIONS One of the oldest and most basic elements of public relations, community relations is concerned with the most immediate neighbors of an organization. This term originally referred to a physical community, but the virtual reality of the computer age has created virtual communities and necessitated virtual community relations. Both types of community are of critical importance to contemporary commercial space groups. A spaceblog named Pulsar self-advertises by declaring that readers can “connect with others who have similar interests” [18]. The blog adds that “This blog is a way for space enthusiasts to tap into national and international news about Spaceport America and New Mexico’s commercial space industry, and be the first to see announcements” [18]. Pulsar is sponsored by the New Mexico Economic Development Department.

Secondary Functions

Commercial Space Tourism: … 193

The true significance of cybercommunity was explained by McConnell, “Twentyfirst century space policy is also being dramatically influenced in a direct manner by technology. Social IT tools now enable fundraising, blogging, advocacy, instant information, texting, Web 2.0 sharing, meet-ups, myspace.com friends, community building and instant advocacy” [19]. Commercial space organizations recognize the necessity for online community relations. Space Adventures, for instance, offers an opportunity for space enthusiasts to join a virtual community and at the same time receive marketing messages: Those interested in suborbital spaceflight also have the opportunity to join Space Adventure’s SPACEFLIGHT CLUB. The Club serves as the unifying voice of the next generation of space explorers and provides members with the tools, experience and training needed to achieve the goal of spaceflight. With each year of membership, the Club’s annual dues and program purchases will be set aside as a credit toward the cost of a suborbital spaceflight. In addition, members will be kept in the forefront of this new and exciting industry via newsletters, conferences and many other members-only benefits [20]. The Earthrise Institute similarly provides a community-creation opportunity through “Earthrise Clubs,” as its website explains, “One additional way we seek to reach a larger audience is through the formation of ‘Earthrise clubs’ and groups at colleges and high schools around the planet. This will help to install the lessons of the Earthrise concept within the younger generation that will someday inherit the planet from us” [21]. 8. REFUTATION Refutation is a highly specialized communication tactic, used only in the direst of circumstances. When the only way to alter contrary audience opinion is to argue with other stakeholders refutation is the solution. And space tourism strategic communication has not been without its share of recent refutational situations. “They fight against our tired and dated pro-space arguments with their tired and dated anti-space arguments,” The Space Review realized [22]. Another

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contemporary recognition of the use of refutation in commercial space discussions was provided by Jeffrey Lenorovitz, spokesperson for the Orbital Recovery Group, “The idea is to crush the mindset that government has to be involved, because industry and entrepreneurs have (sic) and will respond” [23]. NASA regularly refutes inaccurate media and public reports. For instance, NASA “held a hasty telephone news conference to announce the tentative identification of a class of minerals that has nothing directly to do with the habitability of Mars” [24]. In a similar situation, NASA spokespersons denied that the agency was making arrangements with Japanese officials to purchase H-11 Transfer Vehicles for ISS resupply [25]. 9. CREATING INVOLVEMENT Involvement is a word with several meanings. Our interpretation of the term is the psychological meaning, a state of intense interest in an object. Audience involvement is the primary goal of every professional communicator. When a target audience is involved in the topic of a message they care sufficiently about it to attend to communication and to take appropriate action. “Personal involvement in space is vital to catalyzing new markets,” declared Alan Ladwig, Vice President of Marketing at Team Encounter [1]. Berinstein concurred, adding that “The only way to build a real public constituency for the U.S. civil space program is to give people what they want, and what they want is personal involvement, not the chance to watch a few technicians bounce around in zero gravity” [14]. The Space Review recently assessed the communication used in commercial space messages. “The second step is to create easily understood and acceptable messages for educating the neutral and anti-space audiences about the HumanSpace Connection,” the online journal noted. The Review concluded, “Messages like these will engage, educate, excite and enroll millions of people who otherwise rarely think about space” [22]. Governmental space agencies and commercial space firms are cognizant of the need to inspire involvement in target market populations. NASA, for instance,

Secondary Functions

Commercial Space Tourism: … 195

recently sponsored a year-long communication audit and audience survey by Harmonic International. This project was administered by the NASA Space Architect’s Office, and it was made possible by collaboration between four different NASA units; Legislative Affairs, International Affairs, Public Affairs and Education [26]. The goal of this project was “to engage and inspire all Americans, and to reclaim the recognition, support and understanding that NASA enjoyed in the 1960s” [26]. Park Avenue Travel, an upscale travel agency, recently offered this cyber-description of how Virgin Galactic used involvement in a marketing sense, “The cost of the flight is US$200,000 and there are three deposit options available that link to the order in which reservations are accepted along with the level of involvement they wish to have with the project” [27]. 10. RUMOR RESPONSE Rumors can be a pernicious and pervasive problem. Any complex situation or scenario with possibly variant outcomes where much is at stake, may be fertile breeding grounds for rumors. There have been numerous publicly-known rumors in the space domain recently. A rumor was widely circulated in early August of 2008 that evidence of life on Mars had been discovered by NASA but was being suppressed [24]. A NASA news conference was convened on August 6, 2008, to dispel the rumor. Rob Coppinger reported in his blog, Hyperbola, that EADS Astrium “had shelved for the time being its aspirations for the suborbital market” [28]. EADS Astrium initially denied the rumor but was forced to admit that it was in fact an accurate if unwelcome report [28]. A space blog was involved in another rumor situation. NASA denied the report in an Orlando Sentinel blog that the Ares 1 rocket was being scrapped in favor of an enhanced version of the rocket used to propel the space shuttle. Doug Cooke, a member of the NASA Exploration Systems Mission Directorate “says he has heard of no such talk among senior management” [29]. 11. CUSTOMER RELATIONS Customer relations is a basic tenet of marketing and a vital concern in public relations. Unhappy customers stop coming back and they complain vociferously

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to their friends and others, while satisfied customers become repeat business and the best source of positive word-of-mouth endorsement possible. Steve Landeene, former executive director for Spaceport America, recently admitted that “We need to institute a customer contact program to make sure we’re addressing the needs they have and keep them up-to-date on progress. That’s probably something we haven’t done a good enough job with” [30]. Another study confirmed Landeene’s expert opinion and perception of this situation, “Promotion will be a vital tool for communicating with outside parties, particularly customers. The communications are employed, in this case, to convince customers that they should make use of spaceport facilities and services” [15]. 12. ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING Environmental scanning refers to a systematic effort to gather all salient messages about the organization from relevant media communication. Local media like town hall meetings, local radio and area newspaper articles and letters to the editor are as important to an organization as Op-Ed pieces in major national and international press and broadcast media. Garver and Williams correctly described this important concept and how NASA incorporated the procedure in its strategic communication system: The first step to a comprehensive strategy to build public support for NASA is to better understand the public’s views of NASA. The social science of public research has long been proven; for decades Fortune 500 companies invested millions of dollars to better understand their customer’s view of their value proposition. NASA and the space community must be prepared to invest as well. Consistently monitoring the public’s perception of the value of NASA is only the first step. NASA and the space community will learn critical information that must then drive NASA’s program and subsequent communication [26]. 13. OBTAINING FEEDBACK Feedback is the response received by the sender of a message from the intended recipient of the message. It is a vital and basic element of communication. If the

Secondary Functions

Commercial Space Tourism: … 197

original message somehow fails to completely succeed (as is frequently the case), feedback from the audience members can alert the communicator to that fact and allow diagnosis of what failed in the interactive effort. The significance of feedback to commercial space organizational communication was recognized by NASA, “A feedback mechanism needs to be implemented to measure the progress of the communications on an on-going basis so that they can be continually improved. Only then will NASA communications collectively begin to have a positive cumulative effect” [26]. 14. RISK MANAGEMENT An interdisciplinary entity, risk management combines elements of accounting, actuarial science, human resources, public opinion, organizational communication and the law. Modern risk management departments protect their organization through insurance, proactive safety programs, internal and public communication initiatives and other methods as necessary to reduce legal liability and promote safety. Futron Corporation, a space enterprise, offers risk management among its portfolio of services [31]. 15. INFLUENCING MEDIA COVERAGE One of the most basic strategic communication tasks is to influence media reporting. That is the concept behind media relations. Virtually each and every commercial space firm and space advocacy organization seeks to influence media reporting. 16. REPUTATION MANAGEMENT Reputation refers to the collective impression held about someone or something by other stakeholders. A positive reputation is a genuine organizational asset, while a negative reputation is a definite liability. An example of the importance of reputation in space tourism can be considered. Anderson and Piven noted, “Space Adventures uses the Soyuz-FG launch vehicle for the space tourist flights to the ISS, and the Soyuz has earned its reputation as the most reliable manned space flight system in history” [32].

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CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]

D.F.I. International. (2002, December). Market opportunities in space: The near-term roadmap. Contract No. GS-10F-0184J. Office of Space Commercialization, U.S. Department of Commerce, 7, 13, 17, 44, 52. California Space Authority. (Winter, 2005). Spacebound! 19, 4. Sutherland, Timothy A., and Crawley, Edward F. (2008). Stakeholder Value Network Model for Earth Observation Campaigns. Space 2008: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2008-7705, 1-13. Aerospace States Association. (2005). About us. 1. Retrieved on April 10, 2007 from http://www.aerospacestatesassociation.org. Tito, Dennis. (2001, June 26). Space Tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12, 64. Larsen, Charles. (2007). Federal Aviation Administration commercial space transportation research and development program. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-8282, 1. Harrison, Albert. (2001). Spacefaring: The human dimension. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 266, 279. Livingstone, David M. (2006). The public’s misplaced perception of the space program & what we can do about it. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7308, 7. Spaceward Foundation. (2006). The Spaceward Foundation and corporate sponsorships. 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.spaceward.org/sponsorship.html. Maryniak, Gregg. (2002). When will we see a Golden Age of flight? In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free market frontier, p. 14. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. Van Pelt, Michel. (2005). Space tourism: Adventures in Earth orbit and beyond. New York: Praxis Publishing Company, 8. Spencer, John, and Rugg, Karen L. (2004). Space tourism: Do you want to go?, Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books, 204. Butterworth-Hayes, Philip. (2007, April). EADS faces threats and opportunities. Aerospace America, 45(4), 5-6. Berinstein, Paula. (2002). Making space happen: Private space ventures and the visionaries behind them. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company, 44. Arrowhead Center for Business, New Mexico State University. (2005). Business plan for the Southwest Regional Spaceport, 17, 19.

Secondary Functions

[16] [17] [18] [19] [20]

[21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32]

Commercial Space Tourism: … 199

Sophron Foundation. (2002, June 8). Near-term prospects for space tourism, Interglobal Spacelines, Inc., 22. X-Prize Foundation. (2006). Our mission. 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.xprizefoundation.org/mission.html. Pulsar. (2005, November 18). Higher purpose voters approve tax to finance Spaceport America. 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://newspacerace.blogspot.com. McConnell, Kathleen M. (2007). The future of democracy and space: Increased democratization of governmental decision making. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6075, 2. Space Adventures. (2005, July 19). Governor Bush and Space Adventures announce the opening of a suborbital vehicle and spaceport development office. Kennedy Space Center will be groundzero for Space Adventure’s suborbital spaceflight program development. 1. Retrieved on April 10, 2007 from http://www.comspacewatch.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=17436. Earthrise Institute. (2005). Mission statement. 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.earthriseinstitute.org/mission.html. Marketing space to the general public. (n. d.). The Space Review. 2, 6. Retrieved on May 10, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/223/1. Rincon, Paul. (2004, September 27). Virgin Galactic: The logical next step. BBC News. 2. Retrieved on March 23, 2007 from http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3693518.stm. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, August 6). NASA holds news conference to counter Phoenix rumors. Daily Launch, 1. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, July 22). NASA denies reports of buying HTV. Daily Launch, 3. Garver, Lori, and Williams, Robin-Marie. (2006). When perception becomes reality. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 20067311, 1-2, 7. Park Avenue Travel. (n. d.). Space travel with Virgin Galactic. 1. Retrieved on March 23, 2007 from http://www.parkavenuetravel.org. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, March 25). Astrium suspending plans for suborbital market. Daily Launch, 4. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, August 16). NASA officials supporting Ares despite rumors. Daily Launch, 3. Webb, Andrew. (2008, March 1). Rocket theme park scrapped. Albuquerque Journal, p. C4. Futron Corporation. (2002, October). Space tourism market study: Orbital space travel & destinations with suborbital space travel. Bethesda, Maryland: Futron Corporation, 68. Anderson, Eric, and Piven, Jeremy. (2005). The space tourist’s handbook. Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 28.

Unit IV: SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION TACTICS

200 CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 200-238

CHAPTER 9 Space Tourism Strategic Communication Categories & the Typical Tactics

Tactics:

Four

Abstract: This chapter discussed the notion of tactics in strategic communication. Tactics are the policies or activities undertaken to accomplish strategic communication functions. The present study identified 215 tactics, which were categorized according to frequency of occurrence. Four categories were noted: 1) Typical, 2) Mid-Incidence, 3) Occasional and 4) Atypical. The forty-four typical tactics were discussed in this chapter.

Keywords: Advisory board, annual report, backgrounder, blog, business plan, celebrity, fact sheet, focus group, grassroots advocacy, Internet, interview, logo, media event, media mix, partnership, position paper, positioning, story placement, video news release, tour. 1. INTRODUCTION Functions represent the intended outcome or purpose of strategic communication. Tactics, on the other hand, are the acts, policies or behaviors used to fulfill the strategic communication functions. The two are interdependent; without tactics functions could not be achieved, and without functions tactics would be without purpose or direction. The next three chapters discuss the results of this study of space tourism strategic communication tactics. This chapter introduces the notion of tactics and presents the list of 215 space tourism communication tactics identified to date. The tactics broke into four categories, based upon their frequency of occurrence: 1) Typical (26.26 mean average), 2) Mid-Incidence (9.68 mean average), 3) Occasional (3.32 mean average) and 4) Atypical (mean average is 1). Also discussed are the tactics in the typical category. 2. TACTICS IN STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION Tactics are the ‘dirty work’ of strategic communication, in a sense. They are the acts and behaviors that collectively advance the strategic communication interests of an organization. They lack the glamour and ‘sizzle’ of functions, where at least Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

Tactic Categories & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 201

communication planners get to discuss organizational objectives and aspirations. Tactics involve the implementation of policies and the application of activities to further some desired organizational outcome. Tactics are essentially technical tasks. Two hundred and fifteen strategic communication tactics were identified by the present study. The next three chapters will discuss these tactics. The entire list of space tourism strategic communication tactics is included, as Fig. 1. Fig. 1: List of Tactics Used in Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactic Number

Tactic

1

Academic Conventions & Conferences

2

Academic Publications

3

Advertising

4

Advisory Boards

5

Amplification

6

Animation

7

Announcements

8

Annual Reports

9

Associations

10

Audience Analysis

11

Audiovisual Presentations

12

Awards

13

Backgrounders

14

Banners

15

Banner Ads

16

Blogs

17

Books

18

Book Signings

19

Branding

20

Brochures

21

Bulletin Boards

22

Business Plans

23

Call for Proposals

24

Cartoons

25

Catalogs

26

CD-Roms

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Fig. 1: cont….

27

Celebrities

28

Champions

29

Chat Rooms

30

Clubs

31

Collaterals

32

Comparative Advertising

33

Computer Graphics

34

Computer Simulations

35

Conferences

36

Congratulations

37

Contests

38

Corrections

39

Dances

40

Demonstrations

41

Diagrams

42

Direct Mail

43

Display Boards

44

Door-to Door Canvassing

45

DVDs

46

Editorial Conferences

47

Electronic Blackboards

48

E-Mail

49

Endorsements

50

E-Newsletters

51

Exclusives

52

Exhibitions

53

Fact Sheets

54

Feature Print News Releases

55

Feature Television Releases

56

Feedback

57

Fictional Characters

58

Flyers/Fliers

59

Focus Groups

60

Forums

61

Frequently Asked Questions

62

Gaming

Tactic Categories & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 203

Fig. 1: cont….

63

Grassroots Advocacy

64

Illustrations

65

Image

66

Industrial Location/Relocation Activity

67

Interactive Media

68

Internet

69

Internet Portals

70

Interpersonal Communication

71

Interviewee Preparation

72

Interviews

73

Leaflets

74

Letters

75

Lifestyle Marketing

76

List-Serves

77

Logos

78

Lotteries

79

Magazines

80

Mailing Lists

81

Marketing Plans

82

Market Research Surveys

83

Meal Meetings

84

Media Alert/Advisories

85

Media Briefings

86

Media Centers

87

Media Credentials

88

Media Events

89

Media Junkets

90

Media Kits

91

Media Monitoring

92

Media Relations

93

Media Tours

94

Meetings

95

Membership Meetings

96

Memos

97

Merchandising

98

Mission Statements

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Fig. 1: cont….

99

Models

100

Mottos

101

Movies

102

Multimedia

103

Name Changes

104

Networking

105

Newsletters

106

Newspaper Ads

107

Newspaper News

108

News Agencies

109

News Conferences

110

News Releases

111

News Release Archives

112

News Release Subscription Services

113

Ombudsmans

114

Opinion/Editorials

115

Opinion Leaders

116

Organizational Publications

117

Outdoor

118

Overhead Projectors

119

Palm Pilots

120

Pamphlets

121

Panel Discussions

122

Parades

123

Parties

124

Partnerships

125

Pep Rallies

126

Performance Art

127

Petitions

128

Photography

129

Podcasts

130

Podcast Archives

131

Popularizers

132

Position Papers

133

Positioning

134

Posters

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Commercial Space Tourism: … 205

Fig. 1: cont….

135

Powerpoint

136

Precursor Activities

137

Prizes

138

Product Placement

139

Prospective Space Tourist Information Kits

140

Prospectuses

141

Public Appearances

142

Public Discussions

143

Public Hearings

144

Public Meetings

145

Public Participation

146

Public Presentations

147

Public Service Announcements

148

Public Statements

149

Publicity Stunts

150

Radio Actualities

151

Radio Archives

152

Radio Commercials

153

Radio via Internet

154

Radio News

155

Radio Programs

156

Radio Soundbytes

157

Receptions

158

Relationships

159

Reputation Management

160

Roundtable Discussions

161

RSS

162

Satellite Media Tours

163

School Promotions

164

Seminars

165

Signs

166

Slide Shows

167

Slogans

168

Source Status

169

Space Simulations

170

Special Events

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Fig. 1: cont….

171

Speeches

172

Spokespersons

173

Sponsorships

174

Souvenirs

175

Storyboards

176

Story Placement

177

Streaming Video

178

Studies

179

Surveys

180

Sweepstakes

181

Symposia

182

Talking Points

183

Teleconferences

184

Telephones

185

Television Commercials

186

Television by Government

187

Television Infomercials

188

Television News

189

Television Programs

190

Television Talk Shows

191

Testimonials

192

Testimony

193

Tours

194

Town Hall Meetings

195

Trade Associations

196

Trade Communication/Marketing

197

Trade Publications

198

Trade Shows

199

Travel & Tourism Industry

200

Video

201

Videoconferencing

202

Video Archives

203

Video News Releases

204

Viral Marketing

205

Virtual Reality

206

Vision Statements

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Fig. 1: cont….

207

Webcasts

208

Webcast Archives

209

Websites

210

White Papers

211

Wire Services

212

Word-of-Mouth

213

Workshops

214

X-Prize

215

‘Zines

3. FOUR CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION TACTICS

SPACE

TOURISM

STRATEGIC

After the strategic communication tactics were identified the next step was to determine their relative frequency of occurrence. This was accomplished by the present study. Table 1 presents this information. Table 1: Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics: Frequency Categorization Number of Category Title Category

Number of Tactics

Frequency of Occurrence

Mean Average Frequency of Occurrence

1

Typical Tactics

44

1,156

26.27

2

Mid-Incidence Tactics

48

465

9.68

3

Occasional Tactics

73

243

3.32

4

Atypical Tactics

47

47

1

Total

4 Categories

212 Tactics

1,911 Occurrences

9.01 Occurrences

The results revealed four distinct groupings of tactics. The forty-four typical tactics were observed on average twenty-seven times apiece, and the next-most common category was the mid-incidence category with just under ten occurrences per tactic. The third grouping was the occasional one, with 3.3 uses of the tactics in this grouping. The atypical space tourism strategic communication tactics were observed just once.

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4. TYPICAL SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION TACTICS In this section we will consider the most common, or typical space tourism strategic communication tactics. There were forty-four such typical tactics. They are listed and quantified in Table 2. Table 2: Typical Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Tactic Number

Tactic Title

Total Occurrences

1

Partnerships

76

2

News Releases

52

3

Websites

46

4

Celebrities

40

5

Brochures

39

6

Speeches

36

7

Newsletters

34

8

Webcasts

34

9

Conferences

34

10

School Promotions

34

11

News Release Archives

31

12

Mission Statements

30

13

Events

30

14

Announcements

28

15

Blogs

28

16

Sponsorships

26

17

Contests

23

18

Logos

23

19

Magazines

23

20

Photography

23

21

X-Prize

22

22

Lotteries

21

23

Posters

21

24

Television Programs

21

25

E-Mail

20

26

Associations

19

27

Media Relations

19

28

Podcasts

19

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Table 2: cont….

29

Relationships

19

30

Interviews

19

31

Motion Pictures

17

32

Symposia

17

33

Virtual Tours

17

34

Advisory Boards

16

35

Branding

16

36

Advertising

16

37

RSS

16

38

Spokespersons

16

39

Awards

15

40

Exhibitions

15

41

Fact Sheets

15

42

Images

15

43

News Conferences

15

44

Webcast Archives

15

TOTAL

44 Tactics

1,156 Total Occurrences/26.27 Per Tactic

A. Partnerships The creation and development of partnerships was the most prevalent strategic communication tactic observed by the present study. In a sense this should not be a surprise, since public relations has traditionally been concerned with the creation of alliances and coalitions of like-minded stakeholders. These partnerships are quite necessary, the literature suggests, and preferably include both public and private sectors and stakeholders from different countries [1]. Some of the governmental entities seeking partners on their website are Space Florida and BNSC. Nonprofit advocacy organizations such as The Planetary Society, the Spaceward Foundation, the International Astronautical Federation, the X-Prize Foundation, the Earthrise Institute, the California Space Authority and the Farnsborough Aerospace Consortium, and commercial firms like Rocketplane Kistler, SpaceDev, Starchaser and Advent Launch Services are also soliciting salient partnerships.

