Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants [1st ed. 2023] 3031287797, 9783031287794
This book focuses on natural products, in particular medicinal plants and their derived products, as an indispensable so
141 77 66MB
English Pages 1561 [1527] Year 2023
Preface
Contents
About the Authors
Abbreviations
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
2.2 Collection and Identification
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North Maharashtra, India
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Discussion
References
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary (GSWS) Tamil Nadu, India
1 Introduction
1.1 The Paliyar Tribe
1.2 Appearance and Habits of Paliyar
1.2.1 Rituals and Religious Ceremonies
1.2.2 Customs Related to Marriage
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
2.2 Data Collection
2.3 Preservation of Plant Specimens
2.4 Ailment Categories
2.5 Data Analysis
2.5.1 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic)
2.5.2 Use Value (UV)
2.5.3 Fidelity Level (FL)
2.5.4 Relative Frequency Citation (RFC)
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Documentation of Indigenous Ethnomedicinal Knowledge
3.2 Life Form and Parts Used
3.3 Method of Preparation and Method of Administration of Plants
3.4 Ingredients Added
3.5 Plant-Use Value (UV)
3.6 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic)
3.7 Fidelity Level (FL)
3.8 Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC)
4 Conclusion
References
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Irula Tribal Settlement of Attappady in Palakkad District, Kerala, India
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
2.2 Data Collection
2.3 Analysis of Collected Ethnobotanical Data
3 Results and Discussions
4 Conclusion
References
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
2.2 Collection of Data
2.3 Analysis of Data
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis on Ethno-Medicinal Plants
1 Introduction
1.1 Area Under Study
1.2 Significance of Sunderdhunga and Its Surrounding Areas
1.3 Reasons for Undertaking the Present Work and Its Importance
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.5 Past and Present Work
1.5.1 Past Work
1.5.2 Present Work
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Herbarium Study
2.2 Topography and General Features
2.2.1 Geology
2.2.2 Rocks
2.2.3 Soil
2.2.4 Climate
2.2.5 Rainfall
2.2.6 Temperature
2.2.7 Water Sources
2.2.8 Winds
2.3 Ethnic Groups
2.4 Vegetation
2.4.1 Floristic Diversity
3 Results
3.1 Ethno-Medicinal Plants
3.2 EET Species
4 Conclusion
References
Phytomedicines Used in Respiratory Diseases by Traditional Healers of Lakhimpur and Dhemaji Districts of Assam, India
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Study Area
2.2 Data Collection
2.3 Collection and Identification of Plants
3 Result and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Understanding Phytomedicinal Gastronomic Culture of the Nagas in Nagaland, India
1 Introduction
2 Foodways as Phytomedicinal Medium
3 Women’s Role in Shaping the Gastronomic Metonymic Itinerary
4 Conclusion
References
Medicinal Plants in the Indian Traditional Medicine and Current Practices
1 Introduction
2 Traditional Medicine Systems in the World
3 Indian Traditional Medicine (ITM) System
3.1 Ayurveda
3.2 Siddha
3.3 Unani
3.4 Homeopathy
3.5 Naturopathy
4 Importance of AYUSH and the Medicinal Plants Used
4.1 Medicinal Plants Used in Indian Traditional Medicine (ITM)
4.1.1 Camellia sinensis
4.2 Desmodium gangeticum
4.3 Aloe barbadensis Miller
4.4 Moringa oleifera
4.5 Terminalia chebula
4.6 Tinospora cordifolia
4.7 Withania somnifera
4.8 Bacopa monnieri
4.9 Ginkgo biloba
4.10 Asparagus racemosus
5 Current Usage and Scenario of Indian Traditional Medicine System
6 Scope and Future Prospects of Indian Traditional Medicine System
7 Conclusion
References
Conservation of RET Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Their Traditional Medicines and Current Practices in Indian Himalayan Region
1 Introduction
1.1 ISM
1.2 ASM
1.3 YNSM
1.4 USM
1.5 ISM
1.6 HMS
1.7 ESM
1.8 SEM
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Uses of High-Altitude and Temperate Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Traditional Amchi Medicinal Practice in Trans-Himalaya of Nepal: Conservation and Bioprospecting
1 Introduction
2 Amchis Medicinal Practice
3 Issues of Amchis Medicinal Practice in Nepal Himalaya
4 Revitalizing Traditional Amchi Medicinal System
5 The Cultural Construction of Efficacy
6 Threat to Medicinal Plants
7 Conservation Approach
8 Bioprospecting
9 Enabling Environment and Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)
10 Women in Conservation and Bioprospecting
11 Conclusions
References
Website
Appraisal of Medicinal Plants Diversity Inhabited in Deserts Areas
1 Introduction
1.1 Medicinal Plants
1.2 Desert Areas
1.3 Ethnomedicine in Deserts of Pakistan
1.4 Ethnobotanical Prospective in Pakistan
2 Methods
2.1 Data Documentation
2.2 Validation of Data Through Literature
2.3 Quantitative Analysis
2.3.1 Relative Frequency Citation Percentage (RFC)
2.3.2 Informants Consensus Factor (ICF)
2.3.3 Cultural Value Index
2.3.4 Cultural Importance (CI)
3 Results
3.1 Informants Demography
3.2 Medicinal Plant Diversity
3.3 Parts of Plants Used for Herbal Medicine
3.4 Mode of Utilization of Herbal Medicine
3.5 Use Reports and Aliments Treated
3.6 Quantitative Analysis
3.6.1 Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) and Cultural Index (CI)
3.6.2 Informant Consensus Factor
3.6.3 Cultural Value
3.7 Study Limitations
4 Conclusion
References
Bush Medicinal Plants of the Australian Wet Tropics and Their Biodiscovery Potential
1 Introduction
2 Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Individual Medicinal Plant Grouped by Disease Categories
2.1 Narcotics and Painkillers
2.1.1 Alphitonia excelsa (Fenzl) Reissek ex Benth. (Rhamnaceae)
2.1.2 Clerodendrum floribundum R.Br. (Lamiaceae) (Fig. 3a)
2.1.3 Cymbopogon bombycinus (R.Br) Domain (Poaceae)
2.1.4 Ehretia saligna R.Br. (Boraginaceae)
2.1.5 Excoecaria parvifolia Müll.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) (Fig. 3b)
2.1.6 Pandanus spiralis R.Br. (Pandanaceae)
2.1.7 Pteridium esculentum (G. Frost.) Cockayne (Dennstaedtiaceae)
2.1.8 Rhaphidophora australasica F.M.Bailey (Araceae)
2.1.9 Zieria smithii Jacks. (Rutaceae)
2.2 Headaches, Colds, and Fevers
2.2.1 Calamus caryotoides A.Cum. Ex Mart. (Arecaceae)
2.2.2 Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T.Black (Myrtaceae)
2.2.3 Tephrosia varians (Bailey) C.T.White (Fabaceae)
2.3 Digestive and Bowel Disorders
2.3.1 Canarium australianum F.Muell. (Burseraceae) (Fig. 3c)
2.3.2 Cymbidium madidum Lindl. (Orchidaceae)
2.4 Antiseptics and Bactericides
2.4.1 Ajuga australis R.Br. (Lamiaceae)
2.4.2 Brachychiton diversifolius R.Br. (Malvaceae)
2.4.3 Erythrophleum chlorostachys (F.Muell.) Baill. (Fabaceae) (Fig. 3d)
2.4.4 Persoonia falcata R.Br. (Proteaceae)
2.5 Skin Disorders
2.5.1 Acacia falcata Willd. (Leguminosae)
2.6 Anti-inflammatory or Wound-Healing Plants
2.6.1 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. (Compositae)
2.6.2 Cynanchum viminale subsp. australe (P.I.Forst.) Liede & Meve (Apocynaceae)
2.6.3 Dodonaea polyandra Merr. & L.M.Perry (Sapindaceae)
Flagellaria indica L. (Flagellariaceae) (Fig. 3e)
2.6.4 Grevillea coriacea McGill (Proteaceae)
2.6.5 Grevillea striata R.Br. (Proteaceae)
2.6.6 Macaranga tanarius (L.) Mull.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) (Fig. 3f)
2.6.7 Melaleuca leucadendra L. (Myrtaceae)
2.6.8 Pterocaulon serrulatum (Montrouz.) Guillaumin (Compositae)
2.6.9 Sterculia quadrifida R.Br. (Malvaceae)
2.7 Miscellaneous
2.7.1 Doryphora aromatica (F.M.Bailey) L.S.Sm. (Atherospermataceae)
3 Scope for Drug Discovery from Wet Tropics
4 Conclusion
References
Trillium govanianum – A Promising Endemic Medicinal Herb of the Himalaya
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Botany
2.2 Biogeography
2.3 Phenology and Life Cycle
2.4 In Vitro Regeneration
2.5 Ethnomedicinal Uses
2.6 Phytochemistry
2.7 Pharmacology
2.7.1 Antibacterial Activity
2.7.2 Antifungal Activity
2.7.3 Anticancer Activity
2.7.4 Antifertility Activity and Contraceptive Potential
2.7.5 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activities
2.7.6 Free Radical Scavenging Activity
2.7.7 β-Glucuronidase Inhibiting Activity
2.7.8 Anti-leishmanial Activity
2.7.9 Cytotoxic Activity
2.7.10 Protein Kinase Inhibitory Activity
3 Conclusions
References
Comprehensive Review on Wild Basil Genus Orthosiphon of Lamiaceae
1 Introduction
2 Traditional Health Benefits
3 Phytochemical Constituents
3.1 Essential Oil
3.1.1 Structural Properties of Essential Oil
3.2 GC-MS Phytochemical Profile
3.2.1 Structural Activity of Sesquiterpene Hydrocarbon
3.3 Bioactive Flavonoid Compounds of O. stamineus
3.3.1 Properties of Sinensetin and Eupatorin
3.3.2 Structural Properties of Major Terpenes of Orthosiphon pallidus
4 Problems Encountered and Future Directions
5 Conclusion and Comments
References
Zingiberaceae Plants: A Cornucopia of Promising Chemotherapeuticals for Cancer Cure
1 Introduction
2 Zingiberaceae
3 Phytochemistry of Zingiberaceae
4 Anticancer Activities Reported from Different Genera of Zingiberaceae Family
4.1 Genus Alpinia Roxb.
4.2 Genus Amomum Roxb.
4.3 Genus Kaempferia L.
4.4 Genus Curcuma L.
4.5 Genus Zingiber Boehmer
4.6 Other Zingiberaceae Plants with Anticancer Potential
5 Conclusion
References
Moringa oleifera Accessions: Perspectives and Application as Nutraceuticals and Phytomedicines
1 Introduction
2 Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry of Moringa oleifera
3 Phytomedicinal Property of Moringa oleifera
3.1 Moringa oleifera as Potent Antioxidant Agent
3.2 Moringa oleifera as Antihypertensive Agent
3.3 Antispasmodic and Hepatoprotective Behaviour of Moringa oleifera
3.4 Moringa oleifera as Antidepressant and Neuroprotective Agent
3.5 Moringa oleifera as Antimicrobial Agents
3.6 Moringa oleifera as Anticancer Agents
3.7 Moringa oleifera as Antidiabetic Agent
3.8 Moringa oleifera as Anti-asthmatic Agent
3.9 Moringa oleifera as Antiviral Agents
3.10 Moringa oleifera as Wound-Healing Agent
4 Nutraceutical/Cosmo-Nutraceutical Value of Moringa oleifera
5 Conclusion
References
An Overview of Ethnobotany, Phytochemicals, and Pharmacological Properties of Ficus Species
1 Introduction
2 Historical Importance of Herbal Drugs
3 The Family Moraceae
4 Genus Ficus
4.1 Ethnobotanical Studies of Ficus Species
4.2 Phytochemistry of Ficus Species
4.2.1 Steroids
4.2.2 Alkaloids
4.2.3 Coumarins
4.2.4 Flavonoids
4.2.5 Triterpenoids
4.2.6 Miscellaneous
4.3 Pharmaceutical Activities of Ficus Species
4.3.1 Analgesic Activity
4.3.2 Anticancer Activity
4.3.3 Antiulcer Activity
4.3.4 Antioxidant Activity
4.3.5 Antidiabetic Activity
4.3.6 Skin Diseases
4.3.7 Hepatoprotective Activity
4.3.8 Anthelmintic Activity
4.3.9 Anti-inflammatory Activity
4.3.10 Immunomodulatory Activity
4.3.11 Other Pharmacological Activities
5 Significance of Ficus Species
6 Conclusions and Future Perspective
References
Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
1 Introduction
2 Phytochemistry
2.1 The Biosynthetic Pathway of Terpenoid Indole Alkaloids
2.2 Isolation of Bioactive Alkaloids
3 Pharmacological Activities
3.1 Chemotherapy
3.2 Antihypertensive Therapy
3.3 Antipsychotic Activity
3.4 Cardiovascular Diseases
3.5 Psoriasis
4 Conclusions
References
Resilience Activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra in Relation to Cancer: Chemistry and Mechanism
1 Introduction
2 Phytochemistry/Chemistry
2.1 Glycyrrhizin
2.2 Liquorice
3 Pharmacological Properties
3.1 Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Effects
3.2 Immunomodulatory and Antiviral Effects
3.3 Neuromodulatory Effects (Memory Antidepressant and Sedative)
4 Anti-cancer Activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra
5 Mechanism
5.1 Isoliquiritigenin
5.2 Isoangustone A
5.3 Licochalcone
6 Conclusion
References
Strobilanthes: A Plethora of Phytomedicine
1 Introduction
2 Medicinal Use of Strobilanthes
3 Phytochemical Constituents
4 Bioactivities
4.1 Antioxidant Activity
4.2 Antidiabetic Activity
4.3 Antimicrobial Activity
4.4 Antiproliferative Activity
5 Conclusion
References
Annonaceae: Tropical Medicinal Plants with Potential Anticancer Acetogenins and Alkaloids
1 Introduction
2 Annonaceae Plant Species: A Focus on its Anticancer Studies
3 Taxonomy of Major Plant Species from Annonacea
4 Conclusions
References
Biocolorant from Anisochilus carnosus: A Natural Food Preservative
1 Introduction
2 Results
3 Methods
3.1 Sample Collection
3.2 Preparation of Extracts
3.3 Total Phenolics
3.4 Total Flavonoids
3.5 Ultraviolet/Visible Spectral Measurement
3.6 Thin Layer Chromatography Separation
3.7 FTIR analysis of A. carnosus Extract
3.8 DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
3.9 Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)
3.10 Test Pathogens
3.11 Antibacterial Activity by Agar Well Diffusion Method
3.12 Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of A. carnosus Flower Extract
3.13 Storage Study
3.14 Statistical Analysis
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Therapeutic Properties of Nardostachys jatamansi and Its Applications in Post-Chemotherapy-Induced Hair Loss in Cancer Patients
1 Introduction
1.1 Botanical Profile of Nardostachys jatamansi
2 Hair Follicle Anatomy
2.1 Molecular Pathways and Structural Hair Alterations Associated With CIA
3 Trichoscopy
3.1 Apoptotic Pathways
3.2 Proliferation of Keratinocytes
3.3 Hair Growth Studies on the Rhizomes of Nardostachys jatamansi DC
4 Methods of Prevention of CIA in Cancer Patients
4.1 Trichoscopy
4.2 Aid of Trichoscopy
4.3 Scalp Cooling Caps
4.4 Effect of Scalp Cooling Caps
5 Discussion
6 Conclusion
References
Phitotherapeutic Potential of Cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz)
1 Introduction
1.1 Cyanogenic Compounds in Cultivated Plants
1.2 Information About Cyanogenic Compounds
1.2.1 Cassava Cyanogenic Compounds
1.2.2 Mechanism of Intoxication and Lethal Dose of Linamarin
1.3 Sublethal Dose Effect
1.4 Presence of Linamarin in Processed Cassava-Based Foods
2 Cassava Phenolic Compounds
2.1 Phenolics Present in Cassava Roots, Stalks, and Leaves
2.2 Anticancer Properties of Phenolic Compounds
3 Dietary Fiber
4 Final Considerations
References
Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Studies of Indian Cinnamomum Schaeff
1 Introduction
2 Phytochemicals Reported in Cinnamomum spp.
3 Pharmacological Activity of Cinnamomum spp.
3.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Phytocompounds of Cinnamomum spp.
3.2 Antioxidant Activity of Phytocompounds of Cinnamomum spp.
3.3 Anti-inflammatory and Anticancer Activity of Phytocompounds of Cinnamomum spp.
3.4 Wound Healing Activity of Phytocompounds of Cinnamomum spp.
4 Conclusion
References
Medicinal Properties and Population Studies on Sarcostigma kleinii Wight & Arn.
