Children are Artists: Supporting Children's Learning Identity as Artists 2022054337, 2022054338, 9781032347219, 9781032347233, 9781003323501

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Children are Artists: Supporting Children’s Learning Identity as Artists

This book explores how we can better understand and support children’s learning identity as artists. It discusses an innovative pedagogical approach that outlines parents’ and educators’ roles in developing and supporting children as artists. Drawing on original research, the book discusses rich case study examples and vignettes to give new insights into children’s learning and developing identities as artists. It identifies the key characteristics of children’s creative learning and outlines a creative and reflective pedagogy while highlighting the role of adults in the process. The chapters discuss topics such as curiosity, creative skills, self-directed learning, real-life contexts for learning and ways of engaging creative learning and imagination. The book provides a new model for children’s art education and will be essential reading for academics, researchers, and students in the fields of arts education, creativity and learning. It will also appeal to specialist art educators and policy makers within the arts and arts education. Penny Hay is Reader in Creative Teaching and Learning and Research Fellow, Bath Spa University, UK and Director of Research, House of Imagination, UK.

Routledge Research in Arts Education

Books in the series include: The Value of Drawing Instruction in the Visual Arts and Across Curricula Historical and Philosophical Arguments for Drawing in the Digital Age Seymour Simmons III Perspectives on Learning Assessment in the Arts in Higher Education Supporting Transparent Assessment across Artistic Disciplines Edited by Diane Leduc and Sébastien Béland Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies in Music Education Expanding Culturally Responsive Teaching to Sustain Diverse Musical Cultures and Identities Emily Good-Perkins Addressing Issues of Mental Health in Schools through the Arts Teachers and Music Therapists Working Together Edited by Jane Tarr and Nick Clough Educating for Peace through Theatrical Arts International Perspectives on Peacebuilding Instruction Edited by Candice C. Carter and Rodrigo Benza Guerra Artist-Teacher Practice and the Expectation of an Aesthetic Life Creative Being in the Neoliberal Classroom Carol Wild Counternarratives from Asian American Art Educators Identities, Pedagogies, and Practice beyond the Western Paradigm Edited by Ryan Sin, Maria Lim, Oksun Lee, and Sandrine Han Children are Artists: Supporting Children’s Learning Identity as Artists Penny Hay

Children are Artists: Supporting Children’s Learning Identity as Artists Penny Hay

First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Penny Hay The right of Penny Hay to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hay, Penny, 1961- author. Title: Children are artists : supporting children’s learning identity as artists / Penny Hay. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Series: Routledge research in arts education | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2022054337 (print) | LCCN 2022054338 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032347219 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032347233 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003323501 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Child artists. | Art--Study and teaching. | Creative ability in children. Classification: LCC N351 .H39 2023 (print) | LCC N351 (ebook) | DDC 704/.083--dc23/eng/20230208 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022054337 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022054338 ISBN: 978-1-032-34721-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-34723-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-32350-1 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501 Typeset in Galliard by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)

Contents

List of figures Acknowledgements 1 Why art? Context and rationale

vi viii 1

2 Children as artists

16

3 A creative methodology: Principles and processes

54

4 Vignettes: Lily, Luc and Kitty

73

5 Case studies of children as artists: Glow moments

88

6 How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?

155

7 Everyone has the potential to be an artist

179

Index

187

Figures

.1 4 4.2 4.3 4.4 .5 4 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25

Rainbow by Lily, age 3 years Rainbow by Lily, age 5 years The pink lake by Lily, age 4 years Edwina Bridgeman working with children at Victoria Art Gallery, Bath Luc, age 9 years, inspired by Howard Hodgkin’s paintings Kitty (4.5 years): dragon Documenting learning Window installation, Creative Space Bo creating ‘Patternworld’, age 5 years Bo exploring materials, age 6 years ‘Key world’ by Bo, age 7 years ‘Patternworld’ painting by Bo, age 5 years Sad bird exhibition in the Creative Space ‘Patternworld’, acrylic painting by Bo, age 7 years ‘Patternworld 2’, acrylic painting by Bo, age 7 years Extract-1 from Bo’s Beautiful Book, age 7 years Extract-2 from Bo’s Beautiful Book, age 7 years Ink on canvas by Bo, age 7 years Pattern-making-1 by Bo, age 7 years Pattern-making-2 by Bo, age 7 years Pattern-making by Bo, age 8 years Landscape by Bo, age 8 years Bo using a sketchbook to develop ideas, age 8 years Ink and pastel drawing by Bo, age 7 years Collaborative drawing (with Penny), Bo, age 8 years Creative Space Dragon by Jay, age 6 years Monsters in Jay’s sketchbook, age 6 years Jay painting a monster, age 6 years Mountains by Jay, age 7 years Mountains and volcanoes by Jay, age 7 years Creature and Eagle by Jay, age 7 years Jay and the Shark by Jay, age 7 years

74 75 76 77 79 80 81 83 92 93 94 96 96 97 97 98 99 100 101 102 102 103 103 106 109 110 115 116 116 117 118 118 120

Figures  vii .26 5 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36

Pencil spiral by Jay, age 7 years Felt-tip spiral by Jay, age 7 years Spiral drawing in pastel by Jay, age 7 years Creative Space display Ship, marker pen, by Jamie, age 6 years ‘Being an Artist’ workshops Creativity Fair Creative Space displays Enrichment day Children’s exhibition: Shelter Insect, by Jay, age 13 years

121 122 122 126 137 139 141 143 145 145 150

Acknowledgements

The creation of this monograph has been a challenging and valuable journey. I am eternally grateful to my family and friends who have supported me throughout this process. Thank you to my supervisors at Bath Spa University and University of Exeter for their time, guidance and critical feedback. Professor Anna Craft’s work remains a constant source of inspiration. Thank you to all who have read my work and have shared their thoughts and insights. Thanks particularly to Professor Alf Coles, Dr. Fermín Viniegra and Professor Saville Kushner for their invaluable advice and support. Thank you to all my colleagues at Bath Spa University and House of Imagination for their ongoing support. Thank you especially to all the children who have inspired this study. You are present in every idea in this book. Thank you to my family for never letting me give up. I devote this book to Lily who inspired me to continue my journey as an artist.

1 Why art? Context and rationale

Art is fundamental to all of our lives. The focus of this study is to hypothesise what it means for children to see themselves as artists and to identify the various roles of adults in supporting children’s creative learning identity as artists. The overarching purpose of my research is to propose a new account of pedagogy in visual art education that responds specifically to the potential for children’s identity as artists. In this chapter, I contextualise the research focus and rationale and set out the parameters of the study. I look at how previous experience shapes the fundamental premise and research questions. The focus is on my research with House of Imagination (formerly 5×5×5=creativity) to establish the epistemic landscape and the concepts underpinning ‘Being an Artist’ workshops. Generalising from this experience, I explore and illuminate two essential aspects: children working with artists and the development of artistic identity and developing a creative learning environment for art practice alongside children. This work is located in the qualitative action research framework but e/ merges using a diffractive methodology drawing on Posthumanist and New Materialist ideas. The focus is on the notion of children as artists,and considers how adults can support their creative learning identity as artists. In my research, I build on the work of significant leaders in the field, including Dennis Atkinson and the late Anna Craft to generate new insights into a pedagogical approach that has wider relevance and educational significance for the future of art education. I also develop a particular understanding of the role of the adult alongside the child in creative endeavours in visual art and how it supports the development of an artistic identity. This study is conceived as a ‘site of experiment’ and employs a hybrid form of action research that embraces the arts and education as forms of enquiry. ‘Action research’ in the sense that knowledge (theory) is generated in the process of experimentation with pedagogical practice – what John Elliott (1989: 81) calls ‘practical theorising’ – using professional practice as the experimental site. This experimental pedagogy focuses on artistic learning and identity ‘involves moving into and through an evolving space of possibility’ (Davis et al. 2008: 83). I am interested in evidence-based ‘illumination’ (MacLure 2010) of children’s developing learning identity as artists and the role of the adult in this process. DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501-1

2  Why art? A fundamental premise of this research is that children can develop an artistic identity, a premise held by a number of thinkers, Joseph Beuys in particular. The statement every human being is an artist sets up a debate that informs the research aims and explores the concept that all children have the potential to develop as artists. Given the premise, this study investigates how adults can support children’s developing identity as artists. Self-image as an artist is an essential element of children’s ‘life-wide creativity’ (Craft 2003: 146); although, it is acknowledged that creativity is not only the domain of the arts. ‘This view also helps to explode the myth that only some people have the potential to be creative which as research has unequivocally shown, this is unfounded’ (Cremin 2017: 1). The research focuses on my own professional practice as an artist educator in the school attended by the children I focused on in the case studies. I worked with the same group of children for 5 years from when they were 4–9 years and documented their development as visual artists. This study builds on my previous research into children’s creative development and explores the value of creativity for self-actualisation whereby it is seen as an integral part of a child’s development. I draw on four themes identified in our research with House of Imagination (now in its 22nd year): creative values (ethos and priorities of adults), creative environments (emotional climate, time, space, resources), creative relationships (between adults and children), creative dispositions (behaviours, skills and capacities) and how these may support an individual child’s developing identity as an artist. If artistry is an aspect of identity, then, in conjunction with the four themes (creative values, environment, relationships and dispositions), this study explores important questions of how children might develop a positive attitude to being an artist; how the positive quality of the relationship between the adult and child can affect children’s learning identities as artists; and what strategies adults might use to support children’s artistic activities. My main aim was to develop a pedagogical account of how adults can support children’s creative learning identity as visual artists. The first premise is that every child has the potential to develop an artistic identity. ‘Everyone is an artist’ (Beuys 1970), ‘Research as art’ (Rinaldi 2006) and ‘Research as a habit of mind’ (Moss 2010) are guiding principles that have inspired my own practice as an artist, researcher and educator. My own arts educational practice is situated in both democratic learning and child-centred pedagogical approaches. I am particularly interested in researching the impact of democratic and participatory practice, with children as active citizens and as protagonists of their own learning and taking responsibility for developing their own creative ideas as opposed to being directed by adults. The case for democratic learning has been widely argued by key thinkers, including John Dewey, Paulo Freire and bell hooks: a pedagogy that values listening, dialogue and diversity and that is understood as ‘co-construction of meaning whose outcome is unpredictable’ (Moss 2010: 41). As Carlina Rinaldi states, ‘The potential for every child is stunted if the endpoint of learning is formulated in

Why art?  3 advance’ (Rinaldi 1993: 104). The notion of children as creative and competent is a key principle in my work. The rationale for this study is influenced by Dennis Atkinson, my colleague at Goldsmiths University, drawing on the work of Deleuze and Guattari, who places emphasis upon the immanence and necessary transcendence of local events of learning that have the potential to extend our comprehension of what art and learning can become. Inspired also by the work of Ranciere and Badiou who speak of art as a puncturing of established values and practice, Atkinson contests the notion of understanding art through established knowledge and practice and invites a focus on ‘the force of art challenging us to think’ (Atkinson 2017:141) to consider the dynamic process of learning itself. Freire and Dewey advocate a radical liberal educational philosophy committed to pluralistic, developmental and egalitarian values. The first step in this argument begins with Dewey who affirms that democracy and learning can be understood as a mode of being in the world and supports the argument for more open-ended and creative pedagogies. He states that democracy is primarily a mode of associated living embedded in the culture and social relationships of everyday life, … a personal way of individual life: …it signifies the possession and continual use of certain attitudes, forming personal character and determining desire and purpose in all the relations of life. (Dewey 1939: 2) Dewey argues that ‘Imagination is the chief instrument of the good … Art has been the means of keeping alive the sense of purposes that outrun evidence and of meanings that transcend indurated habit’ (1934: 348). In response to this, Elliot Eisner raised the question ‘What can education learn from the arts about the practice of education?’, answering that ‘artistically rooted qualitative forms of intelligence’ can help with all aspects of education, ‘from the design of curricula, to the practice of teaching, to the features of the environment in which students and teachers live’ (Eisner 2004: 1–13). To extend this, Guoping Zhao sets out a convincing argument that the essential role of art in education lies in its promotion of students’ self-formation and transformation and in its promotion of democracy as genuine plurality: Encountering the new and being taken beyond constitutes precisely what is essential to their self-formation. In this sense, art as alterity is more important for students who are still becoming, so they can be ever renewed and transformed, and that is the beauty and hope of education. (Zhao 2014: 259) In the conception of my research, I draw upon the notion of transformative learning frameworks, specifically models of critical reflection (Schon 1983)

4  Why art? and ‘consciousness-raising’ (Freire 1972), as well as the transformative nature of creativity (Beghetto and Kaufman 2007) in order to highlight the creative, transformative process involved in developing personal knowledge and insights. Essentially, the study is based on professional reflective practice. Through this critical reflection, I attempt to make sense of data to reflect the meaning that lies behind the experience, shifting from theory to theorising, making sense, noticing patterns to reach key insights into creative pedagogical practice. In one sense this could be conceived as a bricolage approach drawing on theory and practice as data. I embed ‘asides’ (St Pierre 2000) in the narrative in order to relocate my own personal experience yet provisional status of any emerging theory – a ‘what might be’. The initial vignettes also offer an illustration of the possible. The case studies provide a systematic analysis framed as ‘intrinsic case studies’ (Stake 1994) focusing on two children from a wider group to find patterns and illicit meaning. One of the principles in the research is to find meaning in experience through action enquiry. Meaning itself is, by definition, contingent: it is a product of a context with interactive effects being the complex dynamics of contingent interactions. Contingency—dependence on local contexts, the merging of dependent and independent variables, the effects of feedback in dynamic relationships—is all. All meaning is derived from experience. (Kushner 2017) Contingency is understood where we can show some dynamic relationship between the data sources, including theory and practice. There is no inherent truth or singular perspective of the research participant that is trying to be represented. To show that these findings are valid involves overcoming problems of attribution so the research task is to document it and understand its significance to find meaning. Saville Kushner expands on this notion: The methodological challenge is not easily resolved by attaching labels to people. All we succeed in doing is to disregard what may be the most significant variable: self-identity. We have to acknowledge that there is a contingent relation between action and actor, and, simultaneously, between actor and context. We have to be courageous and take on the implications of that directly. Kushner suggests this is ‘a philosophy of experience, not of ideas. Experience comes first, theorising follows, theory comes last’. Experience informing theory is the underlying principle of Practical Theory, and what makes Pragmatism a sound basis for evaluative research, from which people look to learn what to do next, is of the past…of the future. Pragmatism ‘collapses pasts and futures to the here-and-now’, and in this study the here-and-now is the pedagogical, experimental site where we might discover meaning.

Why art?  5 In relation to this authentic and creative approach, the concept of ‘wise’ and ‘humanising’ creativity has emerged in recent years (Craft et al. 2008) as an active process of change guided by compassion with reference to shared values and fluid identities (Chappell et al. 2012). This study explores the possibility of expanding on the idea that adults can be companions in children’s developing identities supported by Colwyn Trevarthen: Children …do their own education out of natural curiosity – and increase this with a powerful wish to share knowing and doing with people they love, and whose interests and purposes they respect … by mutual awareness of the variety of different individual interests, activities and pleasures that can be negotiated confidently with companions. (Trevarthen 2006: 121) In order to rebut any counter-arguments provoked by the study, I challenge traditional (and current) notions of ‘school art’ in a contemporary context, particularly in relation to practices in primary education in England. ‘Traditional’ notions of teaching visual art prioritise a deficit or transmission model of learning that is prescriptive. Features of a ‘traditional’ art pedagogy permeate the delivery of the National Curriculum for Art in England; these include prescriptive models of learning such as units of work and the Early Years Foundation Stage Goals that both take a formalist approach (drawing on the formal elements of a visual art language). Jeff Adams describes the reductive constraints of regulated institutional curricular and prescribed teaching methods, characterised by a hierarchical concept of art driven by concepts of individualistic talent and genius, and the adherence to a well established and largely unquestioned canon of great artists who work within a narrow range of aesthetic codes, normally those associated with mimetic depiction. Pedagogically these regimes rely upon an expert specialist for delivery of skills and appropriate sensibilities to a largely passive set of recipients – the learners. (Adams 2006) Despite some highly creative work existing in pockets, there is a crisis of confidence, particularly within primary art education perhaps attributable to a more complex range of conditions and circumstances. These include the status of the arts in education with commensurate limitations of time and resources, a lack of provision for professional development, the demise of Local Authorities and a lack of a critical framework to understand and recognise the benefits engendered. This indicates the space to explore alternatives to the prevailing doctrine and present more case studies of current pedagogical practice with creativity at their centre. A key aspect of this research is the potential for a new approach to pedagogy to empower adults in relation to their own creative capacities thus enabling them to co-design and facilitate creative interventions and simultaneously be able to construct a rationale for them.

6  Why art? Children’s rights to the arts are key to this as an inherent aspect of Liberal Arts tradition (Fielding and Moss 2010). The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 31 (UNESCO 2012) states that children and young people have a right to ‘participate fully’ and ‘freely’ in high-quality arts experiences as an integral part of their childhood and youth. I look at what might be considered to be ‘high-quality’ visual art experiences for children and offer some recommendations to make a difference to the culture of learning. I am committed to and explore the democratic notion of creativity that everyone has the capacity for ‘life-wide’ creativity that Anna Craft (2002: 22) describes as ‘… a fundamental aspect of human nature and that all children are capable of manifesting and developing their creativity as a life skill’. The main driver for this study is a desire to help children to be able to identify themselves as artists from an early age to understand the processes involved and to become immune to the potentially negative experience of ‘school art’ as often being different to contemporary art practice. I am particularly interested in creative and relational pedagogy and accounts of children as artists, artistry and the notion of identity emerging out of relationships. The study explores some of the transformative, radical and critical claims and ‘glow moments’ (Maclure 2010) that inform my methodology and have arisen out of my research with children working with art and artists. In this study, I aim to hold an analytical lens up to the process of adults supporting children’s views of themselves as artists and to explore the values, dispositions, environments and relationships that support this process. For the last 22 years, I have directed the research with House of Imagination (formerly 5×5×5=creativity), an arts-based action research organisation with charitable status. House of Imagination supports children and young people in their exploration and expression of ideas, helping them develop creative skills for life and improve their life chances. This is achieved through creative partnerships with artists, schools, cultural centres, higher education and creative industries. House of Imagination research was initially inspired by the educational approach in Reggio Emilia, Italy, which focuses on the creative development of children and adults. The Reggio Emilia approach is an example of sustained, local, creative and innovative practice. In the city of Reggio Emilia, the nature of meaningful creative enquiry in education has been an ongoing focus of exploration for more than 70 years. The image of the child is of a ‘rich child… strong, powerful, competent and, most of all connected to adults and other children’ (Malaguzzi 1993: 10). In Reggio Emilia, careful listening, observations and reflection on children’s learning give shape to pedagogical thought; it is a context in which the children’s curiosity, theories and research are legitimated to make learning visible. This matters because it shows the essence of a liberal and democratic approach to education. Within the Reggio Emilia approach, there is also the ‘emotionally moving sense of the search for meaning’ that makes research contemporary and alive (ibid: 150). It was Loris Malaguzzi who inspired in Reggio Emilia a belief in

Why art?  7 the importance of research as an integral part of everyday life. Peter Moss describes how Malaguzzi and the practice in Reggio Emilia have also provided us with a powerful tool for making school spaces for the practice of democratic political practice and pedagogical documentation: This method for making pedagogical work visible and therefore subject to interpretation and critique welcomes difference and confrontation, multiple perspectives and divergent interpretations. Pedagogical documentation serves several purposes: evaluation, where evaluation is understood as a democratic process of meaning making rather than the managerial assessment of quality; learning about learning, through adopting a researching approach. Behind the practice I believe is the ethical concept of a transparent school and transparent education. Reggio’s ‘pedagogy of listening’ provides one way in which this important shift can be made. For a pedagogy of listening means listening to thought – the ideas and theories, questions and answers of children – treating thought seriously and with respect, struggling to make meaning from what is said, without preconceived ideas of what is correct or appropriate. (Moss 2007: 9) This study does not intend to grapple with the historical significance of the Reggio Emilia philosophy. Rather, it explores the role of the adult artist researcher as a potential ‘interruption’ in art education, a positive creative disruption. The pedagogical approach in Reggio is radically different from the current orthodoxies in education in the UK – ones that define a deficit or transmission model of learning – and demonstrates the need to act on previous research with House of Imagination to offer a different approach to learning. Initiated as 5×5×5=creativity groups of five artists, five educational settings and five cultural centres work in multi-professional triangles to collect evidence of creativity and evaluate how best to support it. ‘5×5×5=creativity helps improve children’s life chances by developing their confidence in themselves as creative learners and thinkers whilst inspiring higher levels of motivation and engagement in their learning’. (Sally Jaeckle, former trustee) Rigorous evaluation has been a crucial aspect of House of Imagination research; qualitative and illuminative data have been gathered in order to influence educational practice both locally and nationally in the longer term. Throughout the research there has been a transformation of practice in classrooms and throughout whole schools. The key principles of House of Imagination in summary are as follows: Believing in the creative competence of all children from birth Valuing children’s enquiries and theories, within a culture of listening Valuing adults as creative enablers and co-researchers

8  Why art? Supporting reflective practice and constant evaluation Observing and documenting children’s learning Supporting children to express themselves in a hundred languages Collaborating with parents and the community In relation to the approaches and significance of this study, these principles and the findings from House of Imagination research have propelled my interest in exploring more deeply the essence of creative learning and enquiry and the conditions that may need to be in place to support children’s development and sense of identity as artists. House of Imagination research has focused on four themes as a framework for analysis: Creative values: a set of values based on the competence and strength of the child. Children are seen as creative and powerful learners and as people in their own right, rather than as people preparing for adulthood. Concepts of participation and democracy, reciprocity between children and adults, the significance of play, flow and deep engagement are central tenets of the research. Emphasis is placed on developing an environment of enquiry and attention is given to multi-modal learning. Creative relationships: attentive, respectful adults and children working collaboratively are at the heart of this research. The quality of attention given to children is vital to develop ‘a pedagogy of listening’ (Rinaldi 2001). Really listening to children’s ideas, observing children and documenting their learning are central to this pedagogical approach. The research recognises learning as construction of meaning, including ‘sustained shared thinking’ when an adult works with children to develop intellectual habits of mind as well as the importance of a creative and reflective approach that enables choice, ownership and relevance, drawing on the work of Craft et al. (2008). Creative environments: both physical and emotional environments are important, paying attention to space, time, resources and attention and drawing in part on the notion of the environment as the third educator. This focuses on developing an enabling context in supporting playfulness, encouraging self-confidence and self-esteem. Documentation is vital in a creative learning environment, where learning communities are fostered, and shared learning episodes are sustained over time. Adults offer children time and space to develop ideas as companions in learning. Creative learning behaviours, dispositions and ‘schemas’: learning includes supporting creative thinking and learning dispositions with attention to holistic learning, learner agency, persistence, openness, reflection and willingness to take risks. Children’s ‘schemas’ (universal patterns underpinning behaviour) and learning dispositions (habits of mind, such as engagement, curiosity, resourcefulness and perseverance) are observed and supported. Close observation, listening, documentation, interpretation, reflection and dialogue are central to understanding children’s learning dispositions.

Why art?  9 This onto-epistemic landscape explored in the literature identifies how the approach in House of Imagination and in this study is self-consciously different from other forms of working. It follows that the notion of ‘creative’ and ‘creativity’ requires more careful examination and critique. In this context, children’s creative learning identity is understood from a liberal education perspective and within that creativity assumes certain forms and properties compared to more conventional approaches to learning. It draws on sources that move beyond reductive rationalism. Importantly, it is this particular attention to children’s creative learning dispositions and behaviours that has driven me to explore them more deeply by focusing on children’s identity as creative individuals and, in particular, as artists. As a consequence of the work with 5×5×5 and now House of Imagination, I have developed a fascination not only with the image of the child as an artist – a view held by adults – but also with children’s self-images as artists. The intention is to build a perspective of the child in relation to how children are recognised and represented (in relation to art) in the literature but also in policy, in practice and in society more widely. Also, I develop different perspectives and models of arts education that develop a learning context for art-making that values the child’s individual ideas in a collaborative learning context. I explore the role of the adult in establishing a learning environment where children are able to see themselves as artists.

Being an artist A strand of my work that has led to this study is my role as an artist and parent, working with children at a local primary school. With artist Jane Turner, I co-designed the concept of ‘Being an Artist’ workshops to extend the opportunities for children’s art-making and to give them the experience of working as artists, alongside other artists. The aim of ‘Being an Artist’ is to go beyond the given curriculum and allow the children considerable freedom to express themselves through different processes and media in the visual arts in a designated Creative Space. ‘Being an Artist’ allows children to explore their own ideas and how they can be developed. It involves exploring art practice in conversation with others, asking good questions, making sense of experience, making meaning and understanding and developing work in a supportive environment. Key questions asked to the children during ‘Being an Artist’ workshops are as follows: (1) What do you want to say through your art? and (2) how do you want to share your ideas with others? Through these workshops, children have opportunities for exploration and for response and contextualisation of artwork with an emphasis on using innovative and imaginative approaches that stimulate the imagination and encourage independent thought. The radical educational thinker Paulo Freire described such a method of enquiry as ‘a process of self-awareness through collective self-enquiry and reflection’. The emphasis in the workshops is on different ways of knowing and thinking about art (and life): intuitive, practical, expressive and intellectual. Through dialogue we explore ideas about being an artist and how ideas are generated and developed.

10  Why art? In relation to Freire’s approach, emphasis on the children’s independence, autonomy and freedom to choose both themes and materials to explore contrasts with the Reggio Emilia approach, where the children’s theories and fascinations are supported in a co-constructed progettazione. In ‘Being an Artist’ workshops, each child has a sketchbook (visual journal or ideas book) that is personalised. This journal also aids my own reflections on the children’s learning and has informed my thinking in relation to their developing self-image as artists. Children soon take responsibility for developing their own ideas and themes in their own work in the context of the group. Each workshop session, children are encouraged to choose what they want to do, to work at their own pace so that they have a natural and personal experience of being an artist. ‘Children need to be taught some skills, they will know others, they will have fun and pleasure, ownership of the project and a sense of well-being’ (Laevers 1994: 192). In this context, careful observations of children provide an insight into their interests and pre-occupations. The adults facilitate and support the children’s ideas by respecting individual interests and taking time to make connections with the children’s thinking. Underpinning this approach is the emphasis on supporting children’s developing ideas, thoughts and feelings. Parents who are also professional artists or artist educators (including myself), as well as those interested in children’s art, work alongside the children and may bring artistic skills or creative conversations to the table; but what they do not define are prescriptions for learning or preconceived outcomes. This contrasts with more traditional models of ‘school art’ that may offer little educational or artistic value if the learning is already predefined by adults (often denigrated to pre-made models or stencils) prescribed by a national curriculum. In ‘Being an Artist’, the children’s ideas are valued, supported and shared. This development of a shared understanding and dialogue about ideas is vital in a climate of enquiry offering children the opportunity of making a personal connection to experiences and ideas. I intend to explore this in full as part of each case study. Annual evaluations of the workshops show that children like the space they are given to develop their own ideas without being directed or activities prescribed. Children have said: ‘We like being able to do what we want to do, and Penny and Jane help us if we need it’ … they ‘like the space to think’. Children are offered subtle encouragement to develop their creativity. The adults aim to show appropriate (not lax or overemphasised) recognition and praise, witnessing children’s efforts and encouraging each individual to share ideas with the group. I examine how ‘Being an Artist’ explores notions of ownership, relevance, innovation and co-participation, where control over process and content is handed back to the learner (Burnard et al. 2006). I pursue these aspects in this study.

Children working with artists and the development of artistic identity Experience in House of Imagination and ‘Being an Artist’ has generated the idea that artists can be excellent role models for children when they are

Why art?  11 dealing with powerful ideas. Creating a shared language to investigate how collaboration with artists can support children in the generation of these ideas is an important aspect of a new learning culture that values children and allows them to engage in these processes. My argument is that working with artists in an educational context brings new perspectives to the teaching and learning experience. Emily Pringle (former colleague at Tate Modern) discusses how artists engage with learners primarily through discussion and by exchanging ideas and experiences. There is evidence of co-constructed, collaborative learning taking place, whereby shared knowledge is generated. The artist functions as co-learner, rather than as an infallible expert transmitting knowledge to the participants. Similarly, artists engaged in the Reggio Emilia approach also promote experiential learning with an emphasis on giving participants the opportunity to experiment in a hundred languages within a supportive environment: The atelierista (artist) is a studio worker, an artisan, a lender of tools, a partner in a quest or journey. In this way you are a maker, but maybe more richly you are an enabler, someone who will attend to others in their creation, their development and their communication of knowledge. (Vecchi in Edwards et al. 1998: 78) In particular, the open-ended, critically reflective and collaborative form of engagement that artists and participants enter into is not only fundamental to current ideas around creative teaching and learning but is also central to, and inspired by, the nature of creative practice itself. It is this link between creative practice and pedagogy – as an experimental pedagogical site for learning – that I want to explore further in relation to my research questions. In the spirit of the Reggio Emilia approach, the development of ideas often depends on the social interaction of group reflections and conversations. Drawing on their own skills and dispositions, artists can offer possible structures or ‘holding forms’ for children’s expressivity. Documentation in relation to this process is vital in revealing children’s fascinations and curiosities. So too is the place of provocation or intervention. In response to children’s ideas, artists can offer pivotal moments to extend those ideas. Once children are helped to perceive themselves as authors or inventors, once they are helped to discover the pleasures of inquiry, their motivation and interest explode … to disappoint the children deprives them of possibilities that no exhortation can arouse in later years. (Edwards et al. 1998: 89) This process requires a culture of open discussion about creative processes and the notion of being an artist. I am interested in how you become an artist through what you are and what you do, rather than perpetuating a false dualism.

12  Why art?

Developing a creative learning environment for art practice alongside children A feature of both ‘Being an Artist’ and House of Imagination is the commitment to developing a creative environment as a laboratory for creative participation and critical dialogue between children and adults. As an artist and educator, I argue that children have a right to be educated in thoughtfully designed spaces – creative environments, such as a studio or atelier. As in the Reggio Emilia approach, the environment is seen as the third educator and the experiences of children are enriched if they are provided with rich materials in a Creative Space. Children can best create meaning and make sense of their world through inhabiting rich environments that support ‘complex, varied, sustained, and changing relationships between people, the world of experience, ideas and the many ways of expressing ideas’ (Edwards et al. 1998: 145). Practice in Reggio Emilia has shown that a creative environment can be designed to demonstrate the belief that children deserve to be educated in such beautiful spaces. Gandini (2005) explores how the experiences of children interacting with rich materials in the ‘atelier’ affect an entire school’s approach to the construction and expression of thought and learning. An artist’s studio space is a good model for this kind of a creative ‘laboratory’. ‘Creative environments are constructed out of materials, objects, choice, involvement and following children’s fascinations, with enthusiasm, absorption, collaboration and cooperation’ (Bancroft et al. 2008: 59). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi found that when people find themselves in beautiful settings, they are more likely to find new connections among ideas. It follows that if we provide multi-faceted, multi-layered, visual, tactile, kinaesthetic and emotional spaces for children, such spaces will be enabling and creative environments for learning. I am keen to prioritise an alternative and provocative learning environment to enhance children’s perceptual awareness and provide a place for wonder, curiosity and the expression of ideas. A creative environment is informed by the materials made available, the objects or images used as a possible provocation and the potential for children to follow their own fascinations. The visual impact of a creative and thoughtful environment for children to make art is key: clearly identified spaces full of light with accessible and good quality materials and with designated areas for display and making are ideal. Imagine a world where our children are engaged in serious creative play, where their environments are full of space and light … where adults are companions in the children’s enquiries about the world … creative adults who show a deep respect for children’s ideas, theories and fascinations. (Bancroft et al. 2008: 3) A designated studio space for the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops at this school gives the children the opportunity to work alongside artists and make art that is engaged with contemporary practices. It is this concept of an open

Why art?  13 creative studio environment that enables children to express their thoughts through a range of creative possibilities, working alongside creative educators and artists in dialogue. This kind of approach has the capacity to feed the creativity of both the children and the adults involved. In House of Imagination for example, artist Karen Wallis asked the question: What made our creative environment? 1 materials 2 new things 3 choice 4 perception rather than immersion 5 involvement 6 following children’s fascinations: looking at and looking through – with enthusiasm, absorption, collaboration and cooperation Vea Vecchi is an atelierista in Reggio Emilia who demonstrates how the space we provide affords the kind of learning that we value and that the Creative Space makes it possible for children to encounter interesting contexts where they can explore diverse ideas and materials. This allows us to understand ‘how children invent autonomous vehicles of expressive freedom, cognitive freedom, symbolic freedom, and paths to communication’ (Vecchi 2010: 304). It is this concept of an open, reflective and creative studio environment that I explore in my research in the hope that it holds a promise for future communities of creative learning in art education. The two central aims of my research were to investigate the notion that children can develop an identity of themselves as artists and to provide an interpretive account of educational practice that supports children’s creative development and learning identity as artists. The principal research questions guiding my study were: how can I usefully define what it means for children to develop their learning identity as artists? What strategies can adults (educators, artists, parents) employ to support children’s creative development and learning identity as artists? Central to this is the notion of children as artists. In exploring concepts of creative development, artists in education and democratic and participatory practice, I aim to show the following: a deeper understanding of children as artists and a pedagogical theory to support the development of children’s identity as artists; an account of how adults can support children’s creative development and identity as artists; how children engage with adults as creative role models; and the kinds of creative values, dispositions, relationships and learning environments that can promote a positive identity in children as artists.

Chapter summary In my doctoral research I set out to investigate and examine the role of adults alongside children in creative endeavours, specifically in visual art

14  Why art? education. I gained a deeper understanding of children as artists and generated a theory to support the development of children’s identity as artists. I wanted to develop a model of practice showing how adults can support children’s creative development and identity as artists and how children engage with adults as creative role models. This chapter sets out the research focus and rationale, signposting the epistemic landscape that has shaped my research focus, illuminating essential aspects. My theoretical research is informed by my participatory research in House of Imagination (formerly 5×5×5=creativity) and in ‘Being an Artist’ workshops and by my own practice as an artist. The process is one of theorising through experience, building on existing theory and postulating new ideas to inform a paradigm shift. The focus is particularly on the concept of children as artists, and the research offers the opportunity to examine the role of adults in supporting children’s creative learning identity as artists.

References Adams, E. (2006) Drawing Insights. London: Drawing Power, the Campaign for Drawing. Atkinson, D. (2017) Without Criteria: Art and Learning and the Adventure of Pedagogy. International Journal of Art and Design Education, 36, pp. 141–152. Bancroft, S. Fawcett, M., and Hay, P. (2008) Researching Children Researching the World: 5x5x5=Creativity. London: Trentham Books. Beghetto, R. A., and Kaufman, J. E. (2007) ‘Toward a Broader Conception of Creativity: A Case for “Mini-C” Creativity‘. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1(2), pp. 73–79. Beuys, J. (1970) ‘The Word,’ in Durini, L. (ed.) The Felt Hat: Joseph Beuys: A Life Told. Milan: Charta. Burnard, P., Craft, A., and Cremin, T. (2006) Documenting ‘Possibility Thinking’: A Journey of Collaborative Enquiry, International Journal of Early Years Education, 14(3), pp. 243–262. Chappell, K., Craft, A., Rolfe, L., and Jobbins, V. (2012) Humanizing Creativity: Valuing our Journeys of Becoming. International Journal of Education and the Arts, 13(8), pp. 1–35. Craft, A. (2002) Creativity and the Early Years: A Lifewide Foundation. London: Continuum. Craft, A. (2003) The Limits to Creativity in Education: Dilemmas for the Educator. British Journal of Education Studies, 51(2), pp. 113–127. Craft, A., Cremin, T., and Burnard, P. (eds.) (2008) Creative Learning and How We Document It. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books. Cremin, T. (ed.) (2017) Creativity and Creative Pedagogies in the Early and Primary Years. Abingdon: Routledge. Davis, B., Sumara, D., and Luce-Kapler, R. (2008) Engaging Minds: Changing Teaching in Complex Times, 2nd edition. New York: Taylor and Francis. Dewey, John. (1934) Art As Experience, New York: Minton Balch and Co. Dewey, J. (1939) Freedom and Culture. New York: Putnam’s Sons. Edwards, C. Gandini, L., and Forman, G. (1998) The Hundred Languages of Children – Advanced Reflections. Greenwich, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing

Why art?  15 Eisner, E. (2004) What Can Education Learn from the Arts About the Practice of Education? International Journal of Education and the Arts, 5(4), pp. 1–8. Elliott, J. (1989) Educational Theory and the Professional Learning of Teachers: An Overview. Cambridge Journal of Education, 19(1), pp. 81–101. Fielding, M., and Moss, P. (2011) [2010] Radical Education and the Common School: A Democratic Alternative. London: Routledge. Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Gandini, L., Hill, L., Cadwell, L., and Schwall, C. (eds.) (2005) In the Spirit of the Studio: Learning from the Atelier of Reggio Emilia. New York: Teachers’ College Press. Kushner, S. (2017) Evaluative Research Methods: Managing the Complexities of Judgement in the Field Information Age. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Laevers, F. (1994) The Leuven Involvement Scale for Young Children. Leuven, Belgium: Centre for Experiential Education. MacLure, M. (2010) The Offence of Theory. Journal of Education Policy, 25(2), pp. 277–286. Malaguzzi, L. (1993) ‘For an Education Based on Relationships’ in Young Children. London: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Moss, P. (2010) We Cannot Continue as We Are: The Educator in an Education for Survival. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 11(1), pp. 8–19. Rinaldi, C. (1993) ‘The Emergent Curriculum and Social Constructivism,’ in Edwards, C., Gandini, L., Forman, G. (eds.) The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood Education, pp. 101–111. Norwood New Jersey: Ablex. Rinaldi, C. (2001) ‘The Courage of Utopia,’ in Guidici, C., and Rinaldi, C. with Krechevsky, M. (eds.) Making Learning Visible: Children as Individual and Group Learners, pp. 37–53. Cambridge: Reggio Children and Project Zero, Reggio Emilia and Harvard. Rinaldi, C. (2006) In Dialogue with Reggio: Listening, Researching and Learning. Oxford: Routledge. Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London: Basic Books. St Pierre, E. (2000) ‘Nomadic Inquiry in the Smooth Spaces of the Field: A Preface,’ in St Pierre, E., and Pillow, W. (eds.) Working the Ruins: Feminist Poststructural Theory and Methods in Education, pp. 258–283. London: Routledge. Stake, R. (1994) ‘Case Studies,’ in Denzin, N., and Lincoln, Y. (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research, pp. 18–32. London: Sage Publications. Trevarthen, C. (2006) Doing Education – To Know What Others Know. Early Education, 49, pp. 11–13. UNESCO (2012) United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 31. Vecchi, V. (2010) Art and Creativity in Reggio Emilia: Exploring the Role and Potential of Ateliers in Early Childhood Education. London: Routledge. Zhao, G. (2014) Art as Alterity in Education. Educational Theory, 64(3), pp. 245–259.

2 Children as artists

This monograph focuses on the development of children as visual artists and considers how adults can support their learning identity as artists. This chapter defines the meaning of these elements in the context of the study with a review of the literature and research on children as artists. A critical engagement with the ideas of others has influenced the development of this enquiry, as well as its contribution to knowledge. In this chapter, I critically review relevant literature to locate my own study within the current body of knowledge. The literature review throws light on the contested notion of the artist and establishes a conceptual premise of children as artists and pedagogies that support this notion. I explore these terms in arts academic and arts education literature. Concepts under investigation include the definitions of artist, artistry, children’s learning identity, creativity and pedagogy – these are related with conceptual coherence. I critique relevant research on adults’ roles in supporting children’s learning identities as artists. I challenge assumptions about arts education that can perpetuate certain orthodoxies, especially in primary schools. I look closely at the theoretical underpinning of children working with artists and the development of artistic identity, reaching a definition of ‘artist’ for the purpose of this study. I consider the notion of children as artists and the role of the adult working towards a process model of children’s developing artistic identity. I also look in detail at the pedagogical approach to arts and creativity in Reggio Emilia and the concept of a pedagogy for creativity and being an artist. I present analyses of concepts of creativity, working towards a definition in the light of this study. I focus on the notion of artistry within the educational literature on creativity, particularly in developing a creative learning environment for art practice and the relationship between creativity and the arts in the UK government’s educational documentation. There is a range of perspectives on recent models of arts education in the UK that include contested notions existing of several terms, such as creativity, creative, artist, artistic, pedagogy and research. In this light, I consider the work of Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari which is instrumental in reconceptualising pedagogy in reaction to the capitalist commodification of the arts. I use a Deleuzian lens to interrogate the discourses around pedagogical DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501-2

Children as artists  17 thinking in relation to primary arts education. I also draw on Gert Biesta and Dennis Atkinson’s work and their thinking around arts education – this work has enabled me to think differently about my own research. Voicing concerns about the binary assumptions behind previous arts education models that led to the development of a formalist curriculum for primary schools, I turn to discourses that suggest ways forward and the potential of a fluid, flexible and multidimensional theoretical position. A literature review helped me to lay out the epistemic landscape and identifies new pathways to explore. The focus is on children as artists in primary education, and attention is given to the following concepts: adults as companions, the reciprocity of children and adults, the construction of meaning through art-making, multi-modal learning, children’s theories of the world, being an artist and identity construction.