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B. News Releases News releases are a very basic, traditional strategic communication tactic. The second-most common space tourism strategic communication tactic identified in this research, they are issued by a variety of public and private sector organizations. For instance, commercial space firms such as Scaled Composites, Transformational Space (t-Space), Paragon Space Development Corporation, Transorbital beta, Wickman Spacecraft & Propulsion, SpaceDev, Sprague Astronautics, Bristol Spaceplanes, United Space Alliance and Finmeccanica all recently distributed news releases. Governmental releases are issued by the Canadian Space Agency, Spaceport Singapore, NASA, the FAA, the State of New Mexico, the Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation and Spaceport Sweden. News releases are also disseminated on behalf of space advocacy groups like The Space Foundation, the Aerospace States Association, Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, The Planetary Society, the Earthrise Institute, the International Association of Space Entrepreneurs and the Rochester Institute of Technology. C. Websites It is not surprising to find that websites are the third most-common strategic communication tactic used to disseminate commercial space messages. Websites have become the organizational cyber-home, an expected and necessary element of modern business practices. The Virgin Galactic website was described by design portfolio: The website for Pure Galactic was created to promote their flights to space which the company will be launching in the next couple of years. The corporate design was based around its sister company Pure Vacations but with a styling more suited to the space tourism theme. The website contains information about the company and its space trips with streaming 3D rendered movie clips of what the experiences will entail [2]. Websites have considerable commercial space significance. The Aerospace States Association website notes the group’s intent, “Develop ASA website to become the national repository of national studies on aerospace” [3]. According to The

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Planetary Society’s website, “Through our website, planetary.org., and our e-mail newsletters, we communicate nearly instantaneously with members around the world” [4]. The site for The Suborbital Institute includes an introduction to the Institute, FAQs, SOINews, a news media section, resources, web links and contact information [5]. It was estimated that the Lunar Retriever Website could generate $200 million in advertising revenue [6]. The Mars Pathfinder site received 800 million hits in two months [7]. D. Celebrities Celebrities are an effective way to garner attention in contemporary society. That is why many groups use celebrities as spokespersons or in commercial advertising. Tom Hanks was somewhat active in endorsing space development and exploration. Lance Bass, former member of In Sync, expressed interest in space tourism as did folksinger John Denver. Van Pelt asserted that a wellplanned promotional campaign with celebrities traveling into space should stimulate public interest in space tourism [8]. “Securing the participation of celebrity spokespeople” is of critical importance to space tourism industrial development, Spencer and Rugg asserted [9]. Not everyone favors celebrity involvement. There are critics of celebrity culture and some who find it difficult to deal with ‘Hollywood types.’ Norris claimed, “One of the challenges we face is combining Hollywood with aerospace. It just doesn’t work” [6]. E. Brochures Brochures have been a standard tool used in professional communication for centuries. Most contemporary designs are on 8.5 by 11-inch paper, with one or two folds. For instance, the California Space Enterprise Strategic Plan 2007-2010 brochure has two folds, resulting in six surfaces of 8.5 by 3.5 inches. Finmeccanica and the United Space Alliance also provide standard brochures. Some recent brochures located on corporate websites differ, however, in that they are horizontal (or landscape) in orientation and layout, not vertical (portrait) and unfolded as well. Eurockot Launch Services’ brochure, for instance, consists of a vertical front page, five inner horizontal pages, and a final vertical page, with no

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folds. The Aerospace Corporation brochure is also horizontal and unfolded, consisting of six color pages. A California Space Center brochure is also without folds, but with a vertical layout of four colors on 8.5 by 11-inch paper. F. Speeches NASA was “using speeches to provide information about [space] commercialization opportunities to industry, academia and the general public,” Taylor observed way back in the 1980s [10]. More recently, Armstrong suggested that NASA is “conducting more active outreach efforts by providing engaging, well informed speakers at local, regional and national events such as science and technology trade shows, job fairs and school activities not normally associated with space, such as college football games” [11]. NASA administrator Dan Golden made a trip to Wyoming where his audiences included the Wyoming Business Alliance one evening and an elementary school class the next day. The Space Transportation Association held “a popular Breakfast Series on Capitol Hill,” with speakers from NASA, the Congress and major media outlets [12]. David Ashford, author and space entrepreneur, delivered the prestigious Barnwell Lecture at the Bristol Branch of the Royal Aeronautical Society on May 26, 2005 [13]. Gene Myers, founder of the Space Island Group, unveiled his plans for a private space station for the first time in an address delivered at the Rochester Institute of Technology in 2002 [14]. Former New Mexico Secretary of Economic Development Rick Homans made public presentations in three New Mexico counties [15]. G. Newsletters Newsletters are another very basic and traditional tool used in contemporary strategic communication. One of the first newsletters in the commercial space sector was put out in the mid-1970s by the L5 Society [16]. The business plan for Spaceport America endorses newsletters as a tactic appropriate to spaceport publicity [17]. Professional space tourism newsletters vary in appearance. The SpaceDev newsletter has a black-and-white format, with the text arranged in a vertical box. This contrasts sharply with “Spacebound!” which is a color tabloid published by

Tactic Categories & Typical Tactics

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the California Space Authority. SRON Spectrum is published by SRON, the Netherlands Institute for Space Research, and it features substantial use of color and visuals in an 8.5 by 11-inch format. The Space Foundation disseminates “Spacewatch,” its all-text newsletter. H. Webcasts Webcasts are the television news of yesterday. Young people now receive their news via Ipod and webcast. The July, 2009, launch of a SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket was webcasted [18]. I. Conferences Conferences are a major communication tactic, and they are as important among the commercial space firms as they are to advocacy organizations and government agencies. The landmark NASA/STA study recommended “an annual General Public Space Travel and Tourism Conference” [19]. Congressional hearings in 2001 found that “Space tourism advocates have held several conferences and seminars to increase awareness and work through many of the issues surrounding the new industry” [20]. Steady growth in the number of conferences devoted to space tourism was asserted by Spencer and Rugg [9]. The National Space Society hosts the “International Space Development Conference” each year. The Space Foundation claims that it sponsored two of the top three conferences for space professionals in the world today—the National Space Symposium and Strategic Space and Defense. The Space Transportation Association also sponsors conferences as does the Texas Space Authority. “The International Symposium for Personal Spaceflight” was held at the NM Farm and Ranch Heritage Museum, Las Cruces, New Mexico, in 2006. J. School Promotions School promotions have long been favored by corporate and organizational America because of the exposure it gives them to the consumers of tomorrow— children. Berinstein admitted that space advocates have “a secret agenda, to give them the space bug before they’re too old, because once they hit puberty they have no interest in space” [7]. The Arrowhead Center noted that “The educational value of the spaceport will be an important by-product” [17].

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There are governmental space education programs. For instance, the California Space Authority sponsored “Weightlessness: Flights of Discovery” on August 11, 2006, for California science teachers [21]. At the federal level, “NASA has developed a wide range of educational experiences to achieve these various levels of involvement among its school-age constituents” [11]. Similarly, there are space advocacy organization educational efforts underway. The American Astronautical Society has a “Strategic Plan,” which includes the following, “Reach out to all educators at all levels to encourage and facilitate their use of space materials in the classroom. Reach out to students at all levels to enhance understanding of and involvement in space careers” [22]. The Planetary Society engages in three activities; advocacy, projects and education. The British Interplanetary Society “undertakes educational activities on space topics” [23]. K. News Release Archives News releases are compiled into groups, usually by date of publication, and then archived. This allows for efficient retrieval. Some of the many commercial space organizations that save their releases and make them available include the Futron Corporation, Xcor and PlanetSpace. The ESA archives releases, as does the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, the German Aerospace Center and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency. L. Mission Statements Many if not most contemporary organizations have adopted mission statements as a testament to their purpose for existence. This is true of space advocacy groups, commercial space firms and governmental agencies. For instance, the United Nations Programme (sic) on Space Applications aims to “Enhance the understanding and subsequent use of space technology for peaceful purposes in general, and for national development in particular, in response to expressed needs in different geographic regions of the world” [24]. Another government agency, the Office of Commercial Space Transportation in the FAA, declares, “FAA/AST’s mission is to ensure public health and safety and safety of property while protecting the national security and foreign policy interests of the United States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, FAA/AST is

Tactic Categories & Typical Tactics

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directed to encourage, facilitate and promote commercial space launches and reentries” [25]. We might consider the mission statements of a few space advocacy groups. The Space Exploration Alliance’s statement says, “The nation’s premier non-profit space organizations will work together to communicate to the American public and elected officials that the Vision for Space Exploration is a compelling national priority that is technically and fiscally achievable, will inspire the nation’s youth and the public, reinvigorate the traditional aerospace workforce and industrial base, and foster job-creating entrepreneurial activity across the entire economy.” The X-Prize Foundation seeks “To bring about radical breakthroughs for the benefit of humanity” [26]. The mission statement of the International Association of Space Entrepreneurs states, “IASE is a membership trade association dedicated to promoting global entrepreneurship in the space industry through concerted efforts in business, public policy and education” [27]. The Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc. mission states: Shapes public policy that ensures the U.S. aerospace, defense and homeland security industry remains preeminent and that its members are successful and profitable in a changing global market. AIA is the voice of the aerospace, defense and homeland security industry. Representing the nation’s leading manufacturers and suppliers of civil, military and business aircraft, helicopters, UAVs, space systems, aircraft engines, missiles and related components, equipment, services, and information technology. Serving its members and the nation, AIA establishes industry goals and strategies, achieving consensus among its members and national and global stakeholders and implementing solutions to industrywide issues related to national and homeland security, civil aviation and space [28]. Commercial space tourism firms similarly profess to having a mission. For example, “Sprague Astronautics is committed to the highest level of safety, service and operations, based on the needs, wants, comfort, and convenience of its passengers. Sprague Astronautics’ vision of space is not as a ‘once in a lifetime’ opportunity but rather an experience that can, and should be, available to all on

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demand” [29]. The United Space Alliance proclaims that “The Mission of United Space Alliance is to provide high-quality, best-value space operations, services and technologies to our customers.” According to the Suborbital Corporation website, its mission is “To make the most economical, reliable, maintainable, safe and operational suborbital system using 45 years of Russian spaceflight knowledge and technology which is known for its simplicity, reliability and safety” [30]. M. Events Events, or special events, have been a basic element of strategic communication since the days of the Boston Tea Party, if not earlier. They range from grand openings to anniversary celebrations to fundraisers. Frequently a celebrity is employed as the event attention-getter. Space Day is probably the most prominent space-related event held world-wide. N. Announcements Announcements are valuable strategic communication tactics. The value lies in their newsworthiness. Media are inclined to cover announcements because they are considered to be news. That has certainly been the case with commercial space stories. Announcements can be quite important. For instance, “The X-Prize Foundation made its formal announcement about its $10 million cash prize to stimulate development of private space tourism vehicles” [9]. Dittmar observed that “Congressional testimony, public announcements and commentary, white papers and books have focused on the need to establish an appropriate governmentcommercial business relationship for the New Space industry” [31]. HobbySpace added, “There have been several announcements over the past few years for TV contests in which the winner would go to Mir or, after Mir dies, to the International Space Station” [32]. Bigelow Aerospace previewed an important announcement on the front page of their website, “Important Announcement: We plan to make an important announcement at the National Space Symposium” [33]. An announcement to watch for an announcement. Space organizations make announcements in different ways. Frontier Astronautics lists theirs under “Company Info” [34]. The NightSkyObserver has a section

Tactic Categories & Typical Tactics

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entitled, “Announcements” [35]. MSNBC.com. reported the joint announcement made by Virgin Galactic’s Richard Branson and New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson about the construction of Spaceport America [36]. Some announcements are incorrect. In 2002 the Russian Space and Aviation Bureau announced that Lance Bass would be the next space tourist [37]. Rocketplane Ltd. announced that it would begin offering space tourism flights through Incredible Adventures (a travel agency) in 2007 [25]. O. Blogs Blogs are an interactive internet-based communication system. They often contain news articles, official reports, visuals and comments by readers. They are sponsored by a variety of organizations and private individuals interested in commercial space. McConnell included blogs among the new technologies affecting contemporary space policy [38]. Some space blogs are the work of individuals. Former space tourist Anousheh Ansari wrote a blog about her experiences [39]. Another private blog is named, Transterrestrial Musings [40]. Space advocacy organizations produce blogs, as well. The Space Tourism Society maintains the Orbital Lifestyle Blog [41]. Blogs are published by numerous commercial space firms. Masten Space Systems maintains a spaceblog for its readers [42]. So does SpaceChannel.TV [43]. Rockets Away! runs a blog named Blogging the New Space Revolution [44]. Government agencies also post blogs. The New Mexico Department of Economic Development publishes Pulsar, a blog about Spaceport America [45]. Another blog, Space Politics, investigated New Mexico Senator Jeff Bingaman’s role in space tourism development [46]. P. Sponsorships Sponsorships are an effective way of raising revenue while creating corporate coalitions and associations. “The sponsorship market, which is expected to reach $25 billion globally in 2001, could clearly be an important source of publicity and funding for emerging space markets,” D.F.I. International concluded [47]. Alan Ladwig, Vice President of Marketing at Team Encounter, noted that “Space

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sponsorship is a growing market segment” [47]. The FAA Office of Commercial Space Transportation observed that “Sponsorship, which has a long history in jump-starting nascent markets, will have a role to play as the emerging SRLV industry gains a foothold” [25]. The Spaceward Foundation sponsors the Space Elevator Project and the Remote Robotics Assembly competition. The da Vinci Project actively solicits sponsorships, as do most space advocacy organization websites: Sponsorships are designed to offer companies the ability to tangibly demonstrate and deliver their unique and leading technologies and processes on a highly popular and public project. Sponsorship of the da Vinci Project is ‘more than your logo on a rocket.’ It is a corporate branding opportunity with substance, a demonstrable showcase of skills on a global stage [48]. Q. Contests One way to stimulate interest in something is to hold a contest with meaningful prizes. NASA works annually with the Team America Rocketry Challenge, a contest for schoolchildren from seventh through twelfth grades. Other NASA contests include the Student Launch Initiative and the Engineering Design Challenges Program [11]. Most recently, NASA asked for suggested names for the new section of ISS, Node 3 [49]. United Societies in Space, in conjunction with the Space Orbital Development Authority, conducts an “Eighth Wonder of the World” contest, where an EarthMars Cycler Orbiter system must be defined and designed. The competition is based upon the ideas of Buckminster Fuller, Paolo Soleri and Gerard O’Neill [50]. R. Logos Logos are extraordinarily important strategic communication tactics. They are visual, pictoral images representing an organization. Along with an accompanying theme they are a basic element of contemporary public relations, advertising and marketing.

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The Economist referred to “the logo on the side of the rockets that launched his [Rene Anselmo] satellites” in the 1950s [51]. Spencer and Rugg observed that “Logos. and other identity-building tools are important culturally, for crew and staff pride, and as promotional tools” [9]. The Virgin Galactic logo was emblazoned on the side of SpaceShip One’s fuselage at the Ansari X-Prize competition [25]. Reuters reported that a thirty-foot-long version of the Pizza Hut logo graced the side of the Russian Proton rocket that launched on a 1999 resupply mission to the ISS [52]. Organizations are particular about their logos. SPACEHAB devotes a page of its website to “Logos and Trademarks; An Online Guide for the SPACEHAB Identity.” The site notes: Below are the SPACEHAB logos in TIFF and EPOS formats for use in a variety of media. The following guidelines should be followed when using the SPACEHAB or Astrotech logos: The pantone colors are Blue (PMS 286) and Black. Both the Company name and mark (Planet “S”) comprise the Company logo and should generally be used together. For some applications the logotype may be used alone, consult us. The logo can be enlarged or reduced to fit the intended need, but elements and proportions should not be altered [53]. S. Magazines Magazines have played an important role in the commercial space movement. They were an important early medium that covered space tourism as far back as 1983, when Leonard David wrote “Make Way for Private Citizens in Space” for Space World [9]. The National Space Society magazine Ad Astra ran a space tourism story in the March/April 1996 edition [37]. Photographs and stories on the NASA Mars Excursion Rovers “appeared in thousands of magazines” [8]. A 1999 edition of National Geographic magazine included several pieces on space tourism [9]. There was an informative Forbes space tourism magazine article in February, 2000, “The Ultimate Trip” [9]. Later that same year Popular Science ran a story on the space tourism industry, “The 200-Mile Club.” The Japanese magazine Brutus published an entire issue in 2002 on space tourism [9].

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Some magazines have been devoted to commercial space topics. In 1985 a magazine called Commercial Space was introduced by McGraw-Hill [10]. More recently, the Farnsborough Aerospace Consortium published a 24-page full-color “journal” to more than 2,000 companies. The British Aerospace Society published Spaceflight: The Magazine of Astronautics and Outer Space [54]. The Chinese government published Aerospace China 2001 and Aerospace China 2002 [55]. T. Photography Photographs, or “images” as they are called on websites, remain as important a tool for strategic communication as they have always been. Still images have tremendous evocative power, and commercial space firms and space commercialization organizations have taken notice. The Planetary Society site features a page called, “Photos.” SRON’s website offers an “Image Gallery.” “Welcome to the Photo Gallery,” proclaims the site of the Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation. There is an “Image Gallery” and an “Image Bank Policy” on the Norwegian Space Centre website. A “Photoarchive” is provided on the site of the S.P. Korolev Rocket & Space Corporation Energia. U. X-Prize The X-Prize remains the best-known of the commercial space contests--A $10 million prize to the first reusable three-person craft able to ascend to 100 kilometers in altitude and repeat the task within two weeks. Dr. Peter Diamandis originated the idea [56]. “It is clear that the X-Prize has captured the imagination of aerospace mavens everywhere,” a Washington Post story suggested [57]. The X-Prize Foundation was established on May 18, 1996. A significant contribution resulted in a renaming, to the Ansari X-Prize [25]. Part of the X-Prize was the X Prize Sweepstakes, where one person would win a free space tourism trip courtesy of Space Adventures and First USA Bank [9]. V. Lotteries Lotteries, like sponsorships, are beneficial in a dual sense, in that they raise money while publicizing a cause. Space Marketing, Inc., announced plans to hold a space tourism lottery [58]. In April of 1998, The Suntory Corporation

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announced a campaign with Pepsi-Cola Japan where winners would receive suborbital space tourism trips [9]. Spencer and Rugg contended that as of 2004, one Japanese company, two European firms and three American enterprises were “exploring the legal and marketing issues of conducting a nationwide lottery,” with a trip to the ISS for the winners [9]. Former astronaut Aldrin was the architect of the most publicized lottery plan. “One idea created and promoted by astronaut Buzz Aldrin aims to alleviate some of the space tourism costs by creating a global lottery” [59]. Congressional testimony in 2001 revealed that Aldrin “suggests setting aside a limited number of flights—perhaps five percent—for ordinary citizens who would be selected by a national lottery. National lotteries could potentially generate tens of millions of dollars” [60]. Aldrin called his plan ShareSpace. There are numerous benefits to a lottery. The NASA/STA study found that “To ensure that costly national assets are used in a fundamentally egalitarian fashion, private sector interests could explore the use of a national lottery. A lottery would provide funds needed to work out the procedures for training and supporting nonprofessional space travelers” [19]. Approximately $38 billion was spent on lotteries in the U.S. in 2006. In the U.K., the National Lottery attracted nearly eighty percent of the population, with annual revenue of 3.2 billion English pounds, about $4.8 billion dollars [7]. W. Posters One of the most traditional of strategic communication tactics, posters have been around since ancient times. In some cultures the visual aspects of posters have been considered akin to fine art and treated with refinement and aesthetic sensitivity. A study of NASA outreach efforts concluded that posters are an important element of such activity [11]. Posters are universally used by government space agencies, commercial space firms and space advocacy organizations. X. Television Programs Television programs are tremendously effective strategic communication tools. W. Clark Bunting, Executive Vice President and General Manager of the

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Discovery Channel, claimed that “One way to provide a personal connection between space and consumers is through television programming” [47]. A study by Reifert agreed, “The budding space tourism industry should be actively courting Hollywood in an attempt to get more space-themed movies made and a space-based reality show on primetime television” [61]. There were five Star Trek television series [9]. In addition to commercial television there is notable public sector space television programming. For instance, Dr. David Livingstone’s “The Space Show,” which is also podcasted, is an influential and popular program; “The Space Show focuses on timely and important issues in development of outer-space commerce and space tourism, as well as subjects of interest to us all” [62]. NASA has a trio of television systems; a public channel, a media channel and an educational channel. There is even digital NASA television via satellite [63]. Y. E-Mail Electronic mail, more commonly known as e-mail, is a fact of life for many people around the world. Commercial space enterprises are no exception. Space News recently had a fact for an article confirmed by ATK spokesperson Brian Cullen via e-mail [64]. Virgin Galactic’s Will Whitehorn conducted media relations through e-mail in a February 21, 2008, message to a Space News reporter [65]. Stephen Attenborough, the astronaut liaison for Virgin Galactic, reassured his audience in an e-mail that the Mojave accident suffered by Scaled Composites would not affect the production schedule [66]. E-mail alerts are sent from commercial space organizations to those who sign up for that service. For instance, the DreamSpaceGroup, planners of the da Vinci Project, offers to send members “E-mail alerts and an e-newsletter.” Tumlinson recalled the early days of the commercial space movement, when SSI pioneered such techniques as e-mail alerts and distribution lists [67]. The political usage of e-mail is perhaps the most prominent organizational application in the commercial space industry. HobbySpace refers to “Internet activism” [32]. In 1996 an e-mail list of 30,000 space-minded citizens was used by ProSpace to rally opposition to suboptimal legislation [7]. Two years later, the

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Senate Appropriations Committee was inundated by “an e-mail barrage” that forced the restoration of $20 million in cut appropriations [68]. Contemporary commercial space organizations offer their members e-mail information unavailable to the general public. Virgin Galactic for example offers customers the option of receiving e-mail updates on corporate progress [69]. The Canadian Space Agency also provides e-mail updates on salient space stories to its subscribers [70]. Applied Space Resources plans on linking spacecraft with home computers, for a price, allowing people to communicate with spacecraft and even give instructions [7]. Z. Associations Academic and professional associations offer a great deal to strategic communication planners. Jim Benson, founder of SpaceDev, attended more than sixty conferences between 1996 and 1997 [7]. A good example of a professional association is the California Space Authority, which promotes aerospace issues statewide and globally. The American Society of Civil Engineers held Space ’98, featuring numerous panels on space tourism and commercial space in general [9]. The AIAA also entertained space tourism research at its 1998 conference [9]. The NASA/STA project concluded that space tourism industrial development requires the active involvement of four groups; the Aerospace Industries Association, the AIAA, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Travel Industry Association of America [19]. There are important space tourism-related associations all across the globe. For instance, the International Symposium on Space Technology and Science was held in Yokohama, Japan [9]. The British Interplanetary Society collaborates with the British National Space Centre and the ESA [71]. AA. Media Relations Media relations is a critical organizational function, in light of the substantial power of the mass media in industrialized nations. “Through the year 2010, the worldwide media is our main audience,” Spencer and Rugg claimed [9]. Rick

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Tumlinson recalled, “We reached the capability to place an article in the press, send out a release on the net” [67]. Tumlinson added that “Volunteers were assigned to literally nag reporters on our perspective until they submitted” [67]. Most commercial space firms and advocacy organizations are adept at media relations. The National Space Society, for instance, requires media credentials for much media access but also provides an abundance of information to the media. The Swedish Space Corporation media resources include a newsletter, photo album, events calendar, links, media cuttings, an SSC news archive and “Tim’s space diary” [72]. PlanetSpace offers journalists press releases, an image gallery, links and video footage [73]. BB. Podcasts The best way to reach a young person in virtually any industrialized nation is through a podcast. In addition to music, Ipods can receive news and other information as well. For instance, Dr. Livingston’s “The Space Show” is podcasted. Armstrong noted that podcasts were one of the media being used by NASA in its space-related public outreach efforts [11]. CC. Relationships Contemporary strategic communication, public relations in particular, emphasizes the primacy of creating relationships with target audiences. Consistent research findings indicate that effective relationships are the key to successful communication. Rosenberg and Marriott concluded, “To build a reserve that can be drawn upon when the inevitable problems occur, establish strong personal and inter-organizational relationships from the very beginning of a project” [1]. They added that “Relationships between people in partnering organizations can be built on an existing strong foundation of mutual respect for technical ability and a common love for space” [1]. Tumlinson noted, “ProSpace has had a large effect on space policy, as long-term relationships with staffers were built and a track record established” [67]. The importance of relationships is reflected in the websites of space advocates and commercial space firms. The Space Enterprise Council, for instance, was created by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce “to represent businesses with a commercial

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interest in space” [74]. In a section entitled, “What We Do,” the following explanation was rendered, “Facilitate business relationships and networking opportunities between member companies and key Washington space policymakers” [74]. Similarly, the National Space Grant Foundation declares that one of its goals is to “Seek to develop mutually beneficial relationships among private sector organizations, government agencies, colleges and universities” [75]. Virgin Galactic took the relationship concept to a new dimension. It practiced a concept called Customer Relationship Management. A select group of 100 customers was designated as “Virgin Galactic Founders,” which qualified them for “special access to the project” [76]. DD. Interviews Interviews are not always considered to be a strategic communication tactic but that is an oversight. When a representative of a commercial space firm is interviewed, that facilitates the dissemination of organizational messages under relatively controlled circumstances and generally favorable conditions. In an interview conducted by the Wall Street Journal, Norris was asked, “How do you get that message across?” Her response was, “Interviews like this, of course” [6]. One commercial space tourism vendor provides “Interviews with Finmeccanica’s Top Management in the press and on TV” on its website [77]. An extended interview with law professor and space advocate Glenn Reynolds was published online by HobbySpace [32]. Many websites of both commercial space firms and advocacy organizations make interviews with spokespersons and corporate management available. Telephone interviews are becoming increasingly popular. Although they lack the immediacy of in-person interviews, they nevertheless allow for questions and answers and the pursuit of interesting leads. Steve Bennett, CEO of Starchaser Industries, was interviewed by the Albuquerque Journal via telephone about difficulty between his company and the State of New Mexico [78]. Similarly, a telephone interview of Will Whitehorn by the same newspaper was conducted about the Scaled Composites accident at the Mojave facility and its possible ramifications for the development of commercial space tourism [66].

