Classroom Management for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment: A Step-by-Step Professional Learning Program for Teachers [1 ed.] 1646320875, 9781646320875

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Classroom

MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

9

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Classroom MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment A

Step-by-Step Professional Learning Program for Teachers

Yara N. Farah, Ph.D., and Susan K. Johnsen, Ph.D.

First published in 2021 by Prufrock Press Inc. Published in 2021 by

Routledge

605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness.

Copyright ©2021 by Taylor & Francis Group. Cover and layout design by Allegra Denbo All

rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. or

Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN-13: 978-1-6463-2087-5 (pbk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003233640

are

used

only

for

Table of Contents Introductio n

MODULE 1

Characteristics of Gifted and

Twice-Exceptional

9

Students

Background Information for the

Instructor

11

Presentation Guide: Characteristics of Gifted and

Twice-Exceptional

Optional

MODULE 2

Students

31

Activities

41

Beliefs About Classroom

Background Information for the

Management

Instructor

53

Presentation Guide: Beiiefs About Classroom

Optional

MODULE 3

51

Management

Activities

63 69

Influences

on

Behavior: The A-B-C Model

Background Information for the Presentation Guide: Influences

Instructor

on

75 77

Behavior

The A-B-C Model

85

Optional

91

MODULE 4

Activities

Defining

and

Describing

Background Information for the Presentation Guide:

Optional

Defining

Instructor

and

Activities and Forms

Behaviors

Describing

101 103

Behaviors

111 121

MODULE 5

Antecedents and Contextual Variables

Background Information for the

Instructor

141 143

Presentation Guide: Antecedents and Contextual Variables

151

Optional

159

MODULE 6

Activities and Forms

Identifying

and

Describing Consequences

Background Information for the

Instructor

Presentation Guide:

and

Optional

MODULE 7

Identifying

Describing Consequences

Activities arid Forms

Identifying

Schedules of

Reinforcing Consequences

Instructor

Presentation Guide:

Schedules

identifying

MODULE 8

Activities and Forms

Background Information for the Developing Optional

MODULE 9

o

Analyzing Hypothesis

275

a

Behavioral Intervention

Student

Presentation Guide: Intervention With

a

Activities

269

Data to Examine Functions

Background Information for the

Optional

Instructor

267

283

Implementing a

231

Functions:

Activities

With

229

251

Analyzing Data to Examine Developing o Hypothesis

Presentation Guide:

195

239

Reinforcing Consequences

Optional

181

209

Background Information for the of

179

295 Instructor

Implementing

Student

a

297

Behavioral 311 325

MODULE 10

Creating

a

Classroom Environment That

Influences Desired Behaviors

Background Information for the Presentation Guide:

Creating

a

Instructor

343 345

Classroom Environment

That Influences Desired Behaviors

363

Optional Activity

377

Glossary

383

References

389

About the Authors

413

ONLINE RESOURCES Presentation slides, interactive graphic organizers, formative assessments, direct and indirect assessment forms, and many other

valuable resources may be accessed at this book’s webpage:

https:/ www.Taylor&Francis.com/Exceptional-Students-Resources.aspx Classroom-Management-forGifted-and-Twice- .

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Introduction

Problem behaviors exist in every school and in every classroom. Students who are at risk of having emotional and behavioral problems can be particularly to teach. These students’ behaviors often conflict with teachers’ expectations in the classroom. As a result, they have higher rates of suspensions, expulsions, and dropouts than any other population and are most at risk for academic failure. Some students who misbehave in the classroom are also identified as gifted and talented. Gifted students who exhibit extreme behaviors may also be classified as having an emotional disturbance and be labeled as twice-exceptional (i.e., students with gifts and disabilities). Knowing how to promote desirable behaviors and the social development of gifted and twice-exceptional students is critical. Teachers need to learn how to build a classroom that promotes positive relationships between and among all students. These types of relationships are not automatic but require an understanding of the characteristics of gifted and twice-exceptional students, how behavior is learned, and how behavior is influenced by others and the environment. Unfortunately, both experienced and novice teachers often feel unprepared for the challenge of dealing with students who misbehave. The majority of teachers do not receive practical training in preservice programs or inservice professional workshops. Without high-quality preparation in behavior management, teachers tend to develop their own beliefs and strategies toward students who misbehave,

challenging

learning

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

including those who are gifted and twice-exceptional. If unsuccessful in classroom behavior management, teachers are more likely to report stress, burnout, and job which can ultimately result in their leaving the profession prematurely.

dissatisfaction, Characteristics of the Modules

This set of professional learning modules was developed to provide a high-quality, practical behavior management model for preservice and practicing teachers in gifted, and special education. The modules are based on the principles of behavior assessment and incorporate more than 50 years of school-based research. They are intended to assist the teacher in developing the necessary and skills to establish classroom management systems and intervene with students who misbehave. Each module has these important characteristics: • Problem based. Functional behavior assessment (FBA), the model used in the modules, is a multimethod problem-solving process that gathers about the influences on students’ desired and undesired behaviors to plan interventions. • Effective, yet efficient. The practices are based on a large body of research that supports FBA’s effectiveness across a wide variety of behaviors, and settings. Each module uses only the vocabulary that classroom teachers will find necessary to the problem-solving process. • Useful. Throughout the modules, specific classroom examples are used in solving behavior problems. Along with a description of specific behavioral interventions for individual students and the classroom, teachers will also learn more about instructional management systems and differentiated curriculum practices that are a part of contextual variables influencing both desired and undesired behaviors. • Flexible. Each module’s professional learning activities include presentation slides, small-group activities, interactive graphic organizers, and problemsolving and practice activities. These may be used as needed for the of the participants’ knowledge and skills. • Field-tested with gifted, twice-exceptional, and general education students. Beginning with Module 2, participants will have an opportunity to examine actual case studies of four students who present behavior As participants acquire new concepts, they will examine more related to the case studies, ultimately using the problem-solving process to develop interventions and comparing their interventions with those that were effective in the classrooms.

general, functional knowledge individual information

populations,

development problems. information

Introduction

• Applied. Participants will select a student in their classrooms with whom to practice applying the principles learned during the sessions. They will gather information, plan the intervention, and actually implement and monitor the intervention to examine its effectiveness. • Adaptable. Formative assessments may be found on this book’s webpage (https://www.Taylor&Francis.com/Classroom-Management-for-Gifted-andTwice-Exceptional-Students-Resources.aspx) to adapt the set of modules to partici-pants’ knowledge and skills. These assessments might be used as an advanced organizer and assist in revising presentation slides, selecting professional learning activities, and even eliminating some of the modules if the content has already been acquired by the participants. • Sequential with practice opportunities. With each module building on the knowledge and skills from the previous module, participants have more opportunities to practice specific problem-solving strategies in their If teachers feel confident in the problem-solving process, they are more likely to use the process in addressing future student misbehaviors in their classroom. • Involving a change process. Given that teachers may have beliefs related to classroom management that interfere with implementing the problemsolving process, awareness of these beliefs is addressed in Module 2. Teachers will have opportunities to examine their beliefs while implementing in their classrooms.

classroom.

interventions

Given their flexibility, the modules may be used in a behavior management course for preservice teachers or as a professional development sequence for teachers who are engaged in developing prevention and intervention systems for general special education, gifted students, and twice-exceptional students. They may also be used as professional learning activities for teachers who provide the first line of prevention at Tier 1 and Tier 2 levels of support in their schools. The modules are not intended for professional dev0elopment of those involved in single-subject research or those in clinical settings who work with students with the most profound behavioral problems. They are also not intended to build schoolwide systems of positive behavioral interventions and support. The online resources found at this book’s webpage provide information for professionals in examining schoolwide systems and in addressing students with more severe behavior disorders.

education,

ONLINE RESOURCES Presentation slides, interactive graphic organizers, formative assessments, direct and indirect assessment forms, and many other

valuable resources may be accessed at this book’s webpage:

https:/ www.Taylor&FranciExceptional-Students-Resources.aspx s.com/Classroom-Management-forGifted-and-Twi. ceOrganization of the Modules Each module is organized similarly with (a) a brief overview of the module, including goals and main ideas; (b) background information and research; (c) a guide; and (d) professional learning activities. Time suggestions are within the sections of the presentation slides guide but may vary depending on the participants and the number of activities included. For example, in Module 1, the leader of the professional learning session may choose to include all of the major components within the presentation slides (definitions, characteristics of gifted and talented students, and characteristics of twice-exceptional students) and include three additional learning activities, or may select those portions that are most to the participants’ strengths and needs. A glossary of key terms can be found at the end of the book. Additional resources and formative assessments are available at this book’s webpage.

presentation provided

applicable

Content Overview Module 1: Characteristics of Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students describes the historical background, definitions, and characteristics of gifted students and gifted students with disabilities (i.e., twice-exceptional or 2e students). Module 2: Beliefs About Classroom Management focuses on educators’ beliefs about students’ misbehaviors and how these beliefs influence their interactions with students. Module 3: Influences on Behavior: The A-B-C Model focuses on the A-B-C model and analyzing relationships between behaviors and one or more environmental events. The A-B-C model is the underlying framework for the broader functional behavior assessment. Module 4: Defining and Describing Behaviors defines and describes behaviors, the context where the behaviors occur, and ways to observe behaviors.

Module 5: Antecedents and Contextual Variables describes the characteristics of antecedents and contextual variables. Module 6: Identifying and Describing Consequences describes different types of

consequences and their effects. Module 7 : Identifying Schedules of Reinforcing Consequences defines and

describes different types of schedules of reinforcing consequences and their effects. Module 8: Analyzing Data to Examine Functions: Developing a Hypothesis

examines the functions of the target behavior that will assist in developing a summary

statement or a hypothesis. The hypothesis will become the basis for a behavioral intervention. Module 9: Implementing a Behavior Intervention With a Student analyzes all of the previous information collected (i.e., contextual variables and antecedents, schedules of consequences, and the function of the behavior) to develop and implement an intervention with a student. Module 10: Creating a Classroom Environment That Influences Desired Behaviors focuses on creating a classroom instructional management system, implementing behavior management practices, and using differentiated curricular and strategies to encourage desired behaviors.

consequences,

instructional Each of the modules has a variety of learning activities that include cases from the classroom, problem solving, self-assessments, and interactive graphic organizers.

Presentation Guides The presentation guides organize the main ideas for each of the modules and provide a sequence for all of the learning activities. Presentation slides for each may be downloaded at this book’s webpage. For each slide, suggested statements are provided for the presenter. The guides begin with each module’s goals and are then divided into sections related to the major concepts of the module. Each section has a possible time range (e.g., 45–65 minutes) depending on the number of included and the amount of participant discussion. This organization allows the instructor to divide the guides into sections that might be practical for the course or professional learning session.

module

activities

Cases From Classrooms Vignettes of four students are introduced in Module 2. These vignettes are from actual case studies of students in general and gifted education classrooms. Anthony is a middle school student who is identified as gifted and attends a magnet school. He talks loudly and disturbs others during all of his core subject classes. Sarah is

an identified gifted student in a fifth-grade cluster classroom. She refuses to follow directions and walks around the classroom, talking to other students. Bianca is as gifted in mathematics and also has a Section 504 accommodation because of a learning disability. She doesn’t complete routine tasks and talks back to the teacher. Finally, Jackson is in a self-contained, general education classroom where he does not begin or complete tasks but talks to other students and plays with objects. The vignettes are elaborated with more relevant information as the participants progress through the modules. Participants are able to examine each of the vignettes, applying new concepts from the module and ultimately planning an intervention for each The activities related to the vignettes provide practice for the participants, who are also collecting information and planning an intervention for one of the students in their classroom who is exhibiting undesired behaviors.

identified

student. Problem-Solving Activities Problem-solving activities include shorter descriptions of classroom

interactions, scenarios, and examples that allow the participants to practice new concepts. For example, in Module 10, participants are presented with possible problems related to different classroom management systems. Using monitoring questions related to instructional management practices, differentiated curricular and instructional behavior management practices, and student outcomes, the participants classroom problems and provide possible solutions.

practices, examine Self-Assessments

Along with the formative assessments located online, self-assessments are used so that participants can examine myths and facts, their beliefs, and their progress on important concepts in the modules. The assessments can be used to stimulate and adapt learning activities for participants’ strengths and needs.

discussion Interactive

Graphic Organizers

Interactive graphic organizers (IGOs) are also included for each of the modules. These three-dimensional hands-on displays demonstrate the relationships between ideas, concepts, and processes. The IGOs exhibit the main ideas first and then include the subtopics on the inside with space for note-taking. Video demonstrations of how to cut and fold the IGOs are provided for the session organizer and participants on this book’s webpage.

When incorporated in the sessions, the IGOs (a) engage the participants in

creating, organizing, and storing the newly discussed ideas, concepts, and processes; (b) improve comprehension by breaking down bigger ideas into smaller, simpler illustrations; (c) aid in the retention and recall of concepts and their relationships; and (d) provide a study guide for participants.

Important Module Outcome The most important outcome for these modules is the participants’ application of the functional behavior assessment process to their own classrooms in planning and implementing interventions. At the conclusion of Module 10, teachers will have had an opportunity to experience a successful intervention—increasing desired and decreasing undesired behaviors, either for an individual student or for the entire classroom. Given the importance of the classroom structure to encouraging student learning, special attention is also given to differentiation and instructional management systems. We hope that these modules will provide positive outcomes for participants and their students.

behaviors

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MODULE 1

Characteristics of Gifted and TwiceExceptional Students OVERVIEW This module will describe the historical background, definitions, and

characteristics of gifted students and gifted students with disabilities (i.e., twice-exceptional,

or 2e, students).

GOALS At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to: •define and describe the characteristics of gifted students, • define and describe the characteristics of twice-exceptional students, and • compare and contrast the strengths and needs of gifted and 2e students.

MAIN IDEAS Definitions of gifted students emphasize their potential for high

• performance; their variability relative to others of the same age, experience, and • • • •

background; and their need for services. Gifted students have individual strengths, needs, and interests. Characteristics vary by area of giftedness, culture, socioeconomic class, school conditions, social and emotional areas, and disability. Twice-exceptional students are those with both a gift and a disability, which may mask one another. Working with gifted and twice-exceptional students requires specialized professional development.

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Background Information for the Instructor The information in the following sections provides background for the instructor, which may or may not be used with the participants depending on the instructor’s goals and the participants’ knowledge and skill level.

Is This Student Gifted? Jeff is a high school student. He plays the trombone and enjoys time with his friends in the school band. He and a small group of his friends have started a jazz ensemble that plays at school and community events. He is also academically and enjoys writing, recently publishing a short story in a literary magazine. This past week, he learned that he is a National Merit Scholar.

talented Stephanie is in middle school and attends a school for gifted and talented students. She performs at the top of her science and math classes but is struggling with her classes in English language arts, particularly in writing. Realizing that students are not talented in every domain, the teachers have begun to differentiate their classrooms to match the strengths and needs of the students. However, even with this assistance in her language arts classes, Stephanie is still struggling.

Allen is in fourth grade and has been identified as a student with gifts and talents because he performed in the top 5% on both achievement and intelligence tests. He currently attends a weekly magnet school program in his school district that offers opportunities for investigations in areas of interest and problem-based units. However, he is very disruptive in his magnet school classroom, often talking with his friends during instructional time. Because his behavior has become quite disruptive to the other students, the teachers are considering removing him from the program.

interdisciplinary

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

Jennifer is in fifth grade and does just enough work to pass from one year to the next. She appears to do well on the required state achievement tests but does not seem to be very engaged in her classwork. Recently Jennifer has been building mechanical objects in her backyard, much to the delight of her neighborhood friends! She holds performances each week, weaving her mechanical objects into puppet shows. All of these examples describe children who are gifted and talented. These demonstrate their gifts in different contexts—at home, at school, and with their friends—and in a variety of areas—music, writing, leadership, science, math, drama. Although Jeff would definitely be identified as gifted and talented because of his outstanding performance in school and on assessments, Jennifer might not because of her underachievement, and Allen and Stephanie may be at risk of not receiving services in the gifted program.

students

Who Are Gifted Students? Brief Historical Perspective of Intelignce In the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of giftedness was closely with highly intelligent and academically achieving children who were typically identified by scores on intelligence tests (Henry, 1920; Whipple, 1924). As an Terman (1925) identified individuals as gifted if they performed in the top 1% of the school populations as measured by the Stanford Revision, an extension of the Binet-Simon Scales for Measuring Intelligence (Terman, 1917). Hollingworth (1926) also defined gifted children as those in the top 1% of the school population, although she did note, “a gifted child may be far more excellent in some capacities than in others” (p. 202). In the 1920s, Spearman (1923) viewed intelligence as an underlying ability common to all tests and tasks, which he labeled g, for general intelligence. He also identified variations of g as s—a two-factor theory. In 1950, at an address to the American Psychological Association, Guilford added another kind of ability, divergent production, which he identified using analysis. He distinguished divergent production from other abilities found on intelligence tests, such as comprehension, memory, evaluation, and convergent production. A decade later, Cattell (1963) represented Spearman’s g by two kinds of ability—fluid and crystalized. Fluid ability referred to the successful adaptation in situations in which previously learned skills offer no advantage, whereas crystallized ability referred to those areas influenced by experience and education. Carroll (1993) later elaborated Cattell’s view by analyzing different ability matrices and developing a three-stratum taxonomic structure in which g, general intelligence, is at the apex

associated example,

factor

Module 1: Characteristics of Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students

of a hierarchical structure of abilities followed by eight broad factors that include crystallized and fluid intelligence, general memory and learning, and other general processes (e.g., visual and auditory perception, retrieval, and speed). The bottom consists of 65 narrow abilities, such as those found in core academic areas. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll model is central to the design of most current intelligence tests.

stratum Models of Giftedness and Talent

These definitions reflect the changing conception of giftedness that initially was associated with intelligence. The most current models focus on the number of influences that contribute to giftedness as well as talent development. For example, Tannenbaum (2003) described how excellence is influenced by general ability; aptitudes in specific areas; nonintellectual facilitators, such as persistence, health, and metalearning; environment, such as caregivers, peers, culture, social class, and classrooms; and chance, ranging from accidental to personalized action. (2005) placed these areas into a developmental model. He suggested that are born with natural abilities or gifts that are developed into talents The development of gifts into talents has three subcomponents: access to a systematic program of activities; investment of time, money, and energy; and progress from novice to expert. Contributors to this developmental process include environmental (individual, milieu, and provisions) and intrapersonal (physical, mental, motivation, awareness, volition) catalysts. All of the components of Gagné’s model are influenced by chance, such as being born into a particular time, and culture.

special mental

individuals Gagné systematically. psychological

family, Definitions of Gifted and Talented

The first federal definition of gifted and talented children was provided by the Advisory Panel to the U.S. Office of Education in 1972 in its report to Congress Education of the Gifted and Talented (Marland, 1972): Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified persons who, by virtue of outstanding abilities, are capable of high performance. These are children who require differentiated educational programs and/or services beyond those normally by the regular school program in order to realize their to self and society.

provided contribution

Children capable of high performance include those with

demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability in any of the following areas, singly or in combination: 1. general intellectual ability;

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

specific academic aptitude; creative or productive thinking; leadership ability; visual and performing arts; psychomotor ability. (p. 9)

According to Marland (1972), general intellectual abilities included verbal, number, spatial, memory, and reasoning factors most often associated with superior performance in school and on intelligence tests. Specific academic aptitude included abilities in one or more school subject areas, such as science, mathematics, social studies, and language. Creative or productive thinking represented originality in solving problems, flexibility in thinking, and fluency in ideas. The category of ability included those individuals who demonstrated an ability to improve human relationships and assist groups in attaining goals. Gifts and talents in the visual and performing arts were demonstrated by the abilities and skills of prominent artists, dancers, writers, musicians, and actors in their fields. Psychomotor ability was demonstrated in athletics or in those mechanical skills required by engineering, fine arts, and science. Although psychomotor was dropped from the definition in 1976, this definition focusing on multiple areas of giftedness continues to dominate the field of gifted education. In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Research and Improvement (Ross, 1993) issued a report titled National Excellence: A Case for Developing America’s Talent, which included this definition:

leadership

Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment. These children and youth exhibit high performance capability in creative, and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity, or excel in specific academic fields. They require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the schools. Outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor. (p. 11)

intellectual,

The important addition in this definition was the comparison with others of the same age, experience, or environment and the emphasis on children and youth from

diverse backgrounds. This definition opened the door to identifying students relative to their peers and the use of local norms. The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) states:

The term “gifted and talented,” when used with respect to students, children, or youth, means students, children or youth who give of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities. (p. 535)

evidence

The latest federal definition does not emphasize the relative comparisons within a particular group. However, the National Association for Gifted Children’s (NAGC, 2019b) most recent definition emphasizes different subgroups that might be by previous definitions and stresses the importance of providing for these students’ needs not only in academic areas, but also socially and emotionally:

overlooked Students with gifts and talents perform—or have the capability to perform—at higher levels compared to others of the same age, and environment in one or more domains. They require modification(s) to their educational experience(s) to learn and realize their potential. Student with gifts and talents:

experience,

• Come from all racial, ethnic, and cultural populations, as well

as all economic strata. Require sufficient access to appropriate learning to realize their potential. Can have learning and processing disorders that require intervention and accommodation. Need support and guidance to develop socially and as well as in their areas of talent. • Require varied services based on their changing needs. (p. 1)

• opportunities • specialized • emotionally

This definition emphasizes groups that are currently underrepresented in gifted programs and the importance of identifying culturally and linguistically diverse students and those from low-socioeconomic backgrounds (Worrell et al., 2019). It also emphasizes the importance of providing educational opportunities to gifted students. Without these services students’ potential might be adversely affected, particularly for those from low-income backgrounds or those who underperform (Olszewski-Kubilius & Corwith, 2018; Plucker et al., 2013; Wyner et al., 2007; Xiang et al., 2011). In addition, some students who are gifted and talented may also have a disability or mental health diagnosis in one or more domains (Reis et al., 2014). This

definition also addresses the need to develop gifted students not only in their talent areas, but also socially and emotionally in such areas as social skills and coping with challenges. Finally, the definition stresses variations in the cognitive and needs of gifts and talents. The goal of services should be to alleviate a need that would otherwise go unmet (Borland, 2005; Lohman, 2006; Peters et al., 2014).

psychosocial Characteristics of Gifted Students

Given the diversity of students with gifts and talents, characteristics vary based on the domain and students’ backgrounds. Based on the research literature, Johnsen (2018) identified the following characteristics for each of the areas in the federal and for some special populations. General Intellectual Ability. In the area of general intellectual ability (i.e., “g”), researchers agreed on several important characteristics (B. Clark, 2013; Colangelo & Davis, 2003; Coleman & Cross, 2005; Davis et al., 2018; J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Khatena, 1992; Piirto, 2007; Renzulli et al., 2013; Rogers, 2002; Ryser & McConnell, 2004; Sternberg & Davidson, 2005; Tannenbaum, 1983). The student:

definition • Has an extensive and detailed memory, particularly in an area of interest.