1 Introduction
2 Family Icacinaceae
3 Sarcostigma Kleinii
4 Sarcostigma kleinii: Geographic Distribution
5 Taxonomic Description of the Plant
6 Phytochemical Constituents
7 Medicinal Properties
8 Phylogenetic Studies
9 Conclusion
References
The Utility of Natural Mucilage from the Medicinal Plant, ‘Patha’ (Cyclea peltata) as an Alternative for Solidifying Agent in Cell Growth Media
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Collection and Authentication of Plant Sample
2.2 Ingredients of Growth Media
2.2.1 Muller-Hinton Agar
2.2.2 MS medium (Murashige and Skoog Medium) [13]
2.3 Reagents Used in the Study
3 Methods
3.1 Preparation of Various Extracts of C. Peltata
3.1.1 Preparation of Aqueous Extract
3.1.2 Preparation of Chloroform and Ethanol Extract
3.2 Extraction of C. peltata Leaf Gel
3.3 Morphological and Phytochemical Characterization
3.3.1 Preliminary Phytochemical Screening
Test for Alkaloids [14]
Test for Carbohydrates [14]
Test for Tannins and Phenolic Compounds [15]
Test for Flavonoids [14]
Test for Saponins [16]
Test for Protein [17]
Test for Reducing Sugar [18]
3.4 Functional Group Analysis by FTIR Method
3.5 Antibacterial Screening of the Leaf Extracts
3.5.1 Preparation of Bacterial Inocula
3.5.2 Preparation of Bacteriological Media
3.5.3 Procedure for Disc Diffusion Method
3.6 Preparation of Cell Growth Media with Gel as a Solidifying Agent
3.6.1 Preparation of MS Media Preparation
Preparation of Micronutrient Stock
Preparation of Vitamin Mixture Stock (100X)
Preparation of Cytokinin Stock (100X)
Step by Step Mixing of MS Medium
Explant Sterilization and Inoculation
Transfer of Explant to the Tissue Culture Medium
4 Result and Discussion
4.1 Physical Properties and Phytochemical Characterization of the Gel
4.1.1 Physical Properties of the Gel
4.1.2 Phytochemical Screening
4.1.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer Analysis
4.2 Antibacterial Properties of the Extract
4.3 Suitability of Gel as an Alternative Solidifying Agent in Cell Growth Media
5 Conclusion
References
Secondary Metabolites in Ophiorrhiza brunonis Wight & Arn. (Rubiaceae): A Lead Towards Its Anticancer Potential
1 Introduction
2 Materials
2.1 Plant Materials Used
2.2 Chemicals Used
2.3 Equipments Used
3 Methods
3.1 Preparation of the Extract
3.2 Qualitative Phytochemical Analyses
3.2.1 Test for Phenols
Ferric Chloride Test
3.2.2 Test for Flavonoids
Lead Acetate Test
3.2.3 Test for Alkaloids
Wagner’s Test
Hager’s Test
3.2.4 Test for Phytosterols
Sulphuric Acid Test
3.2.5 Test for Terpenoids
Salkowski Test
3.2.6 Test for Tannins
Lead Acetate Test
3.2.7 Test for Phlobatannins
Precipitation Test
3.2.8 Test for Anthraquinones
Borntrager’s Test
3.2.9 Test for Coumarins
Ferric Chloride Test
3.2.10 Test for Glycosides
Legal’s Test
3.3 Quantitative Estimation of Major Phytoconstituents
3.3.1 Total Phenolic Content (TP)
3.3.2 Total Flavonoid Content (TF)
3.3.3 Total Terpenoid Content (TT)
3.3.4 Total Alkaloid Content (TA)
3.4 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) Analysis
3.5 Identification of Compounds
3.6 Statistical Analysis
4 Results
4.1 Qualitative Phytochemical Analyses
4.2 Quantitative Estimation of Major Phytoconstituents
4.3 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) Analysis
5 Discussion
6 Conclusion
References
Marine Macroalgae as a Treasure House of Bioactive Compounds and Nutraceuticals
1 Introduction
2 Diversity and Classification of Marine Macroalgae
3 Ethanapharmacology of Marine Macroalgae
4 Marine Macroalgae as Valuable Bioresources of Pharmacologically Active Metabolites and Functional Food Products
5 Therapeutic Applications of Marine Macroalgae
6 Chemical Compounds from Marine Macroalgae
6.1 Terpenoids
6.2 Lipidic Compounds
6.3 Polysaccharides
6.4 Polyketide Derivatives
6.5 Polyphenolic Compounds
7 Various Classes of Bioactive Compounds Isolated from Turbinaria sp
7.1 Miscellaneous
8 Nutraceuticals from Marine Macroalgae
9 Conclusions
References
Plant Metabolites as New Leads to Herbal Drug Discovery: Approaches and Challenges
1 Introduction
1.1 Drugs from Natural Sources
2 Approaches of Development of Drug from Plant Species
2.1 Identification of Candidate Plant Species
2.1.1 The Traditional Medical System’s Approach
2.1.2 Ethno-Pharmacology Approach
2.1.3 Zoo Pharmacology Approach
2.2 Screening of Compounds with Therapeutic Use
2.2.1 Parallel Approach
2.2.2 Step-by-Step Approach
3 Techniques for Characterisation of Isolated Extract
3.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
3.2 Gas Chromatography
3.3 Spectroscopic Techniques
3.3.1 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
3.3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy
3.3.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
3.3.4 Mass Spectroscopy
4 Case Study of Herbal Molecules Developed as Anti-cancer Drugs
5 Challenges and a Plan to Overcome Them
5.1 Plant Extracts Are Incompatible with High-Throughput Screening (HTS)
5.2 Demand Factor
5.3 Increasing Rarity
5.4 Threat of Extinction
5.5 Cultivation of Medical Crops
5.6 Bio-piracy
6 Scenario Currently Now
7 Conclusion
References
Biochanin A Chemistry, Structural Modifications, and Therapeutic Applications: An Update
1 Introduction to Natural Products
2 Natural Sources of Biochanin A
3 Chemistry of Biochanin A
4 Structural Modifications of Biochanin A
5 Pharmacological Activities of Biochanin A
5.1 Antihyperglycemic Effect
5.2 Osteogenic Effect
5.3 Gastroprotective Effect
5.4 Neuroprotective Activity
5.5 Anticancer Activity of Biochanin A
5.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity of Biochanin A
5.7 Antimicrobial Activity of Biochanin A
5.8 Hepatoprotective Activity of Biochanin A
6 Conclusion
References
Dietary Natural Polyphenols Against Bacterial and Fungal Infections: An Emerging Gravity in Health Care and Food Industry
1 Introduction
1.1 Sources of Polyphenols
1.2 Role in Antimicrobial Activity
1.3 Potential Use in Food Industry
2 Sources of Dietary Polyphenols
2.1 Chemistry and Classification of Polyphenols
2.2 Microbial Sources
2.3 Biosynthesis and Metabolic Engineering for Production of Polyphenols
3 Antimicrobial Activity of Polyphenols
3.1 Antibacterial Activity
3.2 Anti-candidal Activity
4 Polyphenolic Antibacterial for Food Preservation
4.1 Food Preservative Potential
4.2 Food Packaging Potential
4.3 Challenges in the Application to Food Industry
5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Phyto-Constituents as Potential Leads for the Development of Novel Antiepileptic Drugs
1 Introduction: Etiology, Symptoms, and Classification of Epilepsy
2 Pharmacological Therapy of Epilepsy
3 Worldwide Condition
4 The Drug-Resistant Epilepsy
5 Problems Associated with the Use of Existing AEDs
5.1 Developmental Problem with Intrauterine Antiepileptic Exposure
5.2 Enzyme Induction with Antiepileptic Drugs
5.3 Liver Enzymes Affected by Antiepileptic Drug
5.4 Antiepileptic Drugs’ Effect on Growth and Bone Metabolism
5.5 Visual Performance Affected by Antiepileptic Drugs
5.6 CNS Adverse Effects
5.6.1 Cognitive Effects
5.6.2 Psychiatric Effects
5.7 General Medical Effects
5.8 Hypersensitivity
5.9 Paediatric Issues
6 The Herbal Remedies for Epilepsy
7 Molecular Targets for Antiepileptic Drugs
7.1 Receptors as AED Targets
7.1.1 Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
Voltage-Gated Na+ Channels
Voltage-Gated Ca+ Channels
Voltage-Gated K + Channels
HCN Channels
Voltage-Gated Chloride Channels (ClC)
7.1.2 Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
GABAA Receptors
Nicotinic Cholinergic Receptors
Glycine Receptors
Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors
NMDA Receptors
AMPA Receptors
7.1.3 Acid-Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs)
7.1.4 G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)
Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors
GABAB Receptors
7.2 Enzymes as AED Targets
7.2.1 GABA-Transaminase
7.2.2 Carbonic Anhydrase
8 Computational Approach Towards Development of New AEDs from Herbal Sources
8.1 Structure-Based Drug Design (SBDD)
8.2 Ligand-Based Drug Design (LBDD)
9 Conclusion and Perspective
References
Role of Polyphenols in Cardiovascular Diseases
1 Introduction
2 Risk Factors for CVD
2.1 Diabetes
2.2 Cholesterol
2.3 Smoking
3 Phenolics in CVD
4 Flavonoids
5 Stilbene in CVD
6 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Steam Distillation: Principle and Applications for the Extraction of Essential Oils from Plants
1 Introduction
2 Distillation
3 Brief History
3.1 Steam Distillation
3.2 Principle
3.3 Microwave-Assisted Steam Distillation
4 Future Aspects
References
Key Factors Influencing Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation Efficiency in Plants: A Case Study
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Agrobacterium: A Natural Plant Genetic Engineer
37.3 Ti Plasmid: Role and Importance
37.4 T-DNA Transcription
37.5 Coding Properties of T-DNA
37.6 T-DNA Transfer and Integration
37.7 Factors Influencing Agrobacterium Transformation Efficiency
37.8 Hijacking of Plant Signals and Structures by Agrobacterium
37.9 Genetic Engineering of Plants
37.10 Expanded Host Range
37.11 T-DNA in Untransformed Plants
37.12 Concluding Comments
References
Evaluation of Medicinal Plant with Reference to Its Substitute
1 Introduction
2 Plant Description
2.1 Valeriana wallichii
2.2 Description
2.3 Valeriana officinalis
2.4 Description
3 Review of Literature
3.1 Valerianaceae
3.2 Valeriana wallichii
3.3 Valeriana officinalis
4 Phytochemistry
5 Total Phenol, Flavonoid, and Tannin Content
6 Chromatographic Analysis
7 Antioxidant Activity
8 Anxiolytic Effects
9 Materials and Methods
9.1 Plant Materials
9.2 Methods
9.2.1 Collection of Plant Materials
9.2.2 Processing of Plant Materials
9.2.3 Preparation of Extracts
10 To Compare the Distinguishing Characteristics of the Sample Macroscopical Analysis
10.1 Microscopical Analysis
10.1.1 Powder Microscopy
10.1.2 Anatomical Analysis [43]
10.2 Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis
10.3 Physicochemical Analysis
11 Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) Profiling [23]
12 High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
12.1 Terpenoids
13 Total Phenol Content [13]
14 DPPH Antioxidant Assay
15 Results
15.1 Macroscopical Analysis
15.1.1 Valeriana wallichii DC
15.1.2 Valeriana officinalis L
15.2 Microscopical Analysis
15.2.1 Powder Microscopy
Valeriana wallichii DC
Valeriana officinalis L.
15.3 Anatomical Analysis
15.3.1 Valeriana wallichii DC
15.3.2 Rhizome
15.3.3 Valeriana officinalis L.
16 Phytochemical Evaluation
16.1 High-Pressure Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) Profiling
16.2 Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity
16.2.1 Properties (Fig. 3)
17 Discussion
17.1 Comparative Evaluation of Valeriana wallichii and Valeriana officinalis
17.1.1 Macroscopic Analysis
17.1.2 Microscopic Analysis
17.1.3 Phytochemical Analysis
17.1.4 Physicochemical Analysis
17.1.5 Chromatographical Analysis
Thin-Layer Chromatography
HPTLC
18 Antioxidant Activity
19 Summary
References
Biotechnology: Production of Natural Bioactive Compounds from Leguminous Plants and Disease Management
1 Introduction
1.1 Leguminous Seeds
1.2 Bioactive Compounds in Legume Seeds
2 Nutritional and Antinutritional Components of Legume Seeds
2.1 Compounds Derived from Phenols
2.1.1 Tannins
2.1.2 Flavonoids
2.1.3 Isoflavones
2.1.4 Phytic Acid
2.1.5 Saponins
2.1.6 Lectin
2.1.7 Protein
2.1.8 Fibre
2.1.9 Phytic Acid
2.1.10 Minerals and Vitamins
2.1.11 Photochemical in Legumes
2.1.12 Legume Fibres
2.1.13 Antioxidant Activity
2.1.14 Antinutritional Components (ANC)
Legume Plants with Potential Nutraceutical Properties
2.1.15 Soybean, Black (Glycine max L.)
2.1.16 Pigeon Pea
2.1.17 Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum)
2.1.18 Kidney Bean (Phaseolus sp.)
Nutritional Value of Leguminous Plant
3 Biotechnological Approach: Production of Bioactive Components
3.1 Iron Fortification of Food
3.2 Biofortification
4 Disease Management
5 Conclusion
References
Novel Eco-Friendly Method of Extraction for Fixed Oils Using Solvent Action of Solid Solubilizers
1 Introduction
2 Techniques to Enhance the Solubility of Drug
2.1 Mixed Solvency Concept
2.1.1 Advantages of Mixed Solvency Concept
3 Extraction
3.1 Organic Solvents Used for Extraction
3.1.1 Drawbacks of Organic Solvents
4 Materials and Methods Used
4.1 Procedure of Determination of Solubility of Sesame Oil
4.1.1 Approximate Solubility of Sesame Oil in Melted Thymol (Temperature About 50 °C)
4.1.2 Approximate Solubility of Sesame Oil in Melted Menthol (at About 45 °C)
4.1.3 Approximate Solubility of Sesame Oil in a Solution Containing 50% w/v Thymol in Ethanol
4.1.4 Approximate Solubility of Sesame Oil in a Solution Containing 50% w/v Menthol in Ethanol
4.1.5 Approximate Solubility of Sesame Oil in a Solution Containing 25% w/v Thymol and 25% w/v Menthol in Ethanol
4.1.6 Approximate Solubility of Sesame Oil in a Eutectic Mixture of Thymol and Menthol in 1:1 Ratio (M-T-1:1)
4.2 Removability of Solids by Heating
4.3 Extraction Methods
4.3.1 Extraction of Sesame Oil from Powdered Sesame Seeds with Melted Thymol (Temperature About 50 °C)
4.3.2 Extraction of Sesame Oil from Powdered Sesame Seeds with a Solution Containing 50% w/v Thymol in Ethanol
4.3.3 Extraction of Sesame Oil from Powdered Sesame Seeds with Melted Menthol (Temperature About 45 °C)
4.3.4 Extraction of Sesame Oil from Powdered Sesame Seeds with a Solution Containing 50% w/v Menthol in Ethanol
4.3.5 Extraction of Sesame Oil from Powdered Sesame Seeds with a Solution Containing 25% w/v Thymol and 25% w/v Menthol in Ethanol
4.3.6 Extraction of Sesame Oil from Powdered Sesame Seeds with a Eutectic Liquid of Menthol and Thymol in 1:1 Ratio
4.3.7 Extraction of Sesame Oil from Powdered Sesame Seeds with Hexane
5 Result and Discussion
6 Conclusion
References
Conservation Attempts of Woody Medicinal Plants of India by Biotechnological Tools
1 Introduction
2 Effect of Various Sterilant on Various Explants of Shoot, Node, Leaves, and Seeds
3 Effect on Various Media on In Vitro Shoot Multiplication
4 Effect on Various Hormones or PGRs
5 Hardening
6 Restoration to the Field
7 Conclusion
References
Conservation of Endangered Medicinal Plants by In Vitro Propagation Methods
1 Introduction
2 Medicinal Plants: A Valuable Source of Herbal Products
3 Endangered Medicinal Plants and Their Conservation
4 In Vitro Propagation of Various Endangered Medicinal Plants with Pharmacological Properties
4.1 Seed Culture
4.2 Embryo Culture
4.3 Callus Culture
4.4 Shoot Tip/Apical Meristem Culture
4.5 Protoplast Culture
4.6 Bud Culture
4.7 Somatic Embryogenesis
5 Conclusion
References
Application of Biotechnology to Produce Plant-Derived Biologically Important Compounds
1 Introduction
1.1 Plants as Source of Bioactive Compounds
1.2 Commercially Important Plant Metabolites
1.3 Benefits of Using Plant Secondary Metabolites
1.4 Strategies for Improving Production or Secondary Metabolites
1.5 Approaches for Producing Bioactive Chemicals via Genetic Engineering
1.6 Biotechnology and Bioactive Compound Production, as Well as Molecular Biotechnology Techniques
1.7 Current and Future Perspectives
References
Appraisal of Medicinal Plants for Pharmacological Properties
1 Introduction
1.1 Medicinal Plants: What Are the Major Concerns and Differences from Other Crop and Non-crop Plants?
1.2 What Are the Major Families of Medicinal Plants?
1.3 Global Status of Medicinal Plants: All Are Wild-Collected, Cultivated, or Both?
1.4 Secondary Metabolites: Species-Specific Remarkable Metabolites
1.5 Roles of Secondary Metabolites in Combating Diseases
1.6 Pharmacological Effects: Sensu Lato
1.7 Pharmacology
1.8 Powerful Analysis of Relevant Studies: VOSviewer Software for Reducing Dimension and Revealing Core Points of the Medicinal Plant Studies
2 Future of Medicinal Plants and Pharmacological Effects
3 Conclusions
References
Pharmacological Properties and Tissue Culture Method of Endangered Medicinal Plants
1 Introduction
2 Seed Propagation
2.1 Effect of Fruiting Rate on Seed Reproduction of Rare and Endangered Plants
2.2 Effect of Breaking Dormancy on Plant Seed Reproduction
2.3 Effect of Germination Inhibitors on Plant Seed Reproduction
3 Graft Propagation
4 Cutting Propagation
5 Tissue Culture Fast Propagation
6 Protection of Rare and Endangered Medicinal Plants
6.1 In Situ Conservation
6.2 Ex Situ Conservations
7 Conclusion
References
Natural Compounds with Pharmacological Properties in Clinical Trials
1 Introduction
2 Curcumin
3 Ginger
4 Sumac
5 Lemon Balm
6 Cinnamon
7 Rheum Ribes
8 Urtica Dioica
9 Conclusions
References
Phytopharmacological Aspects of the Genus Terminalia
1 Introduction
2 Phytochemical Aspects
2.1 Major Classes of Compounds and Chemical Constituents of Species of Terminalia
3 Pharmacological Activities
3.1 Antioxidant Activity
3.2 Antimicrobial Activity
3.3 Antiproliferative Activity
3.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity
4 Conclusion
References
Anticancer Potential of Plant-Derived Compounds: An Overview of Their Epigenetic Mode of Action
1 Introduction
2 Epigenetic Mechanisms Involved in the Commencement of Cancer
2.1 DNA Methylation
2.2 Histone Modifications
2.3 Noncoding RNAs
2.4 Polycomb Group Proteins
2.5 Cell Cycle Regulator Molecules
2.6 Akt/PKB Signaling Pathway
3 Modern Approaches for Cancer Treatment: Challenges and Future Implications
3.1 Epigenetic Cancer Profiling and Specificity of Epidrugs
3.2 Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs)
3.3 The Nutrient Strategy
4 Conclusion
References
Treatment of Cancer Using Combination of Herbal and Novel Drug Delivery System
1 Introduction
2 Applications of Nanotechnology
2.1 Classification of Nanoparticles
2.1.1 One-Dimension Nanoparticles
2.1.2 Two-Dimension Nanoparticles
2.1.3 Three-Dimension Nanoparticles
2.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles
3 Preparation of Nanoparticles
3.1 Emulsion-Solvent Evaporation Method
3.2 Salting- Out Method
3.3 Emulsion-Diffusion Method
3.4 Solvent Displacement/Precipitation Method
4 Characterization of Nanoparticles
4.1 Particle Size
4.2 Surface Charge
4.3 Surface Hydrophobicity
5 There are Numerous Features that Nanotechnology are Researching for Cancer Treatment Grounds, as Following [37]
6 Nanotechnology and Targeted Drug Delivery
7 Mechanisms of Drug Release
8 Nanomedicine and New Drug Therapies for Cancer
9 Requirements for an Effective and Safe Cancer Drug
References
Anti-inflammatory Potential of Lead Compounds and Their Derivatives from Medicinal Plants
1 Introduction
2 Inflammatory Diseases
2.1 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
2.2 Dermal Inflammatory Disease
2.3 Neural Inflammatory Disease
2.4 Dental Inflammatory Disease
2.5 Renal Inflammatory Disease
2.6 Respiratory Inflammatory Disease
3 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs
3.1 Mechanism of Action
3.2 NSAIDs in Current Use
3.3 Disadvantages of NSAIDs
4 Anti-inflammatory Potential of Plants
4.1 Advantages of Plant Lead Compounds Over NSAIDS
5 Medicinal Plants with Anti-inflammatory Potential
5.1 Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)
5.2 Garcinia mangostana Linn. (Guttiferae)
5.3 Harpagophytum procumbens (Pedaliaceae)
5.4 Phyllanthus polyphyllus Linn. (Euphorbiaceae)
5.5 Rosa canina (Rosaceae)
5.6 Olea europaea (Oleaceae)
5.7 Ambrosia psilostachya (Asteraceae)
5.8 Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)
5.9 Bischofia javanica (Phyllanthaceae)
5.10 Caesalpinia digyna (Fabaceae)
5.11 Sphenocentrum jollyanum (Menispermaceae)
5.12 Kigelia africana (Bignoniaceae)
5.13 Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)
5.14 Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)