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EE. Motion Pictures Movies have been a staple of sophisticated strategic communication for a long time. People are easily impressed by the visual and audial production techniques of Hollywood big-screen efforts. Movies have helped popularize space tourism in the past; after Stanley Kubrick’s hit movie 2001: A Space Odyssey was released in 1968 Pan Am Airlines registered several thousand people for space tourism trips [9]. Numerous movies have been set in space, such as Apollo XIII, Deep Impact and Armageddon. Williams and Garver mentioned movies like The Right Stuff and Space Cowboys [79]. But more could be done. Aldrin realized that “The movie and entertainment industries could play a role in increasing public support for space exploration” [80]. Movies were mentioned among the tactics suggested by Spencer and Rugg for promoting commercial space enterprises such as space tourism [9]. Reifert concurred that motion pictures were a desired strategic communication tactic for space enterprise [61]. Commercial space ventures are mindful of the potential communication ability of movies. For instance, “Space movies are showing at the Mojave Airport public parking area” [81]. The California Space Authority sponsors IMAX screenings of space video at the state capitol in Sacramento [21]. FF. Symposia A symposium is an invitation-only assembly of interested stakeholders. The steady growth in “the number of. international symposia” was described by Spencer and Rugg [9]. The May 1994 International Symposium on Space Technology and Science in Yokohama, Japan, and the May 1997 First International Symposium on Space Tourism in Bremen, Germany, typified these meetings [37]. The Japanese Rocket Society held the Fourth Japanese Rocket Society Symposium on March 25, 1997, with considerable discussion of commercial space tourism [9]. Symposia are not relics of the past. Eckert noted that “The National Space Society took the lead with a second successful effort—the Space Venture Finance Symposium” [82]. The Space Foundation hosts the National Space Symposium, “The premier annual space industry conference” [83]. The American

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Astronautical Society (AAS) declared that “The AAS has long been recognized for the excellence of its national meetings, symposia and publications” [84]. Other space organizations sponsor symposia. The British Interplanetary Society “holds regular meetings and one or two-day symposia on topics of interest and significance to astronautics” [23]. The International Academy of Astronautics website notes, “Past IAA Symposia and Conferences are accessible in the paper data base section of the Publications Directory of the IAA web site” [85]. GG. Virtual Tourism “Today space tourists can use computer-generated pictures and virtual reality to gain the impression of walking on the moon,” Harrison observed [86]. At about the same time Berinstein noted that “Today space tourism consists of these thrill rides and an Earthly industry based on theme rides and simulations” [7]. Van Pelt added, “A near future possibility for lunar tourism is to land a robot moonrover and have it operated by the general public. With stereo cameras and virtual reality interfaces it would be just like being there” [8]. Anders Hansson referred to “virtual tourism, where one could experience the situation of the robot” [87]. The NASA/STA study recommended that “A virtual reality experience could be offered—one, in which on the surface, a person led by an astronaut could experience to some degree the characteristics of human spaceflight” [19]. A recent coalition between NASA and Google plans to offer this virtual treat, “The arrangement will likely include putting up close, real-time, 3-D images of planetary bodies and space exploration trips on the Internet” [88]. In 2004 it was estimated that approximately ten million people had already enjoyed virtual experiences [9]. HH. Advisory Boards Advisory boards are useful to commercial space organizations in many respects. For instance, the Space Frontier Foundation notes on its website, “The Space Frontier Foundation is very proud of its Board of Advisors, comprised of respected members of the space, media, entertainment, business and scientific communities” [89]. The Space Tourism Society believes that “Our Board of

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Governors, Advisors, Directors, and Officers are a ‘who’s who’ of the space tourism industry” [9]. The New Mexico Spaceport Authority created “an advisory committee” to “solicit ideas and feedback from the community” [90]. The Space Tourism Society has both a three-member Board of Governors and a Board of Directors including ten distinguished individuals. The International Space University has a twenty-three member Board of Advisors, chaired by the Chairman of ESA, Jean-Jacques Dordain [41]. The Planetary Society has an Advisory Council comprised of twenty-four people, including authors Ray Bradbury and Arthur C. Clarke [4]. The BNSC recently replaced their Space Strategy Council with a Space Advisory Council [91]. Space Adventures is guided by its “Astronauts and Board Members” [92]. II. Branding “Corporate branding of facilities has become an increasingly popular form of marketing,” the D.F.I. International study concluded [47]. It added that “Branding may have secondary benefits worth considering. They would increase visibility for the facility and its projects” [47]. Norris described “the opportunity to sponsor a Website and put a brand in front of all the people who come to the Website” [6]. “The unveiling of the Spaceport America brand” was mentioned by People for Aerospace [93]. The power of the brand was explained by Dilworth, “Then Sir Richard Branson came along and used his Virgin brand and marketing power to create the commercial product offering through a partnership with Mr. Burt Rutan’s design firm, Scaled Composites” [69]. The NASA brand is an exemplary one. The D.F.I. International study noted, “Most sponsors are interested in maintaining the image of NASA’s brand and using it to elevate their own image” [47]. NASA administrators suggested that “The key is not to change the brand of NASA, the brand is strong but to focus, strengthen and energize the communications about and for NASA, closing the brand gap between brand awareness, which is strong, and brand appreciation (the understanding of NASA), which is low” [79]. JJ. Advertising Paid advertising is an option available to strategic communication planners. Lindskold wisely observed that “The focus needs to be less on technology and

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more on advertising, merchandising and financing” [94]. Advertising was suggested as one of the ways to promote Spaceport America [17]. O’Neil and Young asserted that public ignorance and fear concerning space travel might be addressed through advertising and with education and public relations efforts [95]. There is some space tourism strategic communication use of advertising. Spencer noted that the Space Tourism Society concentrated on research, design, entertainment and advertising [9]. Finmeccanica lists advertising campaigns among the communication tools at its disposal [7]. KK. RSS What is RSS? The acronym stands for Really Simple Syndication. As the Manchester, England-based Mail & Guardian explained, “RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is an XML-based content syndication format used to deliver constantly updated headline feeds to readers. Developers can also use RSS feeds to pull our content into their website. Our RSS feeds deliver headlines, descriptions, and links back to today’s stories on each section of the Mail & Guardian” [96]. The Commercial Space Watch offers “RSS Newsfeed” [97]. So does the ESA, The Space Foundation, Rockets Away!, the AIAA and many others. More undoubtedly will do so. LL. Spokespersons The use of spokespersons is a traditional strategic communication tactic. One of the most memorable space spokesperson moments came on December 6, 1957, when the launch of a Vanguard rocket went awry and the two-second flight ended in a detonation and fireball after a four-foot ascent. An embarrassed NASA spokesperson denied there had been an explosion, instead claiming that what had transpired was “rapid burning” [98]. A few space spokespersons, like Aldrin and Victoria Principal, were well-known celebrities before they began their spokesperson duties [99]. The majority, however, have labored in relative anonymity, like Starchaser Industries’ Kimmarie Hartley, Charles Wollmann of the New Mexico State Investment

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Council, Diane Murphy (Personal Spaceflight Federation), Sergei Gorbunov with Rosaviakosmos, George Torres of Alliant Techsystems and NASA spokespersons including Tabatha Thompson and Beth Dickey. MM. Awards Awards are effective ways to publicize and promote a cause. The recipients are typically grateful, and the American public seems to enjoy watching others receiving awards. There has been extensive use of awards as strategic communication tools by space tourism advocacy organizations. The Space Tourism Society annually bestows the Orbit Awards, with categories like Lifetime Achievement, International Design, Commercial Achievement, Nonprofit Advocacy, Space Ambassador and Space Entrepreneur [9]. The Space Foundation gives the Space Achievement Award. The National Space Grant Distinguished Service Award is bestowed by NSG, and the American Astronautical Society awards individuals in fourteen categories of merit. NN. Exhibitions Exhibits and exhibitions are relatively publicly popular strategic communication tactics. For instance, Ashford mentioned “displays at exhibitions” as a space tourism strategic communication option [100]. NASA uses “touring exhibits,” such as the Vision for Space Exploration trailer [11]. The Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy “produces educational materials which is used in several exhibitions organized in schools or in the framework of cultural events” [101]. In 1999, Bristol Spaceplane’s “Ascender” spaceplane was on exhibit at Earl’s Court Exhibition Centre, in London [37]. The French space agency CNES provides “static and mobile exhibitions in Paris and the regions” [102]. The ESA is extensively involved in exhibitions, “ESA participates in a certain number of exhibitions throughout its Member States, including the major international air shows in Europe and conferences and congresses within the space community” [103]. The National Space Society is similarly involved in “programs, presentations and exhibits focused on commercial space ventures” [104]. And so does JAXA [105].

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OO. Fact Sheets Fact sheets are useful strategic communication documents because they are typically brief lists of salient facts on important subjects. When the A.P. requested an interview with Jeff Bezos, founder of Blue Origin, he declined but instead sent a topical news release and a fact sheet [106]. NASA issued several fact sheets and an Environmental Impact Statement when it acquired a radioisotope thermoelectric generator [107]. According to Armstrong, fact sheets will be used by NASA on a continuing basis in the future, along with posters, games and hands-on activities [11]. ATK disseminated a fact sheet in 2008 about its fourstage rocket system [108]. Most fact sheets are one or two pages in length. An Alaska Aerospace Development Center fact sheet on the Kodiak Launch Center is a single page, as is a Space Day fact sheet, a United Space Alliance “Quick Facts” biography, and fact sheets on ITAR by the Department of State and the Department of Commerce. Two-page fact sheets were prepared by the X-Prize Foundation on the competition and the International Astronautical Federation concerning itself. URS released a three-page fact sheet as a corporate history and the Russian makers of the Proton rocket disseminated a three-page fact sheet about the rocket. The FAA Office of Commercial Space Transportation prepared a three-page fact sheet on recent developments in commercial space enterprise. Some fact sheets are probably too long, making them backgrounders or position papers. For instance, the National Council on Science and Technology issued a fact sheet on “National Space Policy” on September 19, 1996, consisting of fifteen single-spaced pages. That was excessive, by fact sheet standards. PP. Images Strategic communication planners have long been interested in the creation and defense of images. All people and organizations seek to promote a positive image of themselves and avoid the creation or perpetuation of negative images. Virtually all commercial space organizations, including for-profit firms, advocacy organizations and related institutions actively undertake activity to protect their image.

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QQ. News Conferences Commercial space firms use news conferences for a variety of reasons. Space tourists frequently held news conferences before their flights. Charles Simonyi discussed advice given to him by previous space tourists Gregory Olsen and Anousheh Ansari, and Guy Laliberte announced his space tourism “Poetic Social Mission” at a 2009 news conference [109]. Dennis Tito returned to Los Angeles after his trip to a news conference hosted by the Mayor of the city [9]. Government agencies have frequently convened news conferences. After the Columbia shuttle disaster several such sessions were held [110]. In addition to these crisis-motivated conferences NASA regularly held pre-launch news conferences. Commercial space firms hold news conferences on occasion. Virgin Galactic conducted a joint conference with the State of New Mexico to announce construction of Spaceport America [111]. Xcor Aerospace announced the Lynx spacecraft at a conference [112]. Bigelow Aerospace hosted the media on tours and news conferences. Launch Services Alliance, a coalition between Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Sea Launch and Ariannespace, held a news conference to discuss corporate progress in March of 2005 [113]. Space advocacy organizations frequently use news conferences. The Space Tourism Society-Japan held a conference to announce its formation [9]. The International Space Agency conducted international media conferences [114]. RR. Webcast Archives Website archives compile and preserve webcasts. While not every organization conducts webcasts, many of those which do have archived them. That is true for government space agencies, commercial space firms and nonprofit space advocacy groups. CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared.

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Reifert, Jane E. (2006). Everything I know about space tourism I learned from Russia. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7476, 7. Livingston, David M. (2006). The Space Show. 1-2. Retrieved on January 5, 2006 from http://www.thespaceshow.com/ National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (n. d.). NASA TV landing page. 1. Retrieved on March 13, 2007 from http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/index/html. Space News. (2008, January 7)., 5. David, Leonard. (2008, February 25). A taste of space on Earth: Pilots, passengers train for spaceliner flights. Space News, 19(8), 3. Chang, Alicia. (2007, September 3). Honeymoon over: Roles reverse and questions about space tourism hang in the air since the explosion in California. Business Outlook, p. 3. Tumlinson, Rick. (2000). A conspiracy of dreamers. In O’Neill, Eugene. (Ed.). High frontier: Human colonies in space. p. 157. Toronto, Canada: Apogee Publishing. Zubrin, Robert. (1996). Creating a spacefaring civilization. New York: Penguin Press, 120. Dilworth, Dianne. (2006, October 2). Virgin Galactic blasts off with new E-commerce site for space travel. DMNews. 1. Retrieved on April 13, 2007 from http://www.dmnews.org.htm. Canadian Space Agency. (1999-2008). Media. 1. Retrieved on April 15, 2007 from http://www.csa.org/media. BNSC. (2006, November 26). Europe’s growing space tourism industry, 1. Swedish Space Corporation. (n. d.). Extra media program. 1. Retrieved on March 11, 2007 from http://www.ssc.se/default.asp?division=&groupid=2004517104342856&newsid=200711 PlanetSpace. (2007). Media center. 1. Retrieved on March 12, 2007 from http://www.planetspace.org/lo/media.htm. U.S. Chamber of Commerce. (2004-2008). Space Enterprise Council. 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.uschamber.com/space/default. National Space Grant Foundation. (2007). About. 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.spacegrant.org/info/ Leahy, Bart. (2006, May 25). The New Age of space advocacy: Enter the professionals. Ad Astra. Finmeccanica. (2007, April 25). Press room. 1. Retrieved on April 25, 2007 from http://www.finmeccanica.com/Holding/EN/Corporate/Sala_stampa/index.sdo. Webb, Andrew. (2008, March 1). Rocket theme park scrapped: CEO cites red tape, cynicism. Albuquerque Journal, p. C4. Garver, Lori, and Williams, Robin-Marie. (2006). When perception becomes reality. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 20067311, 2, 5. Aldrin, Buzz. (2000, March). Questions and answers with Buzz Aldrin. Architectural Design, 70(2), 54. BBC News. (2004, October 4). “Personal spaceflight revolution” beckons. 2. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/sci/tech/3713102.stm. Eckert, Paul. (2007). Financing entrepreneurship: Outreach to non-space investors. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 20076016, 4.

Tactic Categories & Typical Tactics

[83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] [92] [93] [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105]

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Space Foundation. (2000-2007). Advisory Board. 1. Retrieved on May 20, 2007, from http://www.spacefoundation.org. American Astronautical Society. (2000). AAS strategic plan. 2. Retrieved on March 23, 2007 from http://www.astronautical.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=27&Itemid. International Academy of Astronautics. (2007, April 10). About us. 1. Retrieved on March 15, 2007 from http://www.iaa.org. Harrison, Albert. (2001). Spacefaring: The human dimension. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 208. Hansson, Anders. (2000, March). Virtual space tourism. Architectural Design, 70(2), 2630. Johnson, Steve. (2006, December 25). A space experience: NASA, Google plan virtual encounters. Albuquerque Journal, p. B4. Space Frontier Foundation. (n. d.). Advisors. 1. Retrieved on March 14, 2007 from http://www.space-frontier.org/advisors.html. Associated Press. (2007, February 26). Spaceport authority wants ideas. Business Outlook, p. 4. BNSC. (2006, November 26). Space Advisory Council. 2. Retrieved on March 15, 2007 from http://www.bsnc.gov.uk/content.aspx?nid=5595. Space Adventures. (1997-2007). Astronaut advisors & board members. 1. Retrieved on March 12, 2007 from http://www.spaceadventures.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=about_us.Advisors. People for Aerospace. (n. d.). What is Spaceport America? 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.peopleforaerospace.com/ Lindskold, Anders. (1998/99). Space tourism and its effects on space commercialization. Master’s Thesis: International Space University, 10. O’Neil, Daniel, and Young, Lawrence B. (1999, February). Passengers, crew, life support and insurance considerations. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 20. Mail & Guardian. (2007, March 17). RSS feeds. 1. Retrieved on March 16, 2007 from http://www.mg.co.za/articleplain.aspx?articleId=269090. Commercial Space Watch. (2007, April 10). 1. Retrieved on April 10, 2007 from http://www.comspacewatch.com/ Kluger, Jeffrey. (2007, October 8). Space brains. Fifty years ago, the Soviets launched Sputnik. The U.S. flipped out—Then got smart. Time, 1. Fryxell, David. (2006, February). Have spacesuit, will travel. Desert Exposure, 3. Ashford, David. (2002). Spaceflight revolution. London: Imperial College Press, 152. Aeronomie.be. (2007, January 30). Exhibitions. 1. Retrieved on March 15, 2007 from http://www.aeronomie.be/en/contact/exhibitions.htm. CNES. (2006). Exhibitions. 1. Retrieved on November 14, 2007 from http://www.cnes.org.exhibitions. European Space Agency. (n. d.). Exhibitions. 1. Retrieved on March 13, 2007 from http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Exhibitions/index.html. National Space Society. (2007). Home page. 1. Retrieved on March 20, 2007 from http://www.nss.org. Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency. (2007). Tours and exhibits. 1. Retrieved on March 13, 2007 from http://www.jaxa.jp/visit/index_e.html.

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[106] Graczyk, Michael. (2005, March 13). Space dreams boost tiny Texas town. 1. Retrieved on April 12, 2007 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7151963/print/1/displaymode/1098. [107] David, Leonard. (2006, November). New horizons: Journey to a far frontier. Aerospace America, 44(11), 33. [108] Berger, Brian. (2008, January 21). ATK seeks NASA funding for new 4-stage rocket. Space News, 19(3), 7; CNN.com. (2007, April 6). Space tourism’s good thing. 1. Retrieved on April 6, 2007 from http://www.CNN.com.ECH/space/04/06/Russia.space.ap/index.html. [109] American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, June 5). Laliberte heading to ISS for “poetic social mission.” Daily Launch, 4. [110] Kauffman, James. (1991, Spring). NASA’s PR campaign on behalf of manned space flight, 1961-63. Public Relations Review. 17(1), 51-57. [111] Webb, Andrew. (2006, March 4). N.M.—The land of misadventure. Albuquerque Journal, p. C1. [112] Antczak, John. (2008, March 27). One step closer to space: Lynx rocket joins suborbital derby. Albuquerque Journal, p. A5. [113] SpaceRef.com. (2005, March 17). 1. Retrieved on March 2, 2007 from http://spaceref.org. [114] International Space Agency. (n. d.). Recent. 1. Retrieved on April 6, 2007 from http://www/isa.hq.com.

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CHAPTER 10 Mid-Incidence Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Abstract: The focus of this chapter was on the mid-incidence space tourism strategic communication tactics identified in the present study. These tactics were not observed as frequently as the typical tactics, which were discussed in the previous chapter. The forty-seven tactics in this category were observed on average just under ten times apiece. These tactics were explained and exemplified in the commercial space context.

Keywords: Animation, book, computer simulation, demonstration, direct mail, FAQs, media kit, name change, networking, outdoor, panel discussion, podcast, precursor activity, seminar, souvenir, trade show, travel and tourism industry, virtual reality, vision statement, word-of-mouth. 1. INTRODUCTION This chapter continues our consideration of the tactics employed in space tourism strategic communication. In the last chapter the most common or typical tactics were investigated. The next-most-frequent category of tactics, the mid-incidence ones, are the subject of this chapter. Those forty-seven tactics are quantified in Table 1. 2. MID-INCIDENCE SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION TACTICS Table 1: Mid-Incidence Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Tactic

Tactic Title

Total Occurrences

1

Internet

14

2

FAQs

14

3

Name Changes

13

4

Demonstrations

13

5

Workshops

13

6

Meetings

12

7

Seminars

12

8

Trade Shows

12

9

Videos

12

10

Vision Statements

12

Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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Table 1: cont….

11

Books

11

12

Bulletin Boards

11

13

Fliers

11

14

Meal Meetings

11

15

Merchandising

11

16

Precursor Activities

11

17

Podcast Archives

11

18

Souvenirs

11

19

Feature Print News Releases

10

20

Grassroots Advocacy

10

21

Models

10

22

Television News

10

23

Travel & Tourism Industry

10

24

Virtual Reality

10

25

Annual Reports

9

26

Leaflets

9

27

Networking

9

28

Testimony

9

29

Backgrounders

8

30

Business Plans

8

31

CD Roms

8

32

Forums

8

33

Direct Mail

8

34

Outdoor

8

35

Media Kits

8

36

Parties

8

37

Position Papers

8

38

Radio Programs

8

39

Telephones

8

40

Computer Simulations

8

41

Word of Mouth

8

42

Animations

7

43

Refereed Publications

7

44

Membership Meetings

7

Mid-Incidence Tactics

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Table 1: cont….

45

Panel Discussions

7

46

Television by Government

7

47

White Papers

7

TOTAL

47 Tactics

457 Total Occurrences/9.68 Per Tactic

A. Internet “The internet has made dispensing accurate product information much easier,” according to a space tourism firm administrator [1]. Armstrong also noted the communication benefits of the ‘Net, “In addition to traditional classroom course work, NASA is using or plans to use leading-edge, highly visible venues for sharing space exploration messages, including the Internet (via Web sites), podcasts and live events” [2]. The website for Blue Origin contains statements from Jeff Bezos, firm founder, in addition to video clips and other strategic communication material [3]. B. FAQs Frequently asked questions, better known by the acronym FAQs, are a relatively standard element in many websites. FAQs give organizations the chance to answer these questions, whether or not anyone else considered them. The Advent Launch Services website, for instance, consists of a mere five questions and their answers [4]. eSpaceTickets.com. asks and answers fifteen queries salient to “our global space tourism program” [5]. “Q & A on Key Issues,” are provided by the Florida Space Authority. Eighteen questions in seven categories are posed and answered; categories include “Space Industry in Florida,” and “Growth of Space Tourism” [6]. The JAXA website lists twenty-three questions, then answers them one at a time over eight pages [7]. The Aerospace Corporation lists nine categories of questions and includes the questions as well on one page. The answers are spread out over the next four pages [8]. C. Name Changes Name changes are a powerful tactic because of the significance of names themselves. According to one study, “Names are very important for the

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marketing, advertising and branding industries” [9]. Name changes are not uncommon in the commercial space industry. For instance, the Southwest Institute for Space Research (SWISR) became the Earthrise Institute [10]. Recently Israel Aircraft Industries changed to Israel Aerospace Industries [11]. The New Mexico spaceport changed names from the New Mexico Spaceport to the Southwestern Regional Spaceport to Spaceport America [12]. D. Demonstrations Two different types of demonstrations may be used as space tourism strategic communication tactics: the demonstration of space tourism products and artifacts, and demonstrations for or against commercial space activity. Bristol Spaceplanes showed a video of a demonstration of a radio-controlled model of the Ascender [13]. The Orbital Lifestyle Blog recalled demonstrations of RoboNova bots and a moon rover [14]. The X-Prize Competition event included a variety of demonstrations, “Demonstrations of rocket engineers, rocket-powered bikes and trucks, and launches of everything from children’s model rockets to full-size spacecraft, [and] a demonstration of the first prototype rocketplane” [15]. Sometimes stakeholders disagree about fundamental issues. For instance, the Global Network Against Weapons and Nuclear Power in Space held a pre-launch demonstration at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station gates before a 2005 launch [16]. E. Workshops Workshops are a relatively frequent occurrence in the commercial space industry, and they may serve tactical roles at times. The FAA Office of Space Commercialization and the Department of Commerce co-sponsored a workshop on November 1, 2001, called “Market Opportunities in Space: The Near-Term Roadmap” [17]. The Space Portal, a NASA program, hosted workshops like the “ISS Entrepreneurial Paradigm Workshop,” the “SIMSpace Workshop,” and “The ISS National Lab Workshop” [18]. “Interactive Internet chat workshops” are included in The Space Show Classroom [19]. The U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs provides workshops through the Programme on Space Applications [20]. The AAS Strategic Plan specifies,

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“Continue to conduct workshops facilitating dialogue on international collaboration and providing opportunities for international networking” [21]. F. Meetings Meetings are a mundane yet necessary organizational activity. One study reported that the Space Laboratory Sciences and Commercialization Potluck Planning Meeting was held in January of 2006 [8]. The Space Transportation Association convened “STA Small Group Meetings” [22]. G. Seminars Seminars are very popular strategic communication tactics. Audiences appreciate their informational and networking opportunities. A Congressional committee concluded that “Space tourism advocates have held seminars to increase awareness” [23]. Odyssey Spacelines posts a web page entitled, “Space Tourism Seminars.” The brief text states, “So you want to travel to Space? How is this possible? Is it safe? How much? Where can I buy a ticket?” It ended, “FREE SPACE TOURISM SEMINARS” [24]. H. Trade Shows The use of trade shows makes sense in marketing space tourism, as the subject lends itself to high-tech demonstrations and sophisticated sales techniques. The publicity opportunities are endless. The Arrowhead Center study specified “participation in trade shows” as a means of spaceport publicity [25]. Finmeccanica mentions “participation in exhibitions and trade fairs” [26]. In 2007, spaceflight winner Brian Emmett won a space tourism trip, but had to decline because he could not afford the taxes due to the IRS; he appeared on stage at Oracle’s trade show [27]. I. Videos We live in a video world, although the cyberworld is rapidly catching up. Video still commands respect and is both informative and persuasive. Orbital Sciences Corporation provides an “Images & Multimedia” page on its website, with access

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to corporate video [28]. The Blue Origin site includes test flight footage of Goddard, the initial Blue Origin spacecraft prototype. Virgin Galactic uses an animated video to promote the joy of weightlessness in space [29]. Canadian Arrow offers readers “CTV News Articles with Video Link” [30]. The United Space Alliance provides “Video,” as well as brochures and access to Questus [31]. When Virgin Galactic recently successfully test-fired the SpaceShip Two rocket engines, “a press release and video were issued for the event” [32]. J. Vision Statements Vision statements, much like mission statements, provide a glimpse into the motives and aspirations of commercial space and space advocacy organizations. For instance, the “Company Vision” of E`Prime Aerospace Corporation read, “With its superior launch vehicle design, cost, reliability, turnaround time and canister launch system, E`Prime Aerospace Corporation will be poised to take a significant market share of the launch industry no later than 2009, and to become the market leader by 2011” [33]. Space Adventures offers “Our Vision,” in their website, “Space Adventures’ vision is to open spaceflight and the space frontier to private citizens” [34]. In addition to these corporate vision statements, we can consider the vision statements of some space advocacy groups. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers’ vision is “To advance global prosperity by fostering technological innovation, enabling members’ careers and promoting community worldwide” [35]. The Space Exploration Alliance provided a “Vision Statement,” which declares that “The Space Exploration Alliance supports the Vision for Space Exploration as a bold and sensible mandate for human and robotic exploration of the solar system that will help ensure American scientific and technological preeminence in the 21st century” [36]. The Texas Space Authority also has a vision, “The Texas Space Authority Vision: The Texas Space Authority (TSA) will work collaboratively and competitively with similar U.S. state authorities and foreign national space organizations to advance the establishment of a vibrant, global, commercial and privatized industry in which Texas space enterprise stakeholders constructively and actively participates” [37].