• Has advanced vocabulary for their age—precocious language. • Has advanced communication skills for their age; able to express ideas and feelings. • Asks intelligent questions. • Is able to identify the important characteristics of new concepts/problems. • Learns information quickly. • Uses logic in arriving at commonsense answers. • Has a broad base of knowledge—a large quantity of information. • Understands abstract ideas and complex concepts. • Uses analogical thinking, problem solving, or reasoning. • Observes relationships and sees connections. • Finds and solves difficult and unusual problems. • Understands principles, forms generalizations, and uses them in new situations. • Wants to learn and is curious. • Works conscientiously and has a high degree of concentration in areas of interest. • Understands and uses various symbol systems. • Is reflective about learning. Specific Academic Fields—General Characteristics. Specific academic fields include these foundation areas: English language arts, mathematics, social studies,

and science. Researchers (J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Piirto, 2004, 2007; Rogers, 2002; Ryser & McConnell, 2004; Tannenbaum, 1983) have identified these general characteristics that are demonstrated within an area of interest. The student: • Has an intense, sustained interest. • Has hobbies/collections related to the field. • Is attracted toward cognitive complexity and enjoys solving complex problems. • Prefers classes/careers in a specific academic field. • Is highly self-motivated; persistent. • Has a broad base of knowledge. • Reads widely in an academic field. • Learns information quickly. • Has an inquisitive nature; asks good questions. • Examines and recalls details. • Recognizes critical elements and details in learning concepts. • Analyzes problems and considers alternatives. • Understands abstract ideas and concepts. • Uses vocabulary beyond grade level. •Verbalizes complex concepts and processes. • Visualizes images and translates them into other forms—written, spoken, symbolic (e.g., music notation, numbers, letters). • Sees connections and relationships in a field and generalizes them to other situations, applications. Specific Academic Fields—Characteristics in Specific Domains. (Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Piirto, 2004, 2007; Rogers, 2002; Ryser & McConnell, 2004; Tannenbaum, 1983) have also identified the following characteristics within specific domains. Math/Science Characteristics. The student: • Is interested in numerical analysis. • Has a good memory for storing main features of problems and solutions. • Appreciates parsimony, simplicity, or economy in solutions. • Reasons effectively and efficiently. • Solves problems intuitively using insight. • Can reverse steps in the mental process. • Organizes data and experiments to discover patterns or relationships. • Improvises with science equipment and math methods. • Is flexible in solving problems.

Researchers

Social Studies/Language Arts Characteristics. The student: • Enjoys language/verbal communication; has excellent communication skills. • Engages in intellectual play, enjoys puns, and has a good sense of humor.

• • • • • • •

Organizes ideas and sequences in preparation for speaking and writing. Suspends judgment; entertains alternative points of view. Is original and creative—has unique ideas in writing or speaking. Is sensitive to social, ethical, and moral issues. Is interested in theories of causation. Likes independent study and research in areas of interest. Uses the following qualities in writing: paradox, parallel structure, rhythm, visual imagery, melodic combinations, figures of speech, reverse structure, unusual adjectives/adverbs, a feeling of movement, uncanny wisdom, syntax, prose lyricism, sense of humor, philosophical bent, to play with words.

sophisticated willingness

Creativity Area. Although creativity and intelligence are related, one of the key characteristics that differentiate the two is divergent thinking. Convergent is arriving at a single conclusion, whereas divergent thinking requires producing many ideas that are different from the “norm,” such as ideas between peers in a at competitions, or even among professionals in a field. Characteristics in this area have been defined by test developers, cognitive psychologists who study problem solving, and researchers who examine case studies of creators. Researchers have some of these common characteristics (B. Clark, 2013; Coleman & Cross, 2005; Gardner, 1993; J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Goertzel & Goertzel, 1962; Goertzel et al., 1978, 2004; Gruber, 1982; Guilford, 1950; Khatena, 1992; Perkins, 1981; Piirto, 2007; Renzulli et al., 2013; Sternberg, 1988; Tannenbaum, 1983; Torrance, 1974; Treffinger et al., 2013). The student: • Has in-depth foundational knowledge. • Prefers complexity and open-endedness. • Contributes new concepts, methods, products, or performances. • Has extreme fluency of thoughts and a large number of ideas. • Is observant and pays attention to detail. • Uses unique solutions to problems; improvises. • Challenges existing ideas and products. • Connects disparate ideas. • Is constantly asking questions. • Criticizes constructively. • Is a risk-taker; confident. • Is attracted to the novel, complex, and mysterious. • Is a nonconformist, uninhibited in expression, adventurous, and able to resist group pressure. • Accepts disorder. • Tolerates ambiguity; delays closure. • Is persistent and task committed in an area of interest.

thinking classroom,

identified

• Has a sense of humor. • Is intellectually playful. • Is aware of their own creativity. • Is emotionally sensitive; sensitive to beauty. • Is intuitive. •Enjoys alone time. • Is reflective about the personal creative process. Artistic Area—General Characteristics. Artistic areas include art, drama, or music. Similar to the academic areas, researchers have identified general and characteristics (G. A. Clark & Zimmerman, 1984; J. E. Gilliam & Jerman, 2015; Khatena, 1988, 1992; Piirto, 2007; Renzulli et al., 2013; Seashore et al., 1960). The student: • Chooses artistic activity for projects or during free time. • Studies or practices artistic talent without being told. • Strives to improve artistic skills. • Demonstrates talent for an extended period of time. • Concentrates for long periods of time on artistic projects. • Seems to pick up skills in the arts with little or no instruction. • Possesses high sensory sensitivity. • Observes and shows interest in others who are proficient in the artistic skill. • Uses the artistic area to communicate. • Experiments in the artistic medium. • Sets high standards in the artistic area. • Demonstrates confidence in the artistic area.

specific

Artistic Area—Specific Domains. Khatena (1992) suggested that each art form requires different language, skills, and highly specialized abilities. These specific characteristics are listed for art, drama, and music. Art Characteristics. The student: • Scribbles earlier than most.

• • • • • • • • • •

Initiates drawing. Incorporates a large number of elements into artwork. Provides balance and order in artwork. Elaborates on ideas from other people as a starting point. Observes details in environment and artistic areas. Has unique, unusual solutions to artistic problems. Uses unusual and interesting visual imagery. Is innovative in selecting and using art materials. Has a highly developed sense of movement and rhythm in drawings. Has a great feel for color.

• Varies organization of elements to suit different situations. • Uses content that is interesting, tells a story, or expresses feelings. • Produces many drawings. Drama Characteristics. The student: • Is innovative and creative in performing. • Easily tells a story or gives an account of some experience. • Uses gestures or facial expressions to communicate feelings. • Is adept at role-playing, improvising, and acting out situations. • Identifies with moods and motivations of characters. • Handles their body with ease and poise. • Creates original plays or makes up plays from stories. • Commands and holds the attention of a group when speaking. • Evokes emotional responses from listeners. • Communicates feelings through nonverbal means. • Imitates others; uses their voice to reflect changes of idea and mood. Music Characteristics. The student: • Discriminates fine differences in tone or absolute pitch.

• Identifies a variety of sounds (e.g., background noise, singers, orchestral instruments). • Varies loudness and softness. • Remembers melodies and can produce them accurately. • Plays an instrument or indicates a strong desire to do so. • Is sensitive to rhythm; changes body movements to tempo. • Dances to tunes with different rhythms. • Can complete a melody. • Creates own melodies. • Likes listening to music. • Likes producing music with others. Leadership Area. Leadership emerges in various types of situations and is influenced by the individual context, status, and characteristics of the followers. Researchers have identified these characteristics by using formal assessments and observing leaders in specific settings (Bean & Karnes, 2015; Davis et al., 2018; Jolly & Kettler, 2004; Karnes & Zimmerman, 2001; Khatena, 1992; Renzulli et al., 2013; A. A. Roach et al., 1999; Smyth & Ross, 1999). The student: • Is well-organized.

• Can do backward planning. • Is visionary; has a holistic view. • Is a problem finder.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Is able to see problems from multiple perspectives. Adapts to new situations. Can manipulate systems. Is highly responsible; can be counted on. Maintains on-task focus. Is self-confident. Is a persuasive communicator. Has a cooperative attitude; works well in groups. Participates in most social activities; enjoys being around other people. Influences the behavior of others; is recognized as a leader by peers. Is respected, liked, or both by others. Is aware of verbal and nonverbal cues; has sophisticated interpersonal skills. Is emotionally stable. Is willing to take risks.

Social and Emotional Area. Along with cognitive characteristics, gifted also exhibit specific characteristics in the social and emotional area. Although some researchers (Cross et al., 2018; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1997; Feist, 1998; Piirto, 2007; Winner, 1996) view these characteristics as innate, others view them as learned. The student:

students • Is motivated in work that excites them.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Persists in completing tasks in areas of interest. Is self-directed; independent. Is conscientious. Evaluates and judges critically. Has a high degree of concentration. Becomes bored with routine tasks. Is interested in “adult” problems. Is concerned about right and wrong (i.e., ethical principles). Has higher self-concept, particularly in academics. Has high expectations of themselves and others. Has a sense of humor. Is highly sensitive. Takes other perspectives; is empathic. Is a perfectionist.

Because of underrepresentation of specific subgroups of gifted and talented

students, special attention and professional development need to be provided to educators in this area (Johnsen, 2018). These underrepresented groups include culturally diverse students, those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, and students with disabilities, who will be discussed in the next section.

Students Who Are Culturally Different. Culturally diverse students include, but are not limited to, African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanic/Latinx Americans. Great variation exists between the macroculture and the culture of the student, such as their religion, geographic region, family traditions, community, age, and so on. The greater the numbers of cultural areas that are the greater the chance that these gifted students will display characteristics different from the norm (B. Clark, 2013; Gollnick & Chinn, 2009; Johnsen, 2018). Torrance (1969) suggested 18 “creative positives” that may be helpful in identifying culturally different youth. The student: • Expresses feelings and emotions easily. • Improvises with commonplace materials and objects. • Is articulate in role-playing, sociodrama, and storytelling. • Enjoys and has an ability in visual arts, such as drawing, painting, and sculpture. • Enjoys and has an ability in creative movement, dance, dramatics, and so forth. • Enjoys and has an ability in music, rhythm, and so forth. • Uses expressive speech. • Is fluent and flexible in figural media. • Enjoys and uses skills in small-group activities, problem solving, and so forth. • Responds to concrete activities. • Responds to kinesthetic activities. • Is expressive with gestures, body language, and so forth. • Has a sense of humor. • Uses rich imagery in informal language. • Has original ideas in problem solving. • Is problem-centered or persistent in problem solving. • Is emotionally responsive. • Has an ability to warm-up quickly.

different,

Other researchers (Castellano, 1998; Esquierdo & Arreguín-Anderson, 2012; Irby & Lara-Alecio, 1996) have provided these descriptions of bilingual and Hispanic The student: • Is culturally sensitive and takes pride in language and culture. • Adheres to traditional family responsibilities. • Prefers collaboration. • Exhibits oral and written language rich in imagery. • Displays originality in the arts. • Acquires social English language skills readily. • Expresses self-confidence and positive self-concept. • Exhibits a desire for learning. • Uses expressive, elaborate, and fluent verbal behaviors.

students.

Students From Lower Socioeconomic Backgrounds. Another group frequently overlooked are those children who are from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. These students may have had fewer opportunities to acquire background knowledge and academic skills to be recognized as gifted (Siegle et al., 2016). Moreover, educators may focus more on their deficits than their differences (Ford, 2007). Researchers (A. Baldwin, 1973; B. Clark, 2013; Ford, 2007; Torrance, 1969; VanTassel-Baska & Stambaugh, 2007) have identified these characteristics. The student: • Has higher mathematical abilities relative to other areas. • Exhibits differences between reasoning and academic achievement. • Is curious and has varied interests. • Is independent. • Has a good imagination. • Is fluent in nonverbal communication. • Improvises when solving problems. • Learns quickly through experience. • Retains and uses information well. • Shows a desire to learn in daily work. • Is original and creative. • Uses language rich in imagery. • Responds well to visual media and concrete activities. • Shows leadership among peers; is responsible. • Shows relationships among unrelated ideas. • Is entrepreneurial. • Has a keen sense of humor.

Who Are Gifted Students With Disabilities? Brief Historical Perspective of Gifted Students With Disabilities As early as the 1920s, researchers recognized special talents in children with learning difficulties (Hollingworth, 1923). By 1944, a description of Asperger’s not only included impairments in social interactions but also excellent logical abstract thinking and isolated areas of interest (Asperger, 1944/1991). In 1962, the term learning disability emerged (Kirk, 1962), and experts acknowledged that some children have strengths in some areas and disabilities in others. The term learning

syndrome

disabilities was defined by the Education for All Handicapped Children Act passed in 1975. Three years later, the Gifted and Talented Children’s Education Act (1978) was passed. This act established a federal office and a national definition (see Marland, 1972). Although neither of these two acts included gifted students who might also have disabilities, it was not long before researchers called attention to the possibility of a dual diagnosis. Maker’s (1977) seminal work, Providing Programs for the Gifted Handicapped, described individuals who had gifts and talents but also experienced physical and cognitive disabilities. Attention to this group of gifted students grew during the 1980s with special programs in schools and professional organizations such as the Association for the Education of Gifted Underachieving Students. NAGC created a division focused on special populations of gifted students, including those with disabilities. Concurrently, the research literature grew as well. In 2004, the of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA, 1990) mentioned students with disabilities who may also have gifts and talents. Because approximately 6% of students with disabilities (7.1 million) have a gift or talent, it is estimated that there are 300,000–400,000 twice-exceptional students who exist in the public school population (Baum et al., 2017; National Center for Education Statistics, 2020; National Education Association, 2006). In addition, it is estimated that only 11.1% of these students participate in programs for gifted and talented students (Barnard-Brak et al., 2015). A number of publications and websites have emerged since that time. Recently, an advocacy group for twice-exceptional was formed with members from 26 national, state, and local organizations (L. Baldwin et al., 2015). This group, called the National Twice-Exceptional Community of Practice (2e CoP) identified these two priorities for policies and identifying and serving gifted students with disabilities (Baldwin et al., 2015): 1. Develop an agreed-upon understanding, based on research and experience, of what 2e is and is not and what needs to be done to support a 2e student’s capacity to grow and prosper. 2. Create a consistent national message to inform policy about 2e students. (p. 212)

reauthorization

students

Definition of Twice-Exceptional Students Although the U.S. Department of Education has defined both gifted and learning disability, it has not addressed how these terms intersect. Some states have written definitions, such as this example from the Texas Education Agency (n.d.): A “twice-exceptional learner” is a child or youth who performs at—or shows the potential for performing at—a remarkably high level of accomplishment when compared to others of the same age, experi-

ence, or environment . . . and who also gives evidence of one or more disabilities as defined by federal or state eligibility (IDEA, 2004) (300.8) (Section 504) criteria such as: • learning disabilities;

• • • • • •

speech and language disorders; emotional/behavioral disorders; physical disabilities; traumatic brain injury; autism spectrum disorder; or other health impairments such as ADHD.

The 2e CoP developed this common definition for twice-exceptional students (L. Baldwin et al., 2015): Twice-exceptional individuals evidence exceptional ability and which results in a unique set of circumstances. Their ability may dominate, hiding their disability; their disability may dominate, hiding their exceptional ability; each may mask the other so that neither is recognized or addressed. 2e students, who may perform below, at, or above grade level, require the following: Specialized methods of identification that consider the interaction of the exceptionalities, • Enriched/advanced educational opportunities that develop the child’s interests, gifts, and talents while also meeting the child’s learning needs, • Simultaneous supports that ensure the child’s academic success and social-emotional well-being, such as therapeutic interventions, and specialized and

disability, exceptional • possible

accommodations, instruction, Working successfully with this unique population requires specialized academic training and ongoing professional development. (p. 212) Characteristics of 2e Students

Characteristics of twice-exceptional students will vary not only within each child’s talent domain, but also within each disability. For example, children who have writing disabilities may be highly verbal but not be able to spell and write cohesive

paragraphs. On the other hand, children who are deaf may have weaker oral

communication skills but a superior memory and the ability to solve problems. These students’ challenges often mask their gifts, which result in negative perceptions by adults, peers, and self. They may not be viewed as needing gifted education or special education because they have some characteristics of both groups. Trail (2011) these overall strengths and challenges for twice-exceptional students:

identified Strengths • superior vocabulary • highly creative • resourceful • curious • imaginative • questioning • problem solving ability • sophisticated sense of humor • wide range of interests • advanced ideas and opinions • special talent or consuming interest (p. 3) Challenges • easily frustrated

• • • • • • • • • •

stubborn manipulative opinionated argumentative written expression sensitive to criticism inconsistent academic performance difficulty with written expression lack of organization/study skills difficulty with social interactions (p. 3)

More specifically, of the 13 disability categories identified under IDEA (1990), all but one (intellectual disability) could exist in cognitively/academically gifted students. Foley-Nicpon et al. (2011), however, noted that only three of the twice-exceptionality areas have been investigated: gifted students with specific learning disabilities, gifted students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and gifted students with autism spectrum disorders. Researchers have identified the following characteristics for each group. Students With Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD). Gifted students with SLD may exhibit some of the following characteristics (Assouline et al., 2010; Ferri et al., 1997; Montague, 1991; Nielsen, 2002; Waldron & Saphire, 1990). The student:

• • • • •

Has strong verbal abilities (i.e., verbal comprehension, conceptualization). Has relatively weaker nonverbal abilities. Has slower processing speeds. Exhibits difficulties with long- and short-term memory. Has extremely uneven academic skills (e.g., superior in one domain but weak in others). • Lacks organizational and study skills. • Is frustrated by school work in their area of disability. • Has limited confidence in their abilities and low self-efficacy. Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Gifted students with ASD may exhibit the following characteristics (Assouline et al., 2008, 2009; Bianco et al., 2009; Doobay et al., 2014; Foley-Nicpon et al., 2010, 2011; Kalbfleisch, 2014). The student:

• • • • • • • •

Has delays in verbal and nonverbal communication. Has limited abilities to read body language or facial expressions. Has difficulty making friends. Engages in repetitive activities. Resists change. Responds unusually to sensory experiences. Has slower processing speeds. Exhibits difficulty with tasks involving fine motor skills.

Students With Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Gifted students with ADHD may exhibit some of the following characteristics (Assouline et al., 2009; L. Baldwin et al., 2015; Kalbfleisch, 2014; Kaufmann et al., 2000; Reis & McCoach, 2002; Webb & Latimer, 1993). The student: • Has slower processing speeds. • Has less working memory. • Exhibits less executive function for emotional control. • Is easily distracted and has difficulty sustaining attention. • Seeks stimuli through a variety of actions to stay focused. • May interrupt or intrude on others. • Cannot see the consequences of their actions. • Has difficulty remaining focused during less motivating activities.

Comparisons Between 2e and Gifted Students Table 1 indicates the challenges that gifted students with disabilities may face in the school setting.

TABLE 1 1 TABLE That Gifted Gifted Students Students With With Disabilities Disabilities May Face Face Challenges That Without Disabilities Have the skills

ability to learn basic quickly and easily and

retain information with less

With Disabilities Often

struggle to learn basic skills

need to learn

in order to

repetition.

and information.

Have

Have

high verbal ability.

due to

cognitive processing difficulties; acquire compensatory strategies basic skills

high verbal ability but extreme difficulty in written language area; may use language in

inappropriate inappropriate ways and

times.

at

Have keen powers of observation.

Have strong observation skills but often have deficits in memory skills.

Show strong critical

Excel in

thinking, problem-solving, and

decision-making

skills.

solving "real-world" problems; have critical thinking and decision-making skills; often independently develop compensatory

outstanding skills.

Have

a

long attention intense

span—persistent, concentration.

interest.

Are creative in the of

thoughts, idea,

Frequently have difficulty paying attention but may concentrate for long periods in areas of

generation and actions;

innovative.

Have

unusual imagination; frequently generate at times, rather "bizarre" ideas; are and, original an

extremely divergent in thought; may appear to daydream when generating ideas. Are often unwilling to take risks with regard to

Take risks.

academics;

take risks in nonschool

areas

without

consideration of consequences. Have

an

unusual,

often

highly May use humor to

developed sense of humor. May mature

at different rates

than age peers. Have

a sense

of

independence.

failure,

divert attention from school

to make fun of peers,

Sometimes appear immature,

or as

anger, crying, withdrawal, etc., and to deal with difficulties.

to avoid trouble.

they may use express feelings

to

Require frequent teacher support and feedback in deficit areas; areas;

highly independent in other often appear to be extremely stubborn and

inflexible. Are sensitive.

Are sensitive

regarding disability area(s); highly others, including teachers; can concern about the feelings of others even

critical of self and

express while engaging in antisocial behavior.

9

Taylor & Francis Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfra ncis.com

I

Presentation Guide Characteristics of Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Presentation Purposes Identify important concepts within current and historical definitions of with gifts and talents. • Define and describe the characteristics of gifted and twice-exceptional students. Identify strengths, needs, and interests of gifted and twice-exceptional

• students • students. Optional Activities • Activity 1.1: IGO: Definitions of Gifted and Talented Students • Activity 1.2: Identifying Strengths, Needs, and Interests • Activity 1.3: Who Are Gifted Students With Disabilities?: Fact or Myth?

Note. Reproducible activities are located at the end of the module, along with answer keys. To form IGOs, participants will need access to scissors and glue.

Time Required 100–165 minutes, depending on the number of activities included and the amount of discussion. The presenter may wish to divide the presentation into these sections: • Slides 1–18 (45–60 minutes; Definitions + Activity 1.1),

• Slides 19–37 (30–60 minutes; Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Students + Activity 1.2), and • Slides 38–52 (25–45 minutes; Characteristics of Twice-Exceptional Students + Activity 1.3).