6 Classes of Phytochemicals and Their Lead Compounds
6.1 Alkaloids
6.2 Terpenoids
6.3 Polyphenols
7 Conclusion
References
Alzheimer’s Disease Treatment Using Natural Foods: A Overview
1 Introduction
1.1 Foods as Medicine in Treating the Disease
2 Phyto-Based Drugs
3 Exploring Efficacy of Phyto-Based Drugs
4 Toxicity Issues
5 Past and Future Expectations
6 Conclusion
References
Natural Products Used in the Treatment of Autoimmune Disorder
1 Introduction
2 Causes of Autoimmune Disease
3 Types of Autoimmune Disorders
3.1 Type 1 Diabetes
3.1.1 Emblica officinalis
3.1.2 Momordica charantia
3.1.3 Nigella sativa
3.1.4 Sida cordiflia
3.1.5 Psidium guajava
3.1.6 Gymnema sylvestre
3.1.7 Azadirachta indica
3.1.8 Allium sativum
3.1.9 Tinospora cordifolia
3.1.10 Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
3.1.11 Panax ginseng
3.1.12 Cinnamomum cassia
3.1.13 Plantago ovata
3.1.14 Zingiber officinale
3.2 Rheumatoid Arthritis
4 Natural Products Used in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis
4.1 Curcuma longa
4.2 Tripterygium wilfordii
4.2.1 Alkaloids
4.2.2 Phenolic Compounds
4.2.3 Quercetin
4.2.4 Psoriasis
4.3 Glycyrrhiza glabra
4.4 Calendula officinalis L.
4.5 Annona squamosa
4.6 Melaleuca alternifolia
4.7 Momordica charantia
4.8 Silybum marianum
4.8.1 Graves’ Disease
5 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
5.1 Multiple Sclerosis
6 Conclusion
References
Strategies to Improve Antimicrobial Activity of Natural Products: Approaches and Challenges
1 Introduction
2 Antimicrobial Combinations
2.1 Plant Extracts or Bioactive Fractions
2.2 Essential Oils (EOs)
2.3 Natural Products or Isolated Compounds
3 Encapsulation of Bioactive Molecules
3.1 Polymeric and Lipid-Based Nanosystems
3.1.1 Nanosystems with EOs
3.1.2 Nanosystems with Aqueous or Alcoholic Extracts
3.1.3 Nanosystems with Natural Products
3.2 Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexes
3.3 Natural Products Combined with Metals
4 Benefits and Limitations of the Strategies Employed for Improving Antibacterial Activity
References
Plants with Immunomodulatory Potential Described in Ayurveda
1 Introduction
2 Immunity and Immunomodulators
3 Classification and Mechanism of Action of Immunomodulators [14]
4 Concept of Immunity and Immunomodulators in Ayurveda
4.1 Immunomodulators
4.2 Plants Described in Ayurveda with Scientifically Established Immunomodulatory Potential
5 Discussion
6 Conclusion
References
Plant-Derived Drugs for Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurological Disorders
1 Introduction
2 Etiology of Alzheimer’s Disease
3 Medicinal Plants Effective for Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurological Disorders
3.1 Withania somnifera
3.1.1 Neuroprotective Property
3.1.2 Antioxidant Property
3.1.3 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Inhibitory Activity
3.1.4 Neuro-regenerative Property
3.1.5 Withania somnifera and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases
3.2 Centella asiatica (Gotu Kola)
3.2.1 Neuroprotective property
3.2.2 Antioxidant Property
3.2.3 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Inhibitory Activity
3.3 Evodia rutaecarpa benthem
3.4 Salvia officinalis
3.5 Rehmannia glutinosa
3.6 Gastrodia elata
3.7 Cinnamomi cortex (CC)
4 Conclusions
References
Properties and Mechanism of Antimicrobial Agents from Plant-Derived Essential Oils
1 Introduction
1.1 Lectins and Polypeptides
1.2 Alkaloids
1.3 Phenolic Compounds
1.4 Quinones
1.5 Flavonoids, Flavones and Flavanols
1.6 Tannins
1.7 Coumarins
1.8 Terpenoids
2 Mechanism of Action of PEOs
3 Antimicrobial Agents from Essential Oils
4 Future Perspectives and Conclusion
References
Nanotechnological Modus Operandi for the Delivery of Cytotoxic Phytochemicals
1 Introduction
2 Liposome
3 Carbon Nanotubes
4 Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPS)
5 Micelles
6 Dendrimers
7 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
8 Exosomes
9 Polymeric Nanoparticles
10 Nanofibres
11 Clinical Studies of Various Nanocarriers Containing Cytotoxic Phytochemicals
12 Conclusion
References
Plant-Based Green Nanoparticles in Cancer Diagnosis and Chemotherapy
1 Introduction
2 Gold Nanoparticles (AUNPS): Plant-Based Synthesis and Cancer Treatment
2.1 Gold Nanoparticles in Sensors for Probing and Imaging Tumour Cells
2.2 Gold Nanoparticles As a Drug Delivery Vehicle Targeted to Cancer Cells
2.3 Gold Nanoparticle as Computed Tomography Contrast Agent in Detection of Cancer
2.4 Plant-Based Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticle
3 Silver Nanoparticle: Green Synthesis and Cancer Treatment
3.1 Silver Nanoparticle in Different Cancer Diagnosis and Treatments
3.2 Plant-Mediated Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
4 Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs) in Cancer Therapy and Green Synthetic Routes
4.1 Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs) in Cancer Therapy
4.2 Green Synthesis of Copper Nanoparticle
5 Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPS)
5.1 Poly (Lactide-CO-Glycolide) [PLGA]
5.2 Hyaluronic Acid (HA)
5.3 Poly(Ethylene Glycol) (PEG)
5.4 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
5.5 Chitosan
6 Conclusion
References
Use of Plant-Derived Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy
1 Use of Plant Resources in Cancer Therapy: Anticancer Phytochemical
2 Principal Steps in the Process of Nanoparticle Biosynthesis
2.1 Nano-based Drug Delivery
3 Nanoparticles
3.1 Silver Nanoparticles
3.2 Nanodiamonds
3.2.1 In Silico Studies of Plant Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy
4 Liposomes
5 Micelle
6 Cladiella pachyclados
7 Flavonoids
8 Chitosan
9 Pro-haloacetate NPs
10 Plants and Bioactive Component-Based Nanoparticles
11 Drug Release Nanosystem
12 Polyphenol Nanoformulations for Cancer Therapy
12.1 Coumarins
12.2 Flavonoids
12.3 Diarylheptanoid (Curcumin)
References
The Global Concern for Cancer Emergence and Its Prevention: A Systematic Unveiling of the Present Scenario
1 Introduction
2 Understanding the Burden of Cancer in a Global Perspective
2.1 Increasing Scale and Profile of Cancer Globally
2.2 Current Trends and Future Burden in Cancer Incidence
2.3 Impact of Socioeconomic Status on Health and Cancer Incidence
3 Factors Behind the Emergence of Cancer
3.1 Physical Factors
3.1.1 Ionizing Radiation
3.1.2 Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields
3.1.3 Ultraviolet Radiation
3.2 Chemical Factors
3.2.1 Alcohol Consumption
3.2.2 Tobacco Use
3.2.3 Exposure to Other Chemicals and Environmental Toxicants
3.3 Biological Factors
3.3.1 Carcinogenic Substances and Toxicants in Food
3.3.2 Diet and Physical Activity
3.3.3 Infections and Infectious Agents
4 Prevention Strategies to Reduce the Global Cancer Burden
4.1 Reducing the Growing Burden of Cancer
4.2 Early-Stage Detection of Cancer
4.3 Biomarkers as a Tool for an Early Detection of Cancer
4.3.1 Circulating Nucleic Acids
4.3.2 Epigenetic Markers
4.4 Screening
4.5 Treatment and Palliative Care
4.6 Role of Naturally Occurring Phytochemicals in Cancer Prevention
5 Conclusion
References
Commonly Used Poisonous Medicinal Plants in Unani System of Medicine
1 Introduction
1.1 Strychnos nux-vomica L.
1.1.1 Detoxification/Rectification Methods
1.2 Hyoscyamus niger L.
1.3 Abrus precatorius L.
1.4 Ricinus communis
1.5 Datura stramonium/Datura innoxia/D. metel L.
1.6 Croton tiglium L.
1.6.1 Detoxification/Rectification Methods
1.7 Semecarpus anacardium L.
1.7.1 Detoxification/Rectification Methods
1.8 Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. and Calotropis gigantean (L.) R.Br
1.9 Papaver somniferum L.
1.9.1 Detoxification/Rectification Methods
1.10 Aconitum Spp.
1.10.1 Detoxification/Rectification Methods
1.11 Cannabis sativa L.
1.12 Nicotiana tabacum L.
2 Conclusion
References
Herbal Drugs: Safety, Cost-Effectiveness, Regulation, Current Trends, and Future Directions
1 Introduction to Herbal Medicine: A Growing Field with a Long History
2 The Global Market Demand of Herbal Medicine
3 Regulation
4 Efficacy of Herbal Medicine
5 Quality, Safety, and Scientific Evidences
6 Cost-Effectiveness and Economic Evaluation of Herbal Medicines
7 Research Needs and Future Directions
8 Conclusion
References
Therapeutic Properties of Herbal Constituents Subjected for Clinical Trials
1 Introduction
1.1 Garlic
1.2 Aloe vera
1.3 Smilax
1.4 Meadow Saffron
1.5 Asparagus
1.6 Lily of the Valley
2 Conclusions
References
Plant-Derived Immunomodulators Targeting COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2): Preclinical Evaluation and Clinical Trials
1 Introduction
2 Phytoimmunomodulators
2.1 Ocimum sanctum
2.2 Tinospora cordifolia
2.3 Withania somnifera
2.4 Glycyrrhiza glabra
2.5 Emblica officinalis
3 Conclusion
References
Index
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Karuppusamy Arunachalam Xuefei Yang Sreeja Puthanpura Sasidharan Editors
Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants
Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants
Karuppusamy Arunachalam • Xuefei Yang Sreeja Puthanpura Sasidharan Editors
Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants
Editors Karuppusamy Arunachalam Center for Studies in Stem Cells Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics (CeTroGen) Graduate Program in Health and Development in the Midwest Region Faculty of Medicine (FAMED) Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) Campo Grande, Cidade Universitária Pioneiros, MS, Brazil
Xuefei Yang Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources Kunming Institute of Botany Kunming, Yunnan, China
Sreeja Puthanpura Sasidharan Department of Botany NSS College Nemmara Palakkad, Kerala, India
ISBN 978-3-031-28779-4 ISBN 978-3-031-28780-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Natural or phyto-products, in particular medicinal plants and their derived products, as an indispensable source of bioactive molecules serve as either drug candidates or as source of compounds for drug design and discovery purposes. There are several advantages for plant-derived therapeutics, including wide availability, diverse and synergetic pharmacological actions, and a generally good profile of safety and tolerability. Over the recent years, there have been numerous reports from clinical studies testifying the efficacy and safety of medicinal plants and phytochemicals in ameliorating several human diseases. A plethora of basic studies has also unravelled molecular mechanisms underlying the health benefits of herbal medicines. Nevertheless, issues such as identification of bioactive ingredients, standardization of the products, and drug interactions remain to be further studied. The book Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants mainly focuses on the medicinal properties and pharmacological action of natural products, the medicinal plants, and phytochemicals, in different settings ranging from in vitro models to clinical trials. The goal is to present the reader a comprehensive collection on most of the therapeutic aspects of plant-derived natural products and molecular mechanisms thereof. This book will be valuable to biodiversity and conservation researchers, ethnopharmacologist, ethnobiologists, ethnoecologists, naturalists, phytochemists, pharmacists, policymakers, and anybody who cares about the environment. It covers all areas of plant-based medicine evaluation and development, including cultivation, collection, phytochemical and phytopharmacological analysis, and therapeutic potential analysis in clinical trials. The focus is on describing the whole range of evidence-based complementary medicine and bio-analytical techniques used to define botanical products, such as therapeutic traditional knowledge of herbs, phytochemical analysis, pharmacological studies, and hyphenated techniques, among others. The book explains how medicinal plants are used for phytotherapy in world countries. Moreover, this book will aid the bio-prospection of herbal products as well as medication discovery and development based on traditional medicine. We convey our heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to all contributors for their prompt answers, good and up-to-date contributions, and persistent collaboration. v
vi
Preface
We also thank our colleagues and our research students for their cooperation and critical suggestions. The technical support and continued encouragement received from Dr. Kenneth Teng (Editor) and the book publishing team at Springer Nature, Springer New York 233, Spring Street, New York, NY 10013-1522, USA, is also acknowledged. We express deep gratitude to Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), Fundação de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento do Ensino (FUNDECT), and Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) for financial support. Also, this project work was financially supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences – President’s International Fellowship for Postdoctoral Research (CAS-PIFI, Reference no. 2020PB0112), Inventory and Database Construction Project of Herbal Medicine, along with the “Belt and Road Countries” (Grantnumber 2018FY100700), the Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Peoples Republic of China (GrantnumberY4ZK111B01), and the Yunnan Province Science and Technology Department (Grantnumber 202203AP140007). Finally, we acknowledge Almighty God, who provided all the channels to work in cohesion and coordination right from the conception of the idea to the development of the final version of this book. Pioneiros, MS, Brazil Karuppusamy Arunachalam Kunming, Yunnan, China Xuefei Yang Palakkad, Kerala, India Sreeja Puthanpura Sasidharan
Contents
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1 Khikeya Semy and Ruokuonuo Kuotsu Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North Maharashtra, India �������������������������������������������������������� 25 Y. A. Ahirrao, M. V. Patil, and D. A. Patil An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary (GSWS) Tamil Nadu, India �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43 Pious Soris Tresina, Murugeswaran Santhiya Selvam, Vallinayagam Sornalakshmi, and Veerabahu Ramasamy Mohan Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Irula Tribal Settlement of Attappady in Palakkad District, Kerala, India �������������������������������������� 107 C. V. Jayalekshmi, Reshma K. Ramesh, M. Vijai, and V. Suresh Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123 C. V. Jayalekshmi, S. Reshma, and V. Suresh Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis on Ethno-Medicinal Plants������������������������������������������������� 159 R. Manikandan, S. P. Nithya, and R. Mehala Devi Phytomedicines Used in Respiratory Diseases by Traditional Healers of Lakhimpur and Dhemaji Districts of Assam, India ���������������� 227 Pinki Gogoi, Pyonim Lungphi, A. P. Das, and Victor Singh Ayam Understanding Phytomedicinal Gastronomic Culture of the Nagas in Nagaland, India������������������������������������������������������������������� 243 Lydia Yeptho and T. Ajungla
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Medicinal Plants in the Indian Traditional Medicine and Current Practices������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 253 Ritee Basu, Sukanya Dasgupta, Spoorthy N. Babu, and Ayesha Noor Conservation of RET Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Their Traditional Medicines and Current Practices in Indian Himalayan Region������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 287 Rajeev Ranjan Kumar, Jaidev Chauhan, V. K. Purohit, P. Prasad, and M. C. Nautiyal Traditional Amchi Medicinal Practice in Trans-Himalaya of Nepal: Conservation and Bioprospecting���������������������������������������������������������������� 307 Neva Chaudhary, Suresh K. Ghimire, and Ram P. Chaudhary Appraisal of Medicinal Plants Diversity Inhabited in Deserts Areas�������� 329 Salman Majeed, Muhammad Zafar, Mushtaq Ahmad, Shazia Sultana, Fethi Ahmet Ozdemir, Omer Kilic, Ghulam Yaseen, and Nabila Bush Medicinal Plants of the Australian Wet Tropics and Their Biodiscovery Potential ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 357 Karma Yeshi and Phurpa Wangchuk Trillium govanianum – A Promising Endemic Medicinal Herb of the Himalaya������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 381 Kausar Rashid, Sufiya Rashid, Aijaz Hassan Ganie, Irshad A. Nawchoo, Mudasir A. Tantry, and Anzar A. Khuroo Comprehensive Review on Wild Basil Genus Orthosiphon of Lamiaceae�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 409 K. Abirami, P. Revathi, K. Thenmozhi, and K. Sowndhararajan Zingiberaceae Plants: A Cornucopia of Promising Chemotherapeuticals for Cancer Cure�������������������������������������������������������� 427 T. Soumya, P. R. Jayasree, and P. R. Manish Kumar Moringa oleifera Accessions: Perspectives and Application as Nutraceuticals and Phytomedicines�������������������������������������������������������� 463 Nikita Patel and Ramar Krishnamurthy Overview of Ethnobotany, Phytochemicals, and Pharmacological An Properties of Ficus Species���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 481 Sreeja Puthanpura Sasidharan, Xuefei Yang, and Karuppusamy Arunachalam Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz������������������������ 511 Sunil Kumar and Bikarma Singh
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Resilience Activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra in Relation to Cancer: Chemistry and Mechanism �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 529 Naveen Dhingra, Shaligram Sharma, Pratima Kumari, and Anand Kar Strobilanthes: A Plethora of Phytomedicine������������������������������������������������ 545 Reshmi Chembrammal, Aswathi Pokkadath, and John Ernest Thoppil Annonaceae: Tropical Medicinal Plants with Potential Anticancer Acetogenins and Alkaloids���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 565 Sonia Mol Joseph and A. R. Amala Dev Biocolorant from Anisochilus carnosus: A Natural Food Preservative���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 589 Suman Thamburaj, Chayanika Sarma, Anju Mariam Johnson, Akhila Etikala, and Suresh Kumar Kalakandan Therapeutic Properties of Nardostachys jatamansi and Its Applications in Post-Chemotherapy-Induced Hair Loss in Cancer Patients ���������������� 611 Packirisamy Azhagu Saravana Babu, Basheer Vajiha Aafrin, Sagorika Goyali, M. Geethika, Vallinayagam Sugumari, and Muthusamy Sukumar Phitotherapeutic Potential of Cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz) �������� 623 Marney Pascoli Cereda Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Studies of Indian Cinnamomum Schaeff ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 649 Saranya Surendran and Raju Ramasubbu Medicinal Properties and Population Studies on Sarcostigma kleinii Wight & Arn.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 699 Silvy Mathew and Reshma Rajan The Utility of Natural Mucilage from the Medicinal Plant, ‘Patha’ (Cyclea peltata) as an Alternative for Solidifying Agent in Cell Growth Media������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 707 Anjana Krishnan, Jomy Joseph, and Sudha Kalyanikutty Secondary Metabolites in Ophiorrhiza brunonis Wight & Arn. (Rubiaceae): A Lead Towards Its Anticancer Potential ���������������������������� 727 S. N. Preethamol and John E. Thoppil Marine Macroalgae as a Treasure House of Bioactive Compounds and Nutraceuticals ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 739 Kajal Chakraborty Plant Metabolites as New Leads to Herbal Drug Discovery: Approaches and Challenges�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 767 Kapish Kapoor, Priyal Jain, and Joohee Pradhan
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Biochanin A Chemistry, Structural Modifications, and Therapeutic Applications: An Update�������������������������������������������������� 789 Mudasir Maqbool, Kitika Shenmar, Ansab Akther, Reyaz Hassan Mir, Adil Farooq Wali, and Roohi Mohi-ud-din Dietary Natural Polyphenols Against Bacterial and Fungal Infections: An Emerging Gravity in Health Care and Food Industry������ 807 Biswajit Patra, Nibedita Das, Mohammad Zaki Shamim, Tapan Kumar Mohanta, Bishwambhar Mishra, and Yugal Kishore Mohanta Phyto-Constituents as Potential Leads for the Development of Novel Antiepileptic Drugs ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 821 Joohee Pradhan, Purnima Paliwal, Sunita Panchawat, Rohini Trivedi, and Devshree Gayakwad Role of Polyphenols in Cardiovascular Diseases���������������������������������������� 863 Hitesh Chopra, Shabana Bibi, Yugal Kishore Mohanta, Sony Kumari, and Atif Amin Baig Steam Distillation: Principle and Applications for the Extraction of Essential Oils from Plants ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 893 Alankar Shrivastava Key Factors Influencing Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation Efficiency in Plants: A Case Study �������������������������������������������������������������� 905 Durga Prasad Barik Evaluation of Medicinal Plant with Reference to Its Substitute���������������� 927 T. V. Binu and C. B. Athira Biotechnology: Production of Natural Bioactive Compounds from Leguminous Plants and Disease Management���������������������������������� 971 Shipra Jha and Bhawana Jain Novel Eco-Friendly Method of Extraction for Fixed Oils Using Solvent Action of Solid Solubilizers �������������������������������������������������� 993 Pawan Mulani, Sweta S. Koka, Anirudh Padiyar, R. K. Maheshwari, and G. N. Darwhekar Conservation Attempts of Woody Medicinal Plants of India by Biotechnological Tools������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1005 Yasotha Jeyaram, Priya Prasannan, Arjun Pandian, and Ramasubbu Raju Conservation of Endangered Medicinal Plants by In Vitro Propagation Methods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1035 M. V. Lakshmi, S. Jeyaraj, and T. S. Swapna Application of Biotechnology to Produce Plant-Derived Biologically Important Compounds ������������������������������������������������������������ 1047 Nadia Iqbal, Sidra Nisar Ahmed, Urooj Subhan, Nageen Arif, Humaira Saleem, and Farah Deeba
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Appraisal of Medicinal Plants for Pharmacological Properties���������������� 1061 Mehmet Zeki Kocak and Mustafa Güven Kaysim Pharmacological Properties and Tissue Culture Method of Endangered Medicinal Plants������������������������������������������������������������������ 1081 Yuhong Zheng, Xin Shi, and Li Fu Natural Compounds with Pharmacological Properties in Clinical Trials �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1097 Morvarid Noormohammadi and Farzad Shidfar Phytopharmacological Aspects of the Genus Terminalia���������������������������� 1117 Aswathi Pokkadath, Reshmi Chembrammal, and John Ernest Thoppil Anticancer Potential of Plant-Derived Compounds: An Overview of Their Epigenetic Mode of Action�������������������������������������� 1135 Priyanka Soni, Md. Sajid Ghufran, and Govinda Rao Duddukuri Treatment of Cancer Using Combination of Herbal and Novel Drug Delivery System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1177 Nikita Kale Anti-inflammatory Potential of Lead Compounds and Their Derivatives from Medicinal Plants �������������������������������������������������������������� 1199 Nisha Sam Nirmala, Navina Bala Krishnan, Vaishnavi Vivekanandan, and Krishnaraj Thirugnanasambantham Alzheimer’s Disease Treatment Using Natural Foods: A Overview ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1233 Tanima Bhattacharya, Debashrita Das, Hitesh Chopra, and Atif Amin Baig Natural Products Used in the Treatment of Autoimmune Disorder���������� 1247 Anjali Saharan, Meenakshi Dhanawat, Chander Parkash Dora, Rakesh Kumar Sindhu, and Inderjeet Verma Strategies to Improve Antimicrobial Activity of Natural Products: Approaches and Challenges�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1265 Cristina M. Pérez Zamora, Carola A. Torres, and Ana M. Gonzalez Plants with Immunomodulatory Potential Described in Ayurveda���������� 1299 Sinimol Peethambaran Thekkekkoottumughath Plant-Derived Drugs for Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurological Disorders���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1327 B. Sumithra, Sanjeeb Kumar Mandal, Bishwambhar Mishra, K. V. S. S. N. Mounika, J. Caleb Joel Raj, and C. V. S. Aishwarya
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Properties and Mechanism of Antimicrobial Agents from Plant-Derived Essential Oils ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1347 Afroze Naveed Basha, Ramya Subramanian, Kandeepan Chithan, Gopinath Gurulingam Vincent, Karthigeyan Murugesan, Ananthavalli Ramachandran, Sivakumar Pethanan, Mani Panagal, Chella Perumal Palanisamy, and Ramaraj Jayakumararaj Nanotechnological Modus Operandi for the Delivery of Cytotoxic Phytochemicals���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1365 Thomson Alex, Alankar Shrivastava, Damanpreet Kaur Lang, Rakhi Khabiya, Sweta S. Koka, and Yasmin Sultana Plant-Based Green Nanoparticles in Cancer Diagnosis and Chemotherapy������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1387 Arun John and Rinu Elizabeth Roy Use of Plant-Derived Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy���������������������������� 1405 R. Sai Nandhini, S. Kalpana Shree, Phalguni Maity, G. S. Madhumathi, Anindita Bhar, and Jeyanthi Palanivelu The Global Concern for Cancer Emergence and Its Prevention: A Systematic Unveiling of the Present Scenario������������������������������������������ 1429 Md. Sajid Ghufran, Priyanka Soni, and Govinda Rao Duddukuri Commonly Used Poisonous Medicinal Plants in Unani System of Medicine ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1457 Shaikh Ajij Ahmed Makbul and Sayeedur Rahman Herbal Drugs: Safety, Cost-Effectiveness, Regulation, Current Trends, and Future Directions ������������������������������������������������������ 1479 Sidra Nisar Ahmed, Mushtaq Ahmad, Mohammad Zafar, Ghulam Yaseen, Nadia Iqbal, Neelum Rashid, Samina Kousar, and Adeela Haroon Therapeutic Properties of Herbal Constituents Subjected for Clinical Trials���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1495 Esha Vatsa and Mehak Aggarwal Plant-Derived Immunomodulators Targeting COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2): Preclinical Evaluation and Clinical Trials������������������������ 1515 Robin, Pardeep Kaur, Jagdeep Kaur, Kamaljit Kaur, and Sunidhi Miglani Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1533
About the Authors
Karuppusamy Arunachalam, PhD, is the Visiting Professor of Center for Studies in Stem Cells, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics (CeTroGen), Graduate Program in Health and Development of the Midwest Region Faculdade de Medicina Dr. Hélio Mandetta (FAMED), Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul Brazil. He was awarded as a President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI), Chinese Academy of Sciences (2020), Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Before joining the KIB in 2020, he spent 5 years in the Area Pharmacology Laboratory, Department of Basic Sciences in Health, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso (UFMT), Brazil, as a Post-Doctoral Fellow. He is working on wide range of topics, including Ethnobotany, Biotechnology, Ethnopharmacology, and Pre-clinical pharmacology, with a major focus being the herbal drug development. In recent years, he has been exploring natural products with an emphasis on phytochemical and pharmacology, neutraceuticals, and polysaccharides. Arunachalam has published more than 50 peerreviewed journal articles. He has published four books and seven book chapters. In addition, he secured four registered international patents (Brazil) and one granted National patent (India).