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K. Books The role of books as space tourism strategic communication tactics is implied by the Earthrise Institute’s future communication plans, “Develop a mass-market program that will share the Earthrise concept with a larger audience. This will include such items as books, curriculum materials, an interactive web presence and (eventually) a television or other medium production” [38]. Dittmar referred to “Congressional testimony, public announcements and commentary, white papers and books” as strategic communication tactics used by the New Space industry [39]. Van Pelt included books among magazines, television shows and web sites as preferred space strategic communication tactics [40]. O’Neill’s 1976 The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space, was singled out as an especially influential book on commercial space [9]. The first book on space tourism was reportedly written in Japan by Makoro Nagatomo in 1987 [9]. L. Bulletin Boards The original bulletin boards were three-dimensional and located on the walls in offices. The contemporary virtual version exists in cyberspace, part of the social IT and organizational ‘Net makeover. For instance, the NUCLEARSPACE Message Board has seventy-two registered members, and quantified 2,240 postings on 480 discussion topics [41]. The Space Frontier Foundation hosts “The Space Arena Board,” with just under 20,000 postings as of October, 2004 [42]. The AIAA Bulletin Board is used for elections [43]. The California Space Authority provides “CSA Message Boards.” The purpose? “CSA also maintains a message board for both general and specific ‘conversations’” [44]. Space.com. offers “the space community,” a “Discussion Board” [45]. M. Flyer/Fliers Flyers (AKA fliers) are a traditional strategic communication channel. They are favored for their relatively low cost and visual and verbal communication potential. The California Space Authority produces several 8.5 by 11-inch fullcolor fliers, such as “California Innovation Corridor” and “California Space Enterprise” [46].

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N. Meal Meetings Meal meetings are favored because of the ambience of hospitality and friendliness they are meant to generate. ProSpace “arranges a meeting with key NASA and/or congressional officials, often at dinner” [47]. “The X-Prize project was publicly launched at a Gala Dinner,” an Internet source noted [48]. The Space Transportation Association hosted a popular “Breakfast Series.” O. Merchandising Merchandising is an extraordinarily valuable strategic communication tactic. Not only does it promote the subject at hand, but it makes a profit while accomplishing the desired communication objectives. A recent study by the Futron Corporation recognized the significance of revenue generated by merchandising [49]. The vast array of merchandise items was partly listed by Berinstein; clothes, toys, videos, DVDs and CD-Roms [47]. “Purchase of space-related merchandise” was recognized as an important revenue stream by a study conducted to determine the economic impact of Spaceport America [25]. But space merchandise does more than turn a profit, as the NASA/STA study asserted, “Public communications and merchandising can make a significant difference in raising the level of this awareness” [50]. Recent books on space are cross-listed on the ‘Net by Amazon.com. and NewVoyageNews [51]. The National Space Society offers a selection of clothing manufactured by Countdown Creations at the NSS Space Store [52]. The SpaceRef Store sells a variety of space-theme merchandise, including clothes, mugs, models, books and numerous other media products [53]. P. Precursor Activities I have already discussed precursor activities in the section on the marketing function of space tourism strategic communication. These simulations of actual space tourism can whet the public appetite for space travel while generating a profit. The Sophron Foundation referred to “a wide array of potential experiences that are available to help an embryonic space tourism business in the U.S., ranging

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from parabolic flight, to high-altitude flight, to suborbital rides, and trips into orbit itself, in the very near term” [54]. “It will be important that ‘precursor’ activities provide early revenues to nascent general public space travel and tourism businesses and create a new public understanding,” O’Neil et al. concluded [50]. Q. Podcast Archives Podcasts are still relatively recent phenomenon. Not all commercial space organizations and space advocacy groups have adopted this cutting-edge practice. As they do, they will likely record the podcasts through archiving the material. R. Souvenirs The acquisition of souvenirs by travelers on tourism excursions is a very basic and fundamental part of the tourism experience. People like to take home reminders of their trips and sometimes they even purloin or steal such items. The Futron Corporation refers to “space memorabilia” [49]. The importance of souvenirs is underscored by Thorogood, “A space trip could include official souvenirs and documentation, edited video footage of the journey and a certificate of travel and personalized clothing” [55]. “What is a holiday without a souvenir?” asked Van Pelt [40]. He added, “Apart from loads of pictures, space tourists may want to take home some mementos from their flight” [40]. Likely souvenirs include items such as space clothing, flags, stamps, rings and mission badges. The souvenir function of space clothing was recognized by Harrison, “Other functions of these outfits include commemorating the experience, serving as tangible mementos, and advertising the flight to other potential customers” [56]. Some of the most avid collectors of space memorabilia are former astronauts; AIAA described astronauts “grabbing whatever NASA would let them have as keepsakes” [57]. S. Feature Print News Releases Feature news releases are written on important topics but not in regards to the news aspect of a story. In this sense a feature story for the general public is like a

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backgrounder for organizational audiences. They can be very informative and persuasive. The New Scientist provides website links to a half-dozen space-related feature stories, called “Special Reports” [58]. According to its website, Rockets Away! “is devoted to breaking news and feature stories in the private space industry” [59]. SolidWorks Express offers a webpage on “Feature News,” with five potential stories [60]. “Feature Stories” are provided by JAXA, which included ten such items on its website [61]. T. Grassroots Advocacy When local citizens self-organize into political activism groups to promote something, that is called grassroots advocacy. The early space advocacy group, the L5 Society, “was a grassroots organization” [47]. The National Space Society describes itself on its website as “an independent, educational, grassroots, nonprofit organization dedicated to the creation of a spacefaring civilization” [62]. The importance of “educating the public and building grassroots support” was emphasized by Harrison [56]. Space Day is the most prominent example of a truly grassroots occurrence, “Since its launch in 1997, the Space Day educational initiative which takes place on the first Friday of each May, has evolved into a massive grassroots effort dedicated to the extraordinary achievements, benefits and opportunities in the exploration and use of space” [63]. U. Models The use of models scaled to accurately represent the modeled spacecraft is a highly effective space tourism strategic communication tactic. A model of the Kankoh-Maru was displayed twice at the Farnsborough International Air Show [9]. The model was a 1/20 scale representation of the actual spacecraft [64]. Virgin Galactic displayed a model of SpaceShip Two at the Wired Magazine NextFest Forum [65]. In 2005, the X-Prize events included “exhibits, most of which were mock-ups, by about 15 commercial flight and space tourism companies” [15]. SpaceX displayed “the engineering mock-up of its Dragon capsule” [66].

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V. Television News The credibility of television news coverage is why it is prized as a strategic communication tactic. In January of 2000 NHK, the premier Japanese news program, broadcast a ninety-minute program on space tourism [9]. Two years later, ABC’s World News Tonight “featured a segment focused on space tourism and noted that NASA is not offering space tourism but the Russians are” [64]. In 2003 CBS News produced a primetime special on space tourism featuring interviews with Elon Musk and John Spencer [9]. The business plan for Spaceport America advocated use of “publicity with the regular print media and television and educational programs” [25]. W. Travel & Tourism Industry The NASA/STA study recommended inclusion of the travel and tourism industry in any attempts to develop a commercial space tourism industry, we have already learned. “The travel and tourism industry and travel agencies could be key players in creating and selling the space tourism industry,” Spencer and Rugg asserted [9]. O’Neil and Young added: Travel agencies and universities should start developing curricula related to commercial space travel and tourism. Travel agents with an understanding of future space travel opportunities can encourage people to visit space training facilities and/or space travel simulators. As space adventure travel packages become available, travel agencies and launchrecovery facilities should develop orientation programs that inspire people, alleviate their fears and educate them about procedures. A wellestablished general PST and tourism business will require guide books, maps and trained personnel who can assist travelers in maximizing their opportunities in space [67]. There has been some travel and tourism industry interest in space tourism. Judy Jacobs wrote “The Dawn of Space Tourism” for the January, 2000, issue of the American Society of Travel Agents magazine.

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X. Virtual Reality Virtual space tourism has been available for some time. Harrison reported in 2001 that computer-enhanced-visual virtual reality was then possible [56]. The computer game industry revenue exceeds that of the motion picture industry [9]. Virtual reality-based strategic communication campaigns “may become our most effective, persuasive medium” [9]. The 2006 alliance between NASA and Google was intended to provide potential space tourists with “a hair-raising ride in the Space Shuttle” [68]. Y. Annual Reports Commercial space firms receiving investment funds must file annual reports, and so must publicly-chartered companies and some public institutions. The NASA Commercial Space Centers, for instance, “are required to turn in a business plan and annual report” [17]. The German Space Agency annual report noted: In the first part of this annual report, the research results, you will be informed about the most important outcomes of our recent research work in the R&D business areas as well as about the essential activities in our functions as Space Agency and the largest Project Management Agency in Germany. In the second part, the Corporate Results, you can get a view into DLR’s corporate activities as an outstanding partner in the German and international scientific community. In this report you will find an interesting as well as informative impression of our contribution to scientific development and future technologies [69]. The annual report of the International Academy of Astronautics is ten pages, including the title page. The 2006 Annual Report by the Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation is twice as long, but in color compared to the six-inch by ten-inch, all-black IAA document. Norsk Romsenter, The Norwegian Space Centre, produced its Annual Report 2005, a document quite similar to the AADC Report. Z. Leaflets Leaflets are another name for pamphlets and brochures. A few space advocacy organizations list leaflets among their organizational communication channels as do some space enterprises. But leaflets are essentially only another word for pamphlet.

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AA. Networking Many commercial space organizations encourage networking. O’Neill recalled the need to create “an umbrella and support network” [70]. John Spencer noted how “we would all network with each other” [9]. The American Astronautical Society “Strategic Plan” calls for the group to “Continue to conduct workshops facilitating dialogue on international collaboration and providing opportunities for international networking” [21]. The International Association of Space Entrepreneurs provide “networking and educational events” [71]. And the Space Enterprise Council pledges to “Facilitate business relationships and networking opportunities between member companies and key Washington space policymakers” [72]. BB. Testimony Testimony can be particularly persuasive as a strategic communication tactic. Dittmar mentioned “Congressional testimony. focused on the need to establish an appropriate government-commercial business relationship for the New Space industry” [39]. Buzz Aldrin frequently testified before Congressional subcommittees. David Ashford and Burt Rutan were also invited to express their opinions at governmental hearings [13, 39]. Edward L. Hudgins was also called upon frequently to testify [73]. Representatives of governmental space agencies have frequently testified, as well. NASA, FAA and Commerce Department officials with commercial space jurisdiction have been invited to Congressional meetings, “The Office [of Space Commercialization] also engages in efforts to educate the public. These efforts include speeches, testimony before Congress, and published articles and interviews” [74]. The Office of Space Commercialization is a unit of the NOAA Satellite and Information Service which archives “Speeches, Testimony and Presentations” for later use [75]. CC. Backgrounders A backgrounder is a document of indeterminate length, anywhere from a couple of pages to ten or a dozen. It is a summary of an organization’s perspective and

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experience on any given subject. As such it is an invaluable resource for strategic communication planners. Backgrounders are intended to inform and inspire, Berinstein suggested [47]. She listed several ProSpace backgrounders and provided her assessment of their informational value [47]. The Canadian Space Agency, for instance, archives backgrounders for easy retrieval [76]. Transorbital beta offers a backgrounder on its Trailblazer, “the first commercial lunar mission” [77]. DD. Business Plans They have been regarded as critical elements of a commercial space enterprise. When NASA selected Orbital Sciences Corporation to receive COTS funding, “they did cite the strength of Orbital’s business plan as a factor in their selection” [78]. Similarly, Eckert claimed, “In addition, investors must be assured of the quality of a business plan” [79]. Starchaser Industries was awarded a $200,000 grant by ESA “to complete a business plan for the group’s Thunderstar/Starchaser” [80]. The biggest challenge to space entrepreneurs, Spencer and Rugg claimed, “Is to develop credible business and operational plans that convince the investment community” [9]. The NASA/STA study concluded, “It is obvious that to succeed in the general PST and tourism business rigorous business plans are necessary” [50]. Eckert added, “Angel investors have little patience for entrepreneurs who have not created a viable business plan” [81]. EE. CD-ROMs CD-Roms have revolutionized video production and presentation. They have not escaped the notice of commercial space advocates and firms. In 2000, O’Neill included a CD- Rom with The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space. The National Space Society’s 2005 International Space Development Conference featured the use of these and similar new technologies, “PowerPoint projections, CD-ROMs and laptops ruled the day” [82]. SpaceDev sold its first payload ride in July, 1999, to Doijin Limited. The Texas-based firm plans on sending “digital passengers” into space on a CD-Rom [47].

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FF. Forums There are two kinds of forums in the contemporary world, the old-fashioned physical forum and the new very virtual version. Both types of forum will be discussed with respect to commercial space applications. The Fifth International Benidorm Forum included a session on space tourism [64]. There were two salient Space Portal-sponsored forums recently, the Commercial Space Opportunities Forum in October, 2005, and the Commercial Space Forum in May of 2006 [18]. The Texas Space Authority website suggests that “The TSA would sponsor forums and conferences for critical industry/government dialogue” [37]. The Space Enterprise Council offers to serve as “a forum for space-related companies” [72]. Virtual forums are becoming increasingly important in the contemporary cyberworld. The Students for Exploration and Development of Space website includes “SEDS Forums;” after registering, cyber-visitors could access any one of several on-going conversations or initiate a new one [83]. NewVoyageNews also sponsors a forum in its website, and even solicits patron evaluations of the postings and discussion [84]. GG. Direct Mail Letters can be persuasive, especially if there are thousands of them and they target elected officials seeking re-election or otherwise vulnerable policymakers. The use of direct mail, in the marketing sense, is not new to the commercial space industry. The Space Access Society was a small assembly of rocket scientists and businesspersons who wrote and called their Congresspersons to lobby on space issues [47]. Tumlinson recalled the use of “a mass of letter writers” [85]. The website for NUCLEARSPACE states, “Show your support for the new NASA nuclear initiative by writing Congress” [86]. HH. Outdoor Space transportation systems have long been appreciated for their potential value as outdoor advertising platforms. Pizza Hut, Radio Shack, Pepsi and Kodak have all had

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logos displayed on the outside of Russian rockets [17]. An Arnold Schwarzenegger movie was promoted by a $500,000 billboard on the side of a Conestoga rocket but the launch was delayed until after the release of the movie [17]. There is at present some interest in such advertising options. “Marsten Space plans a similar campaign while the company Race 2 Space is currently selling advertising space on the side of a rocket,” DePasquale, Charania and Olds noted [87]. The Bartlett Discussion on “Space Architecture,” speculated that “In the new century, we will see a proliferation of branded satellites, laser projections on to asteroids and insignia on spacecraft, brought back into our domestic worlds through the digital screen” [88]. II. Media Kits Reporters, editors and other journalists appreciate receiving professional media kits. They contain a vast quantity of background information useful to media coverage and interpretation of commercial space events. Media kits vary in size from small, relatively specialized kits to large notebooks brimming with state-ofthe-art ideas and information. They typically contain news releases, backgrounders, white papers, audio and video packages, brochures, fact sheets, photographs, CD-Roms, DVDs and whatever other collaterals seem salient to the situation. The AeroAstro “Press Kit” consists of two items, a “Press Release” and a “Data Sheet” [89]. The “Press Kit” provided by Eurockot Launch Services contains one item, “The overview article of Eurockot” [90]. The Space Foundation’s “Media Kit” index refers to two editorials and Gallup Poll data from 2004 and 2005 [91]. Some commercial space organizations have produced more ambitious media kits. The United Space Alliance, for instance, offers three different media kits; the “United Space Alliance Online Press Kit,” the “International Space Station/Space Shuttle Online Press Kit-Expedition 14,” and the “STS-117 Press Kit” [92]. The California Space Authority created several outstanding media kits, including backgrounders, newsletters, brochures and a variety of other attractive-looking, informative print pieces.

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JJ. Parties Parties are a good way to do business. Potential donors may loosen up a little bit and members may be easier to recruit. Celebrations of noteworthy space tourism achievements have traditionally been appropriate times for parties. “The Parties press on throughout the night. Herbie Hancock entertains a crowd of VIPs and X-Prize guests,” the BBC News noted of X-Prize festivities [93]. Dennis Tito entertained an estimated crowd of 200 revelers to celebrate his return to Los Angeles after his ground-breaking tourist flight. A Hollywood party feted more than 1,500 guests to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of Yuri Gagarin’s first orbital trip around the Earth [9]. “We’ve thrown the biggest parties on Earth for our wandering spacecraft,” The Planetary Society declared. The website added, “Thousands of people from around the world have come to Pasadena to celebrate these missions and be there when history happens” [94]. The NASA 50th Anniversary Gala was reportedly quite a celebratory and networking event [95]. KK. Position Papers Most position papers address important organizational issues, and they are used both internally and released to various stakeholders including the media on occasion. In 1991 Dr. Bill Gaubatz wrote and created a storyboard for “Space Is a Place;” Spencer and Rugg asserted that “This position paper can be seen as the Declaration of Independence for the space tourism movement” [9]. The Space Studies Institute once sent a position paper to Congress, endorsed by the AIAA, the IEEE and the International Council on Systems Engineering [70]. The AAS “Strategic Plan” includes, “Develop position papers on significant topical issues and ensure their most effective distribution” [21]. The National Space Society placed the “NSS Position Paper on Space Tourism” on its website. This document of a page and one-quarter addresses basic issues and provides eight references to readers [96]. The Spaceward Foundation posts “Elevator: 2010,” on its website [97].

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LL. Radio Programs Some consider radio to be an arcane vestige from a long-age era. There are those in contemporary strategic communication however who have a more enlightened and progressive perspective on the use of radio as a communication tactic. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act directed NASA to undertake a national awareness campaign including the use of radio [98]. Rockets Away! mentioned its “15-minute daily radio show for Internet and real radio” [59]. The Planetary Society observes on its website that “Each week, Planetary Radio visits with a scientist, engineer, project manager, advocate or writer who can provide a unique perspective on the quest for knowledge about our solar system and beyond” [99]. Space tourist Charles Simonyi conducted three ham radio broadcasts from space [84]. MM. Telephones Telephone lobbying has been an influential past commercial space strategic communication tactic. Other less exciting but equally important applications of the telephone can be described. Public referendum campaigns in three New Mexico counties sought to persuade voters to pass a special spaceport tax “by telephone and going door to door” [100]. The Space Access Society uses both telephone and letters to convey their sentiments to elected officials [4]. A “phone tree” is a specialized strategic communication mass contact tactic. “The technique involved calling members in important areas and asking them to call other members in their area” [101]. The L5 Society set up a nationwide phone tree including an estimated 10,000 members; when contacted, phone tree members called the appropriate public officials and also called other potential phone tree members to solicit their involvement. “One key Senate staffer said that his phone was constantly ringing and that for an entire week the SPS issue would give him no peace” [102]. The current NSS Phone Tree can be accessed online [101]. NN. Computer Simulations Through the use of commercial simulations we can see what never occurred and witness the erasure of what actually transpired. The virtually unlimited strategic communication potential of computer simulations has not been overlooked by

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advocates of commercial space. “Computer-generated pictures” were referred to by Harrison [56]. Tsuyoshi Saotome displayed a computer-generated video of an orbital space resort called the Crystal Space Palace at the 2001 Space Frontier Foundation annual meeting [9]. The NASA Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio is in the computer simulation creation business. Their website states, “The mission of the Scientific Visualization Studio is to facilitate scientific inquiry and outreach within NASA programs through visualization” [103]. At least 2,700 visualizations were generated by SVS. When Rick Homans, then-State of New Mexico Secretary of Economic Development, made a pitch to New Mexican voters to support a public referendum, he used a “computer simulation [that] shows what a launch from a spaceport near Upham might one day look like” [104]. OO. Word of Mouth Interpersonal communication, specifically in the form of word-of-mouth messages, is relatively informative and persuasive compared to official and media sources. “Space needs to be better marketed in order to encourage everyone to go,” Berinstein realized. She added, “Word-of-mouth can make or break a feature film, a car, or a tourist destination. Word-of-mouth based on personal experiences will help a lot” [47]. Spencer believed that members joined the Space Tourism Society after being exposed to positive word-of-mouth [9]. Negative word-of-mouth is a serious space tourism problem. The NASA/STA study concluded that “Miserable vacation stories can hurt a young space travel and tourism business” [105]. Harrison added, “If only a few people are eligible for space, if they get hurt or sick, or if they just have a plain bad time, then word of mouth will discourage other potential customers” [56]. Berinstein also conceded that if problems were encountered by space tourists, negative feelings might ensue, “Word of mouth could go a long way towards spoiling their market” [47]. PP. Animation The use of animation resonates with millions of people around the world. It is a natural strategic communication tactic for space tourist firms. Virgin Galactic uses

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“animated video” [29]. “Multimedia Animations” were presented at the International Space Development Conference in 2006 [8]. “The highest-rated space programming at Discovery has employed an integrated approach to engaging the viewer: innovative programming, cutting edge animation, an online and broadband component, and close collaboration with NASA” [17]. The NUCLEARSPACE website links to, “Project Orion: A Re-Imagining by Rhys Taylor,” a two-minute, 35-second video clip [86]. QQ. Academic Publications Academic publications generally designate material as having been peer-reviewed. This is a scholarly quality-control method. Research published in selective, prestigious journals is sometimes considered as more reliable and meaningful. The quantitative significance of this scholarship was indicated by Sackstedter, “In the 20-year history of support by NASA and space agencies in Canada, Europe and Japan, countless publications have appeared in discipline-specific journals” [106]. Ashford concurred, mentioning that “Professional journals over the years have published several papers showing that, if spaceplanes were to achieve airliner maturity, the cost of space travel would be reduced a thousandfold” [107]. The Journal of Space Technology and Science devoted two entire issues to space tourism [9]. RR. Membership Meetings Membership meetings are an effective strategic communication tactic because they motivate and facilitate organizational accomplishment. The Arrowhead Center study of Spaceport America mentioned “attendance at space-related conferences and meetings” [25]. The website of the International Space Agency referred to the number of ISA meetings, “From 1990 to the present, I.S.A. has conducted ‘5’ formal international meetings in Washington, D.C. and over ‘200’ informal meetings, with representatives from over 26 Countries, representing the Governmental, Commercial, Scientific, Academic, and Private space sectors, having participated in these meetings” [108]. SS. Panel Discussions Commercial space organizations make use of panel discussions as part of strategic communication initiatives. The 1998 Space Frontier Foundation Conference

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“featured a panel discussion on space tourism.” Included as panelists were Tom Rogers, Buzz Aldrin, John Spencer, Eric Anderson, Patrick Collins and Frances Demoy [9]. Similarly, the 2006 International Space Development Conference offered “dozens of presentations, panel discussions, interactive exhibits and activities” [109]. “The Space Show” occasionally devotes the broadcast to a panel discussion on a salient space subject [110]. TT. Government Television Government television, also called public television, is used by government space agencies to popularize and publicize commercial space. For instance, NASA TV is a relatively sophisticated and comprehensive application of this important medium. NASA conducts three different types of television programming; public channel, media channel and educational channel, as well as “Digital NASA Television via Satellite” [111]. In Europe, ESA has created a similar “ESA Television” broadcast capacity [112]. UU. White Papers White papers are prestigious organizational documents. To attain white paper status means that the research and analysis represents the organizational version of the truth. Dittmar recently referred to the use of white papers as a strategic communication tactic useful in the New Space industry [39]. A white paper was prepared by a consortium of aerospace companies researching the hyperspectral environmental suite (HES) concept, “The HES competitors, meanwhile, were not taking no for an answer. They collaborated on a white paper outlining what they saw as the national importance of HES” [113]. The Florida Space Authority need for a more versatile launch facility is the subject of a white paper produced by American Spaceframe Fabricators International [114]. The Aerospace Industries Association offers white papers in a half-dozen categories, such as “Human Resources” and “Information Technology” [115]. The Space Frontier Foundation provides two white papers on its website, one on the difficulties of operationalizing the Vision for Space Exploration and the other assessing the aerospace economy in North Carolina [116].

