Bushcraft Training Workbook Manual

Citation preview

Bush Craft Training Manual and Workbook

2018

Table of Contents A.

INTRODUCTION TO THE BUSH CRAFT TRAINING MANUAL AND WORKBOOK

5

B.

ORIENTATION

6

1.

Maps a)

Using local landmarks

6

b)

Using a compass -

7

Methods in the bush

7

Stick and shadow method

7

2.

3.

C.

The Night Sky

8

a)

The Southern Cross

8

b)

Orion’s Belt (visible from November to May)

8

c)

Scorpius/ Scorpio (visible from May to November)

9

SURVIVAL 1.

Principles of Survival

9 9

a)

Remain Calm

9

b)

Conserve all available water

9

2.

Locating Water

10

a)

Water loss occurs in several ways:

10

b)

Water can be obtained in the following ways:

10

1.

D.

6

Locating Food

12

a)

Animal Food:

12

b)

Plant Food:

12

TREES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION

13

1.

Tree size, form and foliage colour

13

2.

The bark

13

3.

Branches and twigs

13

4.

Latex

13

5.

Leaves

13

6.

Flowers

14

7.

Fruits/Seedpods

14

8.

Distribution, geology and soils

14

BIRDS AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION

19

E. 1.

Passerine:

19

2.

Non-Passerine:

19

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 2

3.

F.

Near-Passerine:

19

a)

Size and shape of the bird

19

b)

Bill (shape and colour)

20

c)

Legs and Feet (length and colour)

20

d)

Habitat (ecological area and geographical distribution)

20

e)

Voice (distinctive call of the bird)

20

f)

Plumage (colour and patterns)

21

g)

Habits (feeding behaviour and flight patterns)

21

Animal Tracks and Signs

22

1.

Digitigrade (carnivores)

22

2.

Plantigrade (primates)

22

3.

Unguligrade (hooved animals)

23

4.

Signs

25

G.

APPROACHING ANIMALS ON FOOT 1.

Psychological Defence Zones and Personal Space

26 26

a)

The Comfort Zone

26

b)

The Alert Zone

26

c)

The Warning Zone

27

d)

The Critical Zone (Attack Zone)

27

2.

Factors Affecting the Size of the Critical Zone:

27

3.

Avoid Approaching Species Under Certain Circumstances

28

4.

Areas to Avoid or be Extra Vigilant in

28

5.

Charging Animals

28

6.

Important Rules of Charging Animals

30

H.

VENOM - SNAKES 1.

I.

Snakes

31 31

a)

Neurotoxic venom

31

b)

Cytotoxic Venom

32

c)

Haemotoxic Venom

32

d)

Non-venomous solid toothed snakes

33

VENOM – SPIDERS AND SCOPRIONS 1.

Spiders

33 34

a)

Black Button Spider/Black widow

34

b)

Brown Button Spider

34

c)

Small Baboon Spider

35

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 3

d)

Violin Spider

35

e)

Sac Spider

35

f)

Six-eyed Sand Crab Spider

36

2.

General rules for treating a spider bite:

36

3.

Scorpions

36

a)

General Behaviour and Characteristics

37

J.

Glossary of Terms

38

K.

Literature You Will Find in Camp

42

L.

Workbook Questions

42

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 4

A. INTRODUCTION TO THE BUSH CRAFT TRAINING MANUAL AND WORKBOOK The main purpose of the Bush Craft Training Manual and Workbook is to support you as you learn new skills and gain knowledge during your time in the African bush. The aim of this manual and workbook is to add value to what you would have learnt whilst in the field. Furthermore this manual and workbook has been created in order to enhance and develop a further understanding of African animals and basic bush skills. The manual and workbook has been divided into the below sections:

1. Theory The manual and workbook has been divided into eight different modules. Each module is divided into different sub sections. Each module supported by a comprehensive theory section along with a practical task and workbook sections.

The eight modules include: 1. Orientation 2. Survival 3. Trees and their identification 4. Birds and their identification 5. Animal tracks and signs 6. Approaching animals on foot 7. Venom – Snakes 8. Venom – Spiders and Scorpions

2. Tasks The tasks are the practical components of each of the above mentioned modules (there is no task for modules 5, 7 and 8). Each task will be done in groups and lead by your camp coordinator. Each task is aimed at practically demonstrating what you have learnt in each module. Completing each task will help you to further understand the theory behind each module.

3. Workbook Questions The workbook question section is aimed at testing your knowledge gained from both the theory and practical sections of the manual. The workbook can be completed in your own time. Completing the questions will show you, as an individual, what knowledge you have gained from each module. The answers to the questions are found in the theory section, glossary, and practically from what you have learnt during your time in the bush. It basically summarizes up all what you have learnt through using this manual.

4. Glossary of Terms Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 5

Can’t remember what that word means? Well you are sure to find it in the glossary! The glossary has over 80 words with their definitions. These words and terms are what you would have probably used and heard during your time in the bush. Some words and terms in the glossary will help you answer the questions in the workbook section.

5. Literature Found in Camp This is a list of the books you are likely to find in camp. You are welcome to use these books if they are available. If you wish to further your knowledge beyond the scope of this manual and workbook then you should make use of these books and materials made use during your stay.

B. ORIENTATION

It is important whether on a walk or a game drive that you always know where you are, which direction you are moving in, and where the final destination is. It’s in the initial stage of finding yourself in a new location that you will have to orientate yourself to the area. As you spend more time in a specific area you will gain a greater understanding of the surroundings, key topographical features, and other land marks which are useful to navigate your way around. There are several basic techniques that can be used to orientate oneself in the bush with minimal equipment:

1. Maps Maps are a usually the easiest way to orientate yourself in an unfamiliar area. A map is simply a flattened representation of an area onto paper. Geographical features can be represented on a map by the use of lines and symbols, for example ‘contour lines’ to indicate gradients, or blue patches to indicate water. Maps must be positioned in the same orientation as the natural landscape. This can be achieved by:

a) Using local landmarks - Find a landmark in the area and identify it on the map. Draw a line on the map from your standing position to the landmark, and then rotate your map until that line is pointing towards the physical landmark. The map should then be correctly orientated, and the grid lines can be used to indicate direction.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 6

b) Using a compass - Place a compass horizontally on the map and use the long edge to connect the starting point to the desired destination. Turn the capsule so that the N-S orientating arrow is parallel to the vertical lines (magnetic North) on the map. Rotate your body so that the magnetic needle is in line with the orientating arrow, and you can then follow the direction of travel arrow.

2. Methods in the bush It is also possible to orientate yourself in the bush without any special equipment, and instead just using the path of the sun to navigate.

a) Stick and shadow method – Place a reasonably long stick vertically in the ground on a cleared piece of flat ground. Mark the end of the shadow cast by the stick using a small stone, wait approximately 30 minutes and mark where the shadow now stands. A line drawn between these two stones will indicate East to the right, and West to the left (in the Southern hemisphere). A line perpendicular to that will then indicate the North-South line.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 7

b) The Watch method – Hold your watch so that ‘12’ is pointing towards the sun. True North can be obtained by bisecting the angle between ‘12’ and the hour hand. This method can even be used if you have a digital watch by drawing a watch on the ground with the correct time and using the same method with the 12 pointing towards the sun.

