Coastal Landscapes: South Jersey from the Air 9781978833739, 9781978833, 9781978833746, 9781978833760

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COASTAL LANDSCAPES

COASTAL LANDSCAPES SOUTH JERSEY FROM THE AIR

KENNETH W. ABLE

RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW BRUNSWICK, CAMDEN, AND NEWARK, NEW JERSEY LONDON AND OXFORD

T​ hanks for support of this publication goes to Rutgers University, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences. Rutgers University Press is a department of Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, one of the leading public research universities in the nation. By publishing worldwide, it furthers the University’s mission of dedication to excellence in teaching, scholarship, research, and clinical care. 978-1-9788-3373-9 (cloth) 978-1-9788-33-72-2 (paper) 978-1-9788-3374-6 (epub) 978-1-9788-3376-0 (web pdf) Cataloging-in-publication data is available from the Library of Congress. LCCN 2022048835 A British Cataloging-­in-­Publication rec­ord for this book is available from the British Library. Copyright © 2023 by Kenneth W. Able All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Please contact Rutgers University Press, 106 Somerset Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901. The only exception to this prohibition is “fair use” as defined by U.S. copyright law. References to internet websites (URLs) ­were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the author nor Rutgers University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared. The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—­Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992. rutgersuniversitypress​.­org

​ o ­those who help protect and restore coastal T landscapes in New Jersey, especially during this period of climate change

CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION

1

2

NATURE REVEALED

3

3

RELICS OF THE PAST

41

4

RECENT ­H UMAN FOOTPRINTS

73

5

CONNECTING ­P EOPLE, PLACES, AND RESOURCES

125

6

SEA LEVEL RISING

161

Acknowl­e dgments

191

General References

193

Index 195

COASTAL LANDSCAPES

1.1. Study area (inset) with impor­tant localities within the he­li­cop­ter flight paths. Map by Ryan Larum.

1

INTRODUCT ION

The diverse coastal landscapes of New Jersey are composed of numerous inlets, estuaries, and bays and other habitats especially in the region from northern Barnegat Bay to Cape May. The inlets are dynamic and have changed frequently over time. Their importance cannot be underestimated ­because their number and size strongly influence the twice daily exchange of ­water between the ocean and the back bays. This in turn controls, to a large degree, the production of the plants and animals that live in ­these w ­ aters. This is especially true for the fishes and crabs that mature in the ­waters of the estuaries and bays b ­ ehind the barrier islands that form the outer edge of the coast. ­These are of two basic types: lagoonal estuaries such as Barnegat Bay, with relatively ­little freshwater input from rivers, and drowned river valley estuaries, which have more freshwater input and thus more variation in salinity, such as for the Mullica River–­Great Bay watershed. Of par­tic­u­lar interest are the numerous and varied habitats that make up the landscapes and consist of extensive marshes, seagrass beds, numerous intertidal and subtidal creeks, and other shallow ­waters. At the same time ­these varied habitats are influenced by the seasonal and year-­round h ­ uman populations that insist on living near the ­water all along the New Jersey shore. This book provides unique insights into New Jersey’s coastal landscapes, from the Pine Barrens to ocean

landscape-­scale subjects including natu­ral features, relics of the past, ­human influences, connections between ­people, places, and resources, and effects on the environment including rising sea levels. The locations for the images for each of ­these subject areas are depicted generally and for each chapter. Together, the aerial images, maps, and associated text provide rare insights into coastal New Jersey both historically and t­oday and provide an understanding of how we have modified, managed, and protected ­these landscapes.

I nt roduc ti o n

beaches, based on aerial images from a he­li­cop­ter and occasionally by drone, with groundtruthing by kayak, motorboat, or with my boots on. Based on images captured from 2015 to 2021, it interprets

1

2.1. Locations for specific images in chapter 2. Map by Ryan Larum.

2

NATU RE REV EALED

While New Jersey is the most densely populated state in the nation, its coasts can be surprisingly natu­ral. At one extreme are the heavi­ly urbanized portions of northern Barnegat Bay, with only pockets of natu­ral habitats remaining. This urbanization is most obvious along the barrier islands and less so on the mainland at the ­water’s edge. At the other extreme is Island Beach State Park, in the ­middle section of Barnegat Bay, which remains largely the same as before Eu­ro­pean settlement, except for the hordes of day-­trippers who crowd the ocean beaches during the summer. The degree of urbanization is reduced to the south with the occasional expansions at Atlantic City, Ocean City, and Wildwood. This pattern is well correlated with the extent of salt marsh, with increasing amounts from southern Barnegat Bay southward. Along this stretch the coast is broken up by inlets, lagoonal estuaries such as Barnegat Bay, and ancient drowned river valleys such as the Mullica River–­Great Bay and the ­Great Egg Harbor River estuaries. Throughout the region, geological remnants of the postglacial period are evident. The photo­graphs in this chapter reveal the natu­ral components of the coastal landscape with many of the

large number of images from this estuary is that it is home to the extensive research and monitoring facilities of the Rutgers University Marine Field Station and other institutions. The chapter progresses from the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, where the ­water is the saltiest, into estuaries, ­until eventually reaching the head of the tide in fresh ­water.

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images coming from the Mullica River–­Great Bay estuary. This estuary remains relatively undisturbed and is one of the cleanest estuaries along the East Coast of the United States. Another ­factor responsible for the

3

2.2. Photo by author.

COASTAL FOG AT BRIGANTINE INLET

This image from May 2018 captures a coastal fog over Brigantine, or Wreck Inlet, in the Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge between Absecon and ­Little Egg inlets. The cold Atlantic Ocean w ­ aters (on right) are meeting warm air from the land as the waves break on the beaches. The result is precipitation in the form of fog all along the shoreline at ­Little Beach, the barrier island angling from lower left to the center of the image. The fog helps to obscure the white, sandy beaches on both sides of the inlet and as they wrap around the back sides. The fog cannot hide the fact that ­Little Beach is one of the most unpopulated areas along the New Jersey shore. Peeking through the fog are the dunes and maritime forests that dominate the area and hide the remnants of an old Coast Guard station.

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2.3. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

STORM WASHOVER EVIDENCE ON L­ ITTLE BEACH

L­ ittle Beach, part of the Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge that borders on the Atlantic Ocean south of L­ ittle Egg Inlet, is made up of natu­ral and extensive salt marshes, numerous sinuous creeks, and some maritime forest between the ocean (lower left) and ­Great Bay (upper right). One of the dominant features, in a he­li­cop­ter image from May 2017, is a storm-­driven washover onto the marsh surface as indicated by the light and dark colored sands that buried large areas of salt marsh (lower left). T­ hese washovers are common features easily detectable over time with depth ­because ­these sand layers can be found in deep cores interspersed with traces of vegetation from when the washover area was eventually recolonized by salt marsh vegetation. ­These types of cores provide evidence of hurricanes over previous de­cades and centuries. Each washover event also elevates the marsh surface and makes it less susceptible to sea level rise in the ­future.

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2.4. Photo by author.

ISLAND BEACH STATE PARK AT SOUTHERN EDGE

Almost all of the New Jersey barrier islands on the Atlantic Ocean have been modified by ­humans into heavi­ly fortified towns and cities. A major exception is Island Beach State Park, which retains many of its natu­ral habitats. In this view from the southern portion of the park, just north of Barnegat Inlet in an aerial image from March 2019, all of the components of a natu­ral barrier island are vis­i­ble as it stretches from right to left, from ocean beaches to a series of well-­developed vegetated dunes, to patches of maritime forests, and eventually to bayside marshes and the ­waters of Barnegat Bay. The m ­ iddle of this wide part of the barrier island is interrupted by narrow, sandy paths that stretch from the ocean to the bay side. Where ­these paths reach the open ­waters ­behind the inlet (center), the island is fortified with a rip-­rap edge to prevent erosion at this dynamic inlet. The large marshy island (upper left) is Sedge Island. The rest of the park stretches to the north.

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9

ISLAND BEACH STATE PARK AT NORTHERN EDGE

This natu­ral barrier island is preserved in Island Beach State Park as viewed at the northern, narrower end of the park. Despite its narrowness, it contains all of the essences of a barrier island. It stretches from the surf-­swept sandy beaches on the Atlantic Ocean (on right), with offshore sandbars evident, to the vegetated dunes. The island is cut by a single two-­lane road that travels much of the approximately eight miles in this park. Beyond the road, stretching ­toward Barnegat Bay, are patches of maritime forest and occasional salt marshes, but most of the bay edge has very narrow sandy beaches.

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2.5. Photo by author.

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2.6. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

SAND SHOALS ALONG THE INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY

Massive but wispy-­looking sand shoals along the Intracoastal Waterway (above, center) off Shooting Thorofare at the lower end of ­Great Bay dominate the area in the center of a he­li­cop­ter image from May 2017. Note the faint boat and linear white wake (center) for scale. ­These shoals are common near inlets such as this one ­behind ­Little Egg Inlet and are likely the result of sediments brought in from the ocean and deposited as part of a flood tidal delta such as at Seven Islands. ­These shoals are the bane of boaters, and one won­ders if the boat in the photo­graph was destined to run aground. The upper and lower margins of the shoal adjacent to the salt marsh platform (lower right) are darker, prob­ably due to the presence of a green macroalgae, such as sea lettuce, growing and accumulating ­there in ­these shallow ­waters. The light brown areas on the salt marsh platform are accumulations of sea lettuce where it was deposited on spring or storm tides, subsequently died, and was bleached by the sun. Natur e Revea l ed

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2.7. Photo by Ron Kripas.

RAINBOW ISLANDS

The Rainbow Islands, in the center of the image, where Route 52 connects the mainland with the barrier islands, are geologically old features that ­were formed when G ­ reat Egg Harbor Inlet opened during a period of sea level rise and marine sediments ­were deposited in the harbor. ­These sediments w ­ ere colonized by marsh grasses that have stabilized ­these features except where they are cut by shallow, sandy channels. Their location in the tidal portions of the ­Great Egg Harbor River are evident by the tide lines, at the lower portion of the image, in this photo from June 2021. Immediately upstream the Garden State Parkway crosses the river (upper left).

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2.8. Photo by author.

EXTENSIVE MARSHES B ­ EHIND SEVEN MILE ISLAND

The extensive salt marshes between the mainland and the barrier islands in South Jersey are some of the most productive habitats in North Amer­i­ca. This productivity is based on the growth, decay, and transport of ­these grasses to the bays, via t­hese meandering creeks, and the extensive feeding on the breakdown products (detritus) by the small invertebrates and juvenile shrimp, crabs, and fishes that live in t­hese creeks.

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As an example, the salt marshes ­behind Seven Mile Island, and the shore towns of Avalon and Stone Harbor, are part of the Seven Mile Island Living Laboratory, an area designed to address management issues and marsh resilience in general. This image, taken from a he­li­cop­ter in May 2019, shows the extensive marshes that characterize the entire region, much of which is in the Cape May Wildlife Management Area. Most of the area is relatively undisturbed as indicated by the meandering creeks in the area of extensive Spartina marshes washed twice a day by the tides and for more days during new and full moon periods. Prior ­human influence is evident from the linear ditches dug into the marsh surface for mosquito control (bottom).

17

2.9. Photo by author.

FRESHWATER MARSHES IN THE WADING RIVER

The Wading River stretches upstream from its junction with the Mullica River to fresh w ­ aters where they are embedded in typical Pine Barrens forests of pitch pines and oaks that grow right down to the w ­ ater’s edge. The dark, tea-­stained ­waters derive their coloration from tannins leached from the pines and oaks, thus making ­these “black ­waters,” like ­those elsewhere, very acidic. Within the meandering river, with multiple river channels, are embedded freshwater marshes composed of stands of wild rice and other plants intolerant of salt ­water. We confirmed the aquatic vegetation types in a boat trip that also helped us to interpret this aerial image from July 2015. This freshwater vegetation dies back and dis­appears during the winter, only to reappear in the spring. In the pro­cess, the rotting vegetation enriches the sandy substrate and the surrounding ­waters. The wild rice used to reach further downstream than in this image but over the de­cades has been retreating upstream, presumably due to saltwater intrusion as the result of sea level rise.

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2.10. Photo by author.