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CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

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Garver, Lori, and Williams, Robin-Marie. (2006). When perception becomes reality. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 20067311, 3. The Planetary Society. (2007). Planetary radio. 1. Retrieved on March 14, 2007 from http://www.planetary.org/radio/ Spaceport tax. (2007, March 21). Albuquerque Journal, p. B3. National Space Society of Phoenix. (2007, February 4). The National Space Society’s phone tree. 106. Retrieved on March 11, 2007 from http://nssphoenix.wordpress.com/tag/space-tourism/ National Space Society. (n. d.). Brief history of the L5 Society. 5. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.nss.org/settlement/L5news/L5 history.htm. Goddard Space Flight Center. (n. d.). Scientific Visualization Studio. 1. Retrieved on March 13, 2007 from http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/ Associated Press. (2007, January 17). State pitches space to counties. Albuquerque Journal, p. C3. O’Neil, Daniel, Mankins, John, Bekey, Ivan, Rogers, Thomas and Stallmer, Eric. (1999, February). General public space travel and tourism. Volume 2—Workshop proceedings. NASA/CP-1999-209146, 19. Sackstedter, Kurt. (2007, December). Microgravity and space processes. Aerospace America, 4(12), 98. Ashford, David. (2002). Spaceflight revolution. London: Imperial College Press, 27. International Space Agency. (n. d.). Background. 1. Retrieved on April 12, 2007 from http://www.isa.hq.com. International Space Development Conference. (2006). Home. 1. Retrieved on April 12, 2007 from http://www.isdc.org.html. HobbySpace. (2006, March). RLV and space transport news. 8. Retrieved on April 29, 2007 from http://hobbyspace.com/nucleus/index.php?catid=64. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (n. d.). Television. 5. Retrieved on March 13, 2007 from http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/index.html. European Space Agency. (2007, March 11). ESA portal. 1. Retrieved on April 19, 2007 from http://www.esa.org.esaportal.html. Iannotta, Ben. (2007, July). Will GOES-R go without? Aerospace America, 45(7), 42. American Spaceframe Fabricators International. (n. d.). Florida Space Authority. White paper series. 1(1). Retrieved on April 10, 2007 from http://www.asfi.net.news_032002.html. Aerospace Industries Association. (2005). White papers. 1. Retrieved on April 9, 2007 from http://www.aia-aerospace.org/supplier_res/smc_wp.cfm. Space Frontier Foundation. (n. d.). Presentations. 1. Retrieved on March 14, 2007 from http://www.space-frontier.org/Presentations/

266 CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 266-283

CHAPTER 11 Occasional & Atypical Tactics; Tactic Categorization & Analysis Abstract: This chapter briefly discussed the least-frequent two categories of space tourism strategic communication tactics, the occasional and the atypical tactics. The seventy-three occasionally used tactics were noticed about three times apiece, while each of the atypical tactics were observed once. The tactics were regrouped into categories according to their channel characteristics, resulting in ten types of tactic: 1) print, 2) broadcast, 3) interpersonal, 4) computer-based, 5) visual, 6) audiovisual, 7) events, 8) professional presentations, 9) affiliations and 10) commercial communication. The five most common categories were interpersonal, print, computerbased, events and broadcast.

Keywords: Banner ad, collateral, feature release, gaming, interactive media, lifestyle marketing, opinion/editorial, opinion leader, reception, RSS, request for proposal, satellite media tour, slogan, space simulation, survey, sweepstakes, teleconference, trade association, trade publication, wire service. 1. INTRODUCTION The most common space tourism strategic communication tactics were discussed in the preceding two chapters. Both the typical and the mid-incidence tactics were explained and quantified. That still leaves us with the occasional and atypical strategic communication tactics. This chapter will present my findings regarding these less-popular space tourism communication tactics. Then we will examine a second way to classify these tactics, beyond their frequency of occurrence. The intrinsic communication channel characteristics of the tactics will be used to place them into salient categories, such as print, broadcast and computer-based tactics. 2. THE OCCASIONAL SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION TACTICS Some commercial space strategic communication tactics were noticed on occasion but not with regularity or consistency. These were termed occasional tactics. There were seventy-three of these tactics which are listed and quantified in Table 1. Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 267

Table 1: Occasional Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Tactic

Tactic Title

Number of Occurrences

1

Publicity Stunts

6

2

Slogans

6

3

Source Status

6

4

Television Talk Shows

6

5

Space Simulations

6

6

Call for Proposals

5

7

Cartoons

5

8

Collaterals

5

9

Feedback

5

10

Interpersonal Communication

5

11

Popularizers

5

12

PowerPoints

5

13

Radio Internet

5

14

Surveys

5

15

Television Commercials

5

16

Opinion/Editorials

4

17

Media Alert/Advisories

4

18

Media Junkets

4

19

List-Serves

4

20

Banner Ads

4

21

Positioning

4

22

Public Participation

4

23

Parades

4

24

Newspaper News

4

25

Multi-Media

4

26

Radio News

4

27

Slide Shows

4

28

Sweepstakes

4

29

Talking Points

4

30

Video Archives

4

31

Clubs

3

32

Feature Television Releases

3

33

Gaming

3

268 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Table 1: cont…..

34

Interactive Media

3

35

Marketing Plans

3

36

Media Briefings

3

37

Mottos

3

38

Audiovisuals

3

39

Public Hearings

3

40

Radio

3

41

Radio Archives

3

42

Roundtable Discussions

3

43

Satellite Media Tours

3

44

Teleconferences

3

45

Tours

3

46

Trade Associations

3

47

Corrections

2

48

Dances

2

49

Focus Groups

2

50

Lifestyle Marketing

2

51

Mailing Lists

2

52

Market Research Surveys

2

53

Memos

2

54

Opinion Leaders

2

55

Pep Rallies

2

56

Performance Art

2

57

Petitions

2

58

Prizes

2

59

Prospectuses

2

60

Public Appearances

2

61

Public Presentations

2

62

Receptions

2

63

Reputation Management

2

64

Storyboards

2

65

Story Placement

2

66

Streaming Videos

2

67

Studies

2

68

Trade Publications

2

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 269

Table 1: cont…..

69

Video News Releases

2

70

Wire Services

2

71

‘Zines

2

72

Radio Commercials

2

73

Ombudsmans

2

The occasional space tourism strategic communication tactics will not be individually explained and exemplified like the typical and mid-incidence tactics were. There is one reason—the relative infrequency of occurrence of these tactics fails to justify the space their inclusion would necessitate. There are seventy-three occasional tactics and another forty-seven atypical ones. Even limited discussion of these additional 120 tactics would require at least fifty more pages in a work that has already become relatively lengthy. 3. THE ATYPICAL SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION TACTICS Finally, there are the atypical tactics. These were observed once in the expert opinions, studies and media reports about space tourism. Thus they cannot be considered important tactics at this time, but neither should they be entirely ignored. These tactics are quantified in Table 2. Table 2: Atypical Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Tactic

Tactic Title

Total Occurrences

1

Amplification

1

2

Audience Analysis

1

3

Banners

1

4

Book Signings

1

5

Catalogs

1

6

Chat Rooms

1

7

Comparative Advertising

1

8

Computer Graphics

1

9

Diagrams

1

10

Display Boards

1

11

Door-to door

1

270 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Table 2: cont…..

12

DVDs

1

13

Editorial Conferences

1

14

Electronic Blackboards

1

15

Endorsements

1

16

Exclusives

1

17

Fictional Characters

1

18

Illustrations

1

19

Industrial Relocation Activities

1

20

Internet Portals

1

21

Interviewee Preparation

1

22

Letters

1

23

Media Centers

1

24

Media Credentials

1

25

Media Events

1

26

Media Monitoring

1

27

Media Tours

1

28

Newspaper Ads (Display Ad)

1

29

News Agencies

1

30

News Release Subscription Services

1

31

Corporate Publications

1

32

Overhead Projectors

1

33

Palm Pilots

1

34

Pamphlets

1

35

Product Placement

1

36

Public Discussions

1

37

Prospective Space Tourist Information Kits

1

38

Public Service Announcements

1

39

Radio Actualities

1

40

Radio Soundbytes

1

41

Signs

1

42

Television Infomercials

1

43

Town Hall Meetings

1

44

Trade Advertising

1

45

Trade Show Marketing

1

46

Video- Conferencing

1

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 271

Table 2: cont…..

47

Viral Marketing

1

TOTAL

47 Tactics

47 Total Occurrences/ 1 Per Tactic

4. SPACE TOURISM STRATEGIC CHANNEL CATEGORIZATION

COMMUNICATION

TACTIC

The next step in the present study was to reclassify the space tourism strategic communication tactics into channel-based categories. Ten mutually-exclusive types of space tourism strategic communication tactics were identified, based on their intrinsic communication channel technical capabilities and characteristics. They included: 1) Print, 2) Broadcast, 3) Interpersonal, 4) Computer-based, 5) Visual, 6) Audiovisual, 7) Events, 8) Professional presentations, 9) Affiliations and associations and 10) Commercial communication. Print public relations tactics were quite common, it was discovered. Table 3 identifies the print space tourism strategic communication tactics and quantifies their relative prominence. Table 3: Space Tourism Print Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Print Tactic

Title of Print Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Academic Publications

7

2

Annual Reports

9

3

Backgrounders

8

4

Books

11

5

Brochures

39

6

Bulletin Boards

11

7

Business Plans

8

8

Call for Proposals

5

9

Catalogs

1

10

Collaterals

5

11

Direct Mail

8

12

Fact Sheets

15

13

Feedback

5

14

Fliers

11

15

FAQs

14

272 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Table 3: cont…..

16

Leaflets

9

17

Letters

1

18

Magazines

23

19

Mailing Lists

2

20

Marketing Plans

3

21

Market Research Surveys

2

22

Media Alerts

4

23

Media Briefings

3

24

Media Centers

1

25

Media Credentials

1

26

Media Kits

8

27

Media Monitoring

1

28

Media Relations

19

29

Media Tours

1

30

Memos

2

31

Mission Statements

30

32

Newsletters

34

33

Newspaper News

11

34

News Releases

52

35

News Release Archives

31

36

News Release Subscription Services

1

37

Opinion/Editorials

4

38

Organizational Publications

1

39

Pamphlets

1

40

Petitions

2

41

Position Papers

8

42

Prospective Space Tourist Information Kits

1

43

Prospectuses

2

44

Surveys

5

45

Talking Points

4

46

Trade Publications

2

47

White Papers

7

48

Wire Service

2

TOTAL

48 Print Tactics

428 Occurrences; 8.91 Per Tactic

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 273

A. Broadcast The broadcast media have long been featured strategic communication channels. The space tourism context is no different. Table 4 lists and quantifies broadcast tactics about space tourism. Table 4: Space Tourism Broadcast Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Broadcast Tactic

Title of Broadcast Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

DVDs

1

2

Feature Television Releases

3

3

Media Alerts

4

4

Media Briefings

3

5

Media Centers

1

6

Media Credentials

1

7

Media Kits

8

8

Media Monitoring

1

9

Media Relations

19

10

Media Tours

1

11

Motion Pictures

17

12

News Agencies

1

13

News Conferences

34

14

Public Service Announcements

1

15

Radio Actualities

1

16

Radio Archives

3

17

Radio Commercials

2

18

Radio News

4

19

Radio Programs

8

20

Radio Soundbytes

1

21

Satellite Media Tours

3

22

Storyboards

2

23

Talking Points

4

24

Television Commercials

5

25

Television by Government

7

26

Television Infomercials

1

27

Television News

10

28

Television Programs

21

274 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Table 4: cont…..

29

Television Talk Shows

6

30

Videos

12

31

Videoconference

1

32

Video Archives

4

33

Video News Releases

2

34

Wire Services

2

TOTAL

34 Broadcast Tactics

194 Occurrences; 5.7 Per Tactic

B. Interpersonal Interpersonal channels were the third category used to classify and structure the types of space tourism strategic communication tactics. These are discussed in Table 5. Table 5: Interpersonal Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Interpersonal Tactic

Title of Interpersonal Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Advisory Boards

16

2

Audience Analysis

1

3

Celebrities

40

4

Champions

8

5

Clubs

3

6

Door-to-Door

1

7

Editorial Conferences

1

8

Endorsements

1

9

Exclusives

1

10

Feedback

5

11

Focus Groups

2

12

Forums

8

13

Grassroots Advocacy

10

14

Industrial Location Activities

1

15

Interactive Media

3

16

Interpersonal Communication

5

17

Interviewee Preparation

1

18

Interviews

18

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 275

Table 5: cont…..

19

Meal Meetings

11

20

Media Junkets

4

21

Meetings

12

22

Membership Meetings

7

23

Networking

9

24

Ombudsmans

2

25

Opinion Leaders

2

26

Panel Discussions

7

27

Parties

8

28

Partnerships

76

29

Pep Rallies

2

30

Petitions

2

31

Popularizers

5

32

Public Appearances

2

33

Public Discussions

1

34

Public Hearings

3

35

Public Meetings

2

36

Public Participation

4

37

Receptions

2

38

Relationships

19

39

Reputation Management

2

40

Roundtable Discussions

3

41

School Promotions

32

42

Source Status

6

43

Spokespersons

16

44

Story Placement

2

45

Teleconferences

3

46

Telephones

8

47

Town Hall Meetings

1

48

Tours

3

49

Trade Shows

12

50

Viral Marketing

1

51

Word-of-Mouth

8

TOTAL

51 Interpersonal Tactics

402 Occurrences; 7.8 Per Tactic

276 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

C. Computer-Mediated Computer-based communication is one of the newer elements of the media mix used in virtually all contemporary strategic communication campaigns. The use of cyber-communication in space tourism strategic communication activity is quantified in Table 6. Table 6: Space Tourism Strategic Communication Computer Communication Tactics Number of Cyber-Tactic

Title of Cyber-Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Banner Ads

4

2

Blogs

28

3

CD Roms

8

4

Chat Rooms

1

5

Computer Graphics

1

6

Computer Simulations

8

7

E-Mail

3

8

E-Newsletters

20

9

Feedback

5

10

Forums

8

11

FAQs

14

12

Internet

14

13

Internet Portals

1

14

List-Serves

4

15

Media Briefings

3

16

Media Centers

1

17

Media Credentials

1

18

Media Kits

8

19

Media Monitoring

1

20

Media Relations

19

21

Media Tours

1

22

Palm Pilots

1

23

Podcasts

19

24

Podcast Archives

11

25

PowerPoints

5

26

Radio Via Internet

5

27

RSS

16

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 277

Table 6: cont…..

28

Streaming Videos

2

29

Virtual Reality

10

30

Vision Statements

12

31

Webcasts

34

32

Webcast Archives

15

33

Websites

46

34

‘Zines

2

TOTAL

34 Cyber-Tactics

331 Occurrences; 9.73 Per Tactic

D. Visual Visual communication tactics represent another category in the typology being used and implicitly proposed in this study. Posters, photographs and other visual messages are included in this classification. Table 7 describes the use of visual tactics in space tourism strategic communication. Table 7: Visual Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Visual Tactic

Title of Visual Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Animation

7

2

Banners

1

3

Bulletin Boards

11

4

Cartoons

5

5

Diagrams

1

6

Display Boards

1

7

Exhibitions

15

8

Illustrations

1

9

Images

15

10

Logos

23

11

Outdoor

8

12

Overhead Projectors

1

13

Photography

23

14

Posters

21

15

Signs

1

TOTAL

15 Visual Tactics

134 Occurrences; 8.93 Per Tactic

278 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

E. Audiovisual Audiovisual methods of communication are relatively basic contemporary public relations channels. The use of audiovisual methods in space tourism strategic communication is quantified in Table 8. Table 8: Space Tourism Strategic Communication Audiovisual Tactics Number of Audiovisual Tactic

Title of Audiovisual Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Audiovisual Presentations

3

2

Fictional Characters

1

3

Models

10

4

Motion Pictures

17

5

Multimedia

4

6

Prospective Space Tourist Information Kits

1

7

Slide Shows

4

TOTAL

7 Audiovisual Tactics

40 Occurrences/5.71 Per Tactic

F. Events Events have long played a prominent role in the professional practice of public relations. Sometimes called ‘publicity stunts,’ they are occasionally admired for their sophistication. Table 9 informs us about this dimension of space tourism strategic communication. Table 9: Space Tourism Strategic Communication Event Tactics Number of Event Tactic

Title of Event Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Awards

15

2

Book Signings

1

3

Conferences

34

4

Contests

23

5

Dances

2

6

Demonstrations

13

7

Gaming

3

8

Lotteries

21

9

Parties

8

10

Pep Rallies

2

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 279

Table 9: cont…..

11

Parades

4

12

Precursor Activities

11

13

Prizes

2

14

Publicity Stunts

6

15

Receptions

2

16

Roundtable Discussions

3

17

Seminars

12

18

Space Simulations

6

19

Special Events

30

20

Studies

2

21

Surveys

5

22

Sweepstakes

4

23

Symposia

17

24

Tours

3

25

Trade Shows

12

26

Workshops

13

27

X-Prize

22

TOTAL

27 Event Tactics

276 Occurrences; 10.22 Per Tactic

G. Professional Presentations Speeches, or professional oral presentations, comprise another category of strategic communication. Speeches are important, as are pitches. Table 10 contains information on space tourism strategic communication use of professional presentations. Table 10: Space Tourism Strategic Communication Oral Presentation Tactics Number of Presentation Tactic

Title of Presentation Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Public Presentations

2

2

Public Statements

5

3

Slogans

6

4

Speeches

36

5

Testimony

9

6

Testimonials

8

TOTAL

6 Oral Presentation Tactics

66 Occurrences/11 Per Tactic

280 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

H. Affiliations & Associations Affiliations and associations are yet another variety of communication. The use of this type of tactic in space tourism strategic communication is reflected in Table 11. Table 11: Affiliations and Associations as Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Affiliation Tactic

Title of Affiliation Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Academic Associations

4

2

Associations

19

3

Sponsorships

26

4

Trade Associations

3

5

Trade Communication/ Marketing

1

6

Travel & Tourism Industry

10

TOTAL

6 Affiliation Tactics

63 Citations/10.5 Per Tactic

I. Commercial Messages Commercial messages such as paid advertising are another category of space tourism strategic communication tactic. These purchased messages are discussed in Table 12. Table 12: Commercial Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactics Number of Commercial Tactic

Title of Commercial Tactic

Number of Occurrences

1

Advertising

16

2

Branding

16

3

Comparative Advertising

1

4

Lifestyle Marketing

2

5

Merchandising

11

6

Newspaper Ads

1

7

Outdoor

8

8

Positioning

4

9

Product Placement

1

10

Souvenirs

11

11

Television Commercials

5

TOTAL

11 Commercial Tactics

76 Occurrences/6.9 Per Tactic

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 281

It is possible to combine the eleven space tourism strategic communication categories into one table, for comparative purposes. That is accomplished in Table 13. Table 13: Space Tourism Strategic Communication Tactic Categories Number of Tactic Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL

Title of Tactic Category Interpersonal Print Broadcast Cyber Events Visual Commercial Messages Audiovisual Oral Presentation Affiliation 10 Tactic Categories

Number of Tactics in Category 51 48 34 33 27 15 11

Number of Occurrences Per Tactic 402/7.8 Tactics Per Category 428/8.91 Tactics Per Category 34/5.7 Tactics Per Category 34/9.26 Tactics Per Category 276/10.22 Tactics Per Category 134/8.93 Tactics Per Category 76/ 6.9 Tactics Per Category

7 6 6 238 Tactics; 2.38 Per Category

40/5.71 Tactics Per Category 66/11 Tactics Per Category 63; 10.5 Tactics Per Category 1,553 Occurrences/6.57 Occurrences Per Tactic

Are there different types of space tourism strategic communication tactics, based upon the intrinsic nature and communication characteristics of the tactic? I discovered that there are ten different categories of space tourism strategic communication tactic. These include print, broadcast, interpersonal and computerbased communication methods. Which types of space tourism strategic communication tactics are more useful and likely to be encountered than others? The answer to this question goes beyond Table 1, which listed the forty-four most frequently used space tourism strategic communication tactics. Instead we must compare the space tourism strategic communication tactics when categorized by channel characteristics. That information was presented in Table 13. When rank-ordered by frequency of use, the ten channel characteristic categories of space tourism strategic communication tactics break into four distinct groupings. The two most frequent categories, interpersonal and print, had a mean average of about 50 tactics and better than 800 occurrences between them, with a mean average of 415. The second grouping, including broadcast, cyberchannels and events, averaged 31.33 citations. The third group, visuals and commercial

282 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

communication, had a mean average of thirteen. The four least frequent categories averaged six occurrences per category. A second method was used to evaluate which strategic communication tactic types have been most prevalent and effective to date, judging by frequency of use. The most popular forty-four space tourism strategic communication tactics to date were ascertained, along with the relative frequency of those tactics. That comparative data is offered in Table 14. Table 14: Representation of Space Tourism Strategic Communication Channel Categories in the Top 44 List Number of Tactic Category

Title of Tactic Category

Number of Tactics in Top 44

1

Print

8

2

Interpersonal

7

3

Cyberchannel

7

4

Event

7

5

Visual

5

6

Broadcast

4

7

Commercial

2

8

Affiliation

2

9

Oral Presentation

1

10

AudioVisual Presentation

1

TOTAL

10 Categories

45 Tactics

There is reassuring consistency in the results of this second measurement when compared to the first. The second test found that print, interpersonal, computermediated communication and events were the four most common space tourism strategic communication tactic categories, averaging better than seven tactics in the top frequency category. A second distinct grouping consisted of visuals and broadcast, with a mean average of 4.5 tactics apiece in the top 44 list. Finally, the remaining five tactic categories collectively had only seven tactics in the most frequent listing, for a mean average of 1.4. This confirms the results provided in Table 13, which suggested that print and interpersonal channels were the most typical space tourism strategic

Occasional & Typical Tactics

Commercial Space Tourism: … 283

communication tactics employed in the past and at the present time. Cyber-media, events and broadcast were the next-most-common space tourism strategic communication tactic categories according to Table 14, while the second measure placed events and computer communication next.

284 CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 284-295

CHAPTER 12 Conclusion Abstract: The final chapter of this work served three main purposes. Initially, a brief summary of the overall book was presented. Next a series of major conclusions derived from this study were discussed. One section of this chapter addressed some caveats and limitations pertaining to this historical/critical analysis of commercial space tourism and the accompanying strategic communication. A postscript provided an update on recent related space policy developments.