Defining the terms artist and artistry The concept of an artist is often contested. John Berger’s seminal text Ways of Seeing offered one of the first democratic conceptions of artistry and allowed everyday knowledge and experience, rather than an authorised body of knowledge to inform our understanding of visual culture. Plural interpretations are valid, which offer a democratic interpretive space for making art; it is the form and content of artworks that are the ultimate arbiters of meaning, rather than the relative knowledge learners bring. Others have argued that artistry is fundamentally an aspect of individual genius, but this appears to be a romantic portrayal of the heroic artist in contrast to the historically dominant workshop ateliers of renaissance mass production. My hunch about art is that a field that has changed in appearance as fast as it has must also have changed in meaning and function, perhaps to the extent that its role is qualitative (offering a way of perceiving things) rather than quantitative (producing physical objects or specific actions). (Reiss and Pringle 2003: 215−221) Sarat Maharaj also explores the notion of art and artist and cites two wellknown but diverse views to illustrate his position: Marcel Duchamp spent years devising a language for art, with rules, anti-rules and measures, mingled with doses of quirk, chance and random intrusion. In contrast to Duchamp’s conceptual domain, David Hockney focuses on ‘regimes of seeing’ and ‘art research’ involving careful looking and embodied knowledge (Maharaj 2009). Hockney looks closely at the way we ‘see’ through our eyes and how our perceptual experience is often moulded by the artist’s sensibilities and constantly amended by the artist’s embodied knowledge. In relation to the concepts of ‘artist’ and ‘artistry’, Maharaj draws a vital distinction between ‘thinking through the visual’ and ‘visual thinking’. By the latter, he means those approaches to the visual that treat it predominantly as an ‘image-lingo’. The process of ‘thinking through the

18  Children as artists visual’ is more about transition and transformation than a grammatical framework. This is corroborated by G. James Daichendt who claims that ‘artistic thinking’ stems from ‘a particular way of seeing and understanding experiences’ (Daichendt 2010: 62) and suggests that the individual can ‘engage emotionally and cognitively with ideas and objects’ (Daichendt 2010: 66). Deleuze, often in collaboration with Guattari, challenges conventional forms of thought and promotes the invention of new ways of thinking with multiple interconnections and contradictions of human interactions appearing in complex rhizomatic forms. Deleuze was concerned to look at the way we create images and sensations and express ourselves through them. In keeping with this post-structural approach, where the process itself is relative and constructed, meaning is negotiated through the system of differences. Maharaj also explains these complexities in direct relation to the art process: The agglutinative brings into play associative manoeuvres, juxtaposition, blend and splice, non-inflexional modes of elision and stickiness … More likely we are faced with an agrammaticality that has the capacity to oscillate rapidly between several modalities. In this sense, it is at odds with the computational constancy and equilibrium of know-how and closer to the all-over smears, surges and spasms, the unpredictable swell and dip of no-how. (Maharaj 2009) Maharaj recognises the fluidity of meaning in any artwork that the artist plays with the spaces in-between ideas, forms, modes and concepts. Aligned with this, Richard Wentworth (Patron of House of Imagination), in dialogue with Karen Raney, talks about thoughtfulness as his purpose for being an artist: ‘I think my medium probably is my ability to think about things. It’s thoughtfulness’ (Raney 2003: 214). Like the ideas of Maharaj, this expands on the way that contemporary artists think about ‘medium’ and ‘aesthetics’ as in constant flux. The hybrid term ‘visual literacy’ exposes the use of linguistic models to understand art rather than to replace it. Richmond suggests that, despite its fluidity, ‘art can be seen as a distinctive form of understanding involving variously feeling, imagination, concepts, form, aesthetics, expression and the sense of sight as a way of making sense of experience’ (Richmond 2009: 526). This view of art seems essential to the concept of being an artist and ‘makes it possible to unmask and free ourselves from existing discourses, concepts and constructions, and to move on by producing different ones’ (Dahlberg et al. 2007: 79). Emily Pringle defines art and artists’ practice as a process of conceptual and experiential enquiry which embraces inspiration, looking, questioning, making, reflective thinking and the building of meanings – as a process of conceptual enquiry and meaning-making. An epistemological and ontological assumption in this study is that meaning is generated through a

Children as artists  19 combination of creativity and reflection that stems from the individual’s engagement with their previous and ongoing experience. Pringle expands on this in her summary: 1 Artists have the ability to take risks and experiment and they feel comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty. 2 Artists engage in ‘reflective practice’, wherein they simultaneously engage in the manipulation of materials and processes while also critically appraising the work in order to progress it. The creative process is thus seen as a dialogue between the artist and the work. 3 Artists are involved in ‘experiential learning’ which takes place through the connection of past experiences with new phenomena and moves from reflection to active experimentation. (Pringle 2006: 14) Pringle thus proposes that an important element of artists’ knowledge is that which enables them to realise their ideas. This artistic knowledge resembles what has been defined by the educationalist Michael Eraut as practical knowledge or know how. Artistic ‘know how’ is experiential, complex and context-specific. Artists talk about the importance of learning through doing and how their knowledge is gained through practice. In some cases, their knowledge is embodied and resists systematic and explicit organisation. Typically, artists reveal their knowledge through the art-making process, what Schon (2002) refers to as ‘knowing in action’ and by making their ideas explicit, generally in visual form. Roy Prentice (2000: 523) identifies artwork as ‘imaginative outcome’ that embodies ‘the knowledge required for its production’. Nick Addison (2010: 49) expands on this and suggests that art involves how people are ‘able to intensify habitual ways of perceiving the world to transcend the limitations of their current situation’. In accordance with Dewey, ‘imagination’ is central to the artistic process and is the gateway to understanding experience and meaning. Dewey (1934: 283) proposes that ‘all conscious experience has of necessity some degree of imaginative quality’. Familiar with the situation of finding things out and experimentation, the artist combines enquiry with imagination. Artists think, develop skills, explore, make and test ideas and concepts in spaces of ‘dynamic organisation’ (Dewey 1934: 57) and ‘disorganisation’, where artists select, simplify, clarify, abridge, unmake and condense in order to make a whole. Such spaces of anticipation present evidence of enquiry, contemplation, sense-making and connection (ibid.). Through this fluid state there is a flow ‘from something to something’ (Dewey 1934: 38). The tension or ‘resistance’ is acknowledged as ‘disruption’ or ‘interruption’ and the disordering of ideas (Dewey 1934: 14). Imaginative vision is the power that unifies all the constituents of the matter of a work of art, making a whole out of them in all their variety. (Dewey 1934: 286)

20  Children as artists Addison extends Dewey’s notion of imagination and lists the characteristics of imaginative activity or ‘artistry’ to describe the essence of the art process: Making associations/connections Inventing rules Combining materials to make new forms Combining elements from past experiences Risk taking Seeking alternatives Empathising with others, imagining how others feel Discussing and representing pasts, presents, futures.

(Addison 2010: 66)

Particularly in relation to imagination and sense-making, Deleuze offers the imaginary as something that does not exist in its own right but exists as a non-defining reflection of many things at once. Working with the imaginary, we can discover what children think, experience or encounter ‘at the moment the drawing begins rather than scanning their contents for evidence of schema’ (Knight 2013: 257). Schema can be understood here as the hierarchical stages the child has moved through in their ‘art development’ (ibid.). Earlier theories of children’s drawing have asserted various ‘truths’, including a connection between child development and schema. In relation to this, I would argue that all the marks in children’s drawings are important and meaningful, though they do not relate necessarily to a schematic hierarchy. For Deleuze, drawing is regarded as a becoming, with neither a beginning point of development nor an end point but ‘always in the midst of being formed’ (Deleuze 1984: 1). Thoughts, marks, movements are all ‘contingent upon the conditions and events of the moment’ (Knight 2013: 256). In the light of this shift in thinking, and since the birth of postmodernism and deconstruction, ‘research’ has replaced ‘expression’ as a model for art practice (Reiss in Raney 2003). This echoes my own interest in ‘art as research’ and the relationship with art practice. Rinaldi (in Guidici et al. 2001: 150) writes: Research, in this sense, is used to describe the paths of individuals and groups in the direction of new universes of possibility. Research as the disclosure and the revelation of an event. Research as art: research exists, as it does in art, within the search for the being, the essence, and the sense of things. To extend this idea, the concept of ‘metamodernism’ helps towards an understanding of art as continuous research. Metamodernism is a term emerging from and reacting to postmodernism. It was introduced as an intervention in the post-postmodernism debate by the cultural theorists Vermeulen and Akker (2009). The key idea, in relation to this study, is that the process of art-making is as important, if not more important, than the

Children as artists  21 product – viewing ‘art as idea as idea’ (Kosuth in Guercio 1991) means challenging the notion of being an artist and making the tautological nature of art explicit. ‘Being an artist now means to question the nature of art’ (ibid.) in order to demonstrate that the ‘art’ is not located in the object itself but rather in the idea or concept of the work. Pringle also presents the notion of the artist as conceptual investigator and positions the artist as exploring and articulating his or her ideas. In this sense, art-making can be constructed as an ongoing and embedded process of action and review, each equally important to the realisation of artists’ ideas. Ideas in this context can draw on experience, thoughts and feelings. In summary, an artist is ‘an individual who engages with ideas about their experience, thoughts and feelings and expresses these in a chosen medium to construct meaning’ (Pringle 2008: 31).

Defining the term: identity A fundamental premise of this research is that children can develop an artistic identity. The notion that ‘every human being is an artist’ (Beuys 1972) sets up a debate that informs my research and explores the concept that all children have the potential to develop as artists. Beuys believed in the pedagogy of art that ‘everyone is an artist’ and that art has the potential to transform society. Artists can use action, ideas, language, concepts and objects to change society, supplying ‘containment, converting society from a false to a true state of mind to draw on one’s emotions, the ability to truly connect with one’s thinking power’ (Beuys 1972). Beuys also interrogates the complexities of becoming pedagogical as an artist, that experiencing the practices of artists, researchers and teachers contiguously can disrupt the arbitrary boundaries of fixed disciplinary knowledge. Teaching and learning were integral to Beuys’ own practice and identity as an artist: The teacher–pupil relationship must be changed, eliminating the idea that the teacher has the knowledge and the student must sit and simply listen. It should not be assumed that the pupil is less capable than the teacher. For this reason the teaching-learning relationship has to be completely open, and constantly reversible. (Beuys 1972 cited in Durini 1997: 46) To extend this notion in relation to children’s identity development, self-image as an artist is an essential element of what Craft describes as children’s ‘life-wide creativity’ (Craft 2003: 146) and personal meaning-making. Definitions of ‘identity’ include the value of creative learning and reflective development together with the notion of ‘becoming’ and learning identities. In the context of this study, emphasis is on the notion of a personal learning identity and how children construct it in the light of their creative learning experiences. Gabel-Dunk (in Craft et al. 2008) recognised that there are interdependencies between learning, creativity and identity and that all three

22  Children as artists flourish under similar conditions – in collaborative, empowering, open and trusting environments, enhanced by discussion and interaction with others. Atkinson (2002) warns of the contradictions inherent in assumptions of fixed, predetermined classroom identities. I pay particular attention to the notion of being an artist and how children’s learning (through making artwork) influences their identity and construction of self (Woods and Jeffrey 1996). In exploring this concept in relation to identity construction, Wenger’s model of identity is generated in interaction and is open to change (Lave and Wenger 1999). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi presents identity (or self-hood, the way we see ourselves) as a form of the imagination: something we create to account for the multiplicity of impressions, emotions, thoughts and feelings that the brain records in consciousness (Csikszentmihalyi 1993: 216). Atkinson also considers how art practices, as well as learner identities, are constructed with linguistic practices (discourses) and inform an ethics of pedagogy concerned with becoming an artist. The concept of being and becoming informs this study and prioritises the ongoing formation of identity. This notion of ‘becoming’ in Deleuzian terms negates the existence of a stable series of identities, constructed as a spectrum against which the progressive development of a child can be related. Focus is shifted away from a ‘stable, rational individual, experiencing changes but remaining principally the same person’ towards a ‘self’ that is ‘conceived as a constantly changing assemblage of forces’ (Stagoll 2010: 27). The line of ‘becoming’ emerges, ‘comes up through the middle, running perpendicular to points as first perceived and transversally to its localizable relation to other, predefined and distant points. (Deleuze and Guattari 1987) The line of ‘becoming’ is therefore unpredictable, impossible to plan in advance and infinite, in that it does not extend towards a planned telos from which the identity of the child develops. Identity should therefore be considered as something active, rather than a teleological goal or fixed point in children’s learning and development. Identity is part of a process of becoming. It has been argued that the power of becoming in relation to children’s learning and development is that it moves our focus away from a concern with the production of a specific identity towards the dynamism of change itself. Emergent learning, the spaces that children pass through in their experience, must allow for the possibility of constructing open-ended lines of flight creating space for children to take risks within their learning. This ‘middle space’ works through ‘a logic of AND’ (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 25). The use of the conjunction ‘and…and…and’ then challenges the verb ‘to be’ (Atkinson in Fischer and Fortnum 2013: 143). Extending this argument, Atkinson draws on Badiou’s notion of thatwhich-is-not-yet, a subject-yet-to-come. The concept of ‘that-which-is-notyet’ has relevance for theorising the pedagogical space on two levels: firstly, in relation to multiple potential; secondly, in relation to the idea of invisibility.

Children as artists  23 ‘That-which-is-not-yet’ refers to forms of being that have no existence, to being that does not count or is not yet valued. This might refer to emerging states of becoming but also to those forms of being that are often present but absent, that is to say where they have no existence in the sense that they lie outside or are marginalised by dominant modes of understanding and value. (Atkinson in Fischer and Fortnum 2013: 143) To expand upon this, Biesta brings into play the ‘language of learning’, inviting possibilities for change. He draws on the notions of learning as an act of understanding and of humans as a sense-making, being and becoming, to discuss the ontology of learning and what it means to be learning from the world, highlighting the importance of meaning-making and intelligent adaptation. He argues for being in the world as a place of dialogue in an educational space that is not the outcome of a developmental trajectory but a way of existing, of being and paying attention to the quality of what and who is being expressed, a quality that has to do with how children and can exist well, individually and collectively, in the world and with the world (Biesta 2017). Biesta also draws on radical theories from Freire in exploring emancipation through dialogue, and on Foucault on the process of eventalisation to locate learning in space and time to make visible the process, to open up different and existential ways of being in the world with a desire for understanding. Biesta argues that we need to be introducing these ideas to children so that they can be ‘at home in the world’ (Arendt 1958) – ‘that is the beautiful risk of education’ (Biesta 2012), to position ourselves differently in the world – can we interrupt ourselves (as artists do), to express our desire or fascination? In relation to this study, this idea distils the essence of a learning identity.

The terms artist and identity The term ‘artist’ in arts education literature is often applied to children and young people developing knowledge, skills and concepts both in and through art. Atkinson (2017) explores the distinctive contribution to learning that art makes, not only for intrinsic purposes but also in relation to personal, social and cultural understanding. Drawing on the work of Derrida and Lacan, he proposes that there is no fixed notion of artist or art practice and emphasises concepts of difference and fluidity (of meaning). Terminology around inclusion, experience and identity are central to this notion of the artist in arts education. Being an artist and children’s identity as an artist are interconnected concepts. Contemporary theorists Côté and Levine (2002) define identity as a complex and changeable construct. This multidimensional model of identity formation and maintenance suggests that identity is negotiated in social contexts as an iterative process; identities are affirmed or discredited by the individual as well as being either validated by or challenged by others. Adults play a significant role in the formation of children’s identities, particularly in terms of offering ‘ideas and ideals’ (De Ruyter and Conroy 2002).

24  Children as artists Children are actively involved in their own identity construction through their participation in dialogue and through experiencing the ways in which meanings are expressed in different contexts. According to Kendrick and McKay (2004), ‘individuals see themselves reflected in images in a way that they may not see themselves reflected in words’. Uszyńska-Jarmoc (2004) argues that looking at children’s spontaneous narratives, including drawings, is a reliable way to access the child’s ‘authentic self-image’ as these ‘narrations’ are in a ‘natural language’. Hawkins (2002: 216) proposes that children’s identities are ‘called into being’ through drawing and recognises the different ‘languages’ and symbolisms used by children. Edmiston highlights the significance of playing through drawing as a vehicle for children’s exploration of possible selves and identities and that between everyday space and imagined space there is an ‘authoring space’ for self (Edmiston 2008: 98). In this context, I am interested in the notion of personal identity and how children construct their identities in the light of their creative learning experiences (Pollard and Filer 1996). The self-concept is the ‘overarching view of oneself as a physical, social, spiritual, or moral being’ and is ‘a kind of working compromise between idealised images and imputed social identities’ (Woods and Jeffrey 1996). The creative, transformative process involved in developing personal knowledge and insights through art draws on models of ‘critical reflection’ (Schon 2002), ‘consciousness-raising’ (Freire 1972) and on the transformative nature of creativity (Beghetto and Kaufman 2007). Also, the concept of wise and humanising creativity takes into account the embodied nature of creativity, the importance of the relationship between our identity and our creativity, and shows that as we are making, we are also being made ourselves (Chappell et al. 2016). With respect to these ideas, Biesta reflects on the relationship between the arts and education. In contemporary discussions about the role of the arts in education, there is a danger that the arts are not taken seriously but are only ‘tolerated’ because of their usefulness for what really seems to matter (such as test scores or measurable learning outcomes). He argues that there is a tendency in contemporary art education to focus on the opportunities that the arts provide for children and young people to be creative and express their thoughts, feelings, voice and identities through the arts. Biesta makes a case against such an expressivist conception of education and instead argues for a world-centred view of education. Here, the main challenge is not to allow children and young people to express themselves but rather to bring them into dialogue with the world. In such an endeavour, the arts can make a unique contribution to children’s learning identity.

Children working with artists and the development of artistic identity The research with House of Imagination and in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops proposes that artists can be excellent role models for children in dealing with powerful. Galton’s work supports the idea that artists bring new

Children as artists  25 perspectives to the teaching and learning experience. Pringle discusses how artists engage with participants in an authentic way, primarily through discussion and by exchanging ideas and experiences. There is evidence of co-constructed, collaborative learning taking place, whereby shared knowledge is generated between artists and children, both as learners. The artist functions as co-learner, rather than as an infallible expert transmitting knowledge to the participants. This approach supports the view of children as competent and creative from birth, as they work alongside artists to develop habits of mind as artists, a view supported in the UK by Jeffrey et al. (2008) and Chappell and Craft (2011) and in the USA by Project Zero (Guidici et al. 2001) and by President Obama’s Committee on Arts Education (2011). The ‘habits of mind’ of the artists involved in House of Imagination are explored by Bancroft et al. (2008). Many artists have enquiring minds and lateral thinking skills, and they are open to ideas and to change and are good collaborators and communicators. House of Imagination gives integrity to artists’ research and their work. There is an emphasis on processes that are collaborative and participatory, with links to many artists’ methodology. The project is long-term compared to most educational work available to creative practitioners. The educators and artists get to know each other well and gain a deep understanding of each other’s practice, offering the potential for long-term relationships where meaningful changes and significant learning can occur. House of Imagination encourages adults and children to be researchers of the world, exploring creative ideas. The commitment to working as an artist or as a creative facilitator necessitates developing professionalism in this area. This involves offering personal skills and modelling creative dispositions with children, as well as developing enabling contexts in which the children can develop their own interests and express ideas. The emphasis in both the Reggio Emilia approach and in House of Imagination is on the artist as a creative enabler, who is alongside children in the thinking process. Pringle asks the question ‘what is it that we expect artists to know and do, and what therefore do we expect artists to communicate to others?’ (Pringle 2008: 51). Pringle identifies and concurs with the frequent acknowledgement that artists offer ‘something special in terms of creative learning’ (2011: 41). She is interested in how they use their knowledge and skills to facilitate and enable other’s creativity. Suggesting that the artist takes on multiple roles and a ‘complex identity’ not wholly conforming to the three proposed constructions, Pringle questions whether the artist does indeed bring a specific artist pedagogy. Processes identified include dialogic exchange, open questions, a non-judgemental approach, empathy, active listening, reflection and sharing insights. The expertise of artists encompasses skills such as active questioning, risk-taking and promoting experiential learning. Learning is constructed through collaboration, experimentation, engagement and reflection. With a ‘co-constructive’ collaborative approach through discussion and exchanging ideas and experiences, ‘artists see themselves as facilitators, engaging students in the processes of learning’ (Pringle 2009).

26  Children as artists In extending this argument, Pringle suggests that artists locate learners as active makers of meaning, rather than passive recipients of objective knowledge. Artists encourage learners to actively question and embark on a process of enquiry and ‘enable learners to use art making as a means to articulate their thoughts and ideas’ engaging students ‘by acknowledging learner’s existing knowledge, whilst providing opportunities to experiment, take risks and play, within a supportive, yet critically rigorous environment’. This environment supports knowledge through ‘dialogic exchange and learners are constructed as active generators of their own knowledge’ (Pringle 2011: 42). Aligned with this stance, the role of the artist or atelierista in Reggio Emilia is to promote experiential learning based on shared creative enquiry, with an emphasis on giving participants the opportunity to experiment within a supportive and creative environment. Open-ended and collaborative forms of engagement that artists and children enter into mirror the nature of creative practice itself. Sharing their own creative skills and dispositions, artists can inspire children’s own interests and creative habits of mind. Careful observation and documentation of children’s learning highlight the creative dispositions of being an artist and how these may be supported through creative enquiry. This process requires a culture of open discussion about creative processes and the notion of being an artist.

Towards a working definition of ‘artist’ For the purposes of this study, I am referring to children’s capacity as visual artists. One of the longer term aims of the research is for children to be able to identify themselves as artists from an early age to understand the processes involved in art and to become immune to the potentially negative experience of ‘school art’, which can be very different to contemporary art practice. The work is located in the debated field of arts education, looking particularly at artists in education settings and the concept of children as artists. Pringle describes artists in educational contexts and how artists can provide positive teaching and learning experiences without compromising their own or other’s artistic practice. The relationship between the artists’ individual creative practice and their collaborative or pedagogic work is, therefore, critical. When working with participants, artists draw on their own education, training and ongoing creative activities in order to engage and inspire participants and to enable those participants to explore their own ideas. It is a unique and sophisticated form of engagement. Artists are ‘active makers of meaning […] they encourage learners to actively question and embark on a process of enquiry’ (Pringle 2008: 3). Pringle proposes that ‘claims for what artists achieve in educational contexts can be based on untested assumptions regarding what artists are’: ‘inherently creative […] experts in making and doing, artists bring something new and different’ (Pringle 2011: 35). She suggests that, while arguable, these conjectures are based on ‘three constructions’: the artist as a ‘uniquely inspired individual […] craftsperson/designer […] collaborator/

Children as artists  27 facilitator’ (Pringle 2011: 35–46). The pedagogy of artists stems from an embodied approach that has creativity at the core, accommodating the unexpected and tolerating uncertainty alongside critically reflecting (Pringle 2011: 35). In summary, and for the purpose of this study, my proposed definition of an artist is ‘an individual who engages with ideas about their experience, thoughts and feelings and expresses these in a chosen medium to construct meaning’ (Pringle 2008: 31).

The notion of children as artists and the role of the adults The arts and their creativity hold considerable inherent value in the way that each art form uniquely contributes to both cognitive and affective development and aesthetic and artistic education. It is not my intention to provide a detailed account of historical movements in art education, but I will cite significant moments in its evolution in relation to children as artists and the role of the adults. These conceptions and theories reflect the ideological framings within which they were conceived, and these also include significant contributions to art education over the last 200 years. Building on Atkinson’s useful summary, key individuals include Frederick Froebel who focused on children’s cognitive, social, emotional development through art and Franz Cizek who was the one of the first champions of Child Art. John Dewey brought into focus the notion of Art as Experience and informed the theories of learning in Reggio Emilia in the 1940s – here it was Malaguzzi who brought attention to the importance of co-constructed learning and the ‘hundred languages of expression’. In the last century Herbert Read had advocated the power of learning through art and proposed that the aim of education should be the preparation of artists. Victor Lowenfeld focused on the psychological and developmental stages of children’s artwork. Lev Vygotsky highlighted the role of the imagination in relation to constructivism. John Berger’s seminal text in the seventies ‘Ways of Seeing’ informed Robert Witkin’s work on ‘Visual Perception’. Malcolm Ross focused on Expressive Arts and Taylor on critical awareness and practice. Howard Gardner was the instigator of ‘Multiple Intelligences’ and worked closely with Elliot Eisner on ‘Disciplinebased Art Education’ and advocacy for the critical, creative and aesthetically informed learner. David Best and Peter Abbs’ work on ‘Feeling and Reason’ also informed Graham Parsons’ focus on ‘Aesthetic Experience’. Arthur Efland was instrumental in his work on art as a cognitive/affective process, situated learning and personal relevance and Kerry Freedman on ‘Visual Culture’. These theoretical positions constitute specific ideological formulations of art education that affect pedagogical practice. My stance is informed by concepts of children working as artists in Room 13 (a learner/artist-led art initiative in Caol Primary School in Scotland and by work by Reiss and Pringle on the role of artists in sites for learning). Freire’s philosophy of freedom and control and the role of dialogue, Vygotsky’s and Bruner’s work on the ‘knowledgeable other’, scaffolding

28  Children as artists learning and fostering identity, and Csikszentmihalyi’s research on creativity and ‘flow’ have each extended my thinking in relation to children’s identity as artists and the role of adults in supporting children’s development. John Matthews writes ‘The best teachers relate to very young children as fellow learners. A teacher is an adult companion to the child on an intellectual adventure’. ‘This sincere engagement […] helping them develop a particular mode of thinking which is called metacognition – the ability to think about one’s own thinking’ (2003: 139). Matthews researched children’s theories of the world and how children construct meaning through their own art-making: [Making art] is not to be understood simply as a physical process; it involves a psychological empathy with the child and an understanding of what he or she might be moving toward. Nor is it a one way process from the teacher to the child. When it exists, it is a fluid, dynamic and often seemingly effortless dance between teacher and child. (Matthews 1999: 31) Anna Craft too identified the reciprocity of children and adults as a significant value. Angela Anning and Kathy Ring (2004) describe how children show capability, confidence and independence by demonstrating ‘thinking in process’, and how adults are co-constructors of learning, engaging appropriately with the child’s interests in order to support learning rather than dominating and over-directing. Anning and Ring recognise drawing specifically as a child-appropriate symbolic activity that young children use to make meaning in the world. Observation of and conversation with children who are drawing can provide a window into their preoccupations, passions, problems and possibilities. The authors emphasise the importance of adults making time and space for drawing; ensuring the materials they provide engage both genders; recognising a wider range of drawing activity as developmentally appropriate for meaning-making; developing and valuing their role as co-constructors working alongside children; and supporting drawing on both a large and small scale, outdoors as well as indoors for both girls and boys (Anning and Ring 2004). Attention to participatory and democratic processes is essential to guiding the direction of this study. In the field of adult-child supportive relationships, the Reggio Emilia approach is an internationally recognised expression of valuing children: Children as powerful and articulate learners, the pre-eminent place of the expressive arts in their learning, the child-educator relationship conceived in terms of reciprocity, a strong relationship between school, family and community. (Adams 2004) In the Reggio Emilia approach, adults take children’s ideas seriously and support children in the exploration and expression of their ideas in a ‘hundred

Children as artists  29 languages’ (Edwards et al. 1998). In this context, documentation to make the learning visible is an integral tool both for the expression of ideas and for meaning-making. Rinaldi argues that the highest value and the deepest significance lies in this search for sense and meaning that are shared by adults and children: From a very young age, children seek to produce interpretative theories, to give answers … the important thing is not only to give value to but, above all, to understand what lies behind these questions and theories, and that what lies behind them is something truly extraordinary. There is the intention to produce questions and search for answers, which is one of the most extraordinary aspects of creativity. (Rinaldi 2006: 56) In line with this argument, Dahlberg and Moss believe in ‘a rich child, active, competent and eager to engage in the world’ through a ‘language of meaning-making’: The challenge is to provide a space where new possibilities can be explored and realised through enlarging the reflexive and critical ways of knowing, through construction rather than reproduction of knowledge, through enabling children to work creatively to realise the possibilities. (Dahlberg et al. 2007) Children and adults are co-researchers and meaning-makers. Learner agency emerges as a key concept from the literature and Paul Roberts defines agency as: ‘feeling you can make a difference, to your own life and to other people’s’ and identifies three categories: ‘being in the world, ‘exploring and understanding the world’ and ‘acting on the world’ (Roberts 2006). The children see themselves as researchers, as protagonists in their own learning. Time, space and attention are given to supporting and developing children’s hypotheses and theories about the world. (Bancroft et al. 2008) Both teachers and children should have the opportunity to be autonomous according to Doddington and Hilton. The authors suggest that creativity is at the heart of child-centred tradition and argue for a 21st century conceptualisation of ‘holistic experiential approach’ encompassing feelings, perceptions, beliefs, meanings; lived and significant experiences, expressions, engagements and interests; and authentic relationships.

A process model of children’s developing artistic identity Dewey recognised that meaning is made through experience and is something deeply felt. If art ‘denotes a process of doing or making’, then the process is vital as an ‘effective scenario for facilitating change and enriching

30  Children as artists learning’ and provides opportunities for both inner and outer dialogue in relation to the aesthetic (Dewey 1934: 48). Dewey acknowledges that this is where activity becomes aesthetic, and experiential learning takes place. Within this process are dialogue and anticipation: ‘the connecting link between the next doing and its outcome for sense’ (Dewey 1934: 52). Dewey suggests that playful attitudes are important in transforming concepts and materials by giving them meaning. Alison Gopnik and Colwyn Trevarthen both take a psychological and neurological view of creative learning, artistry and endeavour. Gopnik et al. (1999) see a strong learning drive in children’s ‘…obsessive, tireless experimental play and their ceaseless observation and imitation of adults’. Children are continually exploring and ‘researching their world’, as artists do (Eisner 2003). They are driven to follow their curiosity and investigate everything. This drive is linked to the important role of adults in supporting children’s enquiries. Sensitive adults can ‘prepare the ground’ by helping children to tune in to a situation, for example by talking through an imagined, multisensory journey (Bancroft et al. 2008: 164). Gunther Kress observed children transforming, drawing and writing on absolutely anything and everything that they found. Before the age of six, children’s brains are particularly receptive and adaptable (Kress 1987). Gopnik describes children as ‘blue sky thinkers’ and ‘brain stormers’. In this sense, children are researchers, as artists are researchers (Bancroft et al. 2008). In contrast, Gopnik suggests that adults can be seen as the ‘production team’. She explains fantasy play as reflecting one of the ‘most sophisticated, important and characteristic human abilities’ (Gopnik et al. 1999). Trevarthen believes that we can learn about the true nature of education in general through understanding the ways in which young children learn. In their early years, children passionately want ‘to know what others know’ and are motivated to become skilful through their natural curiosity and companionship with other people. Trevarthen makes the argument for children being considered as researchers of the world, driven to explore and be curious, as artists are. My research relates to work on models of art education and artists working in educational contexts, such as that of Atkinson who employs hermeneutic processes to explore the formation of adult and learner identities and practices. The focus of my research is to illuminate the social constructivist model of art education that supports the notion that meaning is reached through dialogue and interaction. My research aims to challenge institutional orthodoxies by developing new methodologies that insist upon the validity of contemporary artists’ own practice when they are working in an educational context. Theories underpinning House of Imagination and the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops in relation to contemporary art practice are set in the context of critical writing on art education that has sought to challenge entrenched and expedient orthodoxies. Adams, Addison, Burgess and Atkinson all champion a creative pedagogy in contemporary art education.

Children as artists  31

Pedagogy A creative pedagogy often involves adults working alongside children rather than leading them. This approach to pedagogy contrasts with one with a greater focus on knowledge and discipline and a concern to meet assessment outcomes. Significant research by Pat Thomson et al. (2012) explored the ‘signature pedagogies’ of creative practitioners (across art form) working in a small number of primary and secondary schools as part of Creative Partnerships. In this context, pedagogy was defined broadly as the shaping of the learning environment in classroom settings, and more widely in the school and community. Pedagogical platforms related to inclusion, the importance of choice and agency, the challenge of scale and ambition, the role of the absurd and carnivalesque and the lived experience of the present. The pedagogical practices included provocation, the self as a teaching resource, use of the body, the use of professional norms, managing behaviour differently, the use of routine, flexibility of pacing, the use of openended challenge and permission to play. Crucially, the research highlighted the difference between arts-related pedagogies and a default pedagogy established in schools by a standards agenda that defines excellence in terms of progress against a limited set of measurable outcomes. Hall et al. (2007) use Bernstein’s (1996) distinction between ‘competence’ and ‘performance’ pedagogies to explain differences between artist and teacher pedagogy. Competence pedagogy offers children more control and is used more by artists than by teachers. Performance pedagogy, emphasising outcomes, is more often characteristic of teacher practices (Craft et al. 2013). Concurrent research into creative pedagogy in primary schools (Craft et al. 2013) identified key aspects of practice: co-enquiry and co-construction; attention to creative dispositions; learner agency and the quality and rigour of learning; open-ended activities and multi-modal learning. This work has informed this doctoral research, although the emphasis differed: that of Craft et al. (2013) was on the teachers’ pedagogical stance, whereas my emphasis in this research is on the stance of the artist, teacher, researcher or parent. In relation to this difference in emphasis, Eisner, influenced by Dewey and his writings on education, democracy and reflection, argued that ‘artistically rooted qualitative forms of intelligence’ can help with all aspects of education, ‘from the design of curricula, to the practice of teaching, to the features of the environment in which students and teachers live’ (Eisner 2004: 1–13). Eisner advocates a creative pedagogy to support the habits of mind of an artist that combines practice, context and aesthetic understanding. Griffiths (2017) describes a model of relational pedagogy, gives accounts of children as artists and discusses artistry and the notion of identity emerging out of relationships. I am interested in expanding on the idea that adults can be companions in children’s developing identities. The role of the adult is in establishing a learning environment where children are able to see themselves as artists. Adults are able to support children in developing art practice

32  Children as artists (in conversation with others), asking good questions, making sense of experience and making meaning so that children can understand and develop work in a supportive environment. This support nurtures the notion of artistic thinking and brings this notion to the context of learning, thus creating an informed approach towards pedagogy and providing the time and space for children to engage with the processes of being an artist so that making, thinking, playing and research infuse the pedagogical practice in a holistic way. Schon details the idea of ‘reflection in and on action’, where the adult is in a reciprocal and empathetic relationship with the child and is able to respond intuitively in the moment as well as on reflection with hindsight. Together ‘reflection-in-action’ and ‘reflection-on-action’ can be considered to be a part of the ‘artistry’ of pedagogy (Schon 1987). Jeffrey and Woods (2003) define creative pedagogical strategies and explore notions of ownership, relevance, innovation, control and co-participation, where control is handed back to the learner. Cremin et al. (2006) identify a number of distinct but interlinked core features of learners’ and teachers’ engagement which are valued and fostered in each setting: posing questions, play, immersion, innovation, being imaginative, self-determination and risk-taking. Craft et al. (2006) define strategies that are important in pedagogical approaches to creativity, including the use of space and time, fostering self-esteem and self-worth, offering learners mentors in creative approaches, involving children in higher-level thinking skills, encouraging the expression of ideas through a wide variety of expressive and symbolic media and encouraging the integration of subject areas through topics holding meaning and relevance to the children’s lives. Ferre Laevers’ (1994) research has demonstrated that the best learning outcomes are achieved when the learning environment is focused on the well-being of children and offers them the chance of sustained involvement. In relation to adults supporting sustained enquiry, Siraj-Blatchford (2009: 154) defined sustained shared thinking as ‘episodes in which two or more individuals worked together in an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate activities or extend narratives’. Craft (2011) explored creativity in relation to childhood and educational futures, triggered by the digital revolution and identified the 4 Ps (playfulness, participation, possibilities and pluralities) in preparation for children’s creative and digital futures. She argued that the education community needed to attend to qualities of playful engagement and participation, possibility awareness and the plurality of identities in order to help children flourish in this new media age. During the research, 5×5×5=creativity also contributed to the pilot for Arts Council England’s (2013) seven quality principles in relation to work with children and young people: Striving for excellence 1 2 Being authentic

Children as artists  33 3 4 5 6 7

Being exciting, inspiring and engaging Ensuring a positive, child-centred experience Actively involving children and young people Providing a sense of personal progression Developing a sense of ownership and belonging

These principles are indeed valuable, but there is still a need to challenge prevailing doctrine and present more case studies of current pedagogical practice with creativity and the arts at their Centre. High-quality visual art experiences for children offer some possibilities to make a difference to the culture of learning. Pringle (2006: 43) suggests that ‘there can be a tendency to understand learning as having a finite beginning and end, which corresponds to the duration of the activity under investigation’. However, creative learning happens over time. Writing about dominant representational theories of knowledge and learning, Lenz Taguchi (2010: 17) highlights how, within many educational environments, ‘knowledge constructs are more or less fixed conceptual and meaning bearing units that are presented by the teacher to the student for him/her to pick up’. This reinforces a view of education that is ‘strongly instrumental in rationality, strongly reproductive and transmissive in pedagogy, and strongly technical in practice’ (Moss 2012: 10). Atkinson reports on ideological framings that have extended the practice of art education and how we conceive it. Such conceptions in turn affect specific and prescribed pedagogical aims or goals advocating particular skills, techniques and knowledge. These pedagogies in art education are framed through a transcendent lens of historical or ideological framings and their respective criteria. A pedagogy of transcendence tends to work from established criteria, whereas a pedagogy of immanence is rooted in the idea of the not-known in that it tries to approach the learning situation without criteria. Atkinson recommends a ‘pedagogical reversal’, whereby external transcendent lenses and their respective knowledge and criteria for practice are relaxed, resulting in a pedagogy ‘without criteria’ (Atkinson 2017: 143) or prescription. He proposes that we should grasp the ‘immanence’ of a learner’s mode of learning, viewed as a particular mode of existence, of becoming: This notion of a necessary transcendence is crucial to the creative process of becoming and lies in stark contrast to the transcendence of established knowledge and practice whose force tends to regulate and condition learning according to established frameworks of doing and thinking. (Atkinson 2017: 145) The notion of ‘immanence’ in this context refers to internal relations and values of modes of existence that facilitate capacities to act (to make art). In terms of pedagogical relations, the immanence of a learner’s process of learning denotes how he or she feels and makes sense of a learning encounter.

34  Children as artists A key pedagogical issue revolves around ‘how something matters’ for a learner in his or her experience of a learning encounter; trying to comprehend this ‘mattering’ constitutes a pedagogical adventure for a teacher. The notion of mattering in the context of art practice is key to understanding motivation and potential for learning, and it can expand our understanding of what art and learning can become. Atkinson draws on the work of Deleuze with an ontological emphasis placed upon ‘an intrinsic genesis in contrast to an extrinsic conditioning’ (Deleuze 1984: 154). The ‘overcoming’ (Atkinson 2017: 145) of established ways of thinking and practice can lead to the creation of new worlds.

The pedagogical approach to arts and creativity in House of Imagination and Reggio Emilia Inspired by the approach in pre-schools following the Reggio Emilia approach, the co-construction of learning is a key feature of both House of Imagination and the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops. In this context, co-construction is where learning is shared in collaboration between adults and children so that adults are companions in learning. The notion of the adult as a companion in learning is set in contrast to a teacher-led model of learning. The image of the child, children and adults as co-researchers and meaning-makers, the role of creativity and the need to explore and document pedagogies that build on these beliefs form important aspects of my research. Both the practice in Reggio Emilia and House of Imagination has informed my research about the role of the artist. In the Reggio Emilia approach, the atelierista is a ‘studio worker, an artisan, a lender of tools, a partner in a quest or journey’ (Vecchi in Edwards et al. 1998): an art teacher. In House of Imagination, each artist maintains his or her own professional creative practice as a vital component in the research. House of Imagination shows how artists can function as ‘co-learners’ integrating their own artistic practice with pedagogy so that ‘artists engage with participants primarily through discussion and exchanging ideas and experiences’ where ‘shared knowledge is generated’ (Bancroft et al. 2008: 153). Carlina Rinaldi asks ‘How can we help children find the meaning of what they do, what they encounter, what they experience?’ (Rinaldi 2006: 141). Malaguzzi holds the image of the child as rich in potential, strong, powerful and competent; he sees this image not in isolation but as relational: ‘and, most of all, connected to adults and other children … we must know that children … extract and interpret models from adults when the adults know how to work, discuss, think, research, and live together’ (Malaguzzi 1993:10). In the Reggio Emilia approach, careful listening, observations and reflection on children’s learning give shape to pedagogical thought in a context in which the children’s curiosity, theories and research are legitimated to make learning visible. This illustrates the essence of a liberal and democratic approach to education. Within the Reggio Emilia approach, there is also the emotionally moving sense of the search for meaning that makes research contemporary and alive. Malaguzzi inspired in the Reggio Emilia approach a belief in the importance

Children as artists  35 of research as an integral part of everyday life. Peter Moss describes how Malaguzzi and the practice in Reggio Emilia have also provided us with a powerful tool for making schools spaces for the practice of democratic political practice and pedagogical documentation. In House of Imagination, the artist works alongside the educators, following the ideas of the children, led by their explorations and their thinking. The process, rather than the end product, is the main focus – ‘we are researching the children researching the world’ (Bancroft et al. 2008). Children are given the opportunity to explore their own themes and questions and are encouraged to create their own lines of enquiry. House of Imagination research has previously identified learning dispositions and ‘habits of mind’ that have been observed when children are ‘engaged in rich and deep ways’ (Bancroft et al. 2008: 117). These included, for example, ‘playfulness’, ‘imagination’, ‘initiating their own ideas’, ‘making connections’, ‘negotiating’, ‘resilience’ and ‘persistence’. Thorough documentation of their thoughts, feelings and ideas forms the basis of creative learning, and responsive planning is used to develop and pursue further ideas. House of Imagination research has been focused on four themes: creative values, creative relationships, creative environments and creative learning dispositions (Bancroft et al. 2008). The notion of ‘creative’ and ‘creativity’ assumes different forms and properties than in more conventional accounts. Children’s independence, autonomy and freedom to choose both themes and materials to explore contrast with the Reggio Emilia approach, where the children’s theories and fascinations are supported in a co-constructed progettazione.

A pedagogy for creativity and being an artist Central to this research is the commitment to the idea of ‘little c’ creativity (Craft 2002: 22) as a part of everyday life – a recognition that all learning involves elements of creativity. Craft describes creativity as ‘a fundamental aspect of human nature’ and states that ‘all children are capable of manifesting and developing their creativity as a life skill’ (2002: 22). Sir Ken Robinson, our wonderful friend and Patron, concurred with this democratic notion of creativity that everyone has the capacity for ‘life-wide’ and ‘life-long’ creativity and defined creativity as ‘imagination, fashioned to produce outcomes which are original and of value’. Robinson played a key role in reinforcing creativity and culture, and his work provided a foundation for a range of educational policy innovations in England. Bob Jeffrey and Anna Craft also highlighted that Robinson may inadvertently have ‘dichotomised an integrated practice’ (Jeffrey and Craft 2004: 77) by differentiating between ‘creative teaching’ and ‘teaching for creativity’ and instead suggested a distinction between ‘teaching creatively’ and ‘creative learning’. Lin (2011) developed this idea and argued that the interconnected elements of teaching creatively, teaching for creativity and creative learning complement one another, creating resonance in the process of teaching and learning.

36  Children as artists ‘Creative learning’ is distinct from creativity. Craft in particular argues that the distinctions between learning and creative learning are very fine, particularly where learning is understood in a constructivist frame. The term ‘creative learning’ signals the involvement of pupils in ‘being innovative, experimental and inventive’; the word learning signifies that pupils ‘engage in aspects of … intellectual enquiry’ (Jeffrey 2005). Craft proposed that ‘possibility thinking’, which is fundamental to creativity, is evidenced in the shift from ‘what is’ to ‘what might be’ and depends on the learner’s ability to ask questions, be playful, immersed, innovative and imaginative with self-determination and intention (Cremin et al. 2013). Anna Craft defines strategies found to be important in pedagogical approaches to creativity that include the use of space and time, fostering self-esteem and self-worth, offering learners mentors in creative approaches, involving children in higher-level thinking skills, encouraging the expression of ideas through a wide variety of expressive and symbolic media and encouraging the integration of subject areas through topics holding meaning and relevance to the children’s lives. Cremin et al. (2006: 115–116) identify three pedagogical strategies: (1) standing back, (2) profiling learner agency (3) and creating time and space. Chappell viewed the breadth of inherent possibility as a pedagogical issue and developed a taxonomy of children’s questions. This revealed the foundational nature of narrative and its complex interplay with questioning and the imagination. Craft used the term ‘meddling in the middle’ as part of a pedagogical strategy that also includes provoking possibilities, being in the moment, making interventions and mentoring in partnership. Creativity should not be considered a separate mental faculty, but a characteristic of our way of thinking, knowing and making choices. Creativity becomes more visible when adults try to be more attentive to the cognitive processes of children than to the results they achieve. (Malaguzzi 1990, in Gandini et al. 2005:15) Here, creative thinking is seen as ‘a function of intelligence’ (Robinson 2001), a ‘state of mind’ (Craft et al. 2001), ‘going beyond the conventional agreed’ (Craft 2001), or as one of the ‘higher cognitive functions’ (Gardner 1999). Koestler (1999) defines creativity as ‘the ability to make connections between previously unconnected ideas’. Csikszentmihalyi uses the phrase ‘in the flow’ to describe immersion in the creative process; a state he characterises by intense concentration, absorption, pleasure and lack of awareness of time passing. Dahlberg et al. (2007) proposed language based on ‘meaning-making’ that ‘welcomes …, uncertainty, and provisionality’. The teachers’ role is to help children discover their own problems and questions. ….to focus on a problem or difficultly and formulate hypotheses. (Edwards et al. 1998)

Children as artists  37 In the Reggio Emilia approach, the comparable role of the artist is addressed: The atelierista (artist) is a studio worker, an artisan, a lender of tools, a partner in a quest or journey. In this way you are a maker, but maybe more richly you are an enabler, someone who will attend to others in their creation, their development and their communication of knowledge. (Vea Vecchi in ‘The Hundred Languages of Children’, Edwards et al. 1998) Initiatives in the UK such as House of Imagination and Creative Foundation have been inspired by the idea of the atelierista working as a member of the staff team alongside children in their creative enquiries. Pringle emphasises the role of dialogue and discussion in developing creative conversations between adults and children. In this context, the artist is seen as a creative enabler and facilitator of possibilities. In House of Imagination, the aim is to extend that role by working with professional artists of outstanding calibre: predominantly artists with an ongoing, professional, contemporary arts practice. The aim of these artists is to enable, facilitate, collaborate and co-research with people – both children and adults. In summary, definitions of what it means to be an ‘artist’ differ according to the provenance of the term. The arts education literature and the academic arts literature place respective emphasis on the artist in the educational or arts context.