CONFLUENCE OF PINE BARRENS BLACKWATERS AND G ­ REAT BAY W ­ ATERS

The mixing of the ­waters in ­Great Bay can sometime be quite clear when the tea-­stained, fresher ­waters from the Pinelands come downstream to meet the clearer, saltier ­waters coming from the bay and nearby ocean. The boundary between ­these two ­water types is evident from this image from a he­li­cop­ter in June 2018 in lower ­Great Bay. The distinction between the two surface ­water masses is evident as a distinct line or foamy edge. In this image, Atlantic Ocean ­waters (top) are vis­i­ble beyond the narrow barrier islands at ­Little Beach in the Forsythe National Wildlife Area to the right of L­ ittle Egg Inlet with a small, sandy sliver of Long Beach Island on the upper left. Between the inlet and the confluence of the two ­water masses are several of the Seven Islands group on the left side of the image. ­These islands now have large areas of standing ­water or marsh “lakes” that are the result of sea level rise over recent de­cades.

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2.11. Photo by author.

THE BASS RIVER WATERSHED

The Mullica River–­Great Bay watershed has numerous tributaries. The east and west forks of the Bass River drain a portion of the Pine Barrens and flow downstream to their junction (lower left), at the point where salt marshes become apparent from a he­li­cop­ter image taken in May 2017. At this point, near the eastern shore (center left), ­there is evidence of ghost forests, standing dead Atlantic white cedar forests that have been flooded with salt ­water as the seas have been rising in an accelerated manner in recent de­cades. ­These ghost forests have been groundtruthed by kayak and aerial drone flights. Further downstream, the marshes become wider, at least on the eastern (left) side of the river where the valley is lower and is flooded by the tides. On the opposite side, the village of New Gretna is evident with scattered ­houses and docks extending into the river from North Maple Ave­nue. The Garden State Parkway crosses over the Bass River further downriver with Viking Yachts and Bass River Marina barely vis­i­ble (upper left).

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2.12. Photo by author.

WADING RIVER AT MERRYGOLD BAY

The largest tributary draining into the Mullica River is the Wading River. The extensive salt marshes along the river transition into the Pine Barrens forest surrounding the ­middle portion of the Wading River at Merrygold Bay (center, right). Several creeks enter the bay from the right. In this May 2018 image from a he­li­cop­ter, the salt marsh, dominated by Spartina, is green; the browner portions are the invasive common reed or Phragmites. The rest of the watershed is dominated by the dark green of pine/oak forests typical of the Pine Barrens. In the upper portion of the image, a line of salt-­tolerant red cedar marks an old road from the upland forest to the ­water. ­These and other linear features in the marsh are ­human footprints. We confirmed the presence of ancient Atlantic white cedar stumps and logs in the bay with a boat at low tide and actually mapped them with acoustic signals from side-­scan sonar. ­These “cedar cemeteries” are indicative of former forests in freshwater bogs that are now constantly flooded by salt ­water due to sea level rise over the centuries.

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2.13. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

UPPER PORTION OF THE JOBS CREEK WATERSHED

Jobs Creek drains the surrounding watershed in the upper portion of Bass River. The variegated greens of the forests in this Pine Barrens watershed are dominated by the dark greens of the pines and the lighter greens of the oaks and other deciduous trees. The soft gray standing dead Atlantic white cedar ghost forests at the upper portion of the creek provide further contrast in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in July 2015. Distinct, open patches in the forest canopy reveal ­human habitation. The dark ­waters of the creek contain dense accumulations of old Atlantic white cedar “cemeteries” on low tides, but ­these are typically underwater and invisible on high tides and lie in wait for the novice in a motorboat, one reason we have explored ­these ­waters by kayak. The intertidal marshes fed by the creek on high tides are dominated by the soft green of salt marsh cordgrass and further from the creek and closer to the forest edge by common reed or Phragmites both above and below the Route 9 bridge over the creek. Below the road on the right side of the creek are numerous ­human and deer paths through the marsh. Natur e Revea l ed

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2.14. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

MULLICA RIVER AT PINE CREEK

Many small freshwater tributaries drain into the Mullica River, the large body of ­water in the image, on its way to the ocean. At Pine Creek, near Green Bank, its watershed is bounded by forest down to its edge as well as natu­ral salt marsh cordgrass (Spartina) and invasive common reed (Phragmites). This is a situation typical of other portions of this creek and other watersheds in the upper portion of the Mullica River in this October 2016 image from a he­li­cop­ter. In the upper, vis­ib ­ le portion of the creek, ghost forests of standing dead Atlantic white cedar are pre­sent on both sides and extend beyond the green stand of trees in the central portion of the image. This is additional evidence of saltwater intrusion as a result of sea level rise on salt-­water-­intolerant trees such as Atlantic white cedar. A private ­house (center, right) is located on the man-­made ditch that empties into the river just above the creek.

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2.15. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

­WATER LILIES IN THE WATERSHED

Extensive beds of ­water lilies, in this image from July 2015, can be found growing up to the surface where shallow fresh ­waters are found in the Mullica River. In this bed, at the end of a road reaching down to the river below Sweetwater, most of the riverbank is dominated by typical Pine Barrens forests of pitch pine and oaks. The ­water’s edge, of lighter green, is freshwater marsh. The dark, tea-­stained ­waters are diluted by groundwater found throughout the upstream portions of the watershed. ­These groundwaters are typically in the low-­to mid-50 degrees and help to maintain ­water flow during the coldest winters. Even in ­these moderated ­water temperatures, the ­water lilies die back and the beds dis­appear ­until the following spring.

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2.16. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

CONFLUENCE OF THE MULLICA AND BATSTO RIVERS

Where the Mullica and Batsto rivers converge ­today is also the location of centuries-­old river channels. ­These come together at The Forks (see light-­colored elongate barn roof near low tide patches of dark sediment in the upper center of the image), the former location of storage areas for loot from coastal privateers during the American Revolution. The seasonal timing of this image, from a he­li­cop­ter in October 2016, is marked by the color changes of the deciduous trees along the banks of many of the waterways. The main stem of the Mullica is the large ­water body across the lower portion of this photo­graph. The hairpin curve on the center right is an old portion of the river from an ­earlier time. The area is bounded by h ­ uman footprints; the linear cut through the trees (Route 542 on the upper right) leads to Batsto Village and Batsto Lake. Houses along the lower river, along Route 643, are in Sweetwater, a pre–­Revolutionary War community so named ­because ships leaving to cross the ocean came to collect fresh “sweet” ­water for the long voyage. Natur e Revea l ed

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2.17. Photo by author.

MCPHEE’S MEANDER

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Aerial photography of the watershed helps us understand how the geology enhances our interpretation of coastal New Jersey landscapes. This is most obvious at a feature we refer to as McPhee’s Meander, a portion of the old Mullica River channel that was abandoned during past centuries. It is so named in recognition of John McPhee, whose book on the Pine Barrens highlighted the importance of the ecosystem and helped to ensure that it is now protected in state and federal holdings. McPhee’s Meander has dif­fer­ent signatures depending on the seasons. The general area is bounded by the Mullica River (upper left) as it cuts through the extensive pine/oak forests of the region, which appear uniformly dark green in this image. Just outside the image on the right is the Batsto River as it drains down from the dam at Batsto Lake. In the spring, the meander, a former oxbow in the old river channel, is a light green, due to the deciduous trees that are dominant ­there. In the fall, as in this photo from October 2016, ­these trees highlight the location of the meander as they are changing color. During both seasons the center of the meander remains green as in the rest of the surrounding forest. As vis­i­ble as the meander is from the air, it is also detectable from the ground by walking off the trail that parallels the Batsto River below the dam ­until you feel a fairly abrupt (for the Pine Barrens) decline in elevation that is the old riverbed; the deciduous trees throughout this low area confirm the riverbed’s presence.

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CEDAR SWAMP CREEK

The marshy headwaters of Cedar Swamp Creek, part of the watershed that empties into the Tuckahoe River and then into the ­Great Egg Harbor River, provide a reminder of the extensive ecological ser­vices (e.g., erosion control, ­water purification, vegetation production) that ­these ecosystems provide at no cost to the taxpayer. The subtle differences in the shades of green, from the forested uplands to the marshy edges, are also reminders of how productive photosynthesis can be in the natu­ral systems that are unaltered by ­human activities. And the productivity of all of ­these systems is transported elsewhere through the tidal w ­ aters as shown by this image from a he­li­cop­ter in June 2021.

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2.18. Photo by Ron Kripas.

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2.19. Photo by Ron Kripas.

SOUTH RIVER ENTERING THE ­G REAT EGG HARBOR RIVER

In this June 2021 image, where the smaller South River joins the larger ­Great Egg Harbor River below Mays Landing, the ecological significance of the differences in elevations is clear. In the upper portion of the image, the darker greens of upland forests are evident on the northeast side of the ­Great Egg Harbor River, while the lower elevation on the southern side of the same river provides a landscape dominated by marsh grasses that are frequently flooded by tidal ­waters. The subtle differences in shades of green are an indication of dif­fer­ent types of marsh grass. At a more local scale, the marsh (center right) is cut by thin lines of trees where a slightly elevated road cuts through to the ­Great Egg Harbor River.

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3.1. Locations for specific images in chapter 3. Map by Ryan Larum.

3

RE LICS OF T HE PAST

In the thousands of years since the glaciers retreated, the Lenape Indians colonized coastal New Jersey. ­There are many remnants of this distant past, up to the late 1800s, in the less altered portions of coastal New Jersey ­today. This chapter’s aerial photo­graphs provide evidence of features from this distant past and as a result of ­human activities related to farming, mosquito control, and road and railroad building. This pattern is most evident on the ­Great Bay marsh in the Lenape midden known as the Tuckerton Mound. In more recent times remnants also extend to the cuts in the waterways and into the roads of the Pine Barrens. Some of the most obvious ditches in the marshes are retained in ­those marshes that have not been destroyed by development. ­There are presumably other evidences of this past underwater, but they are less frequently observed.

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3.2. Photo by author.

FORMER OXBOW IN NACOTE CREEK

This image from a he­li­cop­ter in October 2016 reveals numerous current and former meanders in Nacote Creek before it joins the Mullica River (upper center). The major feature of interest in this salt-­marsh-­ dominated photo is the former oxbow where the creek used to make a hairpin turn just above Route 9 where a bridge crosses the creek. ­Today with sea level rise and erosion, the oxbow has been cut through and effectively shortens the distance to the Mullica. The meanderings of the Mullica are evident as well (upper) just before it joins ­Great Bay on its way to the ocean. The rationale for the placement of the bridge is obvious, as it joins the forests on higher ground on each side of the bridge. The cluster of buildings at the left shore includes Maxwell’s Seafood, a longtime oyster fishery operation, and the Stockton University Marine Field Station.

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3.3. Photo by author.

HOMESTEADS OF G ­ REAT JOHN MATHIS

One of the earliest and most influential settlers in the Bass River area was ­Great John Mathis. He earned the title “­Great” ­because his influences ranged from plantation-­scale farming to financial ­matters both nearby and beyond. ­These influences ­were reflected in the size and scale of his ­houses. One was built on a hammock in the Bass River watershed. It is currently referred to as Oak Island, and the “island” portion of the name references its isolation in a “sea” of marsh. In this image from October 2016, the ­house was located on this large hammock below Jobs Creek (upper center) as it winds its way from the limits of the pinelands, in the upper center, to where it joins the Bass River (upper left). ­After a time he deeded this ­house and the surrounding property to his son Dan, and on some ­earlier maps it is referred to as Dan’s Island. Short linear portions of vegetation in some areas (center left margin and elsewhere in the image) are prob­ably remnants of the original plantation. Another home of ­Great John Mathis was built overlooking the Bass River at the location where Viking Yachts sits ­today at the area closest to the river in the upper left portion of this image.

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3.4. Photo by author.

OLD ROADS THROUGH THE G ­ REAT SWAMP: AN AREA IN TRANSITION

The area between the upper Mullica River and the lower Wading River used to be called the ­Great Swamp. This was an area dominated by freshwater bogs and dense stands of valuable Atlantic white cedar. ­Today, that is no longer the case, in large part ­because of intense harvesting over several hundred years, but also ­because salt w ­ ater is creeping upstream with sea level rise. This is evident ­because the

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margins along the Mullica River, just below Lower Bank, are now dominated by salt marsh and invading common reed, or Phragmites, as we see in this image from a he­li­cop­ter taken in May 2017. ­These marshes are cut by several linear (and therefore not from ­Mother Nature but from h ­ uman influence) features. The available evidence, as gathered in John Pearce’s book (Heart of the Pines), indicates that ­these roads ­were constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the ­Great Depression. The lines of largely deciduous trees reflect an elevated roadbed as the one leading from the elevated forest, in the downstream portion of Lower Bank as reflected by a few buildings (lower left). From ­there, this roadbed cuts across a linear tidal ditch and proceeds across the center of the image ­until it turns to the right, intersects with another elevated roadbed, and continues ­until it crosses another linear tidal ditch in the upper right. Further evidence for the transitions in this region is the standing dead ghost forest in the upper center portion of the image, likely the result of invading salty ­waters associated with sea level rise.