Professional Developer's Notes A. Opening (5 minutes) Display Slide 1 while participants are getting seated. Welcome participants to Module 1. Display Slide 2 and review the goals for Module 1.

B. Definitions of Gifted Students (10-25

minutes)

Display Slide 3. Ask participants to write down a definition of gifted students and list some of gifted students’ characteristics. Display Slide 4. Explain to participants that you will begin by sharing the of gifted and talented students from the past 40 years and then introduce them to characteristics of gifted students. Display Slide 5. Suggested statement: To understand who gifted students are, we will first look at the definitions of gifted and talented given over the years. You can compare your definitions with these. Then, we will familiarize ourselves with the characteristics of gifted students. Display Slide 6 and, if time allows (15 minutes), distribute Activity 1.1: IGO: Definitions of Gifted and Talented Students. (Activities may be found at the end of this module.) The purpose of this activity is to identify, compare, and contrast and historical definitions of students with gifts and talents. Distribute a pair of scissors to each participant and provide information about the purpose and how to form the IGO. Suggested statement: This interactive graphic organizer will assist you in taking notes about different definitions. Start by folding the organizer on the horizontal line with the text facing outward. Then, open the organizer and cut on the three vertical dashed lines. Once folded again, you should have four large tabs that flip up, with the title and dates on the outside and space for the definitions inside. Finally, cut out the definitions and glue them inside the upper section under each tab. The white space on the inside lower section is for your notes.

definitions

current timeline

Display Slide 7. Explain to the participants how they can use the IGO: We will be discussing the definitions of gifted and talented over the years. This interactive graphic organizer is structured like a timeline. The first three tabs are dedicated to the federal in 1972, 1990, and 2001/2015. The last tab is dedicated to the definition provided by the National Association for Gifted Children in 2019. The definitions are written on the inside, and the white space provided is for you to take notes in any way you wish as we share, compare, and contrast the definitions over the years. As the participants examine each of the definitions in Slides 8–17, they can key terms using the graphic organizer and compare the terms between different definitions.

definitions

highlight

C. 1972 Federal Definition of Gifted and Talented (10 minutes) Display Slide 8. Give participants a minute to read the definition and let them note important key terms. Suggested statement: Take a minute to read this federal (It can also be found on your interactive graphic organizer.) As you read, identify some terms you consider as key concepts for this definition. Share background about the 1972 federal definition of gifted and talented: The definition you have read is the first federal definition of gifted and talented. It was provided in 1972 by the Advisory Panel to the U.S. Office of Education in its report to Congress. The report was titled Education of the Gifted and Talented. This federal definition listed six areas of Let us look at what each area includes.

definition. information

giftedness. Display Slide 9. Provide further information about each area of giftedness. You

might want to add examples of individuals whom participants might know as you discuss the six areas. Suggested statement: According to this federal definition, intellectual abilities included superior performance in school and on intelligence tests related to these areas: verbal, number, spatial, memory, and reasoning. Examples of with these characteristics include Albert Einstein, Stephen Hawking, Marie Curie, and W. E. B. Dubois. You might ask participants for other examples. Continue: Giftedness in specific academic aptitude includes abilities in one or more school subject areas, such as science, mathematics, social studies, and language. Possible individuals to suggest include Neil deGrasse Tyson, Doris Kearns Goodwin, Sonia Sotomayor, and Noam Chomsky. Display Slide 10. Suggested statement: Children who are gifted in the area of creative or productive thinking display originality in solving problems, flexibility in and fluency in ideas. Possible individuals to suggest include Thomas Edison, Bill Gates, and George Washington Carver. Continue: Children who are gifted in demonstrate an ability to improve human relationships and assist group in attaining

general individuals

thinking, leadership

goals. Possible individuals to suggest include Barack Obama, Mahatma Gandhi, and Winston Churchill. Display Slide 11. Suggested statement: Giftedness in the area of visual and arts is demonstrated by abilities and skills of prominent artists, dancers, musicians, and actors in their field. Possible individuals to suggest include Martha Graham, Pablo Picasso, Ludwig van Beethoven, Yo-Yo Ma, and Morgan Freeman. Continue: The last area of giftedness is the psychomotor area. Giftedness in this area is demonstrated in athletic or mechanical skills required by engineering, fine arts, and the Possible individuals to suggest include Frank Lloyd Wright, Leonardo da Vinci, Maria Sharapova, Jackie Robinson, and Rory McIlroy. Display Slide 12 and ask participants to share the words they highlighted as key terms when reading this definition. Have them explain why they think they are key terms.

performing writers,

sciences.

Display Slide 13 and emphasize the importance of the highlighted terms.

Suggested statement: In this definition, children who are gifted and talented need to be identified by professionally qualified persons. This definition also emphasizes that these children require differentiated educational programs and/or services. Children are gifted and talented if they demonstrate achievement and/or potential abilities. In the demonstration can be in one or a combination of the six listed areas. Transition to the next definition. Suggested statement: Now that we have looked at the definition in 1972, we will move to a definition given in 1993 for comparison.

considered addition,

D. 1993 Federal Definition of Gifted and Talented (5 minutes) Display Slide 14. Give participants a minute to read the definition and let them note important key terms. Suggested statement: Take a minute to read this federal (It can also be found on your interactive graphic organizer.) As you read, identify some terms you consider to be key concepts for this definition.

definition.

Share background information about the 1993 federal definition of gifted and

talented. Suggested statement: This definition was published in 1993. Although other definitions were issued between 1972 and 1990, they made only minor changes to the 1972 definition. The 1993 definition was included in a report titled “National Excellence: A Case of Developing America’s Talent.” The report was published by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Ask participants to compare this definition with the one issued in 1972. Suggested statement: By looking at this definition and the one published in 1972, what similarities and differences can you identify? Display Slide 15. Share the important additions to this definition. Suggested statement: For the field of gifted education, two main additions can be identified in this

definition compared to the one published in 1972. As you can see, first, the comparison to others of similar age, experience, or environment was added as a criterion for Second, this new definition emphasized that gifted children come from different such as cultural groups and economic strata. In other words, local comparisons should be used in making decisions regarding the identification of potential talent. Notice also that the term “gifted” is not used in this definition.

identification. backgrounds, E. 2001/2015 Federal Definition of Gifted and Talented (5 minutes)

Display Slide 16. Give participants a minute to read the definition and let them note important key terms. Suggested statement: Take a minute to read this federal (It can also be found on your interactive graphic organizer.) As you read, identify some the terms you consider as key concepts for this definition.

definition.

Share background information about the 2001/2015 federal definition of gifted

and talented. Suggested statement: This definition is the most current federal definition. This definition was initially published in the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001 and was also used in the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015. Ask participants to compare this definition with the previous two definitions.

Suggested statement: By looking at this definition and the previous two, what similarities and differences can you identify? Note that the term gifted is inserted again in the definition and has dropped some of the comparison and background language in the 1993 definition.

F. NAGC Definition of Gifted and Talented Children (5 minutes) Display Slide 17. Give participants a minute to read the definition and mark important key terms. Suggested statement: Take a minute to read this national (You also have it on your interactive graphic organizer.) As you read, identify some the terms you consider as key concepts for this definition.

definition.

Ask participants to compare this definition with the federal definitions. Suggested

statement: By looking at this definition and the federal definitions, what similarities and differences can you identify? Explain how this definition is comprehensive in that it pinpoints the various

subgroups and addresses more than the academic needs of gifted and talented students.

Suggested statement: This definition was published by NAGC in 2019. This definition can be described as comprehensive because of the emphasis on diverse backgrounds, the

need for appropriate educational opportunities, the possibility of multiexceptionality, the importance of considering social and emotional support, and varied services based on individuals’ needs.

G. Concluding Discussion of Definitions (5 minutes) Display Slide 18 and summarize the similarities and differences between definitions. Suggested statement (gathered from NAGC & Council of State Directors of Programs for the Gifted, 2020): Because there is no mandated federal definition in the field of gifted education, states have the authority to determine their own definitions. In the latest survey conducted by NAGC and Council of State Directors of Programs for the Gifted, 44 states have state definitions. Thirty-six include intellectually gifted, 31 creativity or thinking, 29 specific academically ability, 18 performing arts, 16 leadership, 15 visual arts, four music, and three psychomotor abilities. Only four state definitions include populations of gifted and talented students, such as low socioeconomic status, English as a second language or English language learners, culturally or ethnically diverse, gifted with a disability, or geographically isolated/rural. At this point, you may want to discuss the participants’ state definition and compare it to the four prominent definitions in the field.

creative specific Display Slide 19. Suggested statement: We compared and contrasted four

prominent definitions in the field. As research and understanding of gifted children continue to develop, definitions will be reviewed and adjusted by federal, state, and national organizations. Now, we will look at characteristics of gifted students. H. Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Students (10-25 minutes) Display Slides 20–23 showing four student vignettes. Suggested statement: Each of these vignettes describes a gifted and talented student. Read each of the vignettes. Display Slide 24. Suggested statement: What are the characteristics of students in your school’s gifted education program or of individuals you have known that you consider gifted and talented? Have the participants share information about students or they have known that they consider gifted and talented. Display Slide 25 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 1.2: Identifying Strengths, Needs, and Interests. The purpose of this activity is to that students with gifts and talents have different characteristics that vary with areas of giftedness, culture, socioeconomic class, gender, school conditions, inter-

individuals

recognize

ests, and disability. Using vignettes, participants will describe how each students has different strengths, needs, and interests. Suggested statement: We have just talked about some gifted students who represent different areas of giftedness in the definitions. Complete the table on this handout in the next few minutes. If you have some extra time, in the final row add another student who has gifts and talents you would like to share with others. Have participants share the strengths, needs, and interests of each of the in the vignettes and others they may have added. Say: What areas of might be represented in these vignettes and in your examples? Add other examples as needed to ensure that you have a full representation of the areas of giftedness: general intellectual ability, specific academic areas, leadership, visual and arts, and creativity. Activity 1.2 Answers contains sample responses that may be shared with participants.

students giftedness performing I. General Characteristics of Students With Gifts and Talents (10-15 minutes) Display Slide 26. Suggested statement: As you can see, students with gifts and

talents exhibit many different characteristics. This slide shows areas that may influence these

characteristics. We’ll review each of these areas on the following slides. Display Slide 27. Suggested statement: These are the areas of giftedness most often mentioned in the definitions. Each area has a related set of characteristics. Display Slide 28. Suggested statement: These are some of the characteristics with general intellectual ability. These characteristics are often associated with with gifts and talents. Following this introduction, provide some examples of students with general intellectual ability and have the participants share. Display Slide 29. Suggested statement: These are general characteristics in areas; however, they will be demonstrated in the student’s specific field of interest. Again, provide examples of students and have the participants share. Display Slide 30. Suggested statement: In examining these characteristics in the area of creativity, note that in-depth foundational knowledge is critical to the development of original products or performances in any field. Again, provide examples of students and have the participants share. Display Slide 31. Suggested statement: These are general characteristics in the artistic field that will be displayed in a specific area of the visual and performing arts, such as composing, dance, media, musical theater, design, folk music, and so on. Again, provide examples of students and have the participants share. Display Slide 32. Suggested statement: These general characteristics have been noted for leaders in different fields. Again, provide examples of students and have the participants share.

associated students academic

J. Characteristics of Students Underrepresented in Gifted Programs (5-10 minutes) Display Slide 33. Suggested statement: Students from cultures other than the dominant one in the school may exhibit these characteristics differently. For example, some students may want to work more collaboratively instead of independently, or may their talents through elaborated stories. If they speak another language, they may learn English more quickly than other students or have different nonverbal communication strategies. Again, provide examples of students and have the participants share.

demonstrate

Display Slide 34. Suggested statement: Students from lower income backgrounds

may not have had the early learning opportunities to show high performance in more areas. Educators need to be especially sensitive to other ways that students might show their abilities—through problem solving, improvising, and originality. Provide examples of students or have participants share.

academic

K. Influences on Students' Characteristics (5-10

minutes)

Display Slide 35. Suggested statement: The display of individual characteristics can also be moderated by the school or a specific classroom where individuality might not be valued. In these cases, the student may not have an opportunity to display their talents. Some teachers may also have negative views of gifted students, feeling that gifted students can make it on their own or that gifted education is elitist. They may feel that gifted students need to do the same work as everyone else. They may also feel around gifted students, particularly those who offer their opinions, which may be counter to the teacher’s, more freely in the classroom setting. All of these attitudes and beliefs influence the gifted students’ behavior. Ask the participants to share examples of classrooms that are more supportive or less supportive of students with gifts and talents and how the classroom might influence the students’ performance.

specific uncomfortable

Display Slide 36. Suggested statement: Students with gifts and talents do exhibit

some social and emotional characteristics more frequently than other students. For they are very motivated when involved in areas of interest or in their area of talent and are more likely to be self-directed and independent. On the other hand, they may tend toward perfectionism and may be highly critical of themselves and others. They may also be highly sensitive to others’ nonverbal and verbal communication and will respond according to their interpretations. However, contrary to popular beliefs, students with gifts and tend to be similar or even better socially than their peers. Again, provide examples of students and have participants share.

example,

talents

Display Slide 37. Suggested statement: From the previous slides, you can see that exhibiting gifts and talents might be affected by individual characteristics or influences in the classroom. If there is no differentiation, the task may not match the strengths, needs, or interests of the student. The students may also be unaware of their characteristics, related to self-criticism and perfectionism, and they may not persist or are afraid of failure. Therefore, it’s important for the teacher to have knowledge not only about student characteristics, but also about intrapersonal and environmental influences on the student. Display Slide 38. Suggested statement: We haven’t talked about one other area that influences the display of characteristics. Some gifted students may also have a We will be talking about this area in the next series of slides.

particularly

disability. L. Definition of Gifted Students With Disabilities (10-25 minutes)

Display Slide 39 and, if time allows (15 minutes), distribute Activity 1.3: Who Are Gifted Students With Disabilities?: Fact or Myth? To identify concepts from the 2e definition and describing characteristics of 2e students, participants read and identify if they are fact or myth. Suggested statement: Nine statements related to the concept of twice-exceptionality are listed on this sheet. Individually, read each statement and record whether it is a myth or a fact. Give participants 2–4 minutes to complete the activity. When participants are finished, have them set their answers aside. Suggested statement: Put your sheet to the side. We will come back later to see if your answers change. Display Slides 40–41. Suggested statement: To understand who gifted students with disabilities are, we will first look at a definition of twice-exceptional students. Then, we will familiarize ourselves with the characteristics of twice-exceptional students. Display Slide 42. Provide a brief background about gifted students with Suggested statement: Even though the U.S. Department of Education has issued for both “gifted” and “learning disabilities,” none address the intersection between the two. Within the field of education, the knowledge of gifted students with disabilities has been developing since the 1970s. More recently, members from 26 national, state, and local organizations formed a group called the National Twice-Exceptional Community of Practice (2e CoP). This group advocates for twice-exceptional students and has published a definition, which we will discuss. The definition is long and is written on the next three slides.

statements

disabilities. definitions

Display Slides 43–45. Share the definition of twice-exceptional students and

ask participants to identify terms they consider key concepts for this definition. Suggested statement: On the following three slides is the definition of twice-exceptional students published by the National Twice-Exceptional Community of Practice. Please take a few minutes to read it and identify the terms you consider key concepts for this definition.

Ask participants to share their thoughts about the definition and what key

concepts they have identified. Make sure to emphasize the following: Both the disability or ability may mask the other; performance may be below, at, or above grade level; specialized methods of identification are required; and specialized academic training and ongoing professional development should be conducted. Transition to of 2e students. Suggested statement: Now that we have looked at the definition of twice-exceptional students, let us look at the characteristics identified in the field.

characteristics M. Characteristics of 2e Students (15-20 minutes)

Display Slide 46 and provide brief background information about the characteristics of twice-exceptional students. Suggested statement: Twice-exceptional students

have characteristics related to both the talent domain and the disability, as well as the intersection of both. This means the characteristics vary from one child to another, with the disability masking the ability or vice versa. However, Beverly Trail has identified some overall strengths and challenges for these students. Display Slide 47 and share with the participants the strengths and challenges for twice-exceptional students (Trail, 2011). Discuss the limited scientific knowledge about characteristics of twice-exceptional students. Suggested statement: IDEA has identified 14 disability categories. Gifted students may have all but one of these disability). Within this large population of twice-exceptional students, only three have been investigated more than the other disability areas: (a) gifted students with specific learning disabilities, (b) gifted students with autism spectrum disorders, and (c) gifted with ADHD. We will look at the characteristics of each of these groups. Display Slide 48 and share the characteristics of gifted students with specific learning disabilities.

(intellectual

students

Display Slide 49 and share the characteristics of gifted students with autism

spectrum disorders. Display Slide 50 and share the characteristics of gifted students with ADHD.

Display Slide 51. If the participants completed Activity 1.3, have participants review their answers and record any changes they might want to make. Distribute or display Activity 1.3 Answers as needed. Give participants 3–5 minutes to review their answers. Ask a few participants to share their statement(s) and explain how their answers may have changed. Display Slide 52. Ask the participants if they have any questions. If not, with the major points about gifted students with disabilities (e.g., they exhibit exceptional ability and a disability; the exceptional ability may hide their disability or vice versa; they may perform below, at, or above grade level; and they need methods of identification and services).

summarize specialized

Optional Activities

This section includes the following optional activities and answer keys: ACTIVITY 1.1 1,1 IGO: Definitions of Gifted and Talented Students ...................... 42 ACTIVITY 1.2

Identifying Strengths,

Needs, and Interests .................... 44

Answers .................... 46 ACTIVITY 1.3 Who Are Gifted Students With Disabilities?: Fact

or

Myth? ......................... 47

Answers ....................... 48

ACTIVITY 1.1

IGO: Definitions of

Gifted

and Talented

Students

Directions: Cut out the organizer on the following page. Then, fold on the horizontal line with the text facing outward. The front will be longer than the back. Open the organizer and cut on the three vertical dashed lines. Once folded again, you should have four large tabs that flip up, with the timeline title and dates on the outside and space for the definitions inside. Finally, cut out the definitions at the bottom of this page. Glue them inside the upper section under

each tab. The white space on the inside lower section is for your notes. On the back of the IGO, write the activity number.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Identifying Strengths, Needs, and Interests Directions: Consider the four student vignettes. Then complete the table with the students’ strengths, needs, and interests. • Jeff is a high school student. He plays the trombone and enjoys time with his friends in the school band. In fact, he and a small group of his friends have started a jazz ensemble that plays at school and community events. He is also academically talented and enjoys writing, recently publishing a short story in a literary magazine. This past week, he learned that he is a National Merit Scholar. Stephanie is in middle school and attends a school for gifted and talented students. She at the top of her science and math classes but is struggling with her classes in English language arts, particularly in writing. Realizing that students are not talented in every domain, the teachers have begun to differentiate their classrooms to match the strengths and needs of the students. However, even with this assistance in her language arts classes, Stephanie is still struggling. • Allen is in the fourth grade and has been identified as a student with gifts and talents because he performed in the top 5% on both achievement and intelligence tests. He currently attends a weekly magnet school program in his school district that offers opportunities for investigations in areas of interest and problem-based, interdisciplinary units. However, he is very disruptive in his magnet school classroom, often talking during instructional time with his friends. Because his behavior has become quite disruptive to the other students, the teachers are considering removing him from the program. • Jennifer is in fifth grade and does just enough work to pass from one year to the next. She appears to do well on the required state achievement tests but does not seem to be very engaged in her classwork. Recently Jennifer has been building mechanical objects in her backyard, much to the delight of her neighborhood friends! She holds performances each week, weaving her mechanical objects into puppet shows.

• performs

Strengths

Jeff

Needs

Interests

Other

Strengths

Stephanie

Allen

Jennifer

Other

Needs

Interests

Other

ACTIVITY 1.2 ANSWERS

Identifying Strengths, Needs, and Interests Needs

Strengths Music Jeff

performance,

Mentors in music

writing, academics,

and/or writing;

social

perhaps integrating music with

Science, math

Stephanie

Allen

Interests

Music, writing

National Merit Scholar

writing

English language arts, particularly

Perhaps in science

Struggles even with

and math

assistance

Talking with friends

May he

writing Achievement, high

Disruptive in

performance

classroom

on

intelligence

the

Mechanical,

Not

dramatization

school tasks

engaged in

removed from

magnet program behavior

test

Jennifer

Other

Building,

Does minimal

engineering,

amount

performing with

get by

puppets

for

of work to

ACTIVITY 1.3

Who Are Gifted Students With Disabilities?: Fact or Myth? Directions: Read each of the following statements and record whether it is a myth or a fact. 1.

There is

a

federal definition for

twice-exceptional students.

Fact

2.

Students who

are

Myth

gifted in two areas are called twice-exceptional students. Fact

3.

Myth

Characteristics of twice-exceptional students

are

similar among all students with twice-

exceptionalities. Fact

4.

Twice-exceptional students

Myth may

perform below,

at,

or

above

grade level.

Fact

5.

Myth

Of the 13 in

disability categories identified under IDEA, cognitively/academically gifted students.

all but

one

(intellectual disability)

Fact

6.

A

twice-exceptional

could exist

Myth

student is similar to

a

savant who has

rare

skills in

a

restricted

area

(e.g.,

Rain

Man). Fact

7.

Myth

The disability may mask the ability, and the ability may mask the disability, students difficult to

Fact

8.

To

identify a twice-exceptional student,

and of

Myth an

educator needs

a

thorough understanding of giftedness

specific disabilities. Fact

9.

making twice-exceptional

identify as needing special services.

Most teachers receive

Myth

professional preparation in gifted education and in special education.