Creativity in relation to being an artist Differing views exist regarding what constitutes creativity and how creativity is manifested. Banaji et al. (2010) in a literature review question whether creativity in education should be conceptualised as cognitive, play-based, ubiquitous or democratic and state that policy differences exist. They suggest that the idea of creativity is constructed as a series of rhetorics: claims about creativity that emerge from different theories of learning, different contexts, different artistic traditions, different academic or quasi-academic traditions and different policy contexts. Nine rhetorics are identified and briefly explored in the review: creative genius; democratic and political creativity; ubiquitous creativity; creativity as a social good; creativity as economic imperative; play and creativity; creativity and cognition; the creative affordances of technology; and the creative classroom. The authors of the review pose the following questions [I]s creativity an internal cognitive function or an external social and cultural phenomenon; a pervasive, ubiquitous feature of human activity or a special faculty; … an inevitable social good … or capable of disruption … and even anti-social outcomes? And what does the notion of creative teaching and learning imply? (Banaji et al. 2010: 73)

38  Children as artists The concept of creativity has traditionally proved elusive. Initial psychometric research in the 1980s was largely concerned with measuring creativity, but the complexity of the creative process was neither captured by tests nor was a Romanticised notion of creativity being the domain of the artistic elite (Sternberg 2010). Prentice (2000:145) argues creativity is a complex and slippery concept; it has multiple meanings and for anyone writing about creativity in an educational context it is necessary at the outset to acknowledge that an established, precise and universally accepted definition does not exist. Prentice (2000:151) suggests ‘whatever form imaginative activity takes it is always generative and leads to an outcome that is original’. Prentice identifies specific criteria for creativity, including inventiveness, flexibility, imagination, risk-taking and a tolerance of ambiguity. Sternberg in particular proposes that creativity is a habit of mind and involves elements such as insights, adaptability and synthesis of ideas that are novel and appropriate. Robinson in the seminal report ‘All Our Futures’, on behalf of the National Advisory Committee for Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE), describes creativity as ‘imagination and purpose; originality; value; questioning and challenging; making connections and seeing relationships; envisaging what might be; exploring ideas, keeping options open; reflecting critically on ideas, actions and outcomes’ (Robinson 1999: 29). The NACCCE report admitted that creativity had an ‘elusive definition’ but settled on the definition of creativity as ‘Imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are both original and of value’ (Robinson 1999: 29). The definition of creativity in the report characterises thinking or behaving imaginatively, imaginative activity as purposeful, processes that generate something original with an outcome of value. One major distinction made is that between ‘high’ creativity and ordinary, everyday, creativity. One of the difficulties with definitions which focus on extraordinary, or high, creativity is that it only applies to some extremely talented people and may be of less relevance when focusing on the education of all children. Perhaps more relevant to education, and therefore to this study, is the notion of ordinary, or ‘democratic’ creativity. The phrase ‘democratic’ creativity was cited to mean the creativity of the ordinary person, recognising that everyone can be creative. The NACCCE report favoured a democratic rather than elitist view of creativity, a democratic conception of creativity, one which recognises the potential for creative achievements in all fields of human activity; and the capacity for such achievements in the many and not the few…Creativity is a basic capacity of human intelligence. Human intelligence is not only creative, but multifaceted. It is for this reason that we argue that all young people have creative capacities and they all have them differently. (Robinson 1999: 28, 34)

Children as artists  39 Banaji (2011: 152) took issue with the instrumental basis of the NACCCE report’s account of creativity; however, the report’s construction of creativity is the amalgamation of democratic notions of creative behaviour, Romanticism and postmodernism formed the basis of Creative Partnerships, We believe creativity is the wider ability to question, make connections, innovate, problem solve and reflect critically. (Creative Partnerships 2009: 4) Three key aspects emerge from the literature, free expression (self-expression, improvisation, exploring unknown outcomes), imaginative/associative thinking (flexibility, a holistic approach, problem-solving) and critical thinking (making conceptual decisions, making things happen, eclecticism) (CAPE UK 1998: 3). Craft expanded the concept of creativity involving being imaginative, going beyond the obvious, being aware of one’s own unconventionality, being original in some way and that it was not necessarily linked with a product outcome. Craft synthesises these ideas: At the core of creative activity, I would posit the engine of ‘possibility thinking’ – and necessary to being creative I would specify insight … What I am concerned with … is the kind of creativity which guides choices and route-finding in everyday life, or what I have come to term ‘little c creativity’. (Craft 2000: 3) Key processes inherent in creativity are informed by Craft’s work and cited by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2005): Questioning and challenging conventions and assumptions Making inventive connections Envisaging what might be: imagining, seeing things in the mind’s eye Trying alternatives and fresh approaches, keeping options open Reflecting critically on ideas, actions and outcomes Chappell introduced the notion of ‘humanising creativity’ that takes into account the embodied nature of creativity, the importance of the relationship between the creator’s identity and his or her creativity (Chappell and Craft 2011). In this context, humanising creativity is about dialogically developed collaborative and communal shared actions, as well as individual ideas that all take account of their ethical impact. Chappell proposes that identity and creativity interact to allow creators to make and be made. This means that humanising creativity involves developing new ideas while empathetically negotiating others’ needs, shared ownership and group identity – ‘doing’ their identities and developing their ‘identity in activity’ (Moje and Luke 429–431). In summary, there are many different definitions of creativity that have informed this study. In relation to my research questions, I am interested in how I can usefully define what it means for children to develop their learning

40  Children as artists identity as artists and how adults can support children’s creative development. While I acknowledge that creativity and creative thinking are life-wide (Craft 2000), they are central to the notion of being an artist. Vernon’s definition has been influential: Creativity means a person’s capacity to produce new or original ideas, insights, restructurings, inventions, or artistic objects, which are accepted by experts as being of scientific, aesthetic, social, or technological value. (Vernon 1989: 94) Building on this and for the purposes of this study, I draw on a reworked version of Robinson’s earlier definition and the notion of creativity in direct relation to learning: Creative learning develops our capacity for imaginative activity, leading to outcomes which are judged by appropriate observers to be original and of value. (Spendlove and Wyse 2007: 190)

The notion of artistry within the educational literature on creativity The main driver of my research is to help children to be able to identify themselves as artists from an early age, to understand the processes involved in art and to become immune to the potentially negative experience of ‘school art’, which can be very different to contemporary art practice (Reiss and Pringle 2003). Tensions and dilemmas surround the chasm between contemporary art and ‘school art’; the focus is on process versus outcome and ethical issues about choice and freedom. Dahlberg et al. (2007: 107) propose a way of thinking that they define as ‘meaning-making’: a practice of thought that opens space for ‘explicitly ethical and philosophical choices, judgments of value, made in relation to the wider questions of what we want for our children in the here and now’. Bancroft et al. (2008) argue that the ‘greatest negative impact of adults holding narrow, fixed ideas about a child is on the child’s own self-perceptions’. Under the right conditions, however, learning power can be developed, argues Claxton (1999), if learners believe in themselves. Claxton goes on to argue that learning can be blocked by a lack of self-belief or by risk of failure and humiliation. Research from House of Imagination (Bancroft et al. 2008) shows children as powerful learners, expressing the belief that everybody has the capacity to learn, rather than having fixed abilities. Vygotsky classifies art and creativity with a more open approach: any human act – physical, mental, emotional or object related – that gives rise to something new. A creative act could even be something that resides ‘within the person who created it and is known only to him’ (Vygotsky 2004: 7).

Children as artists  41 Amabile and Hennessey (1992) propose that people are more creative when they are intrinsically motivated than when they are extrinsically motivated. As there are no externally imposed risks involved with intrinsic motivation, one feels freer to seek situations that require interest, creativity and resourcefulness. Jeffrey and Craft (2005) found that ‘teaching for creativity’ included learner agency; valuing innovation; ‘encouraging children to pose questions, identify problems, and issues’; and ‘the opportunity to debate and discuss their thinking’. In searching for a stable definition of artistry in relation to creativity and creative learning, I focused on the ‘habits of mind’ – dispositions, together with skills and attitudes inherent in artistic inquiry, particularly in relation to the role of imagination. The Studio Thinking Framework, devised by Hetland (2007), involves eight studio habits of mind – understanding artwork, developing craft, stretch and explore, engage and persist, reflect, envision, observe and express. Comprising skills, inclinations and alertness to opportunities, the studio habits of mind are similar to creative learning processes in that they offer a means to link subjects, seek to create potential and involve interactions within both a field and a domain of activity. Focusing on the notion of artistry within the educational literature on creativity, creative learning can be viewed as a significant imaginative achievement. This is evidenced in the creation of new knowledge as determined by the imaginative insight of the person or persons responsible and as judged by appropriate observers to be both original and of value in different domain contexts. Research carried out by Eisner (1998) suggests that the arts can foster children’s construction of their own knowledge and the development of creative skills, such as higher-level thinking, analytical ability, problem-solving, reflexive thinking and self-regulation. Newman et al. (2010) suggest that participation by young people in structured arts activities improves academic attainment, literacy skills, cognitive abilities and transferable skills. Intensive arts experience is associated with increased capability in risk-taking, paying attention, perseverance, ownership of learning, collaboration, leadership, aspiration, higher-order thinking skills and reduced drop-out rates. The arts enhance children’s creativity and engagement, helping them to develop personal and social capacities and nurturing their higher-order thinking. Specifically, visual art experiences develop expression and understanding as well as transferable skills in literacy and numeracy (Harland et al. 2005). Research evidence shows that 5–16-year-old children involved in intensive artsschools initiatives outperform and make more progress than their peers (Durbin et al. 2010). Involvement in these initiatives results in improved student self-esteem and better behaviour, increased student participation in primary and secondary schools and improved attendance in primary schools (Kendall et al. 2008). Various researchers explored the characteristics of intensive arts-schools initiatives, including those in primary schools; they documented ways in which pedagogy and learning, when associated with partners from outside

42  Children as artists school, are distinctive from what teachers do. These studies highlight how external partners such as artists tend to adopt co-participative pedagogy, working alongside children to support their ideas. House of Imagination research has generated evidence of how the artist functions as co-learner integrating their own artistic practice with pedagogy so that ‘artists engage with participants primarily through discussion and exchanging ideas and experiences where shared knowledge is generated and together ‘researching children researching the world’ (Bancroft et al. 2008).

Developing a creative learning environment for art practice A systematic review of recent literature by Davies et al. (2011) concluded that three key aspects of school culture are vital in nurturing children’s creativity: the physical environment, the pedagogical environment and partnerships beyond schools. Key features of the pedagogical environment included adults who modelled creativity and valued purposeful risk-taking as co-participants in work of personal significance and time and space for experimentation and uncertainty. A feature of both the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops and House of Imagination is the commitment to developing a creative environment as a laboratory for creative participation and critical dialogue between children and adults. The experiences of children are enriched if they are provided with rich materials in a studio or ‘atelier’. As in the Reggio Emilia approach, the environment is seen as the ‘third educator’. Children can best create meaning and make sense of their world through inhabiting rich environments which support ‘complex, varied, sustained, and changing relationships between people, the world of experience, ideas and the many ways of expressing ideas’ (Edwards et al. 1998: 145). A creative environment can be designed so that it demonstrates the belief that children deserve to be educated in thoughtfully designed spaces. Gandini et al. (2005) explore how the experiences of children interacting with rich materials in the ‘atelier’ affect an entire school’s approach to the construction and expression of thought and learning. An artist’s studio space is a good model for this kind of creative ‘laboratory’ (Bancroft et al. 2008: 59). The analysis of space and place in relation to our identities begs questions about who we are and how we become the way we are. Csikszentmihalyi (2002) found that when people find themselves in beautiful settings, they are more likely to find new connections among ideas. It follows that if we provide multi-faceted, multi-layered, visual, tactile, kinaesthetic, emotional spaces for children, they will be enabling and creative environments for learning. Vea Vecchi demonstrates how the space we provide affords the kind of learning that we value, that the Creative Space makes it possible for children to encounter interesting contexts where they can explore diverse ideas and materials to understand ‘how children invent autonomous vehicles of expressive freedom, cognitive freedom, symbolic freedom, and paths to communication’ (ibid.: 304).

Children as artists  43 The atelier serves two functions. First, it provides a place for children to become masters of all kinds of techniques, such as painting, drawing, and working in clay—all the symbolic languages. Second, it assists the adults in understanding processes of how children learn. It helps teachers understand how children invent autonomous vehicles of expressive freedom, cognitive freedom, symbolic freedom, and paths to communication. The atelier has an important, provocative, and disturbing effect on old-fashioned teaching ideas … I have discovered how creativity is part of the makeup of every individual, and how the ‘reading’ of reality is a subjective and cooperative production, and this is a creative act. (Interview with Vea Vecchi 1990 in Edwards et al. 1993: 143) The concept of an open, reflective and creative studio environment is explored in the hope that it holds a promise for future communities of creative learning by enabling children to express their thoughts through a range of creative possibilities while working alongside creative educators and artists in dialogue. This approach has the capacity to feed the creativity of both the children and the adults involved. A designated studio space such as Room 13, a learner/artist-led initiative in Caol Primary School in Scotland (and now world-wide), gives learners the opportunity to work alongside artists-in-residence and makes art that is engaged with contemporary practices. Children at Caol Primary School may leave lessons to participate in Room 13 activities, provided that they do not fall behind with their other work. Room 13 has taken on a plurality of forms, as other schools have set up their own Room 13s. As pupil Danielle Souness explains, ‘What Room 13 does is allow us to take control of our learning’ (Souness and Fairley 2005). The Studio Thinking Framework, devised by Hetland et al. (2007), addresses two aspects of art classrooms: firstly, ‘studio structures’ that art teachers use to organise learning and secondly, alongside taught ‘studio habits of mind’ – dispositions, together with skills and attitudes (Perkins et al. 1993). In relation to this, Claxton and Carr (2004: 91–93) define ‘potentiating’ environments as those that support and extend learning ‘dispositions’; environments where adults and children participate actively, sharing power and responsibility. The notion of responsibility for learning and agency of the child is key to my research.

The relationship between creativity and the arts in the UK government's educational documentation All Our Futures, a report by the National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education distinguished between teaching creatively and teaching for creativity. Teaching creatively is referred to as ‘using imaginative approaches to make learning more interesting and effective’ (Robinson, 1999: 89), whereas teaching for creativity is defined as the ‘forms of teaching

44  Children as artists that are intended to develop young people’s own creative thinking or behaviours’ (Jeffrey and Craft, 2004:81). Various UK government initiatives have since embraced the idea of creativity and creative thinking as central to learning (e.g. Excellence and Enjoyment (DCSF 2003), Creative Partnerships (DCMS 2005), Every Child Matters (DfE 2006) and the Early Years Foundation Stage (DfE 2007). Inside the Foundation Stage (Adams 2004) explores how sustained, shared and purposeful talk, complex, imaginative play and authentic, engaging firsthand experiences can support creative learning. The more recent Warwick Commission (2015) sets out clear principles for engaging children and young people with the arts, creativity and culture. Creativity is valued as a life capability on individual, societal and education policy levels. Also, creativity is critical to surviving and thriving, since creative beings are not only able to identify problems but can also work in a dynamic way to solve those problems (ibid.). The Roberts Report called for the recognition of enrichment learning: Creativity is not at odds with raising standards … in order for it to flourish we need to ensure that it is embedded in our developing education policies and not a bolt on set of activities … Creativity enriches young people’s lives in school, beyond the school day and through informal learning and leisure activities. It develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills that can be applied across the curriculum and it promotes artistic development and appreciation. (Roberts 2006: 4) A different but not opposing view, published in a Curriculum Innovation Survey (HMI 2006) that identified key characteristics of curriculum innovation which prioritise creativity, shows that the arts contribute to creativity and innovation: • • • • • • •

Role play, drama, art, music contribute significantly Pupils carry out substantial research Adults and children work together in project or problem-solving teams Pupils make real choices and mentor each other Original and ground-breaking non-traditional curricula Flexible time periods Local environment used very creatively

Art experiences, aside from helping to develop children’s expression (Harland et al. 2005), help to develop their literacy, numeracy and writing skills. Drawing and painting reinforce motor skills and can also be a way of learning about shapes, contrasts, boundaries, spatial relationships, size and other mathematical concepts. Reasoning about art is associated with increased scientific reasoning.

Children as artists  45 In addition, evidence from research on and inspections of intensive arts-education initiatives in England showed that the arts provide rich inspiration for learners, foster creative skills (e.g. risk-taking, improvisation, resilience and collaboration) and contribute to raised confidence and aspirations. Creativity and the arts hold considerable inherent value: each art form contributes uniquely to aspects of aesthetic and artistic education through the inter-relation of reason/cognition and feeling/emotion. Evidence published by Ofsted focusing on creativity in primary, secondary and special schools showed that nurturing creativity had a tangible effect on pupils’ personal development and on their ability to learn. Primary school teachers view the development of creativity in the arts and culture, as well as creativity across the curriculum as central to learning. There is much debate on the politicised notion of education, on creativity and cultural capital and knowledge versus process. There is currently no clear policy for the arts, and there is a threat of a reductive curriculum. Whilst recognition of the role and nature of creativity and interest in creative pedagogical practice has grown, tensions persist at several levels, particularly in accountability cultures, where international comparisons such as PISA and PIRLS frame and shape policy, practice and curricula. (Cremin 2017:3) Since the introduction of a National Curriculum in England, following the Education Reform Act in 1998, central government policy in education has restricted learning by focusing too much on prescribed knowledge and its assessment. Schooling has primarily been focused, in recent years, on the transmission of knowledge and skills. There is a growing concern that this has been accompanied by a narrowing of the curriculum with the result that many children and young people are launching into adult life lacking the flexible creative thinking skills required for negotiating a complex world. The Roberts Report argues, ‘creativity is not at odds with raising standards…in order for it to flourish we need to ensure that it is embedded in our developing education policies and not a bolt on set of activities’ (Roberts 2006: 31). Cochrane et al. (2007) argues that there is often a gap between the intention behind policy and the way in which it is interpreted and implemented in practice. In 2010, the UK’s Coalition Government proposed a review of the National Curriculum in England with the introduction of Academies, Free Schools and the English Baccalaureate (DfE 2011: 14). However, there are certain mixed messages within Education Policy. The Cambridge Primary Review proposed a different view of the arts and creativity in the light of curriculum reform. The renaissance of this domain, which takes in all the arts, creativity and the imagination, is long overdue. A vigorous campaign should be established to advance public understanding of the arts in education, human

46  Children as artists development, culture and national life. There should also be a much more rigorous approach to arts teaching in schools. However, creativity is not confined to the arts. Creativity and imaginative activity must inform teaching and learning across the curriculum. (Alexander 2010) Biesta offers some reflections on the potential of the arts for navigating the complex realities of contemporary education, steering a course in between the ‘instrumentalisation of the arts in education’ and argues for ‘educational expressivism’, that is, the idea that the educational mission of the arts in a time of ‘exam factories’ lies in allowing children and young people to express themselves and find their unique voice and identity. The educational significance of the arts, and perhaps the educational urgency of the arts, ‘lies in art education beyond expressivism and creativity’ (Biesta 2015). Biesta has a double ambition: bringing art back into art education and bringing education back into art education. He challenges the instrumental justifications for art in the curriculum: ‘art is useful because it drives up test scores in language, maths and science’, and art is useful because it promotes the development of ‘creativity, morality, pro-social attitudes, empathy, 21st century skills’ (Biesta 2015). He argues against framing education as the production of achievements, learning outcomes and test results. The educated person has an altered outlook, and we should not ask what education produces, but what it means; not ask what education makes, but what it makes possible. Education should open up existential possibilities, including possibilities beyond learning: different ways of being, of existing, and ways of existing differently. Education can be focused on developing the full potential of the child, which is intrinsically desirable, as well as useful for a rapidly changing world and an unknown future. Future challenges will require young people who are creative, flexible and adaptive, rather than filled with outdated knowledge. One of the current orthodoxies in art education is seeing art as an acquisition of skills and competencies, a deficit model of learning which characterises children as lacking in abilities and skills and in need of support from an adult to reach a preconceived outcome. Such an adult removes the child’s own potentiality from their continuous becoming. This view of the child as ‘lacking’ is countered by recognising children in the light of their potentialities as children ‘becoming-artist … and always becoming something else’ (Whyte and Naughton 2014). ‘Traditional’ notions of teaching visual art prioritise a deficit or transmission model of learning that is prescriptive. Traditional models of ‘school art’ may offer little educational or artistic value if the learning is already predefined by adults (often denigrated to pre-made models or stencils), as prescribed by a National Curriculum. Matthews does not see children’s artwork in a deficit way and did not view children as working towards providing a sort of ‘correct’ form or ‘visual realism’, as this would misunderstand ‘children’s art and its meaning and significance, to the detriment of children’s

Children as artists  47 intellectual and emotional development’ (Matthews 2003: 3). Matthews observed that within education systems of today, children’s spontaneous drawings are systematically suppressed. Features of a ‘traditional’ art pedagogy permeate the delivery of the National Curriculum for Art in England. Prescriptive models of learning, such as units of work and the Early Years Foundation Stage Goals take a formalist approach drawing on the formal elements of a visual art language. The English National Curriculum for Art Key Stages 1–2 consists of a minimal set of guidance for teachers: a two-page document that is ‘neither aspirational, nor inspiring, and certainly not world class’ (Atkinson 2016: 141). The final version does not describe the unique nature, depth, breadth and future of the subject and does not meet all the needs of children and young people living and engaging in the 21st century; it is confined by an ‘agenda of teachable skills’ (Atkinson 1998: 49). The document sets out the content: to use a range of materials; to use drawing, painting and sculpture; to share ideas, experiences and imagination; to develop and become proficient in the use of colour, pattern, texture, line, shape, form and space; to learn about the work of artists, craftspeople and designers; to use sketchbooks. Such minimalism may be liberating to those who prefer the flexibility to design their own content but will be a matter of concern to those lacking in confidence and resorting to pre-designed and prescriptive units of work. Although some art practices and their attendant forms of skill and knowledge appear to be fundamental to art education – for example, observational drawing – their origins are historically contingent. Today, many of the ‘historical’ programmes cited above presuppose the production of ‘art objects’ and ‘skills’, as well as a specific relation between the artist (learner) and the artwork. Yet many teachers continue to focus upon a ‘narrow understanding of artistic growth, defined to a large extent by the Westernculture-specific interpretations of what constitutes child art and by linear conceptualisation of development in the artistic realm’ (Kindler 1997: 1). Art education has traditionally been measured by a sense of progression ‘from less sophisticated to more mature art and from intuitive and naïve craftsmanship towards more thoughtful and skilful student art production’ (Richardson and Walker 2011: 3). These differing positions in educational and government literature (that creativity promotes artistry, that the arts contribute to creativity and that the two are inextricably interwoven) are often opposed by the lack of attention or value given to the arts, especially in primary schools. Art education in a contemporary context is centred upon critical self-reflection and starts to shift away from the needs of the individual towards those of society with an emphasis on critical consciousness and social reconstruction; it is ‘rooted in belief in the transformative power of art and critical inquiry’ (Gude 2007: 6). The influence of modernism also contributes to an impoverished view of curriculum and a restricted perception of art education in culture, society and policy (MacLure 2011). Gude argued:

48  Children as artists Elements and principles, a menu of media, or lists of domains, modes, and rationales are neither sufficient nor necessary to inspire a quality art curriculum through which students come to see the arts as a significant contribution to their lives. (Gude 2007: 6)

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Children as artists  53 Reiss, V., and Pringle, E. (2003) Artists in Sites for Learning. International Journal of Art and Design Education, 222, pp. 215–222. Richardson, J., and Walker, S. (2011) Processing Process: The Event of Making Art Studies in Art Education. A Journal of Issues and Research in Art Education, 53(1), pp. 6–19. Richmond, S. (2009) A Post Postmodern View of Art Education. International Journal of Learning, 16(6), pp. 523–532. Rinaldi, C. (2006) In Dialogue with Reggio: Listening, Researching and Learning. Oxford: Routledge. Roberts, P. (2006) Nurturing Creativity in Young People: A Report to Government to Inform Future Policy. London: DCMS. Robinson, K. (1999) All our Futures: National Advisory Committee for Creative and Cultural Education. London: DCMS and DfEE. Robinson, K (2001) Out of our minds: Learning to be creative. Capstone Publishing Winchester. Schon, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Josey Bass. Schon, D. (2002) [1983] The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action, London: Basic Books. Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2009) ‘Early Childhood Education,’ in Maynard, T., and Thomas, N. (eds.) An Introduction to Early Childhood Studies. 2nd edition, pp. 148–160. London: Sage. Souness, D., and Fairley, R. (2005) ‘Room 13,’ in Atkinson, D., and Dash, P. (eds.) Social and Critical Practices in Art Education, pp. 41–50. Stoke on Trent, UK: Trentham. Spendlove, D., and Wyse, D. (2007) Partners in Creativity: Action Research and Creative Partnerships, Education 3–13 35(2), pp. 181–191. Stagoll, C. (2010) ‘Becoming,’ in Parr, A. (ed.) The Deleuze Dictionary. Revised Edition, pp. 25–27. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Sternberg, R. (2010) ‘Teaching for Creativity,’ in Beghetto, R. A., and Kaufman, J. C. Nurturing Creativity in the Classroom, pp. 394–414. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thomson, P., Hall, C., Jones, K., and Sefton-Green, J. (2012) The Signature Pedagogies Project: The Final Report. London: CCE. Uszyńska-Jarmoc, J. (2004) The Conception of Self in Children’s Narratives. Early Child Development and Care, 174(1), pp. 81–97. Vermeulen, T., and Akker, R. (2009) Notes on Metamodernism. Journal of Aesthetics and Culture, 2(1), p. 5677. Vernon, P. (1989) ‘The Nature-Nurture Problem in Creativity,’ in Glover, J., Ronning, R., and Reynolds, C. (eds.) Handbook of Creativity, pp. 21–32. London: Plenum Press. Vygotsky, L. (2004) [1925] Imagination and Creativity in Childhood. Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, 42(1), pp. 7–97. Whyte, M., and Naughton, C. (2014) “What’s Our Next Move?” Seeing Children in the Light of Potentialities. He Kupu, 3(4), pp. 28–38. Woods, P., and Jeffrey, B. (1996) [2002] Teachable Moments: The Art of Creative Teaching in Primary Schools. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

3 A creative methodology Principles and processes

This chapter details the principles and processes of my research methodology. I used a hybrid model of action research proposed by Jean McNiff (2007) with bounded case studies (Stake 1994) in order to understand children’s development and place the findings in context. The iterations of research design that I planned, included data collection in two cycles in two successive years, the first cycle informing the second and both following a pilot phase. Through this process I developed my understanding of more appropriate and creative methods of research that inform each case study. In addition, I address the point much later in my research where I had to revisit the methodology in the light of the findings. The findings informed each case study and these were framed around the themes of values, dispositions, relationships and environments. I returned to these and subsequently, if tentatively, introduced a diffractive methodology, drawing on Posthumanist and New Materialist ideas to inform the emerging theory in Chapter 6.

Research methodology The methodology that informs the research in this study is initially positioned as interpretivist, as it seeks to understand (rather than to explain) children’s learning identity as artists and how adults can support their learning. Hitchcock and Hughes (1995: 29) define interpretivist research as taking seriously ‘the question of language and meaning and giving priority to first unravelling actors’ description of events and activities’. The actors in this research are children, artists (including myself as participant researcher), educators and parents. My aim was to focus on the ‘contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context’ (Hitchcock and Hughes 1995: 322). As Cohen et al. (2002: 22) describe, ‘the central endeavour in the context of the interpretive paradigm is to understand the subjective world of human experience’. Research methods are derived from a philosophical underpinning related to epistemological and ontological assumptions with ethical considerations. The approach to research I took was based on the principles of action research and case study. My approach to the research is consistent with ontological and epistemological views of the co-construction of reality and DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501-3

A creative methodology  55 knowledge. My ontological assumptions are consistent with an interpretive approach in that I am assuming that children can be meta-cognitive and respond to the notion of ‘Being an Artist’. My epistemological assumption is, therefore, that valid knowledge about children’s subjective experience of becoming artists can be obtained by observing them at work, interpreting their artworks and listening to them talking about their work. The close observation, analysis and interpretation of children’s creative development give insight into the nature of creativity, the construction of meaning and the disposition to be an artist. Action research was selected in the context of my role as an artist working alongside the children and also in relation to the processes of research in House of Imagination (formerly 5×5×5=creativity; Bancroft et al. 2008). Action research identifies a process of reflecting on professional practice: the intention was to conduct a systematic investigation into my own practice as an artist and educator in order to bring new insights to my professional context and which can inform other practitioners. The appeal of this research method is the developmental nature of the process which allows the researcher to follow through an idea, observing progress with continual reflection in action and self-evaluation. I am interested in the principles underpinning action research, such as the need for democratic practices, for care and respect for the individual and for disciplined enquiry. Jean McNiff describes her model of action research as ‘a spontaneous, self-creating system of enquiry, an iterative spiral of spirals’ (McNiff 2002: 56). This notion of iteration informed my construction of successive action research cycles. This is a generative and transformational approach to action research with the possibility that ontological values. Using a ‘methodological inventiveness’ (Dadds and Hart 2001: 169), I explored the implications of this study for both improving practice and generating knowledge. I produced a validated explanation of my educational influences as an artist educator, a leader in my own learning, in the learning of others and in the learning of the ‘social formations in which I live and work’ (Whitehead 2009). John Elliott (2007) defines action research as ‘the study of a social situation with a view to improving the quality of action within it’. It aims to feed practical judgment in concrete situations, and the validity of the ‘theories’ or hypotheses it generates depends on their usefulness in helping people to act more intelligently and skilfully. Thus, the value of the new knowledge developed through my research is validated by its usefulness for informing other research in this expanding field. Learning from Bob Stake’s work (1994) I also employed the use of case study: an inquiry method that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research brings an understanding of a complex issue or object, and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research. The bounded case studies emphasise detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or

56  A creative methodology conditions and their relationships. I was also lucky to work with Clem Adelman on a concurrent research project that deepened my understanding. A case study approach is appropriate in this context, as the case study method can be used to examine ‘how’, in this case, the adults can support children’s creative learning identity as an artist. In addition, the reflection on this practice and the illuminating interpretation of these case studies is used to paint a ‘3D reality’ for the reader (Nisbet and Watt 1984: 73). The case study approach was also driven by naturalistic, phenomenological research methods, based on a version of the fallibilist paradigm in which ‘truth’ is recognised as relative (Stake 1994). The aim to access the views and perspectives of those involved in the study can only be achieved by taking an interpretive approach and by accepting that any knowledge that emerges from the study can only be classed as true in as far as it is interpreted by the researcher, and indeed depends on how this interpretation is subsequently reported by the researcher (Cohen et al. 2002). The two case study children (pseudonyms Jay, 4–7 years old and Bo, 5–8 years old during the study) were chosen from a wider group based on their gender and age in relation to children’s artistic development (Rosenblatt and Winner 1988) and can be described as a ‘purposeful’ sample and so a ‘practical necessity’ of qualitative research (Coyne 1997: 624) as it allows the researcher to select data sources that are likely to elicit the richest dataset. In this study, I wished to ensure that the data collection cycle and the actual data collected were as rich as possible for the case in hand. A detailed study of two children allowed me to ‘zoom in’ and interrogate a rich dataset from which to ‘pan out’, to generalise and inform new practice and theory. One of the major criticisms that can be levelled at qualitative research is that, due to its interpretative nature, the credibility of a study’s conclusions can only ever be measured by the researcher’s judgement. However, Lincoln and Guba (1985) describe what they term ‘triangulation through methods’, whereby conclusions may be ‘triangulated’ by being assessed through a number of different methods of data collection and analysis. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest that this triangulation increases the credibility and trustworthiness of any outcomes. Trustworthiness in respect of this study includes credibility, drawing on both prolonged engagement in the field and triangulation of data. The transferability is drawn from the ‘thick description’ (Stake 1994) of the setting and participants. Drawing on Gunilla Dahlberg et al. (2007) I took a’ postmodern approach’ in recognising the both the agency of the researcher and the participants in the research. The concept of meaning-making was developed by Dahlberg in order to express a mode and practice of understanding that considers knowledge and interpretation in research and practice to arise out of dialogue as a process of co-construction through which we make meaning of the world. Meaning-making is based on social constructionist understandings that consider learning to be a process of co-construction made possible through systems of relationships. Peter Moss supports this idea of bringing ideas from different perspectives together so that different paradigms can work together

A creative methodology  57 in dialogue, without one dominating the other. Moss and Dahberg (2008: 14) argues for the recognition of a range of approaches and suggests that there are no clear answers, rather an openness to ‘explore, discuss and reflect’. This resonates with the approach I have taken in this study, and I declare my commitment to research as an art form in itself, as research to find meaning.

Data collection ‘The quality of our research is determined by the quality of the data we collect’ (Newby 2014: 289). I collected data in two successive academic years informed by a pilot phase with 15 children. During the pilot phase, I constructed three short vignettes of children engaged in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops, to begin to develop an understanding and overview of some of the key themes to explore. Following the pilot phase, I selected two children in the 4–8 years age group to track longitudinally, recording their inputs and also drawing on evidence from other adults (parents, educators, artists). Data collection was a rigorous process and data collection methods were not mutually exclusive. As Newby (2014) argues: Decisions about data collection cannot be taken in isolation, they have to be taken in conjunction with decisions about research objectives, selection of sources and data analysis. (Newby 2014: 390) Following the pilot phase, I observed these two children (aged 5–7 years and 6–8 years during the study) over the course of the two years. Within each action cycle, I collected data using an action research approach to inform a more substantial case study. The interpretivist perspective values multiple views on reality with shared meanings. Qualitative methods included naturalistic observations, yielding field notes and still digital images, semi-structured interviews and reflection sessions, yielding journal entries. Each data collection technique gives rise to ethical issues of access, anonymity, researcher effect and bias, especially in relation to validity, reliability, generalization and objectivity. I selected data collection techniques that were appropriate and consistent, ensuring the prospect of applying the findings from research to other contexts and with an absence of bias. A strength of the action research and case study hybrid methodology was the use of multiple forms of data and documentation, drawn from multiple perspectives, including children, artists, educators and parents. This form of mixed genre research is powerful and offers a challenge to traditional concepts of triangulation within research. The data collection and analysis focused around the two driving research questions. Key episodes of children’s learning were collected through observations, researcher reflections with adults including teachers, teaching

58  A creative methodology assistants and parents. My principal sources of data are the documentation (field notes, reflective journals, sketchbooks, artwork and photography) of these two children’s learning, collected during ‘Being an Artist’ and 5×5×5=creativity sessions. This decision was based on principles of child observation – careful observation and documentation of children’s learning so that others can then engage in the children’s learning stories. Field notes were kept as a participant observer, focusing on case study children through naturalistic observation (Fawcett 2009: 56). These contained contextual and detailed information focusing on observations of the children and adults, with data being actively considered through the research process (Hartas 2015: 63). Content was selected in relation to the overarching research questions. I did not include any details of children’s personal information to comply with the British Educational Research Association ethical code of practice. There is a strong tradition of observation (especially within early years of education) as a tool for understanding children’s development, needs and interests. This qualitative approach ‘gives importance to the interpretation of actions and the contexts in which they occur’. Importantly, it involves a researcher spending extended periods of time in a setting observing and recording the interactions of children and adults including the subtleties and complexities of the research. This was vital in relation to the case study approach to enable the use of multiple methods in order to capture the complex reality under scrutiny. Direct observation stands in contrast to semi-structured interviews, which base their data on what participants tell the researcher. Reflective journals containing ongoing reflections provided a rich resource of documentation and read alongside field notes and visual images. Keeping a reflective journal allowed an ongoing record of my observations, evolving thinking and research. In particular, I was able to record impressions and evaluations of my data gathering immediately after the event, which were subsequently used in the data analysis. The field notes were dated and organised by cycle. Reflective journals were handwritten and gathered key information over time, capturing interactions of interest in relation to the study. This could be seen as a subjective account from the point of view of the writer, but this was qualified by using these in reflective discussion with other adults to invite different viewpoints and ensure triangulation. Written documentation of learning through participant observation played an important role in my research. I focused on children’s engagement; interests and fascinations; children’s interactions and conversations; their actions and words; and the context including the creative provocations, environment and resources. This involved direct observation of children’s actions and responses to making art, providing deeper insights and a richer picture. This was carried out in a ‘natural setting’ (Newby 2014: 364) for children as they were familiar with my presence as participant observer. Another characteristic of observational approaches is that the pathway to an end point is not pre-determined; it is an unfolding investigation, emergent and discovery-based. The context is an equally important source of data that

A creative methodology  59 aids understanding and interpretation (but as above, I did not include any details of children’s personal information). As a researcher, I wanted to demonstrate that these observations are meaningful, relevant and reflect the research questions. Children’s visual journals (sketchbooks) provided a vehicle for collecting ideas and experiences in a visual form, whether in the form of drawing, annotated sketches, painting, notes, designs or secondary source material. The term sketchbook is a misnomer in that it is not merely a book of sketches. Essentially, visual journals are personal and exploratory and contain a combination of visual (and sometimes written) material depending on the child’s preferred modality, reflecting the child’s interest in their own experiences and discoveries. The visual journals provided a useful form of dialogue with the children in recording the development of ideas and visual experiences. These were a valuable personal resource for the development of the children’s art-making. Ideas were tried out and developed further in a variety of media. The visual journal also became an artwork in itself as a personalised book which reflected their individual personality. Drawing and other arts activities also reveal children’s interests. Visual images and photographs of artwork also serve as a representation of children’s experiences which might not be easily articulated in other ways. The photographs were also used as a further talking point with the children. Listening to children talking about their own drawings can reveal important insights into their understandings. Visual documentation (photographs taken as a participant observer) included photographs of children’s artwork, photographs of children working and showing their artwork, especially to demonstrate evidence of fascinations, themes or motifs. Photography proved to be valuable for the purposes of the research as these provided visual representation of events and artwork, while acknowledging the potential for researcher bias in selecting which images were identified as important in the research process. Visual images were also seen as ‘documents’ to illuminate the case (Denscombe 2010: 216). Photographs can capture the details of an art experience, but it is recognised that for any one photograph there are inevitably different versions of the same story. This was important in sharing the photographic evidence with the children and adults in reflection sessions to ensure transparency. Ethical issues of ownership were addressed through appropriate consensual procedures. Semi-structured interviews invited open-ended responses, eliciting children’s and parents’ thoughts, feelings and views. These interviews were designed carefully in relation to the research questions, ensuring a focus in the conversation with children and parents. They provided a depth of information that offered another layer of interpretation to the data. Children and parents had the opportunity to expand their ideas and identify what they regard as important to them. The open format allowed aspects of the research to be probed further to illuminate key insights. The flexibility of semi-structured interviews as a method for data collection was useful and provided a

60  A creative methodology direct record of conversation. A particular disadvantage of this relatively open format includes reliability as the data collected are, to an extent, unique owing to the specific context and the specific individuals involved. The purpose of using interviews was to elicit individual responses in relation to the experience of being involved with ‘Being an Artist’ and 5×5×5=creativity and designed around the research questions. Interview questions were framed to include the respondent’s voice in the research and to open up the issues in hand, rather than close these down with a predictable answer. In conducting the interviews, I was conscious that the phrasing used, the pauses and exclamations, and the tone of the reply could all nuance the interpretation of the response. I was careful to ensure the language I used was appropriate and left enough space for the participants to bring in their own particular interests. I used semi-structured interviews at the end of each phase of the research, conducted with the parents and children. The interview schedule was designed in response to the school year, once children had engaged with a cycle of research. The interviews took place in the setting at a time agreed by the participants. Interview data was recorded and transcribed by the researcher. Careful listening was non-judgemental and allowed participants to ask questions. The advantage was that part of the agency is shared with the child and thus reduces the power of the interviewer. Parents and teachers were also given the opportunity to expand on their responses on a questionnaire via email. This took the same format as the interview questions. However, both observation and interviews are more flexible than questionnaires and allow the researcher to open up and explore avenues of enquiry. Reflection sessions with adults and children involved regular reflection sessions with adults and children to ensure all participants had an opportunity to reflect together and their voices were heard. Increasingly children’s views are now respected as part of the research process highlighted in the Mosaic Approach that prioritises different voices through multi-modal responses. This process is reflexive in that it includes all participants in reflecting on meanings and addresses questions of interpretation and multiple perspectives. The approach focuses on experiences – looking at and respecting the richness and complexity of learning rather than measuring knowledge gained. The first stage involved the production of documentation and processes of ongoing reflection; the second stage involved piecing this documentation together to enable critical analysis through dialogue and reflection, allowing us to make meaning of what has emerged and to situate this within wider discussions and practices. Collection and storage of data, processing and analysis all needed careful attention. I collected data over two cycles of research, focusing on the two children, together with the adults (artists, educators and parents) who were significant in providing support to the emerging identities of the children involved in this research project. I collected observations (written and visual), over the two years, of each of the focus children, Jay and Bo. In

A creative methodology  61 Cycle 2, I used the research data from Cycle 1 to inform the focus of data collection to offer different insights. The intention is to understand more closely the data that emerge, both as an artist and as a researcher, and specifically in relation to the following: children’s starting points for the construction of their ideas; children’s perceptions of their own art-making; the environment (psychological and physical) including relationships with adults; the role of the adults in supporting children’s views of themselves as artists; the views of parents and other adults. Research data in relation to the two focus children were collated from a range of sources within the two cycles of action research. Each cycle focused on the following research questions: How can I usefully define what it means for children to develop their learning identity as artists? What strategies can adults employ to support children’s creative development and learning identity as artists?