3. The Night Sky There are two prominent constellations that are often visible in the night sky, and it is possible to orientate yourself by using these stars (this is obviously dependent on a clear sky and dull moon).

a) The Southern Cross Identify the long axes of the cross, and draw an imaginary line that extends 4.5 times the length of the cross. At this point, drop the line down to the horizon, and this will identify South. Another method involves locating the two bright pointers near the cross, drawing a line perpendicular to the pointers until it intersects the extended axis of the cross. Directly below this point should also indicate South.

b) Orion’s Belt (visible from November to May) This constellation has a group of seven stars. Three stars grouped together in the middle is the ‘Belt of Orion’. The top star will always rise due East and set due West, no matter which part of the earth you happen to be in. Alternatively, the three bright stars of the belt can be used to form half of a pointing arrow; the other half is marked by a faint star below the belt. Three more faint stars form the shaft of the arrow. This arrow points the direction of north.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 8

c) Scorpius/ Scorpio (visible from May to November) This is one of the largest constellations seen in the southern hemisphere during the winter months when Orion is no longer visible. Unlike many other constellations in the nights sky, this one actually resembles its namesake. Scorpius can also be used to find direction as it rises in the east and sets in the west with the head of the scorpion driving the move.

On a clear night, it should be possible to see approximately 2500 stars and 5 planets with the naked eye alone. Stars differ from planets as they produce their own light and energy, whereas planets reflect the light from stars and do not produce light energy of their own. For some star gazing terms please view the Glossary at the back of the manual. TASK: In your groups, each member can try out one of the methods above (although it will take a few hours as you will require both sunlight and the night sky!). Once you have each established your orientation, check with each other to see if your points of direction are the same.

C. SURVIVAL

Understanding the basic principles of survival is far more important than learning techniques per se, particularly since most techniques require some modification every time they are used. Nothing is easy, no matter how well trained you may be, but by understanding and learning the basics, you may adapt to any number of different circumstances. Above all, survival depends on making right decisions and maintaining mental toughness. DO NOT PANIC!

1. Principles of Survival a) Remain Calm Rationalize, calm yourself and remember - panic, depression and a feeling of hopelessness will destroy your ability to think clearly and positively. Every man feels fear to some degree when faced with danger - master your fear so that you are lucid and functional despite the danger you may be faced with. b) Conserve all available water In arid Africa this is the most important element of survival. The human body`s limitations are indicated below. This is a guide for static survival conditions, as the climatic conditions and the personal endurance of the person will affect this information:

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 9

1. 4 minutes without oxygen 2. 4 days without water 3. 40 days without food c) Evaluate your situation Do an appreciation of the situation. Right from the start, the right AIM must be decided upon, because only then does it become possible to begin a process of logical reasoning - what has to be done and how it must be done.

2. Locating Water

YOU ONLY MISS THE WATER WHEN THE WELL RUNS DRY. The body`s intake of water is initiated and controlled by a sensation known to us as THIRST. If the mouth is swilled out with water, the sensation of thirst will be temporarily quenched even if no water is consumed. By placing a small round stone under the tongue when travelling on foot for any length of time will excite the salivary glands which will keep the mouth moist and thus reduce the sensation of thirst.

a) Water loss occurs in several ways: 1. Sweating is a process whereby water is lost on hot days or under exercise. Water (sweat) reaches the skin via the sweat glands and the evaporation of this sweat cools the skin. 2. Air breathed out of the body contains water from respiration. 3. “Insensible perspiration” is a process whereby a very small amount of water is lost from tissue spaces. 4. Faeces, urine, vomiting, haemorrhage and diarrhoea can all cause a considerable loss of water and lead to dehydration.

b) Water can be obtained in the following ways: Natural drainage lines: Do not expend your body water and energy aimlessly wandering around for water. Climb a vantage point and carefully study the land. Follow the natural drainage systems and note the areas which show thick, green riverine vegetation or natural valleys. If rivers are dried up, good likely sources of water are found at river bed convergences and the outside bank of the river bed at the sharpest bend. Select a long smooth dry stick and thrust into the sand as far as possible. Examine for dry sand sticking to the wood for an indication of dampness, and dig a hole where appropriate.

Game path network: Many species of game require water on a daily basis, and so if tracks can be identified to be a water dependent species, there is a good chance that there is a water source nearby. Game paths Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 10

that converge onto a larger, main paths indicate the direction of travel to a water point for game that is water-dependent. Water dependent species include: Baboons, monkeys, warthogs, zebra, impala, lions, bushbuck, waterbuck, leopard, bush pig, buffalo, elephant, rhino and hippo.

If a dam or pan is located, the water isn’t necessarily safe to drink. Pans are static and animals use them regularly, thereby resulting in dirty water. Four methods for obtaining clean water are as follows: 1

Dig a hole to the side of the pan at its lowest point and allow the water to filter in.

1. Push a reed through the scum and debris to the bottom of the pan for cleaner water. 2. Take your shirt and place lumps of mud in the shirt and wring it out over a receptacle. 3. Place a receptacle on the ground, fill with river sand, make a hollow in the centre of the sand and allow the water to filter through into another receptacle, which you can then drink.

Water dependent birds: Similarly, there are many species of birds which require water on a regular basis. Seedeaters for example need water on a regular basis as they don’t obtain the water they require from the seeds that they eat. Birds such as the Namaqua sandgrouse, rock pigeon, and certain duck species fly to water early in the morning. Other birds dependent on water include: Guinea-fowl (not crested), Fishing owl, Hamerkop, Saddlebilled storks, Hadeda ibis, Herons, Red-eyed dove, Marabou storks and Purple-crested lourie.

NOTE:

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 11

•

Never drink sea water - it gives temporary relief, but will create an even greater thirst and dehydration

•

Never drink urine as it contains body waste products

•

Rain water is a must to be collected. Dig holes and line with grass, for muddy water is better than no water! Use clothes, ponchos, hats, etc. to collect the rain.

1. Locating Food a) Animal Food: This provides the best source of food as immediate protein, although animal foods aren’t always the easiest food source to obtain safely. •

Termites, grasshoppers and other insects and grub can be eaten raw or cooked and they offer a good source of protein. Brightly coloured insects should be avoided as these may be toxic.

•

Reptiles such as lizards, snakes and tortoises can be eaten. They should be gutted and cooked, and ensure that head areas which could contain venom are avoided.

•

Eggs and chicks can be taken from birds’ nests and eaten raw (eggs) or cooked.

•

Fish can be caught by using a simple line or by poisoning the water by using various parts of tree species, such as the roots and bark of the Apple-leaf.

b) Plant Food: This is the easiest method of collecting food, however it can be considered risky and often requires a good knowledge of the bush and local vegetation. •

Generally any food eaten by monkeys (not baboons) is edible for humans.

•

Avoid bulbs that look like onions, but underground tubers that look like potatoes are generally safe.

•

Plants that resemble tomatoes and cucumbers should generally be avoided.

•

Plants that contain milky latex should be avoided as these are toxic, with the exception of figs and num-num.

•

Some fruits that are edible when ripe are poisonous when unripe.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 12

It is important to test the plants before eating them, as if you eat a plant that turns out to be inedible or toxic, it is likely that there will be minimal medical treatment available, and it could cause a death in the bush.