Fact

Myth

ACTIVITY 1.3 ANSWERS

Who Are Gifted Students With Disabilities?: Fact or Myth? 1. Myth. Although 11 states include the term twice-exceptional in their definitions of giftedness and seven states include twice-exceptional in their definitions of special education, no federal legislation includes this specific term, although IDEA acknowledges that students with learning disabilities can also be gifted (Pereira et al., 2015). 2. Myth. Students need to have a disability as well as a gift. Twice-exceptional students may have abilities and/or gifts and talents. 3. Myth. Student characteristics vary with both the gift and the disability. 4. Fact. Students may be gifted in one area, such as math, and be above grade level while at the same time have a disability in another area, such as writing, and be below level. They may be on level in other areas. 5. Fact. Because increased intellectual ability is associated with giftedness, an intellectual disability would most likely rule out giftedness. 6. Myth. Although some students with disabilities may have an exceptional ability or skill, only 10% of students with autism have a savant syndrome (Assouline et al., 2008). 7. Fact. For example, a gifted child with a learning disability may fall within the average range of performance based on grade placement. The student has a relatively weak performance compared with their ability but not enough to be considered for special education services for the disability. Similarly, a student with a behavior disorder may be excluded from activities because of undesired behaviors. 8. Fact. Often a teacher might think that a student who has exceptional skills might be simply “lazy” when it comes to particular assignments. 9. Myth. Most preservice programs in teacher education do not prepare candidates in gifted or special education. Most programs may have only one course in special education or exceptionalities.

multiple

References Assouline, S. G., Foley-Nicpon, M., Colangelo, N., & O’Brien, M. (2008). The paradox of giftedness and autism: Packet of information for professionals. The University of Iowa, The Connie Belin & Jacqueline N. Blank International Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development. Pereira, N., Knotts, J. D., & Roberts, J. L. (2015). Current status of twice-exceptional students: A look at legislation and policy in the United States. Gifted and Talented International, 30(1–2), 122–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332276.2015.1137463

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MODULE 2

Beliefs About Classroom Management

OVERVIEW This module will focus on educators’ beliefs about students’ misbehaviors and how these beliefs influence their interactions with students.

GOALS At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to: •

describe their beliefs regarding classroom management,

•

list the effects of beliefs on changing student behaviors, and describe beliefs that support proactive approaches to classroom

• management. MAIN IDEAS • •

Educators’ beliefs about students’ misbehaviors influence their behavior management in the classroom. If educators believe that the source of students’ misbehaviors is outside of their control, they are less likely to examine other influences and use interventions in the classroom. Educators who believe that behavior is learned are more likely to use and successful classroom management strategies.

• proactive

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Background Information for the Instructor The information in the following sections provides background for the instructor, which may or may not be used with the participants depending on the instructor’s goals and the participants’ knowledge and skill level.

Why Is the Student Behaving This Way?: Vignettes Note. These vignettes will be elaborated throughout the modules and used in the learning activities to teach new concepts. Anthony: Anthony is in a middle school magnet program for gifted and talented students. Ms. Hefner describes him as “disrespectful toward authority and constantly disrupting other students during classes.” His misbehaviors are exhibited in all core subject areas and occur frequently—about every 5 minutes. The student is very social with other students and enjoys being the center of attention. His behaviors include running in and out of the classroom, talking excessively, shouting, and refusing to do work. If he doesn’t get attention immediately from his peers or the teacher, his behavior begins to escalate. In these cases, he will frequently walk around the confronting students and the teacher. When Anthony is provoked or is he can erupt in anger, shoving other students or shouting loudly. Ms. Hefner generally sends him to the principal in these cases, but he seems to return to his usual misbehavior after a couple of days.

professional

classroom, corrected,

Sarah: Sarah is an identified gifted and talented student in fifth grade. She is in

a cluster classroom with other identified and high-achieving students. She has completing and turning in both class and homework assignments. She appears to be capable of finishing the tasks, but refuses to do the work. Her resistance to com-

difficulty

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

pleting any assignment can last from 5 minutes to an entire hour. Instead of working on her assignments during class time, Sarah talks to her classmates, sits at her desk doing nothing, or walks around the room. Her behaviors interfere not only with her success, but also with the success of her classmates. Although Sarah’s behavior occurs throughout the day, it appears more frequently during math and science when she is in Ms. Kendrick’s class than during social studies and language arts when she in Ms. Draper’s class. Sarah appears to enjoy science and participates in activities, but she doesn’t finish any assigned homework. On the other hand, she believes she knows her math and doesn’t think she needs to do the work. For every assignment that is not complete, the teacher has been entering a zero in her grade book, and Sarah’s grades are now much lower than they were at the beginning of the year. Bianca: Bianca is a student in Mr. Young’s second-grade classroom. She loves to

bring toys to school and to play math educational games on her tablet. Her backpack or school supplies are often strewn over the floor around her desk. She is identified as gifted in mathematics and has a Section 504 accommodation because of a learning disability. She is pulled out for about an hour daily to attend the school’s special program and is accelerated in math in the afternoon. Most of her relate to assessments. Although pre- and postassessments tend be written, she receives oral administration and is allowed to show her knowledge in alternative ways. Bianca struggles with completing daily routines, even after numerous Her refusal and struggle to complete routine tasks typically occur at the of the school day when she in in reading. Her responses tend to vary with the time of day, which classroom she is in, and what her classmates are doing. For Bianca appears to be more willing to listen to directions and follow directions in the afternoon when she is in Ms. Daniel’s classroom than in the morning when she is in Mr. Young’s class. When she is asked to complete a task, she may cross her arms, turn away from the teacher, and shake her head. Sometimes, she will talk back to the teacher. She seems to understand what is being asked but just doesn’t complete her work. Her behaviors do affect other students because the teacher often has to wait for her to participate.

education accommodations

redirections. beginning example,

Jackson: Jackson is a third-grade student in a self-contained, general

education classroom. Instead of listening and following directions, he talks and whispers

to other students, looks around the room, plays with objects in his hand, or does some other activity. As a result, he often blurts out questions, asks for directions again, or simply sits still while the other students follow the directions. Because he does not follow directions quickly, his classmates sometimes have to wait for him to catch up before Ms. James, his teacher, begins a lesson or an activity. He also often whispers to his neighbors instead of listening, which keeps the other students from listening to the directions too. These behaviors occur frequently throughout the day, during transitions, and in whole-group and small-group settings. His difficulty with following directions does not seem to be connected to any subject area, but occurs

Module 2: Beliefs About Classroom Management

in all content areas and in different contexts, including other third-grade classrooms and special classes like physical education. When he does not follow directions, Ms. James either ignores him or reminds him to follow directions. Jackson’s failure to follow directions does affect his learning and his grades. Because he sometimes does not follow directions on written assignments and tests, he receives lower grades than he is capable of earning.

What Do Teachers Know About Classroom Management? The student behaviors in these vignettes would not be surprising to most teachers because misbehaviors occur in classrooms on a daily basis, whether a child is identified as gifted or not. Some of these behaviors are more common than others, such as not following directions or talking without permission, but all require the teacher’s knowledge and skills for managing the classroom. Teachers can expect to also have at least two or three children in their class who exhibit such severe behavior problems that they need to implement individual interventions (Forness, 2005). Discipline problems are frequently cited as a major contributor to teacher

stress, burnout, job dissatisfaction, and premature departure from the profession (Clunies-Ross et al., 2008; McIntosh et al., 2008; Sugai, Sprague, et al., 2000; Torres, 2012). Unfortunately, both experienced and novice teachers feel unprepared for the challenge of dealing with students who are misbehaving (Maskan, 2007; Pigge & Marso, 1997; Reinke et al., 2011; Shook, 2012; Stough, 2006; Tillery et al., 2010). Secondary teachers receive even less preparation than elementary teachers because their programs focus more on the content knowledge in their specific specialization areas, not behavior management (Flannery et al., 2009, 2013; Young et al., 2012). In summary, the majority of teachers do not receive high-quality, practical in preservice programs, which results in their not having the necessary skills to establish classroom management systems or intervene with students who misbehave (Niesyn, 2009).

training

Although proactive strategies, such as praising desired behaviors and teaching

alternatives for inappropriate behaviors, are more helpful in improving students’ behaviors (Sugai, Horner, et al., 2000), teachers are more likely to use reactive such as reprimands and negative interactions, which lead to more disruptive, off-task behaviors and poorer academic achievement (Atici, 2007; Beaman & Wheldall, 2000; Clunies-Ross et al., 2008; Hastings & Bham, 2003; Reupert & Woodcock, 2010). Moreover, secondary teachers tend to emphasize punitive consequences, believing that they are more effective and authentic, and place greater responsibility on stu-

strategies,

dents to manage their own behavior (Flannery et al., 2009, 2013; Lohrmann et al., 2008; Young et al., 2012). With practical, focused preservice training, candidates are more likely to use more proactive and fewer reactive strategies in classrooms (Klopfer et al., 2019). Without training, teachers tend to develop their own beliefs and toward students who misbehave.

attitudes What Do Teachers Believe About Why Students Misbehave?

Each disciplinary event in the classroom is subject to interpretation regarding motivations and the skills of the adults involved (Irvin et al., 2004). For example, teacher candidates who did not have knowledge or skills related to classroom were more likely to believe that children with behavior problems should be on medication, be punished, or be referred out of the classroom for help (Klopfer et al., 2019). They did not believe that they had any control or responsibility for the maladaptive behaviors.

management

changing Researchers have identified specific beliefs that some teachers have regarding why students, including those with gifts and talents, misbehave (Feuerborn & Chinn, 2012; Feuerborn et al., 2016, 2018, 2019; Morin & Battalio, 2004; Troxclair, 2013). These beliefs often interfere with learning new behavior management strategies and tend to relate to caregiver responsibilities, views toward students and their teachers’ responsibilities, and views about managing behavior (see Figure 1). In their study of teachers’ and classified staff’s perspectives toward behavior and discipline, Feuerborn et al. (2018) reported that the majority agreed or strongly agreed with the beliefs related to students being responsible for their own caregivers not caring how their children behaved at school, and getting tougher when problem behaviors occurred. At the high school level, teachers were less likely to attend to students if they didn’t disrupt others, indicating it was the student’s choice to not participate (Battalio et al., 2013); they believed that high school needed to control their own behaviors, comply with directions, and attend to instruction (Lane et al., 2004). In addition, general education teachers were more likely to hold attitudes of indifference or even rejection toward students with disabilities who engaged in challenging behavior (Cook et al., 2000).

responsibilities,

behavior,

students significantly These beliefs should be considered when implementing a new approach to

classroom management. Understanding concerns and beliefs is the first step in the change

process and can be addressed proactively during professional learning activities (Hall & Hord, 2011; A. T. Roach et al., 2009). In this way, changes are more likely to be

FIGURE 1

Common Teacher Views and Beliefs

implemented. Change, however, is a process, and this module intends only to examine

educators’ current beliefs. Implementing classroom management strategies that are successful with students will ultimately result in changing educators’ beliefs about the source of the behavior for the long term.

What Influences Beliefs About Classroom Management? Source of the Behavior Weiner (1985) theorized that the quality of a teacher’s response to a student’s behavior depends on how the teacher understands the source and rationale for the behavior. Teachers generally have belief systems related to the causes of misbehavior that they may apply to all children. For example, if the teacher believes that children are in control of their behavior, then the teacher is more likely to blame children for their behavior. On the other hand, if the teacher believes that the behavior is controlled, such as by caregivers in the children’s home environment, then the teacher may blame the caregivers.

externally

Teachers may view certain students as behaving in particular ways because they

have “deficits” or a pathology. This deficit thinking is particularly salient for those students who are twice-exceptional who are infrequently referred to gifted programs (Rinn & Nelson, 2009; Siegle & Powell, 2004). Teachers also explain behaviors characterized as negative using a pathology-driven perspective (e.g., the student behaves a particular way because of their ADHD; Rinn & Nelson, 2009; Ysseldyke, 2001). In these cases, the teachers may not believe that they are able to change behaviors that are disability- or pathology-driven. For example, expectations related to students with disabilities might include allowing students to exhibit behaviors that undermine their learning (e.g., walking around the room, making noises) and focusing on students’ needs for remediation instead of their strengths.

typically

Teachers may have negative attitudes toward students from diverse backgrounds.

In some cases, behaviors may reflect a cultural difference rather than misbehavior. For example, some behaviors, such as a student’s persistent lack of eye contact or unwillingness to compete against peers, may be related to a cultural difference rather than a refusal to follow directions or a lack of respect (Epstein et al., 2008; Gay, 2018; Harry & Kalyanpur, 1994). Teachers may also view some students who are English language learners, from low-income backgrounds, or from racial or ethnic minority groups as less capable than the rest of the students, focusing more on their or deficits rather than their strengths (Ford & Grantham, 2003; Frasier et al., 1995; Guitiérrez & Orellana, 2006; Speirs Neumeister et al., 2007).

misbehaviors

Teachers can get trapped in a cycle of dysfunctional beliefs. For example, a teacher might observe a student misbehaving. This misbehavior might be followed by a belief about the cause of the behavior (e.g., “The student is acting disrespectfully toward me”), which is then followed by the teacher reprimanding the student (e.g., “Don’t talk to me that way!”). The teacher’s response may unintentionally encourage more misbehavior, which then confirms the teacher’s original belief that the student is disrespectful. This cycle can be difficult to interrupt when teachers do not view as encouraging misbehavior (Morin, 2001). Beliefs about causes of student behavior, therefore, can create strong emotions that influence consequent classroom management practices. The challenge is to convince teachers that disruptive students can change and that teachers can be effective with these students by altering their practices.

themselves

Self-Efficacy Along with negative beliefs about the source of the behavior, teachers may also lack confidence in their ability to implement particular classroom management (i.e., self-efficacy). High teacher self-efficacy refers to teachers’ confidence in their ability to encourage student learning and positive behavioral change (Ashton & Webb, 1986). Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) suggested two processes that to a teacher’s self-efficacy: (a) a person’s analysis of the teaching task and its context, and (b) an assessment of personal teaching competence. The process of analyzing the teaching task is context specific. This process may include of the motivation and abilities of the students being taught, the environment of the school, and the resources and strategies available to the teacher. The second component of teacher self-efficacy, the assessment of personal teaching competence, requires individuals to reflect on and evaluate their current teaching ability. Efficacy in classroom management might therefore be influenced not only by beliefs the cause of the behavior (or the student’s motivation and abilities), but also by schoolwide support when students misbehave. If teachers have not learned how to manage the classroom or intervene when students are disrupting the classroom, they may exhibit low self-efficacy and not attempt any interventions with students or remove students from the classroom. Self-efficacy has been shown to be an important predictor of which learning, teaching, and classroom management strategies a teacher might use (Giallo & Little, 2003; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). If teachers feel confident in a particular they will report using it more frequently (Reupert & Woodcock, 2010). Generally, teachers high in efficacy believe that their practices make a difference and that they can personally affect student learning. On the other hand, low-efficacy teachers believe that their teaching has little influence on students and they cannot manage student learning.

strategies

contribute

consideration regarding

strategy,

What Are the Effects of Teachers' Beliefs on Classroom Management? The general trend at all school levels is for teachers to attribute misbehavior to external factors like home and the student (Kulinna, 2007–2008). Teachers who believe that students’ misbehaviors are caused by problems at home are less likely to assume ownership of the problem and attempt teacher-focused at school (Kulinna, 2007–2008). Teachers who believe a student’s behavior to be internal, and to occur not only at school but also at home, tend to interact more negatively with the student and are less responsive to the student’s needs in the classroom (Carter et al., 2019). Reactive punitive strategies (e.g., high rates of reprimands, corrections, and removal of students from the classroom) can exacerbate and increase behavior (Mitchell & Arnold, 2004), whereas proactive strategies (e.g., teaching and desired behaviors, providing alternatives to inappropriate behaviors) increase positive behaviors (Benedict et al., 2007; Conroy & Brown, 2004). However, from reactive to proactive classroom management strategies is not easy. Shook (2012) reported that when all was going well, preservice teachers relied on proactive strategies that they had learned; however, when behavior problems occurred, they were more likely to revert to reactive strategies, such as individual talks, punishment, and removing the child from the classroom (Shook, 2012). Traditional punitive approaches to dealing with problem behavior, such as “getting tough” or “zero tolerance” policies, can effect short-term removal of problem but have few long-term benefits (Skiba & Rausch, 2006). These approaches tend to displace the problems elsewhere, strain relationships with teachers and schools, maintain a trajectory of problem behavior, and increase academic failure (Greenberg et al., 1999). This negative trajectory can begin as early as preschool. Researchers found that when interventions were not used with preschool children who displayed high levels of impulsivity, hyperactivity, oppositionality, and aggression, they were at risk for being expelled from preschool and childcare and made unsuccessful from kindergarten to first grade (W. S. Gilliam, 2005; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2000).

problems interventions problems praising changing

behavior

transitions

What Should Teachers Believe About Classroom Management? Personal beliefs are influential. If teachers believe that the student and the home are the sources of the misbehavior, they are more likely to view the student negatively and use reactive rather than proactive classroom management strategies. Teachers need to believe that each student brings individual strengths and weaknesses to the classroom that they have learned. Beliefs that behaviors are learned (or unlearned) are more likely to support proactive strategies and decrease the likelihood of labeling, assigning motives, and placing blame on the student who is misbehaving. The two beliefs can help focus teacher’s attention on learning rather than blaming:

following • All people (adults and students) are teachers and teach one another how to behave. • If teachers want others to change, then they have to change.

Using these basic principles, teachers will be open to learning about proactive strategies in the following modules and develop beliefs in their abilities to implement successful classroom management systems.

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Presentation Guide Beliefs About Classroom Management Presentation Purposes • Define misbehavior and classroom management. • Examine one’s beliefs related to classroom management. • Understand how beliefs influence classroom management. • aware of beliefs related to successful classroom management.

Optional Activities • Activity 2.1: Agree or Disagree: Who Is Responsible for the Misbehavior? • Activity 2.2: IGO: Beliefs Related to Successful Classroom Management • Activity 2.3: Student Vignettes Note. Reproducible activities are located at the end of the module. To form IGOs, participants will need access to scissors and glue.

Time Required 45–95 minutes, depending on the number of activities included and the amount of discussion.

Professional Developer's Notes A. Opening (5 minutes) Display Slide 1 while participants are getting seated. Welcome participants to Module 2. Display Slide 2 and review the goals for Module 2.

B. Prior Knowledge About Classroom Management (5-10 minutes) Display Slide 3 and ask participants to raise their hands if they have previously taken a classroom management class or participated in professional learning related to classroom management. Ask participants to keep their hands up if the course or professional learning was a requirement in their preservice program. If the number of hands still raised is small, then you might comment on the differences between professional learning or advanced courses and preservice education. Have share their experiences. This discussion might provide some formative information for the remainder of the slides.

participants assessment If most participants have not received formal education in behavior management,

explain that strategies and skills related to classroom management are rarely in preservice programs and that secondary teachers receive even less than elementary teachers. Suggested statement: Unfortunately, the majority of beginning teachers feel unprepared for the challenge of dealing with students who are as practical training in preservice programs is scarce. Teachers may believe that they do not have the necessary skills to establish successful classroom management that can minimize students’ misbehavior.

incorporated preparation misbehaving, C. Define Misbehavior and Responsibilities for Misbehavior (10–40 minutes)

Display Slide 4. Tell participants that together you will review a few definitions to develop a common vocabulary. Define the word misbehavior. Suggested statement: Classroom misbehavior, also known as behavior problems or undesired behaviors, refers to a behavior that interferes with a student’s or classmates’ learning. Such behaviors include yelling out answers without teacher permission, submitting incomplete work, or students during discussion time.

interrupting

Display Slide 5. Ask participants to share a few examples of student

misbehaviors that are repeated in the classroom. Suggested statement: Student misbehavior in the classroom is common. What are some examples of student misbehaviors that you have seen repeatedly in your classroom? Do not be concerned if the behaviors that participants share are observable or not (e.g., disrespectful, belligerent) because the next module will talk about describing behaviors. Point out any similarities among responses so that teachers feel comfortable in sharing. Display Slide 6 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 2.1:

Agree or Disagree: Who Is Responsible for the Misbehavior? The purpose of this activity is to examine one’s beliefs related to classroom management. Suggested statement: Although all teachers have students who misbehave in their classrooms, have different beliefs about why students misbehave. This activity will examine some of these beliefs. On this handout are 15 teacher statements. Identify the ones you or other teachers agree with and disagree with. Let participants work individually on identifying if they agree or disagree with each statement.

teachers

Then, for each statement, discuss the beliefs regarding who is responsible for

the student behavior. Use Statement #1 as an example: Let’s look at Statement #1: If students aren’t disciplined at home, they aren’t likely to accept any discipline. In this statement, who is responsible for the students’ misbehavior? Listen to the participants’ responses. When a participant says, “caregivers” or “parents,” you might say: That’s correct. Teachers who agree with this statement believe that the students’ behavior is the responsibility of caregivers. The teacher is clearly stating that if the caregivers don’t their children, then the children are difficult to discipline at school. Let us now look at Statement #2: Students need to be held more responsible for their own behavior. In this statement, who is responsible for student’s behavior? Wait for participants to share their thoughts. When a participant says, “the student,” you might say: That’s correct. In this statement, the teacher believes that students are accountable for their actions.

discipline

Continue in this manner until you have addressed all of the belief statements. For

more information on teacher beliefs, refer to the section What Do Teachers Believe About Why Students Misbehave? (pp. 56–58). At this point, simply listen and do not judge or criticize specific beliefs. The participants need to feel free to share their beliefs about the sources of student misbehavior. Display Slide 7 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 2.2: IGO: Beliefs Related to Successful Classroom Management. The purpose of this activity is to define and be aware of beliefs about successful classroom management. This IGO is made of four large tabs dedicated to the topic of successful classroom management discussed in this module. The first tab is dedicated to taking notes related to the definition of classroom management. The other three tabs are dedicated to the three beliefs related to successful classroom management. Distribute a pair of scissors to each participant and provide information about

the purpose and how to form the IGO. Suggested statement: This interactive graphic organizer will help you take notes during this session related to classroom management and beliefs. Start by folding the organizer on the vertical line, with the text facing outward. Then,

open the organizer and cut on the three horizontal dashed lines. Once folded again, you should have four large tabs with the following titles: “What Is Classroom Management?,” “Belief 1,” “Belief 2,” and “Belief 3.” Fold the organizer so that “Belief 3” covers “Belief 2.” Then fold up again to cover “Belief 1.” A new title will show: “Beliefs That Support Proactive Approaches to Classroom Management.” The final organizer should have two main “What Is Classroom Management?” and “Beliefs That Support Proactive Approaches to Classroom Management.” Under the first tab, you will take notes related to the definition of classroom management. When you unfold the second tab, three beliefs tabs are available.

sections:

Explain to the participants how they can use the IGO. Suggested statement: We

will discuss beliefs related to successful classroom management. But first, what is management? As we define this concept, take notes under the first tab of your graphic organizer.

classroom D. Define Classroom Management (5–10

minutes)

Display Slide 8. Define classroom management. Suggested statement: Classroom management refers to knowledge, skills, and strategies used by a teacher to maintain a classroom environment that is conducive to each student’s success and learning. For the teacher may begin the school year with establishing classroom rules or norms for behavior. Display Slide 9. Suggested statement: First, individually identify one classroom management strategy that has been effective in the classroom and one classroom strategy that hasn’t been effective. Then pair up, share your strategies, and discuss why you think one was effective and the other wasn’t. Ask a few participants to share their discussion. Again, look for similarities among responses. These similarities might be written on a chart or on a dry-erase board for later discussion.

example,

management

E. Effects of Teacher's Beliefs on Classroom Management (5 minutes) Display Slide 10. Let participants know that you will be discussing the effects of a teacher’s beliefs on classroom management. Suggested statement: Now that we have looked at teachers’ beliefs about who is accountable for students’ behavior, let us how these beliefs affect classroom management. If Activity 2.1 was not used, you might share some of the statements in the activity and talk about who is responsible in each one. Display Slide 11. Discuss how personal beliefs influence behavior. Suggested statement: Personal beliefs influence behavior. They influence how we act and what we say. As a teacher, beliefs influence interactions with students.

discuss

Display Slide 12. Share the findings of studies related to the effects of

teachers’ beliefs on classroom management. Suggested statement: Studies looking at the effect of teachers’ beliefs on classroom management found that teachers who viewed that students’ behavior was the responsibility of caregivers were less likely to implement interventions at school. Display Slide 13. Suggested statement: Another study found that teachers who believed that a student’s behavior related to a particular disability, label, or internal traits of the student were also less likely to examine other influences and use interventions in the classroom. Display Slide 14. Suggested statement: Similarly, teachers may believe that a who is gifted should know how to behave in the classroom. If a student misbehaves, they may be excluded from the gifted education program. In summary, teachers’ beliefs play a major role in classroom interactions and management.

student

F. What Beliefs Influence Proactive and Successful Classroom Management Strategies? (5–10 minutes) Display Slide 15. Ask participants about beliefs they think would influence

successful classroom management strategies. Then say: Researchers have found that particular beliefs tend to influence proactive and successful classroom management strategies.