Data collection overview Dates

Data Collected

Quantity

Pilot phase 2008–2009

Field notes Reflective journal Children’s sketchbooks/visual journals Photographs of children’s artwork Field notes: written documentation of learning, including children’s comments on their artworks and the process of making art Reflective journal Children’s visual journals (sketchbooks) Visual documentation (photographs of children’s artwork, photographs of children working / sharing their artwork) Interviews with children and adults Reflection sessions with adults and/or children Field notes: written documentation of learning, including children’s comments on their artworks and the process of making art Reflective journal Children’s visual journals (sketchbooks) Visual documentation (photographs of children’s artwork, photographs of children working/sharing their artwork) Reflection sessions with adults and/or children Interviews with children and adults Questionnaires completed with children and parents

20 sessions 1 per adult 1 per child 20 per child 30 sessions 1(researcher)

Cycle 1 2009–2010

Cycle 2 2010–2011

2 per child 30 per child

2 3 30 sessions 1(researcher)

2 per child 30 per child 3 2 1 per child/parent

62  A creative methodology

Data analysis In keeping with action-research principles, I carried out a cyclical process in this research, consisting of collecting data, working with those data and reviewing the methods for the next cycle of research. Both the pilot phase and the two cycles of action research informed the development of my own thinking and learning as an integral part of the action research process. I also identified patterns within the emerging themes to bring a sense of ‘progressive focusing’. The process of progressive focusing means that the collection of data must be guided by the unfolding but explicit identification of topics for inquiry. (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995: 191) I tracked the emergence of key characteristics that inform children’s emerging views of themselves as artists by coding these, including characteristics that describe the interaction between children and adults, the environment and the process of art-making. The identification and tracking of themes and characteristics gave rise to key questions that informed the emerging codes, including: What are the values of the adults, and how are these made transparent? What characterises the relationships and collaborations between the adults and the children? What characterises the learning environment (both physical and emotional)? How are children’s ideas and enquiries supported? Initially, I used these codings to undertake a qualitative analysis of the entire dataset of notes and observations. The process was iterated many times, both to generate new questions and to refine coding systems. Instead of using numbers for coding, I used descriptive phrases linked directly to my observations of the children’s development and the role of the adults. The data analysis included the following: interpretation and naming of emergent themes; using comparison and looking for any patterns to refine and relate these themes; and using divergent views to challenge generalisations. Following the pilot phase, I colour-coded the emerging themes from Cycle 1 to inform Cycle 2 in order to identify repeated themes and issues that arose out of my observations. In summary, key processes in data analysis included the following: • • • •

viewing the data describing the data reflecting on specific research questions review sessions: dialogue around artwork and identity of children as artists

A creative methodology  63 • identifying emerging themes and significant strands: key episodes were identified to illuminate these themes and strands • coding emergent themes and sub-categories • colour-coding, searching for and marking the themes in the different sources of data • moving backwards and forwards between data and analysis, between data and any theories and concepts developed, and between the data and other sources of literature • identifying critical events or key episodes • acting on these findings and composing a narrative

Ethical issues The research has been conducted according to the highest standards of rigour and integrity and in line with Bath Spa University guidelines and Ethics Committee: with honesty, rigour, transparency, open communication, care and respect for all participants in and subjects of research. Key ethical issues relating to the research were addressed with care and consent was given from participants. In relation to the observation of children, parents received a clear explanation of the research and its intended outcomes and gave consent for their children to be observed and included in the research. All data relating to children were carefully anonymised (pseudonyms were used). Parental consent was given specifically for the use of any photographs that could not be anonymised. I consulted with the head teachers and other teachers involved to ensure that my work fitted with the school’s philosophy. There was a shared and ongoing understanding between myself and the teachers involved so that our expectations of my involvement were the same. The children were informed about my research and asked whether or not they wanted to participate; they were allowed to choose not to participate or to withdraw at any time. The ‘Being an Artist’ workshops were voluntary, and some were over-subscribed. I collected a continuous dataset, with children involved in both 5×5×5=creativity and ‘Being an Artist’. Varela (1999: 30) stresses the importance of ‘ethical know-how’ in an engagement within any group of individuals who meet repeatedly to ensure that each party has equal rights and that these are respected. As a researcher, I wanted to use my intuition to bring to light the importance of human interaction and the quality of attention through relationships. Holliday (2007) furthermore contends that a postmodern approach positions researchers as agents in their research and that the use of the first person in reporting and writing up research allows for a more transparent and participatory voice. This is confirmed by Guba and Lincoln (2002) who call for an explicit acceptance of the subjectivity of the researcher. In the research, I addressed issues such as gaining informed consent, confidentiality and secure storage of data. I gained verbal consent from children (including from my own daughter) and written permission from the children’s parents via a letter in which I informed them about their child’s participation,

64  A creative methodology how the data would be used and to whom the data would be reported. In order to achieve the aim of confidentiality in publication, the names of the case study children were replaced by pseudonyms in all published work, unless agreement had been given by the parents to use real names. Particular ethical issues also arise in relation to observing and documenting children’s behaviour and in the taking of a dual role of artist and researcher. The issue of being an insider researcher is in focus here. My relationship with the school as a researcher was valuable and meant that a current and historical lens was inherent in the data collection and interpretation. I have been deeply involved with Batheaston Primary School for years as a parent, a co-researcher, an artist in residence and a governor. Batheaston Church of England Voluntary Controlled Primary School hosts 215 children and over 10% of pupils claim free school meals. The proportion of pupils, with statemented special educational needs, is above average. The school was a National School of Creativity (2009–2011), holding many awards (Green Flag, Healthy Schools Enhanced, Inclusion Quality Mark, Eco-School and Activemark Gold). The school was one of the first to be involved in 5×5×5=creativity (now House of Imagination) of which I am Director of Research. In relation to the issue of multiple roles, I was explicit about developing new insights in this area of study as an artist and a doctoral researcher, as well as a parent governor. As a Senior Lecturer in Arts Education at Bath Spa University, I organised trainee teachers’ placements at the school. I was also a Creative Agent for Creativity Culture and Education and supported the school becoming a School of Creativity (2009–2011). I was also employed by the Open University as a researcher at this same school for a parallel project ‘Creative Primary Schools’ (Craft et al. 2013). Over a period of 12 years, I have been a strong ‘champion’ of the school. However, as well as opportunities, being an insider researcher also brought challenges. One of the major ethical considerations in this study is that my daughter was part of the pilot phase and cannot remain anonymous if I declare my interest as a parent and researcher. One point of potential tension was around the notion of power relations and how these may have influenced my subsequent data interpretation. After all, I was the adult inviting the children’s responses through their dialogue and artwork. Many of the children knew me well and therefore I had to be scrupulously thorough in ensuring that any interpretation of data was triangulated with other adults working alongside me in the research process. I was explicit about developing new insights in this area of study, both as an artist and as a researcher, alongside the children. All ideas are valued and respected: I believe that working alongside (rather than leading) children helps cultivate an ethos culture of value and respect. The action research model has significant implications for relationships between researcher as co-participant and the focus children. I have paid particular attention to the quality of interaction between the children and adults. A typical session in a ‘Being an Artist’ workshop makes explicit the value of

A creative methodology  65 working together, listening to each other, respecting one another’s ideas. As an artist, I worked alongside the children to develop and support ideas but was careful not to impose my own ideas on them or replace their ideas with mine. I wanted to offer scope for children to work either on their own or in collaboration and to ask questions or for advice if they wanted support. I used phrases such as having ‘something up my sleeve’ if children needed any starting points or suggestions. I kept transcripts of the discussions we had during each research cycle. Both visual and written documentation were important to show how children’s ideas and thoughts related to their visual meaning-making. Researching in an ethical manner, therefore, goes beyond the issue of informed consent. Being open to learning, reflection and change in myself places me out of a judgemental stance towards the focus of my research. My own reflections allow me to think about my future actions. Engaging in the research informed both my ethical stance and the developing methodology.

Validity Validity concerns the extent to which any research conclusions or inferences can be shown to follow from the data collected. Evidence of validity is consistent with my chosen research method and helped me consider my own assumptions and prejudices, detailed at the beginning of this chapter. Creswell and Miller (2000) list nine procedures for ensuring validity within qualitative research, all of which informed this study: triangulation, disconfirming evidence, researcher reflexivity, member checking, prolonged engagement in the field, collaboration, the audit trail, thick rich description and peer debriefing. As well as the issue of validity, there is a cyclical process of interaction between data collection, interpretation and further data collection built into the research design with the two cycles of research, one informing the other. Collecting data from both children and adults in this study informs the triangulation process. In relation to the notion of validity, the study employs a qualitative action research methodology and acknowledges that the social construction of reality and knowledge as emancipatory also offers a useful perspective on trustworthiness within qualitative research. Sparkes acknowledges a turning point of representation in qualitative research and argues that readers ‘need to make informed, principled and responsible decisions about the criteria they use to judge different and novel forms of representation’ (Sparkes 2009: 301). The acceptance of multiple realities acknowledges a lack of ‘objectivity’ but also seeks to ensure credibility, transferability and dependability while allowing for ongoing debate regarding purpose and outcome.

Rethinking the methodology The research process used in this study has contributed to a deeper understanding of rigorous and researchful practice. This study itself is an

66  A creative methodology experimental site for learning and research. The process of reflecting on emerging theory and new contributions to knowledge has been a vital element of the methodology – making visible the ‘explanations’ of evidence (MacLure 2010) in the research and ensuring that the process is congruent with the deeper values and principles that underpin the study, especially in relation to complexity, identity, creativity and respectful practices. The pilot phase and case studies used a more classic interpretivist methodology with thematic coding, but as I was reconsidering my findings in relation to an emerging theory I integrate approaches from New Materialism, drawing particularly on the work of MacLure (2010) and Barad (2007). The focus on documentation and observation were central to the process of research (Dahlberg 1999). The methodological approaches respect the complexity, depth and richness of children’s learning and development. The action research and case study approach are both rooted in the rigorous production of detailed and complex documentation. As Denzin (2017) states: There is a need to unsettle traditional concepts of what counts as research, as evidence, as legitimate inquiry [..] Although constant breaks and ruptures define the field of qualitative research, there is a shifting centre to the project: the avowed humanistic and social justice commitment to study the social world from the perspective of the interacting individual. (Denzin 2017: 8, 10) Underpinning the research with ‘Being an Artist’ and 5×5×5=creativity is a belief that all children are born with potential and explore their worlds as sociable, creative and curious beings. In relation to this stance on the image of the child, the documentation and communication of the methodological approach shows respect for the complexity, depth and richness of the experiences. This goes beyond the more traditional practices of coding and systematic searches for themes, ideas and meanings that dominate much qualitative research and evaluation. On revisiting the data, it became evident that a simple coding-based approach to meaning-making – in which representations of experiences (transcripts, written observations, reflections) were cut up into segments and assigned to categories – was not wholly appropriate, as it was risking the loss of complexity and depth through the correspondence of the categories with wider categories or terms. Instead of systematic coding, I searched for a methodology through which I could embrace dense, multi-layered and complex documentation of experiences. I needed to establish and justify a methodological process that was authentic and respectful, making visible the significant moments that would inform a deeper understanding of the research findings and give rise to the emerging theory. New materialism and Deleuzian informed methodologies are valued for offering curious and affective approaches to research. New materialism calls for research inquiry via practice, via materiality: embodied, affective,

A creative methodology  67 relational understandings of the research process itself. In this context, knowledge is perspectival, partial and provisional. With respect to these new approaches, I offer two further metaphors from contemporary theory to describe my evolving methodological approach. The first metaphor is the image of a rhizome, something which shoots in all directions with no beginning and no end, but always in-between, with openings towards other directions and places. The rhizome operates as dimensions in motion, rather than as fixed and stable units, ‘always starting up in the middle, from which it grows and which it overspills’ (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 12). The rhizomatics of practice as research is experimental and materialist because it values responsiveness to context and recognises agency in the material world. This matters because it means that research is always acknowledged as a process of making, and that value is placed on the research process as well as the product. The second metaphor relates to the process of diffraction as a phenomenological approach to coping with epistemological problems of representation. The world in Karen Barad’s terms is entangled, ‘a mutual constitution of entangled agencies’ (Barad 2007: 33). Agency is not a characteristic that individual entities possess, independent of their interactions, rather it emerges through processes of intra-action. Barad argues that learning is a continuous process that shapes who we are becoming and that knowing is becoming. She states that ‘knowing does not come from standing at a distance and representing, but rather from a direct material entanglement in the world’ (Barad 2007: 49). Jackson and Mazzei (2012) challenge us to think with data, to become enmeshed, immersed, and unsettled, reading data through theory and entering an assemblage to make new connections. Barad proposes a diffractive methodology as follows: ..a method of diffractively reading insights through one another, building new insights, and attentively and carefully reading for differences that matter in their fine details, together with the recognition that there, intrinsic to this analysis, is an ethics that is not predicated on externality but rather entanglement. Diffractive readings bring inventive provocations; they are good to think with. They are respectful, detailed, ethical engagements. (Barad 2007: 50) The concept of diffraction is useful in understanding the implications of this material, intra-active approach to research. In thinking through the emerging theory, I used diffractive analysis as a thinking tool, a guiding principle to decentre myself from the research, taking apart the data in a faceted way, mapping connections and disparate themes, drawing relationships from unexpected synergies and in the process, unearthing values and principles. Moving from a coding-based approach to a diffractive approach enabled meaning to emerge through a different assemblage with a focus on affect and entanglement. Crucially, a diffractive methodology involves engaging in a

68  A creative methodology process of data analysis and theoretical development, exploring possibilities for critically rethinking. I was able to integrate and interweave some of the processes from New Materialism into my thinking from this point forward.

Illuminating glow moments In particular, significant glow moments (MacLure 2010) have emerged as important in the process of data analysis. These are significant moments in my research that are illuminative and gave insight into my developing understanding of children’s learning identity as artists and the role of the adults in this process. These are moments that have been reached through critical reflection and curiosity, each holding a particular significance and transformational quality. MacLure describes glow moments within data and documentation as hotspots of illumination or as moments in the process of analysis where a particular significance and deep meaning is illuminated, in this case to the participant researcher. MacLure describes this process of engagement with data: One way to describe its beginnings would be as a kind of glow: some detail – a fieldnote fragment or a video image – starts to glimmer, gathering our attention. (MacLure 2010: 282) The engagement with research data and attention to moments or episodes that are illuminative and glow resonated as a methodological practice with the key principles of ‘Being an Artist’ and 5×5×5=creativity, highlighting the value of dialogue, negotiation and companionship as key elements of the process of meaning-making. Carlina Rinaldi proposes the idea of dialogue not as an exchange but as a process of transformation. In the Reggio Emilia approach, research is not a solitary activity, but a process involving relationships and dialogue (Rinaldi and Moss 2004: 3). As an approach to enquiry, this illuminative methodology is informed by elements of participatory action research and case study-based research, rooted in complex documentation. The challenge with this approach is that it could potentially be seen as subjective; I have addressed this in my analysis through careful triangulation and perspectives of other adults including artists, educators and parents. MacLure (2010) describes how the ‘glow’ of the data develops as moments that take on a luminous quality through the process of analysis and reflection. Within 5×5×5=creativity and now House of Imagination, the notion of glow moments has been explored to identify aspects within the research that might transform thinking and produce new knowledge or meaning in relation to the aims of the research. In collaboration with the 5×5×5=creativity research team, I was able to revisit my methodological approach to avoid a reductionist process by using an illuminative approach to analysing glow moments. Initially, the qualitative data and documentation were explored through practices of coding that searched for common themes, ideas and

A creative methodology  69 meanings. Linguistic and visual representations of experiences, transcripts, written observations and reflections were segmented and assigned to categories. The relative value of each experience was then judged in relation to the categories in which it fitted. The risk, however, was that in subjecting documentation to such a process of analysis, the complexity and depth of the experience itself was lost by being sacrificed to its correspondence with wider categories or terms. MacLure emphasises that there are many things within the data produced from research contexts that do not easily lend themselves to being coded and that to try and put them into specific categories can reduce their complexity and richness. Examples of this are the more intangible aspects of experience – those things that are difficult even to document, but that nonetheless have meaning and value – feelings, sensations, and emotions. MacLure does not offer a specific ‘method’ or research protocol. She encourages researchers, rather than seeking a predefined method, to take a critical, questioning and reflective stance within their research practices, developing processes of analysis in context, as responsive to the particular situation in which the research occurs. Another crucial element of this process of analysis is the way in which the meanings and learning we produce are situated within a wider landscape of research and practice. Sumara and Davis (1997) (drawing on Bateson 1979) identify an enactivist theory of cognition through which we can understand learning in terms of the evolving complexity of experience and knowledge which we are constantly enacting as we move through the world. According to enactivist theory, actions are not simply manifestations of internal understandings, they are themselves understandings. Using enactivism as an interpretive and analytic framework allows us to be attentive to how we learn, how individual and collective identities emerge and how participation in any shared action contributes to the very conditions that shape these identities. Enactivist theory reminds us that when interpreting practices, we are, at the same time, interpreting the lived experiences of those who participate in them. Action research is not merely a set of practices that researchers simply add to their existing practices – action research is a way of organizing and interpreting one’s lived identities. (Sumara and Davis 1997: 420) An enactivist approach seeks to take multiple views of data and to sensitise researchers to see more in their data. I have adopted this stance of using significant episodes or ‘glow moments’ to interrogate and find meaning, rather than merely coding them. This relates to Wilson’s (1994: 26–30) seminal criteria that evidence of validity should be ‘consistent with a researcher’s chosen epistemology or perspective’. The concept of ‘triangulation’ (Hitchcock and Hughes 1995: 324) or ‘crystallisation’ (Richardson 1994: 522) enables the data and research findings to be validated through engagement with a number of different sources

70  A creative methodology or methods of analysis. The traditional notion of triangulation assumes that there is a fixed point, object or true meaning of an event that we can triangulate. It tends to seek consensus interpretations, which can hide the complexity of the multiple, different, yet related perspectives and interpretations we draw out through dialogue. Richardson suggests that instead of taking the triangle, which she describes as a fixed and two-dimensional object, as the central image of validity, we should instead work with the image of the crystal and aim for ‘crystallisation’, which recognises that ‘there are far more than three sides from which to approach the world’ (Richardson 1994: 523). MacLure (2013: 660) questions the notion of what counts as data and states that ‘in a materialist ontology, data cannot be seen as an inert and indifferent mass waiting to be in/formed and calibrated by our analytic acumen or our coding systems’. This systematic reduction of complexity confines experience, represented through ‘data’, within what MacLure (2013: 165) describes as a ‘cabinet of curiosities’. This concept aligns with the notion of diffraction and the potential to witness experience in many dimensions, a process in which data and theory are ‘read through’ each other in order to develop new and emergent thoughts and ideas. Importantly, approaches from New Materialism brought another layer of critical response to the original thematic analysis, rather than simply replacing this. I also employed the textual device of the ‘aside’ (St Pierre 2000). The inclusion of these ‘asides’ functions in a manner to complement the ongoing intra-action with data. As I revisited my findings I wanted to remain open to the possibility for multiple connections within and between the data. I aimed to achieve a balance between structure and focus, drawing out significant meanings and finding spaces where these cluster or converge. I was not disregarding my initial thematic coding as it played a useful role in the development of my research. I recognise that our interpretations and meaning-making are only provisional and may change over time and in different contexts.

Chapter summary Cheek (2007: 1057), in relation to the field of qualitative research, writes about the ‘need to think deeply about the spaces in which we find ourselves’. She calls for new forms of activism that focus on the tensions within the fields in which we work, opening practices, ideas and theories to contestation and examination. Massumi (2003: 3) describes ‘a threshold of potential’ that opens out to ‘where we might be able to go and what we might be able to do’ in every present situation’. As part of researching children’s developing learning identity as artists, I am interested in challenging traditional (and current) notions of ‘school art’ in a contemporary context. Central to my study is the notion of children as artists and the importance of communicating concepts of creative development in order to make visible artistic, democratic and participatory practice.

A creative methodology  71 In this chapter, I highlighted the opportunity I had in my research to capture artistic and creative learning in new ways, with new methodologies that are consistent with my research focus. As part of researching children’s developing learning identity as artists, I am interested in challenging traditional (and current) notions of ‘school art’ in a contemporary context. Central to my study is the notion of children as artists and the importance of communicating concepts of creative development in order to make visible artistic, democratic and participatory practice. This is now reflected in my revised methodology that draws on diffractive methodology and a multidimensional approach to reflecting on experience. Having framed the methodology of this site of experiment, in Chapter 4 I set out the initial pilot phase of the research that informed the focus of this study.

References Bancroft, S., Fawcett, M., and Hay, P. (2008) Researching Children Researching the World: 5x5x5=Creativity. Trentham Books. Barad, K. (2007) Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Cheek, J. (2007) Qualitative Inquiry, Ethics, and Politics of Evidence: Working within These Spaces rather than Being Worked over by Them. Qualitative Inquiry, 13(8), pp. 1051–1059. Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2002/7) Research Methods in Education. Routlege Falmer. Craft, A., Cremin, T., Hay, P., and Clack, J. (2013) Creative Primary Schools: Developing and Maintaining Pedagogy for Creativity. Ethnography and Education, 9(1), pp. 16–34. Creswell, J.W., and Miller, D.L. (2000) Determining Validity in Qualitative Inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39, pp. 124–130. Dadds, M., and Hart, S. (2001) Doing Practitioner Research Differently. London: Routledge Falmer. Dahlberg, G. (1999) Pedagogy as a Loci of an Ethics of an Encounter. New York: Palgrave McMillan. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P., and Pence, A. (2007) [1999] Beyond Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care: Languages of Evaluation. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. Denscombe, M. (2010) The Good Research Guide. Buckingham: Open University Press. Denzin, N. (2017) Critical Qualitative Inquiry. Qualitative Inquiry, 23(1), pp. 8–16. Elliott, J. (2007) Reflecting Where the Action Is: The Selected Writings of John Elliott on Educational Action Research. Routledge. Fawcett, M. (2009) Learning Through Child Observation. Jessica Kingsley. Guba, E., and Lincoln, Y. (2002) Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hammersley, M., and Atkinson, P. (1995) Ethnography, Principles and Practice. 2nd edition, pp. 1–22. London: Routledge. Hartas, D. (Ed.) (2015) Educational Research and Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. London: Bloomsbury. Hitchcock, G., and Hughes, G. (1995) Research and the Teacher. London: Routledge.

72  A creative methodology Holliday, A. (2007) Doing and Writing Qualitative Research. London: Sage. Jackson, A.Y. and Mazzei, L. (2012) Thinking with Theory in Qualitative Research: Viewing Data across Multiple Perspectives. Abingdon: Routledge. Lincoln, Y. S., and Guba, E. G. (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. MacLure, M. (2010) The Offence of Theory. Journal of Education Policy, 25(2), pp. 277–286. MacLure, M. (2013) ‘Classification or Wonder? Coding as an Analytic Practice in Qualitative Research,’ in Coleman, R., and Ringrose, J. (eds.) Deleuze and Research Methodologies, pp. 164–183. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Massumi, B. (2003) Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Duke University Press. McNiff, J. with Whitehead, J. (2002) Action Research Principles and Practice. London: Routledge Falmer. McNiff, J. (2007) ‘My Story is my Living Educational Theory,’ in Clandinin, J. (ed.) Handbook of Narrative Inquiry: Mapping the Methodology. New York: Sage. Moss, P., and Dahlberg, G. (2008) Beyond Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care: Languages of Evaluation. New Zealand Journal of Teachers’ Work, 5(1), pp. 3–12. Newby, P. (2014) Research Methods for Education. 2nd edition. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Nisbet, J., and Watt, J. (1984) ‘Case Study,’ in Bell, J. et al. (eds.) Conducting Small Scale Investigations in Educational Management, pp. 72–92. London: Harper Row. Richardson, L. (1994) ‘Writing: A Method of Inquiry,’ in Denzin, N., and Lincoln, Y. (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research. 1st Edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Rinaldi, C., and Moss, P. (2004) ‘What is Reggio?,’ in Children in Europe Issue 6. Rosenblatt, E., and Winner, E. (1988) The Art of Children’s Drawings. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 22(1), pp. 3–15. Sparkes, A. (2009) Novel Ethnographic Representations and the Dilemmas of Judgement. Ethnography and Education, 4(3), pp. 301–319. St Pierre, E. (2000) ‘Nomadic Inquiry in the Smooth Spaces of the Field: A Preface,’ in St Pierre, E., and Pillow, W. (eds.) Working the Ruins: Feminist Poststructural Theory and Methods in Education, pp. 258–283. London: Routledge. Stake, R. (1994) ‘Case Studies,’ in Denzin, N., and Lincoln, Y. (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research, pp. 236–247. London: Sage Publications. Sumara, D. J., and Davis, B. (1997) Enactivist Theory and Community Learning: Toward a Complexified Understanding of Action Research, Educational Action Research, 5(3), pp. 403–422. Varela, F. J. (1999) Ethical Know-How. Action, Wisdom, and Cognition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Whitehead, J. (2009) Generating Living Theory and Understanding in Action Research Studies. Action Research, 7(1), pp. 85–99. Wilson’s (1994) Reflections on the Relationships among Art. Life, and Research Studies in Art Education, 35(4), pp. 26–30.

4 Vignettes Lily, Luc and Kitty

In seeking to shape this study on the development of children’s identity as artists, I drew up three vignettes of children involved in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops in the pilot phase of the research. I considered how I might know the children are developing an identity as artists and the role of the adult in this process. I tested out ideas and assumptions to explore issues arising from these vignettes. As part of this process, I focus on creative values, creative relationships, creative environments, creative dispositions and children’s creative thinking and representation and consider themes emerging from the pilot data. This chapter includes these ‘Being an Artist’ vignettes, drawing on pilot data in the form of sketchbooks; digital images, photography and film; interviews with adults and children; review sessions; dialogue around artwork; and identity of children as artists and documentation of learning stories. The intention is to understand more closely the data that emerge, both as an artist and as a researcher, specifically in relation to children’s starting points for the construction of their ideas; children’s perceptions of their own art-making; the environment (physical and psychological, including relationships with adults); the role of the adult in supporting children’s views of themselves as artists; and the view of parents and other adults.

Vignette 1: Lily Lily, my daughter, provided me with a pilot for the more systematic case studies described later in this study; although, there were inevitable ethical considerations in relation to this (see Chapter 3). Observing and documenting Lily’s development as an artist has revealed new insights for me as an educator, as well as a parent, artist and researcher. It has also alerted me to the tensions of insider-research and the challenge of bias. I have tried to maintain a critically reflective and supportive view of her artwork, without judgement or interference. My emphasis has been on her engagement with creative practice and how she explores ideas, revealing to me how she is developing her own identity as an artist. This small auto-ethnographic study has informed the subsequent research questions addressed in this study. DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501-4

74 Vignettes Lily has an enquiring mind, and she is open to ideas and possibilities. I am a companion in her learning and show interest in her ideas, engaging with them in a playful way without any prescription or pressure to perform to an outcome. For example, I have always refrained from providing an adult model of drawing when engaged with her in drawing as a self-chosen activity. I am exploring the notion of developing an artistic identity and how children construct this in the light of their creative learning experiences. I have paid particular attention to Lily’s developing notion of being an artist and to how her learning through making artwork influences her identity and constructions of self. Documentation of Lily’s art (sketchbooks, artwork and photographs) over several years has been important in revealing her fascinations and curiosities. I have collected her drawings and paintings, sketchbooks and photographs of her work during this time, noting key shared dialogues. I encourage an open discussion about creative processes and the notion of being an artist. Lily has always displayed a strong sense of colour and pattern-making in her drawings and paintings. She responds directly to the natural environment. In response to the natural environment, Lily has chosen to paint the rainbow we noticed together on a walk (Figure 4.1). She uses strong colours and fills the whole page.

Figure 4.1 Rainbow by Lily, age 3 years.

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Figure 4.2 Rainbow by Lily, age 5 years.

Lily painted these in response to our local environment and special places we visit together. In each case, Lily uses the whole page in her designs that evolve as she draws and paints, rather than being pre-planned. Her images ‘grow’ over the space available and fill the area. Her drawings and paintings show her interests and her developing understanding of herself in relation to the world around her. She has maintained a fascination with rainbows over several years. Lily’s self-image, as represented in these three works, shows a child clearly able to express herself in visual terms as an artist, drawing on universal themes of the environment characteristic of early childhood. Lily also reveals a strong imaginative narrative and a preoccupation with storytelling through her visual work. Following a visit to the local lake she immediately retold her story about three bears and the pink lake through painting. The large scale of the painting was also significant in allowing her to express her ideas using her whole body (Figure 4.3). At age 7, Lily shared her thoughts with me about being an artist: It’s easy! Have a great imagination, and then you will have great ideas [B]e positive, don’t worry if you make mistakes [B]e good at playing [B]e good at thinking, be thoughtful [A]rt is about everything!

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Figure 4.3 The pink lake by Lily, age 4 years.

These comments informed my developing interest in how children can reach a clear sense of their own identity and competency as creative beings and as artists. Once children are helped to perceive themselves as authors or inventors, once they are helped to discover the pleasures of inquiry, their motivation and interest explode… to disappoint the children deprives them of possibilities that no exhortation can arouse in later years. (Edwards et al. 1998) I invited Lily to share her thoughts with other children (aged 4–11 years), at Batheaston Primary School, who talked about Lily’s ideas and offered their own: THEA:  “It is about being free, free as a bird.” BILLY:  “You can make anything you want to, it’s up to you.” BEN:  “Art is fun, I love being an artist.” CHARLIE:  “You can choose what you do.” HANNAH:  “You can always have something up your sleeve if you’re

stuck.”

Lily continued to discuss the children’s thoughts about being an artist and her own concept of being an ‘expert’ in something that is valued for its own sake. The concept of ‘Being an Artist’ is openly discussed and valued, both in the context of the research with 5×5×5=creativity and in relation to the

Vignettes  77 school’s ethos. Lily has had the opportunity to work alongside artist Edwina Bridgeman as part of 5×5×5=creativity. All children in this context discuss the following questions: (1) ‘Where do ideas come from?’; (2) ‘What helps to give you good ideas?’; and (3) ‘How do ideas change?’ Lily visited Edwina’s exhibition ‘Paradise’ of narrative sculpture at the Victoria Art Gallery, Bath (Figure 4.4) and collected ideas in her sketchbooks. Edwina’s questions focused on the use of materials, the stories about the sculptures and where ideas come from. Lily devoted a whole sketchbook to ‘Stories from the Sculptures’, narrating the stories about each sculpture in her own words through drawings and writing. In relation to Lily’s developing concept of being an artist, discussion with Edwina was an important part of validating and respecting her ideas. At the heart of this was the strong relationship Lily had built up with Edwina over time. Alongside Edwina, Lily had the opportunity to reflect on her experiences and discuss how she wanted to develop her ideas. Lily (and her peer group) benefit from seeing how Edwina generates, reflects upon, refines and develops her own ideas. Edwina always takes their ideas seriously and shows how their ideas inform her own work. The artist as a role model is an important notion in this work. I have been struck by Lily’s developing self-image as an artist over time, as evidenced by the documentation. The elements of this identity construction can be summarised as: opportunities to construct meaning through image-making; giving value to children’s ideas and fascinations; developing imagination and curiosity; opportunities for immersion; and enabling

Figure 4.4 Edwina Bridgeman working with children at Victoria Art Gallery, Bath.

78 Vignettes contexts for learner agency. These elements continue to inform my thinking about how best to support children’s creativity and identity as artists and, in particular, to inform my analytical frame for the main case studies.

Vignette 2: Luc As part of ‘Being an Artist’, I have been developing a culture of research and enquiry focused on reflective dialogues with children, which allows for independent learning. Each session starts with a conversation about ideas; I ask the children what they want to say (visually) and how they might share their ideas with others. Children are invited to offer ideas to the group for further enquiry. The reflective dialogues, whether with individuals or with a group, give opportunities for concentrated reflection, the distilling of ideas and space and time to ‘play’ with thoughts as a group. Luc often proposed a question to the whole group: Luc (now 9) was talking about heaven and hell …telling stories through his graphic and narrative drawings. He shared his ideas about art being about everything and suggested that you might paint the world with a brush, using paint, concrete, light, glass. Today he was interested in painting and printing his painting onto another surface. We talked about Howard Hodgkin and how he uses this process too. (Field notes) Over time spent working together, Luc has demonstrated a strong sense of imagination and curiosity in his artwork (Figure 4.5). He has shown that he is open to new ideas and has often made unusual connections, both verbally and visually. A deep sense of playfulness and humour has been at the heart of the stories he tells through his artwork. Over time, Luc has developed a strong sense of his identity as an artist. He now identifies with other artists (peers and professionals) and is able to articulate the purpose of his image-making. After one session with Luc, I wrote the following in my reflective journal: Luc is able to communicate well and can articulate his own thinking about art effectively. He is able to make unusual connections often with the use of humour. His imaginative images and artefacts show his experimentation with ideas and techniques. He is developing his own views and expressing reasoned judgments about the quality of works in art and design. Crucially Luc is able to take risks and learn from his mistakes without fear of failure. The thing that has amazed me has been Luc’s openness to engage in different kinds of language to express his thoughts and ideas about art, to find and extract information, informed by purposeful enquiry, involving deep analytical skills and the development of ideas.

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Figure 4.5 Luc, age 9 years, inspired by Howard Hodgkin’s paintings.

Working alongside Luc has confirmed to me the tension between freedom and control. Giving control over and ownership of the artwork to the child allows ideas to be genuinely owned by the child. We would often talk about there being ‘no rules in art, all ideas are valued, there is no wrong idea’. In giving this ‘permission’ to children to make decisions about their learning for themselves, as an adult I relinquish power and therefore bring about elements of uncertainty and risk as ‘a quality that you can offer, not a limitation’ (Rinaldi 2006). Themes emerging from this vignette that have informed my developing understanding include constructing meaning through image-making; giving value to children’s ideas and fascinations; humour and playfulness in artwork; and the balance between structure and freedom.

Vignette 3: Kitty One of the central tenets of my research is to offer children the opportunity to follow their own enquiries and fascinations in the context of making art, without any prescription from adults. This attention to possibility thinking allows children to work as artists with a chosen obsession or preoccupation. Kitty has worked with me since she was 4 and has always had a fascination with dinosaurs, dragons and monsters. In her narrative drawing and painting, her illustrations and her design work, she chooses this constant theme to explore in different ways in each ‘Being an Artist’ session.

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Figure 4.6 Kitty (4.5 years): dragon.

Kitty has continued to show a clear sense of being able to develop her own enquiry, follow her own interests and experiment with different ways of sharing her ideas. She often finds resources for her own work in the form of images of dinosaurs in books and comics. Her ongoing interest in animals and imaginary creatures continues to inform her artwork. She has a collection of sketchbooks that show a continued fascination with dinosaurs, dragons, monsters and strange creatures. Kitty showed in her drawings that she was learning both about and through art, learning about drawing processes and materials, but how she was communicating ideas and feelings through drawing. Her personal motivations for drawing involved following her own fascinations, exploring her imagination and not being afraid to explore different media or unusual ways of using media. She often used text in her work alongside her images. In discussion with her family, I learnt that she would often disappear to her room with her sketchbook and hours later emerge with another set of images to share. Kitty’s notebooks are all about dragons and dinosaurs, she draws for hours on end at home as well. (Parent interview)

How do I know the children are developing an identity as artists? Observing the themes in the three vignettes above shows that Lily, Luc and Kitty displayed a range of different sensibilities: using materials and techniques

Vignettes  81 intelligently and experimentally; sharing ideas and images imaginatively; a sense of enquiry and an ability to communicate their creative ideas; qualities of empathy, playfulness and curiosity; sensitivity to the natural and made environment; using innovative and imaginative approaches; identifying as a participating discoverer and learner and as an artist; sharing their interests and fascinations in ways that are meaningful for both the child and his or her peers. The imagination and curiosity of the children have been evidenced in the children’s artwork, in their thinking and in their creative behaviours. They have aptitudes for play and risk-taking as well as a clear sense of identity construction. These observed behaviours informed the development of an analytical framework for the main study.

The role of the adult I explore the role of adults in children’s development as artists further in Chapters 5 and 6. From my initial observations above, it was evident that the role of the adult is vital. Adults’ support for children in creative endeavours involves becoming involved in the thinking process; showing respect and genuine interest; using questioning and discourse; being alongside the child; and observing and documenting children’s learning.

Figure 4.7 Documenting learning.

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Creative values, relationships, environments and dispositions I am particularly interested in aspects of creative values, creative dispositions, creative environments and creative relationships and how these contribute towards children’s identity as artists. The vignettes provided evidence and ideas relating to these aspects.

Creative values Luc, Kitty and Lily have shown their creative competencies from an early age. Each child has a natural exploratory drive and a desire to communicate his or her thoughts and feelings. Through sharing the different stories they tell through their artwork, children’s individual interests emerge. I have been able to tune into each child and use children’s strengths, interests and fascinations as starting points for their learning. Through playing with ideas, the children were able to explore imaginary and abstract worlds to create meaning. Each child’s own voice and identity were valued. Using sketchbooks opened up a dialogue about their future explorations. By developing an understanding of their patterns of play and ‘schema’, I was able to support their intentions and meanings.

Creative relationships The children in this study have given individual consent to the process and are aware that they are making art alongside others. Positive relationships have been vital to demonstrate the importance of give and take, respect and receiving feedback from significant others. Creating an emotionally safe environment has given value to and encouraged creativity, risk-taking and innovation, in a site of experiment. The role of the adult is a key factor in this creative relationship. Cremin (2006) emphasises the importance of standing back, learner agency and creating time and space. The children have demonstrated positive dispositions, knowing that their ideas have been valued. Their well-being and self-esteem is supported by adults who provide time, space and attention to the children’s developing confidence. Here, there is a dynamic relationship between achievement and self-esteem, and a deep knowledge of the child is gained from a close relationship. Trevarthen (2006) indicates how children have innate motivation and curiosity to learn in a community of learners, sharing their learning in the ‘joy and hurt of companionship’. The role of the adult is vital in ‘making learning visible’ by interpreting, understanding and, as appropriate, extending children’s learning.

Creative environments Claxton and Carr (2004) define learning environments as ‘prohibiting’, ‘affording’, ‘inviting’ and ‘potentiating’. They describe ‘potentiating’

Vignettes  83 environments as those that support and extend learning ‘dispositions’; where adults and children participate actively, sharing power and responsibility. Planning spaces, inside and outside, which are flexible and responsive to children’s interests and fascinations can capture their imagination and encourage their lines of enquiry. Carefully chosen resources that reflect children’s home culture can provide provocations for problem-solving and critical thinking. As adults, we can create opportunities that promote independence, responsibility and autonomy, with meaningful contexts for initiating artwork. We can value children’s preferences and entitlement to choose their modes of representation by providing a wide range of tools and materials to nurture creativity. The adults followed the children’s fascinations and interests. The children used a variety of media and surfaces for making images and creating a new art space. They became very involved in looking through transparent materials and acetate, using them to create a drawing between the inside and outside. Children were enabled to express their thoughts through a range of creative possibilities, working alongside creative educators and artists in dialogue. This environment allowed quieter children to find a voice. Reflection and ongoing analysis will secure children’s entitlement to quality experiences and environments.

Creative dispositions Both 5×5×5=creativity and ‘Being an Artist’ start from a belief in the creative competence of all children. The role of the adults is to support children’s fascinations and enquiries and to offer them creative opportunities to explore, express and represent their ideas. By recognising and valuing the

Figure 4.8 Window installation, Creative Space.

84 Vignettes sophistication and complexity of children’s symbolic representation, I was able to support their learning and identity. Evidence from the vignettes in this initial phase reaffirms the role of art in young children’s learning about the world around them and in their coming to terms with their own personal role or identity within the cultures in which they are growing up. Children use art both as a way of telling others what matters to them and as a way of exploring new ideas, concepts and emotions for themselves. Often, the narratives they create in artwork are paralleled by their oral storying and role-play. Children move fluently from one mode of representation to another, often using play as the vehicle for their explorations of how to represent and re-represent what they know.

Children’s creative thinking and representation From the vignettes, I have been able to observe certain characteristics of children’s creative thinking and representation to substantiate the propositions for this study: Creativity is about taking risks and making connections and is strongly linked to play. Creativity emerges as children become absorbed in action and in exploration of their own ideas, expressing and transforming these using a variety of materials and processes. Creativity involves children in initiating their own learning and making choices and decisions. Children’s responses to what they see, hear and experience through their senses are individual, and the way they represent their experiences is unique and valuable. The vignettes highlight the potential role of the adult in supporting children’s identity as artists, particularly being alongside the child; celebrating young children’s creativity and critical thinking; valuing play and active learning; understanding the significance and importance of creating opportunities for children’s symbolic representation; providing choice and giving value to children’s preferred modes of self-expression and representation; ‘making learning visible’ through documentation and supporting children in the development of their lines of enquiry; and creating meaningful contexts for learning, inside and outside, which recognise the multimodal and complex nature of learning. Each of the vignettes shows the impact on the children’s imagination, ideas and self-identity and the link between the children’s play, interests and preoccupations. Each highlights the children’s relationships with adults supporting their learning and the importance of the learning environment. Each vignette illustrates opportunities for children to play creatively with ideas in different situations and with a variety of resources, focusing on creativity and critical thinking.

Vignettes  85 The children have shown many motivations for making art for different purposes and in different contexts. Art has been a means of self-expression and has also allowed them to explore ideas and feelings in different modalities. These children are researchers of the world, exploring creative ideas. The adults were modelling creative dispositions with children, as well as developing enabling contexts in which the children can develop their own interests and express ideas. In the spirit of the Reggio Emilia approach (Edwards et al. 1998), the development of ideas often depends on the social interaction of group reflections and conversations. Drawing on their own skills and dispositions, artists can offer possible structures or ‘holding forms’ for children’s expressivity. Documentation in relation to this process is vital in revealing children’s fascinations and curiosities. So, too, is provocation or intervention. In response to children’s ideas, artists can offer pivotal moments to extend children’s ideas. This process requires a culture of open discussion about creative processes and about the notion of being an artist. I am investigating children ‘being and becoming artists’, what meaning the learner is assigning to her experiences and what kind of identities are evolving, and in children ‘as beings’ with ‘their childhoods in the here and now’ (Clark and Moss 2005).

An Aside: Extracts from observation October 2009, Dr. Almudena Ocaña (University of Granada) When we arrive at the schoolyard we find boys and girls running from one place to another running, playing. Penny is greeting the people and everyone that we meet and say hello, she introduces me naturally. We go to the class, Penny designates this space, a ‘studio’. A studio that is built towards the outside is like a great showcase because it is all surrounded by large windows. Everything that is done inside is seen from the outside. This denotes that Penny has no problem in showing her work and her way of understanding what happens there. Everything is treated very naturally, without artifice; maybe this way of looking differently is a quality of a researcher? Can this allow me to delve more and know better the reality that surrounds me? Another thing that strikes me is that children can use materials freely and that there is not an adult who is delivering the materials, but perhaps that is also because I need to have things always under control. The children are arriving little by little to the workshop and Penny asks them to be seated around the table as a circle. She greets them and asks if they remember me. Then she explains the purpose of my visit and invites them to tell me what this workshop means to them, what it means to them ‘being an artist’. Penny asks the first child next to her to start; she always does this as a

86 Vignettes proposition, not as a mandate. I am surprised that children of such different ages are able to express with such clarity what the workshop means for them and also so naturally. Penny finished that ‘assembly’ by showing the children photographs of paintings by an artist from Bath and also an exhibition on Costume. No more, just to be inspired, to think about it, simply to share that information with them as if they were ‘other artists’. I am surprised every day more by the autonomous work of these children. Perhaps that autonomy that I admire is what I long for in my own life. In the workshop they have the ability to decide what they want to do, how they want to do it, whether they want to share it with others, etc. And they do it naturally, without problems, without controversy, without thinking if the friend will be upset, if Penny will feel better or worse, and if others will appreciate more or less their work. Penny appreciates the children’s work but not from an adult’s point of view towards a small child but treats them as peers. She asks them their reasons, seeks reflection and, of course, values ​​the characteristic of each one. She gives each child value, for one it is the way she looks, in another the smile, in another the style when painting, innovative ideas, etc. They all have something special; they notice it and Penny uses it as a vehicle to communicate with them. That feeling of knowing why you are special I think that gives them confidence in themselves and allows them to move forward in that creative process. Maybe I need to look for and find what makes me special, value it, from there, begin to be freer.