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3.5. Photo by author.

MARSH MANIPULATIONS: LINE DITCHES AND IMPOUNDMENT BERMS

Some of the earliest ditches in the salt marshes of southern New Jersey date from the 1700s. T­ hese w ­ ere dug to mark property bound­aries and to “fence” in livestock. An example of t­hese parallel linear ditches is still evident in the Port Republic Wildlife Management Area, just upstream of the Garden State Parkway (parallel linear features, center right) over the Mullica River (vis­i­ble in lower left). This image, taken from a he­li­cop­ter in May 2017, also clearly shows a thin green line stretching from the high ground of a hammock down to the river. This berm, or bank, surrounds an impoundment that was constructed to hold spoil from the construction of the Garden State Parkway bridge over the Mullica River in the 1950s. Above the parkway stretches the extensive forests of the Pine Barrens (upper third).

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3.6. Photo by author.

FENCE DITCHES AND SALT HAY FARMS

Line or fence ditches that ­were dug in the 1700s and 1800s, like ­those on the Mullica River (center and upper left), had continued use as salt hay farm plots into the 1930s. This is evident at the end of Mannheim Road, where it joins an embayment off the Mullica, Jerry Creek (upper center), as shown in this image taken from a he­li­cop­ter in July 2015. The remnants of t­hese line or fence ditches are evident as parallel linear features, typically with invasive common reed or Phragmites growing along the edges. The uninvaded portions of the marsh are dominated by natu­ral saltmarsh cordgrass or Spartina. Appropriately, the creek below the road with ditch fences is named Fence Creek. The dark green in the upper left portion of the image is the surrounding pines and oaks of the Pine Barrens.

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3.7. Photo by author.

MOSQUITO DITCHES IN THE MEADOWS

Most of the salt marshes in New Jersey and elsewhere in the northeastern United States have been ditched over the past ­century, as seen in this photo­graph taken in October 2016 from a he­li­cop­ter near Mystic Islands. ­These parallel, linear-­grid ditched marshes ­were created with the idea that this approach would help control salt marsh mosquitoes by draining the marshes to reduce larval mosquito breeding depressions on the marsh surface. The most extensive period of ditching took place when this was a priority proj­ect of the Civilian Conservation Corps during the ­Great Depression. In the pro­cess, millions of feet of ditches ­were created in Atlantic County alone during the early 1900s. This image also captures another of the major ­human alterations of marshes—­the creation of estuarine lagoon developments. This housing development, called Mystic Islands, on top of the formerly ditched marshes, was created beginning in the 1950s and is still active ­today, even a ­ fter the flooding effects of Superstorm Sandy. This and other lagoon developments, which are common in New Jersey coastal landscapes, are no longer permitted ­because of the numerous negative environmental impacts. Re l i cs of t h e Pas t

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3.8. Photo by author.

MOSQUITO DITCHES AND IMPOUNDMENTS

Alterations for mosquito control in salt marshes take many forms. The mostly rectangular marsh impoundments along the upstream side of Cedar Swamp Creek, above a marina near where the Tuckahoe Road crosses, are typical of a form that was used early in the past ­century to reduce mosquito egg laying areas. ­These ­were connected by linear ditches to tidal ­waters so that fishes eating mosquito larvae could further reduce the mosquito populations. ­These ditches ­were cut through intertidal salt marshes, light green in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in June 2021.

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3.9. Photo by author.

CONFLUENCE OF SAND ROADS

The Pine Barrens, which surround much of the coastal landscapes of South Jersey, are also the location of numerous sand roads that seemingly wander through ­these extensive forests. A special example is the confluence of five of ­these roads in a pine forest just west of the New Jersey National Guard bombing range and Route 539. This convergence, curiously, appears as a heart-­shaped signature in an image from a he­li­cop­ter in May 2018. One won­ders if t­hese roads converged b ­ ecause of an ­earlier h ­ uman settlement at this location.

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3.10. Photo by author.

OLD ROUTE 9 AT GARDEN STATE PARKWAY BRIDGE

The history of some of the major north/south coastal highways in New Jersey is captured in this image over the Mullica River and adjoining salt marshes. A small portion of the current town of Chestnut Neck (lower right) is a reflection of the site of the ­Battle of Chestnut Neck during the Revolutionary War, when British ships sailed up the only highway available then, the Mullica River. The old Route 9, the pre­de­ces­sor to the Garden

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State Parkway, is clearly indicated by the linear row of trees on the old roadbed (to the left of the parkway above the Mullica and to the right below). Features associated with the construction of the parkway include the linear dredged channels upstream of the bridge both above and below the river. Additional construction-­ related features include the margins of the low-­level impoundments faintly vis­i­ble on the left of old Route 9 above the Mullica and to the left of the parkway above the Mullica. ­These ­were used to store dredged marsh material from the new parkway roadbed. Thus, this photo from July 2015 represents many de­cades of waterway and automobile transportation along this portion of the coast.

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3.11. Photo by author.

DREDGE SPOIL IMPOUNDMENT ALONG THE INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY

All along the Intracoastal Waterway (ICW), which stretches the length of the coast from upper Barnegat Bay to Cape May, ­there are numerous dredge spoil impoundments or confined disposal facilities (CDFs). T­ hese are the locations where sediments from dredging of the ICW (see boat wake in the waterway and above the impoundment) are deposited to maintain it as a navigable waterway. In this image from a he­li­cop­ter in

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May 2019, the dredged sediments and some standing ­water are surrounded by an elevated berm to contain the sediments at the Graven Island Confined Disposal Fa­cil­i­ty near Avalon. A light-­colored road leads from the impoundment to nearby Avalon Boulevard so that trucks can bring the dredged sediment to and from the disposal site. The setting for this image is the extensive salt marshes that are typical of coastal South Jersey with numerous meandering intertidal and subtidal creeks winding through the marsh. The surface of the marsh has numerous ponds or pools that have become even more numerous and larger, based on historical images, as a result of sea level rise. A portion of a lagoon development, created by the dredging of the former marsh surface, is evident in the upper left of the image.

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3.12. Photo by Rob Auermuller.

BRIDGE TO NOWHERE

T­ here are many “bridges to nowhere” scattered throughout the continental United States and Alaska. This one is located along Stafford Ave­nue from Manahawkin over Cedar Creek to marshes bordering Barnegat

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Bay just north of the Route 72 bridge as it leaves the mainland. It is vis­i­ble to the north of that road. Like many of the other “bridges to nowhere,” its origins are unclear. One interpretation is that the bridge was meant to be a gateway to a rather exclusive lagoon development sharing some of the characteristics of Beach Haven West, which is nearby. All of this has become moot since the land has been sold and is now part of the Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge. This November 2020 image, from a drone, indicates where the bridge crosses Cedar Creek on its way to Barnegat Bay. Curiously, ­there is a line of telephone poles, only one of which is vis­ib ­ le to the right of the bridge, that extend along the road and beyond to the bay, perhaps crossing ­under the bay to, at one time, provide power to Long Beach Island. But this is another of the unknowns about this site. Another story indicates that a fire destroyed the leftmost portion of the bridge, which seems quite likely. The marshes in this image, like many ­others bordering Barnegat Bay, are crossed by numerous linear ditches, perhaps as former “fence” ditches designating the bound­aries of old salt hay farms or more recent mosquito ditches from the early 1900s. The marsh surface is frequently covered with standing ­water from ponds that are expanding into “lakes” as the result of sea level rise, with the resulting loss of the productive salt marsh grasses.

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3.13. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

INVASION BY PHRAGMITES IN THE MULLICA

The light, gray-­green of common reed or Phragmites is common along many lower salinity portions of estuaries throughout South Jersey. In the marshes along a small creek in the Mullica Valley, the reed occurs in two patterns; the most distinctive and perhaps the earliest local establishment is in circular patches as if it was initially colonized by a single spreading plant. In other instances, it colonizes and spreads from a marsh edge ­either along a large body of ­water (or along a smaller tributary) as in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in October 2016 below Green Bank. The remainder of the marsh is the shorter salt marsh cordgrass or Spartina, now brown at the end of the growing season, that used to dominate the entire marsh. Vari­ous small channels cut through the salt marsh cordgrass to join the small creek that empties, via a deeper channel, into the Mullica River. ­These channels are less obvious in Phragmites ­because of its height, often ten to twelve feet, and ­because this grass fills in small tributaries over time. Individual dead standing ghost trees are scattered through the marsh and the adjacent forest edge.

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3.14. Photo by author.

THE BULL CREEK WATERSHED ­A FTER REDUCTION OF FLOW

This aerial image clearly depicts the upper portion of the Bull Creek watershed about halfway between Batsto Village and Chatsworth Road in the ­middle of Wharton State Forest. The margins of the watershed are clearly demonstrated by the differences in vegetation. The green of the Pine Barrens dominates the landscape in this image from October 2016. The lower elevations of the watershed consist of oaks and other deciduous trees that appear in fall colors. The linear cuts in the pines on the left and right margins indicate the presence of roads that reach the margins of the watershed. The similarities in color between this watershed and that of McPhee’s Meander point to similar habitats. This former watershed is now largely devoid of w ­ ater ­because its connection downstream with the Mullica River has been blocked by dams at a cranberry bog and the dam for Bel Haven Lake at Route 542.

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3.15. Photo by author.

ABANDONED RAILROAD ACROSS THE MARSHES

At the southern end of Ocean City, where the marshes around the Intracoastal Waterway (passing across the image) have been replaced by housing developments, an old abandoned railroad crosses the salt marshes (lower right to upper left). This image from June 2021 depicts a formerly active railroad that used to cross the Intracoastal Waterway and other waterways over former bridges, ­until it met the forested, dark green mainland in the vicinity of the Garden State Parkway. The remaining marshes show characteristics of other marshes including natu­ral meandering creeks and man-­made linear ditches (lower right).

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3.16. Photo by author.

ALEWIFE SPAWNING AREA IN LAKE LENAPE

The lower end of Lake Lenape (lower left), in an image from June 2021, includes a portion of Mays Landing (center left). The dam, near where Route 40 crosses (lower, center), has one of the most effective fish ladders in a New Jersey estuary. To access this, alewife enter the estuary from the Atlantic Ocean at G ­ reat Egg Harbor Inlet and swim upstream into the ­Great Egg Harbor River (upper center) as it winds its way to the dam and from ­there through the fish ladder and into the lake where they spawn in the spring.

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4.1. Locations for specific images in chapter 4. Map by Ryan Larum.

4

RE CE NT H ­ U M AN FOOT PRIN T S

Human-­derived changes to coastal landscapes have become much more prevalent in coastal New Jersey since the ­human population ­there has risen dramatically since the early 1900s. ­These have taken many forms, from the earliest, including fish factories, to one of the latest, a nuclear power plant, and numerous changes in between such as towns and vacation homes. ­These developments generally proceed from the north, with the greatest and most variable forms, to the south. Many of ­these are correlated with the gradient in ­human population density in the same direction.

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4.2. Photo by author.

SOOY LANDING ROAD

Access to the ­water was critical to the movement of ­people, goods, and ser­vices before roads dominated the coastal landscape of South Jersey. This was especially critical for fisheries in the Mullica River. In this aerial image of July 2015 the connection between the forested upland, in the vicinity of Port Republic, and Sooy Landing is highlighted in the sand road that cuts across the marsh. This tidal creek eventually makes its way to the Mullica River a short distance downstream. This and other roads also provided access to the marshes, which, several hundred years ago, ­were where the early inhabitants grazed their livestock and harvested salt

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hay. The remnants of some of the parallel ditches that provided property lines, or fences, are particularly evident on the right side of the road (lower right). More recently, the natu­ral salt marsh cordgrass (Spartina), the light green on the marsh surface, is being replaced by the invasive common reed (Phragmites), the gray-­green patches scattered throughout the marsh.