(Note. If you did not use A0ctivities 2.1 or 2.2, you may want to skip to Slide 16 at this point.) Ask participants to look at Activity 2.1 again: Your “agree and disagree” lists beliefs from the research. Two statements tended to influence proactive management strategies. These are statements #9 (Disruptive students can change if I change my behavior with the students) and #11 (Each student brings individual strengths and weaknesses to the classroom that they have learned). What do they have in common? Let the participants share the commonalities. When participants suggest that #9 and #11 both share learning or changing, say: Yes, they focus on how the teacher influences the behavior and that behaviors are learned. Display Slide 16. Suggested statement: If teachers believe that behaviors are learned, then they believe that new behaviors can be taught—both academically and socially. We will be discussing the three beliefs that support proactive approaches to management. If applicable, explain how participants may use the IGO from Activity 2.2 for the next few slides: The interactive graphic organizer will allow you to take notes in any way you wish as we share, compare, and contrast the three beliefs. Display Slide 17. Suggested statement: Three other beliefs are associated with the concept that behaviors are learned. The first belief is that “All people are teachers and teach one another how to behave.” For example, if I smile and nod, my friend will most likely continue talking. If I walk away, my friend will most likely stop talking. I am teaching

worksheet classroom statements

classroom

my friend when to continue talking and when to stop talking. What are some other

examples? Have participants offer examples. You might add some examples relevant to the participants. Display Slide 18. Suggested statement: The second belief is “If we want others to change, then we have to change.” For example, if a student texts me after 7:00 p.m. to ask a question, and I respond, then the student may likely text me again in the evening. If I don’t respond, or if I say to the students that I will not respond after 6:00 in the evening, then the students will change their behavior. Have participants add examples. You might add some examples relevant to the participants. Display Slide 19. Suggested statement: Belief 3 is derived from the two other beliefs: We are responsible for one another. If we teach each other how to behave, and we need to change our behaviors for others to change, then we have responsibility for others. You might add some examples relevant to the participants.

G. Summarize (10–20minutes) Display Slide 20 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 2.3: Student Vignettes. The purpose of this activity is to examine and describe how beliefs influence classroom management. Suggested statement: Anthony, Sarah, Bianca, and Jackson are four actual students we will be learning about during this professional Take a few minutes to read about each one. Depending on the size of the participant group and the time, you might want to divide participants into groups and read one vignette or all four. Next, ask these questions to summarize the major concepts in this module:

learning. • What do you believe about why the student is behaving this way?

• • • • • •

What is the student teaching the teacher? What is the teacher teaching the student? What might the student be teaching the other students? How might the teacher change? How might the student change? What beliefs have we shared about this student?

Listen to the participants’ responses to learn about their views regarding management and their current beliefs. Facilitate the discussion, but do not or judge their viewpoints. However, use the information as you proceed through the remaining modules.

behavior criticize

Following the discussion, return to the three beliefs to remember: All people are

teachers and teach one another how to behave; if we want others to change, we have to change; and we are responsible for one another. Display Slide 21. Ask the participants if they have any questions.

Optional Activities

This section includes the following optional activities: ACTIVITY 2.1

Agree

or

Disagree:

Who Is

Responsible

for the Misbehavior? ...... 70

ACTIVITY 2.2 IGO: Beliefs Related to Successful Classroom

Management

.......... 71

ACTIVITY 2.3 Student

Vignettes

....... 72

ACTIVITY 2.1

Agree or Disagree: Who Is Responsible for the Misbehavior? Each of the following statements represents a teacher’s comment about classroom

Directions: management. Read each statement and indicate whether you agree or disagree by placing an X in the appropriate column. Agree

Statement

Disagree If students aren't

disciplined at home, they aren't likely to accept any

discipline. Students need to be held

It

seems

more

responsible for their own behavior.

unlikely that we will be able to reverse or ameliorate undesirable

habits and behaviors entrenched I feel that

rewarding students

over

is the

the

course

same as

of years.

bribing them.

We should not have to teach students how to behave at be

school; they should

taught at home.

There

are

kids who will

Teachers should

When

never

follow rules.

spend time teaching,

problem behaviors

Disruptive

students

Caregivers

in the

can

occur,

we

not

managing behavior.

need to get

tougher.

change if I change my behavior with the students.

community don't

seem

to

care

about how their children

behave at school. Each student that

brings individual strengths and weaknesses

to the classroom

they have learned.

The focus should be

If you comment to

on

the student's

behavior,

not

on

the teacher's behavior.

they did really well on an assignment behavior-wise, their first comment is, "So what do we get?" We

are

a

class that

rewarding students

for

things

that

Students must know that out in the real rewarded for

doing

the

right thing.

or

they should already be doing.

world, they will

not

always be

ACTIVITY 2.2

IGO: Beliefs Related to Successful Classroom Management Directions: Cut out the organizer. Fold on the vertical line, with the text facing outward. Then, open the organizer and cut on the three horizontal dashed lines. Once folded again, you should have four large tabs. Fold the organizer up from the bottom so that “Belief 3” covers “Belief 2.” Then fold up again to cover “Belief 1.” A new title will show: “Beliefs That Support Proactive Approaches to Classroom Management.” The final organizer should have two main sections: “What Is Classroom Management?” and “Beliefs That Support Proactive Approaches to Classroom Management.” Under the first tab, you will take notes related to the definition of classroom management. When you unfold the second tab, three beliefs tabs are available. The white space on the inside of each tab is for your notes. On the back of the IGO, write the activity number.

ACTIVITY 2.3

Student Vignettes Directions: For each vignette, consider the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

What do you believe about why the student is behaving this way? What is the student teaching the teacher? What is the teacher teaching the student? What might the student be teaching the other students? How might the teacher change? How might the student change? What beliefs have we shared about this student?

Anthony Anthony is in a middle school magnet program for gifted and talented students. Ms. Hefner describes him as “disrespectful toward authority and constantly disrupting other students during classes.” His misbehaviors are exhibited in all core subject areas and occur frequently—about every 5 minutes. The student is very social with other students and enjoys being the center of attention. His behaviors include running in and out of the classroom, talking excessively, shouting, and refusing to do work. If he doesn’t get attention immediately from his peers or the teacher, his behavior begins to escalate. In these cases, he will frequently walk around the classroom, confronting students and the teacher. When Anthony is provoked or is corrected, he can erupt in anger, shoving other students or shouting loudly. Ms. Hefner generally sends him to the principal in these cases, but he seems to return to his usual misbehavior after a couple of days.

Sarah Sarah is an identified gifted and talented student in fifth grade. She is in a cluster classroom with other identified and high-achieving students. She has difficulty completing and turning in both class and homework assignments. She appears to be capable of finishing the tasks, but refuses to do the work. Her resistance to completing any assignment can last from 5 minutes to an entire hour. Instead of working on her assignments during class time, Sarah talks to her classmates, sits at her desk doing nothing, or walks around the room. Her behaviors interfere not only with her success, but also with the success of her classmates. Although Sarah’s behavior occurs throughout the day, it appears more frequently during math and science when she is in Ms. Kendrick’s class than during social studies and language arts when she in Ms. Draper’s class. Sarah appears to enjoy science and participates in activities, but she doesn’t finish any assigned homework. On the other hand, she believes she knows her math and doesn’t think she needs to do the work. For every assignment that is not complete, the teacher has been entering a zero in her grade book, and Sarah’s grades are now much lower than they were at the beginning of the year.

Bianca Bianca is a student in Mr. Young’s second-grade classroom. She loves to bring toys to school and to play math educational games on her tablet. Her backpack or school supplies are often strewn over the floor around her desk. She is identified as gifted in mathematics and has a Section 504 accommodation because of a learning disability. She is pulled out for about an hour daily to attend the school’s special education program and is accelerated in math in the afternoon. Most of her accommodations relate to assessments. Although pre- and postassessments tend be written, she receives oral administration and is allowed to show her knowledge in alternative ways. Bianca struggles with completing daily routines, even after numerous redirections. Her refusal and struggle to complete routine tasks typically occur at the beginning of the school day when she in in reading. Her responses tend to vary with the time of day, which classroom she is in, and what her classmates are doing. For example, Bianca appears to be more willing to listen to directions and follow directions in the afternoon when she is in Ms. Daniel’s than in the morning when she is in Mr. Young’s class. When she is asked to complete a task, she may cross her arms, turn away from the teacher, and shake her head. Sometimes, she will talk back to the teacher. She seems to understand what is being asked but just doesn’t complete her work. Her behaviors do affect other students because the teacher often has to wait for her to participate.

classroom

Jackson Jackson is a third-grade student in a self-contained, general education classroom. Instead of and following directions, he talks and whispers to other students, looks around the room, plays with objects in his hand, or does some other activity. As a result, he often blurts out questions, asks for directions again, or simply sits still while the other students follow the directions. Because he does not follow directions quickly, his classmates sometimes have to wait for him to catch up before Ms. James, his teacher, begins a lesson or an activity. He also often whispers to his neighbors instead of listening, which keeps the other students from listening to the directions too. These behaviors occur frequently throughout the day, during transitions, and in whole-group and small-group settings. His difficulty with following directions does not seem to be connected to any subject area, but occurs in all content areas and in different contexts, including other third-grade classrooms and special classes like physical When he does not follow directions, Ms. James either ignores him or reminds him to follow Jackson’s failure to follow directions does affect his learning and his grades. Because he sometimes does not follow directions on written assignments and tests, he receives lower grades than he is capable of earning.

listening

education. directions.

9

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MODULE 3

Influences on Behavior The A-B-C Model

OVERVIEW This module will focus on the A-B-C model and analyzing relationships between behaviors and one or more environmental events. The A-B-C model is the framework for the broader functional behavior assessment. This module provides an introduction to the A-B-C model. A more in-depth examination of each of the components of the A-B-C model and the functional analysis procedure will be provided in each of the subsequent modules. Beginning with the next module, participants will collect data on one or more students in their classroom whose behavior they would like to change. Next, they will examine antecedents, consequences, the schedule of the consequences, and the function of the consequences before planning an intervention for their student(s) or their classroom.

underlying

GOALS At the conclusion of this module, the participants will be able to: • describe influences on behavior, • identify components of the A-B-C model (antecedents, behaviors, and consequences), and • examine antecedents and consequences that influence behavior.

MAIN IDEAS • •

Behavior is influenced by what comes before (antecedents) and what comes after (consequences). Analyzing the relationships provides information about when the students’ behaviors might occur and the likelihood of their reoccurrence.

9

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Background Information for the Instructor The information in the following sections provides background for the instructor, which may or may not be used with the participants depending on the instructor’s goals and the participants’ knowledge and skill level.

What Influences the Student’s Behavior?: Vignettes Consider these specific sequences of behaviors of the students who were in Module 2. Anthony: The students in the English language arts classroom at the magnet school are working independently at tables. Anthony is talking loudly to his table partner. Ms. Hefner asks Anthony to maintain a 0–1 voice in the classroom. About 5 minutes later while most of the students are working independently at their tables, Anthony begins shouting to his partner about a topic unrelated to the independent work. Ms. Hefner moves Anthony to a back table to work independently. Anthony puts his head down on the table. Ms. Hefner returns to Anthony and begins helping him with his work. Sarah: Ms. Kendrick asks the students in her cluster classroom to get out their math homework from the previous week to review and check. Sarah does not get out her math homework and sits at her desk. Ms. Kendrick reviews the answers with the class, calling on various students. She calls on Sarah to answer a question from the homework, and Sarah responds, “I don’t have it.” Ms. Kendrick asks Sarah why she does not have her homework, and Sarah says, “My aunt hid it from me.” The other students around Sarah laugh. Ms. Kendrick says, “Your aunt did not hide it from you. I guess you will receive a late slip.” Sarah nods her head. Ms. Kendrick continues reviewing the homework and then assigns a Motivation Math page for students to

introduced

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

complete during math class. Sarah does not get out her Motivation Math book and begins to toss an eraser in the air. Ms. Kendrick walks over to Sarah’s desk and tells Sarah to get to work or she will do her work during recess. Sarah begins working. Bianca: The students in the second-grade classroom are unpacking their for the day as they enter the classroom. Bianca sits at her desk with her on the floor in the classroom walkway. Mr. Young says, “Bianca, please put your backpack in your cubby.” Students who have finished putting away their backpacks and classroom supplies begin reading their library books. Bianca sits at her desk, playing with a bouncy ball. Mr. Young says, “Bianca, please put your backpack in your cubby.” Bianca continues playing with the bouncy ball. Mr. Young says, “Bianca, put the bouncy ball inside your backpack and put your backpack in your cubby, or I will keep your ball on my desk the rest of the day.” Mr. Young walks over to the student and holds out his hand to collect the bouncy ball. Bianca stands up and puts her in front of her cubby. She stares at the teacher with her arms crossed. Mr. Young continues to watch the student and look at her backpack. Bianca picks her backpack up, puts the backpack in her cubby, and places the bouncy ball in a backpack pocket. Mr. Young says, “Thank you, Bianca!”

backpacks backpack

backpack

Jackson: During science, Ms. James asks the students if they know how to make

a “screaming ghost in a cup.” Jackson is whispering to a neighbor. Ms. James ignores Jackson and responds to another student who is interested in the task. Ms. James provides directions for the experiment. Jackson makes a comment to a neighbor, then plays with his shirt by pulling it over his ears. He continues his off-task by making quiet hand motions and clapping against his chair. Throughout these behaviors, Ms. James ignores Jackson. The teacher distributes materials to make the “screaming ghost in a cup.” Jackson whispers to a neighbor. Ms. James asks another student to help pass out materials and begins explaining static electricity. Jackson continues whispering to a neighbor. The teacher tells the students, “You need to poke a hole in the bottom of the cup just large enough for the piece of string.” Jackson to talk instead of a poking a hole. Ms. James asks him, “Why did you not poke a hole in the bottom of your cup?” Jackson says, “I am not in the Halloween spirit.” The teacher walks away, and Jackson does not poke a hole in his cup.

behavior continues What Is a Functional Behavior Assessment?

Students at risk or with emotional and behavioral problems can be particularly challenging to teach in school settings. These students’ behaviors often conflict with the expectations and rules of the classroom, so they have higher rates of suspensions,

Module 3: Influences on Behavior

expulsions, and dropouts than any other population and are most at risk for failure (Bradley et al., 2008; Kauffman & Landrum, 2013; Nelson et al., 2004; Nicholson, 2014). Knowing how to promote the social and emotional development of gifted and twice-exceptional students is critical, particularly for those students who exhibit more extreme behaviors in the classroom. Teachers need to learn how to build positive relationships in the classroom between and among students. These types of relationships are not automatic but require an understanding of how is learned and influenced by people and the environment. These influences are examined using the Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (A-B-C) model, which is the framework for the broader functional behavior assessment (FBA). The more formal functional behavior assessment, which is included in the With Disabilities Education Act of 1990, “is a collection of methods or used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior” (Barnhill, 2005, p. 132), so the results can be used to develop a behavior intervention plan (O’Neill et al., 2015). Along with other functional analyses, the FBA process is a “problem-solving strategy that consists of problem identification, information collection and analysis, planning, and monitoring and evaluation” (Sugai, Lewis-Palmer, & Hagan-Burke, 2000, p. 150).

academic

behavior

Individuals procedures intervention What Is the Purpose of an FBA?

A functional behavior assessment attempts to identify the influences on the behavior and the behavior’s function in order to develop an intervention. The collected during a functional behavior assessment provides the basis for selecting specific strategies and supports for a student. A successful intervention reduces the number of undesired behaviors and increases the number of desired behaviors.

information

What Is the History and Research Support for an FBA? The idea of observing behavior within a context has been in the research

literature since the early 1900s. Discussions about analyzing relationships were in the

work of Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Edward Thorndike, Fred Simmons Keller, B. F.

Skinner, and other behavioral scientists. The functional assessment of behavior has a scientifically based history with more than 40 years of research. The early research on functional assessment of behavior came from clinical studies with students with developmental disabilities (Derby et al., 1992; Iwata, Pace, et al., 1994; Sasso et al., 1992). Functional behavior assessment furthered the educational field by increasing understanding of problem behavior, using hypothesis-driven interventions, the relationship between the function of the behavior and the effectiveness of the intervention, and relying on more proactive versus punishment procedures (Axelrod, 1987; Blakeslee et al., 1994; McLeskey et al., 2017). In 1997 the federal law included functional behavior assessment in the to the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (1990). IDEA required that professionals consider conducting an FBA for students who have identified and who exhibit problem behaviors that interfere with their learning or the learning of others in the classroom. IDEA also includes gifted students with formally identified disabilities (e.g., twice-exceptional students). Based on the findings of the FBA, a behavioral intervention plan (BIP) is developed to address problem behaviors and support the student in their educational program. The development of a BIP will be discussed in Module 9.

demonstrating

amendments disabilities

More recent research has examined functional assessment models—Antecedent-

Behavior-Consequence (A-B-C) and antecedent-behavior (AB) models—and FBA’s use in the context of the general education classroom, particularly with students whose behaviors put them at risk for failure in their neighborhood schools. Ervin and colleagues (2001) analyzed 100 articles in which FBA implementation occurred in a school. They found that FBA supported effective interventions in all but two of the 148 intervention cases. FBAs have been successfully used to address a spectrum of challenging behaviors for students with disabilities in school settings (Gable et al., 2014; Lane et al., 2009). Specifically, the use of FBAs and BIPs increased on-task behavior, engagement, and self-monitoring practices and decreased disruptive and noncompliance (Hansen et al., 2014; Menzies & Lane, 2011; Nahgahgwon et al., 2010; Restori et al., 2007; Trussell et al., 2008). In an analysis of 39 studies that incorporated A-B-C and AB models in public school classrooms, Lloyd et al. (2016) concluded that functional assessment methods have the potential to improve and supports for students with and without identified disabilities.

behavior

services

Given the extensive research on FBA, researchers have concluded that the

research base is sufficient to designate FBA as an evidence-based practice for with emotional and behavioral problems. The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) and the CEEDAR Center also designated FBA as a high-leverage practice (HLP; McLeskey et al., 2017). HLPs are viewed as practices that all special educators should know how to do.

students

What Principles Underlie FBA? The principles that underlie functional analyses methods and FBA relate to the relationships between a behavior (B) and its antecedents (A) and consequences (C). Antecedents are events or stimuli that happen before the target behavior (either immediately before or at some earlier time) that influence its occurrence. Antecedents do not describe the function of the behavior. On the other hand, consequences occur after the behavior and do describe the function or purpose of the behavior. For the teacher describes the objective of the math lesson and then gives each a worksheet (A). The student immediately begins working the first problem (B), and the teacher says, “Thanks for beginning your work so quickly!” (C). The student’s purpose or reason for the behavior (i.e., apparent function) appears to be obtaining teacher attention and/or doing math work.

example, student

What Is the Process of an FBA? FBA includes developing a hypothesis about the function of the student’s behavior and then developing a behavior intervention plan that:

problem (a) teaches a pro-social replacement behavior that will serve the same function, (b) alters the environment to make the replacement more efficient and effective than the problem behavior, (c) alters the environment to no longer allow the problem behavior to access the previous outcome, and (d) includes ongoing data collection to monitor progress. (McLeskey et al., 2017, p. 21)

behavior

A comprehensive FBA involves (a) defining target behaviors in observable and measurable terms (e.g., frequency, latency, duration, rate, intensity); (b) gathering multiple sources of information through direct methods (observations) and indirect methods (interviews, rating scales, school files, attendance reports); (c) the contextual variables and events that precede and follow the target behavior (A-B-C analysis); (d) developing a “hypothesis” that describes the problem behavior, antecedents, consequences, the schedule of consequences, the possible function of the behavior, and other setting events, such as social conflict, fatigue, hunger, and so on; (e) identifying and defining a replacement behavior; (f) developing a behavior support plan that addresses the function of the behavior and includes a replacement behavior; (g) implementing the plan; (h) monitoring the changes in the behavior; and

identifying

(i) revising the intervention as needed (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Lewis et al., 2015; Scott & Kamps, 2007; Sugai, Lewis-Palmer, & Hagan-Burke, 2000). A component of FBA is systematically manipulating antecedents (Structural

Analysis, or SA) and consequences (Functional Analysis, or FA) in a student’s to identify which specific things or activities are influencing the behavior (Gage & Lewis, 2010). FA systematically changes or manipulates the consequences of a behavior to identify which consequence decreases the undesired behavior. SA is a more preventative approach that identifies needed changes in the environment prior to the occurrence of a behavior and can effectively change behaviors in the setting (Stichter et al., 2005). Stichter and Conroy (2005) outlined a five-step SA process: collect data using direct and indirect methods, develop and manipulate an identified environmental (antecedent) variable, visually assess the data, develop an intervention based on the data, and implement the intervention and monitor student progress. This process has been used successfully in the classroom (Gage & Lewis, 2010; Park & Scott, 2009; Stichter et al., 2009). Efficiency needs to be considered when implementing functional analyses and FBA procedures in the general education classroom (Scott et al., 2004). Scott et al. (2008) outlined the steps in efficient methods of FBA, which they named TEAMS (p. 47). These steps include: • T: Target students in need of assistance (students not responding to schoolwide or small-group strategies). E: Evaluate using formal and informal methods (examine antecedents, functional hypothesis). A: Apply research-based behavioral interventions (teach students or alternative positive behaviors; use functional consequences for both desired and undesired behaviors). • M: Monitor progress and outcomes on a regular basis (summarize or graph data). S: Suggest data-driven program changes (maintain/change antecedents, or both).

environment

classroom

• consequences, • replacement

• consequences,

The amount of information collected relates not only to the setting, but also to the intensity of the problem behavior (Sugai, Lewis-Palmer, & Hagan-Burke, 2000). Not all behaviors will require the same amount of data collected. For example, the teacher may notice that when two students sit together, they tend to talk to one another and not follow directions. The teacher has to correct them frequently. In this case, the teacher simply changes the seating arrangement in the classroom (e.g., the antecedent) and pays attention to the two students when they are following directions (consequence). The teacher also provides time for the two students to be together when they finish their assignments, as the function of the consequence is peer attention (consequence). On the other hand, a teacher might be unable to deter-

mine quickly the influences on a student who yells in the classroom. In this case, the teacher and a special education team in the school setting may need to collect more comprehensive information and follow a more formal FBA process. In most cases, the general education teacher will profit from collaboration with special education and gifted education teachers in implementing FBAs and other functional analysis approaches to managing behavior.