To test the edibility: 1. Rub a small part of the plant (or the sap) on a sensitive part of your skin, such as the wrist, and wait for up to 20 minutes to check for signs of blistering, rash, or a itchy or burning feeling. If these arise, do not consume the plant. 2. Touch the plant with the tip of your tongue, and if there is a bitter unpleasant taste or burning sensation then do not eat it. 3. If the plant tasted pleasant, consume a small amount cautiously, wait for at least an hour, and if there are no adverse reactions such as nausea or stomach cramps, you can continue eating with care.

D. TREES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION

Some trees can vary hugely in their appearance; however they can sometimes be some difficult in identifying them. There are several characteristics that trees possess which can be used to help to identify them:

1. Tree size, form and foliage colour The basic shape of a tree can vary dramatically between different species. One must look at the shape and position of the canopy, as well as the form of the trunk and stems. Colour of foliage is also a key indicator of plant species, and can vary from a bright green to a dull brown depending both on the tree species and the season. 2. The bark Every species has its own pattern, texture and colour, although this varies depending on the age of the tree. 3. Branches and twigs Note the texture, shape and colour of the branches and twigs. Also check for the presence of spines or thorns on the branches, however pay attention to which of these are present as they are similar in appearance with just subtle differences between them. Spine – a pointy structure formed from a modified leaf. Thorn – a pointy woody structure formed from a modified branch. 4. Latex A clear, cloudy or milky substance produced by some plants.

5. Leaves

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 13

There are several different aspects of leaves that can be used to identify the plant type; the texture and hairiness, the leaf shape, venation, odours, the margins, and the arrangement of the leaves on the branch (see Figure D1 below for details). 6. Flowers The shape and colour of flowers can be helpful, but one must look carefully for flowers as often they are small and hard to see and aren’t always present. 7. Fruits/Seedpods Establish if the fruit is dry (a nut) or fleshy (a berry). If there are no visible fruits, check the ground below the tree for fallen or discarded fruit and seeds. 8. Distribution, geology and soils Use books to discover the distribution of the tree if you are unsure that you have the correct species. If the distribution doesn’t match your area, you can likely dismiss that species.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 14

Figure D1: Glossary of leaf shapes as an indication of different tree types.

Table D1: Some common tree species and their specific characteristics which are found in the Lowveld and Waterberg areas in South Africa.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 15

Species Name

Practical Uses

Silver Cluster Leaf (Terminalia sericea)

Gall midge larvae inject a The hairs on the leaves are chemical substance that causes A bitter root extract is used used in glazing pottery to a growth within which it can to treat diarrhoea. give a silvery sheen. grow.

Sicklebush (Dichrostachys cinerea)

The clusters of pods produced The inner bark is tough and by the Sickle bush are relished pliable and makes a strong by herbivores such as elephant fibre rope and string. due to their high nutritional value.

Used in the treatment of snakebite, scorpion stings, and insect bites, by chewing the leaves and placing them on the lesion.

The female fig wasp lays her eggs within the fig where the un-hatched galls are fertilised by the flightless male. This mutualistic relationship both pollinates the tree and allows the wasps to complete their life cycle.

The latex is infused with the bark to help treat chest, glandular, throat and stomach complaints.

The sticky milky latex is traditionally used by locals Common Cluster Fig to catch birds by smearing (Ficus sycomorus) it on the branches on which they land.

Animal Association

Medicinal Uses

Jackalberry (Diospyros mespiliformis)

The fruits are widely eaten by The wood is used for A decoction of the root is birds and animals such as furniture and to make used as a de-wormer, for Jackals, African civit, monkeys, mokoros (dugout canoes). example to cure ringworm. and humans.

Buffalo-Thorn (Ziziphus mucronata)

When under attack from lions, During the Anglo-Boer war, buffalos reverse their hind the stones were roasted quarters into thorn bush and and ground as a substitute use horns to protect from the for coffee. front for all round protection.

Bushwillow species (Combretum family)

Combretums have exceptionally hard, termite resistant wood used for mine props and railway sleepers.

Flowers of the Comberetum family attract butterflies, An infusion of the roots is wasps and other insects, which used for the treatment of in turn encourage many insect stomach disorders. eating birds to the area.

The fruit produced by the Marula tree has a citrus flavour and is used to make jams, jellies, beer and Amarula liquor.

Elephants heavily exploit the Marula tree, particularly to eat the fruits to obtain Vitamin C which acts to boost their immune systems. It is thought that passage through the elephant gut stimulates the germination of the seed.

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea)

Boils and other skin infections can be treated with a paste made from the leafs.

The inner bark of the Marula can be used against the stings of hairy caterpillars due to the antihistamine properties.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 16

Wild seringa (Burkea africana)

Caterpillars of the moth Cirina forda can occur in large The dried and crushed bark numbers on the tree and can can be used as a fish cause defoliation. The moths poison. are harvested and eaten as a delicacy.

The roots can be used to treat tooth ache by swilling a warm infusion around the mouth where the pain is.

Natal guarri (Euclea natalensis)

The twigs of the Natal Guarri can be used to make This is a very popular tree toothbrushes by removing amongst the Black Rhino which the bark and chewing the feed excessively on the foliage. branch to make it brushlike.

The ground root powder is used to treat leprosy, and can also be used to treat toothache and headaches.

Transvaal beech (Faurea salinga)

Roots are boiled and the The attractive reddish Flowers produce nectar that is liquid is drunk as a remedy brown wood is used to popular amongst honeybees. for diarrhoea and make furniture. indigestion.

TASK: The list of trees below fit into the key the page below. Use the facilities available to you (including the diagram of leaf shapes) to identify which tree belongs in which red box on the key (working from the ‘start’ box). Then using the same books, find and identify 8 different tree species in camp. Also add any practical uses, medicinal uses and animal associations related to the tree species. Write this all down and hand it to your lecturer/ coordinator once you have completed the task. 1. Silver Cluster Leaf 2. Sicklebush 3. Common Cluster Fig 4. Jackalberry 5. Buffalo Thorn 6. Bushwillow spp. 7. Marula 8. Wild Seringa 9. Natal Guarri 10. Transvaal Beech

START Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 17

Plants with serrated leaf margins

Plants with entire leaf margins

Opposite leaf arrangement

Seeds in winged pods

Seeds in berries

Alternate leaf arrangement

Tufted alternate leaf structure

Simple alternate leaf structure

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 18

E. BIRDS AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION

For basic identification, birds are divided into three different groups depending on their foot structure: 1. Passerine: This is the most common group of birds, and refers to mostly smallish birds that are characterised by having feet that are well adapted to perching, that is, three toes in the front, and one toe behind. E.g. Fork Tailed Drongo, Chinspot Batis, Arrow-Marked Babbler. 2. Non-Passerine: These include all birds that have webbed or semi-webbed feet or otherwise specially modified feet. E.g. African Darter, Blacksmith Lapwing, Egyptian Goose. 3. Near-Passerine: This group of birds appear to be passerine birds by their size and behaviour, but instead they often have a foot structure with two toes facing forward and two toes facing backwards (Zygodactylous foot structure). E.g. Crested Barbet, Red Billed Oxpecker, Golden-Tailed Woodpecker.