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4.3. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

BATSTO VILLAGE REVISITED

This aerial image from May 2017 captures many of the features of this historic village within its Pine Barrens landscape in the Wharton State Forest. Much of the village, including the visitor center and restored mansion, sawmill, and general store, is centered in the clearing, but its connection to the dam on the Batsto River and the resulting Batsto Lake is apparent in the lower right. Below the dam the Batsto River is vis­i­ble as it snakes through the trees and eventually becomes apparent where it joins the Mullica River at Rabbit Island (upper center). As the Mullica turns downstream, it is apparent again as open ­water at the seeming end of

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Route 542, ­after it passes the village through the clearing and eventually leaves the image in the upper left. McPhees Meander, the old river bed of the Mullica, is evident in the upper right off the main stem of the present-­day Mullica, indicated by the lighter shade of green of the deciduous forest that is embedded in the pines that dominate the image.

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4.4. Photo by author.

BATSTO MILL POND AND DAM

One of the most identifiable forms of early ­human occupation by Eu­ro­pean settlers of the South Jersey coast is the construction of dams to form mill ponds to generate ­water power. This image from July 2015 shows many of ­these features ­because the dam (­under the road but indicated by the white w ­ ater formed below it), the sawmill (the building below and left of the dam), and the lake ­behind the dam have been reconstructed

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as part of the historic village. The dam also separates Batsto Lake (the mill pond) from the downstream portion of the Batsto River, which leaves the image in the lower right. The dam also prevents river herring, in this case the alewife coming in from the ocean, from moving above the dam to spawning areas further upstream during their spring run. Some alewife spawn below the dam, as indicated by our observations and collections of eggs immediately below the dam. At the same exact spot, glass eels and elvers, which originated from spawning hundreds of miles away in the Sargasso Sea east of the Bahamas, collect and eat the eggs, creating an ecological hotspot. Recent attempts to provide alewife access to the lake are based on a fish ladder (­under the L-­shaped structure leading from the river to the right just below the dam through a series of ­water steps in a “ladder” to the lake). Unfortunately, it is not clear that the alewife can navigate this ladder and are thus prevented from access to miles and miles of potential spawning habitat in the upper Batsto River.

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4.5. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

CRANBERRY BOGS ALONG THE WADING RIVER AT HARVEST TIME

The growing and harvesting of cranberries has been part of coastal New Jersey for a long time. An image that captures many steps in the activity was taken from a he­li­cop­ter in October 2016 at a site including several bogs along the Wading River. As is typical, ­these bogs are embedded in the Pine Barrens forests, especially in low-­lying areas. The bog at the center of this image is being harvested with a tractor that breaks

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loose the cranberries, which then float to the surface of the flooded bog. This can be seen in the parallel tracks of the tractor as it proceeds around the perimeter of the bog. One can guess that it must have been a very calm day in this image ­because the cranberries are floating to the surface directly over the plants they ­were harvested from. The inconsistent darker areas in the harvested path prob­ably reflect the former bottom of a tributary to the Wading, where ­today the berries do not grow as well in the muddy sediments in this and the bog below it. The small bog in the upper right has already been harvested and the cranberries collected in a corral, as can be seen in the lower left portion of that bog.

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4.6. Photo by author.

CRANBERRY BOGS IN THE PINE BARRENS

Clearly demarcated, large, commercial cranberry bogs are embedded in the green of the Pine Barrens of the Oswego River area, part of the Mullica River watershed, in an image from May 2018. Bogs with growing cranberry plants have a brownish color, while ­those ­under construction are white from the exposed sand sediments. Reservoirs and/or flooded bogs are filled with ­water. The flooding and draining of the bogs, especially during harvesting in the fall, influence ­water flow in the watershed.

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4.7. Photo by author.

IMPOUNDMENTS NEAR THE MULLICA RIVER BRIDGE

A portion of an impoundment berm is vis­i­ble b ­ ecause it is elevated relative to the flat salt marsh surface. In this image from July 2015 the perimeter of an impoundment, which was created to store dredge materials from the construction of the Garden State Parkway bridge over the Mullica River, is vis­i­ble due to the tall common reed or Phragmites that dominates this slightly higher elevation. Occasional red cedars dot the top

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of the berm as well. One of the unfortunate circumstances of messing with ­Mother Nature is that, in this instance, the perimeter of the impoundment created depressions that ­were optimal for breeding mosquitoes. In an attempt to relieve this prob­lem, a kind of Open Marsh W ­ ater Management was used to create rectangular ponds with ditches radiating off of them to both drain the marsh and allow mosquito-­eating fish, such as mummichogs, access to the mosquito larvae. In other places, the perimeter berm was breached with linear ditches so that high tides could help bring ­these same fish into the impoundment.

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4.8. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

FORMER MARSH, PRE­S ENT LAGOON DEVELOPMENT

The clear contrast between salt marsh on the right and the Beach Haven West lagoon development on the left of Mill Creek (center) in this image from June 2018 captures the degree to which ­humans have altered the

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coastal marshes of New Jersey. While the salt marsh, formerly called the Remson Meadows, has been altered to some degree, note the linear ditches through portions of it, it still provides numerous ecological ser­vices such as coastal protection, erosion control, and habitat for eco­nom­ically impor­tant fishes. On the other hand, the dredged and filled marsh with over four thousand ­houses along the lagoon channels does not provide ­these ser­vices, largely b ­ ecause of poor ­water circulation due to the numerous dead-­end channels and the low dissolved oxygen conditions. In addition, the low-­lying areas of this and other lagoon developments are prone to flooding, as occurred in most of the ­houses during Superstorm Sandy. The location of this image can be put into a larger perspective by noting how it borders Barnegat Bay, which in turn is bordered by the Long Beach Island barrier island and the adjacent Atlantic Ocean.

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4.9. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

LAGOON DEVELOPMENT IN BARNEGAT BAY: STARTED BUT NOT COMPLETED

Many of the lagoon developments in Barnegat Bay resemble t­hose elsewhere with large parallel lagoons and ­houses facing the ­water, as in the bottom of this image from March 2019. Insights into the construction pro­cess can be obtained from the incomplete section of the development where three linear channels and a portion of a fourth have been dredged, typically by taking the dredged sediments and depositing them on the undredged portion of the former marsh. ­These elevated areas can be seen in some places with large amounts of shrubs and occasional red cedars, as we observed on a subsequent visit to this site. Another section of the planned development is a continuation of the road, beginning in the lower right and extending to the bay. A view across the bay to the mainland can be seen in the ­middle and upper portion of the image. Re ce nt ­H um a n F oo tp r int s

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4.10. Photo by author.

LAGOON DEVELOPMENTS DOMINATE THE SHORELINE IN WESTERN BARNEGAT BAY

The shoreline of much of western Barnegat Bay is pockmarked with lagoon developments including at the mouth of Forked River as it enters the bay. The mouth of Forked River used to serve as the intake of the cooling ­waters for the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station. Since the shutdown of this station in 2019, the primary ­human use of ­these ­waters is for recreation, as indicated by the extensive lagoon development

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along the shorelines as well as the Forked River Marina up a branch of the river. The southern branch is evident in this he­li­cop­ter photo of June 2018 where it is crossed by a bridge that is part of Route 9. The lagoon development in this area is mirrored by another accumulation of lagoon developments further up the bay on the immediate shoreline (upper, right). Between ­these lagoon developments is a large area of relatively unaltered salt marsh shoreline. Across the bay from ­these lagoons the narrow shoreline of Island Beach State Park is barely vis­i­ble.

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BARRIER ISLAND BUILD-­O UT: SHORE TO SHORE

This June 2018 image captures the degree of total build-­out of the barrier island stretching along the northern portion of Long Beach Island, south of Manasquan Inlet, with the Atlantic Ocean on the right and the back bay portion of Barnegat Bay on the left. Lagoon developments of vari­ous sizes and shapes are common on the former back bay marshland. The white sand shoreline bordering the ocean has been rebuilt and broadened since Superstorm Sandy in fall 2012. The beaches have numerous angled access points from the extensive housing that stretches continuously from the ocean to the bay and as far north as this image can capture at Barnegat Inlet. As is obvious, ­there are essentially no green areas, even marshes, between the ocean and the bay in this portion of the New Jersey shore dominated by dense development.

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4.11. Photo by author.

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4.12. Photo by author.

THE WETLANDS INSTITUTE

T­ here are several institutions in South Jersey that are dedicated to education and research along the coast, one of which is the Wetland Institute (center, left), located in marshes along Route 657 just west of Stone Harbor. Like most of ­these kinds of facilities it relies on access to salt marshes and waterways such as Scotch Bonnet, the creek located at the end of the institute’s pier. This waterway empties into the Intracoastal Waterway, which provides ­water access to areas of the coast to the north and south. The ­water standing on the marsh between the institute and the road in the upper left is typical of marshes elsewhere along the coast that are slowly drowning in place due to their inability to keep accumulating sediment ahead of sea level rise. The light brown area parallel to the road on the left-­hand side is a large amount of wrack, or decaying vegetation, that was likely deposited ­there in a recent storm based on this image from May 2019. Re ce nt ­H um a n F oo tp r int s

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4.13. Photo by author.

MOSQUITOES AND MARSHES

Multiple types of marsh modifications to control salt marsh mosquitoes are evident at the end of Taylor Lane near Manahawkin Bay in this image from June 2018. The numerous linear ditches are aty­pi­cal of a natu­ral marsh but typical of many marshes in New Jersey and elsewhere in the northeastern United States. T­ hese ditches are connected to a larger natu­ral creek (Fresh Creek) that winds through the marsh from Barnegat Bay. ­These ditches ­were meant to provide access by fishes to the mosquito breeding and larval development areas in the hopes that they would eat the mosquitoes and control their populations. This practice was largely

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unsuccessful and eventually resulted in another type of marsh modification, Open Marsh ­Water Management, to control the same mosquitoes. In this approach the marshes ­were further modified by digging numerous ponds, vis­i­ble throughout this image, to reduce the number of low-­elevation areas where the mosquitoes lay their eggs. At the same time the sediments from pond construction w ­ ere spread over the marsh surface to bury other mosquito breeding areas. All of the resulting pools and ponds provided habitat for predators of mosquito larvae, typically the mummichog, which can tolerate ­these ponds and eat mosquito larvae voraciously. The shapes of the ponds ­were individually designed to reduce the amount of mosquito breeding habitat, thus the variation in their location and shapes. ­Those “white” pools appearing in the lower left portion of the image are simply the result of the sun reflecting off the ­water’s surface.

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4.14. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

OPEN MARSH W ­ ATER MANAGEMENT AT CATTUS ISLAND

Coastal marshes have been altered in numerous ways over time. Since the 1900s many marshes ­were ditched in a pro­cess known as parallel grid ditching to drain the marshes and prevent mosquito breeding. T­ hese grid ditches are obvious in the image, from June 2018, in the marshes that are part of Cattus Island at Tilton Point on the mainland side of Barnegat Bay. Another of the most frequent ways in which coastal

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marshes are being modified is by sea level rise, especially in recent de­cades. This is obvious on the flooded marsh surface between the older grid ditches from an ­earlier period. ­These ponds, which in some instances resemble small lakes, have developed ­because the dominant salt marsh cordgrass (Spartina), while it grows best in the intertidal zone, cannot survive when it is constantly flooded. This marsh surface can be compared with the normal marsh adjacent to the bay (lower left), where sediments can build up and the marsh can keep ahead of sea level rise; thus the marsh is not continuously flooded. This aerial image also depicts the typical changes along the bay shore, including lagoon developments, that are common in northern Barnegat Bay. The location of this image is clarified by the presence of the Route 37 bridge from Island Heights on the mainland to Seaside Heights on the barrier island. The ­waters of Toms River are just above the bridge on the upper right of the image.

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4.15. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

GUNNING POND

Regular, geometrical shapes on the surface of a marsh are clear indicators of ­human influence. This aerial image of October 2016 clearly shows the outlines of two impoundments, surrounded by roads, that w ­ ere created for gunning waterfowl on the Wading River (lower portion of image) near Ives Branch (to the left of the impoundment). This fa­cil­i­ty is now run by the NJDEP Handicapped Hunting Program. The saltmarsh cordgrass surrounding the ponds, between the upland forest and the river, is being replaced by the taller, dense common reed (Phragmites) that appears as light brown vegetation. All of this is in the Mullica River watershed.

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4.16. Photo by author.