Chapter summary Vignettes: Lily, Luc and Kitty that focus on the following aspects of creative and artistic learning

Creative dispositions of children possibility thinking; play; risk-taking • • flow; deep engagement • resourcefulness and sustained involvement

Children’s developing identity as artists through creative enquiry • • • • • •

children’s theories, fascinations, enquiries use of imagination and curiosity self-identity and authenticity making connections; meaning-making continuity, ongoing processes, following through ideas, sustaining enquiry collaboration with peers and adults

Vignettes  87

Relationships and collaborations between adults and children • • • •

role of listening and discourse co-enquiry processes and being a companion in learning concept of intervention (provocation) role of observation, documentation, interpretation

Creative values, attitudes and perspectives of the adult (artist, parent, teacher or teaching assistant) viewing children as competent and creative • • adults’ own creativity; creative dispositions of the adults working alongside the children

Creative learning environment • nature and characteristics of the physical and emotional learning environment and enabling contexts • time for sustained enquiry and possibility thinking • space for open-ended enquiry • attention and value given to the creative processes experienced by children • learner agency: choice, ownership, relevance

References Clark, A., and Moss, P. (2005) Listening to Young Children: The Mosaic Approach. London: NCB. Claxton, G., and Carr, M. (2004) A Framework for Teaching Learning: the Dynamics of Disposition. Early Years, 24(1), pp. 87–97. Cremin, T. (2006) Creativity, Uncertainty and Discomfort: Teachers as Writers, Cambridge Journal of Education, 36(3), pp. 415–433. Edwards, C., Gandini, L., and Forman, G. (1998) The Hundred Languages of Children – Advanced Reflections. Greenwich, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing. Rinaldi, C. (2006) In Dialogue with Reggio: Listening, Researching and Learning. Oxford: Routledge. Trevarthen, C. (2006) Doing Education – to Know What Others Know. Early Education, 49, pp. 11–13.

5 Case studies of children as artists Glow moments

In this chapter, I present the analysis of data in order to explore and develop the emerging themes illuminated in the interpretive process. This process is a ‘systematic, critical and self-­critical enquiry which aims to contribute to the advancement of knowledge and wisdom’ (Bassey 1999: 38). I return to my research aims and questions in relation to the codes emerging from both cycles of the data. I present two case studies of focal children, drawing on data aligned with both the coding structure and the subsequent focus on ‘glow moments’ (MacLure 2010). I focus on the creative dispositions of children; children’s developing identity as artists through creative enquiry; relationships and collaborations between adults and children; creative values, attitudes and perspectives of the adult; and the creative learning environment. The dataset that I draw on includes observations, interviews, photographs, artwork, children’s comments and field notes from ‘Being an Artist’ workshops and 5×5×5=creativity sessions, I undertook a deductive and inductive analysis of the entire dataset of notes and observations using the four themes from the 5×5×5=creativity research (creative values, dispositions, environments and relationships) as an analytical frame (Bancroft et al. 2008). The process has been iterated many times, both to generate new questions and to refine coding systems. The data analysis included interpretation and naming of emergent characteristics and themes, using comparison and looking for any patterns to refine and relate these themes and using divergent views from other adults (artists, educators, parents) to challenge generalisations. I make use of case studies to bring this sense of ‘progressive focusing’ (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995: 191). The analysis of two cycles of data collection is illustrated through two case studies with extracts from documentation notes, interviews and related images to allow the reader to be informed by a rigorous analysis yet extrapolate their own conclusions and co-­construct meaning with their own experiences (Nisbet and Watt 1984: 90). With each case study I also present an analysis of the emergent themes and key issues to inform the synthesis of findings. Each case study is portrayed through the voices of the researcher, key adults (artists, educators and parents) and the children. The ‘adult’ in these conversations and documentation is identified as the artist (myself or Edwina DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501-5

Case studies of children as artists  89 Bridgeman), a parent, a teacher or a teaching assistant. The analytic processes have been made visible and sharable through the systematic documentation and analysis of the case. In the context of this research, case studies of two children provide the opportunity to analyse the particular role of adults in supporting children’s developing identity as artists. This is not a comparative study where two children are seen to represent a ‘type’ or developmental model. Rather, the focus on two children differing in age allows the depth of study in a relationship with them over time. I have tracked the emergence of key characteristics that support children’s emerging views of themselves as artists through initially coding the characteristics to describe interactions between child and adult, the role of the adult, the environment and the process of making art. I respond to the emerging characteristics from each cycle to inform the analysis. I use this analysis to reflect on the children’s development and the role of the adult, reflecting on significant glow moments that emerged from the documentation and analysis. I was seeking repeated themes and issues emerging from the data in the light of the research questions. Through reflections on each child, I consider key themes emerging. These include the concept of being an artist; a playful context; universal themes in art; open-­ended materials and processes; observation, documentation and using sketchbooks; the importance of drawing as a process of communication and making meaning; attunement and the quality of attention; time and space; and reflection and dialogue. The final section explores the links between the emerging themes and the whole school context. I focus particularly on how the four strands of research – creative dispositions, creative relationships, creative values and creative environments – can give insight into children’s learning across the whole school. I conclude the chapter with a summary and questions emerging, acknowledging resonances, conflicts and new ground.

Presenting the case In presenting the case studies I return to the two central aims of my research: to critique the notion that children can develop an identity of themselves as artists and to provide an interpretive account of educational practice that supports children’s creative development and learning identity as artists. The principal research questions guiding my study were as follows: How can I usefully define what it means for children aged 4–8 years to develop their learning identity as artists?; What strategies can adults (educators, artists, parents) employ to support children’s creative development and learning identity as artists? Over two years I was a participant observer in one hour-­long ‘Being an Artist’ workshop per week, and I attended ten sessions alongside artist Edwina Bridgeman as part of the 5×5×5=creativity research. I wanted to match children’s artworks with observations and discussions about their actual art-­making, and, by doing so, to bring the child’s agency into focus

90  Case studies of children as artists with an emphasis on children’s own ideas and emerging understandings of what it means to be an artist. I focused on the children’s art-­making, their dialogue and response to questions; I listened to interactions among children as they made art. I noted how they used materials, developed ideas and shared their artwork with me and with each other. I returned to a set of generic questions that were used in response to the situation at the time. These included ‘What are your ideas?’, ‘How do you want to share your ideas?’ and ‘Where have your ideas come from?’ These open-­ended questions were intended to get a discussion going among the children so that they would be responding not only to me but also to each other. Emphasis was on their developing understanding of the concept of being an artist, understanding of their own processes in art-­making, what it meant to them and what the experience was like for them. Children were invited to tell the story of how they created something and how they made certain decisions along the way. The focal children were also interviewed at home by their parents. In these interviews, they were asked questions about their art-­ making and how they felt about it.

Codes emerging from both cycles of the data (New aspects from Cycle 2 are in italics)

1 Creative dispositions of children: 1a) Possibility thinking; playing with ideas; risk-­taking 1b) Flow; deep engagement; immersion 1c) Resourcefulness; sustained involvement 1d) Openness to difference 1e) Exploration with materials (external play) 1f) Confidence as a creative disposition 1g) Child taking responsibility for her/his own learning 1h) Independence (ability to take decisions about their work on their own) 1i) Questioning and hypothesising

2 Children’s developing identity as artists through creative enquiry: 2a) Children’s theories, fascinations, enquiries 2b) Use of the imagination and curiosity 2c) Self-­identity; authenticity 2d) Making connections; meaning-­making 2e) Continuity; ongoing processes; following through ideas; sustaining enquiry 2f) Collaboration with an adult or another child; sharing ideas

Case studies of children as artists  91 2g) Intention (what the child wants to communicate) 2h) Structuring (ways in which children choose to express ideas) 2i) Confidence in their own identity as an artist 2j) Becoming (self-­awareness of journey towards being an artist) 2k) Ownership (of ideas, child’s sense of agency) 2l) Transformation (key moment in developing identity)

3 Relationships and collaborations between adults and children: 3a) Role of listening and discourse: respectful dynamic relationships and dialogue between adults and children 3b) Co-­enquiry processes; being a companion in learning 3c) Concept of creative intervention (provocation) 3d) Role of observation, documentation, interpretation 3e) Children’s view of working together with an adult or other child: children leading learning

4 Creative values, attitudes and perspectives of the adult (artist, parent, teacher, teaching assistant): 4a) Viewing children as competent and creative; trusting children’s ideas 4b) Adults’ own creativity; creative dispositions of the adults working alongside the children 4c) Process/product (adults valuing both aspects of a child’s work as an artist) 4d) Transparency of ethos: aspiration and capability

5 Creative learning environment (nature and characteristics of the physical and emotional learning environment): 5a) Time for sustained-­enquiry and possibility thinking 5b) Space for open-­ended enquiry 5c) Attention and value given to the creative processes of children 5d) Environment that promotes learner agency: choice, ownership, relevance 5e) Real contexts (purpose or motivation) 5f) Enabling contexts (transparency of ethos) how the studio space supports the image of the child as creative and competent 5g) Provision of physical space and materials 5h) Documentation to illustrate children’s creative potential

Case study 1, Bo I have worked alongside Bo since she was 4 years old and in the foundation stage. We have continued a dialogue about her developing artwork since this time.

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Creative dispositions of children This image shows Bo making a piece of art she called ‘Patternworld’ in her first year of attending the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops. The intense concentration on her face and in the hand holding the paintbrush indicates that she is in a state of ‘flow’ or deep engagement and provides evidence that she was ‘playing’ with patterns prior to undertaking ‘Patternworld’. The opportunity to choose and explore creative materials was a key part of these sessions so that the children could choose the most appropriate media to express and communicate their ideas. Bo described the media involved in the art-­making process, demonstrating her increased confidence in using unexpected combinations of media: I like choosing different materials to draw and to paint with. I really like using inks and mixing materials together … I like to use unusual materials too, to make something new. (Field notes) The creative enquiries in these workshops nearly always originate from the interests of the children. If this is not the case, then the adult or child

Figure 5.1 Bo creating ‘Patternworld’, age 5 years.

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Figure 5.2 Bo exploring materials, age 6 years.

introduces ‘something up my sleeve’ as a provocation for learning. This was the case for Bo, she showed me what she was interested in exploring, and while I would respond to her interests and take her lead, I would also draw on my own experience as an artist to support her ongoing enquiries. PH:  “What would you like to do today?” BO:  “I found these keys … shall we draw

them?”

Bo goes to collect the drawing materials and invites me to share a drawing that turns from a pattern design into ‘Key world’, a map using key shapes and motifs to form as elements of the landscape. (Field notes) Bo went on to make a box for the keys, to take home – she labelled each of the keys with parcel tags and labelled how each key unlocked a different feeling. (Field notes) The ‘glow moment’ exemplifies some of the creative enquiry processes and dispositions that Bo was engaged in: imagining, exploring, expressing and transforming. Bo had taken her initial pattern and motif and incorporated this into a series of related images. There was also a reciprocal exchange of ideas through enquiry, dialogue and a process of co-­construction. Bo was

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Figure 5.3 ‘Key world’ by Bo, age 7 years.

immersed in sustained enquiry and possibility thinking, while playing with and taking risks with ideas. Her concentration was evident; she was immersed in ‘flow’ and deeply engaged in the process of making art. A field note exemplifies Bo’s approach to creative learning and her developing identity as an artist: Bo’s resourcefulness and sustained involvement was evident. She was happy taking risks and making connections … becoming absorbed in action and explorations of ideas, expressing and transforming these using a variety of materials and processes. Today she took a range of reclaimed materials and turned them into fantastical creatures. We talked about how creativity is a way of thinking, using and transforming materials to express different ideas. (Field notes) This is also significant in relation to her metacognitive development as Bo was becoming aware of her own artistic and creative thinking processes. She was becoming more confident in expressing her ideas and how she could express and share these. Bo was confident in using a wide range of media, including working in 3D. She preferred to use ‘found’ materials to design and make imaginary figures. Bo showed confidence in her exploration of the ideas and materials, combining them in new ways to construct something new and original. She was happy to take responsibility for her own learning, working independently

Case studies of children as artists  95 and making decisions about her own work. I noticed that Bo used her art-­ making as a way of showing what mattered to her and as a way of exploring new ideas and feelings. I like inventing new things, new creatures … you can imagine what they are like (Field notes) Responses and questions from the group validated her enquiries and inventions. Child:  “What’s that one called Bo? It has a great face!”

(Field notes)

It is notable the way Bo was representing her artwork as unique and valuable. She would always have her own ideas, rather than leaning on a friend for inspiration. This also showed me that providing choice and giving value to children’s preferred modes of self-­expression and representation is vital in helping them take ownership of their learning. Bo showed a sense of resourcefulness and sustained involvement in her art-­making. She was open to different ideas and confident in her own creativity, showing independence in her ability to take decisions about her work. Bo had demonstrated through her artwork her interest in playing with ideas with a sustained involvement over time.

Children’s developing identity as artists through creative enquiry I was intrigued by the meanings that Bo attached to her artwork, her theories, fascinations and enquiries should be noted. Bo has had a fascination with pattern from an early age that she has pursued as an ongoing interest. For her painting ‘Patternworld’, Bo was inspired by the story of the Sad Bird and said she wanted to make a painting to cheer him up. She included layers of colour in the form of a patterned garden for the bird to live in. Alongside that of her friends, her artwork was shared in an exhibition in the Creative Space. This gave Bo an understanding of seeing her work displayed in a public space for others to see and discuss their own interpretations. Bo explores visual ideas about pattern through drawing. She usually starts a drawing in the corner of the page and works across systematically (Bo’s sketchbooks). Bo took the initiative to develop her artwork at home as well as in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops. Bo would often bring in the artwork to show me and demonstrated how she was developing ongoing themes. Parent: “Bo has been given a new set of paints at home. She loves exploring patterns, shapes and colours.” (Parent interview) Bo has a strong sense of colour and pattern-­making in her drawing and painting. She treats the whole page as a design that evolves as she draws and paints.

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Figure 5.4 ‘Patternworld’ painting by Bo, age 5 years.

Figure 5.5 Sad bird exhibition in the Creative Space.

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Figure 5.6 ‘Patternworld’, acrylic painting by Bo, age 7 years.

Figure 5.7 ‘Patternworld 2’, acrylic painting by Bo, age 7 years.

98  Case studies of children as artists Bo said that making patterns was her favourite part of drawing and painting. “I like to make patterns that grow across the page and turn them into other things.” (Field notes) Bo continued to explore the theme of an imaginary world, especially in her drawings. She often described these as ‘coming out of the paper’, suggesting that she allowed ideas to develop through the material itself. This trust in the process of art-­making is significant in relation to her understanding of the artistic process and how she is relating to this as an artist herself. It is interesting to see the relationship between Bo’s pattern-­making and landscape pieces as they often had the same colour palette and a similar sense of movement. She would often use a variety of mixed media, often choosing purple, blue, green, red and orange (her favourite colours) in different combinations. Bo enjoyed blending pastel colours to create an imaginary landscape, using pattern and colour to express her ideas. Bo was also interested in collaborating and sharing ideas and art-­making alongside an adult (in this case, me) or another child. Bo enjoys collaborative drawing and exchanging ideas in a visual dialogue. She is also open to new techniques and processes which she can use in new ways to connect to her developing themes and ideas. Her inspiration often came from photographs and images from books that she had sourced herself. The use of different media is directly related to what Bo intends to communicate. Structuring the ways in which she chooses to express ideas through

Figure 5.8 Extract-1 from Bo’s Beautiful Book, age 7 years.

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Figure 5.9 Extract-2 from Bo’s Beautiful Book, age 7 years.

different processes has formed an important part of Bo’s own art-­making and has contributed to her developing confidence in her own identity as an artist. Bo enjoys drawing together – with an exchange of ideas in a visual dialogue between us. PH:  “What would you like to do today?” BO: “Drawing.” PH:  “What would you like to use to draw BO:  “Can we use ink on a canvas?”

with?” (Field notes)

The notion of ‘becoming’, a self-­awareness of her journey towards being an artist, is a key feature of our dialogue. Bo often talks to me while she works about her ideas about art. I encourage an open discussion about creative processes and the notion of being an artist. Transformation has emerged as a significant concept in developing Bo’s identity as an artist: the transformation of ideas and materials to express herself as an artist. Today was a pivotal moment in sharing the children’s ideas about being an artist. There was a culture of open discussion about creative processes and how this informs the notion of being an artist.

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Figure 5.10 Ink on canvas by Bo, age 7 years. BO:  “What

is good about these sessions, it is free, you can do anything as art, you can use any materials, you can use your sketchbook, you can be an artist.” (Field notes)

The group together talked about generating ideas, their imaginations, intentions, what interested them, which materials they liked and the involvement of other children with their own ideas. BO: 

“Your imagination gives you ideas, you can make things up and turn them into other things.” (Field notes)

What struck me particularly was Bo’s ability to communicate her ideas effectively and her understanding of the complex idea of being an artist. In sharing her work at the end of this session, Bo seemed at ease with her own and others’ critiques of her work, willingly returning to make revisions, and thus furthering her own understanding about the different ways in which others express her ideas. The idea of being an artist was evidenced in each session in through dialogue: PH:  “Who makes art?” BO: “Everyone can make

art. Sometimes I make art on my own or in here, sometimes I do it with you too.” PH:  “Where is art?” BO: “Art is inside you and then it comes out as ideas on the paper or in a sculpture. Art is everywhere, it’s in your head. It’s anywhere.” PH:  “Why do you make art?”

Case studies of children as artists  101 BO: “Because

I like it, it gives me good ideas and makes me think about things, I can make things up and imagine.” (Field notes)

These observations provide evidence of young children’s capacity to absorb relatively complex ideas. Bo not only wants to become an artist but also sees the link with other art forms (she is a musician and a dancer), showing a clear sense of her own emerging self-­image and creative learning identity. Bo now has a ‘body of work’ that shows her developing identity as an artist. Each term, Bo works in a sketchbook; makes individual paintings, drawings, prints and sculptures; and develops her art at home. Bo’s sketchbooks and artwork demonstrate a clear set of ideas and themes that start with pattern-­making and develop into landscapes. Bo’s theories, fascinations and enquiries were consistent and sustained in developing this body of work over time; she had a clear intention to communicate ideas about patterns and patterned worlds. She was able to use her curiosity to explore a range of processes both on her own and in collaboration with others. Bo’s own self-­identity and her self-­awareness of her journey towards being an artist were evident in her dialogue and exchange of ideas. Bo collects her ideas in a sketchbook, often inspired by other artists’ work, but always develops her own ideas rather than copying. This reveals that if children’s initiation of ideas and interests are taken seriously and supported as sustained enquiries, children are more likely to take ownership of their ideas.

Figure 5.11 Pattern-making-1 by Bo, age 7 years.

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Figure 5.12 Pattern-making-2 by Bo, age 7 years.

Figure 5.13 Pattern-making by Bo, age 8 years.

Working alongside a professional artist (in this scenario Edwina Bridgeman) as a role model has also provided many insights into the complexity of art, art-­making and being an artist. Edwina works primarily as a visual artist and offered all the children opportunities to work in a range of media. There is a visibility of an artist’s practice that children recognise, with opportunities to engage directly with artists’ work and to discuss creative processes.

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Figure 5.14 Landscape by Bo, age 8 years.

Figure 5.15 Bo using a sketchbook to develop ideas, age 8 years.

Following an invitation from Edwina to explore their imagination Bo used her sketchbook to explore the artwork that Edwina had brought in to share with the children.

104  Case studies of children as artists The children discussed the notion of imagination as a group. Bo reflected on her own imagination: ‘I think my ideas come out of my head and onto the paper’ (Field notes). Reflecting on the session and working with Bo, Edwina said: I think we really do listen to what the children are saying and then the art is responding to their ideas without closing them down … sometimes ideas can go off in a different direction to how you might anticipate. (Field notes)

Relationships and collaborations between adults and children BO:  “I

like it when we are talking about our ideas and how we made our artwork … you get to learn about different ways of doing things.” (Field notes) Parent helper: “the adults can also get involved in their own artwork either with someone else or on their own. The children are now used to being here … so they are really ok about talking about their own ideas and work [nodding towards Bo].” (Parent interview)

These two quotes encapsulate the process embedded in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops. I noticed that there were certain key themes that were transparent in the process of each workshop: the child’s ideas, interests and fascinations; the child’s independence, initiative and self-­ determination and dialogue, companionship and improvisation. PH scaffolding a group discussion … ideas initially fairly random come together … children know if their ideas are valued if they are all responded to with genuine interest. Bo often waits for a few moments to absorb the group’s ideas before she decides what to do herself in the workshop. (Field notes) In unpicking the processes I used as an adult alongside these enquiries, with Bo in particular, I was able to observe and reflect on my own actions by using my reflections and field notes to cross-­reference in dialogue with the other adults present. My own actions included: Be alongside the child, observe and listen Ask open questions in conversation Say what I was noticing or remain silent, listen Get involved in the thinking process Engage in philosophical or conceptual exploration of ideas Provide a range of open-­ended media and resources Follow the child’s interests and/or offer an ‘up my sleeve’ suggestion

Case studies of children as artists  105 Suggest artists to look at to develop ideas further Invite ways to share the work with each other Reflect on the experience Show respect and genuine interest. My own role was often alongside Bo, but in the same workshop other adults (parent helpers) were also seen ‘standing back’, offering children space and time to develop their ideas and valuing children’s agency. They demonstrated sensitivity to the emotional environment and formed part of the enabling context for children. PH: noticing

processes of reflecting together (with Bo), noticing curiosity and fascinations/themes developing in children’s enquiries. PARENT:  “You’re providing the opportunities for them to ask questions and follow their own interests, valuing their ideas, and supporting them in how to express themselves”. PH:  noticing qualities/key characteristics of session: time, space, attention, flow, calm, respect, reciprocity. PARENT: “…I think the listening, and responding to what they do is something I have noticed.” (Field notes) ‘Listening’ was a key process in the dialogue between the child and adult. BO: was unsure what to focus on, she deliberated about which media she

wanted to use…

BO:  “I am not sure what I want to PH:  “What is your favourite media

do … which material to use” to use at the moment?” Bo: “I’m not sure, I like making patterns with ink and pastel…”, reaching for the paper and ink. (Field notes) On occasions, after initial uncertainty, Bo was able to make informed decisions about the media she chose to use, but she valued the opportunity to vocalise this uncertainty and then be clear about her actions. Her resulting artwork showed her exploration of the chosen media and her continuing obsession with pattern and coverage of the whole paper. It was important that my relationship with Bo (and with other children in the workshop) was respectful and based on kindness. Bo would readily say how she felt and what she wanted to do. All the children in the workshop were encouraged to take ownership of these shared conversations to share their ideas and possible ways of working. Sometimes the children would group their ideas around specific activities or enquires. Children often flowed in and out of the different activities they selected: drawing, painting, collage, clay, construction and den-­making. Bo would often choose to work alongside me in a collaborative drawing.

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Figure 5.16 Ink and pastel drawing by Bo, age 7 years. PH TO PARENT: 

“you sometimes have to remind them all to listen to the person talking but soon the children know that this is one of the only rules … the other is to make anything as art.” (Field notes)

Children often choose to set up their own play and enquiries. Children have their views taken into account … sometimes health and safety have to prevail. (Field notes) The role of listening and discourse was based on respectful dynamic relationships and dialogue between adults and with children. Making the creative and co-­enquiry processes visible was part of this dialogue. Sometimes the adult offered a ‘creative provocation’, but more often the starting point for the ideas came from the child. Essential to each session were the processes of observation, documentation and interpretation, sharing the development and realisation of ideas with each other.

Creative values, attitudes and perspectives of the adult (artist, parent, teacher or teaching assistant) Each session in ‘Being an Artist’ started with a conversation about ideas. I asked the children what they wanted to ‘say’ (visually) and how they might share their ideas with others. Children were invited to offer ideas to the group for further enquiry. The children’s ideas were overtly valued through dialogue.

Case studies of children as artists  107 PH:  “Have

a think about what you want to use today to express your ideas (indicating a choice of media). How would you like to share your ideas?” BO:  “I know, I want to use paint … the bottles.” (Field notes) These reflective dialogues, whether with individuals or in groups, gave opportunities for concentrated reflection, the distilling of ideas and space and time to ‘play’ with thoughts. Bo was encouraged to keep a sketchbook (which we sometimes referred to as a visual journal or ideas book) which she personalised. In her sketchbook, Bo took responsibility for developing her own ideas and themes, sometimes in collaboration with me or with another child in the group. She was also encouraged to choose what she wanted to do and to work at her own pace so that she had a natural and personal experience of being an artist. Using sketchbooks opened up a dialogue about her explorations and artwork and provided a point of reference to share ideas. Bo was inventing another imaginary world, developing her ideas using 2 pencils together, talking intermittently to me as she her image grew across the page from one side to the other… BO:  “It

is growing, look, it looks like it’s swimming like a wave.”

The children were really keen to listen to Bo’s explanation of her imaginary world. This session highlighted the importance of relationships, listening, dialogue and exchange of and responsiveness to each other’s ideas, all the children were listening, developing ideas and constructing meaning for themselves. (Field notes) In each session, the children were invited to reflect, discuss and question, and their enquiries arose from their own puzzlement. Bo and I were often engaged in thoughtful discussions about her work, searching to explain the reasons or meaning behind the artwork. BO:  “I

am trying to say what I want to say without using words!” (Field notes)

The adults’ own creativity and creative dispositions were often discussed while they were working alongside the children. Visiting artist Edwina Bridgeman made the artistic processes visible while working alongside Bo. EB:  “Where

do ideas come from? What helps to give you good ideas? How do ideas change?”

108  Case studies of children as artists Bo “Ideas come out of my head, I don’t always know what will happen but I play with the materials and see what happens next.” (Field notes) Sometimes I would also share my own artwork with the children and discuss the processes involved in making the work. As an artist, Bo seemed clear about her own creative processes; Bo shared skills and conversations without prescribing outcomes. She was clear that her ideas were valued and listened to. When Bo was 8 years old, she made an exhibition of her work at home, and she and her parents invited me to see it. It was an extraordinary collection of all her favourite pieces of artwork which I included in Bo’s Beautiful Book. Bo’s parents value their children’s creative work. In the home there are plenty of opportunities for making artwork that is valued and displayed. (Field notes) We talked about what Bo liked in ‘Being an Artist’. BO: 

“I like the way we can choose what we want to do … I like working with you. I like showing my work to mummy and daddy”

PARENT:  “Bo

is very creative and imaginative in her artwork at home too. She has collected together all the images that she has produced with you and put them in a portfolio.” (Parent interview)

The ethos of the family home was such that the work that Bo produced in school was talked about and valued at home; she was viewed as creative and competent, and adults trusted in her ideas. Adults valued the processes of the Bo’s art-­making as well as the products. There was a transparency of ethos in each of the ‘Being an Artist’ workshop sessions that placed emphasis on the aspirations and capability of all involved.

Creative learning environment The nature and characteristics of the physical and emotional learning environment plays a significant part in this study. In order to develop a creative and enabling learning environment, careful attention was given to the design of the space and the range and provision of materials and resources. Emphasis was placed on open-­ended materials so that children had a chance to choose materials from a range of media, recognising the affordances and opportunities of different tools and techniques. The children get a chance to choose their own lines of enquiry, some of the children resource their own work before the session and bring in ideas to develop in their sketchbook. Others wait for the ‘up your sleeve’ moment and see what provocations are shared by the group. Sometimes

Case studies of children as artists  109 the children work inside and sometimes we go outside. Some children like to work on their own, some together, some on the table, some on the floor… Bo would often choose to work alongside me or with me in collaboration. (Field notes) Time, space, attention and reflection were key concepts that framed the sessions. Positive relationships fed the ethos of the space. There was an openness about valuing everybody’s contributions. PH:  “What

are your ideas and how do you want to share them?” As an adult I try to build on their experiences and interests throughout … sometimes teaching skills as appropriate. (Field notes)

TA:  “…

the children really like sharing at the end and listening to each other’s ideas, sharing their artwork.” (Teaching Assistant Interview)

In all ‘Being an Artist’ workshops, there was time for sustained, open-­enquiry and possibility thinking. Sometimes the nature of the workshops meant that we ran out of time, but Bo was always keen to ‘finish’ her work and would often stay in over the play time to do this if she needed to. Bo was always ready to try out materials to ‘see what happens’ in her images as they developed. We would often make work together. Bo would usually instigate this and invite me to work with her or alongside her, each choosing a selection of materials. The attention and value given to the creative process of making art during each session was built on each week. The environment was created to

Figure 5.17 Collaborative drawing (with Penny), Bo, age 8 years.

110  Case studies of children as artists promote learner agency, choice and ownership, offering Bo (and all the children) the opportunity to be self-­directing and encouraging intrinsic motivation. This enabling context and the transparency of this creative ethos demonstrate how supporting documentation and the studio space both support the image of the child as creative and competent. Bo would often help me organise the space… taking care to put out materials so they were appealing to use. (Field notes) Sometimes I provided spaces inside or outside, in response to the children’s interests and fascinations in order to feed or capture their imagination… I found that valuing children’s preferences and encouraging them to choose their theme or media helped their motivation. (Field notes)

Reflections on Bo The case study of Bo has helped me reflect again on my principal research questions and feeds into the discussion of emergent theories in Chapter 6. How can I usefully define what it means for children to develop their learning identity as artists?

Figure 5.18 Creative Space.

Case studies of children as artists  111 I noticed that there were certain characteristics of Bo’s creative processes that might suggest her developing identity as an artist. She was happy to work in an open-­ended way without knowing what would happen, choosing themes and enquiries that interested her and ones that she could be playful in. She was fluent in exploring, investigating, observing, imagining, expressing and developing ideas, making connections and communicating her thoughts and feelings to construct meaning. She was often absorbed in her own art-­making processes, but also welcomed working in collaboration. Bo had a sustained involvement in her work that indicated her resourcefulness and independence in learning. She was open to difference and confident to explore unusual ideas in a wide range of media to create new possibilities. Bo’s learning identity as an artist was expressed through the authenticity and originality of her ideas and artwork. Bo had the confidence to revisit ongoing processes, follow through ideas and sustain an enquiry over time. The final parent/child interview provided evidence of Bo’s developing identity as an artist: PARENT: 

“Both our children love ‘Being an Artist’ – always one of their top choices for Wednesday workshops. Helps children to explore their own ideas and develops a way of thinking about art with no barriers.” PH:  “What are your thoughts on the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops?” BO:  “It’s really fun because you get to do what you want as long as it’s art. The best thing is I get to work with Penny and make lovely pictures.” PH:  “What are your thoughts on the 5×5×5=creativity workshops?” PARENT: “Inspiring and imaginative, particularly group work where children can see individual efforts coming together to make something bigger. Children are excited by working with ‘real artists’ and have enjoyed seeing some of their work displayed in a gallery.” PH:  “What are your thoughts on the 5×5×5=creativity workshops?” BO:  “Brilliant. There are special themes and you can decide to work in partners or groups, choose what materials you want and what to make.” PH:  “What has been a noticeable development in Bo’s attitudes to her own identity as an artist?” PARENT: “General confidence in her ability to create art and make choices about media, colour and subject.” PH:  “What are your priorities for Bo making art at home?” PARENT:  “We try to encourage making art at any time using traditional pencils or paints (e.g. watercolour, acrylics) but also other media and materials, creating from pure imagination or inspired by other images. And sometimes we join in as well!” PH:  “What are the possible influences on Bo’s image making?” PARENT:  “Stories, films, photographs, images from books / magazines, and also occasional visits to galleries / exhibitions. And sometimes whatever her older brother is making or drawing!” PH:  “What are the themes of the artwork in Bo’s sketchbooks?”

112  Case studies of children as artists PARENT:  “More

abstract / layered colour compositions using a variety of patterns and brushstrokes, as well as some figurative/landscape compositions based on family and familiar environments.” PH:  “Do you have any questions for me?” PARENT:  “No questions – only thanks for inspiring and motivating Bo to “be an artist” – she is always keen to show us what you have been creating together.” (Parent/child interview) What strategies can adults (educators, artists, parents) employ to support children’s creative development and learning identity as artists? Working alongside children in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops allowed me to see the strategies that helped to support children’s concept of themselves as artists. The quality of attention given to the children seems to be key; the design of the space and the range and provision of materials and resources with emphasis on open-­ended materials were also important. Children had a chance to choose materials from a range of media and to learn to recognise the affordances and opportunities of different tools and techniques. Planning spaces, inside and out, which are flexible and responsive to children’s interests and fascinations, seem to capture their imagination and encourage their lines of enquiry. This suggests that carefully chosen resources that reflect children’s interests can provide provocations for creative and critical thinking, alongside meaningful contexts for initiating artwork. I found that valuing Bo’s preferences and entitlement to choose their modes of representation by providing a wide range of tools and materials nurtured her creativity. Documentation was also an important element of each session and was used to observe, analyse, interpret and illustrate each child’s creative potential.

Case study 2, Jay Creative dispositions of children I have worked alongside Jay since he was four years old and in the Foundation Stage. The ‘Being an Artist’ workshop sessions followed the interests of the children. Sometimes, I would have ‘something up my sleeve’ as a creative provocation for learning. At other times, one of the children would provide such a stimulus. PH:  “What would you like JAY:  “Draw monsters!”

to do today?”

Jay collects his sketchbook and drawing materials and settles down to his drawings immediately. (Field notes) Jay showed confidence in his drawing, always coming up with something new and playing with ideas and possibilities. Jay used his drawing as a way of exploring self-­chosen themes:

Case studies of children as artists  113 JAY:  “I

like inventing monsters and creatures … you can make up anything you like.” (Field notes) Jay was engaged in: imagining, exploring, expressing and transforming ideas. He quickly became immersed in his drawing. His concentration was evident and he was deeply engaged in the process of making art. I was particularly interested in the way Jay took initiative and showed a self-­confidence in his own creativity, taking responsibility for his own learning and showing independence in his ability to take decisions about his work. (Field notes) I noticed that Jay used art as a way of telling others what mattered to him through his narrative drawings and as a way of exploring new ideas, concepts and emotions for himself. Jay’s drawings are showing connections with family and interests outside school: some themes are recurrent throughout the year. (Field notes) Jay was encouraged to make choices and to share the reasoning behind his choices. I would ask open-­ended questions to encourage him to reflect on his thinking process and review his ideas. Jay would sometimes experiment with the media first before he developed a theme or idea in that chosen media. PH:  “What

are your ideas and how do you want to share them? Let me know if you would like to learn about specific techniques or materials.” (Field notes)

Each ‘Being an Artist’ workshop session provided time for sustained, open-­ enquiry and possibility thinking. Jay was particularly keen to experiment with drawing processes in the workshop and often worked alongside Matt in joint exploration. Jay and Matt seem happy in each other’s company, both children show confidence in generating ideas and possibilities for activities … Children exploring ideas together in dialogue and through drawing in paired books; children’s ideas overtly valued through dialogue. (Field notes) In order to support creative problem-­solving skills and dispositions, the environment purposefully promoted aesthetic, critical and creative inquiry through decision-­making, interaction, communication and negotiated learning. The children were able to choose the most appropriate media to express

114  Case studies of children as artists and communicate their ideas. Jay often chose drawing media over other materials, demonstrating his increased confidence in using a wide range of drawing media. The children are taking risks and making connections … children become absorbed in action and explorations of their own ideas, expressing and transforming these using a variety of materials and processes. Children are initiating their own learning and making choices. PH:  “Does anyone need any help today?” JAY:  “I know what I want to do, I just need to find the right thing to use.”

(Field notes)

The way they represent their experiences is unique and valuable. Children’s symbolic representation: providing choice and giving value to children’s preferred modes of self-­expression and representation. (Field notes) Jay was confident in thinking about the best ways to develop ideas in and through his artwork in devising possibilities and in playing with ideas. He was often deeply engaged ‘in the flow’ and lost in the process of drawing. His resourcefulness and sustained involvement were two key traits. Jay was also confident in exploring materials, took responsibility for his own learning and showed independence in taking decisions about his work.

Children’s developing identity as artists through creative enquiry Howard Gardner (1980) suggests that children tend to be either ‘Patterners’ who are interested in observable regularities in their environment, or ‘Dramatists’ who prefer to depict stories. Jay was a Dramatist who used ‘drawings and story to explore good and evil’ (Edmiston 2008). Jay has shown a consistent fascination with monsters and animals. I was interested in the meanings that Jay attached to his artwork as he has had a fascination with monsters and imaginary creatures from an early age. He explores ideas about monsters through drawing. He usually starts with a head and works around this to develop a creature out of his imagination. He appears compelled to design creatures from his imagination and tell stories about them. The head shape and horns are signature motifs that Jay uses on a regular basis. JAY:  “I

really like drawing monsters and telling stories with the monsters.” (Field notes)

PH noticing curiosity and fascinations/ themes developing in children’s enquiries. (Field notes)

Case studies of children as artists  115

Figure 5.19 Dragon by Jay, age 6 years. PARENT: 

“I love seeing how Jay is so into his drawing. I like the way you and Jane are providing the opportunities for the children to ask questions and follow their own interests… I think the listening, and responding to what they do is something I have noticed.” (Parent interview)

Jay uses drawing as a flexible and powerful tool, depicting actions, events, time-­sequences, people, objects and narrative. Through his drawings he represents action, emotion, ideas and experiences, drawing on his own repertoire of marks and symbols. Jay often draws from his imagination and from memory, communicating his ideas and interests through expressive and narrative drawings. Jay is confident in using a wide range of drawing media to explore ideas and experiences. Jay returns to themes of monsters, dragons, and dinosaurs regularly in his artwork. Jay often invents monsters and creatures to fit into his stories, or make up stories about the creatures he has drawn. Jay is initiating his own learning and making choices based on his interests in monsters. His sketchbook is full of test pages of monsters and imaginary creatures. (Field notes) JAY:  “This

is my monster … he looks like my teddy but he has special powers.” Jay tells a story as he creates an image. Sometimes the story changes the drawing and vice versa. (Field notes) Jay became absorbed in the exploration of his own ideas, returning again to his favourite monster image and executing this carefully with paint and ink on canvas. (Field notes)

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Figure 5.20 Monsters in Jay’s sketchbook, age 6 years.

Figure 5.21 Jay painting a monster, age 6 years.

Case studies of children as artists  117 Jay uses a lot of figures and animals in his work and often brings in his toys as an inspiration or cartoon characters he has sketched. The persistence of narrative in Jay’s art-­making was evident in different ways. Sometimes he built his stories in his imagination and then drew them, but more often he developed the ideas through his drawings. Jay talked about making art to describe experiences, to express emotions and to describe the way he felt about things, and ultimately to express his identity. Jay made drawings of important people in his life – his mum and dad usually, explaining that the drawings show what the person is like inside (not just physically). Jay always took his sketchbook home as well as bringing it to the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops. Jay would often bring in extra artwork to show me that demonstrated how he was developing his ongoing ideas and themes. Mountains and imaginary landscapes often involved volcanoes, all with a sense of adventure that linked back to Jay’s fascination with adventure stories and cartoons. Jay has spent hours in ‘Being an Artist’ workshops creating imaginary creatures through drawing. He often described these as ‘coming out of his head’, suggesting that he allowed ideas to develop in his imagination and on paper. His drawing used a sophisticated repertoire of marks to express his ideas. Jay’s own understanding of his imagination is significant in relation to his understanding of the artistic process and how he is relating to this as an artist

Figure 5.22 Mountains by Jay, age 7 years.

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Figure 5.23 Mountains and volcanoes by Jay, age 7 years.

Figure 5.24 Creature and Eagle by Jay, age 7 years.

Case studies of children as artists  119 himself. He enjoys collaborative drawing and is open to new techniques and processes which he could use in new ways to connect to his developing themes and ideas. Sharing ideas through imaginative drawing has formed an important part of Jay’s own art-­making and has contributed to his developing confidence in his own identity as an artist. Jay’s drawings were evidence of ‘drawing as invention’ (Adams 2006) and of drawing acting as a narrative springboard (Wright 2007). Jay talked about ‘looking away’ from his work and then back again quickly in an attempt to trick himself into seeing something new. This is a sophisticated process, often used purposefully by artists. Jay said ‘I like drawing, it makes me happy’, which provides a further example of Jay’s approach to creative learning and his developing identity as an artist. The notion of ‘becoming’ and the self-­awareness of the journey towards being an artist are key features of our dialogue. Jay is often the first child in the group to offer ideas about the creative process and the notion of being an artist. The group together talked about generating ideas, their imaginations, intentions, what interested them, which materials they liked and the involvement of other children with their own ideas. The idea of being an artist was evidenced in each session in through dialogue: PH:  “Who makes art?” JAY:  “We all do! We are all artists!” PH:  “Where is art?” JAY:  “Art is all around us, art is inside and outside.” PH:  “Why do you make art?” JAY: “To come up with ideas. I love drawing all day,

you can use your sketchbook to come up with ideas, you can be an artist.” (Field notes)

Jay seems to have a clear sense of being an artist and how understanding the artistic process is part of this developing identity. Jay now has a series of sketchbooks that show his developing identity as an artist. Jay’s sketchbooks and artwork demonstrate a clear set of ideas and themes that range from monsters and stories to portraits (Jay’s sketchbooks). In each ‘Being an Artist’ workshop, children were encouraged to assign their own meanings to their creative activities. Jay often reflected on his drawings as a way of showing his own self-­awareness of being an artist: Jay talks of self, others and resources: It is the actual experience of becoming that is vital here, of what meaning learners are assigning to their experiences and what kind of identities are evolving. (Field notes) Jay often made self-­portraits with different drawing media and included these in his narrative drawings. This led to an interesting conversation about how he looked ‘on the outside’ in comparison to how he was ‘on the inside’.

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Figure 5.25 Jay and the Shark by Jay, age 7 years.

I invited Jay to expand on his idea. Jay said: “It’s me, I can change into different people but I’m still the same inside!” This sense that his own idea of himself was different to the way other people saw him was significant and demonstrated a playfulness with his own identity. It was as if he was trying to show me a different version of himself through his narrative drawings. This sense of ownership of ideas shows Jay’s sense of agency. Transformation was often evident through dialogues in which children shared key moments that suggested they were developing their identities as artists. Questions were designed to elicit the children’s perspectives on art and art-­making, to elicit their understanding of concepts such as ‘art’ and ‘artist’ and of questions such as ‘What does it mean to be creative?’ As a group we often talked about imagination and creativity. JAY:  “I

like drawing my stories and ideas. Art is what you think. I like making something that isn’t real … you can make up anything you want, it’s up to you.” (Field notes)

Often my questions would be directly related to this notion: PH:  “Tell me 5 things about being JAY:  “You can choose what you do.

an artist”. I love drawing, I like drawing people and monsters. I like drawing things with Matt. I like being an artist.” (Field notes)

PH:  “What does it mean to be an artist?” JAY:  “Choosing what you want to do in art.”

“Drawing my ideas, inventing monsters.” “Having fun, being free.”

(Field notes)

Case studies of children as artists  121 Children shared significant recent experiences: school experiences, visits or family experiences and media references. Instances of transformation included significant moments when Jay was making connections with other learning activities related to his interests, experience and imagination. This identification of the self, in which knowledge and learning processes were combined with Jay’s self-­motivation and sense of agency, suggests that developing a personal learning identity became a meaningful quality of his relationship with, and understanding of, creative learning. He often chose to work alongside his friends and share his ideas. In this example, Jay has chosen to work in collaboration, exploring with inks. The children also explored ideas together in dialogue, in collaborative work and through drawing in paired books. Jay would often extend his ideas through a series of drawings over time, following a theme in his drawings that suggested his ongoing interest and sustained enquiry in visual narrative and in storying through drawing, with a clear intention to communicate the wealth of ideas in his imagination. Jay has also shown confidence in making connections between seemingly disparate ideas. He would often introduce unexpected and sophisticated images in his drawings. Children were invited to explore and respond to different artists’ work, focusing on imaginary worlds. Jay was inspired by Edwina Bridgeman’s own artwork and explored different media to express his own ideas in response to hers, without copying. He structured his ideas in a careful series of drawings. Jay had developed his ideas in a variety of media before choosing then to enlarge and develop his designs into a final piece. Jay said “My world came out of my head – it didn’t exist before.” (Field notes)

Figure 5.26 Pencil spiral by Jay, age 7 years.

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Figure 5.27 Felt-tip spiral by Jay, age 7 years.

Figure 5.28 Spiral drawing in pastel by Jay, age 7 years.

Case studies of children as artists  123 While sharing his artwork at the end of the session, he showed confidence in his own identity as an artist and was able to articulate his perspective clearly: JAY:  “I

like drawing my stories and ideas. Art is what you think in your head and then it comes out on the paper.” (Field notes)

This indicates that learning identity seems to develop ‘in situation’ and becomes established over time as a learner experiences more creative moments of transformation.