Passerine foot

Non-Passerine foot

Near-Passerine foot

Birds can be tricky to identify as they are relatively small, often on the move, and several species can look quite similar and will often require the use of a bird identification book to distinguish between them. There are several key characteristics of birds that can be used to help to identify them:

a) Size and shape of the bird Exact sizes do not need to be determined, but use size rather as a comparison to other birds. For example sparrows are obviously smaller than pigeons, which are obviously smaller than guinea fowl. Similarly, it is possible to use shape to identify the type of bird you have seen. For example, the legs, bill, neck and tail vary dramatically between birds according to their biology.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 19

b) Bill (shape and colour) The bill can reveal a lot of information about the feeding habits and guild of the bird. For example, hard conical shaped bills indicate seed eaters, whereas soft pointed bills indicate insect eaters.

c) Legs and Feet (length and colour) The lifestyle of birds can be indicated by the legs. For example, wading birds may have long thin legs, whereas birds of prey may have shorter stronger legs.

d) Habitat (ecological area and geographical distribution) Although many birds are relatively mobile, individual species are often unique to certain geographical areas or habitat types. The birds that are seen in grassland areas, for example, will differ from those seen in dessert, fynbos, coastal bush, woodland, and aquatic habitats.

e) Voice (distinctive call of the bird) The sounds that birds make are also key to their identification. Birds can both call (short sounds associated with specific behaviours) and make songs (longer and mostly heard during the breeding season), and these sounds are often unique to a species.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 20

f) Plumage (colour and patterns) The colours of birds’ plumage can be key to identifying birds. It is important to notice the overall colour, but also any distinguishing patterns or combination of colours that may separate the bird from other similar species. It is useful to be familiar with the terms given to different parts of the bird so that a description can be given when trying to identify the bird.

g) Habits (feeding behaviour and flight patterns) The way in which birds behave can also help to identify them. Feeding habits for example differ between each bird family. Flight patterns are also often unique to different types of bird. The way in which doves sail in flight differs dramatically from how some kingfisher species are able to hover in the air.

Here are some examples of flight patterns in birds:

Dipping Flight e.g. – Red Billed Hornbill

Straight Flight e.g. – Crested Barbet

Thermal Gliding e.g. – White Back Vulture

TASK: First complete the Bird Identification presentation. Once you have completed that, in your groups using both binoculars and bird identification books identify 8 different bird species around camp. Write your species down as well as their most identifiable features i.e. feathers, beak, habitat etc. You have one hour to complete the task.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 21

F. ANIMAL TRACKS AND SIGNS

Tracking is a skill that allows a person to observe the signs in the bush to guess the whereabouts of an animal simply by reading the clues that it left behind. Depending on a number of factors such as weather and soil type, tracking can be quite straight forward or it can be tricky. It can require years of experience in the bush to become a skilled tracker, and there are many different signs that one must be aware of. Tracks are the physical imprints that animals leave on the ground. All animal species have unique footprints of a certain shape or size. Tracks can be subdivided into four different classes (all diagrams are of front feet unless otherwise specified, and measurements indicate the length from the front to the back of the foot).

1. Digitigrade (carnivores) This foot posture is found mostly in predatory animals where just the toes of the foot make contact with the ground. This enables them to move silently through the bush, assisting them to conceal their position away while hunting. This foot type can be divided into members of the dog and cat families. a) Dog-like

Jackal (51mm)

Hyena (96mm)

African Wild Dog (70mm)

b) Cat-like

Lion (128mm)

Leopard (92mm)

Cheetah (84mm)

2. Plantigrade (primates) Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 22

This is the most primitive foot structure where the entire foot is used, and is found in primates such as humans, monkeys, and baboons.

3. Unguligrade (hooved animals) These animals run on the tips of their toes and normally have specially adapted nails or ‘hooves’ that allow for fast escapes from predators. Ungulates are further divided into odd toed or even toed animals:

a) Odd toes

Black Rhino (200mm)

White Rhino (250mm)

Plains Zebra (100mm)

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 23

b) Even toes

Hippo (250mm)

Buffalo (120mm)

Giraffe (180mm)

For ease of identification, antelope species are often separated into small (such as duiker), medium (such as impala) and large (such as kudu).

Common duiker (40mm) Impala (60mm) Greater Kudu (65mm)

c) Near Ungulates These animals have toenails rather than proper hooves, and they tend to walk on their whole foot rather than their toes. The most common near ungulate track that is seen is the elephant.

Back (520mm)

Front (500mm) African Elephant

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 24

4. Signs Signs are all the clues that one may use to indicate an animals’ presence, and they can be divided into three different categories: a) Aerial signs: Any clues that are above the ground that could indicate an animals’ presence. For example: •

A birds’ alarm call as it flies from a tree having seen a potential threat. Alarm calling animals include: baboons, oxpeckers, impala, guineafowl,

•

The smell of animals carried on the wind, such as an elephant in musth.

•

Anal gland sent marking, by hyena and dwarf mongoose, the strength of the smell can determine the time of the animal passing.

•

The line of sight of a giraffe as it looks at a disturbance or predator in the vegetation.

b) Arboreal signs: Clues that are found on trees and bushes as an animal passed through the area. For example: •

Animals that are prone to bud bathing may use the trunk of a tree to rub or scratch on. The height of this rubbing can indicate which animal left the mark. Warthogs, elephants, rhino and buffalo leave mud marks.

•

Branches that are broken by animals, for example the path of destruction that elephants can leave as they pass through an area.

•

Scratch marks in the bark of trees as a result of cats marking their territory.

•

Physical presence of territorial pasting on bits of grass made by species such as hyaena or vegetation moistened by cats spraying urine.

c) Terrestrial signs: The most obvious terrestrial signs are the track marks left by animals as mentioned above. However, it is also possible to use other indicators that are left on the ground after an animal has passes through. For example: •

Animal faeces – these differ from species to species according to the size of the animal and it the particular diet, for example, carnivore scat will often have hair and bone in the scat, whereas herbivorous animal dung will contact only vegetation.

•

Animal pathways, including game trails and human roads, which are mark with middens or scent i.e. rhino’s and hyena.

•

Scrape marks in the ground left by an animal marking its territory using feet to scrape the sand.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 25

G. APPROACHING ANIMALS ON FOOT

Field guides regularly expose themselves to elements of danger, be they on foot or vehicle based. When on bush walks, the guides should always cover the ground rules such as the safety briefing and the emergency drill; it is essential that all participants adhere to these rules. The job as a field guide often calls for taking calculated risks. It is thus important to distinguish between calculated and unnecessary risk. A calculated risk is a risk in which the odds are heavily stacked in your favour. An unnecessary risk gives the animal the upper hand and favour. Field guides (and students) who take unnecessary risks are not “brave”, they are irresponsible. The way in which an animal must be approached is ultimately based on the theory of comfort zones and personal space.

1. Psychological Defence Zones and Personal Space Animals experience discomfort or threat when their comfort zones are penetrated by anything they perceive to be a danger to either themselves or their offspring. Generally every animal has psychological zones within the personal space that surrounds them that dictates their reaction to any intruders.

a) The Comfort Zone This is the area or distance that the animal requires in order to feel comfortable about the presence of another organism. In this zone, you are outside the personal space of the animal and your presence does not pose a threat to them.

The animal is

comfortable with your presence and carries on with its normal activities.