RENOVATION OF A CONFINED DISPOSAL FA­C IL­I­T Y FOR DREDGE SPOIL

Sediments are accumulating along the coast of New Jersey in all the wrong places. That is why channels are constantly being dredged and ­there is a continuing effort to store the sediments in areas that w ­ ill do the least harm. The spoil disposal site, or confined disposal fa­cil­it­y, shown in this aerial image from May 2019 is located along the Intracoastal Waterway adjacent to Peck Bay and connected to Roo­se­velt Ave­nue into

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southern Ocean City by the road in the lower left. The sediments are delivered by truck, moved around by earth-­moving equipment for dewatering, and then taken for eventual redeployment to a permanent long-­term site. The site itself is separated by a berm or wall of sediment to contain the sediment deposited t­here. In this case ­there is a light-­colored road that surrounds the site. Below the road, on the outside of the site, the green area is dominated by common reed (Phragmites), which typically grows well at higher elevations and in disturbed locations.

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4.17. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

ATLANTIC CITY: THE OCEAN­S IDE RESORT

The Atlantic Ocean and Absecon Inlet dominate the watery portion of this image from May 2017 with the skyline of Atlantic City and the Downbeach area, including the taller casinos, ­hotels, and associated buildings surrounded by ­these ­waters. Shoal sandbars with breaking waves, in the lower left of the image, threaten boats moving in and out of the inlet. Some of the back bay marshes and open ­water appear in the upper right. A narrow linear strip of ­water, the marina that supports many local fishing boats, is vis­i­ble in the center right.

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4.18. Photo by author.

THE BACK BAY SIDE OF ATLANTIC CITY

Atlantic City and adjacent Brigantine dominate the ocean shoreline in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in May 2019. The ocean and the adjacent beach is vis­i­ble in the top center flanked by large casinos around Absecon Inlet, the ­water that runs from the ocean. The domination by ­water is also evident from the Intracoastal Waterway that flows ­under the Atlantic City Expressway as it enters Atlantic City. Then the waterway continues to the south and to the right, past Bader Field and the baseball stadium at the edge, both now abandoned and awaiting ­future development. The rectangle of housing stretches from Route 40, just ­after it crosses Beach Thorofare in the center left. The marshes at the bottom of the image indicate the original landscape of the area before the development of Atlantic City began.

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4.19. Photo by author.

BASS RIVER MARSHES IN THE VICINITY OF VIKING YACHTS

­ fter the Bass River leaves its confluence with the Mullica River and moves ­toward its origin up in the Pine A Barrens, its path can be followed ­because of the lower elevation and intertidal mashes. ­These are both upstream of the bridges (upper center) that cross the Bass River (both Route 9 and the Garden State Parkway) where they overlap in the immediate vicinity of Viking Yachts and Viking Marina. Downstream from t­here, in

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this image from October 2016, Jobs Creek enters the Bass River (center right), then the river continues downstream ­until the Broad Creek joins it (lower left). The marshes on the lower portion of the river in this image have been modified for several reasons. Sometime in the early 1900s the marshes ­were altered with narrow linear ditches for mosquito control. In the 1950s impoundments ­were created to store dredged sediments from the construction of the Garden State Parkway over the nearby Mullica River. A portion of the elevated edge of the impoundment and its associated higher vegetation can be seen on the center right of the image as it follows the riverbank and then turns to the left before it rejoins the riverbank and then parallels a small creek. On the opposite side of the river two parallel, straight, dredged ditches in the center right of the image may date back to the plantations of ­Great John Mathis in the early 1700s.

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4.20. Photo by author.

BEESLEY’S POINT POWER PLANT

Power plants, as in the case of the former coal-­fired plant at Beesley’s Point, seen in this he­li­cop­ter image from June 2021, ­were often placed adjacent to estuaries such as in the lower G ­ reat Egg Harbor River, to provide cooling ­water for the plants. In addition, the shorter, cylindrical tower to the right of the main smokestack also provided a way to cool ­water before releasing it back into the estuary. This location, just above where the Garden State Parkway crosses the river, provided a large volume of tidally influenced ­waters for this cooling ­until the plant closed. This image also points out the extensive salt marshes between the river and the darker upland forests. In the ­future, this site may become part of the grid for energy produced from offshore wind turbines.

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OCEAN CITY SHORELINE

The shorelines of New Jersey are among the most heavi­ly altered on the East Coast of the United States. The desire of ­humans to live near or visit the shore is obvious from this image from June 2021 of the beaches of Ocean City, where development occurs right up to the Atlantic Ocean shoreline. The desire to retain that shoreline explains the numerous jetties in the ­water and perpendicular to the beach and the large number of individuals on the beaches. The light green area to the right of the dark boardwalk is a dune created a ­ fter Hurricane Sandy.

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4.21. Photo by author.

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4.22. Photo by author.

SAND AND GRAVEL MINING

The mining of sand and gravel can occur in much of South Jersey to take advantage of the deposits from prior geological periods. ­These mining activities are especially obvious where the green forests of the Pine Barrens have been replaced by areas of light-­colored sand and impoundments of vari­ous shades of blue and green from the algae that grow in the ­water. The proximity of ­these mines to the Atlantic shore is obvious in the very top of this image from June 2021.

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4.23. Photo by author.

TUCKAHOE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA

Some of the extensive marshes along the southern portion of Cedar Swamp Creek are crossed by the Tuckahoe Road in the Tuckahoe Wildlife Management Area, which drains a large portion of the lower G ­ reat Egg Harbor River watershed, as shown in this image from June 2021. The elevated road is especially evident ­because of the numerous salt-­tolerant red cedar trees that grow along both sides of the road. Most of the area on the marsh provides tidal flow through numerous meandering creeks and occasional straight ditches, on twice-­a-­day high tides and during storms. This setting, adjacent to the dark green of abundant oak and pine, is near the shore, as is obvious ­because of the blue Atlantic Ocean w ­ aters at the top of the image.

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4.24. Photo by author.

TUCKAHOE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA IMPOUNDMENT

A large impoundment in the Tuckahoe Wildlife Management Area, on the southside of the ­Great Egg Harbor River estuary, was built to provide habitat for waterfowl. This extensive area of standing w ­ ater separates marshes of salt marsh cordgrass (Spartina) and common reed (Phragmites) (upper) from the adjacent upland (lower) in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in June 2021. The impoundment itself is bordered by a drivable road that is vis­i­ble as the light brown arc across the image.

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4.25. Photo by author.

THE OYSTER CREEK NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION

The Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, formerly the largest industry in Barnegat Bay, was one of the first U.S. nuclear plants to be shut down ­because of age. Its opening in 1969 strongly influenced the immediate landscape in estuarine creeks and adjacent Barnegat Bay. In order to provide cooling ­waters for the nuclear reactor, the lower portion of Forked River was dredged and connected to the nearby portion of

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Oyster Creek through a channel that, together, formed a ­horse­shoe. This modification allowed w ­ ater from Forked River, as the new intake canal, to flow through the plant and then into the discharge canal of Oyster Creek. A portion of the original Oyster Creek is vis­ib ­ le to the left of the access road from Route 9 (center, right). This is evident in the dredged channel as darkened, tea-­stained ­water from the adjacent Pine Barrens watershed based on a photo­graph from a he­li­cop­ter in June 2018. The two Route 9 bridges cross over t­hese canals adjacent to the former power plant property with numerous white/gray buildings around the plant chimney. During the period of its operation, the pumps provided ­water to the power plant with one-­way flow that overrode the tides. In the pro­cess, t­hese estuarine ­waters w ­ ere heated to as much as five to nine degrees above ambient temperatures at the mouth of Oyster Creek. In addition, nearshore ­waters on the western shore of the bay also experienced warmer temperatures, typically less than one mile from the mouth of Oyster Creek. The closing of the power plant in September 2018 caused several changes but did not return the Forked River and Oyster Creek to their original conditions.

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4.26. Photo by author.

WIND TURBINES AND THE F­ UTURE

The wind turbines at the Atlantic County Utilities Authority are located along Beach Thorofare in the marshes between Atlantic City and the mainland (upper center) along the White Horse Pike (Route 30) as it winds its way between ­these locations in this May 2019 image. This first New Jersey wind farm has provided impor­ tant insights into the value of wind energy in the state. This location also ­houses sewage treatment and trash disposal and recycling facilities for Atlantic County. The essence of the image also indicates how abundant salt marsh systems are in the southern part of the state.

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5.1. Locations for specific images in chapter 5. Map by Ryan Larum.

5

CONNE CTIN G P­ EOPL E, PLACES, AND   RESOURCES

purposes, that is, use by fishers, picnickers, day-­trippers, and so on, during the late spring through early fall. The fishers tend to stretch the seasons, early in the spring for winter flounder and late fall and early winter for striped bass.

Co nn ec tin g P ­ eopl e, Pl aces, a n d Resources

The extensive amount of ­water and marsh in coastal South Jersey makes the connectivity between the mainland and the barrier islands somewhat difficult. Thus, ­there are a variety of roads, bridges, and waterways, especially the Intracoastal Waterway, that are central to ­human access. ­These connections between isolated pieces of land occur across inlets, the mainland, and the barrier islands. Connection by waterways is easier for boats that are seaworthy for rivers and estuaries. The roads and bridges are available and used year-­round, the exceptions being during exceptional spring tides and nor’easters, so-­called nuisance flooding, and hurricanes. I mention ­these ­because the frequency of flooding is increasing and access to some areas is decreasing. The use of waterways is more seasonal, largely due to the focus on recreational

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5.2. Photo by author.

VIKING VILLAGE MARINA: FISHING VESSELS

The valuable commercial fishery port at Barnegat Light at the northern end of Long Beach Island connects resources in the ocean to consumers along much of the East Coast. The location of Viking Village just inside Barnegat Inlet, in this image from March 2019, provides access to much of the ocean, but the access is not always easy ­because of the shallowness of the inlet. A variety of fishes, from tilefish, in submarine canyons at Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

the edge of the shelf, to bluefish, close to the shore, are landed across all seasons in large vessels that fish longlines or trawls to smaller vessels that use a variety of small gill nets. Of note is the fact that more southern species, such as Atlantic croaker and Spanish mackerel, are becoming a more common component of the landings at Viking Village as an indicator of warming temperatures due to climate change, a pattern felt all along the coast of New Jersey.

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5.3. Photo by author.

CONNECTING BARNEGAT BAY TO THE ATLANTIC OCEAN

The populated portions of northern Long Beach Island (lower) are isolated by Barnegat Inlet from the adjacent unpopulated Island Beach State Park (upper) with its extensive, natu­ral salt marshes and dunes on the

This inlet is one of the few locations along the coast where oceanic ­waters (upper right) mix with the somewhat less salty ­waters of the bay (upper left). The inlet is clearly indicated by the light­house at the edge of the inlet. The shoals above and to the left of the light­house make vessel traffic in and out of the inlet somewhat treacherous, but nonetheless it is frequently used by commercial and recreational fishermen and boaters in general.

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bay side (left) and broad ocean beaches on the opposite side as in this image from March 2019. The vegetated portion of Long Beach Island (lower right) is part of the Barnegat Light Habitat Restoration Proj­ect.

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5.4. Photo by author.

CORSONS INLET CONNECTS THE ESTUARY AND THE OCEAN

May Wetlands Wildlife Management Area. Further west are the forests of the mainland (upper left). County Road 619 crosses the inside of the inlet on its way from Ocean City to Strathmere. The inlet itself is typical of many natu­ral inlets with extensive shallow-­water sandbars. T­ hese are cut by a deeper channel immediately ­behind the western edge of Strathmere.

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Corsons Inlet is bounded by Ocean City and Corsons Inlet State Park to the north (center top) and the city of Strathmere to the south (center bottom) along with extensive ocean beaches. Corsons Inlet State Park preserves numerous sandy dunes bordered by sandy beaches to the east and a back bay to the west as indicated in this he­li­cop­ter image from May 2019. The extensive back bay salt marshes are part of the Cape

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5.5. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

THE BOAT BUILDING INDUSTRY CONNECTS P­ EOPLE TO THE ­WATER

One of the biggest industries in South Jersey, Viking Yachts, and the adjoining Viking Marina, is a major employer. This boat-­building operation, as seen in this image from May 2017, has been a fixture in the Bass Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

River since some of the first settlements in the region. Another long-­term fixture on the river at this site is Allen’s Dock, located on the opposite shore across from Viking Marina. As an indication of its age, the dock used to act as a winter residence for the menhaden boats operating out of the old fish factory downstream in ­Great Bay. This image also indicates the proximity of the Garden State Parkway and Route 9, together, as they cross the Bass River at the village of New Gretna, much of which is scattered along Route 9 and along the western shore of the Bass River. All of this is embedded in the Pine Barrens forest and the marshes upriver.

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5.6. Photo by author.