What Are the Legal Requirements in Implementing an FBA? These specific disabilities are covered by IDEA: autism, deaf-blindness, deafness, emotional disturbance, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, multiple orthopedic impairment, other health impairment (including ADHD), specific learning disability, speech or language impairment, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairment (including blindness). With the exception of intellectual disability, a gifted student may have one or more of these disabilities. The professionals involved in developing an Individualized Education Program (IEP) must consider the “use of positive behavioral intervention and supports, and other strategies” (IDEA, 1990; see the 2015 regulations). Best practices in special education suggest that educational professionals use an FBA and a BIP, but these are not mandated under the law (Zirkel, 2011). They are only mandated if there is a disciplinary change in placement when the conduct in question is a manifestation of the student’s disability (Collins & Zirkel, 2017; IDEA, 1990; see IDEA’s 2004 Similarly, although there are best practices in implementing an FBA and a BIP, the bottom line is whether or not the student is making educational progress according to the IEP and is not related to legal requirements (Zirkel, 2011). However, FBAs and BIPs do legally fit within the overall district obligation to provide an IDEA-eligible child with a free, appropriate public education (FAPE; Collins & Zirkel, 2017). Professionals need to make sure that students are not deprived of educational benefits and that caregivers have opportunities to participate in the decision-making process regarding FAPE. This requirement is particularly relevant for gifted students who have been identified as having an emotional or behavioral disorder. Although an FBA and a BIP are not legally required, they are considered evidence-based and high-leverage practices for working with students who have maladaptive behaviors that interfere with learning (see HLP 10; McLeskey et al., 2017).

disabilities,

reauthorization).

9

Taylor & Francis Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfra ncis.com

I

Presentation Guide Inu flences on Behavior: The A-B-C Model Presentation Purposes • Understand the relationship between environmental events and behavior. • Identify the components of the A-B-C model. • Examine antecedents and consequences that influence behavior.

Optional Activities • Activity 3.1: IGO: The A-B-C Model • Activity 3.2: A-B-C Model: Student Interactions From Vignettes • Activity 3.3: A-B-C Model: Problem Solving Note. Reproducible activities are located at the end of the module, along with answer keys. To form IGOs, participants will need access to scissors and glue.

Time Required 35–85 minutes, depending on the number of activities included and the amount of discussion.

Professional Developer’s Notes A. Opening (5 minutes) Display Slide 1 while participants are getting seated. Welcome participants to Module 3. Display Slide 2 and review the goals for Module 3.

B. Review Beliefs (5 minutes) Display Slide 3. Suggested statement: In the last module, we learned about

particular beliefs that tend to influence proactive and successful classroom management strategies. The first belief is displayed on this slide and focuses on how we teach one another to

behave. Display Slide 4. Suggested statement: If we are influencing one another, and if we want others to change, then we have to change. Display Slide 5. Suggested statement: Consequently, if we influence and teach one another how to behave, we are ultimately responsible for one another. These beliefs are important to implementing more proactive behavior management strategies. Display Slide 6. Have the participants read the example or read it aloud. Display Slide 7. Suggested statement: Identify a possible answer for who is Ask the participants for the correct answer. Say: Yes, the answer is D. James, the other students, and the teacher are teaching one another how to behave.

responsible. C. introduction to the A-B-C Model (20–30 minutes)

Display Slide 8. Suggested statement: We are going to be learning more about how behavior is learned by focusing on specific environmental events. When we examine the relationships between the behavior and one or more environmental events, we are able to develop interventions that increase desired behaviors and decrease undesired behaviors. Display Slide 9. Suggested statement: One model that helps in understanding the relationships between behaviors and environmental influences is the A-B-C model. “A” stands for antecedent, “B” stands for behavior, and “C” stands for consequence. Educators have successfully used this model for more than 50 years. The model helps to identify for changing behaviors in the classroom.

interventions

Display Slide 10 and, if time allows (10 minutes), distribute Activity 3.1: IGO: The A-B-C Model. The purpose of this activity is to help participants identify the components of the A-B-C model and their relationships to one another. This IGO is made of three large tabs to represent the antecedent, behavior, and consequence. Distribute a pair of scissors to each participant and provide information about the purpose and how to form the IGO. Suggested statement: This interactive graphic will help you take notes related to the A-B-C model. Start by folding the organizer on the horizontal line with the text facing outward. Then, open the organizer and cut on the two vertical dashed lines. Once folded again, you should have three large tabs that flip up with the following titles: “Antecedent,” “Behavior,” and “Consequence.” Fold the organizer so that “Consequence” covers “Behavior,” and “Antecedent” folds in over both. A new title will show: “A-B-C Model.” When opened, the antecedent, behavior, and consequence will show on each of the three tabs. The white space provided under each tab is for you to take notes related to our discussion. Display Slide 11. Suggested statement: The A-B-C model is also the framework for the broader functional behavior assessment, which is included within the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. Display Slide 12. Suggested statement: To understand what is influencing the behavior, the teacher has to carefully examine what comes before and what comes after the behavior. Display Slide 13. Suggested statement: Look at these examples. Column B describes the behaviors, Column A identifies what comes immediately before the behavior, and Column C identifies what comes immediately after the behavior. Read the first and say: How do you think the antecedent and/or consequence might have influenced the behavior? Wait for the participants’ responses. Suggested statement: The student might have sat down because the teacher said, “Sit down,” and/or because the teacher said, “Thank you.” The student’s behavior might have been influenced by what came before and/ or what came after. If the student has learned to follow directions, the teacher’s direction influenced the student’s sitting down; on the other hand, if the student likes the teacher’s attention, then the consequence of the teacher saying “thank you” might have also the student’s sitting down. Discuss the second example. Suggested statement: Now look at the next example, which takes place outside the classroom. This example highlights how antecedents and influence our behaviors on daily basis. How would you describe the influences on the behavior for taking an umbrella? Wait for the participants’ responses. Suggested statement: You saw the sky looking dark and cloudy, so you took an umbrella. In other words, seeing that the sky was dark and cloudy influenced you to take an umbrella. Once you left the house, the sun came out. Imagine that for the past 5 days, you have been looking outside the window, seeing the sky is dark and cloudy, and taking the umbrella, but then the sun comes out. You will most likely stop taking an umbrella next time. On the other hand, if you look outside, take the umbrella, and it begins to rain, then you most likely will continue

organizer

example

influenced consequences

to take your umbrella. So, what is happening? The consequence is influencing your behavior. Depending on the consequence, you will change your behavior. Discuss the third example. Suggested statement: Now, look at the final example;

you will notice that it continues from one line to the next. Most behaviors do continue in this way, with one antecedent influencing the behavior, which is followed by a consequence that becomes the antecedent for the next behavior, and so on. It is important, therefore, to collect A-B-C data over time to understand these relationships. Display Slide 14. Suggested statement: Antecedents are events that happen before the behavior occurs, either immediately before or at some earlier time, and influence its occurrence. In the previous examples, the teacher, the natural environment (sky), and a more structured environment (traffic lights) were antecedents. All of these events before the behavior and influenced its occurrence.

happened Suggested statement: Antecedents can include any of these Display Slide 15.

general categories and even more. Interactions might be between the teacher and other students; learning activities might include the curriculum or a specific task; the classroom structure might include the rules and room arrangement; external events might be lack of sleep or medications; and our own thoughts might be positive or negative (like “I can do this!” or “I don’t like math.”) Can you think of any examples from your experiences or from your classrooms? Allow participants time to share examples. Display Slide 16. Suggested statement: This slide shows an example of our own

actions or thoughts with one antecedent (Betsy reads the direction) influencing the (Betsy picks up the pencil), and then the behavior becoming the antecedent for the next behavior (Betsy writes the answer), and so on. As you can see, behaviors can become quite automated, with one antecedent influencing a behavior, and then that behavior becoming an antecedent and influencing the next behavior. We have many of these sequences we have learned in our lives that are automated, such as taking a shower, driving to work, playing a piece on the piano, and so on. Allow participants to add other sequences. Suggested conclusion: Because of these sequences, it’s important to observe carefully the sequence of antecedents and behaviors to determine influences. Display Slide 17. Suggested statement: Consequences are events that occur after a behavior and affect the future performance of the behavior. In our earlier examples, consequences were the teacher saying, “thank you,” the sun coming out, and the traffic light turning green. Display Slide 18. Suggested statement: Focusing on Molly, what are the behavior, the antecedent, and the consequence in this example? Listen to participants’ responses. Then say: How did the antecedent and consequence influence Molly’s behavior? Again, to participants’ responses. Say: Molly began working on the problem because the teacher described the lesson objective and gave her a worksheet. Most probably, the in this example (which is the teacher saying, “I like how you started right away”) influenced Molly’s behavior, and she will start working immediately the next time the teacher gives Molly a worksheet.

behavior

immediately

listen consequence

D. Summary and Activities (5–45 minutes) Display Slide 19. Read the summary statements and elaborate as needed. Display Slide 20. Ask participants if they have any questions related to the A-B-C model. Display Slide 21. If time allows (15–20 minutes), distribute Activity 3.2: A-B-C Model: Student Interactions From Vignettes. The purpose of this activity is to the antecedents and consequences that influence behavior. Note that these are interactions from actual classroom observations. Depending on the size of the group, the participants’ experience, and the time allotted for this activity, you might want to divide them into smaller groups and have them create an A-B-C independently for this example, and then share or guide them through this set of interactions. Guidance through the example is provided. Suggested statement: These are classroom observations of Anthony, Sarah, Bianca, and Jackson. We are going to be classifying the interactions using the A-B-C model. Let’s look at Anthony’s interactions with Ms. Hefner. Have the participants’ read Anthony’s interaction, and then ask: What is Anthony’s first behavior? Let participants’ answer, and then say: Anthony is talking loudly to his table partner. Write that statement in the Behavior (B) column. You might add: Remember that the student’s target behavior is always in the B column. Provide time for the participants to write. Now say: What is the first antecedent? What happened before Anthony began taking loudly to his table partner? Let the participants’ answer, and then say: The first is “The students in the English language arts classroom at the magnet school are working independently at their tables with table partners.” Write that statement in the Antecedent (A) column. Provide time for the participants to write down the antecedent. Now say: What is the consequence of Anthony’s behavior? Let the participants’ answer, and then say: Ms. Hefner asks Anthony to maintain a 0–1 or low voice in the classroom. Write that statement in the Consequence (C) column. Provide time for the participants to write.

identify

antecedent

Continue working with participants to complete the table by considering

Anthony’s second behavior, as well as the related antecedents and consequences (See Activity 3.2 Answers). Now have participants read the remaining vignettes. Depending on the size of the group and the time allotted, you might want to divide them into pairs or smaller groups to create an A-B-C for only one of the interactions. Following the independent, pairs, or small group work, have the participants

share. Some questions you might ask include: • What are some student behaviors that you noticed? • What are some antecedents? Were there any that were repeated? • What are some consequences? Were there any that were repeated? • Did some consequences become antecedents? • What do you think might be the function or purpose of the behavior? Why?

During the sharing, make sure that the student’s actions are always in the B

column. You might also point out where the consequence becomes an antecedent. For example, Ms. Kendrick calling on Sarah is an antecedent; Sarah’s behavior is “I don’t have it,” and then Ms. Kendrick’s question about why she doesn’t have it is a consequence but becomes an antecedent for the next behavior of Sarah’s, “My aunt hid it from me.” This will be important in future analyses of the purposes or functions of the behavior. Suggested statement: You have examined the relationships between the student’s behavior and one or more events in the classroom. You made some predictions about how the student might respond in the future, but we will need to collect more information. As you can see, the student and the teacher are teaching one another how to behave. Display Slide 22. If time allows (10–20 minutes), distribute Activity 3.3: A-B-C

Model: Problem Solving. The purpose of this activity is to practice identifying

components of the A-B-C model. Suggested statement: These are some interactions from the classroom. Identify the antecedents, behaviors, and consequences and place them in the A-B-C columns. Depending on the size of the group, their experience, and the time allotted for this activity, you might want to divide them into smaller groups or have them solve the problems independently. After the individuals or groups have solved the problems, discuss their answers: Did you have any difficulty placing the antecedent, behaviors, or

• consequences in the correct columns?

• What appeared to influence the behaviors? Given the influences, what might you predict about the behaviors’ in the future? • If you were the teacher, what changes might you make?

• occurrence

Share Activity 3.3 Answers if you would like the participants to self-assess. Conclude by asking if there are any questions related to collecting or classifying A-B-C information.

Optional Activities

This section includes the following optional activities: ACTIVITY 3.1 IGO: The A-B-C Model

92

ACTIVITY 3.2 A-B-C Model: Student Interactions From Answers

Vignettes

93 95

ACTIVITY 3.3 A-B-C Model: Problem Answers

Solving

97 99

ACTIVITY 3.1

IGO: The A-B-C Model Directions: Cut out the organizer. Fold the organizer on the horizontal line with the text facing Then, open the organizer and cut on the two vertical dashed lines. Once folded again, you should have three large tabs that flip up with the following titles: “Antecedent,” “Behavior,” and “Consequence.” Fold the organizer so that “Consequence” covers “Behavior,” and “Antecedent” folds in over both. A new title will show: “A-B-C Model.” When opened, the antecedent, behavior, and consequence will show on each of the three tabs. The white space provided under each tab is for you to take notes related to the discussion. On the back of the IGO, write the activity number.

outward.

ACTIVITY 3.2

A-B-C Model: Student Interactions From Vignettes Directions: Read the following vignettes. Then, classify the interactions using the A-B-C chart on the next page. The students in the English language arts classroom at the magnet school are working

Anthony: independently at tables. Anthony is talking loudly to his table partner. Ms. Hefner asks Anthony to maintain a 0–1 voice in the classroom. About 5 minutes later while most of the students were working independently at their tables, Anthony begins shouting to his partner about a topic unrelated to the independent work. Ms. Hefner moves Anthony to a back table to work independently. Anthony puts his head down on the table. Ms. Hefner returns to Anthony and begins helping him with his work. Sarah: Ms. Kendrick asks the students in her cluster classroom to get out their math homework from the previous week to review and check over. Sarah does not get out her math homework and sits at her desk. Ms. Kendrick reviews the answers with the class, calling on various students. She calls on Sarah to answer a question from the homework, and Sarah responds, “I don’t have it.” Ms. Kendrick asks Sarah why she does not have her homework, and Sarah says, “My aunt hid it from me.” The other students around Sarah laugh. Ms. Kendrick says, “Your aunt did not hide it from you. I guess you will receive a late slip.” Sarah nods her head. Ms. Kendrick continues reviewing the homework and then assigns a Motivation Math page for students to complete during math class. Sarah does not get out her Motivation Math book and begins to toss an eraser in the air. Ms. Kendrick walks over to Sarah’s desk and tells Sarah to get to work or she will do her work during recess. Sarah begins working. Bianca: The students in the second-grade classroom are unpacking their backpacks for the day as they enter the classroom. Bianca sits at her desk with her backpack on the floor in the classroom walkway. Mr. Young says, “Bianca, please put your backpack in your cubby.” Students who have finished putting away their backpacks and classroom supplies begin reading their library books. Bianca sits at her desk, playing with a bouncy ball. Mr. Young says, “Bianca, please put your backpack in your cubby.” Bianca continues playing with the bouncy ball. Mr. Young says, “Bianca, put the bouncy ball inside your backpack and put your backpack in your cubby, or I will keep your ball on my desk the rest of the day.” Mr. Young walks over to the student and holds out his hand to collect the bouncy ball. Bianca stands up and puts her backpack in front of her cubby. She stares at the teacher with her arms crossed. Mr. Young continues to watch the student and look at her backpack. Bianca picks her backpack up, puts the backpack in her cubby, and places the bouncy ball in a backpack pocket. Mr. Young says, “Thank you, Bianca!” Jackson: During science, Ms. James asks the students if they know how to make a “screaming ghost in a cup.” Jackson is whispering to a neighbor. Ms. James ignores Jackson and responds to another student who is interested in the task. Ms. James provides directions for the experiment. Jackson makes a comment to a neighbor, then plays with his shirt by pulling it over his ears. He continues his off-task behavior by making quiet hand motions and clapping against his chair. Throughout these behaviors, Ms. James ignores Jackson. The teacher distributes materials to make the “screaming ghost in a cup.” Jackson whispers to a neighbor. Ms. James asks another student to help pass out materials and begins explaining static Jackson continues whispering to a neighbor. The teacher tells the students, “You need to poke a hole in the bottom of the cup just large enough for the piece of string.” Jackson continues to talk instead of a poking a hole. Ms. James asks him, “Why did you not poke a hole in the bottom of your cup?” Jackson says, “I am not in the Halloween spirit.” The teacher walks away, and Jackson does not poke a hole in his cup.

electricity.

Antecedent

Behavior

Consequence

ACTIVITY 3.2 ANSWERS

A-B-C Model: Student Interactions From Vignettes Anthony’s Interactions Antecedent Students

working independently

at tables with

Students

Hefner

back table

Anthony

is

Consequence Ms.

talking loudly.

a

Anthony

to a

Ms.

about unrelated

back table

topic.

Anthony puts head down

on

desk.

work independently.

to

0-1 voice.

Anthony is shouting to his partner

partners.

moves

Hefner asks Anthony to

maintain

partners.

working independently

at tables with

Ms.

Behavior

Ms.

Hefner moves Anthony to a Hefner

and begins

work

to

independently. Anthony

returns to

helping him with his

work. Possible functions: student's attention; teacher assistance

Sarah’s Interactions Antecedent

Behavior

Ms. Kendrick asks student out

math homework

to

to

get

review and

Sarah does

not get out

Consequence her math

homework and sits at her desk.

check.

Ms. Kendrick continues the

answers

the

to

review

class, calling on

various students.

Ms. Kendrick calls to answer a

on

Sarah

question from

Sarah

responds,

"I don't have it."

the

Ms. Kendrick asks Sarah

why she

doesn't have her homework.

homework. Ms. Kendrick asks Sarah

why she

Sarah says,

"My aunt hid it from

»

doesn't have her homework.

Other students

receive Ms. Kendrick says, "Your aunt did not hide it from you. I guess you will receive

late

a

Sarah nods her head.

a

late

reviewing

slip." Sarah does

Motivation Math hook and begins

assigns a Motivation for students to

during complete class.

not get out

to toss an eraser

her

in the air.

Ms. Kendrick walks

Ms. Kendrick walks

over

Sarah

to

Sarah's desk and tells Sarah

to

to

work

begins working.

get

she will do her work

during recess. Possible functions: doesn't know how

to

do

over

to

Sarah's desk and tells Sarah or

math; teacher and student attention

to

she will do her work

during recess.

or

slip."

the homework.

Ms. Kendrick

work

Ms.

Ms. Kendrick continues

Math page

to

laugh.

Kendrick says, "Your aunt did not hide it from you. I guess you will

me.

get

Bianca’s Interactions Antecedent

Behavior

unpack backpacks for the they enter classroom.

Bianca sits

Students

day

as

at

Consequence

desk with her

Mr.

backpack on

the

floor

in the classroom

Young asks Bianca

backpack

in her

to

put her

to

put her

to

put the

cubby.

walkway. Some students who have

unpacking begin library books.

Bianca sits

finished

reading their

with

at

her desk

Bianca sits

at

Mr.

playing

ball.

bouncy

a

backpack

her desk and

continues play bouncy with the

to

Young asks Bianca

ball.

Mr.

in her cubby.

Young asks Bianca

bouncy

ball inside her backpack

and put the

backpack in her cubby, keep her ball on his desk the rest of the day.

or

Mr.

Young walks over to

the

and holds

his hand

out

Bianca

Mr.

the

Bianca!"

picks her backpack up, puts backpack in her cubby, and places the bouncy ball in a pocket. (This is a behavior sequence that might be separated

student to

collect the

bouncy ball. (Preceding consequence might go here as

Young says,

"Thank you,

backpack

well.)

in the behavior Possible functions:

he will

column.)

playing with hall; teacher's attention

Jackson’s Interactions Antecedent

Behavior

Ms. James asked the students

Jackson is

about how

neighbor.

ghost

in

a

for

make

a

screaming

whispering to a

Ms. James

ignores Jackson.

Ms. James

ignores Jackson.

cup.

Ms. James the

to

Consequence

provides directions

experiment.

Jackson makes a

neighbor,

shirt,

a comment to

then

plays

with his

quiet hand motions/ clapping against his chair. Ms. James passes out materials to make the "screamingghost in a

makes

Jackson

whispers to a neighbor.

with

cup."