Comfort Zone Alert Zone Warning Zone Critical Zone

b) The Alert Zone On entering this zone, you have entered the personal space and have violated the distance that is required.

The animal

usually freezes to conceal itself and relies on its senses to analyse the situation. It may initially become inquisitive or curious

Figure B1: The different comfort zones of an animal. The position of the animal is indicated in the centre red circle and known as the “Critical Zone”.

and approach in an attempt to identify you. If you keep that distance and show no interest, the animal may continue feeding or carry on with its initial activity. If they feel uncomfortable they will choose to move off. Confrontation is usually avoided at this stage.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 26

c) The Warning Zone As you penetrate through the first into the second personal zone, the animal may begin to feel uncomfortable and threatened by your approach. Depending on the species, it may start to respond by displaying warning signals. Animal warning behaviour is intended to persuade the intruder not to come any closer. Some methods used to warn intruders not to approach any closer include: hissing, snarling, puffing up, growling, baring teeth, tossing the head, bristling the hair on neck and back, raising the tail, flattening the ears, breaking branches, kicking or pawing the ground, spitting, rattling quills and mock charging. If you penetrate the warning zone and then proceed to back away, in most cases the animal will calm down and move off.

d) The Critical Zone (Attack Zone) If you ignore these warning signals and move closer, the intensity of the warning will increase. Ultimately the situation can result in the animal running away where an escape route is available, or more likely, an attack in an effort to defend itself.

TASK: The exact size and shape of each zone is variable between species and individuals, and even within a single individual. As a group, discuss what factors could contribute to how the comfort zones of animals may vary. Close your manuals and later check your answers against the list on the following page. 2. Factors Affecting the Size of the Critical Zone: o

The species involved (fight or flight species)

o

The type of habitat (open or thick)

o

Time of day (day or night)

o

Time of year (mating or calving season)

o

Mood of the animal (Angry or passive)

o

Whether the animals are alone or in herds

o

Activity of the animal (sleeping or feeding)

o

The presence of young

o

Age, sex, social status

o

Wind direction (up or down wind)

o

Individual experiences

o

Nutritional status (healthy or weak and vulnerable)

o

Water and food availability

o

Management or research actions in the vicinity (e.g. culling) etc.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 27

For example: An undernourished pride of lion feeding on a kill with the presence of young cubs will be more sensitive to human approach than a well-conditioned coalition of males resting in the midday heat.

Vs

3. Avoid Approaching Species Under Certain Circumstances

Dangerous animals (such as the Big 5) will not be approached under the following circumstances: o

Highly nervous group

o

Dangerous animals with young, especially breeding herds of elephant

o

Bull elephant in musth

o

Dangerous animals mating

o

Predators feeding

o

Wounded animals

o

Startled animals

o

Stressed animals

4. Areas to Avoid or be Extra Vigilant in

o

Dense vegetated areas with restricted visibility

o

Drainage lines, gullies (dongas) and river beds with steep sides

o

Dense reed beds

5. Charging Animals Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 28

Table B1: How different animals can behave differently, and the warning signs that they may or may not give prior to a charge.

Species

Charging speed

General Encounter Information

Lions often move away from an approach during the day, but can Lion (Panthera Leo)

80 km/h

become more aggressive at night, when they tend to hunt. They can become aggressive very quickly if suddenly disturbed.

Warning Signs and Charges Mock charges are sometimes given by males, and are indicated by a stiff-legged

run

and

growling.

Charging lions flatten their ears, crouch, whip the tail around and grunt and growl. It will start at a trot then pick up pace.

Leopards usually shy away from Leopards provide very little warning Leopard

80-90 km/h

(Panthera

human presence and seldom before an attack.

If you see a

represent a threat to field guides leopard and it moves to hide, do not and their groups. But when cubs pursue it as this may then provoke

pardus)

are present, females can become an attack, as leopards are cryptic aggressive.

and easily disturbed. Elephants often mock charge as a

Elephant African Elephant (Loxodonta

behavior

may

be

unpredictable and they should be 40 km/h

africana)

respected at all times.

Always

avoid breeding herds and bulls in musth.

warning for approach.

It is

characterized by the ears spread out, tossing grass into the air, kicking the ground, and trumpeting loudly. In a real charge, the ears will be flattened, the trunk curled up, and no vocalization.

Buffalo can be one of the most If the ears are pushed forward and dangerous African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer)

and

unpredictable the head held high, the Buffalo is

animals. In normal circumstances trying to pick up your scent. It is a 54 km/h

they are inquisitive and non- sign of heightened aggression if the aggressive; however their mood animal starts to snort, stamp, paw can change suddenly and with at the ground with its hooves, and little warning.

thrash the shrubs with the boss.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 29

Charging

Species

speed

General Encounter Information Black rhino are nervous and

Black Rhino (Diceros

aggressive by nature, and may 45 km/h

bicornis)

charge without any provocation; however they will usually run off when disturbed. White rhino are generally more

White Rhino (Ceratotherium

passive than Black rhino and will 40 km/h

simum)

usually run off when disturbed, however they should not be underestimated.

Warning Signs and Charges

Rhinos make snorting and puffing sounds when they are upset. They have

been

known

to

charge

repeatedly. Rhino’s vision is poor, so they may charge you merely to investigate an intruder. Most charges will break off 10 to 15 meters away from the intruder, at which point it will change direction and run past. Charges are sometimes directed at

Hippos are usually placid and intruders who venture too close to Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus

inoffensive 36 km/h

amphibious)

when

left

alone, the edge of the water. Attacks are

however when provoked, they often the result of a person being can become one of the most between a hippo and the water as dangerous animal in the bush.

they will run along paths and attack anyone in the way.

6. Important Rules of Charging Animals The appropriate response of the group is generally animal and species specific, but the actions are dictated by the guide alone and the group is simply responsible for following these two important rules: a) The group obeys every instruction given by the guide immediately and without question. b) If no instruction is given or heard, the group must place themselves close behind the guide (without crowding him/her) and remain there. It is important to realise that “behind” is a position that can change very quickly. The guide should always have a clear field of fire in any direction that the position of the animal dictates. c) Never RUN!

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 30

H. VENOM - SNAKES

The smaller and seemingly less harmful creatures such as snakes, spiders and scorpions are often ignored or overlooked when faced with the prospect of encountering the more famous enigmatic species such as the BIG 5. However the chance of encountering these smaller animals are often far greater and you usually do so without realizing it. It is when working on research elements or moving around camp that you need to know how best to avoid bites and stings.

1. Snakes Snakes are specialized lizards that lack limbs, eyelids, and external ears. All snakes are carnivorous, and their prey is usually swallowed whole; this is possible due to ability of many snake species to separate their bottom jaw to allow the passage of large prey. Snakes have very good eyesight to match their keen sense of smell and their ability to sense other animals approaching through detecting faint vibrations in the air and on the ground. Of the 151 species of snakes in Southern Africa, just 16 of are medical importance to humans. Snake venom is stored and produced in salivary glands, which are located on either side of the head. Venom, produced in snakes’ salivary glands, is primarily used to capture and subdue prey or kill prey, but it also assists with digestion of the food. Snakes are shy animals and generally prefer to flee from disturbances; only if threatened will they attack, and possibly use their venom in self-defence. Most snake bites normally occur on the feet or lower half of the legs due to people accidently standing on well camouflaged snakes. It is often therefore advisable to wear protective clothing when walking through the bush, and be vigilant about where to place your feet when climbing over objects such as rocks and logs. Encountering snakes at close range is very possible, and the standard reaction is to remain still as snakes will strike at moving objects if threatened.