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About the Authors
Xuefei Yang, PhD, Professor, is the group leader of Ethnobotany and Natural Resource Management of Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB), the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). She was trained in multidisciplinary such as Ethnoecology, Global Change Biology, Natural Resource Management, Biodiversity Conservation, Fungal Ecology, Spatial Ecology, and Forestry Ecology. She holds a PhD in Biology granted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2006 and three Master Degrees from KIB in China, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC) in the Netherlands, and the Center for Space Science, Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTEAP, affiliated to the United Nations) in India, respectively. Since 2006, she worked as a Scientist at KIB on a broad range of research topics and had been promoted as an Associate Professor in 2010 and group leader of Ethnobotany in 2014. She has published around 70 research articles on peerreviewed journals and 3 books. Sreeja Puthanpura Sasidharan, PhD, is an Assistant Professor (contract) at the Department of Botany, NSS College, Nemmara, Palakkad, Kerala, India. She has completed her graduation from Calicut University, Kerala, and post-graduation, MPhil and PhD from Bharathiar University, Tamil Nadu. Presently she is working in the field of bioprospection of medicinal plants with phytochemical and pharmacological studies. She has published 13 research articles with the citation number of 85 in google scholar and 4 book chapters, in various reputed international journals/ publishers. In addition, she has published two books in Springer International publisher. She has 2 years of teaching and 5 years of research experiences.
Abbreviations
A549 lung cancer cell lines ABTS (2,2′-Azino-Bis(3-Ethylbenzothiazoline-6-Sulfonic Acid) Diammonium Salt) AChE Acetylcholinesterase AD Alzheimer’s disease ADCs antibodies – drug conjugates Akt protein kinase B ALP alkaline phosphatase ANOVA one-way analysis of variance AuNP gold nanoparticles Bcl-2 B-cell lymphoma BHA butylated hydroxyanisole BHT butylated hydroxytoluene BMI-1 B-cell-specific Moloney murine leukemia virus integration site 1 Caco-2 cancer coli-2 CADD computer-aided drug design CD Crohn’s disease CDK 2 cyclin-dependent kinase 2 CIA chemotherapy-induced alopecia COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019 COX 1 cyclooxygenase enzyme 1 COX-2 Cyclooxygenase - 2 CRISPR clustered often interspaced short palindromic repeats CSCD circulatory system/cardiovascular diseases CVI Cultural Value Index DC dental care DID dermatological infections/diseases DNMTs DNA methyltransferases DPPH 1,1-diphenylpicryl-1-picrylhydrazyl DTH delayed-type hypersensitivity Ed endocrinal disorders xv
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Abbreviations
EGCG epigallocatechin gallate EGFR endothelial growth factor receptor EJ138 urinary bladder cancer cell lines EPR improved permeability and retention ER estrogen receptors ERK extracellular signal-regulated kinase EZH2 enhancer of Zeste homolog 2 FC frequent citation Fic informant consensus factor FL fidelity level FRAP ferric reducing antioxidant power FTIR Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy Fvr fever GC-MS gas chromatography-mass spectrometry GIA gastro-intestinal ailments GMO genetically modified organism GPCR G-protein-coupled receptors GSWS Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary H2O2 hydrogen peroxide HATs histone acetyltransferases HC hair care HDACs histone deacetylases HepG2 liver cancer cell lines HPLC high performance liquid chromatography HSV1 herpes simplex virus IBD inflammatory bowel disease IL-1β interleukin-1β IL-6 interleukin-6 INF interferon iNOS inducible nitric oxide synthase IR infrared spectroscopy ITM India traditional medicine LBDD ligand-based drug design LDL low-density lipoprotein LOX lipoxygenase LP liver problems LPS lipopolysaccharide MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinases MCF-7 Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (breast cancer cell line) MDA malondialdehyde MIA monoterpene indole alkaloids miRNAs microRNAs MTT 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide NF-κb nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
Abbreviations
NO nitric oxide NOS nitric oxide synthase NSAIDs non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ONC oncology OSCC squamous cell carcinoma PGE2 prostaglandin E2 PGG2 prostaglandin G2 PGH2 prostaglandin H2 PNPs polymeric nanoparticles PRC polycomb repressive complexes RFC relative frequency of citation RNS reactive nitrogen species ROS reactive oxygen species RSD respiratory systems diseases SARS-CoV-2 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 SBDD structure-based drug design SEM scanning electron microscopy SMSD skeleto-muscular system disorders SOD superoxide dismutase SPE solid phase extraction SRBC sheep red blood cells STZ streptozotocin SUZ12 suppressor of zeste 12 homologue TBHQ tertiary butylhydroquinone TEM transmission electron microscopy TET ten eleven translocases Th helper T cells THC delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol TLC thin layer chromatography TM traditional medicine TNF-α tumor necrosis factor-α TSGs tumor suppressor genes UC ulcerative colitis UV use value WBC white blood cells WHO World Health Organization
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Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas Khikeya Semy and Ruokuonuo Kuotsu
1 Introduction Therapeutic herbs are the “backbone” of traditional medicine, accounting to more than 3.3 billion people in the less developed countries utilizing medicinal plants on a regular basis [1]. The medicinal potential of plant products’ can be traced back over 5000 years, as the evidence of their use in the treatment of ailments and for body system revitalization are found in India, Egypt, China, Greek and Roman civilizations [2]. In many regions of the world, indigenous peoples’ usage of ethnomedicine as an intrinsic part of their culture has a close relationship with local ecosystems and cultural landscapes. In India, plants with therapeutic potential are widely used as folk remedies in various indigenous medical systems such as Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani as processed pharmaceutical products [3]. Ethnomedicine and traditional knowledge are good examples of disadvantaged populations living in rural places combating even terminal diseases with ancient methods and using herbal treatments [4]. The collection of original data from traditional custodians of such knowledge is necessary in order to acquire a full compilation of medicinal plants that can be employed in disease prevention [5]. Various medicinal weed plants are a serious problem in agriculture and tremendously reduce the productivity of agricultural lands by competing with crop plants for water, mineral nutrients, space and light. Keeping this in view such losses can be compensated by exploring the medicinal utility of weeds. Thus, making use of every medicinal plants widely These authors contributed equally to this work. K. Semy (*) Department of Botany, Don Bosco College Kohima, Kohima, India R. Kuotsu Research Scholar, Department of Botany, Nagaland University, Lumami, Nagaland, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_1
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K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
available for the disposal of human needs. Furthermore, the extraction and development of various medicines and chemotherapeutics from these plants, as well as from traditionally used rural herbal remedies, has been linked to an increased reliance on medicinal plants in industrialized countries. Northeast Indian states are some of the richest repositories of medicinal and aromatic plants in the world [6]. This region has high medicinal plant diversity due to variance in topography and physiognomy [7]. Nagaland is a part of the Indo- Burma mega biodiversity hotspot, which includes an immense variety of plant species and is one of the wealthiest in terms of biological wealth and endemism in the Indian subcontinent [8]. Naga’s are part of the mongoloid race and since time immemorial, forest products have aided in the socio-economic life of the Naga tribes in their ever-growing demands for medicines, food and shelter. They have an inextricable link with their forest and regard it as a provider, guide, healer and protector like most of the North-eastern tribal communities of India. Naga villages encompass parts of the hilly Eastern Himalayas and are secluded from other cities, and hence the local inhabitants developed a sense to rely on indigenous healing knowledge using medicinal plants. However, tribal’s knowledge on therapeutic herbs of northeast India and in particular Nagaland, when compared to the rest of the country is still understudied. Meanwhile, the traditional knowledge is rapidly degrading with the advancement of technology and modernization. During the earlier years, many researchers have contributed to the studies on medicinal plants from in and around Northeast India, Assam [9–11], Manipur [12, 13], Arunachal Pradesh [14–17] and Nagaland [18–24]. However, in contrast to those documented plants focused on the three plant forms (herb, shrub and trees), the present investigation has been chiefly focused on the medicinal herbs prevalent in Nagaland. In concern with the growing awareness and need for medicinal herbs, documentation of plants is of vital importance. As a result, the current study was conducted in the region with the following aims: (1) To document medicinal uses of plants, their relative importance and information for future investigation in novel drug applications and (2) to educate locals about the area’s declining wealth on traditional and medicinal flora.
2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Study Area Nagaland lies in the North-eastern part of India between the latitude of 250 06´ N and 270 04´ N and longitude of 930 20′ E and 950 15′ E. The state covers a geographical area of 16,579 km2 and is bordered by Assam in the northwest, Myanmar and Arunachal Pradesh in the east and Manipur in the south. The state experience a sub-tropical to warm temperate monsoonal climate with four seasons, viz., winter, spring, summer and autumn. Annually, rainfall ranges between 1800 and 2500 mm
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas
3
with July and August receiving the highest rainfall. Temperature may rise from 21 to 36 °C in summer and drops from 21 to 4 °C during winter months. Frost is common at high elevations with snowfall in certain places and strong northwest wind blows across the state with the onset of spring season. About 70% of the state’s economy is dependent on agriculture along with other prominent economic activities including forestry, tourism and miscellaneous cottage industries. The recorded forest cover of the state in 2021 is 8629.30 km2 which is about 52% of its geographical area. Tropical and sub-tropical evergreen forests accounts to one-sixth of the forest area including palms, bamboo and timber and mahogany forests.
2.2 Collection and Identification The phyto-documentation on herbaceous plants and their uses in traditional healing customs by the Naga tribes was conducted in various districts across Nagaland. Random weed samples were collected, and the representative taxa sampled during the field survey were processed for herbarium following Jain and Rao [25] and later identified with the help of standard literature on regional floras [26–28]. Group discussion was held with native herbalist, village elders, old folks, street vendors, farmers and council members to identify the local names, uses and other required descriptions on their medicinal values. Special attention was paid to record information from traditional healers and practitioners having immense knowledge of plants in local dialect and well versed with their therapeutic uses.
3 Results and Discussion The history of medicinal plants is as long as the history of humans. Nagas have been practicing the use of medicinal plants since time immemorial which has been passed down from generation to generation through traditional practices and oral lore. Before Christianity, Nagas practiced Totemism and Animism, which are primarily indulged with worshipping nature. The core principle of this devotion is abided in respecting and preserving nature through rituals and sustainable norms laid down by the village priest. Supplementing such traditions, the practices of therapeutic healing is also associated with the principles and beliefs of the tribes. In the present study, a total of 161 herbaceous plant species belonging to 58 families and 127 genera were documented during the survey. All the recorded herbs have certain medicinal values and have been extensively used by the tribes for treating several diseases and ailments. The collected plant samples arranged in alphabetical order along with their botanical and vernacular names, plant parts used, preparation and purpose/ mode of administration are enumerated in Table 1. The family Asteraceae (24) was reported with the largest number of species followed by Lamiaceae (11), Poaeaea (9), Solanaceae (7), Leguminosae, Polygonaceae, Malvaceae and Rubiaceae (6
Adiantum caudatum L.
Ageratina riparia (Regel) R.M.King & H.Rob. Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L.
Ageratum houstonianum Mill.
Allium porrum L.
Alpinia malaccensis (Burm.f.) Roscoe Amaranthus spinosus L.
Amaranthus viridis L.
4.
5.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
6.
Acorus calamus L.
3.
Tierhiitiepfii
Nyiedza
Sokriinuo
Repjee
Chinapatta
Chinapatta
Nhasa
Aviinuo
Themeprii
Aconitum palmatum D.Don Merimezem
2.
Vernacular name Chakragaing
Scientific name Acacia pinnata Link
Sl no. 1.
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthaceae
Zingiberaceae
Amaryllidaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Pteridaceae
Acoraceae
Ranunculaceae
Family Leguminosae
Preparation Leaf paste is applied on infected tooth Root is crushed grinded and taken orally Concoction with therapeutic herbs Dried and fresh aerial parts ingested Fresh paste rubbed on wounds Laryngitis, sedation, asthma.
Purpose /usage/treatment Toothache.
Gastritis, stomach ulcer, stomach ailments, anorexia. Aerial parts De-worming, antipyretic, astringent. Leaves Treat fresh wound, cuts, and burns. Leaves and root Leaf paste used as haemostatic Dysentery, diarrhoea, cuts, burns, on cuts and wounds; decoction insect bites. of root taken orally Leaves Fresh leaf paste applied on Burns, dysentery, eye problem, cuts and wounds; dried leaf pneumonia, urinary tract infection. powder mixed with water taken orally Whole plant Crushed grinded with mustard Antiseptic, tonic, anti- oil, pond salt and ingested cholesteremic, kidney stones. Rhizome Fresh or dried rhizome Stomach ache, indigestion, grounded and eaten emetic, wounds, ringworm. Seeds Dried seeds roasted and eaten Diuretic, stomach ailments, bowel with local red rice movements, appetizer, mouth ulcer, eczema, snake bites, boils. Seeds Either dried or roasted Eye disorder, venereal disease, fever, asthma.
Rhizome
Roots
Parts used Leaves
Table 1 Ethnomedicinal herbs used by the Naga tribes of Eastern Himalayas
4 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp.
Artemisia indica Willd.
Asclepias curassavica L.
Asparagus officinalis L.
Begonia picta Sm.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Scientific name Amorphophallus bulbifer (Roxb.) Blume Amphineuron opulentum (Kaulf.) Holttum Ardisia crenata Sims
15.
14.
13.
Sl no. 12.
Tichu
Shieprii
–
Ciena
Cienakezhau
–
Maachai
Vernacular name Teinyhiimidu Parts used Stem
Begoniaceae
Begoniaceae
Apocyanaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Primulaceae
Intake of dried grounded leaves with water
Preparation Boiled with pond salt and consumed Leaf paste applied on infected tooth Taken in small dosage
Leaf paste is applied on infected skin; fresh leaves burnt used as natural mosquito repellent Aerial parts Fresh paste applied on infected skin; dried precipitated with water and taken orally Young shoot, Extract from roots taken roots and tubers orally; young shoots and tubers cooked and eaten as vegetable Whole plant Either fresh extract or cooked and taken as vegetable
Leaves
Leaves
Berries
Thelypteridaceae Leaves
Family Araceae
(continued)
Indigestion, anti-inflammatory, skin infection, insect bites.
Obesity, bladder infection, constipation, stomach ulcers.
Dysentery, skin ulcers, eye treatment, ringworm, sores, anti-prostatic.
Rheumatism, earache, traumatic injuries, snake and insect bites, fever, Diarrhoea, improves blood circulation Antimicrobial, antiulcer, antifungal, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-cancer. Skin infection, mosquito repellent.
Purpose /usage/treatment Maintain blood pressure, detoxification, cough, breast pain. Toothache.
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 5
Cannabis sativa L.
Cardamine hirsuta L.
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Chloris barbata Sw.
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. Clerodendrum bracteatum Wall. ex Walp.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
22.
Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston Brugmansia suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Bercht. & J.Presl
Scientific name Bidens pilosa L.
21.
Sl no. 20.
Table 1 (continued)
Khriehenyii
–
–
Lamiaceae
Asteraceae
Poaceae
Apiaceae
Apocyanaceae
Tsuinrinaro
Gara
Brassicaceae
Seguoga
Cannabaceae
Solanaceae
Lalho
Ganja
Phyllanthaceae
Family Asteraceae
–
Vernacular name Zorha
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Whole plant Fresh
Leaves
Whole plant
Leaves
Leaves and roots Leaves
Parts used Leaves
Skin disease, irregular blood pressure, stomach problems.
Digestive disorder.
Cuts and wounds, malaria, stomach ache.
Diabetes, antioxidant, reduce blood sugar. Ulcers, tonsillitis, body ache.
Purpose /usage/treatment Blood coagulation, wounds, burns, malaria, and arthritis.
Diabetic, wounds, burns, known to improve memory power, diarrhoea, constipation. Leaf paste applied on infected Skin infection, antimicrobial. area Leaf paste or juice rubbed on Fresh wounds, burns, skin wounds infection. Juice is applied on scalp; paste Astringent, remove dandruff. taken orally
Preparation Fresh paste applied on wounds; dried leaves taken orally Consumed either fresh or dried Leaves wrapped in banana leaf warmed in fire and dapped on affected area to ease pain Leaf paste used as hemostatic to cuts and wounds; decoction taken orally Cooked with other herbs and eaten with rice Leaf extract applied on infected skin; boiled and consumed in small quantity with Neem Boiled or raw leaves
6 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Costus speciosus (J.Koenig) Sm.
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Crotalaria juncea L.
Curculigo capitulata (Lour.) Kuntze
36.
37.
39.
38.
35.
Commelina benghalensis L. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Scientific name Clerodendrum glandulosum Lindl. Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon Clerodendrum villosum Blume Coix lacryma-jobi L.
34.
33.
32.
31.
Sl no. 30.
Costaceae
Asteraceae
Thevobuoto
–
Koritong
Hypoxidaceae
Leguminosae
Araceae
Dziinuo
–
Commelinaceae
Poaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Family Lamiaceae
Akhovepii
Kesi
Akawa
Atsuksuba
Vernacular name Gathere
Root, flowers and leaves
Root, pod and leaves
Leaves
Stem and rhizome
Leaves and tubers
Aerial parts
Fruit
Leaves
Leaves
Parts used Leaves
Warts, appendicitis, lungs disorder, arthritis. Sun burns, anti- inflammatory, diuretic, laxative. Anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, inhibit tumor and gastrointestinal problems. Skin infection, anti- cancer, anti-microbial, obesity, urinary tract infection.
Kill lice, liver problems.
Irregular menstruation.
Purpose /usage/treatment Lowers blood pressure.
Concoction of root, pods and leaves applied externally or ingested in small dosage Decoction of young plant parts; root soaked overnight in water; and the liquid is applied
(continued)
Conjunctivitis, ear-ache, antiseptic, haemostatic.
Skin diseases, rashes, high blood pressure, and astringent.
Boiled or soaked rhizome in water and consumed; stem paste applied on infested skin with maggots Extract used orally with honey Indigestion, oral problems, epilepsy, inflammation.
Decoction of leaves are consumed Decoction is drunk; juice massage on scalp Fruits soaked in water overnight and taken orally Fresh leaves and roots used as poultice Cooked and consumed
Preparation Boiled leaves are eaten
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 7
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
Cyanotis vaga (Lour.) Schult. & Schult.f. Cyperus iria L.
Datura innoxia Mill.
Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw. Dioscorea alata L.
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.
Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult.
44.
45.
47.
48.
50.
51.
49.
46.
Cuscuta chinensis Lam.
Scientific name Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Curcuma aromatica Salisb.
43.
42.
41.
Sl no. 40.
Table 1 (continued)
Pfiipfiinyii
Gasiilo
Leaves
Tuber
Flower and leaves Leaves
Leaves
Whole plant
Aerial parts
Parts used Root, flowers and leaves Flower and rhizome Flower and rhizome Aerial parts
Caryophyllaceae Whole plant
Athyriaceae
Dioscoreaceae
Gleicheniaceae
Kajangtong
Thecu
Solanaceae
Cyperaceae
Commelinaceae
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulaceae
Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
Family Hypoxidaceae
Lhalho
–
–
Tsuiali
Tsuiali
Hutou
Chiecie
Vernacular name Koritong
Taken either boiled or raw with aromatic rice and pond salt Squeezed along with mustard oil and juice applied on infected area; taken orally
Boiled and taken
Preparation Decoction of young plants with lime Consumed both fresh and dried with other herbs Taken both fresh and dried with therapeutic herbs Paste applied on pain affected area; juice taken orally Juice extract is boiled and consumed; paste applied on affected area Plant extract is ingested in small quantity with honey Boiled with honey and juice is consumed Either fresh or dried use as poultice Poultice on painful body parts
Liver dysfunction, weight loss, enhance energy metabolism. Stomach ache, diuretic, regulate menstruation, cure itching. Malaria, antiseptic, cardiac arrest, stomach ulcers. Fever, wounds, asthma, sores, ulcers. Gastritis, constipation, stomach ache. Measles, gastrointestinal, diabetes, glandular swelling, bone fracture, constipation. Sinusitis, migraine, bronchitis.
Fever, cough, antifungal, analgesics, anticancer. Gastrointestinal disorder, arthritis, skin infections and rashes. Anti-depression, urinary bladder problem, liver ailments, joint pain. Urination disorder, muscle cramp, cold cough, warts, carminative.
Purpose /usage/treatment Ear-ache, antiseptic.
8 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Elsholtzia blanda (Benth.) Benth. Entada pursaetha DC.
Equisetum arvense L.
Erigeron linifolius Willd.
Eryngium foetidum L.
Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. Euphorbia heterophylla L.
Euphorbia hirta L.
55.
57.
58.
59.
60.
62.
61.
56.
54.
Elatostema sessile J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Scientific name Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
53.
Sl no. 52.