Keywords: Astronomy research, broadcasting, caveat, credibility campaign, commercial communication, empirical data, environmental consequences of space tourism, historical/critical method, inadequate transportation technology, influencing perceptions, inherent subjectivity, investment shortfall, legal liability, profit projections, public referendum campaign, restrictive standards, Russian space tourism, space policy, stakeholder education, stakeholder reconciliation. 1. INTRODUCTION At long last we have arrived at the final chapter of this analysis into the prospects for commercial space tourism industrial development. It is reasonable to conclude that this is an important subject since the creation of viable space tourism enterprise would undoubtedly prove beneficial to a number of stakeholders. Nevertheless, we cannot take for granted that commercial space tourism will succeed, since at the time of the writing of this book this industry has not yet been created to a meaningful extent. This chapter concludes my discussion of space tourism. Four main subjects will be addressed in this final chapter. They include: 1) Summary, 2) Conclusions, 3) Caveats, and 4) Postscript. 2. SUMMARY What are the most basic truths identified by the present study pertaining to commercial space tourism? At the risk of oversimplification it is possible to identify six main factual findings. And while there certainly are two or more sides to every story, it is very likely that these six factors have been adequately Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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documented and explained beyond the point of reasonable doubt. I therefore offer the following six summary statements. A) Commercial space tourism is a potentially significant and beneficial enterprise. B) Contemporary space tourism activity is significant and promising. C) Contemporary space tourism development remains incomplete and is not guaranteed. D) There are substantial impediments to creation of commercial space tourism enterprises. E) Strategic communication functions address most of the impediments to development of the commercial space tourism industry. F) Significant space tourism strategic communication implementation was identified and quantified.

tactical

3. CONCLUSIONS The six summary statements are not merely asserted they are based on an extensive historical/critical analysis of the past, present and possible futures of the commercial space tourism industry. I will dispense with additional redundant lengthy explanation or discussion of those summarized points, as each was previously the subject of an entire unit of this book, or at least a chapter. At this point it is appropriate to remind the reader of the analytic justification behind the summary. But, as with the summary, elaboration is probably unnecessary at this point, as each of these conclusions was extensively documented earlier in this work. Eleven main conclusions should be considered. A) There is enormous potential significance of commercial space tourism. Six factors justified this conclusion: 1.

Space tourism industry profit projections

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2.

Potential space tourism-related revenue

3.

Commercial space benefits, such as manufacturing, mining and biomedical and astronomical research

4.

Creation of a safety net for the human race

5.

The critical role of space tourism in space commercialization and development

6.

The potential environmental consequences of space tourism.

B) The contemporary significance of space tourism was documented. Eighteen factors were cited and documented to demonstrate this perspective: 1.

There has been and currently is some space tourism

2.

Contemporary space tourism capacity exists

3.

There currently is a space tourism industry

4.

A trend towards space tourism development is underway

5.

The existence of a space tourism movement is evident

6.

There are significant contemporary space tourism plans

7.

At the present time there is considerable space tourism investment

8.

Current space tourism construction and manufacturing exists

9.

Space tourism reservations are being taken

10. Space tourism firms have accepted and are accepting deposits 11. There have been numerous space tourism test flights 12. Space tourism licensure and permits have been obtained

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13. The contemporary space tourism infrastructure is adequate 14. Space transportation technology is currently adequate 15. Commercial space tourism is inevitable 16. There is a proliferation of commercial space tourism firms 17. An adequate space tourism market currently exists 18. Commercial space tourism is safe at the present time. C) The contemporary insignificance of aspects of space tourism is documented. This conclusion was based on ten factors: 1.

There has been a limited number of tourists to date

2.

A viable space tourism industry does not yet exist

3.

Inadequate infrastructure limits space tourism ventures

4.

There is at present an inadequate proven market

5.

Inadequate transportation technology limits space access

6.

Most commercial space firms have failed

7.

An American space access gap will exist from 2012 until at least 2015

8.

Russian space tourism service is unreliable

9.

There are substantial space transportation dangers

10. The excessively high pricepoint limits the space tourism market. D) There are eleven primary impediments to space tourism: 1.

Investment inadequacy

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2.

Space dangers

3.

Excessive government regulation

4.

Transportation dangers

5.

Medical/health issues

6.

Legal liability

7.

Pricepoint

8.

Coalitions are needed

9.

Inadequate infrastructure

10. Politics 11. Inadequate transportation. E) There are ten secondary impediments to space tourism: 1.

Insurance expense and unavailability

2.

Restrictive standards

3.

The public perception that space is risky

4.

Inadequate government support

5.

Limited public awareness

6.

The public perception that space is the military’s domain

7.

An inadequate verified market

8.

Stakeholder conflict

9.

Supply/demand catch 22

Dirk C. Gibson

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10. The NIMBY phenomenon. F) Strategic communication could play a major role in the space tourism industry: 1.

Space tourism development is not inevitable

2.

Strategic communication could promote and facilitate space tourism industrial development.

G) There are sixteen primary strategic communication functions: 1.

Investor relations

2.

Lobbying

3.

Managing information

4.

Changing attitudes

5.

Educating stakeholders

6.

Increasing public awareness

7.

Eliciting public interest

8.

Credibility campaigning

9.

Creating and defending image

10. Coalition-building 11. Crisis communicating 12. Informing the public 13. Public advocacy campaigning 14. Public referendum campaigning 15. Promoting space tourism 16. Marketing public relations.

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H) Fourteen secondary strategic communication functions have been cited: 1.

Reconciling stakeholder clashes

2.

Altering perspectives

3.

Adjusting expectations

4.

Influencing perceptions

5.

Managing community relations

6.

Refuting opposing positions

7.

Creating involvement

8.

Responding to rumors

9.

Managing customer relations

10. Environmental scanning 11. Obtaining feedback 12. Managing risk 13. Influencing media coverage 14. Protecting reputation. I) Numerous space tourism strategic communication tactics have been identified: A significant number of space tourism strategic communication tactics (215) was documented. J) Categorization of space tourism strategic communication tactics: 1.

The tactics were categorized by frequency of occurrence into one of four types:

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a) Typical b) Mid-incidence c) Occasional d) Atypical. 2.

Categorization by channel variables is also possible. Ten types of tactics were identified: a) Interpersonal b) Print c) Events d) Computerized communication e) Broadcasting f)

Visuals

g) Audiovisual h) Professional presentations i)

Commercial communication

j)

Associations and affiliations.

K) Certain space tourism strategic communication tactic channel categories were identified much more frequently than others; the five most common tactic categories were interpersonal, events, computerized communication, print and broadcasting. 4. CAVEATS In this section I concede and explain four caveats pertinent to my study of commercial space tourism. These caveats include: 1) Inherent subjectivity, 2) No

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new empirical data gathering, 3) Factual and inferential inconsistency, and 4) Inheriting the mistakes of others. A. Inherent Subjectivity Everyone possesses biases, preferences and unconscious subjectivity. No matter how objective or data-driven we attempt to be, it is probably beyond the ability of any human being to completely free herself or himself from their frames of reference and habitual latitudes of acceptance and rejection. I am no different than anyone else in this respect. Although I am an academic who is personally and professionally committed to finding and telling the truth, what the truth is remains a matter of rhetoric and probability (interpretation) not science and certainty (objective reality) in most cases. I have no strong personal stake in this matter beyond the altruistic desire to make a sincere scholarly contribution to the marketplace of ideas. I understand the benefits to numerous stakeholders of a mature commercial space tourism industry, yet I am also aware that deleterious environmental, economic and social consequences might also result. On balance, though, I probably could be considered an advocate of a rational commercial space tourism industry and social system, making me a decidedly non-neutral analyst. B. No Original Empirical Data Gathering The research method used in this study was the historical/critical system, more recently re-christened integrative research. This method involves thorough compilation of all extant published material on a topic which is then organized, analyzed and used as the basis for new critical or interpretive reporting. It is quite likely that this was the initial scholarly research method. C. Factual and Inferential Inconsistency A careful reading of the second and third chapters might confuse some readers and that is very understandable. Those two chapters are dialectical opposites, an academic yin and yang or conundrum. The chapters are essentially contradictory, as chapter two presents the case that commercial space tourism is a current reality while the third chapter argues the opposite position. Both chapters cannot be completely accurate except possibly in the instance of parallel universes.

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I selected this dialectical method for a specific reason. It is not my intent to confuse or irritate readers, or equivocate and vacillate about the facts. Rather, my purpose is to acquaint those interested in commercial space tourism with the complexity and intricacy of this tourism specialty and the accompanying economic, political, social, technological and public policy implications for a wide variety of stakeholders. Like most of modern reality, commercial space tourism industrial development is a complex social process, with political, economic, scientific, technological, international and cosmic aspects. It would be a disservice if I advocated either that space tourism is currently significant or insignificant and ignored the other ‘case.’ Both are true to an extent. D. Inheriting the Mistakes of Others I might mention a final caveat necessitated by the use of historical/critical methods—inheriting others’ mistakes. Because I did not conduct interviews myself I must accept on good faith the published reports of interviews by others. The same is true of surveys, experiments, ethnographic observations and other methods of scholarly research. This is usually a relatively safe proposition because most published information has been edited and subjected to peer review, editorial board evaluation and other pre-hoc quality control checks. Thus, the often-derided ‘media gatekeepers’ have acted on my behalf to enhance the likelihood that my information is accurate. But there is even greater reason to have confidence in my research methods, the aggregate effect. The research for this study included perusal of most books written in English on this topic. In addition, AIAA publications and conference proceedings were extensively researched, as was the AIAA Daily Launch, other space-related magazines and journals such as Space News and similar sources. All identified salient government reports and documents were obtained as were private corporate and organizational documents. An extensive Internet search was conducted using a half-dozen major search engines to locate cybersources. The websites of more than 200 commercial space-related firms were accessed, as were the sites of another 150 space advocacy organizations. I would estimate that between 5,000 and 7,500 separate space tourism-related informational items were examined during the present study.

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5. POSTSCRIPT U.S. President Barack Obama requested an analysis of the NASA Constellation Project upon taking office and the result was the so-called Augustine Commission, chaired by Norman Augustine. The Summary Report of the Review of Human Space Flight Committee was released on September 8, 2009 [1]. Commission hearings were characterized as “dueling PowerPoint presentations to the panel” [2]. Five future scenarios for NASA human space activity were postulated but it was concluded that none would receive adequate funding [3]. The Project Constellation Program Manager, Jeff Hanley, accused the Augustine Commission of “making false claims” and ignoring “anything positive” about the rocket system [4]. “In February 2010, President Barack Obama unveiled his vision for NASA. He urged Congress to cancel the over-budget Constellation moon-rocket program,” a media report suggested. [5] Congress compromised, “Constellation was cancelled, but its so-called Orion crew capsule survived, as did Constellation’s ultimate goal of building a new heavy-lift rocket” [5]. Alabama Senator Richard Shelby unsuccessfully attempted to circumvent these changes to the NASA mission [6]. Commercialization is the theme of the Obama space plan. “Now, however, the Obama administration wants commercial firms to construct privately built space vehicles,” a 2010 story in Aerospace America declared [7]. Another account agreed and added, “The Authorization directs NASA to work with private companies to develop commercial rockets for ferrying people to the ISS” [8]. The consequences to date of the Obama space policy? When it was initially announced, analysts declared “the plan would kill the Constellation program, including the Ares 1” [9]. According to another report, “the Ares 1, for example, is rendered defunct” [10]. There was a linguistic consequence of the Obama plan. “A NASA edict cautions agency workers that the term Constellation is no longer to be used in documents referring to future human spaceflight efforts,” Dorr reported in 2010 [11]. “The term ‘Constellation’ [was] banished from the agency headquarters” [6].

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CONFLICT OF INTEREST None declared. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None declared. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Camhi, Elaine. (2009, October). Our future in space. Aerospace America 47(9), 3. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, June 18). Panel hears alternatives for future manned spaceflight program. Daily Launch, 1. Sietzen, Frank Jr. (2009, November). Choosing the pathway to space. Aerospace America 47(10), 32. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, October 8). Constellation manager states Augustine Commission making false claims. Daily Launch, 4. Matthews, Mark K. (2011, June 13). Some challenge need for new NASA rocket. The Orlando Sentinel, A5. Dorr, Robert F. (2011, March). Space, stealth and Spartans. Aerospace America 49(3), 8. Dorr, Robert F. (2010, October). Outlasting the opposition. Aerospace America 49(9), 6. Dorr, Robert F. (2011, January). A time of transition. Aerospace America 49(1), 8. Dorr, Robert. F. (2010, March). Big budget, big changes. Aerospace America 48(3), 8. Dorr, Robert F. (2010, November). The waiting game. Aerospace America 48(8), 10. Dorr, Robert F. (2010, September). The difficulties of letting go. Aerospace America 48(8), 8.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY BLOGS Mithra, S. (2006). Is space tourism feasible? WiseGEEK. Retrieved on January 1, 2006 from http://www.wisegeek.com/is-space-tourism-feasible.htm. Pulsar. (November 18, 2005). Higher Purpose Voters Approve Tax to Finance Spaceport America. 1. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://newspacerace.blogspot.com. Rockets Away! (2006). Blogging the New Space revolution. Retrieved on March 20, 2007 from http://www.rocketsaway.org.html. Simberg, Rand. (2004). Spacelines. Transterrestrial Musings. Retrieved on December 13, 2007 from http://www.transterrestrial.com/archives/003900.html. The Leading Edge. (2005, September 24). Space tourism. Retrieved on January 12, 2006 from http://theleadingedge.blogspot.com/2005/09/space-tourism.html. Space Law Probe. (2007, December 16). We’ll always have spaceports. Retrieved on December 19, 2007 from http://spacelawprobe.blogspot.com. Space Tourism Society. (2006). Orbital Lifestyle Blog. Retrieved on March 12, 2007 from http://spacetourismsociety.wordpress.com/

BOOKS Anderson, Eric, and Piven, Joshua. (2005). The space tourist’s handbook. Philadelphia: Quirk Books. Ashford, David. (2002). Spaceflight revolution. London: Imperial College Press. Berinstein, Paula. (2002). Making space happen: Private space ventures and the visionaries behind them. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing. Harrison, Albert A. (2001). Spacefaring-The human dimension. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Heppenheimer, T.A. (1979). Toward distant suns: A bold new prospectus for human living in space. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. Hudgins, Edward L. (Ed.). (2002). Space: Free-market frontier. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. Matloff, Gregg, and Mallove, Eugene. (1989). The starflight handbook. New York: John Wiley & Sons. O’Neill, Gerard K. (Ed.). (2000). The high frontier: Human colonies in space. Ontario, Canada: Apogee Books. Schmidt, Stanley, and Zubrin, Robert. (Eds.). (1996). Islands in the sky. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Spencer, John, and Rugg, Karen L. (2004). Space tourism: Do you want to go? Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books. Taylor, L.B. Jr. (1987). Commercialization of space. New York: Franklin Watts. Van Pelt, Michel. (2005). Space tourism: Adventures in Earth orbit and beyond. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing Company. Zubrin, Robert. (1999). Entering space: Creating a spacefaring civilization. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam. Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

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BOOK CHAPTERS Aldrin, Buzz, and Jones, Ron. (2002). Tourism and the future of space travel. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free Market Frontier. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. Livingstone, David. (2002). Barriers to space enterprise. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free Market Frontier. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. Schlather, Mark. (2002). The legislative challenge in space transportation financing. In Hudgins, E.L. (Ed.). Space: Free-market frontier. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. Tumlinson, Rick. (2000). A conspiracy of dreamers. In O’Neill, Gerard K. (Ed.). The high frontier: Human colonies in space. Toronto, Canada: Apogee Books.

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS Armstrong, Raymond C., Jr. (2007). Educating and inspiring young people for the next generation of exploration. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-1038. DePasquale, Dominic, Charania, A.C., and Olds, John R. (2006). The emerging orbital space tourism industry: New insight into demand and prospects for success. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7478. Eckert, Paul. (2007). Financing entrepreneurship: Outreach to non-space investors. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6016. Eckert, Paul, Foley, Kevin, Sallaberger, Christian, Korn, Paula, Lavitola, Maria S., Makushenko, Yuri, Matsuyama, Koichi, and Richards, Robert. (2006). International industrial cooperation in space: A key to the future. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7525. Eilingsfeld, F., and Abitzsch, D. (1999). The cost of capital for space tourism ventures. Conference Proceedings of the 51st International Astronautical Congress. Garver, Lori, and Williams, Robin-Marie. (2006). When perception becomes reality. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7311. Gibson, Dirk C., Lopez, Cassandra, and Krause, Erica. (2009). The capital investment impediment to commercial space tourism: Investment sources & investor relations solutions. Space 2009: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 20096577. Livingstone, David M. (2006). The public’s misplaced perception of the space program & what we can do about it. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2006-7308. Matsumoto, Shinji, Amino, Yoshihiko, Tohru, Mitsuhashi, Takagi, Kenji, and Kanayama, Hideki. (1989). Feasibility of space tourism: Cost study for space tourism. Proceedings of the 40th International Astronautic Federation Congress, Paper No. IAF-89-700. Pass, Jim, and Harrison, Albert A. (2007). Shifting from airports to spaceports: An astrosociological model of social change towards spacefaring societies. Space 2007: Proceedings of the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 2007-6067. Reifert, Jane E. (2006). Everything I know about space tourism I learned from Russia. Space 2006: Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA 20067476.

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GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS Aldrin, Buzz. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. BNSC. (2006, November 26). Europe’s growing space tourism industry. Retrieved on March 11, 2007 from http://www.bsnc.gov.uk/content.aspx?nid=6210. Commercial Human Spaceflight. (2003, July 24). U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. Retrieved on January 9, 2006 from http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=9844. Dasch, Pat. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. (2005, January 6). U.S. space transportation policy. Fact Sheet. Hawes, W. Michael. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. Hudgins, Edward L. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. Lampson, Nick. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. Lee, Sheila Jackson. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, Subcommittee on Science and Astronautics. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. National Science and Technology Council. (2006, September 19). National space policy. Fact Sheet. Office of Space Commercialization. Federal Aviation Administration. (2005, February). Suborbital reusable launch vehicles and emerging markets. Office of Space Commercialization, U.S. Department of Commerce. The Office of Space Commercialization. Retrieved on June 27, 2006 from http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov.space/about/ Office of Space Commercialization. Frequently asked questions. Retrieved on June 27, 2006 from http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/space/about/faq.html. O’Neil, Daniel, Mankins, John, Bekey, Ivan, Rogers, Thomas and Stallmer, Eric. (1999, February). General Public Space Travel and Tourism. Volume 2—Workshop Proceedings. NASA/CP-1999-209146. O’Neil, Daniel, Bekey, Ivan, Mankins, John, Rogers, Thomas, and Stallmer, Eric W. (1998). The prospects for general public space travel and tourism. NASA/STA. NP- 1998-03-11-MFSC. Volume One: Executive Summary. Tito, Dennis. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. Tumlinson, Rick. (2001, June 26). Space tourism. U.S. House of Representatives,

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Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, Committee on Science. 107th Congress. First Session. Serial No. 107-12. U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Aviation Administration. (2005, December 29). 14 CFR Parts 401, 415 et al. Human space flight requirements for crew and space flight participants; Proposed rule. Federal Register, 70(249).

INTERNET SOURCES BBC News. (2004, October 4). Personal spaceflight revolution beckons. Retrieved on May 17, 2007 from http://news.bbc.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/sci/tech/3713102.stm. CBS NEWS. (2007, January 29). Space ride dream doomed by IRS reality. CBSNews.com. 1. Retrieved on March 16, 2007 from http://cbsnews.com/spacetourism/html. CBS News. (2006, January 4). Space tourism risky business. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/02/10tech/printable672890.shtml. China Daily. (2004, October 22). Thousands sign up for space flights. Retrieved on March 23, 2007 from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-10/22/content_384922.htm. David, Leonard. (2006, February 16). Making the business case for public space travel: Experts look at new NASA effort, lessons from adventure tourism. MSNBC.com. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11393875/print/1/displaymode/1098/ David, Leonard. (2008, April 20). Good news, bad news for space tourism. Burt Rutan tells Congress about fun and frustrations. MSNBC.com. Retrieved on April 12, 2007 from http://www.msnbc.com/id/7579297/print/1/displaymode/1098/ David, Leonard. (2005, June 26). Space tourism: Marketing to the masses. Ad Astra. Retrieved on January 3, 2006 from http://www.space.com/adastra/050606_isdc-tourism.html. Dilworth, Dianne. (2006, October 2). Virgin Galactic blasts off with new E-commerce site for space travel. DMNews. Retrieved on April 13, 2007 from http://www.dmnews.org.htm. Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and Spaceflight. (2002). L5 Society. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/L/L5_Society.html. eSpaceTickets.com. (2007, March 16). FAQ: Frequently asked questions. Retrieved on March 16, 2007 from http://www.espacetickets.com/aafaq.htm. Fawkes, Steven. (2007, February 19). Space tourism and carbon dioxide emissions. The Space Review. Retrieved on March 11, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/813/1. Foust, Jeff. (2004, October 4). Dealing with the risks of space tourism. The Space Review. Retrieved on March 11, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/239/1. Foust, Jeff. (2005, May 10). Entrepreneurial space and policy. The Space Review. Retrieved on April 12, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/375/1. Globus, Al. (2007, March 7). Space tourism leads to space settlement. National Space Society. Retrieved on March 13, 2007 from http://www.nss.org/tourism/settlement.htm. HobbySpace. (n. d.). Space tourism: Personal spaceflight for you. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from http://www.hobbyspace.com/Admin/archive/.html. Livingston, David M. (2006). The Space Show. Retrieved on January 5, 2006 from http://www.thespaceshow.com/ Marketing space to the general public. (n. d.). The Space Review. Retrieved on May 10, 2007 from http://www.thespacereview.com/article/223/1. MSNBC.com. (2006, February 9). Key year in space tourism timeline: 2008.

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Transportation secretary says his agency is ready to issue test licenses. Retrieved on March 3, 2006 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11260973/print/1/displaymode/1098/ National Space Society. (2007, March 2). NSS position paper on space tourism. Retrieved on April 11, 2007 from http://www.nss.org/tourism/position.html. NewVoyageNews. (n. d.). Space tourism news. Retrieved on April 12, 2007 from http://www.newvoyagenews.com/?page_id=39. Odyssey Spacelines, Inc. (2007). SPACE TOURISM SEMINARS. Retrieved on March 11, 2007 from http://www.spacetourismseminars.com/ Reid, T.R. (2005, December 15). N.M. plans launchpad for space tourism. WashingtonPost.com. Retrieved on January 2, 2006 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/12/14/AR2005121402340_pf SPACEHAB. (2007). Logos and trademarks: An online guide for the SPACEHAB corporate identity. Retrieved on March 14, 2007 from http://www.spacehab.com/news/logos.htm. The Suborbital Institute. (2005, February 10). Suborbital spaceflight news. http://www.suborbitalinstitute.org/news.html. Tabarrok, A. (2004, November 18). Is space tourism ready for takeoff? Probably not. Tech Central Station. Retrieved on January 3, 2006 from http://www2.techcentral station.com/1051/printer.jsp?CID=1051-111804C. Walker, Andrew. (2004, October 4). Unknown future of space tourism. BBCNEWS. Retrieved on March 16, 2007 from http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3715002.s tm. Werner, E. (2004). Senate dispute may scuttle space tourism bill. Space.com. Retrieved on January 4, 2006 from http://www.space.com/news/spacetourism_bill_041014.html. Young, Kelly. (2006, October 19). Space tourism firms must face up to safety risks. NewScientist com. News Service. Retrieved on March 16, 2006 from http://space.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn10339&print=true.

NEWSLETTERS American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, May 27). Simonyi may be last space tourist for years. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, June 23). Space tourism firms taking “major steps” forward. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, June 14). Space Adventures to launch first private mission to ISS in 2011. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, June 3). Space tourism industry progressing quickly. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, April 1). Number of commercial spaceflight developers growing. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, October 13). Russia’s openness to space tourism discussed. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2009, April 1). Future rocket launches could destroy ozone layer. Daily Launch.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, March 11). Researchers predict growth of space tourism. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, November 4). Studies focus on suborbital tourism. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, April 7). Space business sector could grow, Virgin Galactic president says. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, July 28). FAA official warns of space tourism safety risks. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, May 16). Russian space program faces host of problems, analyst argues. Daily Launch. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (2008, April 14). Russia may end space tourism in 2010. Daily Launch.