Snake can be classified into four different groups according to the venom type (including non-venomous snakes) and the relating dental structure.

a) Neurotoxic venom Symptoms: This venom affects the nervous system and causes muscle paralysis. The symptoms may start with severe chest and abdominal pain, then lead to difficulty in breathing, nausea, vomiting and ultimately if left untreated, heart stoppage. Fang type: ‘Fixed front fangs’ – short erectile fangs which are tubular in nature to allow for the injection of venom into the victim. In some snakes these fangs are modified to allow for spitting venom up and away from the mouth.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 31

E.g. Black Mamba (2m – 4.5m) A large, grey-ish snake with a long, slender coffin shaped head. The name is due to the black colour on the inside of the mouth. Black Mambas are usually active during the day. Black mamba’s can move up to a 3rd of its body off the ground. This is the largest venomous snake in South Africa and I bite requires immediate medical attention.

b) Cytotoxic Venom Symptoms: The venom leads to tissue destruction around the site of the bite. The bite is at first painless with symptoms developing after about 2-8 hours. It may start by resembling a mosquito sting, becoming more painful and swollen, and eventually ulcerating into a large surface lesion that will require medical attention. Fang type: ‘Hinged front fangs’ – large functional fangs attached to the front of the upper jaw via a hinged mechanism. The fangs are erected only when the mouth is open and ready for biting, and they lie flat again when the snake closes its mouth to avoid piercing its own bottom jaw.

E.g. Puff adder (0.9m – 1.4m) This is a slow moving, largely nocturnal snake with a short stubby body and a triangular head. They have distinct dark backward-pointing chevrons on the back and are thus very well camouflaged in undergrowth. The venom is slow acting and can cause death if left untreated. The Puff adder is so called because of their tendency to puff up in aggression when disturbed.

c) Haemotoxic Venom

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 32

Symptoms: This venom acts to prevent the blood from clotting, resulting in continued bleeding and internal haemorrhaging. Symptoms include severe headaches and bleeding from internal organs. Fang type: ‘Back-fanged’ – The snakes have up to three pairs of recurved fangs situated towards the back of the upper jaw. There is a grove through which the venom passes. E.g.

Boomslang

(1m – 1.5m) These snakes rely on cryptic colouration to camouflage themselves in the trees in which they live, and can range from a dull brown colour in females, to a bright green in males. They have large eyes, which enable them to identify immobile prey – a trait which is unique amongst most other snakes. Boomslang actively hunt on the chameleons and birds that share their tree top lifestyle.

d) Non-venomous solid toothed snakes Symptoms: Some of these snakes are capable of inflicting a very painful bite despite the lack of venom. These bites are likely to bleed and are prone to infection, thus the wound must be cleaned soon after the bite has taken place. Fang type: ‘Solid Toothed/Fangless’ – These teeth are solid (i.e. there are no grooves for venom) and sharp and there are normally full rows of teeth on both the upper and the lower jaw. The teeth point backwards to grip onto the prey item and prevent it from escaping. E.g. African Rock Python (6m – 9m) This is the largest snakes in the Lowveld and can live up to 30 years of age. They are one of the few reptile species that exhibit parental care where the female will protect her eggs and even warm herself up in the sun and return to the eggs to incubate them. Pythons kill their prey via constriction; each time the prey exhales in its struggle, the python further tightens its grip until the prey is asphyxiated.

I.

VENOM – SPIDERS AND SCOPRIONS

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 33

1. Spiders There are thought to be approximately 3000 species of spider within South Africa, and of these, just six species are thought to be dangerous to humans. Many spiders are armed with either cytotoxic or neurotoxic venom (with symptoms matching those described in snake venom), although most spiders would rather use the opportunity to scuttle away as their fangs are not strong enough to penetrate human skin. Spiders are often classified under two main groups: a) Araneomorphs – web making spiders with sideways striking fangs. b) Mygalomorphs – Ground dwelling spiders with downward striking fangs.

The six most dangerous spiders in South Africa:

a) Black Button Spider/Black widow Description: A medium sized black spider with red markings on the upper side of the abdomen which is absent in some females. They have long legs with a short third pair. Males are brown and smaller than the female. Venom: Strongly neurotoxic venom that is potentially fatal for humans causing the spider to be considered the most dangerous spider in South Africa. Symptoms: Painful bite with visible symptoms within half an hour. The bite may cause sweating, raised blood pressure, and muscle cramps.

b) Brown Button Spider Description: An hour glass shape on the underside of the abdomen and geometric patterns on the upper side. They vary in colour from yellowish brown to black. These spiders are often found around human habitation. Venom: Neurotoxic venom Symptoms: A localised burning sensation which may spread to the surrounding tissue. The bite site may be seen as a red spot surrounded by rashing.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 34

c) Small Baboon Spider Description: This spider is smaller and more slender than other species of baboon spiders, which are so called for their thick hairy legs with pads on the end which resemble baboon fingers. Venom: Neurotoxic venom Symptoms: A powerful and painful bite.

d) Violin Spider Description: The colour varies from a golden-yellow to a reddishbrown with darker markings on the abdomen. They have a dark brown violin shaped marking on the carapace. The spider runs free at night in search of prey. Venom: Cytotoxic venom Symptoms: The bite that produces mildly painful ulcerated wounds which are prone to severe secondary infection. The resulting tissue damage can leave disfiguring scars.

e) Sac Spider Description: A relatively aggressive spider that is responsible for the majority of bites in Southern Africa. They have a “black faced” appearance with long legs and short stout black fangs. Colouring is usually in various shades of cream, yellow and light brown. Venom: Cytotoxic venom Symptoms: Painless bite characterised by two bite marks around 6mm apart.

The bite causes inflammation and swelling and

ulceration after a few days. The wounds are slow to heal and are prone to secondary infections which are often associated with headaches and fever.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 35

f)

Six-eyed Sand Crab Spider

Description: A reddish brown to yellow spider. It is relatively flat looking with legs extended sideways and held close to the ground. The body and legs are covered with sickle-shaped setae. These are nocturnal spiders, usually found in sandy areas. Venom: Strongly cytotoxic venom Symptoms: The bite causes severe ulcers and tissue damage, both at the site of the bite and throughout the body. This tissue damage causes internal haemorrhaging and necrosis and can be fatal.

2. General rules for treating a spider bite: •

Wash the bite with soap and water.

•

Apply a cool compress.

•

If necessary, ask for medication to control pain or itching.

•

Antibiotics are not helpful unless the wound becomes infected.

•

Do not cut or apply suction to the wound.

•

Monitor the bite for redness, swelling, pain, or signs of infection.

•

If redness, swelling or pain does not subside or there are signs of infection, consult a medic.