Teacher asks students

Jackson continues

whispering.

poke a hole in the bottom of your cup?" consequence)

Jackson says, "I'm Halloween spirit."

not

The teacher walks away,

Jackson does

hole in the bottom

"Why did you

to

poke a

of the cup.

not

(preceding (preceding consequence)

Ms. James asks another student

not

in the

poke a

his cup.

Possible functions: peer attention;

avoiding task in science

hole in

to

materials and

help passing begins explanation. Ms. James asks, "Why did you not poke a hole in the bottom of your cup?" out

The teacher walks away.

ACTIVITY 3.3

A-B-C Model: Problem Solving Directions: Look at the following interaction problems and complete each A-B-C model.

Problem 1 Teacher: Now students, I want you to open your books to page 36 and work problems 1 to 12. Samantha: Did you say page 12? Teacher: If you had been listening, you would know that I said page 36, problems 1 to 12. Samantha: Do we have to work all of these problems? Teacher: Yes. Now raise your hand the next time you want to talk. Grant (hand up): Teacher, I finished those problem last night. Teacher: Well, you will have to wait or read your book until everyone else finishes. Antecedent

"Open your books...

Behavior

."

Consequence "If you had been

"Do

we

listening.

..."

have to work all of these

problems?"

"I finished those

problems last

"You will have to wait

or

read.

»

night."

Problem 2 Mary Lou fearfully knocked on the principal’s door. Mr. Elliott growled, “Who is it?” May Lou said, “It’s Ms. Sanford. I need to talk to you for a minute.” “Well, come in. You’re late again,” Mr. Elliott responded. Mary Lou entered the office and sat down in a chair close by the high oaken desk. Mr. Elliott said, “Well?” “I’m sorry I’m late again. I just can’t seem to manage to leave early enough to beat the traffic,” Mary Lou said apologetically. Mr. Elliott responded with a smile, “I understand. Please try to be on time. Maybe you should leave early to avoid the traffic going home. Have a good day!” Antecedent

Behavior "Who is it?"

Consequence

Antecedent "I need to talk to you. ..."

Behavior

"Well,

come

Consequence

in. You're late

again."

"I'm sorry I'm late

again.

..."

"I understand.. .."

Problem 3 Ms. Gibbs asks, “Who knows the difference between a rectangle and a triangle?” David, Rita, and Margie raise their hands. Ms. Gibbs says, “Your turn, Rita.”

Rita says, “A rectangle has three sides, and a triangle has three angles.” Ms. Gibbs says, “That’s right! A triangle has three angles. Can anyone help Rita on the number of

sides a rectangle has?” David raises his hand. Ms. Gibbs says, “Okay, David.” David says, “A rectangle has four sides, and a triangle has three sides.” Ms. Gibbs says, “Right, David!” Ms. Gibbs asks, “Are there other ways that a triangle and a rectangle

are alike or different?” Antecedent

Behavior

"Who knows the difference

David,

between

their hands.

a

rectangle and a

Rita, and

Margie

Consequence raise

triangle?" "A a

rectangle has three sides, triangle has three angles."

and

"Okay,

"A a

rectangle has four sides, triangle has three sides."

and

David."

ACTIVITY 3.3 ANSWERS

A-B-C Model: Problem Solving Problem 1 Antecedent

"Open your books... ." "If you had been listening...

Behavior

Consequence

"Did you say page 12?"

"If you had been

"Do

"Yes. Now raise your hand... !'

we

have to work all of

listening...."

these

"I want you

to

open your books...

problems?" problems last night." "I finished those

"You will have to wait

or

read. ..."

Problem 2 Antecedent

Mary

Lou knocks

on

principal's

Behavior

Consequence

"Who is it?"

"It's Ms.

Sanford..,

door. "I need to talk to

you...."

"Well,

come

in. You're late

Mary Lou enters office.

again." Mary

Lou

enters

"I can't seem

to

office.

leave

early enough

"Well?"

"I'm sorry I'm late

again.

"I understand.. .."

Problem 3 Antecedent

Behavior

"Who knows the difference

David, Rita,

between

their hands.

a

rectangle and a

and

Margie

Consequence "Your turn, Rita."

raise

triangle?" "Your turn, Rita."

a

"Can anyone

"Okay,

help Rita...."

David."

rectangle has three sides, triangle has three angles."

"A

and

David raises hand. A

rectangle has four sides, triangle has three sides.

and

a

"That's

right!..

"Okay, David." "Right, David!"

..."

9

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Defining 4 MODULE and Describing Behaviors

OVERVIEW This module will define and describe behaviors, the context where the occur, and ways to observe behaviors. Throughout the rest of the modules, participants will be collecting data on a student in their classroom. In this module, they will identify the undesired behavior of a student they plan to observe in their classrooms and the observation forms they will use.

behaviors

GOALS At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to: •define a behavior, • describe a behavior, • describe the behavior’s context, and • observe a student’s behavior in a natural setting.

MAIN IDEAS • •

Behaviors are observable, measurable actions. When a behavior is defined, it should be observable, positive, and measurable. A description of a behavior includes one or more of these measures: duration, latency, intensity, and context. Observations include the behavior’s characteristics within a context. A complete description of a behavior includes its definition, a measure, and information about the behavior’s context.

• frequency, • •

9

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Background Information for the Instructor The information in the following sections provides background for the instructor, which may or may not be used with the participants depending on the instructor’s goals and the participants’ knowledge and skill level.

How Are Students' Behaviors Described?: Vignettes These vignettes include more information about the students’ behaviors and will be used in the professional learning activities to teach new concepts. Anthony: Anthony talks loudly in all of his core subject classes, particularly during independent working time or transition periods. His voice is loud enough to disturb others in the classroom. The behavior happens about once every 5 minutes throughout the class period. The loudness of his voice increases throughout the class period. Sarah: During class, Sarah refuses to follow directions or begin her assignments. The time before she begins an assignment can last from 5 minutes to an entire hour. When Sarah is not working on the assigned task, she talks to her classmates or walks around the classroom. This behavior occurs usually two or three times each school day. Bianca: Bianca does not complete daily routines, even after redirections. When

she is asked to complete a routine task, such as putting away her backpack, she may cross her arms, turn away from the teacher, and shake her head. Sometimes she will talk back to the teacher. Her refusal to complete routine tasks occurs at the beginning of the school day. Her responses vary depending on who is asking her to demonstrate a desired behavior, the time of day, and which classroom she is in. She is less likely to follow directions in her reading classroom.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Gifted and Twice-Exceptional Students Using Functional Behavior Assessment

Jackson: Instead of listening and following directions, Jackson looks around the room, plays with objects in his hand, or does some other activity. As a result, he often blurts out questions, asks for directions again, or simply sits still while the other students follow the directions. He also often whispers to his neighbors instead of listening, which keeps the other students from listening to the directions, too. These behaviors occur frequently, about every 3–4 minutes throughout the day, during transitions and in whole-group and small-group settings. His difficulty with directions does not seem to be connected to any subject area, but occurs in all content areas and in different contexts, including other third-grade classrooms and special classes like physical education.

following How Are Behaviors Defined?

Behaviors are observable, measurable actions. To identify what influences a problem behavior and plan an intervention, the teacher needs to clearly define and describe the target behavior(s) so that others would be able to read the description and understand exactly what the behavior looks like. To define the behavior, three conditions need to be met: observable, positive, and measurable. These conditions offer clarification and give those working with the same individual a unified of the behavior.

understanding

Observable Terms Behavior is observable. It is an action teachers see or hear, such as a student sitting down, standing up, speaking, writing, or looking out the window. Observable behaviors are not what students are feeling, but rather how they are expressing thoughts, feelings, or emotions in action. For example, a student may show anger by furrowing the brow, crossing arms, and turning away from the teacher. These are defined in observable terms. They depict the action. Teachers should defining behaviors in observable terms, such as “the student gets out of her seat when the teacher is giving directions,” versus “is hyperactive,” which is a label and not an observable behavior.

behaviors practice Positive Terms

The use of positive terms is crucial when defining a behavior. In this case, positive doesn’t refer to “good” or “favorable.” Positive terms mean depicting what is rather

Module 4: Defining and Describing Behaviors

than what is not. For example, defining the student as leaning on the walls in the

hallway is clearer than saying the student is not walking to class. When using negation, such as the word not or the prefix un-, an infinite number of behaviors are possible. For example, if the student is not walking to class, the student might be running, jumping, crawling, or standing. Using positive terms—defining what the behavior is—guarantees shared understanding of the behavior.

Measurable Terms When a behavior is defined in observable and positive terms, it is defined in

measurable terms as well. However, it is good practice to confirm that the behavior is measurable. A definition in measurable terms entails the ability to assign a number to the behavior in a systematic way. Usually, the number relates to the frequency, time, or intensity of the behavior. For example, a student leaning on the walls in the hallway can be measured by timing how long the student was leaning on the walls. In this case, the observer could assign a number to the behavior by identifying that the student leans for 5 minutes on the walls. Another example would be the frequency (i.e., number of times) a student leaves their desk. Measuring a behavior is central to examining the effectiveness of an intervention—whether the desired change in behavior is occurring. In fact, by measuring the behavior before and during interventions, teachers can clearly identify whether the behavior is increasing or decreasing.

measuring

How Are Behaviors Described? Once the behavior is defined in observable, positive, and measurable terms, then the behavior is described more fully. A complete description of the behavior includes its frequency, duration, latency, intensity, and context. Frequency is the number of times a behavior occurs, such as the number of times a student talks out instead of raising their hand during instruction. Collecting frequency data is for behaviors that have a discrete beginning and ending time that are similar (e.g., raising one’s hand, tapping a pencil, talking out of turn, verbal swearing). Some behaviors relate to length of time rather than the number of times the behavior occurs. For example, a student may get out of their seat only once during independent work but be up for 10 or more minutes. In this case, the teacher would want to describe the duration of the behavior—how long the behavior lasts. Another characteristic related to time that might need to be considered is latency. For a teacher may ask the class to begin their assignment, but the student doesn’t

generally important

example,

begin for 5 minutes or longer. The time between the direction and the beginning of the task would be described as latency. Behaviors may also be described based on their intensity. Intensity relates to any

behavior interfering with the student’s or others’ safety or learning. A Level 1 or low-intensity behavior is confined to the focus student (e.g., refusal to follow scowling, crossing arms, pouting). A Level 2 intensity behavior disrupts others in the student’s immediate area (e.g., slamming textbook closed, dropping book on the floor, name-calling, using inappropriate language). A Level 3 intensity behavior disrupts everyone in the class (e.g., throwing objects, yelling, open defiance of teacher directions, leaving the classroom). A Level 4 behavior disrupts other classrooms or common areas of the school (e.g., throwing objects, yelling, leaving school campus). A Level 5 behavior causes or threatens to cause physical injury to the student or others (e.g., display of weapons, assault on others). These behaviors may occur infrequently but require immediate action because of safety issues (Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, 2019). The intensity of the behavior support will need to be matched to the intensity of the problem behavior.

directions,

Finally, the context refers to when the behavior(s) is more or less likely to occur

and helps the teacher in identifying specific times for collecting information. For example, if a student gets out of their seat when the teacher is giving directions but not when working with other students at a table, the teacher will want to observe the student’s problem behavior when giving directions. Blood and Neel (2007) examined 37 behavior intervention plans and found that the following behaviors were frequently exhibited in public schools: refusal to directions or comply; verbal aggression (threats, language); absence or tardiness; aggression toward others (verbal harassment); fidgety, noisy, out-of-seat behaviors; arguing; hitting, kicking, and throwing objects; disrupting; and inappropriate/sexual statements. March and Horner (2002) found similar results with problem behaviors. After a review of 233 publications that included FBA interventions with 640 Anderson et al. (2015) created 16 different categories of problem behaviors: defiance/verbal aggression, disruption/property destruction, elopement (e.g., leaving an area of the room without permission), inappropriate sexual behavior, vocalizations, noncompliance (e.g., failure to follow instructions), being off task, being out of seat, perseverative speech (e.g., repeating the same word or phrase), physical aggression, screaming or crying, self-injury, stereotypy, talking out of turn, tantrums, bizarre vocalizations (e.g., talking to someone not present), and other problem behaviors that were not operationalized (p. 342). In their review, talking out of turn, defiance or verbal aggression, being off task, being out of seat, and problem behaviors were most frequently targeted for typically developing students.

follow

participants, inappropriate

Sugai and Horner (n.d.) added some other considerations when examining

problem behaviors. They included (a) behaviors that are covert and difficult to observe, such as lying, cheating, stealing, and substance abuse; (b) situation-specific behav-

iors, such as those that are observed only in some settings or with some teachers; and (c) behaviors that have a long history, such as antisocial behaviors. They also suggested that some behaviors form classes (e.g., talking loudly, being out of seat, hitting) because the student is using all of them to get attention from peers. On the other hand, one behavior may also have multiple functions or purposes in different contexts. For example, the student might use swearing in one setting to get attention and in another setting to avoid attention. All of these behavioral characteristics need to be considered when examining

problem behaviors of gifted students who may have more diverse behaviors and more complex connections between their behaviors and the environment. Behaviors of gifted students with behavior disorders include poor impulse control, anger, intense emotions, isolation from peers, and depression (Betts & Neihart, 1988; Dare & Nowicki, 2015; Morrison, 2001). These students are less likely to be referred for gifted programs because their problem behaviors contradict commonly held of gifted students (Bianco, 2005); they are more likely to be referred to for students with behavior disorders (Morrison, 2001).

perceptions programs Behavioral characteristics should also be considered alongside cultural differences. Children from diverse backgrounds may enter school with a different set of

behaviors and experiences than their White peers. Some of these differences relate to acculturation, socioeconomic status, English language proficiency, and family with formal education (Moreno & Gaytán, 2013). Sometimes teachers perceive these behaviors differently and react negatively, which then creates a cycle of (e.g., teachers view students with hostility, which leads to students responding with hostility and so on; Bradshaw et al., 2010). For this reason, students of color often experience poorer discipline and academic outcomes in the public school than their White peers and are more than twice as likely than their White peers to be referred to the office (Skiba et al., 2011). Researchers suggest culturally instruction, matching the curriculum to the knowledge and skills of the learners, and tailoring interviews with more culture-specific questions in gathering related to problem behaviors (Harris-Murri et al., 2006; Moreno & Gaytán, 2013; Preciado et al., 2009). Schoolwide positive behavior support models have focused on creating environments that examine implicit bias and increase positive student-teacher interactions. Researchers suggest that schools create expectations that: focus on high standards for all students, are able to be taught and learned, and are respectful of students’ cultures. (For more information, visit Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports at https://www.pbis.org/topics/equity)

experiences misconduct system responsive information

Researchers have identified these challenges in describing behaviors in

observable, measurable terms: (a) using labels such as “defiant” instead of specific behaviors (e.g., argues, swears), (b) grouping multiple behaviors under one category (e.g.,

“disruptive” may refer to being out of seat, talking to others, throwing paper), or (c) not specifying the behavior’s frequency or intensity (Van Acker et al., 2005). Some

behaviors may also need to be analyzed more closely because they occur in a chain (i.e., one behavior initiates the next behavior, and so on) or in some settings and not in others (e.g., structured settings, such as content area classrooms, vs. less settings, such as recess; Lewis & Sugai, 1996).

structured What Are the Characteristics of the Context Where the Problem Behavior Occurs? The context is defined as the circumstances that form the setting for the

occurrence of behaviors (Losinski et al., 2014). Identification of context variables is critical in developing interventions because the context may support the problem behavior (Gable & Hendrickson, 2000). Therefore, it’s important not only to define the

behavior in positive, observable, and measurable terms, but also to describe when and where the behavior occurs. Characteristics of the context include (Corso, 2007; Heckaman et al., 2000): • task demands and the match between the students’ characteristics and the task; • teacher’s interactions with students (i.e., positive comments vs. reprimands); • students’ interactions with the teacher and one another (i.e., positive vs. negative); • learning activities and student engagement; structure, routine, and transitions (e.g., rules, positive expectations, schedules); • intentional teaching and modeling of expectations and social skills; • physical arrangement of the classroom (e.g., independent learning areas, location of materials, and organization); and • location of the classroom.

• movement,

Changing context variables, such as teachers having consistent schedules, providing appropriate instructional pace and level for students, allowing students to choose preferred activities, and giving clear directions, have been effective in improving the overall classroom climate and changing behavior (Conroy & Stichter, 2003; Stichter, Lewis, et al., 2004). As an example of how the context influences behaviors, Cartledge et al. (2001) focused on changing the environment of a grades 4–5

classroom for gifted students to improve problem behaviors. Three categories of problem behaviors were identified: disruption (i.e., excessive talking during instruc-

tion and seat work, excessive noise making during instruction and seat work, eating during instruction and classroom activities), noncompliance (i.e., refusal to follow the teacher’s instructions or perform prescribed activities), and aggression (i.e., threats toward other students and teachers, fighting between students). Context variables that influenced the behaviors were teachers’ requests made in too soft a tone, unclear classroom rules, few praise statements, inconsistent reprimands, and unclear instructional objectives. By applying proactive and positive management strategies, a university-based team assisted the teacher in creating positive expectations, teaching social skills, structuring assessment, and including consequences for noncompliance. The 18-month intervention reduced the problem behaviors and increased overall academic productivity.

verbal behavioral preplanned How Might Teachers Collect Direct Observation Related to the Problem Behavior?

At this point in the professional development modules, teachers will begin direct assessments (i.e., observations) related to the problem behaviors they target and the context—not antecedents and consequences. Observations are conducted in the natural environment where the problem behavior is most likely to occur (e.g., classroom, lunchroom, recess, hallway, and so on). Because direct observation is time-consuming, teachers need to use simple forms that allow them to collect data while they are teaching or in small groups. The selected form should relate to the type of behavior. If the problem behavior has a beginning and an end, then the teacher will want to observe its frequency. On the other hand, if the problem behavior relates to duration or latency, then teachers will need a form that considers the length of time a behavior occurs.

collecting typically

OBSERVATION FORMS Example versions of Forms A–D are shared at the end of this module. Blank versions of the forms for teachers to use and

adapt are available at this book’s webpage: https://www.

Taylor&Francis.com/Classroom-Management-for-Gi Exceptional-Students-Resources.aspx fted-andTwice- .

Some forms might be simply counting problem behaviors during a time when the student is most likely to exhibit the behaviors. See Form A: Frequency Behavior Recording Example (p. 128). If teachers find it difficult to tally the behavior on a paper form or tablet, they might find other creative ways to count the frequency with minimal interruption of teaching time. These creative methods might vary on the problem behavior and when it is being exhibited. For example, consider the teacher who needs to tally the number of times a student stands up during time. In this case, the teacher can wear a large number of elastic bands on the left arm, and when the problem behavior is exhibited the teacher can simply move one band to the right arm. At the end of the lecture time, the teacher can count the number of bands on their right arm to determine the number of times the behavior was exhibited. Other forms might require a timer to indicate the length of time a student might be displaying a problem behavior or time before they begin following directions. See Form B: Latency and Intensity Behavior Rating Example and Form C: Recording the Duration of the Behavior Example (pp. 129–130). With Form B, Mr. Robb observed Monica during one literacy period and observed both latency and intensity of the behavior of following directions. He set his timer while observing Monica and stopped his timer when she began to do her assignments (latency). With Form C, Ms. Young started her timer when Jennifer began walking around the room during research time. She stopped the timer when Jennifer began doing research. If the teacher is collecting interval data to record the occurrence and of a behavior, a bell timer might be used to remind the teacher when to record the data. In Form D: Interval-Based Recording Example (see p. 131), Ms. Kemp set her phone to buzz every 15 minutes and then noted the number of times Alan argued with the teacher or his friends during that period of time. For high-frequency behaviors (off-task behaviors), the teacher may want to use momentary time sampling, when the teacher looks at the student only at predetermined point of time (e.g., at the beginning or ending of a 5-minute interval). Results from this type of observation are recorded in terms of percentages—the percentage of intervals that the student is off task (Barnhill, 2005; Watson & Steege, 2003). It’s important that the teacher describe the target behavior fully—frequency/duration/latency, context, and intensity as needed. The information will be used for the next step in the process, which is to examine antecedents that influence the target behavior.

depending lecture

independent nonoccurrence

problem

Presentation Guide Defining and Describing Behaviors

Presentation Purposes • • • • • •

Define a behavior in observable, positive, and measurable terms. Describe a behavior. Describe the behavior’s context. Identify forms to use in observing behaviors. Identify the best method to observe and measure a behavior. Select a behavior to observe in the classroom.

Optional Activities and Forms • • • • • • •

Activity 4.1: IGO: Identify and Define Behaviors Activity 4.2: Practice Defining Behaviors Activity 4.3: IGO: Measuring Behaviors Activity 4.4: Practice Measuring Target Behaviors Direct Assessment Samples: Forms A–D Activity 4.5: Observing and Measuring a Target Behavior Activity 4.6: Describing Behaviors From the Vignettes

Note. Reproducible activities are located at the end of the module, along with answer keys. To form IGOs, participants will need access to scissors and glue.

Time Required 65–145 minutes, depending on the number of activities included and the amount of discussion. Given the amount of time, the presenter might want to break this into two sessions: one focusing on defining and measuring behaviors (65–100 minutes) and the other on the practice activities (Activities 4.2, 4.4, and 4.6; 30–45 minutes).

session Professional Developer's Notes A. Opening (5 minutes)

Display Slide 1 while participants are getting seated. Welcome participants to Module 4. Display Slide 2 and review the goals for Module 4.

B. Identifying and Defining a Behavior (20–45minutes) Display Slide 3 and, if time allows (10 minutes), distribute Activity 4.1 IGO: Identify and Define Behaviors. The purpose of the activity is to help participants take notes when identifying and defining a behavior. The interactive graphic organizer for this activity is made of two large tabs to represent the first two steps of the process: identifying a behavior and defining the behavior. Distribute a pair of scissors to each participant and provide information about the purpose and how to form the IGO. Suggested statement: This interactive graphic organizer will help you take notes about identifying and defining behavior. Start by folding the organizer on the vertical line with the text facing outward. Then, open the organizer and cut on the horizontal dashed line. Once folded again, you should have two large tabs with the following titles: “Identify the Behavior” and “Define the Behavior.” Cut out the three labels, “Observable,” “Positive,” and “Measurable,” and glue them inside the “Define the Behavior” tab. Be sure to leave room to take notes below each label. The white space provided inside each tab is for you to take notes related to our discussion. Display Slide 4. Ask participants to identify desired or undesired behaviors in

their classroom. Display Slide 5. Suggested statement: How do you define a behavior?