Dudiya
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Asteraceae
Japan nha
–
Apiaceae
Asteraceae
Equisetaceae
Leguminosae
Lamiaceae
Poaceae
Urticaceae
Family Asteraceae
Dunia
–
Siihie
Tholi
Niepfii
–
Gajo
Vernacular name Bhringraj
Aerial shoots
Leaves
Aerial parts
Whole plant
Aerial parts
Aerial parts
Leaves and flower Seed
Whole plant
Leaves
Parts used Leaves
Purpose /usage/treatment Hepatitis, snake bites, jaundice, liver tonic, asthma, respiratory ailments. Gastrointestinal problems.
(continued)
Laxative, hypertension, fever, cold cough, malaria, relieves pain, astringent, asthma. Consumed both fresh and Reduce tonsil swell, fever, cough, dried and maintain blood pressure. Cleansed in running water for Burns, jaundice in children, after-effects of stroke, helps in several days, roasted and blood circulation, parasitic consumed in small dosage. infection. Boiled with water and lemon Kidney stone, bladder problems, juice tuberculosis, heal ulcer. Plant paste applied on infected Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory. area Infertility complications, ear ache, Consume both fresh and cooked with other herbs de-worming, malaria. Fresh paste applied on Anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, infected area analgesic, blood coagulation. Asthma, anti-cancer, diarrhea. Boiled with pond salt and consumed Consumed either fresh or Cold cough, bronchitis, dried mixed with other herbs gonorrhoea, anti- diabetic.
Preparation Extract mixed with honey, milk and ingested; leaf paste rubbed on wounds Leaves boiled and eaten with rice Boiled and drunk
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 9
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
Hibiscus syriacus L.
Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn.
Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Gatha
67.
68.
69.
70.
Impatiens latiflora Hook.f. Ciikanyii & Thomson
72.
–
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.
Ketsamo
Chakha ga
Gakhro
Liezienuo
71.
66.
–
Gomphrena celosioides Mart. Gynura bicolor (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC.
65.
Bomara
Vernacular name Garei
Galinsoga parviflora Cav.
Scientific name Fagopyrum esculentum Moench
64.
Sl no. 63.
Table 1 (continued)
Balsaminaceae
Araliaceae
Saururaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Asteraceae
Amaranthaceae
Asteraceae
Family Polygonaceae
Leaves
Leaves and tender shoots
Whole plant
Flower and leaves Seeds
Leaves and flower
Aerial parts
Whole plant
Leaves
Parts used Aerial parts
Purpose /usage/treatment Cardiovascular, antioxidant, stomach congestion, diabetic.
Eczema, skin infection, rashes, bleeding wounds. Gastrointestinal, breathlessness, skin rashes. Constipation, diabetes, post- labour recovery, migraines, haemoptysis. Blood pressure, aids in digestion, Consumed either dried-fresh skin rashes, inflammatory, food or made into porridge with poisoning. rice Flower paste applied on scalp; Antifungal, hair and skin young leaves boiled and eaten treatment, gastrointestinal. Bacterial infection in feet, heal Roasted seeds mixed with aromatic herbs, pond salt and wounds, fever, nose ulcers, cure burns. consumed Diuretic action, detoxification, Fresh plant mixed with hypertension, improve appetite. fermented soya bean and eaten Crushed leaf paste applied on Gastritis, eye infection, fresh cut wounds: young shoots cooked wounds. and consumed Fresh paste is applied on skin Insect bites, allergies, indigestion, infection; leaves taken orally analgesic.
Preparation Either fresh or dried young leaves cooked with local rice and consumed Fresh paste applied on infected area Extract taken orally; fresh paste applied on skin rashes Young leaves boiled with local rice and taken orally
10 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Justicia adhatoda L.
Kaempferia rotunda L.
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.
Lantana camara L.
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Ludwigia perennis L.
Lycopodium cernuum L.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
83.
82.
76.
Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Ipomoea quamoclit L.
Scientific name Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Ipomoea involucrata P. Beauv.
75.
74.
Sl no. 73.
Mangrang naro
– Lycopodiaceae
Onagraceae
Chota halkusa Lamiaceae
Verbenaceae
Crassulaceae
Tsatsovo
Anitong
Zingiberaceae
Acanthaceae
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulaceae
Family Poaceae
Bhuichampa
Tsiesenyii
Tamlata
–
–
Vernacular name Azu
Aerial parts
Flower
Leaves
Leaves and flowers
Flower and rhizome Leaves
Leaves
Leaves and flower Leaves and flower
Roots and leaves
Parts used Aerial shoots
(continued)
Purpose /usage/treatment Diuretic, gastrointestinal, urinary tract infection. Hypertension, diabetes, analgesic, psychotomimetic, antimicrobial, fatigue. Plant extract taken orally Constipation, oedema in lungs, mental disorders, jaundice. Leaf paste applied on infected Insect bites, rashes, hairfall, antidiabetic, antimicrobial. skin; young parts are consumed Decoction of young shoots Carminative, paralysis, with therapeutic herbs gonorrhoea, chronic rheumatism. Paste applied on wounds; Stomach ache, food poisoning, taken orally emetic, thermogenic. Fresh grinded with therapeutic Pulmonary infection, kidney herbs and ingested stones, stomach ache, gastric ulcer, allergies, diabetes. Boiled with honey and juice Fever, cold cough, antimicrobial, taken in small dosage chicken pox, ulcers, skin rashes, wheezing cough. Paste is applied on infected Antimicrobial, snake bites, insect area bites. Toothache and fever. Fresh paste applied on infected tooth Dried-grinded, boiled with Constipation, chronic lung other herbs and taken orally disorder, bronchitis.
Preparation Paste is applied on wounds; leaves are consumed Extract is taken orally
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 11
Mikania micrantha Kunth
Mimosa pudica L.
Mirabilis jalapa L.
Mussaenda macrophylla Wall. Ocimum sanctum L.
Ocimum tenuiflorum L.
Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.
Oxalis corniculata L.
Oxalis debilis Kunth
Paederia foetida L.
85.
86.
87.
88.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
89.
Scientific name Mentha arvensis L.
Sl no. 84.
Table 1 (continued)
Menyiero
Thezutsiituo Rubiaceae
Oxalidaceae
Oxalidaceae
Apiaceae
Gakra
Keve
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Rubiaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Leguminosae
Asteraceae
Family Lamiaceae
Nieco
Nieco
Seirhobie
Jamtangnaro
Keriinganha
Japanza
Vernacular name Pudina
Aerial parts
Whole plant
Whole plant
Young aerial parts
Flower and leaves
Aerial parts
Purpose /usage/treatment Hypertension, heart disease, inflamed joints and arthritis. Lower blood pressure; reduce blood sugar level, sinusitis.
Asthma, jaundice, ulcer, small pox, conjunctivitis. Purgative, cathartic inflammation, antiviral, diuretic. Antiviral, male impotency, gastrointestinal problems Mixed with ginger, honey and Asthma, eye sore, dysentery, taken orally arthritis, gastritis, antimicrobial. Either dried, fresh and mixed Anti-ageing, cough, headache, acne, anticancer, heartache, fever, with other herbs and eye health. consumed Boiled or raw with soyabeans, Jaundice, abdominal pain, leukaemia, hepatitis. garlic, ginger, pond salt and eaten with aromatic red rice Fresh plants are eaten wholly Aids in digestion, antiseptic, fresh cut wounds, burns. Fresh plants are eaten wholly Indigestion, constipation, acid-reflux. Boiled with water, herbs, pond Gastrointestinal, abdominal pain, salt and ingested rheumatism, stomach oedema, gastritis, ulcers.
Preparation Consumed either fresh or boiled Leaves Fresh leaves are grinded and extract applied for sinus; extract taken orally Root and leaves Freshly grinded and taken orally Roots and Concoction of roots and leaves leaves taken orally Fruits Boiled and juice consumed
Parts used Aerial parts
12 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Passiflora edulis Sims
99.
Piperaceae Lamiaceae
Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae Phyllanthaceae
–
Kenyie
Priizie
Priizie
–
102. Persicaria chinensis (L.) H. Gross
103. Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre 104. Phyllanthus fraternus G.L.Webster
100. Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth 101. Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton
Passifloraceae
Poaceae
Melanthiaceae
Araliaceae
Family Araliaceae
Bel
–
Paspalum distichum L.
97.
98.
Vernacular name Tsudiemozu
Panax pseudoginseng Wall. Takumtsu mozu Paris polyphylla Sm. –
Scientific name Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.
96.
Sl no. 95.
Whole plant
Paste directly applied on infected area; grounded dried leaves ingested
Preparation Extract mixed with sorghum oil, pond salt, water and drunk; dried powdered mixed with honey and water Root and leaves Dried or fresh root and leaves grounded and taken orally Rhizome Fresh or dried rhizome applied on infected area or taken orally Whole plant Either fresh or dried plants are boiled and ingested Consumed either steamed or Leaves and fruits fried; fruits eaten fresh or fermented Leaves Paste applied on infected skin; eaten either fresh or boiled Leaves and Leaves consumed either fresh seeds or steamed; seeds are roasted made into paste and ingested Whole plant Young leaves and stem are boiled with pond salt and ingested Leaves Fresh leaves boiled and taken
Parts used Root, leaves
(continued)
Neuro-protective effect, anti- cancer, against rheumatism. Diuretic, laxative, gonorrhoea, spasms. It is directly applied on skin for skin infection.
Antibacterial, snake bite, eye treatment, mosquito repellent.
Diarrhoea, analgesic, burn, cut, anticancer, snake, spider and scorpion bite, antispasmodic. Bronchitis, arthritis, blood tonic, antibacterial. Asthma, snakebite, liver- tonic, heart problems, maintains blood pressure, malaria. Anti-inflammatory, rheumatism, fatique, acne, boils. Stomach problems, gastritis, haemostatic.
Anticancer, tuberculosis, diabetes.
Purpose /usage/treatment Heart problems, diabetes, cancer, tuberculosis, ulcers.
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 13
Piperaceae Piperaceae
Seipanyii Pipali
Gapa
Isabgol
Gapa Gazie
109. Plantago asiatica L.
110. Plantago erosa Wall.
111. Plantago major L. 112. Polygonum molle D. Don
Polygonaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae
113. Polygonum plebeium R.Br. –
–
–
114. Pouzolzia hirta Blume ex Hassk. 115. Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn.
Plantaginaceae Polygonaceae
Plantaginaceae
Plantaginaceae
Urticaceae
–
106. Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. 107. Piper betle L. 108. Piper longum L.
Family Solanaceae
Vernacular name Chahacasi
Sl no. Scientific name 105. Physalis peruviana L.
Table 1 (continued)
Aerial parts
Leaves
Leaves
Whole plant Leaves and young stem
Whole plant
Leaves
Purpose /usage/treatment Antihistamine, antiviral, cancer, asthma, dermatitis, gout, urinary tract disorder. Antibacterial, skin infection, antifungal, allergies. Haemostatic. Chronic malaria, spleen, tumours, tongue paralysis, respiratory infection. Leaves are boiled and eaten Urinary tract infection, promote urination, relieve phlegm discomfort. Bleeding and inflammation, Boiled with other herbs with local pond salt and taken with constipation, antibacterial, indigestion. aromatic rice Boiled and eaten Cuts and burns, sprains. Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, Fresh leaves poultice on skin rashes, astringent properties. infected area; young leaves and stem taken orally Taken either fresh or boiled Bowel movement, constipation, stomach ailments. Extracts are drunk Bowel movement, constipation, stomach ailments. Poultice on infected area Ulcers, syphilis, gonorrhoea, galactagogue, stomachache.
Parts used Preparation Fruit and leaves. Fresh fruits and leaves grounded and taken in small dosage Aerial parts Plant extract rubbed on infected skin Leaves Fresh paste applied on wound Leaves Eaten raw or steamed with pond salt
14 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Chenhu
Ruomvii
Temeirom
Meza gakrie
119. Rubia cordifolia L.
120. Rubus ellipticus Sm.
121. Rubus niveus Thunb.
122. Rumex patientia L.
Aerial parts
Selaginellaceae Asteraceae
Mesakraza
Whole plant
Whole plant
Lamiaceae
Angamejep talula –
124. Scutellaria rivularis Wall. ex Benth. 125. Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring 126. Senecio cappa Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don
Leaves
Acanthaceae
Roots and leaves
Berries and leaves Berries and leaves
Whole plant
123. Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees –
Polygonaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rubiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Louca
Leaves
Dennstaedtiaceae Roots
–
Parts used Fruit
117. Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn 118. Ricinus communis L.
Family Leguminosae
Vernacular name Charkona
Sl no. Scientific name 116. Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. Purpose /usage/treatment Blood purifier, anti-oxidant, diabetes.
(continued)
Diuretic, arthritis, old wound, aphrodisiac, de-worming. Dried leaves grounded and Backache, cramp, menstrual taken in small dosage problems, constipation. Extract or paste applied on Ringworm, leucoderma, skin infected skin rashes disease. Grinded with water and Cold cough, sore throat, consumed indigestion, constipation, diuretic. Grinded with water and Snake bite, rheumatic, consumed detoxification, dysentery, menstrual bleeding. Constipation, fresh cut wounds, Poultice on infected area; juice of roots and leaves taken skin rashes, aids in digestion. in small dosage Fresh leaf paste applied on the Small pox, body ache, aperients body effects. Paste mixed with sorghum oil Insect and spider bites. and rubbed Taken orally with other herbs Internal haemorrhoid bleeding, blood expediting. Extract applied externally Skin disease, boils.
Preparation Consumed fresh mixed with pond salt, king chili and soybean Steam bath
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 15
Poaceae Poaceae Malvaceae
–
–
Bala
Fiipro
Ciepfi
Gadzii
Tsociepfii
Chiikrii
129. Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv. 130. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. 131. Sida acuta Burm. f.
132. Smilax zeylanica L.
133. Solanum gilo Raddi
134. Solanum nigrum L.
135. Solanum torvum Sw.
136. Solanum viarum Dunal
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Smilacaceae
Pedaliaceae
Pingnak
128. Sesamum orientale L.
Family Leguminosae
Vernacular name –
Sl no. Scientific name 127. Senna hirsuta (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby
Table 1 (continued)
Fruits
Fruits
Fruits
Fruits
Leaves and roots
Leaves
Aerial parts
Whole plant
Seeds
Parts used Leaves
Laxative, skin hydration, hair growth. Fever, cough.
Purpose /usage/treatment Dysentery, ringworm, skin infection, germicide, antiparasite.
Boiled with other herbs, Rheumatic, fever. mixed with salt and consumed Dried, grinded with oil and Asthma, tuberculosis, oral taken orally problems, urinary tract infection, testicular swelling. Fresh paste rubbed on infected Skin infections; maintain blood pressure, indigestion, joint pain, skin; boiled with cow milk sexual vigor. and ingested Roasted in hot ash and eaten Aids in digestion, maintains blood pressure. Consumed either fresh or Mouth ulcers, skin infections, boiled with pond salt asthma, tonic, and cough. Cardiac arrest, ulcers, fever, Roasted in ash, fried with sorghum or boiled with pond cough, wounds, liver disorder. salt Anticancer, Dried and mixed with other antifungal, anti- inflammatory. therapeutic herbs and taken orally
Preparation Dried, grinded-applied on infected skin and taken orally in small dosage Roasted, consumed, or applied on skin and scalp Boiled and ingested
16 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Rubiaceaea Rubiaceaea Rubiaceae
Asteraceae
–
140. Spermacoce keyensis Small –
141. Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. –
–
Kevenha
139. Spermacoce hispida L.
142. Sphaeranthus indicus L.
143. Spilanthes acmella (L.) L.
Leaves and roots
147. Thysanolaena latifolia Phipfe (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda
Poaceae
Tubers
Leaves
Aerial parts
Flower and leaves
Aerial parts
Aerial parts
Aerial parts
Leaves and stems Aerial parts
Parts used Leaves, stem, young roots
– Poaceae 144. Sporobolus diandrus (Retz.) P.Beauv. – Asteaceae 145. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. 146. Thunbergia coccinea Wall. Nulidongmoli Acanthaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Nhana
138. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill
Family Asteraceae
Vernacular name Nhana
Sl no. Scientific name 137. Sonchus arvensis L.
(continued)
Purpose /usage/treatment Cough, digestive disorder, increase appetite and improve eyesight. Young leaves cooked and Sedative, anti-cancer, blood eaten purifier, antidepressant. Consumed fresh young shoots Gallstones, conjunctivitis, haemorrhoids, tonic. Young shoots consumed either Malaria, boils, haemorrhage, skin fresh or dried infection. Dried and mixed with water Leukemia, digestive problems, and taken orally skin rashes, urinary tract infection, respiratory ailments. Skin infection, cough, diabetic, Either dried or fresh mixed with other herbs epilepsy. Fresh flowers paste is applied Toothache, inflammation, on infected tooth.; leaves are pain-reliever, diuretic, gastric ulcer. boiled and taken orally Boiled and consumed orally Gonorrhoea, pain reliever, blood circulation. Dried, grinded and taken Cardiac problems, epilepsy, liver orally disease, inflammatory. Extracts taken orally in small Aphrodisiac and tonic. dosage Plant extract mixed with lime, Treat boils, sore in eye, fever, and pond salt and ingested reduce inflammation.
Preparation Fresh leaves steamed and eaten
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 17
Malvaceae Malvaceae Typhaceae Malvaceae
Tsula mesukzu Mochitsiinara
–
Kuchii
Kuchii
–
Kouchii
Zozie
150. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. 151. Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray
152. Tridax procumbens (L.) L.
153. Triumfetta pilosa Roth
154. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 155. Typha angustata Bory & Chaub. 156. Urena lobata L.
157. Urtica dioica L.
Parts used Leaves and flower Whole plant
Urticaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Leaves
Root, stem and leaves
Shoot
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Menispermaceae Stem
Asteraceae
–
149. Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H.Wigg.
Family Asteraceae
Vernacular name Puja niepou
Sl no. Scientific name 148. Tagetes erecta L.
Table 1 (continued) Purpose /usage/treatment Intestinal problems, gastritis, mumps, sore eyes. Decoction and brewed for tea Reduce cholesterol, maintain blood sugar level, improve eyesight, cleans intestinal tract. Poulticed on affected area Applied to burns, bone fractures, sprains, stomach problems. Paste applied on skin; dried or Antiseptic, indigestion, stomach ache, constipation, diabetes, fresh mixed with therapeutic herbs ingested in small dosage menstrual pain. Paste rubbed on infected skin Anti-fungal, skin disease, insect bites, anti-coagulant. Dried and taken orally Inflammation, stomach ache, jaundice. Dried and taken orally Gum problems, stomach ache, hepatitis, asthma. Concoction of leaves, honey, Male impotency, menstrual pain, ginger and consumed orally haemostatic. Anticancer, anti-diabetic, Concoction of leaves, root, diarrhoea. stem with water and taken orally Hair fall, inflammations, prostate Leaves paste mixed with cancer, hay fever, lower blood essential oil and applied on scalp; leaves boiled and taken pressure, maintains blood sugar level. orally
Preparation Decoction of leaves
18 K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Vernacular name Onnii
Ganyasei
Ganyanyii
Ganya
Sl no. Scientific name 158. Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr.
159. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC.
160. Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew.
161. Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC.
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Family Asteraceae
Fruits and leaves
Fruits, leaves, inflorescence
Leaves and fruits
Parts used Leaves
Preparation Extract of leaves is rubbed on scalp and ingested in minute dosage Consumed either raw or cooked with salt or soya beans; paste applied on infected tooth Poultice on infected area; cooked with sorghum oil, pond salt and eaten with aromatic rice Poultice on forehead; boiled and eaten with sticky rice Fever.
Liver-tonic, toothache and fever.
Fever and toothache.
Purpose /usage/treatment Hair growth, analgesic, antimicrobial, headache.
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas 19
20
K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
species each), Convolvulaceae and Urticaceae (5 species each), Zingiberaceae (4), Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Araliaceae, Plantaginaceae, Piperaceae and Rutaceae (3 species each), Apocynaceae, Araceae, Begoniaceae, Commelinaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Oxidaceae, Phyllanthaceae, Pteridaceae and Rosaceae (2 species each)m while the rest 32 families had one species each. Most plants were found to grow in wild conditions and very few cultivated. Some weed plants like Bidens pilosa, Cannabis sativa and Datura innoxia have often been used as antiseptics for treating cuts and wounds, burns and skin infections. Some of the common plants like Ageratum conyzoides, A. houstonianum and Spilanthes acmella found in this region are traditionally used as decoction with other therapeutic herbs for treating diarrhoea and as an effective pain reliever against toothache. Invasive plants such as Lantana camara, Chromoleana odorata and Ageratina riparia growing abundantly in kitchen gardens are frequently considered a threat to the native flora but at the same time highly efficient and useful in treating numerous diseases. Rare and endangered species like Paris polyphylla, Panax pseudoginseng and Curculigo orchiodes are known for their ample benefits in treating various diseases and their anticancer properties. The most common plant parts used are the leaves followed by shoots, roots, rhizomes, seeds, flowers and fruits. Many plants were found to possess multiple therapeutic properties in treating different ailments. Leaves of Acacia pinnata, Amphineuron opulatum, Cannabis sativa, Catharanthus roseus, Chloris barbata, Hydrocotyle javanica, Ipomoea quaolit, Rungia pectinata, Centella asiatica, Clerodendrum glandulosum, C. serratum, Commelina benghalensis, Hibiscus syriacus, Phyllanthus fraternus, Pilea microphylla, Polygonum molle and Rumex patientia are used for treating skin infections (cuts, wounds, ringworm, skin ulcers and skin rashes) and insect bites. Leaves of Ricinus communis, Rubus niveus, Tithonia diversifolia and Typha angusta are used for treating menstrual cramps. The tender shoots or aerial parts of Asparagus officinalis, Adiantum caudatum, Asclepias curassavica, Euphorbia hirta and Imperata cylindrica are used for dysentery, de- worming, chronic lung diseases. Tender shoots of Cuscuta chinensis and C. reflexa are used in the treatment of urinary tract infection, urinary bladder problems and chronic liver ailments. Rhizome of Acorus calamus, Alpinia malaccensis, Costus spesiocus, Curcuma angustifolia, C. aromatic and Kaemferia rotunda is extensively used as a remedy for treating fever, indigestion and cough. Seeds of Amaranthus spinosus, A. viridis, Entada pursaetha, Hodgsonia macrocarpa, Perilla frutescens and Sesamum orientale are used for constipation, appetizer, skin hydration and hair growth. Flowers of Curculigo capitula and C. orchioides are used for the treatment of conjunctivitis and earache. Fruits(berries) of Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Solanum gilo, S. nigrum, S. torvum, S. viarum, Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum and Z. rhetsa are used as liver tonic, aids in digestion, maintains blood pressure, reduce fever, appendicitis including warts. Extracts of Eclipta prostrate, Amaranthus spinosus, Persicaria chinensis, Paris polyphylla, Leucas aspera and Impatiens latiflora are used as antidotes against snake and insect bites. Traditionally, the mode of preparation is by using either fresh or dried plant materials depending on the types of ailments the herbs are employed for treatment.
Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Naga Tribes of Eastern Himalayas
21
Most of the plants are processed in different ways like grinding, macerating, paste, juice extracts and decoction in combination with other herbs or ingredients like sorghum oil, pond salt, honey, milk and aromatic local rice. A warm poultice of various medicinal herbs with sorghum oil is also applied to get relief from muscle cramp, soreness, joint pain, body inflammation, body ache, fever and stomach congestion. The gastronomic culture of Nagas involves in the intake of spicy and fermented foods (bamboo shoots, soyabeans, mustard leaves, pickles, king chilies, etc.) including smoked meat (pork, beef, mutton and wild animals). These habits could have been a key reason for various health issues such as stomach pain, intestinal disorders, asthma, chronic liver disease and lungs infection prevalent within the tribal population. However, with these problems, the Nagas have developed a sense to find sources in treating the associated ailments and thus majority of the plants documented are known to be utilized for treating such gastrointestinal and other associated ailments. In total, 34 herbs were recorded for treating gastrointestinal problems (Acorus calamus, Alpinia malaccensis, Amaranthus spinosus, Asparagus officinalis, Cannabis sativa, Catharanthus roseus, Curcuma aromatic, Colocasia esculenta, Cyperus iria, Datura innoxia, Dicranopteris linearis, Dioscorea alata, Diplazium esculentum, Elatostema sessile, Fagopyrum esculentum, Gomphrena celosioides, Gynura bicolor, Hibiscus syriacus, Hydrocotyle javanica, Kaempferia rotunda, Kalanchoe pinnata, Ocimum sanctum, Imperata cylindrica, Mussaenda macrophylla, Paederia foetida, Polygonum plebium, Pouzolzia hirta, P. zeylanica, Tagetes erecta, Tinospora sinensis, Tithonia diversifolia, Triumfetta pilosa, T. rhomboidea and Typha angusta). From the present study, it is evident that medicinal plants play a vital role in aiding to the health of indigenous people in this region. Many of the tribes in the studied area still depend on the medicinal plants for their daily healthcare routine over the modern system of medicines. But over the years, this system may deteriorate due to the absence of interest among the younger generations as most are influenced by modern technology and their cultural importance are put aside. Moreover, the traditional healing systems are passed down orally and hence detailed information is lost in the process. Therefore, necessary steps should be taken up to encourage the upcoming generations as well as penned down the necessities in proper text for future references. With the help of the government or village councils, robust regulations and management plans should be laid to protect and educate the tribes about the benefits, medicinal purposes and conservation of these valuable herbs.
4 Conclusion The study elucidated a very high number of therapeutic herbs accounting for 161 plants, which is one of the highest recorded data from Northeast India. According to the current research, medicinal herbs will continue to play an essential role as a health aid to the tribal communities of Eastern Himalayas. Traditional healing treatments employing medicinal plants are widely used on a normative basis by the
22
K. Semy and R. Kuotsu
Nagas. Furthermore, due to the rising costs of personal health maintenance, herbal therapies have grown more popular in these regions for treating various disorders. However, as a result of developmental activities, deforestation, population growth and indiscriminate exploitation, native medicinal plants are rapidly depleting and have even lead to some plant species being endangered. Therefore, efforts must be geared towards preserving them through sustainable management and enhance the effectiveness, efficacy and rational use of medicinal plants, especially through the integration into national, regional and local health policies and programmes. In situ conservation techniques in home gardens and on-farm cultivation should be encouraged for socio-economic and sustainable growth. Also, these plants can fill the void in the medical sector and become a new trend for upcoming research. Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the native healers, village elders, herbalist and local inhabitants of Nagaland for sharing their traditional knowledge.
Declarations Authors Contribution: Khikeya Semy: Field survey, documentation and construction of manuscript; Ruokuonuo Kuotsu: Plants identification and herbarium preparation. Ethics Approval: Not applicable. Consent to Participate: All authors have their consent to participate. Consent for Publication: All authors have their consent to publish their work. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no competing interests. Availability of data and materials: Data made available on reasonable request. Fundings: Not applicable.
References 1. Davidson-Hunt I (2000) Ecological ethnobotany: stumbling toward new practices and paradigms. Mod Assis Stat App 16:1–13 2. Mahesh B, Satish S (2007) Antimicrobial activity of some important medicinal plant against plant and human pathogen. J Agri Sci 4 3. Srinivasan D, Nathan S, Suresh T (2007) Antimicrobial of certain Indian medicinal plants used in folkloric medicine. J Ethnopharmacol 74:217–220 4. Raut S, Sen SK, Satpathy S, Pattnaik D (2012) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants inSemiliguda of Koraput District, Odisha, India. Bot Res Intern 5(4):97–107 5. Tan AC, Konczak I, Sze DM, Ramzan I (2010) Towards the discovery of novel phytochemicals for disease prevention from native Australian plants: an ethnobotanical approach. Asian Pac J Clin Nutr 19(3):330–334 6. Chakraborty RDB, Devanna N, Sen S (2012) North-East India an ethnic storehouse of unexplored medicinal plants. Scho Res Lib 2:143–152 7. Majumder J, Battacharjee PP, Datta BK, Agarwala BK (2014) Ethno-medicinal plants used by Bengali communities in Tripura, Northeast India. J For Res 25:713–716 8. Semy K, Singh MR (2021) Quality assessment of Tsurang River water affected by coal mining along the Tsurangkong Range, Nagaland, India. Appl Water Sci 11:115
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9. Taid TC, Rajkhowa RC, Kalita JC (2014) A study on the medicinal plants used by the local traditional healers of Dhemaji district, Assam, India for curing reproductive health related disorders. Adv Appl Sci Res 5(1):296–301 10. Bharali P, Sharma CL, Singh B, Sharma M (2017) Ethnobotanical studies of spice and condiment plants used by some communities of Assam. Int J of Adv in Sci Res 3(01):1–11 11. Sharma M, Das B (2018) Medicinal plants of north-east region of India: a small review. Int J Curr Pharm Res 10(4):11–12 12. Chakre L, Narasimhan D (2013) Ethnobotany of Mao-Naga tribe of Manipur, India. Pleione 7(2):314–324 13. Usharani L, Singh WR, Surodhani S (2015) An ethnomedicinal plant-A less known Spices used by Meitei Community of Manipur. Asian J Plant Sci Res 5(6):84–87 14. Khongsai M, Saikia SP, Kayang H (2011) Ethnomedicinal plants used by different tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian J Trad Know 10(3):541–546 15. Perme N, Choudhury SN, Choudhury R, Natung T, De B (2015) Medicinal plants in traditional use at Arunachal Pradesh, India. Int J Phytopharm 5(5):86–98 16. Tripathi AK, Shankar R, Limasenla, Neyaz S (2016) Medicinal plants of Arunachal Pradesh used in treatment of various diseases 17. Kashung S, Gajurel PR, Singh B (2020) Ethnobotanical uses and socio-economic importance of climbing species in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Plant Sci Today 7(3):371–377 18. Deorani SC, Sharma GD (2007) Medicinal plants of Nagaland. In: Singh B., Singh M.P (eds), Dehra Dun 19. Changkija S, Ajungla L, Rongsensashi, Mozhui R (2010) Medicinal and Aromatic Flora of Nagaland. MPDA, Dept. of Forest, Ecology, Environment and Wildlife, Govt. of Nagaland 20. Lokho A (2012) The folk medicinal plants of the Mao Naga in Manipur, North East India. Int J Sci Res Pub 2(6):1–8 21. Shankar R, Devalla RB (2012) Conservation of folk hailing practices and commercial medicinal plants with special reference to Nagaland. Int J Biodivers Conserv 4(3):155–163 22. Rongsensashi, Mozhui R, Changkija S (2013) Limasenla.: medicinal plants diversity of Fakim wildlife sanctuary, Nagaland, India. Pleione 7(1):110–126 23. De LC (2016) Medicinal and aromatic plants of Northeast India. Int J Dev Res 06(11):10104–10114 24. Shimray RA, Lunleng A (2017) Ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants among the Tangkhul Nagas of Manipur. Ind J Res Anthro 3(1):29–36 25. Jain SK, Rao RR (1977) A handbook of field and herbarium methods. Today and tomorrow printers and publishers, New Delhi, p 157 26. Kanjilal UN, Kanjilal PC, Das A, Purkayastha C (1934) Flora of Assam, Ranunculaceae to Elaeocarpaceae, vol 1. Government of Assam, Shillong, p 184 27. Bennet SSR (1987) Name changes in flowering plants of India and adjacent regions. Triseas Publishers, Dehradun, p 772 28. Dey S (2018) Studies of the diversity of flowering plants of Tuensang district, Nagaland. Ph.D. thesis, Nagaland University, Nagaland
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North Maharashtra, India Y. A. Ahirrao, M. V. Patil, and D. A. Patil
1 Introduction The word ‘Ethnobotany’ was almost unheard in India in the middle of last century. ‘Society of Ethnobotanists’ is a premier society in India established in 1980, which filliped ethnobotanical studies particularly in India. This activity has well mushroomed and extended over nearly all Indian states and geographical regions inclusive of majority of tribes and rural folks. It is needless to state that, throughout the history of mankind, plants have been a major source of medicine. This central function still is continued worldwide particularly in the regions dominated by the tribal communities and rural folks. The chief value of medicine in commerce in India was stressed by Drury [1]. Prospects on ethnomedicinal studies in India are still bright on account of remarkable phytodiversity and multiethnic culture inhabiting various phytogeographical regions. Such investigations offer tremendous scope for bioprospecting in view of the sustainable development. Even today, medicinal sources are sold in public places by herbal vendors in India. However, their traditional knowledge is hardly documented yet. Probably, Sinha (1996) [2] is the first investigator to tap their wisdom as an exclusive topic of research particularly in and around Delhi. The present authors, therefore, extended inventory to document this much neglected area of research in India, the results of which are being published [3–7]. This communication presents hitherto unprojected source of seeds sold by vendors in northern part of Maharashtra (India).
Y. A. Ahirrao S.S.V.P. Sanstha’s Arts, Commerce and Science College, Shindkheda, Dhule, Maharashtra, India M. V. Patil · D. A. Patil (*) Department of Botany, S.S.V.P.Sanstha’s, L.K.Dr.P.R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule, Maharashtra, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_2
25
26
Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
2 Methodology The area under present study included five districts, namely, Nasik, Dhule, Nandurbar, Jalgaon and Buldhana in northern part of Maharashtra state (India) (Maps 1 and 2). The herbal vendors conduct their traditional family business of selling botanicals of medicinal importance. They carry on their business in public places such as railway stations, bus stands, courts, Government offices, highways, crossroads, chowks of cities, pilgrim centres, temples and places of weekly bazar
Map 1 Maharashtra, India
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North…
27
Map 2 Nasik, Dhule, Nandurbar, Jalgaon and Buldhana districts in Maharashtra
days. The vendors were interviewed and their medicinal wisdom like common plant name, part or product used, diseases treated, doses, recipes and their administration, age and sex of the patients to be treated, etc., were recorded. The samples were also purchased and photographed. Botanical identities deciphered consulting various floras like Hooker, 1872–1897; Cooke, 1958; Naik, 1998; Lakshminarsimhan and Sharma, 1951; Patil, 2003; Kshirsagar and Patil, 2008; Diwakar and Sharma, 2002, etc. [8–14] The information obtained is presented in Table 1 with necessary details.
3 Results The present inventory on medicinal use reports of seeds from herbal vendors in some districts of North Maharashtra. It revealed 101 species pertaining to 101 genera and 48 angiospermic families. Majority of them are dicotyledons (94 species, 94 genera and 42 families), whereas monocotyledons contributed for a lesser share (07 species, 07 genera and 06 families). Out of total 101 taxa, 38 species are found to be exclusively under cultivation, whereas 51 species are exclusively wild. Few others (12 species) are either wild or cultivated as well. Of these, 27 species exhibited tree habit, others being shrubs, herbs or climbers. Cultigens are also traditionally useful
Albizia chinensis (Osb.) Merr. Mimosaceae Alcea rosea L. Malvaceae Amomum subulatum Roxb. Zingiberaceae
Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae
4.
7.
8.
6.
5.
Aconitum deinorrhizum Stapf Ranunculaceae
Balant soap
Kaju
Motha
Gulkhair
Shirish
Mohara
Plant name and family Local name Abelmoschus moschatus (L.) Ranbhendi Medik. Malvaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Babhul ex Del. Subsp. indica (Benth.) Bernan Mimosaceac
3.
2.
Sr. No. 1.
Table 1 Seeds employed for treating human diseases
Herb
Tree
Herb
Shrub
Tree
Herb
Herb
Habit Shrub
C
C
W
C
W
W
W
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) W
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Diarrhoea Breastfeeding in mother
Powder
Urinary complaints Heart, Piles Leprosy
Piles
Sperm count
Powder
Powder Oil
Powder
Powder
Powder
Sexual vigour Snake bite Chickenpox
Cholesterol
Ash Powder Slurry Powder
Impotency
Disease Cancer
Powder
Recipe used Paste
Use reports
One month at morning
One months
Ten days at night
Till cure
Seven days One month Half cup Three days twice a day One teaspoon
Twice a day Twice a day
One teaspoon Seven days at night Twice a day Three days
One teaspoon daily One teaspoon daily morning One teaspoon One teaspoon One teaspoon twice a day One teaspoon
Dose Period One teaspoon One month twice a day
28 Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
18.
17.
16.
15.
14.
13.
12.
11.
10.
Sr. No. 9.
Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae
Plant name and family Apama siliquosa L. Aristolochiaceae Arachis hypogea L. Fabaceae Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj. Convolvulaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Scrophulariaceae Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae Bixa orellana L. Bixaceae Blumea eriantha DC. Asteraceae Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Brassicaceae Herb
Tree
Palas
Tree
Sendri
Rai
Shrub
Danti
Herb
Herb
Bramhi
Nirmali
Tree
Limba
W
C
W
C
W
W C W
Climber W
Gugguli
W
Herb
Habit Shrub
Bhuimung
Local name Chakrani
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) W
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
M
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Powder Paste
Oil
Dose One glass twice a day –
Daily
Period One month
Gonorrhoea
Scabies
Hair fall
Hair-lice
Stomach worm Itching of skin
Cough
Daily morning Daily
Half cup twice a day Rubbed on chest of children One teaspoon twice a day
(continued)
Seven days Seven days
Daily at night
Fifteen days
Every morning three days One teaspoon Three days
–
–
–
Preliminary stage One teaspoon Twenty-one cancer twice a day days
Diabetes
Disease Kidney stone
Decoction Acidity
Powder
Paste
Extract
Powder
Powder
Powder
Recipe used Infusion
Use reports
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North… 29
28.
27.
26.
25.
Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae
Cleome viscosa L. Capparidaceae Corchorus capsularis L. Tiliaceae
Herb
Herb
Chuncha
Kothambir
Herb
Herb
Cheel
Piwali
Herb
Shrub
Herb
Herb
Shrub
C
W
W
W
W
W
C
W
C
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) Habit Climber C
Kardu
Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae
24.
Jire
Karvand
Tur
Local name Chilar
Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Malkangani Celastraceae
Plant name and family Caesalpinia decaptela (Roth) Alst. Caesalpinaceae Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Fabaceae Carissa carandus L. Apocynaceae Carum carvi L. Apiaceae
23.
22.
21.
20.
Sr. No. 19.
Table 1 (continued)
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
–
–
Dose Once daily
Rheumatism Paralysis Body heat
Snake bite
Powder
Decoction Malaria Powder
Abdominal pain
Powder
Mixed with glass of water Pinch of powder To teaspoons twice a day
One cup twice a day Half cup One teaspoon –
–
Improve eye sight – Night blindness
Crack of foot
Eye infection
Disease Stomachache
Decoction Safe delivery Powder Bile Paste Leprosy
Powder
Oil
Paste Paste
Paste
Paste
Recipe used Powder
Use reports
Every five minutes Fifteen days
Two days
Regular Three nights Fifteen days
Four days
Daily for twenty-one days Daily for one month
Daily at night for four days
Till cure
Period Till cure
30 Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
37.
Drypetes roxburghii (Wall.) Huru. Euphorbiaceae
Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoriaceae Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffery Cucurbitaceae
35.
36.
Daucus carota L. Apiaceae
Plant name and family Cressa cretica L. Convolvulaceae Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. Fabaceae Croton tiglium L. Euphorbiaceae Cucurbita maxima Duch. ex Lam. Cucurbitaceae Datura metel L. Solanaceae
34.
33.
32.
31.
30.
Sr. No. 29.
D
Jivan putra
Powder Powder
Powder
M
C
Powder
D
Fertility rate in women Snake bite Sperm count
Rheumatism
Decoction Wounds Bruises of skin Pellate Impotency Decoction Menstrual cycle Painful delivery Powder
Decoction Intestinal worms
Kadu karanda Climber W C Shivlingi Climber W
Tree
Dysentery
Disease Speaking defects
Decoction Diarrhoea
Powder
Recipe used Slurry
Use reports
D
Herb
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
C
Gajar
W
Shrub
Tambada bhopala
Kala dhotra
W
W C Climber C
Tree
Herb
Raanmethi
Jamal gota
Habit Herb
Local name Khardi
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) W
(continued)
One week at morning Three nights One teaspoon Seven days Two teaspoons One teaspoon One month at night One teaspoon Fifteen days at morning One cup One teaspoon Seven days twice a day
Twice a day
Half teaspoon Three days twice a day Two Three days teaspoons
Period Fifteen days at morning One teaspoon Three days twice a day
Dose Spoonful
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North… 31
45.
44.
43.
42.
41.
40.
39.
Sr. No. 38.
Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesm. Musaceae Entada rheedei Spreng. Mimosaceae Eulophia herbacea Lindl. Orchidaceae Euryale ferox Salisb. Nymphaeaceae
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Euphorbiaceae
Plant name and family Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) K. Schum. Elaeocarpaceae Elettaria cardamomum Maton Zingiberaceae
Table 1 (continued)
Makhane
Herb
Herb
Kukud Kand C W
W
Climber W
W
W C
C
C
Garambi
Herb
Jangli Keli
Herb
Nagali
Tree
Herb
Veldoda
Awala
Habit Tree
Local name Rudraksha
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) W
D
M
D
M
D
M
M
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Roasted
Powder
Diarrhoea
Body strength
Hair loss
Scabies Kidney stone
Ash Powder
Powder
Leucorrhoea
Paste
Paste
Powder
Till cure
Daily night
Three days at morning Seven nights Four days
One teaspoon Four days at night
–
–
Once a day
Half cup
Irregular heart beat Urinary problems One teaspoon Three days twice a day Fever Twice a day Three days
Extract
Period Seven days
One teaspoon One month daily at night Glass of water One month
Dose –
Sperm count
Disease Pimples
Paste
Recipe used Powder
Use reports
32 Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
55.
54.
53.
52.
51.
50.
49.
48.
47.
Sr. No. 46.
Plant name and family Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae Gomphrena globosa L. Amaranthaece Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don Apocynaceae Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Ulmaceae Hordeum vulgare L. Poaceae Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst.) Sleum. Flacourtiaceae Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae Impatiens balsamina L. Balsaminaceae Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Cucurbitaceae Tree Climber C
Jamal-gota
Dhudhi- Bhopala
C
W
Terda
Herb
W
W
C
W
W
W
Khurasani ova Herb
Tree
Kutakvath
Tree
Vavala
Herb
Tree
Indarjav
Satu
Herb
Habit Herb
Makhamal
Local name Badi sepu
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) C
D
D
D
D
D
M
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Hydrocele
Diabetes
Headache
Disease Scant urination
Paste Paste
Powder
Paste
Powder
Oil Powder
Sleeplessness
Stomachache
Joint pains
Tooth cavity
Tuberculosis
Decoction Acidity
Paste
Powder
Paste
Recipe used Paste
Use reports
Pinch of powder –
Twice a day
Five to six drops twice a day –
Half cup
Twice a day
(continued)
Ten nights
One day
One month at morning One month
One month
Three days
One week
Half teaspoon Forty-five days at morning
Dose Period One teaspoon Four days twice a day – Three nights
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North… 33
64.
63.
62.
61.
60.
59.
58.
57.
Sr. No. 56.
Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Melilotus indica (L.) All. Fabaceae
Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Chev. Sapaotaceae Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub. Sapotaceae Martynia annua L. Martyniaceae
Lepidium iberis L. Brassicaceae Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae
Plant name and family Lens culinaris Medic. Fabaceae
Table 1 (continued)
Van methi
Limba Herv
Tree
Herb
Tree
Khairani
Vinchu
Tree
Tree
Mahu
Aamba
Herb
Herb
Habit Herb
Javas
Safed towari
Local name Masur
W
C
W
C
C
W C
C
W
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) C
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Powder
Oil
Powder Powder
Paste
Pulp
Extract
Dysentery
Hair baldness
Ring worm Tuberculosis
Scorpion sting
Dysentery
Chronic head-ache
Disease Burning sensation Black spots Powder Swelling respiratory track Decoction Painful micturition Powder Sperm count
Recipe used Paste
Use reports Period Seven days
Till cure
Three days
Three nights One teaspoon One month twice a day Daily morning One teaspoon Three days twice a day
Half cup twice a day –
One teaspoon Four days twice a day One teaspoon Fifteen days twice a day Two drops at Fifteen days morning
Seven nights One teaspoon Fifteen nights
Dose –
34 Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
C
72.
71.
Ocimum basilicum L. Lamiaceae Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae
Shrub
Krishna Tulas Shrub
Sabja C
C
C
Herb
70.
W
Tree
Nephelium chinensis (Lour.) Litchi Almeida Sapindaceae Kale til Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae
69.
C W
Herb
Climber W
Tree
Habit Tree
Kamal
Kach-Kauri
Bakul
Local name Nagchafa
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbonaceae
Plant name and family Mesua ferrea L. Clusiaceae Mimusops elengi L. Sapotaceae Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae
68.
67.
66.
Sr. No. 65.
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) W
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Skin Heal infection around genitals Malarial fever
Powder Infusion Seeds
Baldness Asthma
Oil Powder
Sperm count
Menstruation
Twice a day
6 gm.
(continued)
One month at night Ten nights Four days at morning Three to four days
Forty-five nights
Ten days
Seven days
Five days
Fort-five days
Dose Period One teaspoon Seven days twice a day Twice a day Seven dasy
One teaspoon twice a day Powder Gonorrhoea One teaspoon twice a day Powder Avoid abortion Half cup once a day Half cup Powder Anima in children twice a day Decoction Swelling of testes 10 to 15 ml
Powder
Pellates
Recipe used Disease Decoction Menses
Use reports
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North… 35
81.
Semecarpus anacardium L. f. Anacardiaceae
Sapindus emarginatus Vahl Sapindaceae Sapindus laurifolia Vahl Sapindaceae
79.
80.
Salvia aegyptiaca L. Lamiaceae
Pisum sativum L. Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae Quisqualis indica L. Combretaceae
Plant name and family Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae
78.
77.
76.
75.
74.
Sr. No. 73.
Table 1 (continued)
Tree
Tree
Karanj
Vivala
Tree
Tree
Biba
Tree
Ritha
Ritha
Shrub
Kammarkas
W C
W
W
W
Climber C
Madhumalati
W
W C
Climber C
Vatane
Local name Kali meeri
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) Habit Climber C W
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Intestinal worm
Powder
Headache
Paste
Rheumatism
Powder Piles Decoction Cough &
Powder
Decoction Redness of eyes Powder Diarrhoea Paste Insect bite
Fever Diarrhoea
Toothache
Skin problems Eczema
Disease Paralysis Pimples Skin problems
Powder Powder
Powder
Paste Oil
Recipe used Powder Paste Powder
Use reports
Ten to fifteen mornings
Four to five nights
Daily
Period Daily
Four nights Till cure One teaspoon Fourteen nights One teaspoon Half cup Three to four twice a day days Fifteen nights
2–4 gm –
One teaspoon Four nights One teaspoon Three days twice a day One glass Seven days twice a day
–
–
–
Dose –
36 Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae
89.
91.
90.
Teramnus labialis (L. f.) Spreng. Fabaceae
Plant name and family Sesamum orientale L Pedaliacae Strychnos potatorum L. f. Longaniaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Tagetes erecta L. Asteraceae Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Tectona grandis L. f. Verbenaceae
88.
87.
86.
85.
84.
83.
Sr. No. 82.
Hirada
Badam Tree
Tree
Tree
Beheda
C
C
W
Climber W
Ran udid
W C W C
C
C
W
Tree
Tree
Herb
Tree
Tree
Habit Herb
Sag
Chincha
Zendu
Jambhul
Chilhara
Local name Til
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) C
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
(continued)
One cup twice Seven days a day
Till cure
Four nights One month at morning
Three days
Once a day Fifteen days
Three days
One teaspoon Fourteen mornings One teaspoon One month at morning One teaspoon Ten nights
Dose Period One teaspoon Three nights
Hearing problems – Decoction Abdominal pain
Powder
Dysentery
Sexual vigour
Diabetes
Aphrobisiac
Disease Wetting bed
Two spoon twice a day Paste Abdominal pains Twice a day Powder Painful Half teaspoon micturition twice a day Decoction Diarrhoea 10–20 ml twice a day Powder Rat bite One teaspoon Powder Improve One teaspoon digestion
Powder
Powder
Powder
Powder
Recipe used Powder
Use reports
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North… 37
97.
96.
Vigna radiata (L.) Wilezek. Fabaceae
Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Asteraceae
94.
95.
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae
Plant name and family Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Apiaceae
93.
Sr. No. 92.
Table 1 (continued)
Herb Herb Herb
Herb
Vinchu vel
Kale jire
Mugi
Herb
Methi
Van bhendi
Habit Herb
Local name Owa
C
W
W
W
C
Wild (W)/ cultivated (C) C
D
D
D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Diabetes
Scorpion sting
Intestinal worms
Reduce body weight Diabetes
Pellate
Powder
White spots of leprosy Increase sperm count
Decoction Body fever
Powder
Slurry
Powder
Powder
Powder
Decoction Urinary stone
Recipe used Disease Powder Cough Decoction Dropsy
Use reports Period Three days One month
–
Five nights
One teaspoon Daily in morning one month 10–15 ml Three days at morning
One month at night One teaspoon One month twice a day One teaspoon once a day 1–2 gm twice Four days a day – Till cure
Dose Twice a day One teaspoon thrice a day One teaspoon
38 Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
Plant name and family Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. var. cylindrica (L.) Eseltine Fabaceae 99. Wattakaka lanceolata (T. Cooke) Jagtap & Sinsh. Asclepiadaceae 100. Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Apocynaceae 101. Xanthium indicum Koen. Asteraceae
Sr. No. 98.
Wild (W)/ cultivated Habit (C) Climber C
Climber W
W W
Tree Herb
Local name Chavali
Kewad
Dudhi indrajao Shankeshwar D
D
D
Dicot/ monocot/ gymno/ pterido D
Powder
Powder
Paste
Jaundice
Skin disease
Joint pain
Recipe used Disease Decoction Vomiting
Use reports
Seven nights
One month twice a day
Period One day
Half cup with Seven nights milk
–
–
Dose 10–15 ml twice a day
Ethnomedicinal Use Reports of Seeds as Tapped from Herbal Vendors in North… 39
40
Y. A. Ahirrao et al.
for various miscellaneous purposes, e.g. food, spice, ornamental, oil, shade tree, beauty care, etc. in this region. The 101 species yielding seeds are employed for various 74 human diseases (Table 1). They are administered in various forms of medicinal recipes: (i) powder (72), (ii) paste (25), (iii) decoction (20), (iv) slurry (03), (v) pellates (03), (vi) extract (03), (vii) ash (02), (viii) infusion (02), (ix) pulp (01) and (x) seeds (01). Thus powder is the most common recipes advised by the herbal vendors. Others are important in descending order presented here. The figures in parenthesis denote number of use-reports.
4 Discussion Plants form the basis for most life on earth; however, the field of ‘Botany’ has declined worldwide, while the field of ‘Ethnobotany’ keeps emerging. In this latter missionary activity, India stands at the forefront of nations devoting sustained scientific attention to this discipline of natural science. India has also recognized the danger of the loss of precious traditional knowledge for the benefit of all humanity. Some neglected areas of research in ethnobotany and ethnomedicine are being paid serious attention [15]. One such study is tapping wisdom of herbal vendors who conduct traditional business of selling botanicals of medicinal significance in public places. The review of literature indicated that exclusive ethnomedicinal use reports on specific plant parts are rare in India [7, 15–18]. Mahekar and Yadav [19–22] informed about their ethnomedicinal utilities in Maharashtra as obtained from herbal vendors. Recently, there are also few exclusive reports on ethnomedicine by Patel and Parekh [23] and Kalim et al [24]. The present authors worked on this line of research, the results of which are being published [3–7]. This communication is an attempt to shed more light particularly on ethnomedicinal importance of seeds. The Indian researchers do not want to ignore the contribution of native bioresources. The vast role played by seeds as cereals, millets, pseudo-cereals, oils, spices and condiments is obvious for sustenance of human life since the appearance of mankind on the Blue Planet. The panorama of ‘Ethnobotany’ has now been quite widened in India [25]. However, its role in medicine is hardly emphasized [26–28]. Although the importance of newer subjects such as biotechnology and molecular biology is being emphasized, there is equal necessity to nurture traditional subjects like ‘Ethnobotany’ vis-à-vis ‘Ethnomedicine‘. The aforesaid new subjects help promote the traditional subjects for searching new lead molecules and propagation of bioresources besides value addition and sustainable use of Indian phytodiversity. It is equally important to tap traditional ethnomedicinal wisdom of Indian herbal vendors for the welfare of mankind. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the authorities of SSVP Sanstha for laboratory and library facilities.
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References 1. Drury CH (1873) The useful plants of India with notices of their chief value in commerce, medicine and the arts. William H. Allen & Co., London, UK 2. Sinha R (1996) Ethnobotany: the renaissance of traditional herbal medicine. INA Shree Publishers, Jaipur 3. Ahirrao YA, Patil MV, Patil DA (2015) Traditional sources of antidotes from botanicals sold by herbal vendors in North Maharashtra (India). Acad Res 10(1):156–160 4. Ahirrao YA, Patil MV, Patil DA (2015) Botanicals sold by herbal vendors employed for skin diseases in North Maharashtra, India. Species 13(37):1–5 5. Ahirrao YA, Patil MV, Patil DA (2016) Ethnomedicinal investigation of herbal vendors in North Maharashtra (India) combating jaundice disease. IRMJCR (Scholar World) Special Issue VI(January, 2016):152–155 6. Ahirrao YA, Patil DA (2018) Ethnomedicinal investigation of some common botanicals sold by vendors in North Maharashtra (India). Res World IX(Special Issue):175–180 7. Ahirrao YA, Patil MV, Patil DA (2021) Ethnomedicinal uses of flowers enquired from herbal vendors in North Maharashtra (Maharashtra) India. PARIPEX-Indian J Res 10(11):1–4. https://doi.org/10.36106/paripex 8. Hooker JD (1872–1897) The Flora of British India, vol. I–III. L.Reeve & Co., London, UK 9. Cooke T (1958) The Flora of The Presidency of Bombay, vol I–II. Bot.Surv.India, Calcutta 10. Naik VN (1998) Flora of Maharashtra, vol I-II. Amrut Prakashan, Aurangabad (M.S.) 11. Lakshminarsimhan P, Sharma BD (1991) Flora of Nashik District. B.S.I, Calcutta 12. Patil DA (2003) Flora of Dhule and Nandurbar District (Maharashtra). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun 13. Kshirsagar SR, Patil DA (2008) Flora of Jalgaon District (Maharashtra). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun 14. Diwakar PG, Sharma BD (2000) Flora of Buldhana District. Bot.Surv. India, Calcutta 15. Jain SK, Mugdal V, Banerjee DK, Guha A, Pal DC, Das D (1984) Bot. Surv. India, Howrah 16. Jain SK (1991) Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi 17. Maheshwari JK (1996) Ethnobotany in South Asia. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur 18. Goel AK, Tripathi S (2009) Ethnobotanical spectrum of Indian flora: An overview during the past 20 years. J Ethnobot 21(1–2):131–153 19. Mahekar P, Yadav SR (2004) Botanical identity of some tubers and rhizomes from south western Maharashtra used in folk medicines. In: Janarthanam MK, Narsimhan D (eds) Plant diversity, human welfare and conservation. Goa University Publication, Goa, pp 204–218 20. Mahekar P, Yadav SR (2004) Correct identity of some barks used in folk medicines. In: Ghate et al (eds) Focus on sacred groves and ethnobotany. Prism Publications, Mumbai, pp 237–253 21. Mahekar P, Yadav SR (2004) Correct identity of some folk medicines of South Western Maharashtra. Bull Bot Surv India 46/9(1–4):300–324 22. Mahekar P, Yadav SR (2008) Fruit and seed drugs used in folk medicines in South Western Maharashtra. In: Chaturvedi A (ed) Ethnobotany & taxonomy of angiosperms. Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur (Maharashtra), pp 187–202 23. Patel PK, Parekh PP (2013) Therapeutic uses of some seeds among the tribals of Banaskantha district, Gujarat, India. Rom J Biol Plant Biol 58(1):79–82 24. Kalim A, Zahreer M, Uddin M, Siddiqui A, Ahmed S, Hassan MM (2021) Nutritional value, ethnomedicine, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Vigna radiat (L.) R.Wilczek. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 10(2):54–58 25. Jain SK (2019) The widening panorama of ethnobotany in India. J Indian Bot Soc 98(3–4):98–102 26. Patil DA (2010) Medicinal Plants: History, Culture and Usage. Manglam Publications, Delhi 27. Patil DA (2019) Food Crops: Evolution, Diversity And Advances. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur 28. Patil DA, Dhale DA (2013) Spices And Condiments: Origin, History And Applications. Daya Publishing House (A Division of Astral International Pvt. Ltd.), New Delhi
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary (GSWS) Tamil Nadu, India Pious Soris Tresina , Murugeswaran Santhiya Selvam , Vallinayagam Sornalakshmi , and Veerabahu Ramasamy Mohan
Abbreviations FC Fic FL GSWS RFC UV
Frequent citation Informant consensus factor Fidelity level Grizzled squirrel wildlife sanctuary Relative frequency of citation Use value
1 Introduction Ethnobotany is the relationship and dealing between people and plants with respect to their cultural values. Interactions and relationship between people and plants are different from place to place because of their relative importance, uses and different social, ethnic and cultural factors. Cultural values of plant exploration play a key role in pharmaceutical and nutritional industrial sectors [1]. Ethnobotanists are growingly focusing on the function of diverse quantitative and statistical techniques to understand and gather knowledge on precious plants in induced communities [2]. Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacological knowledge is considered to be an integral part of the knowledge required for drug development. Traditional medicine is to be P. S. Tresina · M. S. Selvam · V. R. Mohan Ethnopharmacological Unit, Research Department of Botany, V.O. Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu, India V. Sornalakshmi Department of Botany, A.P.C. Mahalaxmi College for Women, Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_3
43
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implicit as the sum total of the knowledge, talents and practices based on theories, principles and understandings to different cultures that are employed to maintain and improve health, as well as to prevent, diagnose and treat physical and mental illnesses [3]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has a keen interest in documenting the use of medicinal plants by native people from different parts of the world [4] WHO further estimates that about 80% of the world’s population is dependent on traditional medical practices for some aspect of primary health care [5]. According to the FAO, in the last few decades, the number of known medicinal plants then reaches up to 50,000 different species, which is 18.9% of the total world flora [6]. Still, valid scientific data on the practice of ethnomedicinal plants are moderately incomprehensible. Recently, it is experimentally proved that plants offer immense scope for researchers engaged in validation of traditional claims for the development of novel drugs [7]. Since interest in traditional medicine has been increasing world over, ethnobotanical studies have gained prominence to explore the traditional knowledge particularly in developing countries [8]. Therefore, collection of ethnobotanical information and documentation of traditional knowledge have gained prominence from the future prospective of drug development [9]. Conventional knowledge and applications have been marginalized due to political and socio-economical grounds. Lately, interest in traditional medicine has been initiated to explore the knowledge from various tribal groups across the country [10–14]. Quite a few studies have related that tribal population in remote area, not only rely on plant based resources for food, scavenge, medicines and fuel, but also play a critical role in the administration of natural resources [8, 15–21]. A few reports on ethnomedicinal uses of plants in the forests of Virudhunagar hills and its adjoining areas were available [22–29], and most of the studies were conducted qualitatively with a lacuna in data analysis. The present study was initiated with an aim to identify knowledgeable resource persons among the Paliyar tribes in Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary (GSWS), of Southern Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu, India, and quantitatively analyze their indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge through various ethnobotanical tools on the utilization of commonly used medicinal plants.
1.1 The Paliyar Tribe The Paliyars belong to the Southern tribal zone. The Southern tribes are historically more ancient tribe. There are as many as 36 types of Scheduled Tribes in Tamil Nadu. In the serialized list notified by the Government of Tamil Nadu, the Paliyars are placed at the 32nd position. They live in the low-altitude regions of the Western Ghats and live in large number in the study area (Virudhunagar district and parts of Madurai district). Out of the total population of the scheduled tribes in Tamil Nadu (7.21 lakh), the Paliyar tribe accounts for 2294. This is according to the census of India in 2011 and Paliyar tribe ranks 20th among the tribal population. The Paliyars
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled…
45
can be grouped into three categories based on their life style, namely (i) nomadic Paliyars, the hunter gatherers, who live in rock shelters wandering in tracts of the forest in search of food and non-timber forests product; (ii) semi nomadic Paliyars, also the hunter gatherers, who build hut and do not practice agriculture, and go out to collect food and non-timber forest products and return to their dwelling and (iii) settled Paliyars, who have land holdings, practicing agriculture and living mainly in Kerala [30].
1.2 Appearance and Habits of Paliyar The Paliyars of the study area at present could be called semi nomadic type. Their ancestors were nomadics. They live as individual families. Like other primitive tribes, the Paliyars are short, dark complexioned, curly haired with thick protruding lips and blunt nose with wide nostrils. Paliyars do not have any established mode of dress (Fig. 1a,b). They are scantily dressed but freely wear whatever clothes are available to them. They are non-vegetarians; however, they refrain from beef as rigidly as the most orthodox Hindus [31]. Several species of Dioscorea provide the basis of Paliyars staple food. Besides there are a wide variety of greens, stems, tubers, unripe fruits and ripe fruits, which serve as alternative for food. Paliyars also feed on wild animals and birds like rabbit, rat, deer, hen, etc. The Paliyars live in small parties as isolated groups. Generally, a hamlet has about 20 huts. Their small huts are exceptional with the walls prepared of mud or with wiry intertwined stems of Lantana camara. Each hut is thatched with the fronds of Cymbopogon citratus or Cymbopogon polyneuros or with the leaves of Phoenix pusilla or Cocos nucifera (Fig. 1c). They sleep on mats, woven with the leaves of the above said taxa. The Paliyars as a tribe do not possess much cohesiveness. Each settlement has its headman whose ability is never challenged, and he is exclusively responsible for settling quarrels among the tribal people. They are illiterate, but in recent years, they have started sending their children to nearby schools. The Paliyars are adroit in collecting honey. They collect honey from the branches of towering tall trees and rock caves skilfully using special techniques. Paliyars from four to seventy years old are agile on the trees. They also gather Kungillium (resin) from the barks of Canarium strictum. They are also good hunters and they trap deer, pig, boar, hare, wild fowl and flying squirrel. The meat obtained is divided among the families within the settlement. They are good herbalists and often collect medicinal plants from the forests. The knowledge about medicinal plant is rather specialized and is limited to a few members in the community who are recognized as “Vaidyars” or medicine men. They are normally respected the most and deemed indispensable members inside the tribal society. Each medicine man cures all kinds of illness, but some of them are concentrated in precise diseases. The remedies of ordinary ailments such as cuts, fever, pain, headache and dysentery are recognized by most members of the tribal society. There are several individuals in each locality,
46
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Fig. 1 Paliyar tribes of area survey. (a) An old Paliyar tribal man of Athikoil sector of Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary. (b) A tribal girl of Shenbagathoppu wearing a necklace made from the seeds of Symplocoscochinchinensis. (c) A young tribal woman of Valliammal Nagar with her children
who though not recognized as medicine men, possess such knowledge and act as reliable informants. They maintain secrecy about the use of certain medicines because they believe that the herbals will lose their healing power if too many people know about them. Some practitioners have acceded to the knowledge of convinced extraordinary remedies.
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1.2.1 Rituals and Religious Ceremonies Paliyars have strong faith in religious conventions and practices. They habitually practice Hindu religion. The deity of their worship is explicit to their region. The Paliyars in the select study area worship Lord Siva and Ayyanar, a village god. They also worship ‘Forest Goddess’ and Goddess ‘Poomadevi’ (Goddess Earth). On special occasions, they stay in the temples in groups for 2 days and worship by offering goats as sacrifice. On these days, a large quantity of Mullvallikizhangu (Dioscorea pentaphylla var. pentaphylla) are collected and offered to the Goddess Earth ‘Poomadevi’. 1.2.2 Customs Related to Marriage Paliyars are monogamous. Elopement is a favorite form of marriage. The elders search for the runaway couples and then bring them back and get them married. The marriage of both widowed and divorced persons of either sex is allowable. The dead are buried and on the eighth day after death, they execute the last rituals. The Paliyars trust in witchcraft. They consider many inquisitive superstitious convictions. The Government of Tamil Nadu has instituted a medicinal plant conservation area in the forest for conservation and expansion of herbal wealth. It is maintained and conserved with the assistance of the Paliyars.