FORSYTHE REFUGE DRIVE

This aerial view, from a he­li­cop­ter in June 2018, of the elevated road around the western portion of the drive in the Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge in Atlantic County allows visitors to view the habitats that connect the upland forest of the mainland with the marshes of the estuary just north of Reeds Bay (upper left). The enclosed fresh ­waters of the impoundment, in the center, provide optimal habitat and food for resident and Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

seasonal migratory birds that characterize this easily accessible location. This habitat of the Forsythe Refuge includes marshes with linear ditches for mosquito control in the foreground. Both the forests and the marshes in the upper portion of this image stretch, in a nearly straight line, from ­Great Bay to Cape May and are remnants of an ancient ocean-­land margin.

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5.7. Photo by Tom Grothues.

HISTORY OF THE BRIDGE OVER THE LOWER MULLICA RIVER

Mullica River, with deep channels in the meandering river surrounded by extensive salt marshes as far as the eye can see. The pentagon-­shaped ponds (bottom center and right), with linear ditches radiating from them, are not alien signatures but early attempts to reduce mosquito numbers with a technique known as Open Marsh ­Water Management. This approach drains portions of the marsh while providing fish access to the larval mosquitoes in depressions on the marsh surface. Parallel linear ditches from e ­ arlier attempts to drain the marshes are most evident in the marsh immediately below the parkway.

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One of the early roads that led to a bridge across the Mullica River near Chestnut Neck is vis­ib ­ le as a straight line of predominantly red cedar trees in the foreground of the current Garden State Parkway. The straight dredged channel through the marsh was built during the construction of the parkway in the early 1950s. The setting, in this image taken from a he­li­cop­ter in May 2018, is typical of this portion of the

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5.8. Photo by Jessica Valenti.

THE BRIDGE TO LONG BEACH ISLAND

T­ here is only one land-­based access point to Long Beach Island, the Route 72 bridge across Barnegat Bay, as shown in this image taken from a he­li­cop­ter in March 2019. The connection begins at Manahawkin where Cedar Creek (lower left) and a smaller creek (through marshes parallel to Bay Ave­nue at Mud City) join the bay (lower right). Some of ­these marshes are part of the Manahawkin Wildlife Management Area

the bridge provides passage for the Intracoastal Waterway that stretches the length of the New Jersey coast. On the other side of this bridge Route 72 allows access to Bonnet Island before joining the main portion of Long Beach Island, which stretches to the south with the Atlantic Ocean ­behind it.

Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

(lower portion). The lagoon development of Beach Haven West dominates the bay shore above Route 72 (right center). Together ­these reflect the increased h ­ uman population rimming the bay. The high-­rise portion of

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5.9. Photo by author.

ISLAND BRIDGES TO LONG BEACH ISLAND

Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

The bridges across islands help to provide the single link between Long Beach Island (bottom left) and the mainland (upper) near Manahawkin across the central portion of Barnegat Bay at Manahawkin Bay. A main portion of this link, Route 72, crosses the Intracoastal Waterway (at the top) and several of the Bonnet Islands that have been developed for housing and marinas in this image from June 2018. Other portions of the same islands show linear ditches that are typical of the region. On the mainland, in the distance (upper left) is the extensive lagoon development of Beach Haven West.

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5.10. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

BRIDGES OVER THE BASS RIVER

Three transportation ave­nues are captured in this he­li­cop­ter image from October 2016. The oldest ave­nue is the Bass River, which served transportation by boat from the earliest settlers to portions of the watershed

Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

including ­those in New Gretna (lower left). The first means of automobile transportation in the area was the road now called Route 9, the lowest elevation road over the river. The Garden State Parkway, which was constructed in the 1950s, crosses over the previous road. The setting for this image also reveals the extensive Pine Barrens, dominated by pines and oaks, that surround the Bass River and extend as far as the eye can see. Immediately adjacent to the river are the extensive salt marshes, brown in this fall image, that surround the river especially on the northern shore, which has a lower elevation and allows for this extensive intertidal habitat.

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5.11. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

THE BRIDGE ACROSS THE WADING RIVER

The only bridge crossing the Wading River occurs at the former town of Bridgeport, at the junction of Route 542 from New Gretna and Stage Road from Tuckerton (lower, center). This location was central to this portion of the Mullica Valley ­because the river is much shallower upstream so that boats typically loaded and unloaded cargo at this site as they ­were coming and g ­ oing for coastal commerce. Evidence for this covers

dominated by common reed or Phragmites, as indicated in this he­li­cop­ter image taken in October 2016. Both shores, above and below the bridge, have old Atlantic white cedar “cemeteries” of stumps and logs exposed at low tide. All of this scene is embedded in the forests of the Pine Barrens with the Mullica River in the distance (upper left).

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the river bottom where ballast rocks still lie in the mud. ­These are vis­i­ble on blow-­out tides or from side-­scan sonar of the bottom. The marshes ­here, as elsewhere in the low-­salinity portions of the watershed, are

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5.12. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

ROUTE 9 BRIDGE OVER NACOTE CREEK

Route 9 used to be the major highway in coastal South Jersey. ­Today, the gathering of structures where the Route 9 bridge crosses Nacote Creek is representative of the region. This he­li­cop­ter image of the creek

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from October 2016 indicates private residences, a marina, and the Stockton University Marine Station around the small rectangular embayment to the right of the bridge on the upper shore. The creek is also a tributary that meanders downstream from Port Republic (to the left) to the Mullica River and G ­ reat Bay (to the right). All of the above is embedded in the fringing forest and adjacent salt marshes typical of the watershed.

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5.13. Photo by author.

THE BRIDGE TO LOWER BANK AND SURROUNDINGS

whose light gray-­green colors dominate the southern shore in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in July 2015. The long, nearly linear Landing Creek cuts through this marsh and used to carry ­people and products from Gloucester Furnace at Gloucester Landing to the Mullica and Atlantic Ocean coastal commerce as well. Just above the mouth of Landing Creek is Teal Creek, which at one time was ­going to be the site of a never-­ constructed railroad from Egg Harbor City, across the Hog Islands, and on to Tuckerton.

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The bridge into Lower Bank was home, for many years, to the Cavileer Boat Works, with its extensive footprint on the north (left) side of the Mullica River. A portion of the town of Lower Bank extends along the same shore. This location is also the approximate site of the fresh ­water–­salt w ­ ater interface just above Hog Islands (upper left). This low salinity is conducive to the invasion of the marsh by common reed or Phragmites,

149

5.14. Photo by author.

THE BRIDGE TO GREEN BANK

One of the few bridges in the upper portion of the Mullica River connects both shores at the town of Green Bank (right). This town dates back to the early 1700s, and its inhabitants and their neighbors feature prominently in the history of the region as chronicled in the books Jersey Genesis and Heart of the Pines. The newest version of the bridge, seen in an image from a he­li­cop­ter taken in July 2015, allows for the passage Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

of boats upstream and downstream from this freshwater potion of the river, and cars and trucks to both sides of the river.

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5.15. Photo by Tom Grothues.

RAILROAD BEDS AS LEAKY DAMS IN THE MARSH

Railroads cross bays and marshes in several places in coastal New Jersey. In this image, from May 2019, an abandoned railroad bed is evident as it leads from the mainland (­under a Garden State Parkway overpass at Mile Marker 23.1, just off the bottom of the image) across the marsh and to the barrier island at Ocean City (upper left). In the pro­cess, this railway roadbed crosses small creeks (see abandoned bridge Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

near the bottom of the image) and larger waterways, including the Intracoastal Waterway near the top of the image. This elevated roadbed may still have several influences on the marsh. One of the obvious ones, vis­i­ble on this image, is that it can act as a dam influencing the movement of marsh plant material. On the left side of the railroad bed is a line of dead, brown marsh vegetation, or wrack, that has accumulated all along the former railway. We confirmed this by walking a good portion of the railroad bed in spring 2020. The reason it has accumulated only on the left (northern) side of the railway bed is, perhaps, that it was deposited ­there during one, or several, northeastern storms. Other portions of the marsh show natu­ral features such as sinuous creeks wandering through the marsh as well as created waterways as indicated by their linearity, always a sign of ­human activity. ­Mother Nature does not do this.

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5.16. Photo by author.

BRIDGE ACROSS LOWER PATCONG CREEK

The entrance to Patcong Creek, on the northern side of ­Great Egg Harbor River just west of the inlet from the ocean, is a small salty watershed that is typical in that forested uplands surround most of the tidal marshes as in this aerial image from June 2021. The tidal exchange is enhanced by numerous small tributaries that cut through the marshes and end at the higher elevation forests. Unlike most natu­ral watersheds it is populated Co nn ec tin g P ­ e opl e, Pl ac es , an d Re so urces

by ­human development, including residential neighborhoods and marinas, the latter most obvious in the lower portion of the main creek. The bridge at Route 559 connects both sides of the watershed with the marinas and the towns in the region.

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BRIDGE ACROSS CEDAR SWAMP CREEK

Lines of trees are evident along Tuckahoe Road where it crosses Cedar Swamp Creek on a bridge near the southern end of the Tuckahoe Wildlife Management Area, all part of the ­Great Egg Harbor River watershed. This is all part of a meandering watershed of marsh grasses with small patches of trees on hammocks scattered throughout with ­those best developed in the upstream portion (upper left) in this image from

5.17. Photo by author.

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June 2021. The marsh is cut by numerous straight channels that ­were dug to reduce mosquito populations nearly a ­century ago.

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5.18. Photo by author.

WATERSHED IN A JUG H ­ ANDLE

The watershed in the jug ­handle at Exit 48 on the Garden State Parkway just a ­ fter it crosses over the Mullica River is small in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in July 2015. Despite the fact that it is confined by the roadway, it shares many characteristics with the adjacent watershed. It has uplands (trees at the highest elevation on the upper portion of the jug ­handle), natu­ral marsh (Spartina marsh at the lowest elevation in the center of

connected to the marsh waterway outside the jug ­handle). The last item is potentially the most critical ­because much of the natu­ral marsh would not exist without this connection. This connectivity, as shown ­here in miniature, is central to how estuaries function.

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the jug ­handle), invaded marsh (common reed or Phragmites at the perimeter in the lower portion of the jug ­handle), and intertidal ­waters (the small creek that enters from the left side of the jug h ­ andle but that is

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6.1. Locations for specific images in chapter 6. Map by Ryan Larum.

6

S E A LEV EL RISING

The evidence for sea level rise is compelling, especially along the coast of New Jersey and elsewhere in the region ­because the rate of rise is double the world average. The major reasons the rate is so high include climate-­induced change and postglacial subsidence—­that is, the land that was pushed up in South Jersey by the weight of the glaciers in North Jersey and elsewhere is now sinking or subsiding. The evidence for sea level rise throughout coastal New Jersey comes from several sources including erosion at the marsh edge, drowning of the marsh surface, and the appearance of new and old ghost forests that are becoming increasingly evident. Some of ­these are due to recent saltwater intrusions, as by Superstorm Sandy. ­These aerial images and our frequent groundtruthing via motorboat, kayak, and side-­scan sonar further substantiate ­these changes from past centuries and de­cades to the pre­sent.

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161

6.2. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

WADING RIVER OXBOW

The morning sun is reflected off the ­waters of G ­ reat Bay in the distant background in this aerial image from October 2016. Upstream from the bay, the Mullica River connects ­under the Garden State Parkway bridge (center upper) to its upstream portion. Much of the dark land is composed of the extensive salt marshes that constitute much of this relatively undeveloped watershed. As the Mullica continues upstream, just above the bridge, it is joined by the Wading River and eventually the convoluted path of Loveland Thoroughfare (center left). In the center of the image is an obvious oxbow or meander off the Wading River that is now bypassed by the main stem of the river. This change in the river’s path is prob­ably the result of sea level rise and subsidence of the land during the past several centuries.

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163

6.3. Photo by Norb Psuty.

LONG BEACH ISLAND DOGLEG AT HOLGATE

Much of the ocean side of Long Beach Island has been armored by development. ­These sections of the island have remained in place but are frequently threatened or damaged by rising sea levels and storms. This most recently occurred during Superstorm Sandy. The most striking response of the island to the rising seas is the migration of the unoccupied, unarmored southern portion of the island (lower), part of the Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge just below Holgate at ­Little Egg Inlet, to the west as in this aerial image from 1997. This area, while migrating west, is maintaining itself by capturing sediment from sand accumulation during washover events that allow the bayside of this portion of the island to continue to build.