PERIODICALS Ashford, David. (2000, March). How soon will space tourism start? Architectural Design, 70(2). BBC News. (2002, April 25). Questions & answers: Space tourism: Dream or reality?” Beardsley, Tim. (1999, February). The way to go in space. Scientific American. 280(2). Butterworth-Hayes, Philip. (2007, August). Space tourism race heats up. Aerospace America, 4(8). Cacares, Marco. (2008, July). Commercial spaceflight’s window of opportunity. Aerospace America, 4(7). Clark, Colin. (2008, February 11). Space tourism insurance to be expensive. Space News, 19(6). Collins, Patrick. (2006). The economic benefits of space tourism. JBIS, 59. Collins, Patrick. (2000, March). Space tourism: The key to the coming economic boom. Architectural Design, 70(2). David, Leonard. (2009, February). Taking wing: Liftoff for public space travel. Aerospace America, 47(2). David, Leonard. (2008, June). Spaceport: Field of dreams. Aerospace America, 46(6). David, Leonard. (2006, November). New horizons: Journey to a far frontier. Aerospace America, 44(1). The Economist. (2008, October 4). St. Elmo’s fire: Some more steps towards the commercialization (sic) of space travel. 384. The Economist (2007, April 21). Commercializing space. 383. Gibson, Dirk C. (2006, Spring). Outer space public relations purposes, practices and problems. Public Relations Quarterly, 51(1). Iannotta, Ben. (2006, November). Turning space travel into tourism. Aerospace America, 44(12). Jackson, James O. (2000, October 30). Destination: Outer space. Time Europe Magazine. Retrieved on March 16, 2007 from http://www.time/europe/magazine/2000/1030/travel/moon.html. Kauffman, James. (1991, Spring). NASA’s PR campaign on behalf of manned space flight, 196163. Public Relations Review. 17(1). Kauffman, James. (2005). Lost in space: A critique of NASA’s crisis communications in the Columbia disaster. Public Relations Review. 31. The Wall Street Journal. (2007, April 17). How safe is the race to send tourists into space? Retrieved on April 29, 2008 from http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB117683067961072819-YQND5SFtUYviyXs3xDm.

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Wheeler, Larry. (2007, February 20). Space rockets onto thrill seeking tourists’ wish list. USA Today.

RESEARCH REPORTS Arrowhead Center, New Mexico State University. (2006). New Mexico spaceport business plan. D.F.I. International. (2002, December). Market opportunities in space: The near-term roadmap. Contract No. GS-10F-0184J. Office of Space Commercialization, U.S. Department of Commerce. Futron Corporation. (2005, December 30). New Mexico commercial spaceport economic impact study. Bethesda, Maryland: Futron Corporation. Futron Corporation. (2002, October). Space tourism market study: Orbital space travel & destinations with suborbital space travel. Bethesda, Maryland: Futron Corporation. Lindskold, Anders. (1999, May). Space tourism and its effects on space commercialization. Master of Space Studies Program: International Space University. 1998/99. Sophron Foundation. (2000, June 8). Near-term prospects for space tourism. Interglobal Spacelines, Inc.

SPEECHES Griffin, Michael. (2005, December 15). Leadership in space: Space will be explored. Vital Speeches of the Day, 72(5). Smith, Patricia Grace. (2005, October 1). Commercial human space flight. VITAL SPEECHES OF THE DAY, 71(24). Smith, Patricia Grace. (2000, June 26). Going public 2000: Moving toward the development of a large space travel and tourism business. Retrieved on May 17, 2007 from http://ast.faa.gov/aboutast/speeches/2000June 26DCGoPub.htm. Thompson, Loren. (2005). The faltering space sector: A mirror of America’s decline. VITAL SPEECHES OF THE DAY, 69(2).

CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 303-310 303

Author Index A Abitzsch, S., 60, 94 Aeroastro Corporation, 254 Aerospace America, 4-5, 7, 9, 18-20, 34-5, 39, 66, 70, 92, 95, 136, 153-4, 171, 182 Aerospace Industries Association, 259 Aerospace States Association, 189, 210 Ailor, William, 13 Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation, 5, 231 Aldrin, Buzz, 17, 45, 92, 115, 125, 132-3, 141 American Astronautical Society, 255 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 5, 10-11, 22, 27, 29, 39-41, 155, 245 Amino, Yoshiohiko, 19 Anderson, Eric, 15, 31, 197 Andrews, Dana, 74 Andrews, Jason, 74 Antczak, John, 164-5 Architectural Design, 33, 134 Armstrong, Raymond, 212, 224, 231, 241 Arrowhead Center for Business, 3, 6, 24, 64, 213, 243, 258 Ashford, David, 11, 34-5, 62-64, 91, 97, 103, 114, 132, 136, 143, 157, 174, 230, 258 Associated Press, 17, 71, 95, 231 Aviation Week & Space Technology, 18 B Barrett, Olly, 179 BBC News, 101 Beardsley, Tim, 17 Bekey, Ivan, 20-1, 28 Berinstein, Paula, 5, 7, 25, 33, 39, 66, 68, 92-3, 102, 114, 131-2, 139-40, 157, 169, 174, 178, 180, 182, 192, 194, 213, 227, 246, 251, 257 Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

304 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Boyle, Alan, 83, 166 Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd., 23, 34, 114, 133, 210, 230, 242 British Interplanetary Society, 214, 223, 227 British National Space Centre, 133, 209, 223, 228 Brooks, Michael, 23 Butterworth-Hayes, Philip, 61, 68, 191 C Caceres, Marco, 39, 62, 69-70, 73 Cahmi, Elizabeth, 67-8, 81 Calhoun-Senegor, Keith, 132 California Space Authority, 4, 189, 245, 254 Canadian Arrow, 4, 244 CBS News, 129 Chang, Alicia, 63, 153 Charania, A.C., 38, 62 Christian Science Monitor, 113 Collins, Patrick, 5, 6, 12-3, 19-21, 96, 105, 132-3, 174, 179 Commercial Space Watch, 220 Constellation Acceleration Study, 82 Coppinger, Rob, 195 D Daily Launch, 19, 62, 69, 82, 143 Darquenne, Chantal, 25 David, Leonard, 34, 182 DePasquale, Dominic, 4, 62 D.F.I. International, 4, 7, 39, 123, 126, 130, 136, 172, 192, 217, 228 Dilworth, Dianne, 228 Discovery Channel, 25 Dittmar, Mary, 65, 100-1, 216, 245, 251, 259 Dordain, Jean-Jacques, 70 Dorr, Robert, 5 Douglas, J. Paul, 74 Dunstan, John, 106, 137

Dirk C. Gibson

Author Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 305

E Earthrise Institute, 193, 245 Eckert, Paul, 226, 245 Economist, 22, 74, 100, 135, 219 Eilingsfeld, F., 60, 94 Eisen, Joan, 33, 189-90 E`Prime Aerospace Corporation, 244 Eurockot Launch Services, 211, 254 F Fawkes, Steven, 22-3 Federal Aviation Administration, 61-2, 100, 142, 156, 170, 180 Finmeccanica, 229, 243 Flight International, 83, 111 Flinn, Edward, 24 Foust, Jeff, 83 Friedman, George, 14 Fryxell, David, 20, 62 Futron Corporation, 25, 31, 65-6, 130, 188-9, 246-7 Fyfe, Alonzo, 140 G Garver, Lori, 196, 226 Gibson, Dirk, 165 Globus, Al, 23 Griffin, Michael, 70, 72 H Hamill, Doris, 123 Hargrove, Eugene, 23 Harrison, Albert, 9-10, 16, 22, 36, 65-6, 74, 104, 127, 139, 176, 179-80, 190, 227, 247-9, 256-7 Hawes, W. Michael, 108 Hawking, Stephen, 15 Heppenheimer, T.A., 14, 96, 99

306 Commercial Space Tourism: …

HobbySpace, 33, 216, 222, 225 Hoffstetter, Wilfried, 18, 156 Hudgins, Edward, 12, 101-2, 133, 136, 138 I Independent, 154 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 244 International Academy of Astronautics, 227, 250 International Association of Space Entrepreneurs, 251 International Space Agency, 258 J Jacobs, Judy, 249 Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, 38, 248 Jones, Ron, 70, 171 Jones, Thomas, 15 Jordan, Jon, 24 K Kanayama, Hideki, 19-20 Kaufmann, James, 168, 175, 178 Kearney, Michael, 123 Kohl, Ronald, 114 L Lampson, Nick, 61, 93 Landeene, Steven, 74 Larson, Charles, 23 Lewis, John, 136 Linderskold, Anders, 17-8, 20, 131, 174, 181, 228-9 Livingstone, David, 92, 102, 114, 169, 190 Logsdon, John, 69-70 M Manchester Mail & Guardian, 32

Dirk C. Gibson

Author Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 307

Mankins, John, 20-1, 28 Marginal Revolution, 75 Marriott, John, 224 Maryniak, Gregg, 19, 137, 191 Marzwell, Neville, 123, 168, 182 Matsumoto, Shinji, 17 Matsuyama, Koichi, 19-20 McClure, Wallace, 23, 102, 126, 132, 134, 138, 165 McConnell, Kathleen, 15, 115, 138, 193, 217 McCoy, Tidal, 6, 91, 134 Mithra, S., 31 Morring, Frank, 20 Morrow, Robert, 30 Moton-Nkhata, Tryshanda, 10 MSNBC.com., 217 Musk, Elon, 20 N NASA, 6, 21, 24, 32 National Aerospace Development Center, 134 National Science & Technology Council, 97, 134 National Space Society, 20, 124, 130, 248 Neild, George, 19, 34, 154-5 NewScientist, 23 NewVoyageNews, 248 New York Times, 62, 73 NightSkyObserver, 216 Norris, Denise, 3, 211, 225, 228 Northwest Inland Space Alliance, 6 Nuclearspace, 245, 253, 257 O Odyssey Spacelines, 243 Office of Commercial Space Transportation, 171, 190 Office of Space Commercialization, 61, 180

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Olds, John, 62 O’Neil, Daniel, 20-1, 28, 124, 127, 131, 135, 137, 144-5, 164-9, 229, 247, 249 O’Neill, Gerard, 8-9, 135, 165, 174, 250 Orbital Sciences Corporation, 243 Orlando Sentinel, 70, 195 P Pace, Scott, 132 Pass, Jim, 16, 36 Piven, Joshua, 15, 31, 192 Poole, E.W., Jr., 92 Pravda, 51 Pulsar, 192 R Rappaport, Carl, 132 Rasky, Daniel, 156 Reifert, Jane, 17, 23, 124, 222 Reuters, 219 Ria Novosti, 248, 255 Rocket’s Away!, 217, 229, 248, 255 Rogers, Thomas, 20-1, 28 Romo, Rene, 5-6 Rosenberg, Ivan, 224 Ross, Martin, 23 Rugg, Nancy, 18, 21, 34-6, 111, 166, 169, 172, 211, 213, 221, 223, 226, 229, 24952, 255 Rutan, Burt, 74 S Sackstedter, Kurt, 258 Sarsfield, Liam, 169, 174 Schlather, Mark, 176 Schmidt, Stanley, 13-4, 18, 24, 93, 102, 113, 169 Scientific American, 99, 115

Author Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 309

Sietzen, Frank, Jr., 95 Simmons, Williard, 18, 156 Smith, Patricia, 20-1, 35, 39, 62, 100, 142, 156, 170, 180 Smitherman, David, 23, 102, 126, 132, 134, 138, 165 Sophron Foundation, 66, 106, 115, 125-6, 136-7, 157, 192, 246 Spacehab, 219 SpaceRef., 246 Space.com., 21-2, 24, 31, 71 Spaceward Foundation, 255 Space Adventures, 193, 244 Space and Tech, 152 Space Enterprise Council, U. S. Chamber of Commerce, 224, 251, 253 Space Exploration Alliance, 244 Space Frontier Foundation, 227, 245, 258-9 Space Future.Com., 156 Space Law Probe, 156 Space News, 67, 69, 113, 123, 125 Space Review, 33, 61, 113, 130, 193-4 Spencer, John, 18, 21, 34-6, 111, 134-5, 166, 169, 211, 213, 221, 223, 226, 229, 249, 251-2, 255 Sprague Astronautics, 210 Stallmer, Eric, 20-1, 28 Subcomittee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, 60 Suborbital Institute, 125, 181 T Tagaki, Kenji, 19 Taylor, Larry, 8, 10, 12, 24, 173 Taylor, L.B., 8-12, 212 Texas Space Authority, 213, 244, 253 The Bartlett Discussion Symposium on Space Architecture, 22 The Independent, 154 Thompson, Loren, 7, 114

310 Commercial Space Tourism: …

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Thorogood, Susan, 46 Time Europe, 152 Tiron, Stefon, 26, 97 Tito, Dennis, 31, 74, 128-9, 181 Tohru, Mitsuhashi, 19 Tumlinson, Rick, 137, 222-4 U USA Today, 23, 153 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 214, 242 United Space Alliance, 216, 244, 254 V Van Pelt, Michel, 12, 18, 31, 59, 66, 68, 93, 96, 104-5, 131, 138, 211, 227, 245, 247 Vergano, Dan, 23 Virgin Galactic, 210 W Wall Street Journal, 4, 32, 225 Washington Post, 153, 220 Webb, Andrew, 36 Weldon, Dave, 72 White, W., 10, 106 Williams, Robin-Marie, 196, 226 Wolfe, Howard, 96, 134-5 Wooster, Paul, 156 X X-Prize Foundation, 192 Y Young, Lawrence, 127, 131, 169, 181, 229, 249 Z Zubrin, Robert, 13-4, 18, 64, 93, 98, 102-3, 113, 140, 169

CST: Impediments to Industrial Development and Strategic Communication Solutions, 2012, 311-336 311

Subject Index A350 XWB, 191 Abu Dhabi, 177 Acceleration, 104 Advent Launch Services, 209, 241 Advertising, 131, 228-9 Ad Astra, 219 Aeroastro, 254 Aerospace Corporation, 23, 77, 212, 241 Aerospace Industries Association, 213, 259 Aerospace States Association, 189, 210 Akiyama, Toyohiro, 31, 59 Alaska, 4, 45 Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation, 5, 210, 220, 231, 250 Aldrin, Buzz, 172, 221, 229, 251, 258 Alexander, Bretton, 60, 124 Alliant Technology, 44, 230 Amazon.com, 24 American aerospace industry, 4, 7, 93, 166 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 178, 223, 229, 245, 247, 255 American Society of Civil Engineers, 223 American Society of Travel Agents, 249 American Spaceframe Fabricators International, 259 America’s Space Prize, 48 Ames Research Center, 10 Amun, 9 Anderson, Eric, 258 Andeyev, Sergei, 60 Andrews Institute, 33 Angara rocket, 94-5 Ansari, Anousheh, 31, 60, 217, 232 Ansari X-Prize, 192, 219-220 Anselmo, Rene, 219 Dirk C. Gibson (Ed) All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers

312 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Antimony, 9 Apollo XIII, 226 Applied Space Resources, 223 Ares 1, 44, 81-2, 195, 294 Ares/Orion, 69-70, 81 Ariannespace, 45, 75, 103, 232 Armadillo, 49 Armadillo Aerospace, 43, 47, 49 Armageddon, 226 Armstrong, Neil, 23 Ascender, 23, 49, 230, 242 Ashford, David, 212, 251 Asteroid, 11-13, 98-99 Asteroid 99942 Apophis, 13 Astroliner, 49 Astronauts, 104 Astronomer Royal of England, 61 Astronomy, 10-11 Atlantic Ocean, 99, 115 Atlantis, 76, 105 ATK, 222, 231 Atrophy of muscles, 104 Attenborough, Stephen, 222 Augustine Commission, 155, 294 Augustine, Norman, 294 Australia, 36 Automated Transfer Vehicle, 155 Aviation Coalition, 177 Aviation & Space Stakeholders Coalition, 177 Aviation Week & Space Technology, 18 Backward contamination, 21 Bacteria, 10 Baikonur, 45, 76 Barclays Bank, 31

Dirk C. Gibson

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 313

Bartlett Discussion Symposium on Space Architecture, 13, 22, 115, 254 Bass, Lance, 211, 217 Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy, 230 Benefits of space commerce: manufacturing, 8-9; mining, 9-10; biomedical research and development, 10; astronomy, 10 Bennett, Steven, 6, 50, 225 Benson, Jim, 223 Bezos, Jeff, 38-39, 49, 231, 241 Bigelow Aerospace, 38-39, 41, 48-49, 155, 216, 232 Bigelow, Robert, 41, 154 Bingaman, Jeff, 217 Biosphere destruction, 11, 14-15 Blogging the News Space Revolution, 217 Blue Origin, 38, 47, 49, 68, 153, 231, 241, 244 Boehlert, Sherwood, 166 Boeing Corporation, 7, 50, 131, 176 Bolt, Kathy, 98 Bone demineralization, 104 Boyle, Alan, 83, 166 Bradbury, Ray, 228 Branson, Sir Richard, 36, 39, 153, 167, 177, 217, 228 Brin, Sergei, 43, 60 Bristol Spaceplanes, Inc., 23, 34, 114, 133, 210, 230, 242 British Aerospace Society, 220 British Interplanetary Society, 214, 223, 227 British National Space Centre, 133, 209, 223, 228 Brooks, Michael, 23 Brutus, 219 Bunting, W. Clark, 221 Calcium, 104 California, 5, 41, 46, 115, 214 California Space Authority, 46, 167, 176, 189, 209, 211, 213-4, 223, 226, 245, 254 California Space Infrastructure Program, 46

314 Commercial Space Tourism: …

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Canada, 49, 102, 258 Canadian Arrow, 4, 49, 78, 177, 244 Canadian Space Agency, 9, 210, 223, 252 Cancer, 10 Cape Canaveral, 41, 242 Carbon dioxide, 14, 22 Carmack, John, 49 Carrying capacity, 12 Case, Andrew, 135 Cecil Field, 40 Central Research Institute for Mechanical Engineering, 51 Challenger accident, 75, 168, 175, 178 Chandrayann-1, 143 China, 66 China Daily, 41 Christian Science Monitor, 113 Christmas Island Spaceport, 36 Ciccarelli, Silva, 115 Citizen Explorers, 42 Clarke, Arthur C., 228 CNES, 170, 230 Coalition for Space Exploration, 177 Coalitions needed for space tourism development, 109-12 Cobalt, 9 Coleman, Jay, 131 Collins, Patrick, 258 Columbia accident, 73, 76, 178, 232 Comets, 11-13 Commercialization, 294 Commercial Space Watch, 220 Communication functions: attitude change, 168-70; campaign feedback loop, 1967; coalition-building & alliance formation, 175-8; community relations, 192-3; credibility enhancement, 173-4; crisis public relations, 178; creation of involvement, 194-5; customer relations, 195-6; education of

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 315

stakeholders, 170; environmental scanning, 196; expectation adjustment, 191; image creation & defense, 174-5; influence media reporting and coverage, 197; influence perceptions of space tourism industry, 191-2; information management, 168; investor relations, 164-5; lobbying & government relations, 165-7; marketing public relations, 182-3; motivation of consumer attention, 190-1; perspective alteration, 189-90; promotion of space tourism industry, 182-3; public advocacy, 180-1; public awareness, 170-2; public information, 179; public interest campaigns, 173; public referendum campaigns, 181; refutation, 193-4; reputation management, 197; risk management, 197; rumor response, 195; stakeholder conflict reconciliation, 188-9 Communication tactics: academic publications, 240, 257-8; advertising, 209, 2289; advisory boards, 209, 227-8; amplification, 269; animation, 240, 257; announcements, 208, 216-7; annual reports, 240, 250; associations, 208, 222; audience analysis, 269; audio-visual productions/presentations, 268; awards, 209, 230; backgrounders, 240, 251-2; banners, 269; banner ads, 267; blogs, 208, 217; books, 240, 245; book signings, 269; branding, 209, 228; brochures, 208, 211-12; bulletin boards, 240, 245; business plans, 240, 252; call for proposals, 267; cartoons, 267; catalogs, 269; CD-Roms, 240, 252; celebrities, 208, 211; chat rooms, 269; clubs, 267; collaterals, 267; comparative advertising, 269; computer graphics, 269; computer simulations, 240, 256-7; conferences, 208, 213; contests, 208, 216; corrections, 268; dances, 268; demonstrations, 239, 242; diagrams, 269; direct mail, 240, 253; display boards, 269; door-to-door canvassing, 269; DVDs, 270; editorial conferences, 270; electronic blackboards, 270; endorsements, 270; e-mail, 208, 222-3; exclusives, 270; exhibitions, 209, 230; fact sheets, 209, 230; feature print news releases, 240, 247; feature television releases, 267; feedback, 267; fictional characters, 270; fliers/flyers, 240, 245; focus groups, 268; forums, 240, 252-3; frequently asked questions, 239, 241; gaming, 267; grassroots advocacy, 240, 248; illustrations, 270; image, 209, 231; industrial location & relocation activity, 270; interactive media, 268; internet, 239, 241; internet portals, 270; interpersonal communication, 267; interviewee preparation, 270; interviews, 209, 225; leaflets, 240, 250; letters, 270; lifestyle marketing,

316 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

268; list-serves, 267; logos, 208, 218-9; lotteries, 208, 220-1; magazines, 208, 219-20; mailing lists, 268; marketing plans, 268; market research surveys, 268; meal meetings, 240, 246; media alert or advisories, 267; media briefings, 268; media centers, 270; media credentials, 270; media events, 270; media junkets, 267; media kits, 240, 254; media monitoring, 270; media relations, 208, 223-4; media tours, 268; meetings, 239, 243; membership meetings, 240, 258; memos, 268; merchandising, 240, 246; mission statements, 208, 214-6; models, 240, 248; mottos, 268; movies, 209, 226; multi-media, 267; name changes, 239, 241-2; networking, 240, 250-1; newsletters, 208, 212-3; newspaper ads, 270; newspaper news, 267; news agencies, 270; news conferences, 209, 232; news releases, 208-10; news release archives, 208, 213; news release subscription services, 270; ombudsman, 269; opinion/editorials, 216; opinion leaders, 268; organizational publications, 270; outdoor, 240, 253-4; overhead projectors, 270; palm pilots, 270; pamphlets, 270; panel discussions, 241, 258; parades, 267; parties, 240, 254-5; partnerships, 208-9; pep rallies, 268; performance art, 268; petitions, 268; photography, 208, 220; podcasts, 208, 224; podcast archives, 240, 247; popularizers, 267; position papers, 240, 255; positioning, 267; posters, 208, 221; powerpoint, 267; precursor activities, 240, 246-7; prizes, 268; product placement, 270; prospective space tourist information kits, 270; prospectuses, 268; public appearances, 268; public discussions, 36; public hearings, 268; public participation, 267; public presentations, 268; public service announcements, 270; publicity stunts, 267; radio actualities, 270; radio archives, 268; radio commercials, 269; radio via Internet, 267; radio news, 267; radio programs, 240, 255-6; radio sound bytes, 270; receptions, 268; relationships, 209, 224-5; reputation management, 268; roundtable discussions, 268; RSS, 209, 229; satellite media tours, 268; school promotions, 208, 213-4; seminars, 239, 243; signs, 270; slide shows, 267; slogans, 267; source status, 267; space simulations, 267; special events, 208, 216; speeches, 208, 212; spokespersons, 209, 229-30; souvenirs, 240, 247; storyboards, 268; story placement, 268; streaming video, 268; studies, 268; surveys, 267; sweepstakes, 267; symposia, 209, 226-7; talking points, 267;

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 317

teleconferences, 268; telephone, 240, 256; television commercials, 267; television by government, 241, 258-9; television infomercials, 270; television news, 240, 248-9; television programs, 208, 221-2; television talk shows, 267; testimony, 240, 251; town hall meetings, 270; tours, 268; trade associations, 268; trade communication & marketing, 279; trade publications, 268; trade shows, 209, 243; travel & tourism industry, 240, 249; video, 239, 243-4; videoconferencing, 270; video archives, 267; video news releases, 269; viral marketing, 271; virtual reality, 240, 249-50; virtual tourism, 209, 227; vision statements, 239, 244; webcasts, 208, 213; webcast archives, 209, 232; websites, 208, 210-11; white papers, 241, 259; wire services, 269; word-of-mouth, 240, 257; workshops, 239, 242-3; X-prize, 208, 220; ‘zines, 269 Commercial Space Watch, 229 Conestoga rocket, 100, 253 Congress, 65, 69-70, 92-3, 100, 103, 124-8, 132-3, 136-8, 167-8, 173-4, 181, 190, 213, 251, 255 Congressional Budget Office, 82 Connecticut, 37 Constellation, 70, 81-2, 294 Constellation Acceleration Study, 82 Cook, Thomas, 79 Cooke, Doug, 195 Coppinger, Rob, 195 Cosmic radiation, 96, 104 Cosmonaut, 104 Cosmopolis, 49 Crystal Space Palace, 256 Cullen, Brian, 222 Customer Relations Management, 225 Darquenne, Chantal, 25 David, Leonard, 34, 47, 182, 219 Davidoff, Vitaly, 73 Da Vinci Project, 218, 222 DC-X, 175

