Clean Electricity from Photovoltaics 1860941613, 9781860941610, 9781848161504

Table of contents :
CONTENTS......Page 8
About the authors......Page 14
Preface......Page 24
1 The past and present......Page 26
1.1 Milestones in photovoltaic technology......Page 29
1.2 Evolution of the PV market......Page 36
1.3 Overview of photo voltaic cell operation......Page 39
1.4 Other junction types......Page 49
1.5 Sources of further information......Page 53
2.1 Introduction......Page 58
2.2 Semiconductor device equations......Page 60
2.3 The p-n junction model of Shockley......Page 62
2.4 Real diode characteristics......Page 80
2.5 Numerical solar cell modelling......Page 92
2.6 Concluding remarks......Page 111
3.1 Introduction......Page 116
3.2 Main cell types......Page 118
3.3 Optical design of cells......Page 124
3.4 Surface recombination losses and their reduction......Page 133
3.5 Bulk recombination losses and their reduction......Page 146
3.6 Design and fabrication of the metal contacts......Page 158
3.7 Conclusions......Page 165
4.1 Overview......Page 174
4.2 Silicon cell development......Page 176
4.3 Substrate production......Page 189
4.4 Cell processing......Page 198
4.5 Cell costs......Page 203
4.6 Opportunities for improvement......Page 205
4.7 Silicon-supported thin films......Page 210
4.8 Summary......Page 214
5.1 Introduction......Page 224
5.2 Background......Page 226
5.3 Amorphous silicon-based materials......Page 227
5.4 Growth and microstructure......Page 234
5.5 Solar cells......Page 236
5.6 Solar cell structures......Page 246
5.7 PV modules......Page 250
5.8 Manufacturing costs......Page 256
5.9 Long-term reliability......Page 257
5.10 Environmental issues......Page 260
5.11 Challenges for the future......Page 261
6.1 Introduction......Page 270
6.3 The potential of the base material......Page 271
6.4 Diodes and cells......Page 274
6.5 Cell production......Page 276
6.6 Module production......Page 287
6.7 Industrial status-achievements and projections......Page 289
6.8 Economic aspects......Page 292
6.9 Health and environmental aspects......Page 293
6.10 Conclusions......Page 294
7.1 Introduction......Page 302
7.2 Material properties......Page 304
7.3 Cell and module technology......Page 311
7.4 Device physics......Page 331
7.5 Wide-gap chalcopyrites......Page 350
7.6 Conclusions......Page 357
8.1 Introduction......Page 372
8.2 Principles of super-high efficiency multijunction solar cells......Page 374
8.3 Candidate materials for multijunction cells and their present status......Page 380
8.4 Epitaxial technologies for growing III-V compound cells......Page 388
8.5 Monolithic vs. multi-terminal connection modes......Page 389
8.6 Cell interconnection......Page 390
8.7 Possible applications of multijunction cells......Page 393
8.8 Predictions......Page 394
9.1 Introduction......Page 402
9.2 Background-early work on photoresponsive organic semiconductors......Page 408
9.3 Conjugated molecules: a new class of semiconductors......Page 409
9.4 Basic organic photovoltaic cells......Page 415
9.5 Photogeneration and charge transport in organic PV cells......Page 423
9.6 The characteristics of organic photovoltaic cells......Page 430
9.7 Heterojunction photovoltaic cells......Page 438
9.8 Dispersed heterojunction photovoltaic cells......Page 446
9.9 Diffuse interface photovoltaic cells......Page 453
9.10 Towards future applications......Page 454
9.11 Conclusions......Page 457
10.1 Introduction......Page 472
10.2 Device design materials and technology......Page 473
10.3 Physics of QWs......Page 476
10.4 Performance characteristics of QWSCs......Page 487
10.5 Limits to efficiency......Page 497
10.6 Applications......Page 499
10.7 Conclusions......Page 501
11.1 Introduction......Page 506
11.2 Radiators......Page 512
11.3 Optical control elements......Page 515
11.4 Device modelling......Page 522
11.5 Potentially suitable materials......Page 531
11.6 System modelling......Page 537
11.7 Summary......Page 543
12.1 Introduction......Page 554
12.2 Concentrator solar cells......Page 556
12.3 Tracking concentrators......Page 581
12.4 Performance and cost considerations......Page 595
12.5 Conclusion: under what circumstances is concentration worthwhile?......Page 599
13.1 Space systems......Page 610
13.2 The space environment......Page 613
13.3 History of solar arrays in space......Page 617
13.4 Market trends and drivers in satellite power requirements......Page 618
13.5 Satellite solar arrays......Page 621
13.6 Space solar cell technology......Page 624
13.7 New approaches for satellite solar arrays......Page 629
13.8 Long-term directions......Page 630
14.1 Introduction......Page 634
14.2 Electricity storage options......Page 635
14.3 Kinetic energy storage......Page 639
14.4 Hydrogen energy storage......Page 643
14.5 Storage batteries......Page 658
14.6 Super- and ultra-capacitors (electrochemical capacitors)......Page 687
14.7 Conclusions......Page 688
15.1 Introduction......Page 696
15.2 Photovoltaic modules......Page 697
15.3 The photovoltaic array......Page 708
15.4 The photovoltaic system......Page 713
15.5 Costs of PV components and systems......Page 729
15.6 Conclusions......Page 735
16.1 Introduction......Page 738
16.2 Origins and structure of the industry......Page 740
16.3 Growth in PV production......Page 741
16.4 Manufacturers......Page 743
16.5 Markets......Page 751
16.6 Future market growth......Page 757
16.7 International financing and new initiatives......Page 759
16.8 Concluding remarks......Page 761
17.1 Introduction......Page 766
17.2 Economics of PV applications......Page 767
17.3 The policy framework......Page 779
17.4 Conclusions......Page 790
18.1 The changing outlook for PV......Page 796
18.2 PV and world energy supply......Page 798
18.3 PV can play an impressive local role......Page 799
18.4 The ultimate PV system......Page 804
18.5 Market development......Page 806
18.6 Barriers to the introduction of PV......Page 809
18.7 Costs......Page 811
18.8 International co-operation......Page 812
18.9 The future of PV......Page 813
I Fundamental Constants......Page 816
II Useful Quantities and Conversion Factors......Page 817
III List of Symbols......Page 818
IV Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 822
Index......Page 824