Display Slide 6. Suggested statement: Although behaviors may be defined in many different ways, we will define a behavior as a person’s action that can be observed and measured. Defining a behavior in this way improves accuracy so that two people could independently observe the student’s behavior and agree when the behavior is and is not happening. They could also agree when the behavior is improving. Display Slide 7 and explain how to define a behavior. Suggested statement: To

define a behavior, three conditions need to be met. The behavior should be defined in

observable terms, positive terms, and measurable terms. Let us look at each one in more detail. Display Slide 8 and review the examples. Suggested statement: Observable terms mean the behavior is explicitly defined by stating what can be seen or heard. Behavior is not what a student is feeling, but rather how the student is expressing thoughts, feelings, or emotions in action. For example, “Karim is daydreaming” is considered a nonobservable behavior. The teacher made this assumption by observing Karim looking outside the Rather than inferring that Karim is daydreaming, it is best to state that Karim is looking out the window. Karim could be looking out the window and listening to the lecture. When a behavior is defined in observable terms, two people could independently observe the student’s behavior and agree when the behavior is and is not happening. If I randomly choose two of you, I am sure you can identify when Karim looks out the window without any doubt, but it would be harder to identify when Karim is daydreaming.

window.

Continue: Let us look at the second example: Tania is sad. Tania is sad is a conclusion

made about her feelings. What is actually being observed is Tania crying. Tania could be crying because she is happy, angry, or sad. We cannot see or hear sadness or know why Tania is crying. However, we can clearly see someone crying. Again, defining the in observable terms makes data collection more accurate. The third example is “Rosa is rude.” Rude is defined differently by different individuals and can vary from one culture to another. To define Rosa’s behavior in observable terms, it is best to state that Rosa rolls her eyes. In this case, no assumptions are made about her behavior and no labels are given to describe Rosa’s behavior. Display Slide 9 and ask the participants to define the behaviors in observable terms. It is recommended that more than one participant share their definition for each example. In this case you can highlight how nonobservable terms can be defined differently and how observable terms make data collection more accurate. Example answers: • Robert hits other students; Robert says curse words; Robert kicks the table. • Felicia bounces in her seat; Felicia taps her feet on the ground; Felicia walks around the classroom.

behavior

Display Slide 10. Explain positive terms and review the examples. Suggested statement: The use of positive terms is crucial when defining a behavior. In this case, doesn’t refer to good or favorable. Positive terms mean depicting what the behavior is rather than what the behavior is not. For example, stating that “Karim runs in the hallway”

positive

is better than stating that “Karim does not walk in hallway.” When using negation, such as “not,” an infinite number of possible behaviors might be implied. For example, if the student is not walking to class, the student might be running, jumping, crawling, or standing. Using positive terms—describing what the behavior is—provides a shared understanding of the behavior. In Example 2, “Rona answers half of the question” is stated in positive terms and describes her behavior more clearly than “Rona does not complete her work.” In Example 3, Carlos’s behavior is better described as talking to friends rather than “Carlos doesn’t listen to directions.” Display Slide 11 and ask the participants to define the behavior in positive terms. It is recommended that more than one participant share their definition for each example. In this case, you can highlight how nonpositive terms can be defined differently and positive terms make data collection more accurate. Example answers: • Jan doodles in her notebook; Jan looks at other students during lecture; Jan

completes other work during the lecture. Trish speaks out of turn; Trish keeps her hand down during the entire time; Trish stands and starts talking to the teacher.

• discussion Display Slide 12. Explain measurable terms and discuss the examples. Suggested statement: When a behavior is defined in observable and positive terms, then it is more easily defined in measurable terms as well. However, it is good practice to confirm that the behavior is measurable. A definition in measurable terms involves assigning a number to the behavior in a systematic way. Usually, the number relates to frequency, time, or intensity of the behavior. For example, Karim’s leaning on the wall in the hallway can be measured by timing how long he was leaning on the wall. In this case, the teacher assigned a number to the behavior by identifying that Karim leaned on the wall for 5 minutes. Another example would be measuring the frequency or number of times Yi smiles in class. We might also measure the length of time Yi smiles (i.e., duration). Talking to friends can be measured by counting the number of interactions Carlos initiates with friends (i.e., frequency), or the length of time Carlos talks to his friends (i.e., duration). Measuring a behavior is central to examining the effectiveness of an intervention—whether the desired change in behavior is occurring. In fact, by measuring the behavior before and during interventions, you can clearly identify whether the behavior is increasing or decreasing. Later during this module, we will discuss how to choose what to measure. Display Slide 13. Ask the participants to define a behavior in measurable terms and provide an example of how they can measure the behavior. It is recommended that more than one participant share their definition for each example. In this case you can highlight how nonmeasurable terms can be defined differently and how terms make data collection more accurate. Example answers:

measurable • Shanna’s books are on the floor (measure: time and frequency); Shanna turned in the wrong homework (measure: frequency); Shanna keeps trash in her desk (measure: frequency and time).

Yi talks to others when the teacher is talking (measure—frequency and

• duration); Yi turns and looks away when others are talking (measure—frequency and duration); Yi says curse words (measure—frequency). Display Slide 14 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 4.2: Practice Defining Behaviors. In this activity, the participants determine if 10 are defined in observable, positive, or measurable terms. Suggested statement: On this handout are 10 behavior definitions. Identify if the behaviors are defined in positive, and measurable terms. If the definition doesn’t meet the three criteria, write a definition of the behavior in observable, positive, or measurable terms. Let participants work individually. Then, ask a few participants to share their answers. Make sure they explain their thinking process. See Activity 4.2 Answers for reference.

behaviors observable,

C. Measuring Behavior (20–50minutes) Display Slide 15. Explain to participants that a complete description of the behavior includes not only the definition, but also a measure of the behavior. Suggested statement: A complete description of the behavior includes the definition, a measure of the behavior, and information about the behavior’s context. We just learned how to define the behavior. We will now discuss how to measure the behavior. Display Slide 16 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 4.3 IGO: Measuring Behaviors. The purpose of this activity is to help participants take notes when discussing the measurement of behavior. The interactive graphic for this activity is made of one large tab that opens into four tabs to represent four types of measures: frequency, duration, latency, and intensity. Distribute a pair of scissors to each participant and provide information about the purpose and how to form the IGO. Suggested statement: This interactive graphic organizer will help you take notes when discussing measuring behavior. Start by folding on the two outermost vertical lines so that the text faces outward. Then, cut on the two dashed lines. The front of the organizer should now have four tabs with the titles: “Frequency,” “Duration,” “Latency,” and “Intensity.” Fold so that “Duration” and “Intensity” cover “Frequency” and “Latency.” You should see the title “Types of Measures” on the top, and on the bottom the question, “What Will I Choose?” Fold the IGO in half on the horizontal line. You should see the title “Measuring Behavior.” The white space provided inside each tab is for you to take notes related to discussion. Explain how they will use the IGO: We will be discussing four types of measures. The white space provided inside each tab is for you to take notes related to our discussion. Display Slide 17. Inform the participants that generally there are four types of measures. Suggested statement: Just as you can measure the dimension of an object—for

organizer

horizontal following

example, height, width, depth, or weight—you can measure behavior. There are four basic types of measures that we will discuss: frequency, duration, latency, and intensity. Display Slide 18 and explain frequency. Suggested statement: Frequency is one

way that a behavior can be measured. Frequency refers to the number of times a occurs. Here is an example: Eleo tapped on his desk five times during discussion time. We just reported the number of times the behavior—tapping on the desk—occurred, or its frequency. Ask participants to give examples of behaviors when frequency might be measured. Display Slide 19 and explain duration. Suggested statement: Duration is another way to measure a behavior. Duration refers to how long a behavior lasts. Here is an Jason was out of his seat for 7 minutes. We just reported how long or the length of time Jason was out of his seat. Ask participants to give examples of behaviors when duration might be measured. Explain that we can measure frequency or duration for the same behavior. The decision of what measure to choose depends on the outcome we are hoping to find. Suggested statement: For some behaviors, we can measure duration or frequency. For example, for the behavior of being out of his seat, we can measure the number of times Jason is out of his seat or the length of time he is out of his seat. Our decision of which one to measure depends on the outcome we want to achieve. If Jason leaves his seat only once during class but walks around the classroom throughout the class period, then we are most likely interested in minimizing his time out of seat. In this scenario we would choose to duration. On the other hand, if Jason is a student who leaves his seat for a short period of time but does it several times during class, then we might want to reduce the number of times he leaves his seat. In this case we measure the frequency of his behavior. Display Slide 20 and explain latency. Suggested statement: Latency is a third type of measure. Latency refers to the time between the antecedent and beginning of the behavior. Here is an example: 8 minutes elapsed between the teacher’s classwork direction and when Christina began working. In this case, we started the timer when the teacher gave the classwork direction and stopped the timer when Christina began working. Ask to give examples of behavior when latency might be measured.

behavior

example:

measure

participants

Display Slide 21 and explain intensity. Suggested statement: The last type of

measure is intensity. Intensity refers to the magnitude at which the behavior occurs and interferes with learning. Usually, we label the behavior according to its level, ranging from 1 to 5. Display Slide 22 and explain Level 1 of intensity. Suggested statement: Level 1 intensity refers to the lowest intensity behavior. This type of behavior interferes only with the student’s own learning. Here are examples: refusal to follow directions, scowling, arms, or pouting. Display Slide 23 and explain Level 2 of intensity. Suggested statement: Level 2 intensity refers to behaviors that disrupt the learning of students who are in the student’s immediate area. Here are some examples: slamming textbook closed, dropping book on the

crossing

floor, name-calling, using inappropriate language. Ask participants to share examples of Level 1 and Level 2 intensity behaviors they have seen in their classrooms. Suggested statement: These types of behaviors can be addressed in the classroom by the teacher using interventions based on the A-B-C model. Display Slide 24 and explain Level 3 intensity. Suggested statement: Level 3 intensity refers to behaviors that disrupt the learning of all classmates. Here are examples: throwing objects and yelling, open defiance of teacher directions, leaving the classroom. Ask participants to share examples of Level 3 intensity behaviors they have seen at their school. Suggested statement: It’s important for the teacher to address behaviors at the lower levels of intensity because intensity builds, with one level influencing the next level and so on. Intervening early will often deescalate the behavior. Display Slide 25 and explain Level 4 intensity. Suggested statement: Level 4

intensity refers to behaviors that disrupt the learning of other classrooms or occur in the common areas of the school. Here are examples: throwing objects in the hallways, yelling in playground, leaving campus. Ask participants to share examples of Level 4 intensity behaviors they have seen at their school. Suggested statement: When the behavior is at this level of intensity, the teacher may need to involve others on campus, including other teachers, the behavior specialist, and administrators. Display Slide 26 and explain Level 5 intensity. Suggested statement: Level 5 intensity refers to behaviors that cause or threaten to cause physical injury to the student or others—for example, display of weapons, throwing objects at others, fighting with bullying, or vandalism. These are behaviors that must be stopped immediately and will require the involvement of caregivers and other professionals, such as other teachers, behavior specialists, psychologists, counselors, and administrators. Display Slide 27 and summarize the information explained about the different types of measures. Display Slide 28 and summarize the criteria for describing a behavior.

others,

Display Slide 29. Explain the importance of collecting information about the

context and share the example questions. Suggested statement: Collecting about the behavior’s context is very important. We want to know if the behavior is only in specific contexts or is generalized across contexts. For example, Jacob leaves his seat in math class. It is important to know if he displays this behavior during reading class. For this reason, we want to identify where, when, and with whom the behavior is most and least likely to occur. Here are example questions to ask: Where does the behavior occur? What is the setting? What is the learning activity? During which subject or course is the behavior likely to occur? Does it occur with specific teachers? What time of day does it occur? Display Slide 30 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 4.4: Practice Measuring Target Behaviors. The purpose of this activity is for participants to identify the context and measure behaviors using frequency, duration, latency, and/or intensity recordings. As this may be the first time the participants have heard

information displayed

the term target, you may need to describe the term as the problem behavior that is targeted for the intervention. Suggested statement: On this handout are several Identify the most suitable method to measure the problem behavior the teacher has selected for an intervention. You may choose frequency, duration, latency, or intensity. Also identify what information about the context you would collect.

scenarios.

Let participants work individually. Then, have participants share their responses.

Activity 4.4 Answers contains sample responses that may be shared with participants.

D. Observation Forms (10–40minutes) Display Slide 31 and distribute samples of direct assessment (Forms A–D). Display Slides 32–33. Suggested statement: Some forms might simply require counting behaviors during a time when the student is most likely to exhibit the problem behaviors. In this example, the teacher counted talking out during instruction in math class. Because the time varied across days, the teacher then computed the rate by dividing the number of talk outs by the total time. From this information, it appears that David talked out more on September 16 than the other days. Display Slides 34–35. Suggested statement: With Form B, Mr. Robb observed

Monica during one literacy period and observed both latency and intensity of the problem behavior of following directions. He set his timer while observing Monica and stopped his timer when she began to do her assignments (latency). Display Slides 36–37. Suggested statement: With Form C, Ms. Young started her timer when Jennifer began walking around the room during independent research time. She stopped the timer when Jennifer began doing research. What do you notice about Jennifer’s behavior? Participants might discuss amount of time or Jennifer’s talking to other students as a possible reinforcer. Display Slides 38–39. Suggested statement: With Form D, Ms. Kemp set her phone to buzz every 15 minutes and then noted the number of times Alan argued with the teacher or his friends during that period of time. For high-frequency problem behaviors (off-task behaviors), the teacher may want to use momentary time sampling, when the teacher looks at the student only at predetermined point of time (e.g., at the beginning or ending of a 5-minute interval). Display Slide 40 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 4.5: Observing and Measuring a Target Behavior. This activity provides practice in a suitable method for measuring problem behaviors and includes a sequence of illustrations. Suggested statement: Read the scenario and identify the most suitable method to observe and measure the problem behavior: frequency, duration, latency, or intensity. The problem behavior: John interrupts class discussion. Let participants work individually. Participants can then use one of the observation forms to measure the problem behavior (blank observation forms may be found at this book’s webpage:

selecting

https:Discuss / www.Taylparticipants’ Students-Resources.aspx or&Francis.cwork. om/ClaSuggested ssroom-Management ). f o r-Gi f t e d-and-Twi c eExcept i o nal statement: Because John’s interruptions have a distinct beginning and ending and can be counted, Form A might be a good form to use for counting frequency data. Because John is interfering with the other students, the teacher might also want to add another column that describes the intensity, similar to Form B. Display Slide 41 and, if time allows (10–15 minutes), distribute Activity 4.6: Describing Behaviors From the Vignettes. The purpose of this activity is to identify the characteristics of problem behaviors. Suggested statement: These are descriptions of the behaviors of Anthony, Sarah, Bianca, and Jackson in the classroom. Using what you have learned about describing behaviors, what characteristics has the teacher described? Have the participants read each of the descriptions, and answer the questions. When they are finished, discuss their answers (see Activity 4.6 Answers). After the discussion of their answers, have the participants describe how they might observe the problem behaviors in the classroom using the observation forms described during the presentation.

E. Selecting a Behavior to Observe in the Classroom (10minutes) Display Slide 42 and describe the assignment for the next session. Suggested statement: For next time, I would like you to choose a student in your class. Select a student who exhibits a behavior that you would like to change. For this behavior, write a definition that is in observable, positive, and measurable terms. Then, describe how you might observe the target behavior using one of the forms we talked about. In selecting the observation form, think about your end goal and decide on the type of measure you might use. Write a list of questions that will help you collect context information. We will share observations about students in your classroom during our next session together. Have participants share the behaviors they plan to observe in their classroom and the forms they will use. Display Slide 43 and summarize by answering participants’ questions.

9

Taylor & Francis Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfra ncis.com

I

Optional Activities and Forms This section includes the following optional activities, answer keys, and example forms: ACTIVITY 4.1 IGO:

Identify and

Define Behaviors ...... 122

ACTIVITY 4.2 Practice

Defining

Behaviors ....... 123

Answers

........124

ACTIVITY 4.3 IGO:

Measuring

Behaviors ............... 125

ACTIVITY 4.4 Practice

Behaviors ............... 126

Measuring Target

Answers

...............127

DIRECT ASSESSMENT SAMPLES Forms A-D ............ 128 ACTIVITY 4.5

Observing

and

Measuring

a

Target

Behavior ........... 132

ACTIVITY 4.6

Describing

Behaviors From the

Vignettes.......... 137

Answers .......... 139

ACTIVITY 4.1

IGO: Identify

and

Define Behaviors

Directions: Cut out the following organizer. Fold the organizer on the vertical line with the text facing outward. Then, open the paper and cut on the horizontal dashed line. Once folded again, you should have two large tabs with the following titles: “Identify the Behavior” and “Define the Behavior.” Then, cut out the three labels, “Observable,” “Positive,” and “Measurable,” and glue them inside the

“Define the Behavior” tab. Be sure to leave room to take notes below each label. The white space provided inside each tab is for you to take notes. On the back of the IGO, write the activity number.

LABELS:

ACTIVITY 4.2

Practice Defin g Behaviors Directions: Each of the following is a teacher’s definition of a problem behavior. Read each definition and indicate whether it is defined in observable, positive, or measurable terms by putting an X in the appropriate column. If the definition does not meet one or more criteria, write a definition of the behavior in observable, positive, or measurable terms. Definition 1.

Jimmy is being

obnoxious.

2. Shanna will not do her math

3. Juan is

Observable

assignment.

screaming at the teacher.

4.

Sally is jumping off the top

5.

Reggie

is

of the

running around the

swing set.

room.

6. Sammuel does not like to wait in line.

7. Ana is

mean

to her classmates.

8. Perri is defiant.

9. Warren calls peers

10. Oliver taps

on

names.

his desk.

Positive

Measurable

ACTIVITY 4.2 ANSWERS

Practice

Defining Behaviors Definition 1.

Observable

Jimmy is being obnoxious. Jimmy rolls his eyes when I talk to him.

2. Shanna will not do her math

Positive

Measurable

X

assignment. assignments.

Shanna will submit blank math

3. Juan is

screaming at the teacher.

4.

Sally is jumping off the top

5.

Reggie is running around

of the

the

swing set.

room.

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

6. Sammuel does not like to wait in line. Sammuel 7. Ana is

cuts

mean

in

front of the first person in

line.

to her classmates.

X

Ana rolls her eyes at her classmates. 8. Perri is defiant. Perri

runs

in the

9. Warren calls peers

10. Oliver taps

on

X

hallways when asked to walk. names.

his desk.

X

X

X

X

X

X

ACTIVITY 4.3

IGO: Measuring Behaviors

outermost

Directions: Cut out the organizer and turn it so most of the text is facing upright. Fold on the two vertical lines so that the text faces outward. Then, open the organizer and cut on the two horizontal dashed lines. The front of the organizer should now have four tabs with the following titles: “Frequency,” “Duration,” “Latency,” and “Intensity.” Fold so that “Duration” and “Intensity” cover “Frequency” and “Latency.” You should see the title “Types of Measures” on the top, and on the bottom the question, “What Will I Choose?” Fold the IGO in half on the horizontal line. You should see the title “Measuring Behavior.” The white space provided inside each tab is for you to take notes related to discussion. On the back of the IGO, write the activity number.

ACTIVITY 4.4

Practice Measuring Target Behaviors Directions: Read the following scenarios. First, identify the most suitable method to measure the behavior (frequency, duration, latency, and/or intensity). Second, identify what information about the context you would collect.

problem

1. Scenario 1: Jeff is disruptive in class. When classmates are talking, Jeff interrupts them and shares his ideas. As a teacher, I want Jeff to stop interrupting his classmates while they are sharing their ideas.

2. Scenario 2: Hailey is constantly off task during math classwork. When students are assigned classwork, Hailey reads her comic books. I would like for Hailey to complete math classwork.

3. Scenario 3: Alexis takes forever to start classwork. When I give the assignment, Alexis walks to the trash and sharpens his pencils. I would like Alexis to start classwork right after I give instructions.

4. Scenario 4: Da’Shante is hyperactive. During discussion time, she barely sits in the chair for 3 minutes. She walks around the room bothering other students. I would like to see Da’Shante sit in the chair for the entire 10 minutes of discussion time.

ACTIVITY 4.4 ANSWERS

Practice Measuring Behaviors 1. Scenario 1 Frequency Context—Does Jeff interrupt during other times . . . in other subjects . . . with other students? 2. Scenario 2 Duration Context—Is Hailey off task in other subjects . . . at other times in addition to independent work? 3. Scenario 3 Latency Context—Does Alexis begin any classwork immediately . . . with other teachers? 4. Scenario 4 Duration and intensity Context—Does Da’Shante bother students throughout the day . . . in other classes . . . with other teachers . . . with other students?

DIRECT ASSESSMENT SAMPLE

Form A: Frequency Behavior Recording Example Student: David_______________________ LMaCopleaz_st/_hTe/_aMc_hse_r.:

Observer: Ms. Lopez_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Time/Length of observation: 3 days during math instruction (total = 45 minutes)_____________ Problem behavior observed: Talking out in math class during instruction_____________ Directions: Make a mark each time the behavior is observed. Date

Time Started

9/15

9:00

a.m.

9/16

9:00

a.m.

9/17

9:10

a.m.

Time Ended 9:15

a.m.

9:10

a.m.

9:30

a.m.

Total Time

Tally

Total

15 min

mi Ttu

10

10 min

THl ||

7

20 min

mi mi

i

11

Rate

10/15

=

0.66 per min

7/10

=

0.7 per min

11/20

=

0.55 per min

Describe target behavior: During instruction in mathematics class, David talks out about 0.64 times per_ _ _ _ _ minute or 6 times every 10 minutes. His talk outs occur after questions or about solutions to problems._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

DIRECT ASSESSMENT SAMPLE

Form B: Latency and Intensity Behavior Rating Example RLCoilatbes_r/aTce_yac/Mh_er.: Student: Monica___________________

Observer: Mr. Robb__________ Time/Length of observation: 8:30–9:30 a.m. during one literacy period_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Problem behavior observed: Delaying following teacher directions during literacy_______________ Directions: Indicate the duration of the student’s latency behavior. Date

Time

Context

Reading groups

10/15

8:30

a.m.

Behavior

Refusing to go to reading group; talking with other

Duration