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6.4. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

CEDAR CEMETERIES ALONG THE WADING RIVER

Cedar cemeteries, former ancient Atlantic white cedar forests that have been buried for a long time and subsequently uncovered from ­under marshes by rising seas, are common along the Wading and other rivers in the Mullica Valley. An example of ­these cedar cemeteries is evident from an image taken from a he­li­cop­ter in October 2016, showing the Wading River at low tide, just above the bridge on the west side of the river. Similar trees, exposed in nearby Nacote Creek, ­were determined to date from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries based on radiocarbon dating of pieces of this resilient wood. We predict additional stumps and timbers ­will be found ­under the adjacent marshy shoreline (left) as sea level continues to rise.

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6.5. Photo by Thomas Johnson.

CEDAR CEMETERIES EXPOSED AT PORT REPUBLIC

At Nacote Creek, just below the old mill pond dam, is the old Port Republic cemetery for early h ­ uman inhabitants of the town, all within this tributary of the Mullica River. Its forest equivalent, although much older, is on the opposite side of the creek. Its remnants consist of the remains of Atlantic white cedar trees that have been buried and date back to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, that is, about the time that Columbus was trying to convince his backers to provide support for his sail to what eventually would be called the Amer­i­cas. Eventually ­these cedar forests, which can grow only in freshwater bogs, w ­ ere exposed to salt w ­ ater and died. ­Later, as sea level r­ose, they ­were buried by marsh, as observed in aerial photos from the 1930s. Now, with continuing sea level rise, the marshes cannot keep up with the accelerating rate of sea level rise and the old, formerly buried, cedar forests are exposed and easily vis­i­ble at low tide, as in this drone image from February 2018. Note the school bus (upper right) for scale.

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6.6. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

GHOST FOREST AT CLARKS LANDING

A large area of standing dead trees that have died as the result of saltwater intrusion due to sea level rise is evident in the center of this image and along Hay Road down to Clarks Landing, the sandy beach on the Mullica River (lower left) in this image from a he­li­cop­ter in May 2017. This ghost forest is dominated by standing dead Atlantic white cedar that is intolerant of salt ­water. However, ­because it is so resilient to rot, t­hese and other ghost forests can last for de­cades to centuries. Much of the area closest to the river is dominated by marsh consisting of invasive common reed or Phragmites, brown areas surrounding the hammocks of pines and oaks. The area used to be the location of the village of Clarks Landing, home to over two hundred residents in the late 1700s. All of this is part of the green Pine Barrens forest that is broken up by individual farms in the upper part of the image.

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171

6.7. Photo by author.

GHOST FORESTS NEAR LOWER BANK

The evidence for saltwater intrusion from sea level rise further up the Mullica River is evident from other ghost forests that occur ­there. This can be observed as far up as Negro Creek (upper right) in this image taken from a he­li­cop­ter in October 2016. The creek, and a connecting culvert ­under Route 563 to Green Bank, is likely the closest source of salt ­water, perhaps from Superstorm Sandy in October 2012. Above the road (upper right) extensive standing dead Atlantic white cedar is obvious. A smaller patch occurs in the upper left of the image. The trees facing the bank of the river include some more salt-­tolerant species such as red cedar. T­ hese and other dif­fer­ent habitats in this image include the unusual sandy beach along the shoreline of the river and light green salt marsh cordgrass on both banks of the Mullica. Gray-­green patches of common reed or Phragmites in the upper left are invading the forest between the river and the road.

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173

GHOST FORESTS ALONG THE ­G REAT EGG HARBOR RIVER

The telltale gray coloration of ghost forests of dead Atlantic white cedar is evident at slightly lower elevations along small, tidal freshwater tributaries from the ­Great Egg Harbor River (upper center) below Mays Landing. T­ hese trees, like ­others in the watershed, have been killed by the intrusion of salty ­waters over time or during storms such as Hurricane Sandy. The ghost forests can be seen embedded in the green of the unaffected forest that is located at a slightly higher elevation. Their exact location can be determined relative to the straight power line that crosses the ­middle of the image, and eventually the G ­ reat Egg Harbor River in the upper left and also the South River in the lower right in this he­li­cop­ter image from June 2021.

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6.8. Photo by Ron Kripas.

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6.9. Photo by Ron Kripas.

GHOST FOREST AT PATCONG CREEK

The evidence for sea level rise extends up the tidal ­waters of Patcong Creek, in the G ­ reat Egg Harbor River watershed, to the dam at Bargaintown Lake, where a ghost forest can be seen just below the dam on the lower right of this image taken in June 2021. ­These Atlantic white cedar trees have been killed as the result of salty ­waters extending up the creek on high tides or during storms b ­ ecause of sea level rise. They are easily evident if you drive the road (County Route 661) that extends over the dam. Dams like this one, and elsewhere in South Jersey, prevent the salty ­waters from extending upstream and therefore provide perspective on the distribution of ghost forests relative to their flooding by salty ­waters. Note that the trees on the shore opposite the ghost forest are alive and ­doing well ­because they are on slightly higher ground that was not flooded by salty ­waters.

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6.10. Photo by author.

REPLACING MARSH WITH “LAKES” ­B EHIND SEVEN MILE ISLAND

A characteristic feature of salt marshes in South Jersey in the past ­century is the increase in size of natu­ral marsh pools. The areal extent of the standing ­water on the marsh surface is clearly indicated in this image from May 2019 ­behind Seven Mile Island in a portion of the Cape May Wildlife Management Area between the mainland and Stone Harbor just north of Route 147 into Wildwood. The dominant Spartina marsh surface is broken up by a continuous series of small ponds that are coalescing to form “lakes” as in the center of this image and in all of the background. The small creek in the exact center of the marsh is almost surrounded at its upper end by salt marsh cordgrass, presumably ­because the creek provides sediment to the area immediately around the creek. Much of the rest of the marsh, especially ­those portions away from creeks, is the location of similar “lakes.” This is characteristic of other marshes throughout coastal New Jersey, presumably from sea level rise. As a result, ­there is less salt marsh and reduced amounts of the productive vegetation that fuel ­these ecosystems. Sea Level Ri s in g

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6.11. Photo by Jennifer Walker.

THE BRIDGE TO MANTALOKING ATTACKED BY SANDY

The link between the barrier island at Mantaloking (lower portion of image) and the mainland is the bridge for County Route 528 where it joins Route 35. Much of the eastern portion of the bridge at the island (lower left) was destroyed by Superstorm Sandy in October 2012 when the Atlantic Ocean broke through the barrier island. Since then, as indicated in this photo­graph taken in March 2019, the bridge has been repaired or replaced, as have the ­houses in the vicinity. In addition, the coastal dunes have been repaired and strengthened on this part of the Atlantic coast. At the head of the bay the Metedeconk River joins the bay. This portion of the barrier island and a lot of the mainland are heavi­ly populated, but portions of the coast such as Herring Island (center right) remain unoccupied, as are portions of the adjacent mainland between the bay and the river. In the distance a portion of the Manasquan River is vis­i­ble (upper right, below the horizon). Sea Level Ri s in g

181

6.12. Photo by author.

MORDECAI ISLAND IN BARNEGAT BAY

Mordecai Island has protected a portion of the developed Barnegat Bay shore of southern Long Beach Island at Beach Haven from storms over many years. Unfortunately, this marsh island is diminishing, in large part due to sea-­level-­rise-­associated erosion. In an attempt to restore the island and make it more resilient to f­uture sea level rise, dredged sediments from the adjacent Intracoastal Waterway (see boat wakes for location) have been deposited on the island. ­These sediments may also provide habitat for shore-­nesting birds and diamondback terrapins. This image, taken from a he­li­cop­ter in June 2018, provides a view of a portion of the bay and development near the island.

Sea Level Ri s in g

183

NEW BIRD NESTING HABITAT NEAR NUMMY ISLAND

An attempt to create coastal bird habitat, the ­Great Flats Elevated Nesting Habitat (near the center of the image), is apparent as the light brown deposit of dredged sandy sediments that is embedded in natu­ral marsh. In the lower left, associated with the Intracoastal Waterway is the Nummy Island Containment Disposal Fa­cil­it­y. This dredge spoil disposal fa­cil­i­ty is older based on the elevated containment basin as well as the interior ­because both are vegetated, the former with trees and shrubs. Both of ­these features indicate dif­fer­ent approaches to the use of dredged sediments over time. The forested mainland is vis­i­ble as a green ­belt across the top of the image. The road to the barrier island and Stone Harbor is indicated by the thin lines of trees from the mainland in the upper left of this image from May 2019.

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6.13. Photo by author.

185

6.14. Photo by author.

ENHANCING MARSH RESILIENCE AND BIRD HABITAT IN RESPONSE TO RISING SEAS AT RING ISLAND

In a continuing attempt to provide bird-­nesting habitat in coastal New Jersey, officials are utilizing many evolving tactics. One is the use of dredged sandy sediments, as is vis­i­ble on the marsh edge, in the Ring Island Elevated Nesting Habitat below Stone Harbor Boulevard. The brown, sandy sediments are in the approximate center of this image from May 2019. The smaller, irregular patches along the shore below the major habitat modification are areas of ­earlier placement of the same kind of dredged sediments. The w ­ aters of the Intracoastal Waterway dominate the image on the right side. The town of Stone Harbor, with its beaches and a portion of the Atlantic Ocean, is in the upper right portion of the image. Much of the green marshes are cut with meandering tidal creeks and expanding marsh pools on the marsh surface. Sea Level Ri s in g

187

OCEAN BEACH RESTORATION

Rising seas and the increasing frequency of storms are destroying New Jersey’s beaches, as indicated in this image from March 2019 just north of Island Beach State Park. The narrow beach at the top of the image is indicative of this. In contrast, at the bottom of the image a beach nourishment program is widening the beach by pumping sand from offshore. The pipelines are carry­ing the sand to three separate delivery points that are evident at the point where the beach is wider. Sediment plumes from this pumping are evident in the ­water just off the beach. Part of the rationale for this effort is to protect this densely developed portion of this barrier island.

Sea Level Ri s in g

6.15. Photo by author.

189

ACK NOWL­E DGM ENT S

A ck n owl­e dg me nt s

Numerous individuals assisted in multiple phases of this proj­ect. However, it would not have happened at all without the generous loan by Judy Redlawsk of her he­li­cop­ter, and her skills as a pi­lot, for ­these insightful excursions over coastal New Jersey over several years. Other individuals accompanied me on ­these flights to assist with photography, including Jennifer Walker, Tom Grothues, Jessica Valenti, Pat Filardi, and Ron Kripas. Rob Auermuller and Thomas Johnson provided drone imagery for specific locations. John Yates and Pete Stemmer, of the Tuckerton Historical Society, assisted with interpretation of aspects of h ­ uman history. Budd Wilson answered numerous questions about the location of historical features. Several individuals from the Rutgers University Marine Field Station helped im­mensely by collating (especially Miranda Rosen, Maggie Shaw) and improving images and by making maps (Ryan Larum). The text was carefully and professionally edited by Carol Van Pelt. The images ­were expertly or­ga­nized and collated by Tara Collins. Rick Lathrop and Dave Tulloch provided helpful comments on an earlier draft. Several individuals at Rutgers University Press made this an easier and productive pro­cess. Peter Mickulas provided careful guidance through the preparation and manuscript publication pro­cess. I am grateful to all of the above.

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G E NE RAL REFEREN CES Able, K. W. Beneath the Surface: Understanding Nature

—­—­—. The First Year in the Life of Estuarine Fishes in the

in the Mullica Valley Estuary. New Brunswick, NJ:

­Middle Atlantic Bight. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers

Rutgers University Press, 2020.

University Press, 1998.

—­—­—. “From Cedar Cemeteries to Marsh Lakes: A Case

Able, K. W., J. Walker, and B. P. Horton. “Ghost Forests

History of Sea Level Rise and Habitat Change in

in the Mullica Valley: Indicators of Sea-­Level Rise.”

a Northeastern U.S. Salt Marsh.” Estuaries and

Sojourn Winter 2017/2018 (2017): 87–96.

Coasts 44 (2021): 1649–1657. —­—­—. “History and Ecol­ogy of Saltmarsh Ditches in the Mullica Valley.” Sojourn 5, no. 1 (2020) :7–17. —­—­—. “Mapping the Mullica Valley: Natu­ral History Landscapes.” Sojourn Summer 2017 (2017): 33–44.