Relationships and collaborations between adults and children Every child in ‘Being an Artist’ workshops was encouraged to keep a sketchbook. Jay soon personalised his own sketchbook and would be diligent in bringing it to each session. Each session started with a conversation about ideas and sharing ideas with others. Children offered ideas to the group. Listening to children’s ideas was based on respectful dynamic relationships and dialogue between adults and with children. The children’s ideas were overtly valued through dialogue. These reflective dialogues provided opportunities for thinking through possibilities with space and time to play with ideas. Using sketchbooks opened up a dialogue about Jay’s explorations and artwork and provided a point of reference to share ideas. Children engaged in developing ideas and constructing meaning. Positive and emotionally supportive relationships are evident. Every child’s ideas are valued in conversation together, eye contact important PARENT:  “There

is a huge amount of respect in this room.” Children’s ideas overtly valued through dialogue. (Field notes) The workshop sessions highlighted the importance of relationships, listening, dialogue, exchange of ideas and responsiveness to each other’s ideas. The concept of creative intervention or provocation was explored in different ways. Children were able to work with or alongside an artist as a companion in learning, and could engage in co-­enquiry processes. Jay and Matt made a collaborative drawing of a monster with pencil on paper. This brought attention to the interrelationship of a range of conceptual interests and emotional concerns, which are reflected within children’s ‘artistic’ representations. Children engaged are working on their own, with a partner or in small groups formed through mutual interests … ideas evolve over the course of the workshop, children choosing to transform materials, to express their ideas in different media according to what they want say. Today Jay is exploring aliens and monsters with Matt, each inventing a creature and then fusing their ideas together. (Field notes)

124  Case studies of children as artists Children’s view of working together with an adult or other child was made transparent through the art-­making process: The children are aware that they are making art in relation to others. Positive relationships seem vital to demonstrate the importance of give and take, respect and receiving feedback from significant others. Creating an emotionally safe environment has given value and encouraged creativity, risk taking and innovation. PH: importance of standing back, learner agency and creating time and space. (Field notes) The children’s well-­being and self-­esteem is affirmed by adults who provide time and space, and give attention to the children’s developing confidence. Parent helper: “the adults often draw alongside the children and are able to show that it’s ok to go wrong!” (Parent interview) The role of observation, documentation and interpretation was key to understanding children’s motivation, intention and forms of expression. Jay and Matt worked together on a monster drawing. Jay has done all of the writing. They worked in mirror image alongside each other. JAY:  “I

like working with Matt.”

Adult is vital in ‘make learning visible’ by interpreting, understanding and, as appropriate, extending children’s learning. JAY: 

“I like seeing everyone’s drawings at the end of the session and how different they are.” (Field notes)

Emphasis in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops was also on dialogue, companionship and improvisation. As an artist I often worked alongside the children on my own drawings. PARENT:  “It’s

good that they see you doing artwork too. I think being a role model is good for them to see.” (Field notes)

Other adults (parent helpers) were often seen ‘standing back’ and offering children space and time to develop their ideas and valuing children’s agency. My relationship with Jay (and with other children at the workshops) was based on kindness and respect. All the children in the workshop were

Case studies of children as artists  125 encouraged to take ownership of their artwork and to share their ideas and possible ways of working. The role of listening and discourse was based on respectful relationships and dialogue between adults and with children. Making visible the creative and artistic processes was part of this dialogue. PARENT: 

“Jay draws all the time, he loves it, he often repeats some of the characters in his drawings.” (Parent interview)

Creative values, attitudes and perspectives of the adult The adults (artists, educators and parents) working alongside children in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops shared a view of children as competent and creative; this view was a regular point of discussion in reflection meetings. Adults reflect on the image of the child in the UK context and how we perceive children as capable of directing their own learning alongside adults that care. (Field notes) This recognition of children’s competencies led to a genuine trust in children’s ideas. The adults’ own creativity and the creative dispositions of the adults working alongside the children were also central to supporting children’s creative endeavours. One of the main roles identified in this context was the role of the adult in facilitating children’s ongoing efforts to make sense of the world around them and assign meanings to it through making art. The emphasis in each ‘Being an Artist’ workshop was on process as well as product, and adults valued both aspects of children’s work as artists. Adults were able to observe and respond carefully to each context. Documenting the processes and feedback was vital. When the values of the workshop were explained to the children, they seemed to develop a higher sense of aspiration and capability; they took control of their learning. Jay was often the first child in the workshop to offer his thoughts about being an artist, indicating his own sense of value and belief in himself. Adults all showed a sense of heightened attentiveness and care over time, working sensitively to support the children’s ideas. Supporting Jay’s efforts to illustrate his thoughts and understanding through multiple symbolic languages and creating ongoing documentation seemed to be affirming for the adults; who conveyed the message to Jay that his ideas, questions and thoughts mattered.

Creative learning environment The Creative Space at Batheaston Primary School where the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops took place provided a designated space for open-­ended enquiry and was supported by documentation to illustrate children’s creative potential.

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Figure 5.29 Creative Space display.

The creative environment was organised to promote learner agency and control. A range of materials and resources were readily at hand so that the children could access them, explore and experiment in an open-­ended way. Jay had pursued his ideas over the period of two days working alongside others, culminating in an exhibition of their work in the Creative Space. Through discussion with peers, attention and value was given to the creative processes that Jay was using. Providing real contexts and a sense of purpose seemed to increase the children’s motivation in the workshops. Jay and Matt worked together in Victoria Art Gallery, Bath, with Edwina Bridgeman in response to her ‘Shelter’ exhibition. This was a key moment for Jay in realising his own potential and identity as an artist. (Field notes) Edwina invited the children to display their work alongside hers in the gallery. This enabling context and transparency of ethos indicates how the studio or gallery space supports the image of the child as creative and competent. Parents and carers were subsequently invited to visit the gallery with the children to celebrate and validate the children’s artwork. This sense of ownership of the gallery space for the children appeared to motivate their interest in each other’s artwork and in sharing their ideas in a city-­centre public space.

Case studies of children as artists  127

Reflections on Jay The case study of Jay has provided the emergent themes that inform my principal research questions and feed into the discussion of emergent theories in Chapter 6. How can I usefully define what it means for children aged 4–8 years to develop their learning identity as artists? Key themes were transparent in the process of each workshop. Jay was able to explore his ideas, interests and fascinations in an independent way, using his initiative and self-­determination. Jay’s artwork suggests that he is fluent as a creative and visual thinker. Through using his imagination he is able to transform ideas, in this case about fantastic creatures, using a range of media to depict them through art and illustrating his inventive mind. His exploration using visual symbols allows him to experiment with possibilities, both as a means of self-­expression and to communicate with others. His image-­making is visual thinking in the sense that he makes visible ideas in his imagination and expresses these fluently through drawing. In contrast to with his imaginary creatures, Jay uses his observational skills when he selects people as his subject matter and shows his visual sensitivity to different characteristics of faces and heads. Jay demonstrated the power of drawing in serving a narrative function for children by externalising their experiences, thoughts and feelings through visual images. The final interview between the child and parent demonstrated that Jay had a clear sense of being an artist: PARENT:  “I

love ‘Being an Artist’ workshop because Jay loves it. It has always been his favourite workshop. I don’t worry what art they are doing in school as he has this on a Wednesday and it is art that suits Jay.” JAY:  “I like doing art with my friends in ‘Being an Artist’. I like how my friends all have different ideas which means we get to do lots of stuff that’s great. When we worked with clay I could make what I wanted and I made mini soldiers.” PARENT:  “I really believe 5×5×5 is the way to teach kids and keep their creativity alive. The workshops reinforce this”. JAY:  “Having a real artist come in and work with us is fascinating. I like how she gives us some suggestions but doesn’t boss us about and tell us what we have to do.” PARENT: “Jay identifies himself strongly as an artist. He knows he is good at art and believes in himself. He has confidence with his ideas and what he can do.” PARENT:  “At home art is the first thing I can use to distract Jay away from computers and televisions… or is bored, especially if he can make something. Sketching and drawing is also popular. I don’t give much help or direction but Jay is fairly confident he knows what he wants to do and how to do it. I just offer support and encouragement.”

128  Case studies of children as artists PARENT:  “Jay

uses a lot of figures and animals in his work. I think and he would agree that a lot of his inspiration comes from his love with playing with figures e.g. power rangers, Lego men etc. and likes similar characters in books. He likes to draw a lot of these characters as in life drawing. He says he gets his ideas for his cartoon characters mostly from his toys and seeing cartoons in films and in magazines. He is definitely doing more and more cartoon style art which he really enjoys and seems to be good at.” (Parent/child interview)

What strategies can adults (educators, artists, parents) employ to support children’s creative development and learning identity as artists? In order to develop a creative and enabling learning environment, careful attention was given to the design of the space and the range and provision of materials and resources. Emphasis was on providing open-­ended materials so that children had a chance to choose from a range of media, including different tools and techniques which were introduced appropriately when needed. Time, space and attention were key concepts that framed the workshop sessions with positive relationships developed between adults and children. There was an openness about valuing everybody’s contributions. In the Creative Space, the children were encouraged to bend the rules and experiment with ideas and materials in a playful way. The environment was created to promote learner agency, choice and ownership in an enabling context. This ‘studio space’ was instrumental in supporting the image of the child as creative and competent. The provision of the physical space and materials was accompanied by a sustained attention context in which expressive languages were valued. Recognition of expressive, empathy and aesthetic elements ‘inherent in any discipline or specific problem’ (Gandini et al. 2005: viii) was important. The power of documentation to illustrate children’s creative potential is in focus here. Displays and photographs of children accompanied by their drawings and constructions are used to show what children are capable of thinking and doing. Ongoing and visible documentation of the creative process in the Creative Space supports the image of the child as creative and competent, offering Jay the opportunity to be self-­directing and encouraging his own intrinsic motivation. To co-­curate and place children’s learning into a shared space invites dialogue, critical thought and reflection, between both adults (teachers and parents) and children.

Key themes emerging from the case studies: reflections on Bo and Jay The concept of being an artist As discussed in Chapter 2, John Dewey (1934) asserted the critical role of artistic activity in children’s lives as a means for them to explore and express their

Case studies of children as artists  129 experiences in the world. Dewey also recognised that children’s art activities should originate from children’s life experiences, not from those of adults, and should be expressed in creative and imaginative ways using multiple symbolic languages, the ‘hundred languages’ of children (Malaguzzi in Edwards et al.1998). The starting point for the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops was to create a context in which the children could explore ideas, issues and concepts in and through the visual arts, and in which they could develop their identities as artists. Through working alongside artists and adults as companions in the art-­ making process, the children would be encouraged to explore their sense of self. The adults working alongside the children actively encouraged dialogue about identity and about what it meant to be an artist. Through these ongoing discussions, the children began to identify significant questions: What is it to be an artist? How do I see my own identity? Does my identity change? Can I have different identities? How do others see me? How would I like others to see me? Both case study children showed an increased sense of ‘knowing who they were as artists’: JAY: 

“I knew what I wanted to draw, nobody had to tell me. I like seeing how my ideas in my head come out in my drawings.” (Field notes)

Both children had the confidence to take charge of their own actions and ideas and to experiment with possibilities. They showed intrinsic motivation for making artwork, exploring personal meaning-­making through immersion, enquiry and reflection. The conversations that emerged in ‘Being an Artist’ workshops were often about the nature of art and artists and about how to describe the process of art-­making to others. The children were encouraged to think about the ways in which they could communicate their ideas to other people. Regular exhibitions of the children’s work were shared with parents and carers. The feedback the children received supported their developing notion of ‘what it is to be an artist’ JAY:  “I

can explain to my mum now what I do and why I do it … it’s sometimes is hard to find the right way to say something but when you see it in a drawing or painting, you can show someone else what you see’. We all come up with great ideas and it doesn’t matter if you make mistakes … my ideas run wild!” (Field notes)

BO:  “In

‘Being an Artist’, no one tells you what to do, you can think about what you want to do, there aren’t any right or wrong answers.” (Field notes)

The children were encouraged to co-­curate their exhibitions by producing their own ‘gallery of learning’ and making decisions about what went

130  Case studies of children as artists into each exhibition and how they wanted to communicate the ideas that were significant to them. The children negotiated ideas about the use of space, decided on many aspects of the exhibitions, from invitations to participatory elements, and invited their families to make art as well. Feedback from parents who had attended the exhibitions showed that they had a great understanding of the value of the children’s work. Enabling the parents to experience for themselves the creative and artistic processes the children were exploring enabled them to develop a greater understanding of how their children were becoming and being artists. PARENT:  “I

was impressed with the way the children talked about their work and how they showed a real interest in sharing their ideas about being an artist.” (Field notes)

The ‘Being an Artist’ workshops gave the children a chance to talk about their own ideas about identity, about who they were and how they saw themselves as artists. The ethos of the workshops allowed the children to be themselves or for them to try out different versions of themselves. They used materials and techniques intelligently and experimentally and shared ideas and images imaginatively with a sense of enquiry and an ability to communicate their creative ideas. Both case study children showed qualities of empathy, playfulness and curiosity as well as sensitivity to the natural and made environment. They used innovative and imaginative approaches, identifying themselves as participating discoverers and learners and as artists and sharing their interests and fascinations in ways that were meaningful both for them and for their peers.

A playful context Play is considered to be an important activity for children’s learning and development as it enables children to explore concepts separate from reality and develop symbolisation. The experiments that children engaged in with art materials at the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops were a significant form of play. Each workshop provided different ways for children to develop and express their ideas in different contexts and in different media. These workshop sessions demonstrated that working with and through the visual arts provides an important form of expression, especially for exploring emotions and vulnerability. One teacher commented on the benefits this offered to children by the focus on making and exploration: TEACHER:  “I

could see that the children were expressing themselves so fully in the materials, it really showed who they were.”

Case studies of children as artists  131 JAY:  “Being

an artist is really fun and creative because you can choose what you do and get help if you need it … It makes me feel happy to draw what I like, my mind can wander into my imagination.” (Field notes)

What the arts seem to offer to children and adults is the possibility of expressing things that sometimes can’t be said with words. In the workshops, children used art to connect with their thoughts and emotions, and opportunities were provided for them to search for ways to share these with others. This playful learning seems to have supported children’s own capacities to empower themselves with their own ideas, building self-­realisation. This sense of agency enabled children to recognise and act on opportunities for learning and empowered them to make choices and confident decisions.

Universal themes in art The ideas expressed by children in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops were thought-­provoking, and sometimes they were challenging. Jay’s expressions of monsters or violence in drawings and paintings were particularly challenging, but all ideas were held in equal respect, demonstrating the power of visual communication and the avoidance of censorship. The children were always keen to share each other’s stories and interpretations. There was a recognition between adults of the power of the arts in exploring difficult issues and themes, so they took the opportunity to observe and understand the children’s ideas. In this study, children have shown fascinations for imaginary worlds, fantasy, storytelling, people, nature, the environment and the abstract – all themes that have been relevant in art-­making throughout history.

Open-ended materials and processes The materials and processes offered to the children were open-­ended, which meant that they could choose to transform any materials to ‘say what they wanted to say’. Through this process, children had opportunities for self-­ discovery and could explore their developing identity. There were high-­ quality and thoughtful resources available for the children. Easy access to these ‘intelligent materials’ (Edwards et al. 1998) encouraged children to play with and explore the materials first, to see what the most appropriate choice of media was and what scale to work in and to follow their own lines of enquiry. The adults introduced additional materials to the children, sharing examples of artists’ work exploring similar themes and materials. Seeing the value of focusing on the process of making art, rather than on the end product, was an important part of the ethos of the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops. The processes of the developing artwork were documented and celebrated, as were, in equal measure, the outcomes. The children would often reflect as a group on the processes involved in art-­making.

132  Case studies of children as artists Thinking about our ideas and talking to our friends about these. Drawing in our sketchbooks and thinking about what we’re drawing, thinking about what to do next and which materials to use. (Group reflection) JAY:  “My

imagination helps me think”.

(Field notes)

Observation, documentation and using sketchbooks Observation and documentation of learning were highlighted as essential to the reflection process (Guidici et al. 2001). One of the teachers explained: Through observing children engaged in processes of making art, I have seen the children in a different light, I have noticed their own interests and self-­ chosen themes, and how they have used their imagination to explore ideas. (Field notes) The children also explored how to share and communicate their ideas with each other and with the wider school community. Time was given in each workshop for the children to develop their thoughts and ideas through using their sketchbooks to reflect on and process their experiences. Children were encouraged to express their feelings in the sketchbooks too. The adults respected sketchbooks as personal books and let the children decide whether or not to share them with others. It’s good because you can look back and see what you’ve done. It’s also nice to see other people’s ideas; it made me think about different kinds of art too. (Group reflection, field notes) Children were invited to be playful in their explorations; they had the opportunity to be immersed in each activity for a sustained period of time and showed innovative and imaginative responses to their ongoing enquiries. One of the key motivators for them was that they had the chance to choose their own directions in enquiry and the freedom to follow their fascinations. Both case study children showed their fascinations through playing with ideas – monsters, imaginary worlds – and by using their creative capacities. The children connected their own experiences together and created new scenarios. This suggests that a major purpose of childhood is to explore all actual and possible worlds with children as researchers of the world.

Importance of drawing as a process of communication and making meaning Both case study children expressed their ideas by using a wide range of media, but both often used drawing as a starting point to develop ideas in

Case studies of children as artists  133 their sketchbooks. Drawing as communication, as ‘a powerful way of making sense of the world’ (Anning and Ring 2004: 227) is central to this study. In this context, making sense is both a cognitive process and an affective process. Young children have many motivations for drawing for different purposes and in different contexts. Wright (2007) notes that gesture is an important part of children’s meaning-­making through drawing, and Hope (2008) emphasises the sensuality of drawing media and affordance of different materials. “One of the qualities of drawing is its generative and divergent possibilities” (Brooks 2004: 49). Jay’s ‘playful intentions’ (Cox 2000: 121) through drawing were shared in the form of dramatic story concepts. Both Bo and Jay were able to show their capacity for generating and growing ideas through drawing, both individually and in social interactions with other adults and children. They were also able to make connections between separate learning experiences and build on previous learning to inform new ideas. Their interest in ‘idea-­ catching’ led often to an imaginative focus in their artwork. Both children have shown that they re-­construct and re-­imagine what they understand about the world in their drawings and that their expressions in and through art are unique personal statements that help them to construct their identities as individuals. Over the period of time I spent working with them, each child defined and explained his or her art-­making with reference to a broad range of activities, often giving more attention to the creative process than to the finished product.

Attunement and the quality of attention Malaguzzi (1993: 184) holds the ‘image of the child as rich in potential, strong, powerful, competent’, that this is not in isolation but is relational: ‘and, most of all, connected to adults and other children … we must know that children … extract and interpret models from adults when the adults know how to work, discuss, think, research, and live together’. The attunement of adults to children and the quality of attention given by the adults to the children are central to this study. In the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops, there was a deep respect for children’s ideas, and everyone’s contribution was valued (Rinaldi 2006). Listening and responding to the children’s ideas and interests was a vital element of each session, highlighting the attention to process, rather than outcome. Parent helper:  “It has helped me look at the processes that children use and not just the end product.” (Field notes) Adults were able to build upon children’s innate curiosity and on their drive to explore, investigate and make sense of the world. Adults engaged in a process of co-­ construction of meaning-­ making to support children’s

134  Case studies of children as artists formulation and reformulation of hypotheses in collaborative learning. The adults supported children’s desire to explore, exchange and communicate their ideas in many expressive languages. There was a developing culture of careful observation and documentation of learning to feed into ongoing planning. Adults felt confident in following children’s interests and lines of enquiry and stayed open to the possibilities of changes in their planning in response to a new questions, hypotheses or ideas. Children were listened to and their ideas were given value. PARENT:  “I

have now started to really listen to what children say about their artwork and genuinely value their contributions whereas before I might just have given responded to whether I liked it or not. Working alongside the children has shown me that we need more freedom in learning, especially in schools, with more choices for children to direct their own learning … I have seen that children’s artwork can be idiosyncratic and misunderstood. I think sometimes children don’t need to explain what they are doing or why, especially if this interrupts their absorption in the process.” (Field notes)

Time and space The calm pace of the ‘Being an Artist’ workshop sessions, experienced in the designated Creative Space, allowed the children more freedom than was possible within the constraints of a normal school timetable. Greater time and space were given for exploration and discovery, enabling the children to take charge of their own learning rather than being driven by a more prescriptive, outcome-­led task. Adults involved in the workshops would get involved in the thinking process alongside the children, showing respect and genuine interest and using questioning and discourse with sensitivity. Children were keen to respond to the open-­ended invitation to explore materials and try out ideas without the pressure of time or necessarily an end result. (Field notes)

Reflection and dialogue In an ongoing cycle of reflection, as part of the action research model, the adults involved in ‘Being an Artist’ would meet to discuss the workshops. The cycle consisted of the following: observation and documentation (thinking about what we are noticing and documenting this in different ways); revisiting (discussing key documented experiences and drawing on different perspectives); analysing and hypothesising (thinking about what is emerging and what questions are being asked); and thinking about future possibilities and provocations (how can we support children’s interests and fascinations

Case studies of children as artists  135 and what provocations can be made?). The teachers observing over time reflected on how ‘Being an Artist’ workshops had provoked them into thinking differently about how they encourage creative learning; they became more prepared to take risks and less driven by outcomes. The head teacher stressed the importance of working alongside artists for teachers, and how it allowed them to reflect on their own role in supporting creative learning: It’s important to bring in artists and arts experiences for both children and teachers, so that we can think about best ways of learning in and through the arts. It’s not just about end products and outcomes, it’s about understanding the process of learning. (Field notes) The children were included in the creative reflective process, encouraged to revisit and explore ideas as they went along and supported in extending their ideas. The notion of dialogue and discussion was key, not just as an exchange of ideas but also as a process that can facilitate transformation in thinking and action. This concept of dialogue is generative and creative, involving the coming together of different voices, experiences and knowledge through which new understandings can be created for both children and adults. Our experience confirms that children need a great deal of freedom: the freedom to investigate and to try, to make mistakes and to correct mistakes, to choose where and with whom to invest their curiosity, intelligence and their emotions. Model on the adult level the kinds of democratic participation, collaborative learning, and conflict resolution you are trying to teach to the children. Negotiate not only such things as the choice of activities, but more fundamentally, negotiate the meaning. (Malaguzzi in Edwards et al. 1998: 77)

Panning out This section explores the links between the emerging themes and the whole school context.

Creative dispositions While research took place at Batheaston Primary School, the whole staff team became interested in defining and revealing creative learning ‘habits of mind’ and in how to notice and support individual children’s fascinations and ideas. 5×5×5=creativity sessions and ‘Being an Artist’ workshops provided a focus for staff development and an opportunity for them to explore and reflect on children’s creative development in order to develop and refine their own pedagogical approach.

136  Case studies of children as artists Staff were particularly interested in the notion of inclusion and in the involvement of all children in developing creative learning skills. Educators were taking time to observe children and document their creative dispositions and to reflect on these as a staff team. Witnessing children’s art-­making provided visible evidence of children’s concentration, motivation, curiosity, connection-­making and collaborative ability. Reflections sessions revealed genuine interests in this deeper learning and understanding. Teachers became fascinated with how the children’s ideas were generated, and with how they were able to make hypotheses, synthesise ideas and create meaning. The process of the children’s work was in evidence and valued alongside the artwork or final product. ARTIST:  “I

have noticed that it is vital that they do not have predetermined outcomes for the children to follow.” (Artist interview)

The staff experimented with and discussed the notion of open-­ended and creative learning in art. The children had opportunities to explore their ideas within an open time frame, considering questions such as ‘What if?’ and ‘As if?’, ‘What else could this be?’, and ‘How can I change this?’ Often the children would pose these questions to the materials themselves: ‘What is this?’, ‘What does it do?’, ‘How can I use this?’ while they were exploring the properties and affordances of using different media and developing ideas. Both the children and teachers were also engaged in processes of evaluating and reflecting on their work together in class and in assemblies, while sharing and celebrating their learning. By asking open-­ended questions, children were encouraged to reflect on their own learning and consider different points of view. Children were given the opportunity to explore their own themes and questions and encouraged to create their own lines of enquiry. Thorough documentation of their thoughts, feelings and ideas formed the basis of projects, and responsive planning was used to develop and pursue further ideas.

Creative relationships Children were given the opportunity to work alongside artists and creative practitioners in order to share expertise while working towards whole school exhibitions and celebrations in the community. Working alongside artists as role models was an important aspect of developing creative relationships throughout the school. Children also had the opportunity to visit local artists’ exhibitions to develop their ways of looking at and understanding art. As a visual artist, Edwina Bridgeman uses found materials to transform and tell stories. Edwina’s exhibition ‘Shelter’ at the Victoria Art Gallery in Bath provided a provocation for the children’s ideas. Edwina worked alongside the children, led by their explorations and their thinking. Children worked in sketchbooks to collect visual information and then developed their own ideas

Case studies of children as artists  137 back at school. They worked in a range of media, creating drawings, sculptures and paintings and showing the process of their ideas and thinking as well as the products. Children showed respect for the artwork in the gallery and interest in working with Edwina … the children were very relaxed and interested in each other’s ideas, they seemed inspired by the artwork. (Field notes) Children’s questions were focused on the use of materials, the stories about the sculptures and where ideas come from. Discussion with Edwina was an important part of validating and respecting the children’s ideas. The relationship between the adults and the children was central to the process – imaginative, narrative play was valued and discussed. An important part of each workshop was for the children to reflect on their experiences and discuss how they wanted to develop their ideas in different directions. The children benefitted from seeing how Edwina generated, reflected upon, refined and realised her own ideas. She took their ideas seriously and also showed them how their ideas informed her own artwork. Children readily talked about themselves as creative learners and artists: JAMIE (6 YEARS):  “I

am going to tell my dad that I have an exhibition and invite him to come to it…” (Field notes)

Jamie was able to find a vehicle for expressing his fascinations in boats and ships; he spent an intense amount of time drawing, researching and transforming his smaller drawings into large-­ scale drawings and models. He

Figure 5.30 Ship, marker pen, by Jamie, age 6 years.

138  Case studies of children as artists developed confidence in his own ideas and was able to share these with other children and with adults. Being treated with respect, as artists, allowed the children to explore their own ideas about how these can be developed without fear of failure. They became involved in exploring art practice in conversation with others by asking open questions, making meaning and understanding and developing work in a supportive environment. Children had ownership of their own learning, and adults working alongside them valued what they said and did. DEPUTY HEAD:  “Working

with Edwina is very rewarding as I love the way she develops her relationships with the children through her work and theirs. She really listens to the children and responds in a way that makes them feel valued. She also challenges them in terms of getting them to be open about their ideas, thoughts and feelings. In turn I know the children provide Edwina with an insight into their imaginings and creative thinking.” (Teacher Interview)

Genuine and powerful conversations emerged between the children and adults around creative processes. The importance of humour and playfulness in interactions was valued by adults and children. The children showed real delight in working with Edwina and discussed openly the importance of being kind, thoughtful and able to share. Central to this approach is an emphasis on building positive relationships over time. EB: “Otto

(4) was talking to me about being an artist it is obviously something which he is passionate about, he asked if he could be my helper at the exhibition when he was grown up or maybe even a teenager. I said ‘of course and that I would look forward to it’, he went away and came back a bit later to ask if I would still be alive when he was grown up, a very important consideration!” (Field notes)

The concept of a ‘progettazione’ in the Reggio Emilia approach underpinned the children’s developing artwork. Their ‘projection’ of an idea or particular curiosity often leads in unexpected and sometimes multiple directions. Sometimes, ideas developed from an ‘up your sleeve’ moment, where in the absence of ideas there is a creative offering or provocation from one of the children or adults. This provides a context in which children share ideas and explore possibilities in a variety of media. The role of observation, documentation and interpretation was also important. Careful attention was given to the presentation of the artwork alongside the responses from the children and adults. Transcriptions of children’s words and dialogues, photographs and artwork were used in ongoing learning walls. Parents and teachers could therefore see what had been happening and were informed about the children’s artwork. The children

Case studies of children as artists  139 appeared to feel valued by this process and the adults were more engaged in sharing the learning process not just the products. TEACHER: “The

learning walls have really changed the way we value children’s processes of learning and show how their ideas develop.” (Field notes)

Conversations with children about their work helped to validate its significance; they also served as a catalyst to invite children to reflect on and critique their own ideas and creative representations.

Creative values The creative values, attitudes and perspectives of the adults seem key in creating an environment of possibility. This can support a view of children as competent and creative, with the emphasis on trusting children’s ideas. EB:  “I like PH:  “Who

your ideas, it really shows what you think.” would like to share some of their ideas with the group?” (Field notes)

As adults working alongside children, we discussed the image of the child and our shared values that all children have creative potential. In this context,

Figure 5.31 ‘Being an Artist’ workshops.

140  Case studies of children as artists Edwina and I were companions working alongside the children in their learning and supporting their meaning-­making by overtly valuing them as competent and creative and by trusting in their ideas. There was a transparency of ethos, especially in relation to the aspirations and capabilities of the children. Through discussion and interpretation of their work with the children, the adult team were valued as researchers and engaged in continuous ongoing theoretical explorations of children’s learning. Children were perceived to be protagonists in their own learning, taking responsibility and ownership of their learning in partnership with the adults. Children’s voices were heard and responded to by the adults who worked alongside them – this included visiting artists and parents. Children were encouraged to think and speak about issues that were important to them – they understood that they had a right to communicate with and interact with others. We facilitated the children’s explorations of ideas and guided their experiences of open-­ended discovery and problem-­solving. This skill of knowing how to observe and listen closely to children and how to ask questions to discover children’s ideas, hypotheses and theories was accompanied by sensitive interventions to scaffold discovery and learning. The ‘Being an Artist’ workshops afforded opportunities for educators and parents to experience being alongside children in creative enquiries, rather than leading or following. Working in the Creative Space allowed children to explore their imagination, curiosities and fascinations alongside others. Children and families were given many opportunities to be involved in creative activities. In discussion with parents, it was felt that adults’ own creativity and the creative dispositions of the adults working alongside the children were important factors in supporting children’s creativity. During an annual Creativity Fair, children, parents and grandparents were able to explore a range of materials and processes, working alongside each other to create their own artwork and seeing different ideas emerging from each other’s explorations. The Creativity Fairs offered time for families to spend time exploring their creativity together; parents could witness their children’s creativity, explore their own creativity and be alongside their children as partners in exploration and creative expression. The artists lent their skills and dispositions, encouraging the children to use the power of their imaginations and the potential of the materials. Working with different artists in the Creative Space created opportunities to make visible different forms of expression for thinking and creating. The ongoing documentation not only made the learning visible but was also an invitation to others to explore their own enquiries. The notion of adults’ creativity is linked to the recognition that adults can be collaborators or co-­creators with the children. ARTIST:  “I

have noticed how it is really important that as adults we are curious and also have the confidence to take risks… not to close down children’s suggestions” (Artist interview)

Case studies of children as artists  141

Figure 5.32 Creativity Fair.

The role of adults was multiple: Artists/educators as enablers Artists/educators as researchers Artists/educators as protagonists Co-­learners, co-­researchers, co-­collaborators, knowledge

co-­constructors

of

(Field notes)

As artists involved in the workshops, we did not start from an assumption of deficit but brought a way for all to participate and express themselves. We created an environment in which the children could experiment freely and could use particular materials and processes to explore, discover and express their ideas. ‘Being an Artist’ workshops took place in a space in which members of the adult team could reflect and consider their own learning in response to the children’s enquiries. The field notes highlighted the need to ensure an emotional connection between adults and children in order to engage the children’s interests and respond to their developing ideas.

142  Case studies of children as artists PARENT:  “I

particularly liked just being able to sit back and watch my children engage. I don’t often get that chance.” (Field notes)

There was a transparency of ethos in the workshops. “I observed that the children in this study – along with their work and ideas – are treated with respect by adults and peers. They are regarded as ‘Artists’ and work with the materials to suit … I have observed that children will: Find and collect their own materials Work collaboratively in pairs or groups on one piece of work Suggest ideas at the beginning of a session and share work at the end Try new things (e.g. materials, methods) Confidently discuss their work Be analytical, reflective and critical.” (Observation from Bath Spa University student) Creative provocations provided stimuli for artwork, allowing children to find a spark to inspire learning and drawing on children’s interests to create a meaningful and exciting context. The ethos of ‘Being an Artist’ was key to the messages communicated to the children during each workshop session. Adults made conscious attempts to make visible the creative process and to show how it can stimulate the imagination, leading to creative thoughts and the generation of new ideas. TEACHER: “I

like the relaxed atmosphere of these workshops; it feels less pressurised than the normal school day; it gives more space and time to develop ideas too. It helps you take a step back and think about things in a deeper way which is a challenge in the current climate but really necessary to prioritise. The children talk a lot about art and being an artist … they share ideas about the choices they have made, they don’t judge each other’s work, instead they make connections and give responses to different ways of working. This helps the less confident children in the group too” (Teacher interview)

Creative environments Careful attention was given to the physical environment; this included carefully arranged art materials in transparent boxes on open shelves and drawers of children’s sketchbooks and ongoing artwork, displayed as documentation of processes rather than solely as the end products. Children worked ‘in the round’ on comfortable, contemporary furniture, and photographs of children were visible on screens and display areas in the Creative Space. The Creative Space was filled with evidence of children’s artwork and work-­in-­progress. Children had open access to a wide variety of art

Case studies of children as artists  143 media such as pens, pencils, paints, ink, paper, canvas, printmaking materials, clay, construction materials, textiles, collage materials, card, reclaimed and recycled materials, palettes, pots and brushes. The children were quick to learn that some materials offer greater ‘affordances’ than others, and chose the right material for the task in mind – if they became frustrated, an adult would step in and gently suggest or demonstrate a different technique as a choice. Emphasis was on the use of authentic, intelligent materials and creative media (such as cartridge paper rather than printing paper, and real clay rather than air-­fired clay), which gave value to the children’s art-­making processes. This indicates that if we take children’s ideas and intentions seriously, they also respond seriously, as we convey the expectation that children use creative materials with intention. The nature and characteristics of the physical and emotional learning environment can provide enabling contexts and expand the possible pathways for children’s play and learning. Children were involved in creating learning spaces and displays and in documentation. The children had opportunities to suggest whose work would be put on display, and their quotes were added to give meaning and to share the work. Children also suggested different ways of laying out the work on the display. The displays included photographs of the children and their plans and sketches, rather than just completed works. This encouraged the children to take pride in the whole working process.

Figure 5.33 Creative Space displays.

144  Case studies of children as artists The Creative Space was designed to encourage children to find a space to work in that facilitated their artwork. There is visible order and beauty in the organisation of materials; every corner of the space has a purpose. Deputy Head:  “The children take great pride in their own work and learning and enjoy the way that their ideas become part of the classroom practice. They are becoming increasing confident in making suggestions and sharing their views. The children are increasingly confident to take risks and are developing good social skills, working cooperatively in teams.” (Teacher interview) Space for open-­ended enquiry was offered to the children in each workshop session. There was no expectation for the children to finish a work or produce an outcome; they could revisit the artwork as many times as they desired before moving on to a related or different theme. Attention was given to the creative processes and dispositions of children. The concept of being an artist was openly discussed in the workshops. Children discussed the nature of being an artist, their artwork and how they felt about the workshop sessions: You can choose to do anything you like, use any materials and explore any ideas as art. Everyone has a sketchbook to explore ideas or make drawings in. (Field notes) Time, space and attention were given to the children’s art-­making and their creative processes. Parents and carers were also invited to join in and work alongside the children. Parents commented on the children’s engagement in their learning: His sense of ownership has shifted … it is his work, not something that he has been told to do. He is fine now if he makes mistakes… (Parent interview) Inspired by Edwina’s focus on making as a tool for exploration and expression, the children were supported and inspired to explore ideas from her ‘Shelter’ exhibition through drawings and by making an exhibition themselves. Children were able to share their work, to look at the work of their peers as a resource for them to learn from and to be inspired to develop their ideas. The adults supporting the workshop discussed the value of focusing on process, rather than on finished products. The products in this context were a by-­product of the rich process of thinking through making and drawing.

Case studies of children as artists  145

Figure 5.34 Enrichment day.

Figure 5.35 Children’s exhibition: Shelter.

146  Case studies of children as artists Teacher:  “Having an exhibition at the end of the project was a really important way to celebrate the children’s processes of learning as well as the ‘products’ they made along the way.” (Teacher interview) As part of the work with Creativity Culture and Education as a ‘School of Creativity’, we made a film to share and celebrate the children’s creative learning and share these processes with parents and carers. Each year we published a learning story on the 5×5×5=creativity website.

An aside: 5×5×5=creativity at Batheaston Primary School, thinking imaginatively together (Film transcript, Penny Hay) 5×5×5=creativity is an action research organisation dedicated to supporting children and young people’s creativity. The research involves groups of five artists, five educational settings and five cultural centres working with groups of children and young people in their exploration and expression of creative ideas. Over the last 5 years, the children in each Reception Class (and more recently the whole school) have been involved in the 5×5×5=creativity research project. 5×5×5 was inspired by the approach to education in Reggio Emilia, Northern Italy. It brings an artist, educators, cultural centre and children together to establish creativity as an essential foundation of learning. We’ve seen the effects this project has had on our children, how it’s encouraged them to deepen their thinking, challenge their perceptions and stimulate their ideas. Artist Edwina Bridgeman works alongside the educators, following the ideas of the children, led by their explorations and their thinking. This year the provocation was Edwina’s exhibition ‘Shelter’ at the Victoria Art Gallery in Bath. Edwina is a visual artist who uses found materials to transform and tell stories. Children worked in sketchbooks to collect visual information and then developed their own ideas back at school. They worked in a range of media, creating drawings, sculptures and paintings, culminating in an exhibition in the school art space. In 5×5×5, the process, rather than the end product, is always the main focus – ‘we are researching the children researching the world’. Children are given the opportunity to explore their own themes and questions and encouraged to create their own lines of enquiry. Thorough documentation of the children’s thoughts, feelings and ideas forms the basis of projects: responsive planning is used to develop and pursue further ideas. Adults and children are involved in recording and reflecting on the children’s learning through written observations, photos and videos. It is

Case studies of children as artists  147 usually parents who join in to help document and their role is crucial as a partner in the research, working alongside the children, artists, teachers and cultural centres. Over the last 10 years 5×5×5=creativity has evolved to support children and young people in this way. Our research findings demonstrate the value of fostering creative enquiry by empowering children to take the lead as they explore the world around them and discover the joys of proactive learning. They emerge notably more confident, with enhanced self-­esteem – better able to engage, express themselves and problem solve. These capacities of curiosity, investigation and communicating with others in many ways are foundations for life-­long learning. We have to find ways to support all children, as they grow into independent, enquiring and creative people. At its heart is the belief that all children have the potential to develop their creativity, no matter what their background and circumstances. Through their involvement in 5×5×5, children are able to develop their creativity and become confident, creative learners in every aspect throughout their lives.

Summary PH:  “What does your imagination mean to you?” JAY: “You can draw or make anything you can

imagination.”

think of from your (Field notes)

At the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops, the children used a wide range of materials and processes to explore, create, represent and communicate their ideas. Their sketchbooks became important places for them to develop and record ideas, review and reflect on their work, and maintain a dialogue about their ongoing themes and fascinations. The children were able to work in dialogue together to develop and explore their ideas and could see ideas come to life in their artwork. Each ‘Being an Artist’ workshop and 5×5×5=creativity session gave children the opportunity to create and reflect on their experiences and allowed both adults and children to play and explore alongside each other. Explorations offered a space in which children and adults could be playful with ideas and could think through making art, without experiencing judgement. Being in dialogue, working together and reflecting on their experience were important elements of the sessions, allowing people to think together and to express their thoughts and feelings. It was important that the Creative Space was both open and immersive, offering free access to a range of different materials through which ideas and processes could be explored. It was a space for children to explore possibilities, finding their own path and letting their ideas emerge.

148  Case studies of children as artists Children quickly became absorbed in their own enquiries, some working in pairs but many choosing to work on their own, exploring their own imaginations and expressing ideas in a range of media. GUS:  “You can make anything in your imagination.” EVIE:  “You can play with your imagination and play

head and on paper.”

with ideas in your (Field notes)

The children were engaged in problem-­solving, making connections, reviewing and revising their ideas, using their creative, critical thinking skills, and possibility thinking. They thought carefully about which materials to use and about the aesthetic properties of the materials. The children sometimes began with an imagined idea which they tried out in practice and sometimes played with the materials, discovering their shapes and their possibilities and letting ideas emerge and evolve. Parents commented on the “wealth of children’s ideas” and how liberating it was “to explore and respond in an open way” (Parent interview). Children showed evidence of reflecting upon their own art practice in class and beyond; they regularly shared what was successful and what was challenging. Children appeared to be more confident in trying out new experiences, were better able to persevere with tricky activities and developed a genuine ownership of learning: DEPUTY HEAD:  “Over

the year I have seen the children develop their ability to listen and respond to each other. They talk freely about their work or play and are more than willing to let you in! As an observer I have seen groups of children work collaboratively and understand the skills involved when doing so. The children are more able to persevere and follow their ideas, thoughts and feelings.” (Teacher interview)

The ethos of the workshops was based on respectful relationships between adults and children, giving space and time to experiment with creative ideas in a variety of contexts and with a range of media. CHAIR OF GOVERNORS:  “It

is easier to pay lip service so putting creativity at the centre of our pedagogy requires courageous decision” (Governor interview)

DEPUTY HEAD:  “The

children take great pride in their own work and learning and enjoy the way that their ideas become part of the classroom practice. They are becoming increasing confident in making suggestions and sharing their views. The children are increasingly confident to take risks and are developing good social skills, working cooperatively in teams.” (Teacher interview)

Case studies of children as artists  149 Discussions between the children and adults were valued in both ‘Being an Artist’ workshops and in 5×5×5=creativity sessions. There was a genuine atmosphere of democratic and participatory learning, based on a collaborative, reflective and inclusive approach. Children had opportunities to make connections between subjects, as well as to develop key skills in creative thinking through co-­enquiry in real-­life contexts. This was illustrated in the film we produced alongside the children to share their creative learning with parents and carers. “We want to enable children and adults to have daily conversations about creativity, highlighting the value of creative thinking in all of our lives. We want to develop children’s and adults’ skills and confidence in being creative by having the opportunity to work with creative professionals: artists, scientists, designers, architects and philosophers. We are convinced that if we enable creative environments for creative learning we will have an even more creative and reflective school.” Thinking Imaginatively Together (Film Transcript, Penny Hay)

An aside Message from Bo (Case Study 1, now age 14) I loved ‘Being an artist’ at primary school, learning to work on my own, in pairs and sometimes together with Penny as a guide. On reflection, I think this time gave me confidence and freedom to experiment and explore with my ideas. All this has helped me to think more visually and I still look back at the artwork I created in the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops It has also allowed me to use sketching, drawing and painting as a mindful and relaxing activity every day, which has led me on to working at a higher level in GCSE art.

Message from Jay (Case Study 2, now age 13) Hi, it’s Jay, The thing I liked most about art is the freedom, in primary school I drew whatever I liked and had lots of chances to work with other people. With help from workshops like ‘Being an Artist’ I felt like an artist and was really absorbed by art, drawing in particular. In these workshops I was encouraged and supported to follow the art I enjoyed doing the most, rather than drawing something a teacher had asked me to do. I can remember being encouraged to draw what I wanted to draw. I felt passionate about my art and it felt like art was something I could do and that

150  Case studies of children as artists I was good at it. I feel confident when I draw now. Without having these experiences I don’t think I would have ever discovered art. Despite being limited in what I can do in secondary school art, when I have had the chance to draw I always produce a piece of art I’m happy with. This is my most recent work below.