318 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Deceleration, 104 Decompression, 104 Deep Impact, 226 Delors, Jacques, 12 Delta rocket, 50, 115 Demoy, Frances, 258 Denver, John, 59, 211 Denver Post, 42 Department of Commerce, 8, 94, 142, 177, 242, 251 Department of Defense, 6, 231 Department of State, 103, 231 Diabetes, 9-10 Diamandis, Peter, 220 Dickey, Beth, 230 DiPeppo, Simonetta, 67 Directory of Space Actors, 139 Discovery Channel, 25, 222, 257 Doijin Limited, 252 Dordain, Jean-Jacques, 70, 111, 228 Dragon, 37, 44, 68, 248 Dreamspacegroup, 222 Duffy, Raymond, 123 EADS Astrium, 4, 37, 78, 191, 195 Earl’s Court Exhibition Centre, 230 Earth-Mars Cycler Orbiter, 218 Earthrise Clubs, 193 Earthrise Institute, 193, 209-10, 242, 245 East Kern Airport District, 45 Economic growth, 5-6 Economist, 19, 74, 100 Eisen, Joan, 33, 189 Electrophesis, 10 Elite market, 151 Emmanuel, Rahm, 80

Dirk C. Gibson

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 319

Emmett, Brian, 243 Employment, 7-8 Engineering Design Challenges Program, 218 Environmental consequences of space tourism: Earth may contaminate space, 21; space may contaminate Earth, 21-2; space pollution, 22; Earth pollution, 22-3; vandalism in space, 23; noise pollution, 23; explosions, 24; lunar dust, 24-5 Environmental Impact Statement, 231 E’Prime Aerospace Corporation, 244 ESpaceTickets.com, 241 Eurockot Launch Services, 211, 254 European Space Agency, 35, 66, 68, 70, 111, 155, 214, 223, 229-30, 252, 259 Eve, 44, 76 Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle, 176 Excalibur Almaz Limited, 155 Experimental Aircraft Association, 36 Extinction, 12 FAA Office of Aerospace Medicine, 47 Falcon 1, 37, 41, 43, 62, 67, 213 Farnsborough Aerospace Consortium, 34, 209, 220 Farnsborough International Air Show, 248 Fascism, 14 Federal Air Surgeon’s Medical Bulletin, 47 Federal Aviation Administration, 20, 35, 38-9, 44-5, 50-1, 70, 78, 100-1, 103, 113, 128, 139, 142, 152, 154, 167, 170, 177, 179, 190, 210, 214, 218, 231, 242, 251 Federal Register, 129 Fifth International Benidorm Forum, 253 Finmeccanica, 210-11, 229, 243 First International Symposium on Space Tourism, 226 First USA Bank, 220 Flight International, 81, 111 Florida, 33, 80, 115 Florida Space Authority, 241, 259

320 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Forbes, 219 Forward contamination, 21 Fourth Japanese Rocket Society Symposium, 226 Foust, Jeff, 40, 83 France, 75 French Guinea, 45 Frontier Astronautics, 216 Fuller, Buckminster, 218 Functions of strategic communication, 163-99 Futron Corporation, 2, 31, 48-9, 54, 65-6, 108, 130, 197, 214 Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, 33 Gagarin, Yuri, 255 Gagnon, Bruce, 74 Gallium, 90 Gamma-Ray, 11 Garriott, Richard, 32, 60, 79 Gaubatz, Bill, 255 Gedmark, John, 153 General Dynamics, 83 Genesis I, 38 George Washington University, 62, 142 German Aerospace Center, 214 German Space Agency, 250 Germanium, 9 Global Network, 74 Global Network Against Weapons & Nuclear Power in Space, 262 Glenn, John, 172 Goddard, 244 Godden, Ian, 83 Gold, Mike, 155 Golden, Dan, 212 Google, 66, 227, 250 Gorbunov, Sergei, 230 Gordon, Bart, 144

Dirk C. Gibson

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 321

Government impediment to space tourism, 132-3 Government domination of space impediment to space tourism, 136-7 Graffiti, 23 Gravity, 19 Grayson, Alan, 80 Greason, Jeff, 37, 61, 101 Griffin, Michael, 6, 70-2, 110, 177 H-11 Transfer Vehicle, 194 Hancock, Herbie, 254 Hanks, Tom, 211 Hanley, Jeff, 82, 294 Hargrove, Eugene, 23 Hartley, Kimmarie, 229 Harvard University, 60 Hawes, W. Michael, 108 Heiden, Eric, 37 Helium-3, 10 Hertzfeld, Henry, 62, 67, 142 Higginbotham, John, 135 Hilton, Conrad, 3 Hobbyspace, 33, 43 Hollywood, 211, 255 Homans, Rick, 130, 154, 166-7, 212, 256 Hormone deficiency, 9 Hotels 3, 38-9, 41, 48-9, 155, 216, 232, 256 Hudgins, Edward L., 8, 251 Hunter, Max, 94 Hyperbola, 195 IMAX, 226 Impediments to space tourism, 156-7; primary, 90-116 ; secondary, 121-48 Incredible Adventures, 33, 78, 124, 217 India, 143 Industry Consensus Standards Organization, 129 Infrastructure, 11, 63-4

322 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Infrastructure impediment to space tourism, 63-4, 111-4 Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers, 223, 244, 255 Insurance impediment to space tourism, 122-5 Interferon, 9 Interglobal Spacelines Inc., 141 International Academy of Astronautics, 227, 250 International Aeronautical Congress, 107 International Association of Space Entrepreneurs, 170, 210, 251 International Astronautical Federation, 209, 231 International Council on Systems Engineering, 255 International Institute of Space Law, 107 International Space Agency, 232, 258 International Space Development Conference, 252, 257-8 International Space Station, 19, 31-3, 38, 41, 44, 66, 69, 71, 76, 98, 123, 126, 142, 153, 197, 216 International Space University, 50, 78, 228 International Symposium on Science and Technology, 223 Interorbital Systems, 49 International Traffic in Arms and Regulations, 102, 231 Iran, 72 Iridium, 14 Iron, 14 Italy, 34 Jacksonville Aviation Authority, 40 Jacobs, Judy, 249 Japan, 66, 137, 155, 194, 258 Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, 38, 44, 68, 214, 230, 241, 248 Japanese Rocket Society, 78, 226 Johnson, Nicholas, 98 J.P. Aerospace, 100 K-1, 49 Kankoh-Maru, 77, 248 Kathuria, Chirinjeev, 78, 117 Kawasaki Heavy Industries, 78

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 323

Kearns, Joel, 69 Kelly, Michael, 73 Kelly Space & Technology, 49, 108 Kennedy Space Center, 44, 80, 115 Khrushchev State Research & Production Space Center, 94 Kiruna, Sweden, 46 Kislyakov, Andrei, 71 Kistler Aerospace, 49 Kodak, 253 Kodiak Launch Complex, 45, 231 Kosmos, Suzanne, 80 Kourou, French Guinea, 40 Krasnov, Alexei, 37-8 L-3 Communications East, 112 L-5 Society, 166, 212, 248, 256 Ladwig, Alan, 194, 217 Laliberte, Guy, 32, 232 Lampson, Nick, 45, 61, 93, 127-8 Landeene, Steve, 74, 196 Launch Services Alliance, 232 Lee, Sheila, 63 Legal impediments to space tourism, 106-7 Legal liability, 106-7 Lenorowitz, Jeffrey, 194 Limestone, 14 Lindskold, Anders, 17-8, 20, 131 Livingstone, David, 190, 222, 224 Lockheed Martin, 7, 81, 92, 94, 131, 176 Logsdon, John, 69 London, 62, 230 Low Earth orbit, 34, 37, 50, 70 Lunar Aerosol Dust Toxicology Advisory Group, 24 Lunar Retriever Website, 211 Lurio, Charles, 50

324 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Lynx, 37, 40, 232 Magnesium, 14, 104 Magnetic ripples, 96 Makeev Rocket Design Bureau, 38 Malaria, 10 Manchester, England, 229 Mankins, John, 47 Manunu, Brazil, 143 Maranin, Igor, 72 March Storm, 167 Marginal Revolution, 75 Marketing, 182-3 Mars, 195 Mars Pathfinder, 211 Marshall Islands, 41 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 129 Masten Space Systems, 217, 253 Matula, Thomas, 68 MBB, 94 McKay, David, 24 Medical impediment to space tourism, 104-5 Melville, Michael, 43 Meteors, 11-3, 98-9 Microdosimeter, 97 Microgravity, 25, 32, 104 Militarism, 14 Millenium Express, 49 Mineta, Norman, 34, 142, 152 Mir Corp, 33, 108 Mir Space Station, 21, 216 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, 232 Mojave, California, 36, 40 Montana, 6 Moon Register, 79

Dirk C. Gibson

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 325

Moscow Narodny Bank, 59 Multiplier effect, 5, 7 Murphy, Diane, 230 Muscular reconditioning, 104 Musgrave, Story, 172 Musk, Elon, 20, 39, 41, 102, 249 Myasischev Design Bureau, 49 Myers, Gene, 212 Nagatamo, Makoro, 245 NASA, 21, 32, 34, 38, 44, 48, 68-73, 79-81, 93, 97, 100, 103, 111, 115, 128, 1323, 135, 137-9, 141-2, 168, 170-1, 173, 175-9, 194-7, 210, 212-4, 218-9, 221, 224, 228-30, 247, 249-50, 252-3, 255-9 NASA Commercial Space Centers, 250 NASA Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio, 250 NASA Johnson Center, 24 NASA Mission Control, 98 NASA Orbital Debris Program, 98 NASA Public Affairs Office, 175 NASA Space Architects Office, 195 Legal impediments to space tourism, 106-7 National Aerospace Development Center, 134 National Air & Space Museum, 32 National Aviation Association Council, 178 National Center for Remote Sensing, Air & Space Law, 107 National Council on Science & Technology, 231 National Geographic, 121 National Science & Technology Council, 97 National Space Biomedical Research Institute, 97 National Space Grant Foundation, 225, 230 National Space Grant Distinguished Service Award, 230 National Space Society, 20, 123-4, 130, 170, 178, 180, 213, 219, 224, 226, 230, 246, 248, 252, 255 National Space Symposium, 226 Legal impediments to space tourism, 106-7

326 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Neild, George, 19, 34, 70, 154-5 Neptune, 10 Neptune, 49 Nesterov, Vladimir, 94 Netherlands Institute for Space Research, 28 Net Present Value, 5, 94 New Mexico, 6, 30, 40, 45, 61, 123, 153, 167, 181, 192, 210, 225, 232, 257 New Mexico Department of Economic Development, 217 New Mexico Spaceport, 242 New Mexico Spaceport Authority, 228 New Mexico State Investment Council, 229 New Mexico State University, 20 New Orleans, 80 New Shepard, 38 New Zealand, 102 NHK, 248 Nickel, 9 Night Sky Observer, 217 Neild, George, 19, 34, 70, 154-5 NOAA Satellite and Information Service, 251 North Carolina, 259 Northrup Grumman, 103 Northwest Inland Space Alliance, 6 Norwegian Space Centre, 220, 250 Neild, George, 19, 34, 70, 154-5 Not In My Back Yard, 44-5 NSS Space Store, 246 NUCLEARSPACE, 245, 253, 257 Obama, Barack, 80, 294 Odyssey Spacelines, 243 Office of Commercial Space Transportation, 32, 129, 158, 177, 190, 214, 218, 231 Office of Space Commercialization, 8, 39, 61, 78, 177, 180, 242, 251 Oklahoma, 36, 165

Subject Index

Oklahoma Spaceport, 36 Olson, Gregory, 32, 60, 78, 232 O’Neill, Gerard, 135, 165, 218, 245, 252 Orbit awards, 230 Orbital Lifestyle Blog, 217, 242 Orbital Recovery Group, 193 Orbital Sciences Corporation, 7, 19, 243, 252 Orbiting Carbon Observatory, 74 Orion, 82 Orlando Sentinel, 70 Oshkosh, Wisconsin, 36 Osmium, 9 Outer Space Treaty, 10, 123, 136 Ozone, 23, 47 Pacific American Launch Systems, 67, 94 Palaverkadu, India, 43 Palladium, 9 Pan American Airways, 80, 226 Parabolic Arc, 44 Parabolic flight, 115 Paragon Space Development Corporation, 210 Park Avenue Travel, 195 Paris, 62, 230 Pathfinder, 49 Pavlik, George, 112 Penn, Jay, 77 People for Aerospace, 228 Pepsi-Cola, 253 Perminov, Anatoly, 72 Personal Spaceflight Association, 60, 124 Personal Spaceflight Federation, 129, 153, 178, 230 Phoenix E rocket, 67, 94 Pioneer Rocketplane, 108

Commercial Space Tourism: … 327

328 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Pizza Hut, 219, 253 Planet Space Inc., 111, 176, 214, 224 Planetary Geosciences Institute, 24 Planetary Radio, 255 Planetary Society, 180, 209-11, 214, 220, 228, 255 Platinum, 9 Politics impediment to space tourism, 114-5 Popular Science, 219 Population, 14-5 Posey, Bill, 80 Pravda, 51 Precursor activities, 182-3, 246-7 Price gap, 108 Pricepoint impediment to space tourism, 107-9 Principal, Victoria, 229 Project Odyssey, 33 Property rights, 106-7 ProSpace, 166-70, 178, 180, 222, 224, 246, 250 Proteus rocket, 49 Proton M. Breeze rocket, 72, 219, 231 Public awareness impediment to space tourism, 134-6 Public relations, 157-9 Pulsar, 192, 217 Purcell, Edward, 60 Race 2 Space, 253 Radiation, 96-7 Radio Shack, 253 Rae, Jonathan, 96 Regenerative spacecraft skin, 52 Regulatory impediment to space tourism, 100-3 Remote Robotic Assembly Competition, 218 Revenue from space tourism: direct revenue, 5-6; economic growth, 6; employment, 6-7; multiplier effect, 7 Revenue gap, 108

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 329

Reynolds, Glenn, 225 Rhenium, 9 RIA Novosti, 112, 154 Risk perception impediment to space tourism, 129-32 Rochester Institute of Technology, 210, 212 Rocket Racing League, 36, 83 Rockets Away!, 217, 229, 248, 255 Rocketplane Global, 47, 49, 78, 152, 165, 167, 209, 217 Rogers, Tom, 258 Rohrbacher, Dana, 102 Romania, 49 Roscosmos. Also see Roskosmos, Rosiakosomos, 71-2, 230 Ross, Martin, 23 RSC Energia, 38 Russia, 38, 49, 65-6, 70-3, 75-6, 79, 145, 173 Russian Federal Space Agency, 31, 37-8, 124 Russian Space & Aviation Bureau, 217 Russian space industry problems, 70-3 Rutan, Burt, 35, 62, 74, 100, 228, 251 SA-1, 49 Saotome, Tsuyoshi, 256 Safety net, 4-16 Samara Space Center, 38 Sanger turbojet engine, 94 Sattler, Roseanne, 63 SC-1, 49 SC-2, 49 Scaled Composites, 25, 40, 44, 47, 49, 177, 210, 222, 225, 228 Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 253 Scientific American, 99, 115 Scolese, Chris, 81 Sea Launch, 52, 223 Searfoss, Rick, 172 Second International Symposium for Personal Spaceflight, 50

330 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Seibold, Peter, 44 Senate Budget Committee, 80 Sensenbrenner, James, 136 ShareSpace, 221 Shelby, Richard, 294 Shelley, Tom, 66 Sherman, Helen, 31, 59 Shuttleworth, Mark, 31, 60, 78, 172-3 Silent Supersonic Technology, 38 Simonyi, Charles, 32, 60, 79, 232, 256 Smith, Patricia, 20-1, 35, 46, 51, 62, 100, 135, 142, 179 Society of British Aerospace Companies, 83 Society Expeditions Company Ltd., 67 Soleri, Paolo, 228 Solid Works Express, 248 Sophron Foundation, 66, 106, 115, 125-6 South Africa, 31, 60 Southwest Institute for Space Research, 242 Southwest Regional Spaceport, 7, 152, 242 Souvenirs, 22 Soyuz rocket, 31-2, 37-8, 50-1, 65-6, 69, 71-3, 79, 81, 127, 151, 154, 197 S. P. Korolev Rocket & Space Corporation Energia, 220 SpaceDev, 47, 49, 209-10, 212, 223, 252 Spaceflight Club, 193 SPACEHAB, 219 Space-X, 19-20, 37, 43, 47, 49, 62, 67-8, 213 Spaceport America, 4, 6, 20, 25, 36, 39-40, 68, 74, 102, 114, 130, 153, 166, 181, 192, 196, 212, 217, 228-9, 232, 242, 246, 258 Spaceport Associates, 78 Spaceport Singapore, 36, 210 Spaceport Sweden, 36, 210 SpaceRef store, 246 SpaceShip One, 34-5, 39, 43, 45, 162, 219 SpaceShip Two, 31, 36, 40, 43-3, 153, 244

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 331

SpaceVest, 135 Space Access Society, 253, 256 Space Achievement Award, 230 Space adaptation syndrome, 104 Space Adventures, 31, 33, 37, 41-3, 49, 66, 79, 108, 152, 193, 197, 220, 228, 244 Space Age, 133 Space Channel TV, 217 Space Clipper International, 49 Space Cowboys, 226 Space danger impediment to space tourism, 95-9 Space Day, 170, 216, 231, 248 Space Elevator Project, 218 Space Enterprise Council, 63, 224, 251, 253 Space Exploration Alliance, 178, 180, 244 Space Exploration Initiative, 115 Space Florida, 209 Space Foundation, 6, 210, 213, 226, 229-30, 254 Space Frontier Foundation, 165, 178, 227, 245, 259 Space Island Group, 212 Space law, 106 Space Orbital Development Authority, 218 Space tourism facilitates space development, 16: motivates alternate development, 16; generates public interest, 17; facilitates infrastructure development, 17-8; promotes finance, 18-9; reduces cost of space access, 19; encourages technology research and development, 19-20; promotes regulatory reform, 20 Space tourism insignificance: limited number of tourists, 59-61; no industry, 61-3; inadequate infrastructure, 63-4; unproven market, 64-5; technological inadequacy, 65-7; most ventures have failed, 67-8; American space access gap, 69-70; Russian space tourism service unreliability, 70-73; transportation dangers, 73-6; pricepoint, 77-8 Space tourism primary impediments: investment, 91-4; space dangers, 95-9; overregulation, 100-3; transportation dangers, 103; medical issues, 104-

332 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

5; legal issues, 106-7; price point, 107-9; coalitions needed, 109-12; infrastructure, 112-4; politics, 114-5; inadequate transportation, 115-6 Space tourism secondary impediments: insurance, 122-5; standards, 125-9; risk perception, 129-32; lack of government support, 132-3; inadequate public awareness, 134-6; government domination of space, 136-7; unproven market, 137-8; stakeholder conflict, 138-43; supply/demand catch 22, 143-4; NIMBY, 144-5 Space tourism significance: capacity exists now, 31-3; construction, 40-1; deposits, 42-3; industry currently exists, 33-4; inevitability of, 46-7; infrastructure is adequate, 45-6; investment adequacy, 38-40; licensing, 44-5; movement towards, 35; plans, 35-8; proliferation of firms, 47-9; reservations, 41-2; safety, 50-1; tests, 43-4; trend towards, 34-5 Space Marketing Inc., 220 Space Politics, 217 Space Portal, 242 Space Policy Institute, 62, 67, 69 Space Services, Inc., 103 Space Shuttle, 192, 250 Space Station Multilateral Crew Operations Panel, 127 Space Studies Institute, 165, 225, 255 Space Tourism Society, 32, 63, 217, 227-30, 257 Space Tourism Society-Japan, 232 Space Transportation Association, 17, 32, 79, 97, 133, 138, 175, 183, 212-3, 243, 246 Space Venture Finance Symposium, 226 Spaceship Company, 177 Spaceward Foundation, 209, 218, 255 Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket. See VASIMR, 40 Spencer, John, 32, 34, 63, 249-50, 258 Sphinx rocket, 44 Sprague Astronautics, 210 SRON, 213, 220 Stakeholder impediment to space tourism, 138-43 Stakeholder Value Association Model, 188-9

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 333

Stakeholders, 5, 138-43 Standards impediment to space tourism, 125-9 Stansbury, Eugene, 98 Starbooster, 49 Starchaser, 36, 49, 152, 209 Starchaser Industries Ltd., 6, 49-50, 152, 225, 229, 252 Starcraft Boosters, Inc., 49 Stefanyshyn-Piper, Heidimarie, 105 Strategic communication, 149-50, 158-9 Strom Thurmond National Defense Authorization Act, 102 Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, 210, 253 Subcommittee on Space and Astronautics, H.R. Committee on Science, 101 Suborbital Corporation, 216 Suborbital Institute, 125, 135, 181, 211 Summary Report of the Review of Human Space Flight Commission, 294 Suntory Corporation, 220 Supply/demand catch 22 impediment to space tourism, 143-4 Suppressed immune system, 104 Sweden, 46 Swedish Space Corporation, 214 Tactics of strategic communication, 200-83 Taylor, Larry, 24 Team America Rocketry Challenge, 218 Team Encounter, 194, 217 Tellurium, 9 Terrestrial Musings, 217 Texas, 38 Texas Space Authority, 213, 244, 253 The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space, 245, 252 The Right Stuff, 220 The Space Review, 22, 33, 40, 61, 113, 139 The Space Show, 189, 222, 224, 258 Third Millenium Aerospace, 49 Thompson, Tabatha, 230

334 Commercial Space Tourism: …

Dirk C. Gibson

Thorogood, Susan, 46 Thunderstar/Starchaser, 252 Timeline for space tourism development, 151-5 Tito, Dennis, 31, 59, 74, 78, 127-9, 172-3, 190, 192, 232, 254-5 TMA-10, 51 TMA-11, 51 Tokyo Broadcasting Corporation, 59 Toroidal magnetic shield, 51, 97 Torres, George, 230 Transorbital beta, 210, 252 Transportation impediment to space tourism, 65-7 Transformational Space Corporation (tSpace), 37, 60, 124, 210 Trans-Hab technology, 38 Trans World Airways, 80 Travel Industry Association of America, 223 Treaties, 140 Truth or Consequences, New Mexico, 36, 153 Tumlinson, Rick, 75, 126-7 Tunguska, Siberia, 98 United Kingdom, 59, 102, 137, 177, 221 U.K. Department of Trade and Industry, 133 United Nations International Institute of Air and Space Law Workshop, 107 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 214, 242 United Nations Outer Space Treaty, 10, 123, 136 United Nations Programme on Space Applications, 214, 242 United Societies in Space, 218 United Space Alliance, 210-11, 216, 231, 244, 254 University of Alberta, 96 University of Mississippi School of Law, 107 University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 107 University of North Texas, 23 University of Rome, 155 University of Strathclyde, 52 University of Tennessee, 24

Subject Index

Commercial Space Tourism: … 335

Unproven market impediment to space tourism, 137-8 U.P. Aerospace, 36-7, 74 Uranus, 10 URS, 231 U.S. Chamber of Commerce, 63, 224 U.S. Naval Academy, 97 USA Today, 23, 45 Utah, 80 Vandalism, 21, 23 Vandenburg Air Force Base, 45 Van der Woolley, Sir Richard, 61 Vanguard rocket, 229 VASIMR, 40 Vela technology, 49 Venezuela, 72 VentureStar, 92, 94 Vergano, Dan, 23 Virgin Galactic, 19, 31, 36-7, 41-2, 46, 49, 62, 68, 76, 78, 100, 102, 154-5, 167, 177, 195, 210, 217, 219, 222-3, 225, 232, 244, 257 Virgin Galactic Founders, 225 Vision for Space Exploration, 69-70, 230, 244, 259 Vladivostok, 98 Walker, Andrew, 62 Walker, Bob, 142 Walker, Robert, 167 Wall Street, 92, 135 Wall Street Journal, 4, 32 Wallops Island, 45 War, 11, 13-4 Washington, D.C., 41, 258 Webber, Derek, 78 Weldon, Dave, 72 Whitehorn, Will, 19, 36, 100, 123, 222 WhiteKnight One, 36

336 Commercial Space Tourism: …

WhiteKnight Two, 25, 43, 76 Wickman Spacecraft & Propulsion, 210 Willis Inspace, 123 Wired Magazine NextFest Forum, 248 Wisconsin, 36 Wollman, Charles, 279 Wyoming Business Alliance, 212 X-34, 66 Xcor, 37, 40, 44, 47, 49, 61, 100, 152, 164, 214, 232 Xerus, 49 X-P, 78 X-Prize Competition, 35, 48, 62, 66, 123, 131, 177, 220, 242, 254 X-Prize Foundation, 126, 170, 192, 209, 216, 220, 231 Yajima, Kazuyoshi, 77 Yokohama, Japan, 223, 226 Zero gravity, 8, 105, 194 Zubrin, Robert, 18

Dirk C. Gibson