West Creek, NJ: Down the Shore Publishing, 2015. Able, K. W., and G. Coia. “The Recovery of New Jersey’s Mullica Valley.” Underwater Naturalist 32, no. 2 (2017): 36–43. Able, K. W., and M. P. Fahay. Ecol­ogy of Estuarine Fishes:

New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1983. Boyd, H. P. The Ecological Pine Barrens of New Jersey: An Ecosystem Threatened by Fragmentation. Medford, NJ: Plexus, 2008. —­—­—. A Pine Barrens Odyssey: A Naturalist’s Year in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey. Medford, NJ: Plexus, 1997. Burger, J. A Naturalist along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996. Campbell, C. M., A. L. Camp, R. H. Camp, M. E. Hudson,

Temperate ­Waters of the Western North Atlantic.

W. A. King Jr., J. C. Lacey, E. M. Morgan,

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010.

E. M. Martin, V. R. Oxenford, M. T. Smith, and

Ge ne ral R efere nc es

—­—­—. Station 119: From Lifesaving to Marine Research.

Beck, H. C. Jersey Genesis: The Story of the Mullica River.

193

T. M. Williams. Downshore from Manahawkin to New Gretna: Images of Amer­i­ca. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 1997. Charlesworth, L. J., Jr. “Bay, Inlet, and Nearshore Marine

Miller, K. G., R. E. Kopp, B. P. Horton, J. V. Browning, and A. C. Kemp. “A Geological Perspective on Sea-­Level Rise and Its Impacts along the U.S. Mid-­

Region, New Jersey.” PhD dissertation, University

Atlantic Coast.” Earth’s ­Future 1 (2013): 3–18.

Coyle, G. F., and D. C. Whitcraft. Tucker’s Island: Images of Amer­i­ca. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2015. Forman, R.T.T. Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998. Guo, Q., and N. P. Psuty. “Flood-­Tide Deltaic Wetlands: Detection of Their Sequential Spatial Evolution. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 63, no. 3 (1997): 273–280. Harper, D. P. Roadside Geology of New Jersey. Missoula, MT: Mountain, 2013. Horner, A. D. Pinelands: New Jersey’s Suburban Wilderness. Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 2015. Kennish, M. J. “Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Ge neral R efe re nc es

Giroux, 1968.

Sedimentation: Beach Haven-­Little Egg Inlet of Michigan, 1968.

194

McPhee, J. The Pine Barrens. New York: Farrar, Straus and

Mountford, K. Closed Sea: From the Manasquan to the Mullica—­A History of Barnegat Bay. West Creek, NJ: Down the Shore, 2002. Pearce, J. E. Heart of the Pines. Hammonton, NJ: Batsto Committee, 2000. Peterson, R. A. Natu­ral Won­ders of the Jersey Pines and Shore. Medford, NJ: Plexus, 2005. Savadove, L., M. T. Buchholz, and S. Mazzella. ­Great Storms of the Jersey Shore. 2nd ed. West Creek, NJ: Down the Shore, 2019. Sebold, K. R. From Marsh to Farm: The Landscape Transformation of Coastal New Jersey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Ser­vice, 1992. Sebold, K. R., and S. A. Leach. Historic Themes and

Research Reserve.” In Estuarine Research Monitor-

Resources within the New Jersey Coastal Heritage

ing and Resource Protection, edited by M. J. Ken-

Trail: Southern New Jersey and the Delaware Bay:

nish, 58–115. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Cape May, Cumberland and Salem Counties.

Kennish, M. J., and R. A. Lutz. Ecol­ogy of Barnegat Bay, New Jersey. New York: Springer, 1984. Mazzella, S. Surviving Sandy: Long Beach Island and the Greatest Storm of the Jersey Shore. West Creek, NJ: Down the Shore, 2013.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Ser­vice, 1966. Wheeler, D. Wild New Jersey: Nature Adventures in the Garden State. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011.

IN DEX Page numbers in italics denote maps. Absecon Inlet, x, 5, 105, 107

Beach Haven West, 63, 139, 141, 183

Atlantic City, 3, 105, 107

Beach Thorofare, 123

Atlantic Ocean: ­Little Egg Inlet, north of, 5, 9, 11, 93,

Beasley’s Point, 111

139, 187; ­Little Egg Inlet, south of, 21, 105, 113, 117 Atlantic white cedar, 23, 25, 29, 47, 167, 169, 173, 175

Blackwater, 19, 21 bog, 47, 81, 83 Bonnet Island, 139, 141 Bridgeport, 145

Bargaintown Lake, 177 Barnegat Bay, x, 3; north of Barnegat Inlet, 9, 11, 91, 93, 97, 99, 121, 129; south of Barnegat Inlet, 63, 87, 89, 97, 139, 183

bridges, 5; Barnegat Bay area, 63, 99, 139, 141; ­Great Egg Harbor River, 155, 157; Mullica River, 137, 143, 145, 147, 149, 151 Brigantine, 107

Barnegat Inlet, x, 9, 127, 129

Brigantine Inlet, x, 5

Barnegat Light, 127

Broad Creek, 109

Barnegat Light Habitat Restoration Proj­ect, 129

Bull Creek, 67

barrier islands, 3, 5, 9, 11, 21, 93, 181, 189 Cape May Wildlife Management Area, 17, 131, 179

Batsto Lake, 33, 35, 77, 79

Cattus Island, 99

Batsto River, x, 33, 35, 77, 79

cedar cemeteries, 25, 27, 145, 167, 169

Batsto Village, 67, 77

Cedar Creek, 63, 139

beaches, 11, 129, 131, 173, 189

Cedar Swamp Creek, 37, 55, 117, 157

I n dex

Bass River, x, 23, 27, 45, 109, 133, 143

195

channels, 87, 89, 103 Chestnut Neck, 59, 137

ghost forest, 23, 27, 29, 47, 65, 161, 171, 173, 175, 177

Civilian Conservation Corps, 47, 53

glacier, 41

Clarks Landing, 171

Graven Island Confined Disposal Fa­cil­i­ty, 61

climate change, 161

­Great Bay, x, 21, 41, 163

common reed: Bass River, 27; ­Little Egg Inlet, 103, 119;

­Great Egg Harbor Inlet, x, 15, 71

Mullica River, 29, 47, 51, 65, 75, 85, 149, 159, 171, 173; Wading River, 47, 101, 145

­Great Egg Harbor River, x, 3, 37, 39, 117, 119, 155, 157, 175, 177

confined disposal facilities, 61, 103, 185

­Great Flats Elevated Nesting Habitat, 185

Corsons Inlet, x, 131

­Great John Mathis, 45, 109

Corsons Inlet State Park, 131

­Great Swamp, 47 Green Bank, 173

Dan’s Island, 45

groundtruth, 1, 23

dredged channels, 59

groundwater, 31

drowned river valley estuaries, 1, 3

gunning pond, 101

dunes, 9, 11 Herring Island, 181 Fence Creek, 51

Hog Islands, 145

fence ditches, 63

Holgate, 165

fish factory, 73

Hurricane Sandy, 7, 113, 175, 181

flood tidal delta, 13 fog, 5

impoundments, 49, 55, 59, 61, 85, 101, 109, 119

Forked River, 91, 121

Intracoastal Waterway: ­Great Bay, 13; ­Little Egg Inlet,

Forks, the, 35 Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge, 5, 7, 21, 63, 135, 165 Fresh Creek, 97

north of, 139, 141, 183; ­Little Egg Inlet, south of, 61, 69, 95, 103, 107, 185, 187 Island Beach State Park, x, 3, 9, 11, 91, 129, 189 Ives Branch, 101

freshwater, 3, 19, 25, 47, 151, 169

In dex

freshwater marshes, 19, 25, 31

196

Jerry Creek, 51 Job’s Creek, 27, 45, 109

Garden State Parkway: ­Little Egg Inlet, south of, 15; Mullica river watershed, 23, 49, 59, 85, 109, 133, 137,

lagoonal estuaries, 3

143, 159, 163

lagoon developments, 53, 61, 63, 87, 89, 91, 93, 99

Lake Lenape, 71 “lakes”, 21, 63, 99, 179

Mullica River, x, 29, 31, 43, 65, 85, 137, 149, 151; tributaries, 29, 35, 47, 49, 75, 77, 165, 173

Landing Creek, 149

Mullica River–­Great Bay watershed, 1, 3, 23

Lenape, 41

Mystic Islands, 53

line ditches: ­Little Egg Inlet, north of, 63, 87, 97, 99; ­Little Egg Inlet, south of, 17, 55, 69, 135; Mullica

Nacote Creek, x, 43, 147, 165, 169

River–­Great Bay watershed, 49, 51, 53, 85,

Negro Creek, 173

109, 137

New Gretna, 23, 133, 143

­Little Beach, 5, 7, 21

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 101

­Little Egg Inlet, x, 5, 13, 21, 165

Nummy Island, 185

Long Beach Island, x, 21, 63, 87, 93, 127, 129, 139, 141, 165, 183

Oak Island, 45

Loveland Thorofare, 163

Ocean City, 3, 69, 103, 113, 131, 153

Lower Bank, 47, 173

Open Marsh ­Water Management, 85, 97, 99, 137 Oswego River, x, 83

Manahawkin, 139, 141

oxbow, 35, 43, 163

Manahawkin Bay, 141

Oyster Creek, 121

Manahawkin Wildlife Management Area, 139

Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, 91, 121

Manasquan River, x, 181 Mantaloking, 181

Patcong Creek, 155, 177

maritime forest, 7, 9, 11

Peek Bay, 103

marsh pools, 61, 97, 179

Pine Barrens watershed, 21, 41, 49, 57, 67; Barnegat

marsh resilience, 187

Bay, 121; Bass River, 23, 27, 109, 133, 143;

Maxwell’s Seafood, 3

Batsto River, 77; Mullica River, 29, 31, 35, 51, 171;

Mays Landing, 39, 71

Wading River, 25, 81, 145

McPhee’s Meander, 35, 67, 77

Pine Creek, 29

Merrygold Bay, 25

Port Republic Wildlife Management Area, 49, 75

Metedeconk River, x, 181 railroad, 69, 153

mining, 115

Rainbow Islands, 15

Mordecai Island, 183

red cedars, 25, 85, 89, 117, 173

mosquito control, 41, 55

Reeds Bay, x, 135

mosquito ditches, 53, 55, 63

Remson Meadows, 87

I n dex

mill pond, 79

197

Ring Island Elevated Nesting Habitat, 187

Stone Harbor, 187

Rutgers University Marine Field Station, 3

storms, 7 Strathmere, 131

salt hay farms, 51

subsidence, 161, 163

salt marsh, 7, 13

subtidal creeks, 11

salt marsh cordgrass: ­Little Egg Inlet, north of, 99;

Superstorm Sandy, 53, 87, 161, 165, 173

­Little Egg Inlet, south of, 17, 119, 179; Mullica

Sweetwater, 31, 33

River–­Great Bay, 25, 27, 29, 49, 51, 65, 75, 101, 159, 173

Teal Creek, 149

saltwater intrusion, 19, 29, 173

Toms River, x, 99

sand bars, 105

Tuckahoe River, 37

sand roads, 57

Tuckahoe Wildlife Management Area, 117, 119, 157

Scotch Bonnet, 95

Tuckerton Mound, 41

sea lettuce, 13 sea level rise, 161; ­Little Egg Inlet, north of, 63, 183; ­Little

urbanization, 3

Egg Inlet, south of, 7, 15, 61, 95, 177, 179; Mullica River watershed, 19, 25, 29, 43, 47, 99, 163, 167,

Viking Village Marina, 127, 133

169, 171

Viking Yachts, 23, 33, 45, 109, 133

In dex

Sedge Island, 9

198

Seven Islands, 13

Wading River, x, 19, 25, 47, 81, 101, 145, 163, 167

Seven Mile Island, 17, 21, 179

washover, 7

Seven Mile Island Living Laboratory, 17

­water lilies, 31

shoals, 13

watershed, 23, 67, 159

Shooting Thorofare, 13

Wetlands Institute, 95

Sooy Landing Road, 75

Wharton State Forest, 67

South River, 39, 175

Wildwood, 3

Stockton University Marine Field Station, 43, 147

wind turbines, 123

ABOU T T HE AUT HOR KENNETH W. ABLE was a professor in the Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers University for forty-­two years and was the director of the Rutgers University Marine Field Station (RUMFS), located just inside ­Little Egg Inlet, for over thirty-­two years. He has been a distinguished professor emeritus at the university since 2019 and remains located at RUMFS. He is the author of several books, including Beneath the Surface: Understanding Nature in the Mullica Valley Estuary (Rutgers University Press, 2020).

A b ou t t h e A ut ho r

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