Figure 5.36 Insect, by Jay, age 13 years.

Message from Jane, artist involved in ‘Being an Artist’ “There’s so much I could say about ‘Being an Artist’, about the children’s experience, my role in the workshops and what I learned about making art in a workshop as opposed to on my own in a studio, and about enabling and opening things up for children. The first thought that came into my head though was that the children didn’t have to second guess the ‘teachers’ in order to receive praise and praise wasn’t given in a general way. Looking back, it was very much about noticing what the children had done and commenting on it, establishing a dialogue, always encouraging, maybe giving technical support. Though we planned the workshops we had no anticipation of the outcomes and we very much accepted the children’s responses and the work they produced as something interesting to be recognised and shared with the rest of the class. It goes without

Case studies of children as artists  151 saying really but the workshops provided a space both physical and mental, and time for the children to respond – or not – to the inspiration/ stimulus we gave them at the beginning of the session. This along with our encouragement and technical support enabled them to do what they wanted to do, say what they wanted to say without working to some other expectation. It was of course a real pleasure working alongside you.”

Questions emerging Creative dispositions How can adults support children’s curiosity, playfulness and imagination? How can we support children’s explorations and enquiries to go deeper? How can we support children in their ability to think critically and to ask questions? Creative relationships How can we be companions alongside children in their learning? How can we support collaborative relationships between children in their learning? How can our own creative provocations support children’s enquiries? Creative values What are our values and how are these reflected in the environment that we are developing? How can we adapt and respond to the children’s natural rhythms and pace? How can our values be made visible in the environment that we create? Creative environments What conditions are needed for an environment of creative enquiry? How can we organise spaces and resources so that they openly invite children to explore? What are the ‘intelligent materials’ in supporting and developing children’s creative learning?

Acknowledging resonances, conflicts and new ground The two case studies have demonstrated that children have increased capacity for creative expression if they are supported in an environment of care and creative encounter. The study shows that, for children, working alongside adult artists affords an attunement that is much-­needed and helps to support the creative learning potential of the children as artists themselves.

152  Case studies of children as artists An unexpected finding from the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops was that adults had a genuine interest in this research. The Creative Space was positioned so that passing visitors moved through the space to gain access to adjoining classrooms. The visitors created interruptions and offered unplanned opportunities to engage in dialogues with both children and adults about how they were engaged in creative endeavours, how they were using materials, and how they were following their fascinations. The openness of the space allowed those present to explore their own pre-­conceptions and to think differently about the nature of art and being an artist. However, some conflicts emerged that highlight the tension between an open learning environment where children’s ideas and interests are valued and the demands of an increasingly marketised school system, given the current climate of standards, testing and accountability. The head teacher recognised the challenge that the values-­based approach brings and acknowledged the demise of the arts in schools due to reduced budgets. She recognised that making the arts a priority involved an element of risk and that it was essential to have the support of school leaders who were willing to enable that risk. One of the challenges of the research was focusing on observing and documenting the two case study children in the context of a workshop with around 15 children who all deserved attention. I was cautious to follow the school’s protocol for selecting children for the workshops so that they did not become too large in number. However, demands from the wider group would often distract my focus from the case study children. My commitment to including all children in the workshop was based on my overtly democratic approach, but this sometimes led me away from the case study children. Although I was aware of the potential conflict between a focus on a particular case and the pressure to generalise to assist the development of new knowledge, my decision to focus on fewer children was deliberate, as this was a relatively under-­researched area. This study has revealed the significance of art in children’s lives. Seen through a Deleuzian lens that reveals values of immanence, difference and affect, the children’s art-­making has revealed something of themselves as artists and how they respond to aesthetic experience. The research process not only expands meaning, but also becomes part of the meaning itself. The children’s art-­making – drawings, conversations, collaborations – created spaces for thinking and feeling differently about ideas, about themselves. There was often a blurring between the artwork we were making together and the interpretation and reflections on that artwork to create meaning together. Meaning was explored in the ‘continuously unfolding spaces’ of children’s artwork, while thinking about our identities in a continuous process of transformation, a dynamic space with infinite possibilities.

Chapter summary This study has revealed the significance of art in children’s lives. Seen through a Deleuzian lens that reveals values of immanence, difference and affect, the

Case studies of children as artists  153 children’s art-­making has revealed something of themselves as artists and how they respond to aesthetic experience. The research process not only expands meaning but also becomes part of the meaning itself. The children’s art-­making – drawings, conversations, collaborations – created spaces for thinking and feeling differently about ideas, about themselves. There was often a blurring between the artwork we were making together and the interpretation and reflections on that artwork to create meaning together. Meaning was explored in the ‘continuously unfolding spaces’ of children’s artwork, while thinking about our identities in a continuous process of transformation, a dynamic space with infinite possibilities. In Chapter 6, I will provide a synthesis of these ideas and recommendations for a new pedagogical model for arts education.

References Adams, E. (2006) Drawing Insights. London: Drawing Power, the Campaign for Drawing. Anning, A., and Ring, K. (2004) Making Sense of Children’s Drawings. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Bancroft, S. Fawcett, M., and Hay, P. (2008) Researching Children Researching the World: 5x5x5=Creativity. London: Trentham Books. Bassey, M. (1999) Case Study Research in Educational Settings. Buckingham: Open University Press. Brooks 2004 Brooks, M. (2004) Drawing: The Social Construction of Knowledge. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 29, pp. 41–49. Cox, M. (2000) Children’s Drawings, London: Penguin. Dewey, J. (1934) Art as Experience New York: Minton Balch and Co. Edmiston, B. (2008) Forming Ethical Identities in Early Childhood Play. Abingdon: Routledge. Edwards, C. Gandini, L. and Forman, G. (1998) The Hundred Languages of Children – Advanced Reflections. Greenwich, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing. Gandini, L., Hill, L., Cadwell, L., and Schwall, C. (eds.) (2005) In the Spirit of the Studio: Learning from the Atelier of Reggio Emilia. New York: Teachers’ College Press. Gardner, H. (1980) Art, Mind, and Brain. New York: Basic Books. Guidici, C., and Rinaldi, C. with Krechevsky, M. (2001) Making Learning Visible: Children as Individual and Group Learners. Cambridge: Reggio Children and Project Zero, Reggio Emilia and Harvard. Hammersley, M., and Atkinson, P. (1995) Ethnography, Principles and Practice. 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 1–22. Hope, G. (2008) Thinking and Learning through Drawing: In primary Classrooms. SAGE London: SAGE. MacLure, M. (2010) The Offence of Theory. Journal of Education Policy, 25(2), pp. 277–286. Malaguzzi, L. (1993) ‘For an Education Based on Relationships’ in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Nisbet, J., and Watt, J. (1984) ‘Case Study,’ in Bell, J. et al. (eds.) Conducting Small Scale Investigations in Educational Management, pp. 72–92. London: Harper Row.

154  Case studies of children as artists Rinaldi, C. (2006) In Dialogue with Reggio: Listening, Researching and Learning. Oxford: Routledge. Wright, S. (2007) Young Children’s Meaning-­Making through Drawing and ‘Telling’ Analogies to Filmic Textual Features. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 32(4), pp. 37–48.

6 How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?

This chapter addresses the emerging theory in relation to how adults can support children’s developing identity as artists. I consider key principles arising from my research: becoming and being an artist; quality of relationships and dialogue; art and affect; exploration and choice; self-directed enquiry; collaboration and creative provocations; deep documentation; space, time and attention; structure and freedom. I look particularly at aesthetic experience, inviting a ‘hundred languages of expression’, the concept of thinking through making and the aesthetic third. I also focus on working with contemporary artists in relation to a way of thinking, the value of uncertainty and children working as artists. I now have an emerging theoretical framework building on the integration of practice and theory that has developed from my research findings. I present new insights emerging from the case studies and synthesised into a new pedagogical model, a deeper understanding of children as artists and a theory to support the development of children’s identity as artists. This details an innovative pedagogical approach to the ways in which adults can support children’s learning identity as artists. I propose a shift from pedagogy to heutagogy and the implications for practice and research.

Emerging theory: how do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? An important dimension to my research is the critical reflection on emerging themes arising from each of the case studies and the new insights reached, drawing on New Materialist ideas. The new insights from authors contribute to the diffractive lens in this chapter. The concept of assemblage has helped me to take ideas forward and both deconstruct and reconstruct interpretations from the data in these terms, to include unexpected and disparate connections that create new ways of thinking. My research indicates that any observations of children’s artwork need to incorporate the notion of ‘assemblage’ (to include sensory materials, environment, atmosphere, purpose) and ‘rhizomatic’ connections such as fascinations, interests, ideas, sensations and ‘lines of flight’ in sense-making (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 259). These assemblagies shift and change as DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501-6

156  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? the event unfolds. Children’s learning is entangled, they build on each other’s knowledge and have the potential to intra-connect their lines of flight. This approach endorses children’s art-making as a meaning-making tool rather than a mere representational device. Working with an ‘event’ (Foucault 1988; Atkinson 2012) encourages children to engage in ‘intense, vital, and undomesticated experimental processes of learning’ (Lenz Taguchi 2010: 90). The live site of experiment, as an event or encounter, has given permission to think differently through a diffractive methodology. Atkinson explains that an event or intervention is a ‘radical disruption’ that leads to a subsequent truth procedure which reconfigures the existing knowledge frameworks, practices and values of a social context (Atkinson 2012: 9). The event is full of entangled lines and affective flows. As a participant observer, I was able to explore the role of the adult (artist, educator) alongside children and was able to interrogate notable principles that emerged from each case study as ‘glow moments’ (MacLure 2010). I can now reconsider the case studies in terms of glow moments as both a pedagogical and research approach. This afforded an approach that was authentic in relation to how these significant moments led to the distillation of a pedagogical repertoire. The study has illuminated key principles, focused on particular pedagogical processes, which appear to support children in becoming and being an artist. The question posed here is how we engage in practices that hold open these spaces of possibility for children’s art education and that engage us in creative encounters that ‘expand our conceptions of what it is to teach, to learn, to think’ (Atkinson 2013: 15)? In response, the following principles are conceived as ‘lines of flight’ (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 259).

Becoming and being an artist The transparency of language and specific terminology about becoming and being an artist allowed an ongoing dialogue about what an artist is and how children could identify with this role in relation to their own learning identity in a fluid and dynamic way. Children in this study had the opportunity to investigate different art forms in different contexts and across time and culture to build their confidence to think as an artist – to be an artist. Deleuzian concepts are regarded as multiple, encouraging generative thinking and movement, and not as binary, black or white and right or wrong, but as difference. Drawing on these concepts, it is useful to see children in the light of their potentialities. Working with potentialities raises the status of the child from a person who is ‘needy’ to a person who is becoming someone else, unfolding through a rhizomatic process of learning, a ‘becoming-artist … and always becoming something else’ (Whyte and Naughton 2014). Embracing difference is a way of being and becoming ‘interbeing, intermezzo’ (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 25). Working with difference and event creates a space or an encounter where children are actively encouraged to take ‘lines of flight’ or to follow their fascinations in a landscape of possibility and encounter.

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  157 Art education as a way of exploring the world invites the unknown and celebrates this notion of difference and possibility, rather than aspiring to a fixed identity or set outcome. Acknowledging the process, rather than the end-product, allows us to emphasise the creative process as a dynamic and ongoing development in children’s art engagement. The findings of my research uphold the democratic notion of creativity: that everyone has the capacity for ‘life-wide’ creativity as ‘a fundamental aspect of human nature and that all children are capable of manifesting and developing their creativity as a life skill’ (Craft 2003: 143). This relates directly to the notion of ‘humanising creativity’ and demonstrates the embodied nature of creativity and the importance of the relationship between the creator’s identity and his or her creativity. Chappell et al. (2016) articulates humanising creativity as an active process of change, guided by compassion and reference to shared values, in which identity and creativity interact to allow creators to make and be made. Through becoming and being artists, my case study children were ‘doing’ their identities, that is, developing their ‘identity in activity’ (Moje and Luke 2009: 429).

Quality of relationships and dialogue This study has shown the importance of developing authentic, respectful and non-judgemental relationships, based on listening, sharing and a creative reflective pedagogy with reciprocal relationships between adults and children. Adults and children were very clear about the ethos in each workshop session: this included openness to experience, trust, purposeful risk-taking and tolerance for uncertainty and not knowing. Each session involved an open dialogue with the children about their own learning and developing identity as artists. The adults had warm and positive relationships with the children, and they built both trust and confidence. This included the adults tuning in, listening carefully, showing genuine interest, encouraging curiosity, respecting the children’s own decisions and choices, asking open questions, encouraging sustained shared thinking and modelling creative and critical thinking. Dynamic relationships and agency are vital in any educational setting. In the Reggio Emilia approach, the role of the adult involves careful and sensitive listening, observation, documentation and reflection. Teachers work in pairs as guides to support children’s research, learning and development. Malaguzzi (Edwards et al. 1998: 42–43) talks about the ‘system(s) of relationships’ in the Reggio Emilia approach and recognises that the relationships between children and families, and educators are as central to the education of the children as the relationships between the children themselves. A ‘system of relationships’ in this study has been evident: the children and adults participated together in a way that is ‘flat-level’ and ‘non-hierarchical’. Everyone was invited to explore ideas and express and communicate their thoughts and feelings using the materials provided.

158  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? Jacque Rancière (1991) was highly critical of any educational relationship in which one party assumes the role of ‘master explicator’. He argues that the business of the ‘master explicator’ within such a hierarchical system is ‘to transmit his knowledge to his students so as to bring them by degrees to his own level of expertise’ (Rancière 1991: 3). The explicative system, Rancière observes, seemingly ignores this power for autonomous learning. He challenges the concept of learning as hierarchical and deterministic and provides a useful frame through which to interpret contemporary pedagogical issues that is well aligned with this study. Carr and Claxton (2002) recognise how effective, democratic, creative learning happens when adults model integrity and professionalism in a way that entails sound relationships and a rich interchange with children. Making things together is often an effective way of allowing conversations to develop; the playful and non-judgemental environment of a well-facilitated art session allows new perspectives, ideas and identities to be explored. My research has demonstrated the importance of dialogue and discussion in the development of creative conversations between adults and children. In this context, the artist is seen as a ‘creative enabler and facilitator of possibilities’ (Pringle and Reiss 2003: 17). Alexander (2008) emphasises the transformative nature of dialogue to support children’s engagement with the creative and democratic processes of learning that underpin this study. Wegerif (2006) also associates the notion of playful talk with creativity, and dialogue can support children in their creative enquiries and help to develop a ‘dialogic space of possibility’ (Chappell and Craft 2011). Deleuze envisions the child and the adult in a dynamic and reciprocal relationship. A Deleuzian lens encourages us to look for the ‘what else’ view in supporting learning so that this view might lead to working quite differently with children. My research characterises children’s exploration in art, without the adult ‘leading’ the way in an assumed or correct direction. Rather, the adult takes the role of seeing children’s learning as dynamic, always different, with something being changed or added. Children’s artwork then becomes eventful and non-hierarchical, and adults and children can enjoy affective spaces and moments together, allowing for potentialities of all those engaged in the process of this live experiment.

Art and affect ‘Affect’ is felt emotion, something that moves us to find our ‘lines of flight’ (Deleuze and Guattari, 1987: 259). Deleuze was particularly interested in an art encounter as ‘being of the sensible’ and ‘artwork that created an effect on the nervous system, not [just] on the brain’ (ibid.). In my research, children were engaged in the arts and in creative processes to develop ideas and make significant experiences visible, and my aim was to document the ‘emotionally moving sense of the search for the meanings of life that children and adults undertake together – a poetic sense that metaphorical, analogical, and poetic language can produce and thereby express in its holistic fullness’ (Rinaldi 2001: 150).

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  159 The findings in my research indicate that children, supported in a creative learning environment, are constantly developing their identity as artists and that children have the potential for becoming and being artists, with ‘boundless artistic potentialities’ (Scanlan 2016). If, as stated by Olsson (2009), learning is seen as ‘becoming’, my research acknowledges the fluidity of the ongoing search for the ‘and…and…and’ in children’s encounters with the world in becoming artists (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 25). Olsson suggests that it is through such intra-actions, through merging interrelations of children and materials, that children work in ‘an affective way’ (Olsson 2013: 250). Olsson and Lenz Taguchi (2010) describe affective engagement as a shift, a movement, where materials and children affect each other, opening possibilities for new becomings to emerge that are full of potentialities. The making of art is also seen as an affective-cognitive synthesis (Addison 2010). In my research, children were making art in ways that were meaningful for them, and, at the same time, they were making meaning through their art, by using art materials to investigate, represent and transform important ideas that they encountered in their world. All of these ways of making meaning occurred through intentional artistic activities, which were self-directed. Art-making has been shown to be a personally meaningful activity. It is important to understand who children are as artists if we want to know them; what they are learning in art-making; and what meaning they are making for themselves in the process. My findings build on Atkinson (2017) who proposes that through art as event we open up worlds that become possible as the work unfolds the process of becoming, which is fundamental to affective engagement with art. It is in the ‘event of practice that something new appears, unexpectedly, unanticipated, something immanent to practice; this is poiesis’ (Atkinson 2017). A poietic materialism therefore is constituted through a series of encounters; it denotes a coming into being that is an amalgam of intra-actions (Barad 2007), a coming into being that precipitates new relationalities and potentialities for learning. The force of art as an appearing – as poiesis – is not subjective or objective but intra-active involving human and non-human actants (affects, feeling, thoughts, memories, materials such as paint, paper, metal, wood, digital technologies) and the pedagogical imperative of a poeitic materialism is to extend our grasp and potential of what it is to be human (Atkinson 2017: 168) This aligns with the view of Springgay (2008: xxiv) that ‘three ways of understanding experience—theoria, praxis, and poiesis—are folded together and form rhizomatic ways of experiencing the world’, integrating affective and cognitive experience and ways of knowing. One of the significant aspects of this study has been the emphasis on children’s emotional well-being and how this relates to their involvement in learning. Osterman (2010) describes the importance of supportive ambience

160  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? and suggests that children can only be fully engaged and self-motivated when the emotional context is conducive to this. My research has shown that when children feel at ease, they act spontaneously and show vitality and self-confidence as a demonstration of their well-being. This principle is supported by Csikszentmihalyi (2002) who describes ‘flow’ as a state of being central to the creative process that is characterised by intense concentration, absorption, pleasure and lack of awareness of time passing. One of the predominant characteristics of the ‘flow’ state is concentration, where involvement is aligned with strong motivation and fascination. This exploratory drive affords an intrinsic type of involvement as an intense mental activity and shows that a person is functioning at the very limits of his or her capabilities (Laevers 2015). This concept is at the heart of my research with children as artists. That is what experiential education is about: mobilising and enhancing the energy in people and drawing them into a positive spiral which engenders deep level learning. Only this way can we make settings and schools more effective and strong enough to meet the challenge of education: the development of (future) adults who are self-confident and mentally healthy, curious and exploratory, expressive and communicative, imaginative and creative, full of initiative, well organised, with developed intuitions about the social and physical world and with a feeling of belonging and connectedness to the universe. (Laevers 2015: 8)

Exploration and choice Working in an affective rhizomatic way creates a disruption to current orthodoxies that conceive learning as hierarchical and moving towards a pre-conceived set of outcomes. In my research, in contrast to current orthodoxies, children were invited to be involved in open-ended, exploratory art experiences rather than prescriptive activities. They were encouraged to ‘follow their fascinations’ and their own lines of enquiry within the open structure of each session, working alongside other artists. Children were able to choose not only their own theme and focus but also the media and resources most appropriate to say what they wanted to say. This element of choice also enabled the children to challenge themselves with different ways of working. Olsson (2009: 6) critiques the idea that ‘learning processes seem very often to be judged and evaluated from an already set outcome’: when we start with predefined goals and outcomes, our attention is focused on activity that will progress children towards them. Olsson alerts us to the danger that we may miss opportunities for unexpected discoveries to take place and for us to communicate key messages to children about what is of value in terms of their educational experience. In the background is the looming issue of unacknowledged children’s rights and a sense that the classroom might be a site where children can discover and realise those rights and freedoms to learn in new ways.

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  161

Self-directed enquiry My research highlights children’s agency as artists and the need to develop relational and intra-active pedagogies, valuing the relationship between the child, space and the material. The children involved in this research had agency and control over their own learning. Children were engaged in features of ‘possibility thinking’, each child was able to ask questions, be playful, be immersed, innovative, imaginative with self-determination and intention (Cremin et al. 2008: 69). Pedagogical framing has included key aspects of time, space and attention by using open-ended resources to develop self-chosen lines of enquiry. Allowing children to explore in and through the visual arts invites them to enter smooth, flowing spaces and take different ‘lines of flight’; these are seen as an ‘abstract line, the line of flight or deterritorialisation’ (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 259). This allows for individual lines of enquiry and engagement to be ‘and…and…and’, with infinitive possibilities. Children can become engaged with creative provocations, producing and following their own lines of enquiry without reference to externally imposed outcomes. Creating an environment in which children are encouraged to take lines of flight supports children to learn rhizomatically. Rhizomes are unpredictable as they unfold and make multiple new connections, just as children’s art-making also has this potential. This study has shown that adults can also become part of the rhizomatic unfolding process, alongside children, without closing down any possibilities. Children’s involvement in learning highlights the need for intrinsically motivated activity. Through self-directed enquiry, children are engaged in critical and creative thinking while they give shape to ideas by transforming materials and making art. This allows the children to analyse their own work and that of others without judgement and to become discerning about processes and qualities. Children are then seen by adults as protagonists of their own learning, as active citizens with social and cultural capital. This study has shown that if, as adults, we can place ourselves alongside children in their learning and show respect for children’s ideas and solutions, those children are able to see themselves as artists and as creative. The very act of relating to a child as an equal human being is one of great emancipation, especially for the ‘teacher’. If we re-conceive everyone as an artist, this also democratises the process of art-making. The professional role of an artist in society is as an individual that follows his or her own creative line of enquiry. My contention here is that children should have the same role. An emphasis on children taking responsibility for their own ideas and enquiries will also support them when they face uncertainty and complex issues in relation to our future society. I am interested in visual art education as a way of learning that is ‘between things’. Between things does not designate a localizable relation going from one thing to the other and back again, but a perpendicular direction, a

162  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? transversal movement that sweeps one and the other away, a stream without beginning or end that undermines its banks and picks up speed in the middle. (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 25) The ‘and’ is the middle, and, like the ‘rhizome has no beginning or end; it is always in the middle, between things, interbeing, intermezzo’ (ibid). The atelier, in this study the Creative Space, provides a framework for this to happen. The Creative Space is a space or place for the betweeness of learning. As opposed to neo-liberal practices of art-making, which have a ‘pre-established goal for the children to do with the materials, enforced on the child by an educator’ (Clark and Moss 2012), the atelier or studio model is concerned with children discovering with their senses, in proximity to others, to feel the materials and make connections. The atelierista or artist educator brings aesthetic sensibilities and ways of seeing in order to offer broader perspectives to the processes of thinking and learning. What the atelier then provides is a space for art to happen without preconceived ideas or outcomes. The intrinsic motivation of children overrides the need for extrinsic reward for learning as they see the purpose in making meaning for themselves.

Collaboration and creative provocation Choosing a creative provocation to inspire, lead or follow a thread in the children’s learning was key to the ‘Being an Artist’ workshops and 5x5x5=creativity sessions. Sometimes, the artist or child would offer a creative provocation as an initial stimulus for the children to collaborate on. This invitation would often connect with children’s interests or with other areas of their learning. Children were encouraged to pursue their own ideas in collaboration with each other, ‘making their learning visible’ (Guidici et al. 2001) and learning alongside one another. I found that working together on an initial stimulus allowed children to generate ideas together on a shared theme. Each creative provocation was offered in an open format, valuing the processes of not knowing, open-endedness, playfulness and becoming and allowing time and space for children’s responses. The adults also provide the stimulation or ‘provocation’ of discovery through their responsiveness to children’s dialogue, provision of open-ended resources, collaborative action and co-construction of knowledge with children. Working with the children as artists invited them to bring whatever content, sensibilities and aesthetic choices they chose to the activity. Each offering was considered valid and valuable, and each expression or experimentation with materials and processes allowed the children to manifest their ideas effectively and to ask ‘what if?’ in a playful way (Craft 2003).

Deep documentation The processes of observation and documentation in this study were inspired by the approach in Reggio Emilia in which deep documentation is understood

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  163 as a way to capture why and how something is happening and to understand children’s thinking, not only as a way to describe it in a traditional way. Documentation enables and requires the practitioner to take responsibility for understanding the process of children’s thinking. If adults are carefully observing what children do, they can bring an informed response to the analysis and interpretation of learning. If adults take children’s ideas seriously, they can support children in the exploration and expression of their ideas. Documentation is unpredictable. It also becomes multi-layered and challenging because it must reflect the unique, rich and abstract nature of every child’s mind. The child is constantly acting upon the world with a drive to make sense, form connections and develop his or her understanding. This requires us to acknowledge that we need to make choices about the best ways and contexts to develop, nurture and support children’s lines of enquiry. The best conditions for thinking, if you really stop and notice, are not tense. They are gentle. They are quiet. They are unrushed. They are stimulating but not competitive. They are encouraging. They are paradoxically both rigorous and nimble. Attention, the act of listening with respect and fascination is the key to a thinking environment. …When you are listening to someone, much of the quality of what you are hearing is your effect on them. Your attention, your listening is that important. (Kline 1999) Reflective journals (or sketchbooks) were important for both children and adults. Documentation in journals helped to make the learning visible and worked as an integral tool for both the expression of ideas and for meaning-making. Vecchi (in Bancroft et al. 2008: 34) describes documentation as a ‘unique source of knowledge…it is a precious material for teachers, but also for the children, for the family and whoever wishes to get closer to the strategies in children’s ways of thinking’. Within the context of 5x5x5=creativity and ‘Being an Artist’, this collegiate support for research in practice has enabled participants to refine understandings related to the role of the adults, understand listening as a way of being with children and deepen their respect for children’s creative thinking. It is through careful listening and close observation of children that children’s learning and thinking is revealed. Documenting children’s learning also challenges the traditional ‘transmission model’ of learning vividly because it reveals the uncertainties in our own thinking about learning. It requires us to reflect about what we have observed and project what might be going on inside the minds of the children in front of us. Learning itself can then be upheld, as subjective, dynamic, and constructed within the companionship of others. Knowledge creation is part of the world’s infinite becoming: ontology and epistemology e/merge (Barad

164  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? 2007: 353). Such an ontoepistemology is at the heart of protagezzione. This pedagogical documentation demands that teachers be ‘response-able’ (ibid.) for their observations, descriptions, interpretations and explanations and that they dare to see the ambiguities – always selective, partial, contextual and situated (Dahlberg et al. 2013: 255). Intra-acting responsibly as part of the world means taking account of the entangled phenomena that are intrinsic to the world’s vitality and being responsive to the possibilities that might help us and it flourish. Meeting each moment, being alive to the possibilities of becoming, is an ethical call, an invitation that is written into the very matter of all being and becoming. We need to meet the universe half way, to take responsibility for the role that we play in the world’s differential becoming (Barad 2007: 396)

Space, time and attention In this study, the Creative Space is a workshop within the school, co-designed by parents as an atelier or studio space for children to work alongside artists and to share and negotiate artwork as individuals and in groups. This space for an exchange of ideas is key to exploring the creative process and to allowing direct engagement with real art and real artists. The visibility of this space in the school is also important in messaging to parents and the wider community that art is taken seriously as a form of expression and integrated into daily school life. Regular exhibitions are hosted in the space to make the learning visible in the school. The Creative Space has shown that as adults, by developing creative environments for learning and creative ways of learning, we can encourage learning ‘in the flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi 2002). In and around the Creative Space, children were given opportunities to work on different scales and in different places (on the table, floor, wall, in sketchbooks, outside, etc.); this seemed to increase the level of self-motivation in their enquiries, as they had control over their learning environment (Cremin et al. 2006). In the Reggio Emilia approach, the learning environment is recognised as the third teacher. It is a beautiful, stimulating area, filled with light and with documentation of children’s artwork. I propose that the construction of identity is influenced both by the physical and by the psychological environment and that through organising a space we can create a metaphor for organising knowledge (Rinaldi, cited in Vecchi 2010). Although we did not come close to achieving those impossible ideals, still the atelier has always repaid us. It has, as desired, proved to be subversive – generating complexity and new tools of thought. It has allowed rich combinations and creative possibilities among the different (symbolic) languages of children (Loris Malaguzzi 1998: 35)

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  165 With a particular emphasis on aesthetics, the sensual and relational practice of working with materials, subject matter, self and other is a fundamental aspect of children’s learning in the atelier. The term ‘atelier’ has come to have a clear shared value, in which the aesthetic dimension has a new importance and appreciable pedagogical and cultural value (Vecchi 2010: 2). The atelier is a space where children can explore their own identity. The atelier then becomes a place of research, invention and empathy, expressed by means of a ‘hundred languages’, which extend beyond childhood to include adulthood. Importantly, this third space is then a place to go to different and new locations in the landscape of possibility, as a site of experiment, both inside and outside. My study has demonstrated the value placed on the concept of time. The children are able to set their own pace, to learn alongside one another, to value mistakes and to find new solutions. Creative and critical thinking are central to this approach. Understanding the processes of creative learning becomes essential for the adult and the child alike. The study indicated that the more we are aware of the ‘habits of mind’ of artists – creative problem solving, making connections, thinking laterally, valuing uncertainty – the more we are able to deploy these habits ourselves in daily life. If, as adults, we are ‘more attentive to the cognitive processes of children’ than to the results they achieve, then ‘creativity becomes more visible’ (Malaguzzi in Edwards et al. 1998: 77). The research has shown children’s capacity to question, reflect, theorise, problem-solve, experiment and express their understanding and experiences. In relation to this, the quality of attention provided by adults alongside the children cannot be underestimated. The role that the adults play in supporting children’s ideas and artwork is crucial in allowing children to see themselves as artists. Stepping back, observing, refraining from interrupting and following children’s interests were all behaviours witnessed and documented in adults participating this research.

Structure and freedom This study has shown that placing emphasis on creating freedom within the structure of a school’s system can be transformative. Adults offered an open ‘structure’ for the children to ‘play in the spaces in-between’. There was no direct ‘teaching’ with a prescribed outcome, but there was an invitation to explore ideas within a ‘blank’ space. For example, each child had a sketch book to explore his or her own ideas and was able to collaborate with others in dialogue. Deleuze and Guattari (1987) discuss spaces that can be understood as either open (smooth) or closed (striated). These spaces only exist in combination, moving from the smooth to the striated. In art education, the striated could be understood as a provocation set up by an adult, from where the children can explore freely, thus entering a smooth (flowing) space, from where they can return to the safety of the striated space whenever they wish. Children ‘go across stratifying thinking and habits of doing, into creation and invention of something new’ (Lenz Taguchi 2010: 123).

166  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? Learning is seen as multi-layered, and ‘seeing’ learning affords adults and children a space, an ‘assemblage’ that they can enter together (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 295). In order to share such an assemblage, teachers especially might have to let go of practice that renders education to a ‘transmission and reproductive imitation’ (Olsson 2009: 7). Seeing children’s work as representation, rather than seeing it as an exploration of their worlds, places limits on the potential of children’s art-making.

Aesthetic experience This research showed that, as in the Reggio Emilia approach, ‘taking care’ is an essential part of the pedagogy of listening, and the atelier is a place or space where attention to aesthetics is foregrounded. Vea Vecchi emphasises the ‘aesthetic dimensions’, which are explored and fostered in the atelier as an attitude of taking care. It is an attitude of care and attention for the things we do, a desire for meaning; it is a curiosity and wonder; it is the opposite of indifference and carelessness, of conformity, of absence of participation and feeling (Vecchi 2010: 5) In my research, children have witnessed professional artists experimenting with ideas and materials to explore themes and concepts like they themselves do. Artists are seen as lenders of tools and materials, creating a cultural and aesthetic framework for learning. Contrary to a more traditional ‘art lesson’ where the teacher would suggest the format for the children’s artwork, this approach invites imaginative and aesthetic possibilities rather than prescriptive outcomes. This is an essential paradigm shift, as it immediately places the child, as an artist who is creative and competent, alongside adult artists, exploring aesthetic experience in an authentic way because they are invited to be curious and experimental. The emphasis therefore is not upon a predetermined pathway for learning but upon singularities ‘thisnesses’ (Atkinson 2017: 145) that enable invention into existence, that pedagogical practice should take account of the qualitative level of thinking-feeling and not only the instrumental level of skill or knowledge acquisition. It is not that difficult to witness the poietic force of art in children’s drawing or painting practices before these become subjected to the influences of aesthetic production and commodification that emerge in institutional practices. Such practices invent new worlds and possibilities, they are often events whose materiality involve desires, thoughts, speech, memories, affects, paper, crayons, paints, lines, marks, shapes, body movements and more: a poietic assemblage of intra-actions in which human and non-human actants become entangled (Atkinson 2017: 148)

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  167 Biesta (in McNaughton et al. 2017) argues for the importance of creating space for establishing a relationship with our desires and fascinations, and the unique potential of the arts and aesthetic experience. It is working through the experience of art as a dialogue, as an expression of being human in the world, as an encounter between desires and materiality, which allows children to express their voice, make their own sense, be creative, generate subjective meaning and articulate their own unique identity. Just as art is the dialogue of human beings with the world, art is the exploration and transformation of our desires so that they can become a positive force for the ways in which we seek to exist in the world in ‘grown-up’ ways. And that is where we may find the educative power of the arts (Biesta in McNaughton et al. 2017) This echoes Hannah Arendt who states that: …art is precisely this ongoing, literally never-ending exploration of the encounter with what and who is other, the ongoing and never-ending exploration of what it might mean to exist in and with the world (Arendt in Biesta 2010: 36) My study has demonstrated that when children create an artwork or aesthetic object, it is distinct from a creation in written or spoken language. Two aspects of this difference are particularly valuable in visual arts practice. Firstly, making something that is physically outside us enables a new perspective. We can look at the artwork and consider it, considering parts of ourselves with a sense of spaciousness, and invite other people to look at it too. In viewing an artwork, there are an infinite number of interpretations, so when we show and share an artwork we have made, we are creating a proposition which is speculative or conditional – its meaning is not fixed but continuously re-becoming (Deleuze and Guattari 1987). Deleuze’s emphasis in art is on the non-representational. ‘The task of art is to produce ‘signs’ that will push us out of our habits of perception into the conditions of creation’ (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 51).

Inviting a ‘hundred languages’ of thinking and expression Children’s ideas are taken seriously and supported in the exploration and expression of their ideas in a ‘hundred languages’ (Edwards et al. 1998). My research highlights the processes of meaning-making that engage multiple forms of thinking, communication and expression, including narrative observations, photographs, videos, reflective journaling and making. In using this diversity of languages, we can draw on the skills of artists to generate new ways of thinking and communicating ideas, for adults and children alike. Tuning into these different languages has enabled a space for democratic

168  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? dialogue (that is also at the heart of our research and evaluation with 5x5x5=creativity), enabling multiple experiences and perspectives to be shared with different audiences. The hundred languages of children is a useful concept, thinking about other ways of learning but also about other ways of expressing ideas. Finding and giving opportunities to share imagination and feelings in different modes, through drama, poetry, maths, any form through which you can express your ideas. (Mary Fawcett, Patron of House of Imagination) Malaguzzi (1990: 42) describes how he sees the child as part of the world: ‘an active co-habitant’. Disrupting the innate (nature) and acquired (culture) binary position, he argues for ‘an ecological child…an organism disposed to interaction and active self-construction’ (Malaguzzi 1990: 43) and explains: ‘…as new-born babies they weave dynamic processes of interactive co-existence and growth with life, and from birth they continue with their specific ways of relating .. their interactions with adults, cultures, environment, things, shadows, colours, spaces, times and sounds’ (ibid.).

Thinking through making In my research, children were engaged with thinking through making – in making they are also being made themselves (Chappell and Craft 2011). Ingold (2013: 21) suggests that we think of making … as a process of growth … to place the maker from the outset as a participant in amongst a world of active materials. These materials are what he has to work with, and in the process of making he ‘joins forces’ with them, bringing them together or splitting them apart, synthesising and distilling, in anticipation of what might emerge. Ingold suggests that in art practice we should have a ‘world of loose ends’, that we should have ‘meshwork’, rather than a network, a tangle, so that there is a valid tension between the reach of the imagination and the material, allowing us to ‘think through making’. The focus on visual art in this study provided a context for children to try out new ideas, to practise new skills, to explore relationships and to deepen their understanding, and ‘the essential ingredient of children’s relationships with materials gives them multiple possibilities’ (Gandini et al. 2005). Open access to materials sought to open wide possibilities in terms of where children might take their artwork and find new lines of enquiry. The invitation to explore materials was supported by related techniques offered appropriately. Children had the opportunity to explore ideas. Key skills such as creative thinking, problem-solving and making connections were made transparent during each session. Adults were able to model these

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  169 qualities to ‘make the learning visible’. Conversations and activities were sometimes explicitly focused on being curious and open-minded, asking each other good questions, generating ideas, being independent and reflective. As well as questions addressing the art-making process, adults often invited discussion about more complex concepts such as creativity and imagination, encouraging speculation by asking questions such as: What is the imagination? How can you show your creativity? How do you want to record and share your ideas? How can you persevere if you make a mistake? This fostered a spirit of enquiry and an awareness of there being multiple possibilities rather than only one answer. Parent: “The key things I noticed were to take risks and let the children run with their own ideas, giving ownership of the learning to the children.” (Parent interview) Key learning dispositions were developed through learning in and about the arts: curiosity, imagination, creativity, innovation, enquiry, confidence, self-esteem and well-being. This study has shown that qualities such as empathy, playfulness, surprise, ingenuity, sensitivity, flexibility and self-aware learning are nurtured through our experiences in the arts.

The aesthetic third The processes of art and the artworks produced during my research could be interpreted as functioning as the ‘aesthetic third’, a concept which, ‘inheres in a particular quality of communication around which artists and participants develop a common activity’ (Froggett et al. 2011: 41). The concept of the aesthetic third is useful in understanding the role of the artist in this context, as it focuses attention on the value of the processes used by adults and children to develop art, rather than simply on the artwork produced. The aesthetic third ‘includes the interactions between participants, the relationships formed, the communication that transpired, activities undertaken together, ideas generated, as well as the production of objects’ (ibid). Exploring art in the wider community promotes a connection to that community and a greater sense of being and belonging; cultural centres, museums and galleries become more accessible and inviting. Seeing and discussing art is a way of stepping into a public space and becoming part of the shared conversation which is culture. The artists enriched the cultural life of children in ‘Being an Artist’ workshops by inviting new and active audiences, by sharing their artwork publicly. The development and use of the Creative Space showed the value placed on both children and adults having the opportunity to explore their own creativity.

170  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? Artists and teachers both need support in finding ways to develop artist and teacher selves. In shifting understandings of identity from a single, fixed identity to multiple selves and expressions, teachers can develop “artist selves” and move beyond the outward “how to” or project focus of art education to a deeper more personal exploration of their artist selves. Similarly, artists need support in constructing identities as teachers that do not see a teacher’s identity as a single unitary image but that opens ways to develop their teacher selves alongside their artist selves: not giving up one identity in favor of another, but developing multiple identities. (Kind et al. 2007: 857) The opportunity for the adults involved to share their work with children was a vital part of the research. One of the most significant shifts in practice in the school resulted in the children exhibiting their artwork alongside the art of professional artists, both inside and outside the school. Children’s artwork was celebrated through exhibitions, and children were able to express themselves in a hundred languages, sharing the artistic processes of their endeavours with their families and with the community.

Working with contemporary artists My research has shown that artists can be effective role models for children in dealing with powerful and complex ideas. Creating a shared language to investigate how collaboration with artists can support children in the generation of these ideas is an important aspect of a new learning culture that values children and allows them to engage in these processes. Wilson (2003: 225) also suggested that contemporary art education practices may best be served by shifting ‘the locus of pedagogy from the formal art classroom to a space between the school and the realms of contemporary art and popular culture’ to allow for intertextual movement between the content of the classroom and the contemporary contexts from which children draw their interests. Working with contemporary adult artists allows children to explore their experiences of the world in relation to the work of practising artists who are dealing with the ‘here and now’. Using the work of artists as a creative provocation provides the means by which children can relate to their ideas and feelings about their own personal, social and cultural worlds. This study has shown that involvement with artists encourages empathy in the children and the development of sensitivity to their own responses and the responses of others. It also provides a stimulus for the exploration of ideas, concepts and values embodied in the work. Contemporary work, in particular, provides children with a frame of reference within which to place their experiences. The experience that an individual child brings to an artwork helps make connections and develop understanding, developing the relationship between the existing view of the

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  171 child and the artwork in order to make the view purposeful. Although contemporary art is made in the present and often deals with current issues, it also helps children to understand the past and to anticipate the future. Using contemporary work helps children to challenge preconceptions about the way things are in order to imagine how things could be. Contemporary art inevitably relates to the lived experiences of children growing up in today’s diverse society. This study has brought to light the value of artists working in educational settings and has revealed what artists do that makes a difference. Artists observed in this research took part in open-ended, critically reflective and collaborative forms of engagement that are central to and inspired by the nature of creative practice itself. This link between creative practice and pedagogy is vital in making the creative learning visible. Artists engage with children and young people through discussion and through the exchanging of ideas and experiences. This ‘co-construction’ involved the artist as a co-learner in this experiential learning. The relationship between the artists’ individual creative practice and their collaborative and pedagogic work is, therefore, critical. All participants were involved in enquiry-based and playful learning. The artist in this context is primarily a facilitator, providing a wide vocabulary of processes (not necessarily products), materials and ideas for children to explore, and inviting them to be themselves, to explore their worlds and to try out different ways of communicating and expressing ideas. One of the outputs of this research has been raising the profile of working with contemporary artists, specifically in relation to 5x5x5=creativity. The artists see themselves very much as contemporary artists with ongoing, professional, contemporary arts practice, and this is one aspect that is different to the practice in Reggio Emilia. The artists in your work, their principle task is to create a space with certain implicit and explicit rules that encourages and enables exploration. Having created a space with rules, it is then possible not to know what you’re going to find. That’s the difference that artists have. A teacher has to have learning outcomes; an artist has to NOT have learning outcomes because they are creating a space for exploration. The artists’ role is in being able to create new conditions that respond to different contexts and repeatedly create experiences for the children that offer them an exploratory journey and allow them to come out happy and confident with their mind expanded. (François Matarasso, Red Day June 2016) A way of thinking Part of what we need to think about is how do we make the process visible to people, shifting to ‘artisting’ as a verb rather than focusing on art and artists. (François Matarasso, ‘Red Day’, March 2016)

172  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? Drawing on the conversations with François Matarasso over the last few years, as a researcher I have been challenged to think deeply around the difficulty of evidencing experience: specifically how to show evidence of the value of working with artists. As part of a ‘Red Day’ (research exchange and dialogue) we invited an open discussion with artists involved in 5x5x5=creativity research. We are trying to untangle what we separately and together think about what artists do that no one else does. The underlying question is how can we prove the value of what we do? We make something into art because we give it meaning and extract meaning and for that reason it is un-provable… that art is a human experience, it only exists as a human experience. (François Matarasso, Red Day, 2016) In conversation with François, I was able to move beyond the concept of evidence and tease out the importance of experience (living through something that made you change your mind as a consequence) and argument (setting out a thought process and saying ‘this is why I think like this’). Through reflecting with François on my research, the following elements are identified as being crucial to the value of working with artists: space for exploration; allowing people to make safe choices; creating a space within which unexpected things can happen safely; sharing different experiences and perspectives; learning from each other and interaction; a process of co-creation and shared meaning-making; expanding the space for possibility. These kinds of spaces allow exploration and interaction to happen, and that in turn may lead to benefits for children, including: a focus on the individual; a voice for all children; more confident problem-solving; better communication skills; enhancing confidence; self-ness; being in the moment; being themselves and being valued.