3. Scorpions

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 36

There are 172 species of scorpion in South Africa, however, due to their competitive nature, one will rarely find more than a few species in an area. All scorpion venom is neurotoxic (with symptoms matching those described in snake venom), and although the toxicity varies between species, scorpions have what is considered to be the strongest known venom of all venomous species. Venom is used mostly to subdue prey or enemies, but some species will sting their own mates to calm them down during courtship. All scorpions have pincers and stings, but the relative size of these varies according to the family. Scorpions are divided into two main families; •

Scorpionidae – This family has large powerful pincers and slender tail and stings. They rely on their pincers to capture their prey, and thus their venom is of secondary importance and isn’t very toxic.

•

Buthidae – This family has small pincers and large thick tails and stings. They rely on their venom to paralyze or kill their prey, and thus they produce highly toxic venom in large volumes.

Scorpionidae

Buthidae

a) General Behaviour and Characteristics Scorpions are mostly nocturnal and are usually hiding during the day. They are classified into rock dwelling, tree dwelling and burrowing species. Scorpions are ectothermic (not able to regulate own body temperature) and usually hibernate in colder months. Interestingly amongst invertebrates, young scorpions are born live (instead of in eggs) after a 2 – 18 month gestation period; longer than many large mammals! When born, the babies climb onto their mothers back where they will live and be cared for up until their first moult. Scorpions may live up to 30 years, although 10 years is more usual.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 37

J.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS Afrotheria Ancient radiation of uniquely African mammals that evolved during Africa's continental isolation. The aardvark, elephants, sea cows, hyraxes, elephant shrews, otter shrews and golden moles all share the genetic markers for Afrotheria. Allopatry Condition in which populations of different species are geographically separated.

Alpha male/female The dominant male or female within a social group, often the only breeders. Altricial Born or hatched in a helpless condition requiring prolonged parental care, as by being naked, blind, or unable to move about. Nesting birds, monotremes, marsupials, and carnivores have altricial young. Artiodactyl Even toed ungulates. Biome A major regional or global biotic community, such as a grassland or desert, characterized chiefly by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate. Bipedal Two-footed stance or locomotion. Black Hole An area of space-time with a gravitational field so intense that its escape velocity is equal to or exceeds the speed of light. Browser An animal that feeds mainly on woody or herbaceous plants. Carnivore Any meat eating organism. Carrion Dead and decaying flesh of animals. Cellulose Main constituent of the cell walls of plants. Very tough and fibrous, and can be digested only by the intestinal flora in mammalian guts. Conservation The protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and of natural resources such as forests, soil, and water. Constellation An arbitrary formation of stars perceived as a figure or design, especially one of 88 recognized groups named after characters from classical mythology and various common animals and objects. Convergence The evolution of similarities between unrelated species occupying similar ecological niches. Crepuscular Animals active before sunrise or at twilight (dusk or dawn activity). Deciduous Shedding leaves at the end of the growing season. Desert A large, dry, barren region, usually having sandy or rocky soil and little or no vegetation. Water lost to evaporation and transpiration in a desert exceeds the amount of precipitation; most deserts average less than 25 cm of precipitation each year, concentrated in short local bursts. Dimorphism The existence among animals of the same species of two distinct forms that differ in one or more characteristics, such as coloration, size, or shape.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 38

Diurnal Active during daylight hours. Dorsal Back or upper surface. Dung The droppings of an herbivore which consumes plant matter. Eclipse The total or partial obscuring of one celestial body by another. A solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the sun and the earth; a lunar eclipse when the earth passes between the sun and the moon. Ecological Niche The particular combination of adaptations that fits each species to a place different from that filled by any other species within a community of organisms. Ecology The study of living things in relation to each other, and their relationship to the nonliving environment. Ecosystem Unit of the environment within which living and non-living elements interact. Endemic Native to or confined to a certain region. Faeces The droppings of an omnivore which consumes both animal and plant matter. Forest A tree-dominated vegetation type with a continuous canopy cover of mostly evergreen trees, a multi-layered understory and almost no ground layer. Fynbos Vegetation in which dominant plants are heaths, restios and proteas; found on coastal plains and mountains of the southern and south-western Cape. Galaxy A collection of millions of stars and interstellar material that are gravitationally bound and orbit around a common centre. Earth is part of the Milky Way. Grassland An area that is dominated by grass or grass-like vegetation. Moderately dry climatic conditions and seasonal disturbances, such as floods or fires, are generally conducive to the growth of grasses and prohibitive of that of trees and shrubs. Grazer An animal that feeds on grass, such as a zebra or some antelope. Gregarious Living in communities. Harem Group A social group consisting of a single adult male, at least two adult females and immature animals. Herbivore An animal whose diet consists of plant food. Hindgut Fermentation Process by which breakdown of cellulose occurs in the cecum and large intestine. Ivory The hard, smooth, yellowish-white substance forming the teeth and tusks of certain animals, such as the tusks of elephants and walruses and the teeth of certain whales. Ivory is composed of dentin. Karroo Arid part of the interior plateau in temperate southern Africa. Dominated by dwarf shrubs. Keratin Tough fibrous substance of which horns, claws, hooves and nails are comprised. Light Year A light year is the distance which light travels in a vacuum in one year.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 39

Midden A heap of dung to mark a territory of an animal such as a rhino. Montane Mountainous areas. Morphology The form and structure of an animal or plant. Musth An annual period of heightened aggressiveness and sexual activity in male elephants, during which violent frenzies occur. Natural Selection Process whereby the fittest genotypes. Near-Endemic A species whose range is largely restricted to a region but extends slightly outside the region's borders. Niche differentiation/ The process by which natural selection drives competing species into different separation patterns of resource use or different niches. This process allows two species to partition certain resources so that one species does not out-compete the other. Nocturnal Active at night. Non-Passerine Are birds that aren`t Passerines and generally have feet designed for specific functions, like webbed feet for swimming or feet for grabbing prey. Omnivore A mixed diet including both animal and vegetable food. Passerine Belonging to the avian order Passeriformes, which includes the perching birds. Passerine birds make up more than half of all living birds. They are of small to medium size, have three toes pointing forward and one pointing back, and are often brightly colored. Larks, swallows, jays, crows, wrens, thrushes, cardinals, finches, sparrows, and blackbirds are all passerine birds. Perissodactyl Odd-toed ungulate. Phylogenetic Classification based on the closeness of evolutionary descent. Poisonous Something which is ingested and injected. Some plants and food substances can be poisonous if you consume them. Precocial Born or hatched in a condition requiring relatively little parental care, as by having hair or feathers, open eyes, and the ability to move about. Water birds, reptiles, and herd animals usually have precocial young. Quadrupedal Walking on all four limbs. Raptor Bird of prey. Red Giant A giant star towards the end of its life, with a relatively low temperature of 20004000 K, which emits red light. Riparian In close association with rivers and river-bank habitats. Ruminant A mammal with a specialized digestive system typified by the behaviour of chewing the cud. Their stomach is modified so that vegetation is stored, regurgitated for further maceration, and then broken down by symbiotic bacteria.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 40

Savanna Any vegetation type in which both trees and grasses are conspicuous. Scat The droppings of a carnivore which consumes animal’s products. Sedentary Pertaining to mammals which occupy relatively small home ranges. Shooting Stars Formed when small pieces of matter enter the earth’s atmosphere and set fire due (Meteors) to friction from the air resistance. The pieces are rarely bigger than a grain of rice and burn out before they reach the earth’s surface. Occasionally the particles will reach the earth’s surface and they are then known as meteorites. Solitary Animals which live alone with no social group. Speciation The process by which new species arise in evolution. Typically occurs when a single species population is divided by some geographical barrior. Spine A hard, straight and sharply pointed structure, often long and narrow. Usually a modified leaf or stipule. Spoor Afrikaans word for footprint which is the track or trail of an animal. Supernova A rare celestial phenomenon involving the explosion of most of the material in a star, resulting in an extremely bright, short-lived object that emits vast amounts of energy. The Solar System All objects that are held by the gravitational field of the sun. Our solar system consists of the nine planets and their satellites and other inter-planetary material. Thicket A vegetation type characterized by thickly growing deciduous or evergreen shrubs, occasionally with trees rising above, and lacking a conspicuous grassy ground layer; sometimes very thorny, or with many succulents. Common in hot, arid, river valleys in subtropical regions along the east coast. Thorn A sharply pointed branch, which usually is a modified branch. Veld Afrikaans word for open land used for grazing and other needs. Venom A poisonous secretion of an animal, such as a snake, spider, or scorpion, usually transmitted by a bite or sting. Venoms are highly concentrated fluids that typically consist of dozens or hundreds of powerful enzymes, peptides, and smaller organic compounds. Ventral Underside or lower surface. Waning Pertaining to the period during which the visible surface of the moon decreases. Waxing Pertaining to the period during which the visible surface of the moon increases. Woodlands An open, park-like vegetation type with scattered trees at least 8m tall, a canopy cover of 40 per cent or more, and a grass-dominated ground layer. Zygodactyl Bird foot structure with two toes facing forward and two toes facing backwards, specialized for clinging onto branches etc.

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 41

K. LITERATURE YOU WILL FIND IN CAMP

Please make use of the below reading material you will find in camp. Please note that not all the books will be available to you.

Book Title

Author/s

Beat About the Bush: Mammals

Trevor Carnaby

Birds of Southern Africa

Ian Sinclair; Phil Hockey & Warwick Tarboton

Field Guide to Insects of South Africa

Mike Picker; Charles Griffiths & Alan Weaving

Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa

Bill Branch

Field Guide to Tracks and Signs

Chris Stuart

Field Guide to Trees of Southern Africa

Braam van Wyk & Piet van Wyk

Game Ranger in your Backpack

Megan Emmett & Sean Pattrick

Scorpions of Southern Africa

Jonathan Leeming

Spiders of Southern Africa

Astri & John Leroy Ernst Schmidt; Mervyn Lotter & Warren

Trees and shrubs of Mpumalanga and Kruger National Park McCleland Field Guide to Mammals of Southern Africa

Chris & Tilde Stuart

Roberts Bird Guide to Southern Africa

Hugh Chittenden & Guy Upfold

Roberts Bird Guide: Kruger National Park & Adjacent Lowveld

Hugh Chittenden & Ian Whyte

L. WORKBOOK QUESTIONS Orientation Workbook Questions:

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 42

1. Name three methods you could possibly use to find direction during the day (3 marks)? a. b. c. 2. Name three things you need with you in the bush at all times (3 marks)? a. b. c. 3. How many stars can you see on a clear night (1 mark)?

4. Name the three brightest stars visible in the Scorpius constellation (3 marks)? a. b. c. 5. How many planets can you see with the naked eye (1 mark)?

6. What is the name of the galaxy Earth is in (1 mark)?

7. Explain the difference between a waning and a waxing moon (2 marks) [CLUE view your Glossary]

a. Waning: b. Waxing:

8. Define the following terms (2 marks)? a. Red Giant:

b. Supernova:

TOTAL 16 MARKS Survival Workbook Questions:

1. Name the four methods of finding water (4 marks). Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 43

a. b. c. d. 2. Name three water baring plants (3 marks)? a. b. c. 3. How many days can a human survive for without water (1 mark)?

4. Which three animals which can lead you to water (3 marks)? a. b. c. 5. Which animal should you observe eating food which is safe enough for you to consume (1 mark)?

6. How do you get rid of bacteria from water (1 mark)?

7. Name five sources of animal protein (5 marks). a. b. c. d. e.

TOTAL 18 MARKS

Tree Identification Workbook Questions:

a) Name three characteristics used to identify trees (3 marks).

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 44

a. b. c. b) Name three different types of leaf margins (3 marks). a. b. c. c) Name the practical use of Sickle Bush (1 mark).

d) Name the nine vegetation biomes in South Africa (9 marks) [CLUE view the Glossary]? a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. e) What form of management is used to control and monitor plant growth (1 mark)?

f)

Where would you find riparian vegetation (1 mark)?

g) Explain the difference between a thorn and a spike (2 marks) [CLUE view the Glossary] a. Thorn: b. Spike:

TOTAL 20 MARKS

Bird Identification Workbook Questions:

1. Name the three feet orientations in birds (3 marks). a. Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 45

b. c. 2. Name the three birds which are used as size comparisons (3 marks). a. b. c. 3. Which bird coos, “Three Blind Mice” (1 mark)?

4. When are birds more active during the day and why (2 marks)?

5. When are birds of prey and raptors more active during the day (1 mark)?

6. Name the seven ways of identifying birds in the field (7 marks)?

a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

TOTAL 17 MARKS

Tracks and Signs Workbook Questions:

1. What is the difference between a track and a sign (2 marks)? a. Track:

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 46

b. Sign: 2. Name three different toe structures in mammals (3 marks)? a. b. c. 3. Which cat cannot retract its nails (1 mark)?

4. What animals do these tracks/spoor belong to (5 marks)?

5. Name an aerial sign you will find in the bush (1 mark).

6. What type of signs are animal faeces and animal pathways called (1 mark)?

7. Explain two types of arboreal signs you will find in the bush (2 marks). a. b. 8. Name three even toed ungulates (3 marks). a. b. c.

TOTAL 18 MARKS

Approaching Animals Workbook Questions:

1. Name the four different psychological defence zones when approaching animals (4 marks)? a. b. Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 47

c. d. 2. Name three factors which affect the size of the defence zones (3 marks)? a. b. c. 3. What should you never do when faced with an aggressive animal such as a lion (1 mark)?

4. Name the African Big 5 (5 marks)? a. b. c. d. e. 5. Name an area to avoid or be vigilant of when in the bush (1 mark)?

6. What is the charging speed of white and black rhino’s respectively (1 mark)?

7. Explain the difference between nocturnal and diurnal animals (2 marks). a. Nocturnal: b. Diurnal: 8. Name the four characteristics of a mock charge by elephants (4 marks)? a. b. c. d.

TOTAL 21 MARKS

Venom Workbook Questions:

1. Name the three types of venom (3 marks). a. b. c. Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 48

2. Name five ways of treating a spider bite (5 marks). a. b. c. d. e. 3. Are all spiders and snakes dangerous to humans, Yes or No (1 mark)?

4. Name three characteristics/ behaviour of a scorpion (3 marks)? a. b. c. 5. How many venomous spiders are there in South Africa (1 mark)?

6. Name the two groups of spiders (2 marks)?

7. Explain the difference between a Buthidae and Scorpionidae scorpion (2 marks) a. Buthidae: b. Scorpionidae:

8. Define the following terms (2 marks)? a. Poisonous:

b. Venomous:

TOTAL 19 MARKS

Bush Craft Training Manual Page | 49