The value of uncertainty This practice that artists are familiar with allows us to see the generative ‘power of unknowing’ that they are able to bring when they work alongside the parents, children and educators: Lots of artists use that as their practice – that is what their practice is. Not knowing and process is absolutely everything. The power of not knowing is liberating so that you can actually follow the work in the same way that we can follow the children and create relationships. It’s very, very powerful not knowing – it’s a strong starting point. (Edwina Bridgeman, artist)

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  173 This study reveals how the quality of their relationships allowed the artists, parents and educators to explore unfamiliar ways of learning through the processes of art. Key to this was trust in the generative potential of not knowing and uncertainty, and in the ways of learning that the artists facilitated and supported. The artists and educators witnessed and validated how these relationships deepened the power of the creative processes through their careful noticing, documenting and revisiting. The pursuit, or at least the exploitation of surprise in an age of accountability is paradoxical […] Opening oneself to the uncertain is not a pervasive quality of our current educational environment. I believe that it needs to be among the values we cherish. Uncertainty needs to have its proper place in the kinds of schools we create. (Eisner 2004: 5) Baldacchino (in McNaughton et al. 2017) proposes that art is an act of approximation, approximating the value of something or making sense of something, and essentially that artists value not knowing, unlearning and undoing. Fischer and Fortnum (2013) corroborate this idea and extend the notion of not knowing, uncertainty and the unknown as vital aspects of contemporary arts practice. Ingold (2013) also confirms this: Half knowing or just beginning to know the context for the selection of an image, idea, quote. A kind of suspension between intuiting what it might mean and knowing what it means. A kind of half blindness. I wonder if this is a valuable place for us when we are formulating ideas, and seeking connections to build our own ideas … hazy space allows a kind of freedom to make connections and gather in a way that stops when all things are clear, and clearly known (if you yet fully understood). (ibid: xv)

Children working as artists For children, working as artists allows them to explore their own ideas and see how they can be developed, by exploring contemporary art practice in conversation with others, asking good questions, making sense, understanding and developing work in a supportive environment and a Creative Space. Careful observations of children and close documentation of their work has provided an insight into their interests and fascinations. The adults facilitated and supported the children’s depth of learning by respecting these individual interests and by taking time to make connections with the children’s thinking. Underpinning this approach is the emphasis on supporting children’s developing ideas, thoughts and feelings. Children have opportunities for exploration and for response, and there is an emphasis on using innovative and imaginative approaches that stimulate the imagination and encourage independent thought.

174  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? Why work with artists, or perhaps why co-work with artists or work alongside artists? Why are we working together? The artists bringing a way of working if they’re creative artists, they bring questioning, open-mindedness, enabling, empowering, defining a space in a way that makes that space safe for people to open themselves and to explore and which results in the co-creation of shared meanings that can be understood and shared with other people through whatever work comes out of that. Because educators by training, by theory and by policy have a structured approach to working with children and nurturing learning, that structured approach is brought into contact with the differently structured approach that artists have, and that in itself is creative. It’s the bringing together of two ways of understanding how to promote learning, both learning from each other. (François Matarasso, Red Day, 2016)

From pedagogy to heutagogy Throughout this study, the term pedagogy has been used to describe the approaches to learning and teaching that are evidenced in the artist educator’s practice. What has been illuminated, both through the thematic analysis and drawing on ideas from New Materialism, is a critical and creative paradigm shift to ‘heutagogy’ – the concept of self-determined learning that relates to an individual’s critical and creative learning capacity and that enhances normal conceptions of pedagogy. This study is original in that I have sought to understand and develop a new pedagogical approach – an emerging conceptual framework of ‘art education heutagogy’ that underpins a new creative practice in visual art for both adults and children. Heutagogical approaches to education emphasise the humanness in human resources, the worth of self and capability as a systems approach that recognises the system–environment interface and learning as opposed to teaching (Hase and Kenyon 2013). This self-directed and self-determined learning, in the heutagogy paradigm, places the learner at the centre of his or her own learning. Many artists work in complex educational, community and cultural contexts – where their creative contribution to participants’ learning is widely acknowledged; yet there is little research on how and what artists draw from their experience and expertise that contributes to their distinctive pedagogical, indeed, heutagogical approaches. There is a need to research further these complex teaching and learning environments and to understand them more deeply through a heutagogical conceptual framework suited to the needs of art education and professional practitioners. The artist’s/researcher’s/educator’s role is assumed within arts education, but there is little published literature that establishes the reflexive relationship between the complex systems of creative practice and heutagogy as a

How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?  175 second- or even higher-order type of pedagogy. Future research would identify the relationship between heutagogy and practice, making this complex relationship explicit in order to advance a new understanding of the underpinning epistemology and learning theory, a new theoretical framework for the artist educator and a commensurate research methodology suited to the leverage of heutagogical creative practice. ‘Being an Artist’ workshops and House of Imagination’s research are based on an image of the child as strong, powerful and rich in resources, right from the moment of birth (Rinaldi 2006); on children and adults as co-researchers and meaning-makers (Craft et al. 2008: 14, 22); on an understanding of the role of creativity (Cremin et al. 2006: 110); and on the need to explore and document creative pedagogies that build on these beliefs (Drummond 2005: 12). This study has crystallised the need to be more explicit about the benefits and principles of a creative reflective pedagogy. The current UK Government’s call for high standards may be misleading, and the quality of teaching in schools depends on developing and supporting creative individuals, both adults and children. Role models in the community, including artists and creative professionals, can widen expertise in schools and support learning. My research findings show that the relationship between adults and young people is vital for supporting individual progress and well-being, for nurturing the disposition to learn and for engaging in real and meaningful learning experiences in which children and young people take responsibility for their own creativity.

Chapter summary In distilling the emergent theory, I make some recommendations that identify the key characteristics of children’s creative learning, the key characteristics of a creative and reflective pedagogy and the key roles of the adult in this process. This distillation of emerging theories captures the essence of how adults can support children’s learning identity as artists. Throughout this study, the term pedagogy has been used to describe the approaches to learning and teaching that are evidenced in the artist educator’s practice. What has been illuminated is a critical and creative paradigm shift to ‘heutagogy’ – the concept of self-determined learning that relates to an individual’s critical and creative learning capacity and which enhances normal conceptions of pedagogy. This study is original in that I have sought to understand and develop a new pedagogical approach – an emerging conceptual framework of ‘art education heutagogy’ that underpins a new creative practice in visual art for both adults and children. Heutagogical approaches to education emphasise the humanness in human resources, the worth of self and capability as a systems approach that recognises the system–environment interface and learning as opposed to teaching. This self-directed and self-determined learning in the heutagogy paradigm places the learner at the centre of his or her own learning.

176  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists?

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178  How do adults support children’s developing identity as artists? Osterman, K. (2010) ‘Teacher Practice and Students’ Sense of Belonging,’ in Lovat, T., Toomey, R., and Clement, N. (eds.) International Research Handbook on Values Education and Student Wellbeing, pp. 239–260. Dordrecht: Springer. Pringle, E., and Reiss, V. (2003) Artists in Sites for Learning. International Journal of Art and Design Education, 22(2), pp. 215–221. Rancière, J. (1991) The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation. Redwood: Stanford University Press. Rinaldi, C. (2001) ‘The Courage of Utopia,’ in Guidici, C. and Rinaldi, C. with Krechevsky, M. (eds.) Making Learning Visible: Children as Individual and Group Learners, pp. 148–154. Cambridge: Reggio Children and Project Zero, Reggio Emilia and Harvard. Rinaldi, C. (2006) In Dialogue with Reggio: Listening, Researching and Learning. Oxford: Routledge. Scanlan, B. (2016) Working Conceptually with Deleuze and Guattari’s Philosophy in Relation to Children’s Artwork. New Zealand Tertiary College Special Edition, 4(3). Springgay, S. (2008). An Ethics of Embodiment, Civic Engagement, and A/R/ Tography. Educational Insights, 12(2), pp. 1–11. Vecchi, V. (2010) Art and Creativity in Reggio Emilia: Exploring the Role and Potential of Ateliers in Early Childhood Education. London: Routledge. Wegerif, R. (2006) Dialogic Education: What Is It and Why Do We Need It? Education Review, 19(2), pp. 58–67. Whyte, M., and Naughton, C. (2014) “What’s Our Next Move?” Seeing children in the Light of Potentialities. He Kupu, 3(4), pp. 28–38. Wilson, B. (2003) Of Diagrams and Rhizomes: Visual Culture Contemporary Art, and the Impossibility of Mapping the Content of Art Education. Studies of Art Education, A Journal of Issues and Research, 44, pp. 214–229.

7 Everyone has the potential to be an artist

Baudrillard believed that the world is in a hurry, which results in making us ‘prey to the combined effects of impatience and indifference’ (Baudrillard 1987: 77). Pausing counters this and permits a slowing down. By finding a creative space and making time to reflect, the artist is not indifferent and demonstrates patience in uncertainty. We all have the potential to be an artist. This idea is central to my research. A key existential question is: what does it really mean to be alive as a human being? Heidegger (1996) talks about ‘being-in-the-world’ and ‘being here’, an ‘ontological’ existence that refers to a deliberate and purposeful way of being in the world, corresponding with personal values and convictions – existence, encounter, authenticity and value. This important existential concept fits accurately with the experiential notion of being aware of one’s flow of experience in the here-and-now, while working alongside children as artists and while being an artist. This chapter offers a summary of my research and details a continuous unfolding process. Particular attention is given to the notion of art as idea and opening up possibilities. I also address the challenges, tensions and dilemmas of the study. Specific contributions to knowledge are shared together with implications for both practice and research. Finally, I propose potential areas for postdoctoral research. This research has been driven by the desire for a paradigm shift in art education. In the study I have critiqued the notion that children can develop an identity of themselves as artists. I have also provided an interpretive account of educational practice and pedagogy that supports children’s creative development and learning identity as artists. The study has focused on what it means for children to develop a learning identity as artists and what strategies adults can employ to support children’s learning identity as artists. Key concepts of children’s creative development in visual art and of children working alongside artists have been interrogated to reach a deeper understanding of children as artists and to allow the emergence of a theory to support the development of children’s identity as artists. The study provides an account of how adults can support children’s creative development and identity as artists by focusing on the necessary creative values, dispositions, DOI: 10.4324/9781003323501-7

180  Everyone has the potential to be an artist relationships and learning environments that promote a positive identity in children as artists. In distilling the emergent theory, I make some recommendations that identify the key characteristics of children’s creative learning, the key characteristics of a creative and reflective pedagogy and the key roles of the adult in this process. What follows is a distillation of these emerging theories to capture the essence of how adults can support children’s learning identity as artists: Key characteristics of children’s creative learning include open-ended, meaningful activity and engagement; key creative skills and dispositions, e.g. curiosity, questioning, imagination; learner agency and multi-modal learning: communicating ideas in a ‘hundred languages’. Key characteristics of a creative and reflective pedagogy include self-directed learning and co-enquiry; quality and depth: real-life contexts for learning; attention to creative dispositions and the integration of creativity in all aspects of teaching and learning as a way of knowing. Key roles of the adults include artists as lenders of tools and materials; supporting children’s thinking through making; respectful relationships; careful listening and observation; witnessing of children’s ideas; reflexive and reflective attention; shared sustained thinking; empathetic, non-judgemental responsiveness; meaning-making together; non-hierarchical way of working; validation of children’s creative thinking and art-making; visibility of creative learning process and art-making; modelling experimental learning; offering a cultural or contextual framework for making art; encouraging uncertainty and not knowing; encouragement and engagement (rather than praise); valuing intrinsic motivation (rather than extrinsic reward) and facilitating aesthetic and interconnected ways of understanding experience.

A continuous unfolding There is still more to unfold and refold. There is no blueprint or set model. The philosophical underpinnings of this study are that change cannot be pre-­ specified but has to grow out of experience and progressive understanding, that change is constant and is at the heart of progress in a continuing process of responsiveness and self-renewal. The evidence from the literature and from the research suggests that the current educational climate is potentially damaging to children’s creative development because the over-emphasis on prescription, performance and products denies children’s true potential to develop ideas in art. Children need to be valued and respected as artists and as ‘rich in potential and creative from the moment of birth’ (Rinaldi 2006). Conducting my research has given me the opportunity to observe the world from the child’s perspective. I continue to explore the significance of inclusivity, collaboration, democratic processes and mutual respect in art education. As a researcher, I have become increasingly aware of the value of writing as an essential part of the research process and as a method of enquiry. This has been a dynamic process leading to my understanding of the relationship between theory and practice. I have been thinking through writing,

Everyone has the potential to be an artist  181 interrogating the content, questioning my assumptions, reflecting and making meaning. Thinking through theory has opened a space in which new ideas and concepts come into being. Writing has helped me think differently about the research process and the thesis itself. As a metaphor, I found diffraction important as a way of thinking about values as artefacts left behind following a process, intra-acting like patterns in the sand or marks on the wall, e/merging from living and moving through the world. I was using the data to raise critical questions rather than to affirm a line of thought – I relished the critical clash and entanglement of ideas with reflections driven more by curiosity and disquiet than by appreciation and demonstration. The openness that the rhizomatic form of a diffractive analysis creates is the possibility of new and unexpected insights to be brought to light. I will be looking to work with this kind of assemblage in the future and create an exhibition or ‘gallery of learning’.

Art as idea, opening up possibilities Deleuze and Guattari’s (1987) concepts of ‘becoming’ and ‘affect’ have the potential to offer a radically different way of thinking about children’s development in art. Within art practice, engagements with chance, accident and error can enable material agency to shape work in ways that are explicit. In this study I have proposed that in developing rhizomatic frameworks for practice as research, we can develop reflexive, intra-active pedagogies. This research has shown that to children art is not simply a case of cause and effect, or a formula to solve a problem; it is personal, changing and dynamic, an expression of ideas, a visual, sensory language and a way of experiencing the world, whether it is real or imagined. Art removes the need to be ‘right’, allows for possibilities and difference, and engagement in art ultimately allows a more democratic conception of art as the expression of being human. The art of noticing children’s creative processes in art-making allows the adult alongside children to support their fascinations and enquiries. My research has revealed the significance of developing a creative heutagogy with children who are in charge of their own learning in an enabling and responsive learning environment that is characterised by time, space, attention and reflection. My aim in communicating this research is to provoke practitioners to think differently, to think with and through these ideas, and so to open up possibilities for a creative pedagogical approach that values complexity and leads to systemic change in art education. The study offers an open and dynamic framework within which we can explore new ways of working alongside children as artists in a creative research-led environment.

Challenges, tensions and dilemmas My research journey has not been an easy one. The landscape of possibilities was at times so vast that it was hard to see the horizon. Having the self-discipline

182  Everyone has the potential to be an artist to decline an area of potential enquiry was as challenging as interrogating the issues in hand. The research process itself was a challenge. The initial methodological design proved to be inadequate for the purposes of the questions being addressed. Re-thinking the methodology was necessary in order to realise the study in an authentic way, without resorting to more mechanistic or instrumentalised methods. The methods were reviewed to allow me to engage with a more complex methodological frame that was responsive to the approach inherent in the research. The time-frame of the research was lengthened by personal and professional circumstances, but it was beneficial in allowing me the opportunity to re-think and align my approach with more authentic and creative research methodologies. Being located at a single research site (a primary school) with the constraints of the school day was limiting. Current external pressures on schools sometimes discourage teachers from recognising and using their own creative skills and expertise. A valuable next step in embedding a creative and reflective heutagogy in art education is to explore further ways of drawing out teachers’ own creativity as artists themselves. In conducting this study, I have become attuned to the innate sensibilities, curiosities and capacities of children as they inhabit, interpret and create their worlds and, in doing so, create themselves. It has been remarkable to witness the depth and quality of children’s thinking and fascinations and the extent to which their artwork is embedded in their developing self-identities as artists. Although the case study as a research method has limitations, it does provide ‘a unique example of real people in real situations’ (Cohen et al. 2002: 181). My findings are provisional and open to interpretation by other researchers, including the children themselves. In the course of the research, the importance of reflecting the nature of creative enquiry, theorising through practice and critical reflection became increasingly clear. My research approach homed in on the ‘particular’ (ibid), and it was a necessary challenge to theorise and distil transferable concepts to inform a paradigm shift. All of these limitations represent the boundaries of the research and afford new opportunities for future enquiries.

Contributions to knowledge This is original research that has led to the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, building on existing theory. Throughout this research process I have been able to make sense of the rich and complex data and theory, working the data and theory through each other, reading them together, simultaneously. The vital process of critical analysis has allowed me to make meaning from the wealth of documentation in relation to the overall aims of the research, to theorise through my reflections on action and ultimately to communicate this work effectively as a contribution to the field. The research demonstrates a systematic understanding of a substantial body of knowledge at the forefront of arts education.

Everyone has the potential to be an artist  183 This study evidenced the key characteristics of adults supporting children’s learning identity as artists. The adults were giving care and attention to the creative environment; giving time, space and quality attention to children’s enquiries; providing choices for children to ‘follow their fascinations’ and lead their own learning; inviting children to be curious, to explore their imagination and to generate ideas in a ‘hundred languages’; being alongside the child as a ‘companion in learning’, in dialogue, listening carefully to their offerings and exchanges; valuing what each child brings to the encounter, validating children’s efforts and engagement without lax praise; supporting children’s creative and critical thinking processes; recognising patterns in and making connections with the children’s ideas; modelling positive risk-taking and creative interactions; ‘checking in’ with sensitivity by observing and talking with children and by being in proximity with them. The study demonstrates the need to re-think our responsibilities within education in relation to children’s entitlement to a progressive arts education that values their developing identities as artists. In response, I signpost a new perspective on what constitutes a contemporary and innovative model of visual arts education. My ambition is that children become immune to the potentially negative experience of ‘school art’ that can be so different from contemporary art practice. An even better outcome would be for ‘school art’ to evolve into something more aligned with contemporary art practice. This work is placed in the current context of arts education in the UK and provides original and value-adding concepts in relation to primary arts education. It takes forward the literature in this field and proposes a radical change to the way art is taught in schools. Developing an innovative and creative pedagogy alongside children will radicalise art education and place the child as an artist at the centre of learning.

Implications for practice and research The implications of this study for practice and research are multi-layered. One of the key questions is how we can challenge the learning environment for art so that it can support self-directed and self-determined enquiry. My research brings into focus the role of the adults (artists, parents, teachers and teaching assistants) who work alongside children in artistic endeavours. This study has examined how, as adults, we can co-create environments or encounters that allow us to think about pedagogy and the nature of artistic learning. The findings in this research have demonstrated the power of the arts to be transformational in our lives. Re-conceptualising the notion of arts education as ‘creative pedagogy’ and ‘creative heutagogy’ will continue to challenge some of the orthodoxies in the current education system with education as a process of learning how to become the ‘architect of our own education’ (Eisner 2002:8). This study will inform future practice in initial teacher education and teachers’ continuing professional development, as well as ongoing research

184  Everyone has the potential to be an artist into the role of artists working in educational settings. There is the potential for a new pedagogy to empower adults in relation to their own creative capacities, thus enabling them to facilitate creative interventions and simultaneously be able to construct a rationale for these. I am proposing the need for a grass roots revolution to embed creativity in children’s learning and to develop creative schools. One of my long-term ambitions is the changing of mind-sets in schools so that art education can help to develop children’s self-directed and self-determined enquiry. This invites the creation of a new culture of schooling that has as much to do with the cultivation of dispositions as with the acquisition of skills. This study in itself has been a ‘creative disruption’ in arts education. So, it is through a ‘rupture’ to prior thinking that the subject can reach new truths. In this state of disruption we can be led to uncertainty and not knowing, which leads then to an emancipated state of ‘real learning’ (Atkinson 2012: 9). Atkinson refers to the term radical, from the Latin radice, as something belonging or relating to the root, to its foundations. Radical pedagogies shake foundations, disturbing assumptions rather than reinforcing and disseminating them. The notion of eventalisation invites lines of flight as ruptures in thought and experimentation in practice. The ultimate test of my pedagogical provocation would be that it brings into focus this entitlement for all children, no matter what their background or circumstance, and a set of provisional principles to counter current orthodoxies. This interruption is then permission to invite eventalisation as the site of experimental practice in art education. I propose that this experimental pedagogical research brings imagination, hope, ideas and new learning – as a continually moving practical and theoretical assemblage. Developing an art pedagogy through the Deleuzian concepts of immanence, assemblage and becoming presents an opportunity for more innovative and ethical action in and out of the classroom, as everyday activism – to disrupt the current orthodoxies in education creatively and to open up new lines of flight.

A final aside. A manifesto for art education 1

At the core of children’s own self-concept of becoming and being an artist is children’s agency, interest and motivation. 2 Giving children agency shifts control from adults to children, allowing children the time and space to make art at their own pace, in their own way and following their own fascinations and interests. 3 Children find their own voice by transforming materials to say what they want to say, to say what they mean and to make meaning. 4 Visual art experiences can engage children in authentic learning, giving them the opportunity to play, explore, experiment and use their imaginations to express and communicate their ideas.

Everyone has the potential to be an artist  185 5 The creative environment is a key factor in ensuring children are offered a potentiating and enabling space in which they can make art alongside others, with materials that offer affordance to realise ideas in different ways. 6 Working with artists as role models allows children to see themselves as artists and engage with ideas and concepts in a cultural and artistic context. 7 Artists and creative enablers can be ‘lenders of tools and processes’ by scaffolding skills and techniques as appropriate. 8 Artwork is most meaningful to children if they are allowed to generate and explore their own lines of enquiry. 9 Children can explore diverse visual and creative enquiries (individually and together) alongside adults who care, who give quality attention and who engage in genuine dialogue with children about their ideas. 10 Art has the power to be transformational in our lives, and we all have the potential to be artists.

Potential for postdoctoral research The study offers possibilities for further research to investigate artists working in sites designed for learning (in educational, community and cultural contexts). My proposed research is to investigate the impact that working as an artist educator in different settings has on the artist’s own practice and to assess whether this impact is fed back directly into the experience of the participants at the settings. It would look at the artists as facilitators for learning in these educational settings and consider where there are shared and self-determined approaches to both pedagogy and heutagogy. Key research aims for the future: To observe and analyse the key characteristics of artist educators’ approaches toward pedagogy and heutagogy in different sites for learning. To investigate the impact of the artist educators’ pedagogy and heutagogy on both the artist’s practice and the learning of participants in the settings. To identify and develop a new research methodology commensurate to the needs of a heutagogical research paradigm. The ‘Manifesto for Art Education’, the final aside, and the ‘House of Imagination’ detailed below are examples of eventalisations for future research into heutagogy. House of Imagination is a proposal for the future – a site for a heutagogical experiment in self-directed learning, a studio where children and young people collaborate with creative professionals to explore their own self-directed and self-determined enquiries. House of Imagination will be a home

186  Everyone has the potential to be an artist for improvisation, creativity and innovation and a place to make those things visible through research. As a studio base for children and young people, the House of Imagination provides the context for children to explore their imagination, passions and fascinations in an open-ended way, alongside artists and creative professionals in a space that is dedicated to creativity. Research in the House of Imagination will share evidence to demonstrate the concept of heutagogy. This research will raise further questions about pedagogy, heutagogy, artistic learning and identity.

Final thoughts Art education in the UK is under pressure. It is dominated by an instrumental, economistic and marketised narrative, expressed in terms of a performance-led agenda and prioritising tests, measurements and grades over authentic and self-directed enquiry. The ‘system’ does not value a creative and arts-based approach – it is for this reason that I propose a reconceptualised notion of art education in primary schools. If Anna Craft was alive today, she would argue that this systemic change is necessary and urgent. I also dedicate this work to Anna. This research has been driven by the desire for a paradigm shift in art education. In this study I have critiqued the notion that children can develop an identity of themselves as artists. I have also provided an interpretive account of educational practice and pedagogy that supports children’s creative development and learning identity as artists. The study has focused on what it means for children to develop a learning identity as artists and what strategies adults can employ to support children’s learning identity as artists. Key concepts of children’s creative development in visual art and of children working alongside artists have been interrogated to reach a deeper understanding of children as artists and to allow the emergence of a theory to support the development of children’s identity as artists. The study provides an account of how adults can support children’s creative development and identity as artists by focusing on the necessary creative values, dispositions, relationships and learning environments that promote a positive identity in children as artists.

References Atkinson, D. (2012) Contemporary Art and Art in Education: The New, Emancipation and Truth. International Journal of Art & Design Education, 31(1), pp. 5–18. Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2002/7) Research Methods in Education. London: Routlege Falmer. Deleuze, G., and Guattari, F. (1987) A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (B. Massumi, Trans.). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minesota Press. Eisner, E. (2002) The Arts and the Creation of Mind. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Heidegger, M. (1996) [1927] Being and Time. New York: New York Press. Rinaldi, C. (2006) In Dialogue with Reggio: Listening, Researching and Learning. Oxford: Routledge.

Index

Note: page numbers in italic refer to Figures 5×5×5=creativity 1, 6, 7, 9, 14, 32–33, 55, 58, 60, 63, 64, 66, 68, 76, 83, 162, 163, 168, 171, 172, 175; see also case studies; House of Imagination; vignettes Abbs, Peter 27 action research 1, 54, 55, 57, 62, 64, 65 Adams, E. (Jeff) 5, 28, 30, 44 Addison, Nick 19, 20, 30 Adelman, Clem 56 adults, role in development of children’s artistic identity 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 13, 23, 61, 179–180; case studies 89, 91, 140; case studies, Bo 98–100, 102–106, 106, 112; case studies, Jay 121, 123–125, 128; as companions in learning 17, 23, 31–32, 183; emergent theory 155–175; key characteristics of 180, 183; literature review 27–29; pilot study 81, 84; see also artistic identity, development of in children aesthetic experience 166–167 aesthetic third 169–170 affect 181; and art 158–160 agency 56, 67; self-­directed enquiry 161–162 Akker, R. 20 Alexander, R. J. 45–46, 158 Amabile, T. 41 Anning, Angela 28, 133 Arendt, Hannah 23, 167 art: and affect 158–160; as idea 181; universal themes in 89, 131 art education 9, 16; ‘art education heutagogy’ concept 174, 175; manifesto for 184–185; social constructivist model of 30

artistic identity, development of in children 1, 2, 9, 10–11, 13, 61, 88, 128–130, 179; case studies 89, 90–91, 127–128; case studies, Bo 95, 96–97, 98, 98–103, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 110–112; case studies, Jay 114–115, 115, 116, 117, 117, 118, 119–121, 120, 121, 122, 123; children working as artists 173–174; literature review 16, 24–26; pilot study 80–81, 86; process model of 29–30; see also adults, role in development of children’s artistic identity artistic thinking 18, 32 artistry: and creativity 40–42; literature review and definition of 16, 17–21 artists: becoming and being an artist 22, 119, 156–157, 159 artists, children working with 1, 10–11, 166, 170–172, 173–174, 174–175; and creativity 37–40; ‘habits of mind’ of 25, 41; and identity 23–24; literature review 16, 17–21, 24–27, 37–40; professional role in society 161; see also Bridgeman, Edwina Arts Council England 32–33 assemblages 155–156, 166 atelier 12, 42–43, 162, 164–165, 166 atelierista, role of in Reggio Emilia, Italy 11, 13, 26, 34, 37, 162 Atkinson, Dennis 1, 3, 17, 22–23, 27, 30, 33, 34, 47, 156, 159, 166, 184 Atkinson, P. 62 attention, quality of 89, 133–134, 165 attunement, in case studies 89, 133–134

188 Index Badiou, A. 3, 22 Baldacchino, John 173 Banaji, S. 37, 39 Bancroft, S. 12, 25, 29, 35, 40, 42, 163 Barad, Karen 67, 163, 164 Bassey, M. 88 Bath Spa University 64; research guidelines and Ethics Committee 63 Batheaston Primary School 64, 76, 135; see also case studies Baudrillard, Jean 179 becoming and being an artist 22, 119, 156–157, 159 ‘Being an Artist’ workshops 1, 9–10, 12, 14, 24, 30, 42, 60, 63, 64–65, 66, 68, 162, 163, 169, 175; pedagogical approach 34–35; see also case studies; vignettes Berger, John 17, 27 Bernstein, B. 31 Best, David 27 Beuys, Joseph 2, 21 Biesta, Gert 17, 23, 24, 46, 167 Bo (case study) 56, 60, 91, 133; creative disposition 92, 92–95, 93, 94; creative environments 108–110, 109, 110; creative values 106–108; development of artistic identity 95, 96–97, 98, 98–103, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 110–112, 129–130; message from 149; reflections on 110–112; relationships and collaborations with adults 98–100, 102–106, 106, 112 bounded case studies 54, 55–56 Bridgeman, Edwina 77, 77, 88–89, 102–104, 126, 136–138, 144, 146, 172 British Educational Research Association ethical code of practice 58 Brooks, M. 133 Bruner, Jerome 27–28 Burgess, L. 30 Cambridge Primary Review 45 Caol Primary School, Scotland 27, 43 Carr, M. 43, 82–83, 158 case studies 54, 55–56, 57, 88–90, 152–153, 182; adults’ role in development of children’s artistic identity 89, 91, 98–100, 102–106, 106, 112, 121, 123–125, 128, 140; artistic identity, development of in children 89, 90–91, 95, 96–97, 98, 98–103, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,

110–112, 114–115, 115, 116, 117, 117, 118, 119–121, 120, 121, 122, 123, 127–128; attunement and quality of attention 89, 133–134; Bo 56, 60, 91–112, 133, 149; creative dispositions (research theme) 88, 89, 90, 92, 92–95, 93, 94, 112–114, 135–136, 151; creative learning environments (research theme) 88, 89, 91, 108–110, 109, 110, 125–126, 126, 142–144, 143, 145, 146, 151; creative relationships (research theme) 136–139, 137; creative values (research theme) 88, 89, 91, 106–108, 125, 139, 139–142, 141, 151; Creativity Culture and Education film 146–147; drawing in 89, 132–133; Jane (artist), message from 150–151; Jay 56, 60, 112–128, 131, 132, 133, 149–150; observation, documentation and using sketchbooks in 89, 132; open-­ended materials and processes 89, 131–132; playful context 130–131; reflection and dialogue in 89, 134–135; resonances, conflicts and new ground 151–152; summary 147–149; time and space 89, 134; universal themes in art 89, 131 Chappell, K. 36, 39, 157 Cheek, J. 70 child-­centred pedagogy 2 children: as artists, literature review 27–29; becoming and being an artist 22, 119, 156–157, 159; emotional well-­being of 159–160; key characteristics of creative learning 180; reflection sessions with 60; rights to the arts 6; semi-­structured interviews 59–60, 73; theories of the world 17, 28, 125, 132–133, 170; see also adults, role in development of children’s artistic identity; artistic identity, development of in children choice, emergent theory 160 Cizek, Franz 27 Clark, A. 85, 162 Claxton, G. 40, 43, 82–83, 158 Coalition Government, UK 45 Cochrane, P. 45 co-­constructed learning 10, 27, 35 Cohen, L. 54 collaborative learning 9, 11, 23, 25, 134, 135, 162

Index  189 companions in learning, adults as 17, 23, 31–32, 183 competence pedagogy 31 confidentiality 63, 64 contingency 4 Côté, J. E. 23 Craft, Anna 1, 6, 21, 28, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 41, 43–44, 157, 186 creative dispositions (research theme) 2, 8, 35, 179; case studies 88, 89, 90, 135–136, 151; case studies, Bo 92, 92–95, 93, 94; case studies, Jay 112–114; pilot study 83–84, 86 creative environments (research theme) 1, 2, 8, 12–13, 35, 180; case studies 88, 89, 91, 142–144, 143, 145, 146, 151; case studies, Bo 108–110, 109, 110; case studies, Jay 125–126, 126; literature review 42–43; pilot study 82–83, 87; see also atelier Creative Foundation 37 creative learning 35, 36, 41 Creative Partnerships 31, 39 creative provocation 106, 112, 142, 155, 161, 162, 170 creative relationships (research theme) 2, 8, 35, 157–158, 180; case studies 88, 89, 136–139, 137, 151; pilot study 82, 87; see also adults, role in development of children’s artistic identity Creative Space 12, 13, 42, 83, 95, 96, 110, 125–126, 126, 134, 140, 142–144, 143, 147, 152, 162, 164, 169, 173 ‘creative teaching’ 35 creative thinking of children 84–85 creative values (research theme) 2, 8, 35, 179; case studies 88, 89, 91, 139, 139–142, 141, 151; case studies, Bo 106–108; case studies, Jay 125; pilot study 82, 87 creativity: and artistry 40–42; literature review 16, 37–42; pedagogy for 35–37 Creativity Culture and Education film 146–147 Creativity Fair 140, 141 Cremin, T. 2, 32, 36, 45, 82 Creswell, J. W. 65 critical reflection 3–4 crystallisation 69–70 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly 12, 23, 28, 36, 42, 160, 164 Curriculum Innovation Survey (HMI) 44

Dahlberg, Gunilla 18, 29, 36, 40, 56, 57, 164 Daichendt, G. James 18 data analysis 60–61, 62–63, 68; see also case studies; vignettes data collection 57–61, 60–61, 65; see also case studies; vignettes data security 63 Davies, D. 42 Davis, B. 1, 69 deficit model of learning 5, 7, 46 Deleuze, G. 3, 16–17, 18, 22, 34, 66, 67, 152, 156, 158, 161–162, 165, 166, 167, 181 democratic learning 2, 3 Denzin, N. 66–67 Derrida, J. 23 Dewey, John 2, 3, 19–20, 27, 29–30, 31, 128–129 dialogue 89, 134–135, 157–158 difference 156–157 diffraction metaphor 54, 67–68, 181 documentation of learning 81, 81, 85, 162–164; in case studies 89, 132 Doddington, Christine 29 ‘Dramatists’ 114 drawings 20, 28, 59; importance of in case studies 89, 132–133 Duchamp, Marcel 17 Durini, L. 21 Early Years Foundation Stage Goals 5, 47 Edmiston, B. 24 Education Reform Act 1998 45 Edwards, C. 11, 12, 28–29, 34, 36, 37, 42, 43, 76, 85, 157, 165 Efland, Arthur 27 Eisner, Elliot 3, 27, 31, 41, 173 Elliott, John 1, 55 enactivist theory 69 Eraut, Michel 19 ethical issues 63–65; British Educational Research Association ethical code of practice 58 events 156 exploration, emergent theory 160 Fairley, R. 43 fallibilist paradigm 56 Fawcett, Mary 168 field notes 58 Fischer, E. 173 flow state 36, 92, 94, 160, 164 Fortnum, R. 173

190 Index Foucault, M. 23 Freedman, Kerry 27 freedom 165–166 Freire, Paulo 2, 3, 9–10, 23, 24, 27 Froebel, Frederick 27 Froggett, L. 169 Galton, Maurice 24–25 Gandini, L. 12, 36, 42, 128, 168 Gardner, Howard 27, 114 glow moments 6, 68–70, 88, 89, 93, 156 Gopnik, Alison 30 Griffiths, A. 31 Guattari, F. 3, 16, 18, 22, 67, 161–162, 165, 166, 167, 181 Guba, E. G. 56, 63 Gude, O. 47–48 Guidici, C. 20 ‘habits of mind’ of artists 25, 41 Hall, C. 31 Hammersley, M. 62 Hawkins, B. 24 Heidegger, M. 179 Hennessey, B. 41 Hetland, L. 41, 43 heutagogy 174–175, 181, 183 Hilton, Mary 29 Hitchcock, G. 54 Hockney, David 17 Holliday, A. 63 hooks, bell 2 House of Imagination 1, 2, 6, 7–9, 10–11, 12, 14, 24, 25, 30, 37, 40, 42, 55, 64, 68, 168, 185–186; creative learning environments 13, 42; pedagogical approach 34–35; see also 5×5×5=creativity Hughes, G. 54 human life, meanings of 179 ‘humanising’ creativity 5, 24, 39, 157 ‘hundred languages’ 8, 11, 27, 28–29, 129, 155, 165, 167–168, 170, 180, 183 identity: and artists 23–24; literature review and definition of 21–23; Wenger’s model of 22; see also artistic identity, development of in children imagination, Dewey on 19–20 immanence, pedagogy of 33 informed consent 63 Ingold, T. 168, 173 initial teacher education 184

insider research 64, 73 intensive arts-­schools initiatives 41–42, 45 interpretavist research 54, 57 intrinsic motivation 41 Jackson, A. Y. 67 Jaeckle, Sally 7 Jay (case study) 56, 60, 131, 132, 133; creative disposition 112–114; creative environment 125–126, 126; creative values 125; development of artistic identity 114–115, 115, 116, 117, 117, 118, 119–121, 120, 121, 122, 123, 127–128, 129–130; message from 149–150; reflections on 127–128; relationships and collaborations with adults 121, 123–125, 128 Jeffrey, B. 24, 32, 35, 36, 41, 43–44 Kendrick, M. 24 Kind, S. 170 Kindler, A. M. 47 Kitty (vignette) 79–81, 80, 82 Kline, N. 163 Knight, L. 20 know how 19 knowledge, contribution to 182–183 Koestler, A. 36 Kress, Gunther 30 Kushner, S. 4 Lacan, J. 23 Laevers, Ferre 10, 32, 160 learning: adults as companions in learning 17, 23, 31–32, 183; documentation of 81, 81, 89, 132, 162–164; language of 23; making the learning visible 29, 34, 162, 169 learning environments see creative environments (research theme) Lenz Taguchi, H. 33, 156, 159, 165 Levine, C. G. 23 Liberal Arts tradition 6 ‘life-­wide creativity’ of children 2, 6, 21, 35, 40, 157 Lily (vignette) 73–78, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80–81, 82 Lin, Y. S. 35 Lincoln, Y. S. 56, 63 lines of flight 22, 155, 156, 158, 161, 184 Lowenfeld, Victor 27 Luc (vignette) 78–79, 79, 80–81, 82

Index  191 MacLure, M. 68, 69, 70 Maharaj, Sarat 17–18 Malaguzzi, Loris 6–7, 27, 34–35, 36, 133, 157, 164, 165, 168 Massumi, B. 70 ‘master explicator’ role 158 Matarosso, François 171–172, 174 materials 168–169; open-­ended materials and processes, in case studies 89, 131–132 Matthews, John 28, 46–47 Mazzei, L. 67 McKay, R. 24 McNaughton, C. 167, 173 McNiff, Jean 54, 55 meaning-­making 18, 21, 23, 28, 29, 36, 40, 56, 66, 68, 129, 133–134, 140, 156, 163, 167, 175, 180 metacognition 28 metamodernism 20–21 Miller, D. L. 65 Moss, Peter 2, 7, 29, 33, 35, 56–57, 85, 162 multi-­modal learning 17, 31, 60, 180 NACCE (National Advisory Committee for Creative and Cultural Education) 38–39, 43–44 National Curriculum, England 5, 45, 46, 47 New Materialism 1, 54, 66–67, 68, 70, 155, 174 Newby, P. 57 Newman, M. 41 observation 162–163; case studies 89, 132; see also data collection Ocaña, Almudena 85–86 Ofsted 45 Olsson, L. M. 159, 160, 166 ontoepistemology 163–164 Open University 64 open-­ended materials and processes, in case studies 89, 131–132 Osterman, K. 159–160 parents: reflection sessions with 60; semi-­structured interviews 59–60, 73 Parsons, Graham 27 participant observation 58–59, 89, 156 ‘Patterners’ 114 pedagogy: key characteristics of creative and reflective 180; literature review 16, 31–37 performance pedagogy 31

photographs 59, 73 playful context, in case studies 89, 130–131 postdoctoral research potential 185–186 Posthumanism 1, 54 postmodern approach 56 post-­postmodernism 20 ‘potentiating’ learning environments 82–83 practical knowledge 19 Practical Theory 4 Pragmatism 4 Prentice, Roy 19, 38 primary art education 5, 17, 31, 45, 47 Pringle, Emily 11, 17, 18–19, 21, 25–26, 26–27, 33, 158 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 39 qualitative research 56, 57 Rancière, Jacque 3, 158 Raney, Karen 18 Read, Herbert 27 reciprocity of children and adults 8, 17, 28 ‘Red Day’ (research exchange and dialogue) 171–172, 174 reflection, in case studies 89, 134–135 reflection sessions 60 Reggio Emilia, Italy 6–7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 25, 27, 28–29, 68, 85, 138, 146, 157, 162–163, 166, 171; atelierista, role of 11, 13, 26, 34, 37, 162; creative learning environment 42, 164; pedagogical approach 34–35 Reiss, V. 17, 27, 158 relational pedagogy 31–32 relationships see creative relationships (research theme) representation, of children 84–85 research challenges 181–182 research methodology 54–57, 70–71; data analysis 60–61, 62–63, 68; data collection 57–61, 60–61, 65; ethical issues 58, 63–65; glow moments 68–70, 68–79, 88, 89, 93, 156; research questions 13, 39–40, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 73, 89, 110, 127; revision of 54, 65–68, 182; validity 65 rhizome metaphor 67, 155, 161, 162, 181 Richardson, J. 47 Richardson, L. 70

192 Index Richmond, S. 18 Rinaldi, Carlina 2–3, 20, 29, 34, 68, 79, 158, 164, 180 Ring, Kathy 28, 133 Roberts, P. 29; Roberts Report 44, 45 Robinson, Ken 35, 38–39, 40, 43–44 Room 13, Caol Primary School, Scotland 27, 43 Ross, Malcolm 27 schema 20 Schon, D. 19, 24, 32 ‘school art’ 5, 6, 10, 26, 40, 46, 70, 71, 183 self-­directed enquiry 161–162 semi-­structured interviews 59–60, 73 Siraj-­Blatchford, I. 32 sketchbooks see visual journals (sketchbooks) of children social constructivist model of art education 30 Sounness, Danielle 43 space 89, 134, 164–165; see also atelier; creative environments (research theme); Creative Space Spendlove, D. 40 Springgay, S. 159 staff development 135–136 Stagoll, C. 22 Stake, Bob 55 Sternberg, R. 38 structure 165–166 Studio Thinking Framework 41, 43 Sumara, D. J. 69 Taylor, Carol 27 teacher-­led model of learning 34 teachers’ professional development 184 teaching for creativity 43–44 ‘that-­which-­is-­not-­yet’ 22–23 thinking through making 144, 168–169, 180 Thomson, Pat 31 time 89, 134, 165 transcendence, pedagogy of 33 transformative learning 3–4 transmission model of learning 5, 7, 46, 163

Trevarthen, Colwyn 5, 30, 82 triangulation 69–70 truth, relative nature of 56 UK Government, policy and educational documentation 16, 43–48, 175 uncertainty, value of 172–173 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNESCO) 6 universal themes in art 89, 131 Uszyńska-­Jarmoc, J. 24 validity 65 Varela, F. J. 63 Vecchi, Vea 11, 13, 34, 37, 42–43, 163, 164, 166 Vermeulen, T. 20 Vernon, P. 40 Victoria Art Gallery, Bath 77, 77, 126, 136–138, 146 vignettes 57, 80–87, 81, 83; Kitty 79–81, 80, 82; Lily 73–78, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80–81, 82; Luc 78–79, 79, 80–81, 82 visual documentation 59 visual journals (sketchbooks) of children 10, 59, 73, 82, 107, 163; see also case studies; vignettes (pilot stage) ‘visual literacy’ 18 Vygotsky, Lev 27–28, 40 Walker, S. 47 Wallis, Karen 13 Warwick Commission 44 Wegerif, R. 158 Wenger, E. 22 Wentworth, Richard 18 Wilson, B. 69, 170 ‘wise’ creativity 5, 24 Witkin, Robert 27 Woods, P. 24, 32 Wright, S. 133 writing, value of in research 180–181 written documentation 58–59 Wyse, D. 40 Zhao, Guoping 3