2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Study Area Paliyars form a tribal group, and they are settled in the reserve forest area of the Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary located in the South-Eastern slopes of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. This wildlife sanctuary lies between 9°35′ and 9°8′ north latitude and 77°4′ and 77°9′ east longitude (Fig. 2). It encompasses an area of 480 sq. km and is lying mostly in the district Virudhunagar and partly in Madurai. The sanctuary was instituted in the year 1989. The attitude ranges from 100 to 2210 m (MSL). It receives rainfall during the South-West as well as North-East monsoons. The diverse climatic and topographic conditions exist in the sanctuary near a notable diversity of both the flora and fauna. The study area consists of tropical evergreen forest, semi-evergreen forests, dry teak forests, southern mixed deciduous forests and dry grasslands (Fig. 3). The study was conducted in 10 villages of GSWS (Saduragiri, Thanniparai, Vandipannai, Nellikka Kottam, Valliammal Nagar, Saragupannai, Petchikeni Kottam, Athikoil, Shenbagapthoppu and Ayyanarkoil), which are inhabited by Paliyar tribes each consisting of 15–62 families distributed in the deep forest areas.
48
P. S. Tresina et al.
Fig. 2 Location map of GSWS in Tamil Nadu, South-Eastern slopes of Western Ghats
2.2 Data Collection The study area was investigated to get information from the tribal practitioners and also to cross check the information provided by the other tribal practitioner during the earlier visits. During each field trip, at least 10 days were spent with the local people in their tribal hamlets. In order to document the utilization of medicinal plants, field trips were made during 24 months period (July 2017 – June 2019) ensuring that the dry and monsoon seasons were accommodated. A total of 12 resource persons or informants or traditional healers were identified to get the ethnomedicinal information through direct/interviews/oral conversations. They have
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled…
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Fig. 3 Area surveyed. (a) The South Eastern slopes of Western Ghats, Ayyanarkoil. (b) Shenbagathoppu Hills
50
P. S. Tresina et al.
Fig. 4 Format of field datasheet used to record the plant details with ethnomedicinal information
sound knowledge on the medicinal plants found in their surrounding areas and they practice medicine within their families and neighbours. A field datasheet has been prepared to record the plant details with ethnomedicinal information gathered from the traditional healers (Fig. 4). Information on local name of plants, plant pieces used for curing, technique of preparation, other plants/agents employed as ingredients, and modes of direction, etc., were recorded for each gathered ethnomedicinal plants.
2.3 Preservation of Plant Specimens The standard method of plant collection was followed, i.e. mounting, drying, preparation and conservation of plant specimens [32]. Coupon specimens of medicinal plants in triplicate were gathered, organized and acknowledged. Plants with their correct names were arranged alphabetically by family name, vernacular name, ethnomedicinal uses and other applications. The identification and nomenclature of the assembled plants were supported by the Flora of Presidency of Madras [33] and the Flora of Tamil Nadu Carnatic [34]. They were afterward confirmed at Botanical Survey of India, Southern circle, Coimbatore, India. All the preserved herbarium specimens were deposited at the herbarium of Ethnopharmacology Unit (EPH), Research Department of Botany, V.O. Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu, India.
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2.4 Ailment Categories Based on the information obtained from the traditional healers in the study area, all the reported ailments were categorized into 16 categories (Table 1), viz. gastrointestinal ailments (GIA), respiratory systems diseases (RSD), dermatological infections/diseases (DID), genito-urinary ailments (GUA), skeleto-muscular system disorders (SMSD), poisonous bites (PB), circulatory system/cardiovascular diseases (CSCD), fever (Fvr), endocrinal disorders (ED), liver problems (LP), dental care (DC), hair care (HC), ear, nose, throat problems (ENT), cooling agents (CA) oncology (ONC) and general health (GH). Numerous diseases were placed in one ailment group based on the body systems taken care of.
2.5 Data Analysis 2.5.1 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) The informant consensus factor (Fic) was employed to see if there was concurrence in the usage of plants in the ailment categories connecting the plant users in the study area. The Fic was computed using the following formula [35] Fic
N ur N t N ur 1
where Nur refers to the number of use reports for a particular ailment category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular ailment category by all informants. The product of this factor ranges from 0 to 1. A high rate (close to 1.0) designates that quite few taxa are used by a large percentage of the informants. A low value designates that the informants disagree on the taxa to be employed in the treatment inside a category of illness. 2.5.2 Use Value (UV) The comparative significance of each plant species known locally to be employed as herbal remedy is accounted as use value (UV), and it was computed using the subsequent formula [36]
UV
U n
where UV is the use value of a species, ‘U’ is the number of use reports cited by each informant for a given plant species and ‘n’ is the total number of informants interviewed for a given plant. UV is helpful in determining the plants with the
Ailment categories Circulatory system/ Cardiovascular disease (CSCD)
Cooling agent (CA) Dental care (DC)
Dermatological infections/Diseases (DID)
1.
2. 3.
4.
Biomedical terms Cardiovascular disorder Blood pressure Cardiotonic Blood purification Cholesterol Heart strength Memory power Obesity Bodycooling Mouthwash Toothache Tooth strength Worms in gums and teeth Allergy Burns Boils Cuts Blister Pimples Scabies Itching/Eczema Wounds Weapon injuries Skin diseases Leucoderma Stomatitis Heal craker Fissures in foot Thorn injury Bad body odour Sore legs Antiseptic
Table 1 Ailments grouped by different ailment categories Tamil terms Irutayakolaru Raththaazhutham Irutayavalimainiki Raththauthikarippu Koluppu Idayavalimai Gnabagasakthi Udalparuman Udalkulircchi Vaaikoppalika Palvali Palvalimai Palsothai Ovwamai Theekaeyam Kath Vettukayam Koppulam Parukkal Sorisirangu Namaichaal/Arippu Kaayam Ayuthakaayamkal Thoalnoikal Thoalniramiillathel Vaaippun Piththavedippu Patattilpilavu Mulkaayam Udalturnarram Punkalkal Kiruminacinikal
Siddha terms Thamaraga Noi Athi kuruthi azhutham Thamaraka veppamundakki Kuruthisuthi Kozhupu Thamaraka uramakki Ninaivu thiran ukki Athi thoola noi Kulirchi undakki Vaai koppalikka Thantha soolai Thantha uramakki Parpuzhu Ovammai Theepun Koppulam Vettukayam Neer koppulam Paru Sirangu Ooral/karappan Pun Vettukayangal Tholnoikal Venkuttam Akkaram Pithavedippu Pathapilavai Multhaithakayam Katrallai nattrum Kaalpun Azhukal akatri
52 P. S. Tresina et al.
Ailment categories Ear, nose, throat, eye problems (ENT)
Endocrine disorder (ED) Fever (Fvr)
Gastrointestinal ailments (GIA)
5.
6 7.
8.
Biomedical terms Eye pain Eye cooling Burning sensation in the eyes Ophthalmic ailments Colour blindness Sore throat Throat pain Sore in ear Oozing pus in ear Diabetes Fever Analgesic Anthelmintic Constipation Bowel disorder Bile complaints Colic pain Bedwetting Digestive disorder Dysentry Gastric complaints Indigestion Stomachache Piles Ulcer Laxative Vomiting
Tamil terms Kanvali Kankullirchi Kannileriyumunarvu Kannoykal Nirakkurudu Thondappun Thondaivali Katil pun Cilmikkakatitu Sakkarai/Neerilivunoi Kaicchal Valinivarani Kutalpulunikum Malachikkal Kotalkolaru Pittapukarkal Perunkutalvali Patukkaiiramakkutal Cerimanakolaru Seedhabaethi Vayvukolaru Ajeeranam Vayitruvali Mulaviyathi Kudalpun Malamilakkiyaku Vanti
Siddha terms Nethira soolai Kan kulirchi undaakki Kanerichal Kannoikal Nirakurudu Thondaikattu Thondai vali Sevipun Sevicheel Madhumegam Suram valinivarani Kudalpuzhu kolli Malakkattu Kudal noikal Pithaneer pinikal Kudal soolai Padukkai nanaithal Seriyamai Seethapethi Kukki noikal Seriyamai Utharasoolai Moolam Gunmam Malamilakki Sathi (continued)
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 53
10.
Genito-urinary ailments (GUA)
Table 1 (continued) Ailment categories 9. General health (GH) Biomedical terms Body refreshment Body strength Refrigerant Thirst Fatigue Health tonic Puberty Ill effects of evil spirit Diuretic Urinary disease Antiurolithiatic Stones in the gallbladder Kidney stone Abortion Breast pain Lactation Menstural Delivery pain Male fertility Sperm production Veneral disease Over bleeding Leucorrhoea Sexual vigour Fertility in women Postnatal disease
Tamil terms Udalputhunarcchi Udalvalimai Kuliruttal Takam Corvu Arokkiyamnir Paruvamataital Tiyaaviyintavaranavilalvu Siruneerperukki Siruneernoykal Siruneerkalnikum Pittappaiyalkalkal Siruneerakallu Karukkalaippu Marbagavali Paalsurathal Maadhavidaai Pirasavavali Anmaisakthiperukkuthal Uyirenuurpattai Paalvinainoi Raththapokku Vellaipaduthal Viraippusakthi (Male) PenkalilKaruvurutal Piracavathirlleumuntiaynoy
Siddha terms Thega puthunarchi Udal uramakki Kulirchi undakki Thakam Sorvu Udalthetri Poopadaithal Bootha paisasa thodangal Siruneer perukki Siruneer noikal Karkaraichi Pithapai kal Pirukka kal Karuchithaivu Nakil soolai Paal perukki Poopu Perukaalavali Aanmai undakki Ven neer perukki Piramiya noi ( Perumpadu Vellai noi Aanmaiperukki Soothaga uramakki Sool poopu noikal )
54 P. S. Tresina et al.
Ailment categories Haircare (HC)
Liver problem (LP) Oncology (ONC)
Poisonous bite (Pb)
Respiratory system diseases (RSD)
11.
12. 13.
14.
15.
Biomedical terms Dandruff Greying of hair Hair growth Hair loss Jaundice Cancer Tumour Prison bite Scorpion sting Snake bite Bee bite Insect bite Dog bite Asthma Bronchitis Chest pain Expectorant Cold Cough Respiratory problem Wheezing
Tamil terms Podugo Mutinarrittal Mudivalardhal Mudiuthirdhal ManjalKaamalai Putrunoi Katti Vishakkadi Thaelkkadai Pambukkadi Tanikadi Poochikadi Naykadi Kaasanoi Chali and irumal Nenjuvali Chalineekemarunthu Jalathosham Irumal Cuvacanoi Muccuttinaral
Siddha terms Podugu/chundu Narai mudi Mudivalarthal mudiuthirthal kaamalai Nachu maravai katti Maravai katti Visha kadi Thelkadi Pambu kadi Theni kadi Poochi kadi Naai kadi Iraippu Swasakasam Marbuvali Kozhai akatri Peenisam Erumal Swasa noikal Elaippu ( ) (continued)
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 55
Table 1 (continued) Ailment categories 16. Skeleto-muscular system disorder (SMSD) Biomedical terms Sedative Body pain Headache Migraine Muscular pain Giddiness Swelling Inflamed joints Joint pain Rickets Rheumatic pain Bone fracture Sprain Arthritis Hydrocele Lumbago
Tamil terms Mayakkamarunthu Udalvali Thalaivali Orraitalaivali Thasaipideppu Talaicurral Veekkam Vikkamataintamuttukal Moottuvali Elumpunoi Moottuvadham Elumpumurivu Culukku Kilvadham Viraiveekamnoi Iduppuvalinoi
Siddha terms Urakka mundaaki Udal vali Thalai vali Otrai thalaivali Thasai vali Thalai chutral Veekkam Mootu thaabitham Keel vayu — Mootu vatham Enbu murivu Chulukku Keel vayu Anda vatham Thandaga vatham ( )
56 P. S. Tresina et al.
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57
highest use (most frequently indicated) in the treatment of an ailment. UVs are high when there are many use reports for a plant and low when there are few reports related to its use. 2.5.3 Fidelity Level (FL) To determine the most frequently used plant species for treating a particular ailment category by the informants of the study area, the fidelity level (FL) was calculated. The FL was calculated using the following formula [37]
FL %
Np N
100
where ‘Np’ is the number of use reports cited for a given species for a particular ailment category and ‘N’ is the total number of use reports cited for any given species. Generally, high FLs are obtained for plants for which almost all use reports refer to the same way of using it, whereas low FLs are obtained for plants that are used for many different purposes [38]. 2.5.4 Relative Frequency Citation (RFC) The collected ethnomedicinal information was quantitatively analyzed using an index of relative frequency citation (RFC) as
RFC FC / N 0 RFC 1
This index proves the local significance of each species, and it is specified by the regularity of citation (FC, the number of informants mentioning the exercise of the species) divided by the total number of informants participating in the survey (N), without considering the used categories [39].
3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Documentation of Indigenous Ethnomedicinal Knowledge In the present study, 239 plants (224 plants collected and 15 plant parts/extracts procured) belonging to 190 genera and 79 families were recorded, which were commonly used by most of the Paliyar traditional healers for the treatment of 122 types of ailments. Of the recorded plants, 4 plants species belong to Pteridophytes and the remaining 235 plants belong to the families of Angiosperms. Twelve informants
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P. S. Tresina et al.
were selected from the study area based on their sound knowledge and long-term experience of the use of medicinal plants. Information about the botanical name of the plant, family, voucher specimen number, local (Tamil) name, life form, parts used, mode of preparation, mode of administration, ailments treated, use reports, use value and relative frequency citation are provided in Table 2. The prominent family was Euphorbiaceae with 14 species, followed by Fabaceae, Apiaceae and Lamiaceae with each 10 species, respectively (Fig. 5). Similarly, Yabesh et al. [18] reported that the Euphorbiaceae family had the highest number of plant species from a study carried out in Silent valley of Kerala. The medicinal uses of plants gathered in the present study were compared with the previously published information from other parts of India. It was found that there were 44 claims from the plants such as Abrus precatorius, Acorus calamus, Achyranthes aspera, Aloe vera, Allium sativum, Anisomeles malabarica, Asparagus racemosus, Azadirachta indica, Acalypha fruticosa, Acalypha indica, Centella asiatica, Clitoria ternatea, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Capparis zeylanica, Caralluma adscendens var. attenuata, Cocculus hirsutus, Bischofia javanica, Evolvulus alsinoides, Euphorbia hirta, Gmelina asiatica, Ficus benghalensis, Helicteres isora, Holopteles integrifolia, Leucus aspera, Lawsonia inermis, Lobelia nicotianifolia var. nicotianifolia, Hybanthus enneaspermus, Mimosa pudica, Morinda pubescens var. pubescens, Plumbago zeylanica, Plectranthus amboinicus, Pergularia daemia, Pongamia pinnata, Phyllanthus emblica, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Mimusops elengi, Mollugo pentaphylla, Rubia cordifolia, Sphaeranthus indicus, Senna auriculata, Sida rhombifolia var. rhombifolia, Sterculia urens, Vitex negundo and Ziziphus xylopyrus were reported for the first time from the study area. On the other hand, no plants were reported as a fresh medicinal plant as all plants were accounted with different uses.
3.2 Life Form and Parts Used The majority of the medicinal plants reported were herbs (47%) followed by trees (23%), climbers (18%) and shrubs (12%) (Fig. 6). The high tradition of herbs in the study area could be a signal of their abundance, and it might also be due to the reality that they are effortlessly accessible and might have high effectiveness in the treatment of ailments in comparison to other growth forms [40]. In addition to this, herbs can be maneuvered with easiness in herbal grounding methods and drawing out of bioactive compounds [41]. Concerning the use of the different plant parts, the traditional healers commonly harvest the leaves (44%), whole plant, root, fruit (10%), stem bark (9%), seed (8%), stem latex, tuber (5%), stem, unripe fruit, flower (4%), aerial part and endosperm (3%) (Fig. 7). They were used for the preparation of medicine solely or mixed with other plant parts. Many indigenous communities elsewhere also utilized mostly leaves for the preparation of herbal medicines [5, 8,
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
S. no.
Vernacular name
Acacia columnaris Craib Mimosaceae EPH 242 Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Euphorbiaceae EPH 243 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae EPH 258 Achyranthes aspera L var. aspera Amaranthacee EPH 261 Acorus calamus L. Araceae EPH 84 Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link Actinopteridacae EPH 56 He
He
Nayurivi
Mayilkalpul
He
Kuppaimaeni
He
Sh
Sirusinni
Vasambu
Cl
Cl
Life form
Peiindu
Abrus precatorius L. Kunnimuthu Fabaceae EPH 241
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Lf
Rh
Lf
Lf
Lf
Lf
Sd Rt Lf
Part used
Paste
Raw/juice
Paste/juice
Paste/juice
Paste/juice
Topical
Topical/oral
Oral
Topical
Topical/oral
Oral
Topical Oral Oral chewed
Paste Paste Raw/paste
Paste
Application
Preparation
Table 2 Synopsis of the commonly used medicinal plants by Paliyar tribes in GSWS
Pb 4 (Dog bite) DID 9 (Itches, skin diseases) GIA 5 (Dysentery) SMSD12 (Sedative, giddiness) GIA 6 (Colic pain)
SMSD 4 (Headache) DID 8 (Skin diseases)
Pb 4 (Honey bee bite) SMSD 6 (Headache, rickets)
ENT 8 (Eye pain) SMSD 4 (Joint pain) GUA2 (Improve sexual vigour) Pb 6 (Poison bite) DC 8 (Teeth sensitiveness) RSD 6 (Cold and cough)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.50
(continued)
0.17
0.83
0.75
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.42
0.83
1.00
0.33
0.67
0.50
2.33
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 59
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
S. no.
Vernacular name
Gamble
Asteraceae EPH 262
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthacee EPH 260 Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth Araceae EPH 76 Anaphalis subdecurrens (DC.)
Apocynaceae EPH 259
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. Liliaceae EPH 246 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br
He
He
Kattukarunai
Musakkalli
He
Tr
Mullukkirai
Ezhilaipalai
Rt Lf
Tu
If
Sb
Lf
Chotthukathalai He
Lf UFt Ft Sb
Part used
Bb
Tr
Tr
Life form
He
Aegle marmelos (L.) Vilvam Correa Rutaceae EPH 138 Usilai Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin. Mimosaceae EPH 244 Allium cepa L. Vengayam Alliaceae EPH 245
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Juice Paste
Boiled (curry)
Paste
Paste
Raw (gel)
Topical Topical
Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral/topical
Topical
SMSD 3 (Joint pain) SMSD 6 (Joint pain)
GIA 12 (Piles)
DID 9 (Eczema, skin diseases)
SMSD11 (Rheumatism, headache) DID10 (Skin diseases) CA12 (Body cooling) DID 9 (Eczema, wound burn) GUA 8 (Lactation) RSD 9 (Asthma)
DID 4 (Itches) GIA 10 (Diarrhoea) GIA 9 (Ulcer) GIA 6 (Stomachache)
Topical Oral Oral Oral
Paste Paste Juice Paste
Paste
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Application
Preparation
0.91
1.75
0.75
1.00
0.75
0.67
0.33
0.50
0.42
0.91
1.75
1.42
0.58
0.75
0.50
1.92
Use value RFC
60 P. S. Tresina et al.
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
S. no.
Andrographis lineata Wall. ex N ees Acanthaceae EPH 148 Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees Acanthaceae EPH 386 Andrographis rothii Clarke Acanthaceae EPH 344 Anisochilus carnosus (L. f.) Wall. ex Benth. Lamiaceae EPH 356 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae EPH 324 Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R.Br.ex Sims Lamiaceae EPH278 Argyreia pilosa Arn Convolvulaceae EPH 247
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
He
He
Siriyanangai
Kayapatchilai
He
He
Cl
Periyathumbai
Periyathumbai
Thettukkadi
patchilai
He
He
Periyanangai
Seivinaitheerkum
Life form
Vernacular name
Tu
Lf
Lf
Lf
St
Wp
Wp
Part used
Roasted/boiled
Boiled (vapour)
Boiled (vapour)
Paste
Paste
Juice/powder/ decoction
Juice/Powder
Preparation
Oral
Topical (inhalation/ foment Topical (inhalation)
Topical
Topical
Oral
Oral
Application
GIA 8 (Gastric complaints)
SMSD11 (Rheumatism, headache)
SMSD 8 (Headache) SMSD 10 (Rheumatism)
GH 3 (Illeffect of evil spirit)
Pb 6 (Snake bite, scorpion sting) RSP12 (Respiratory infection) Fvr 12 (Fever) DID 4 (Weapon injury)
Pb 6 (Snake bite, scorpion sting)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.67
0.92
1.50
0.25
(continued)
0.33
0.67
0.33
0.17
0.50
0.91
2.50
0.35
0.50
0.50
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 61
He
Cl
Tr
Tr
Tr
Kuruthipoo
Neervalli
Kattuelumichai
Vembu
Mungil Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Roxb. Poaceae EPH 141 Lf
Lf Sb Sd
Lf Ft
Tu Lf
Lf Rt
Rt
Cl
Part used
Karudakkodi
29
28
27
26
25
24
Life form Rt
Vernacular name
Thalaisurulivaer Cl
Aristolochia indica L. Aristolochiaceae EPH 248 Aristolochia tagala Cham. Aristolochiaceae EPH 249 Asclepias curassavica L. Asclepiadaceae EPH 250 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae EPH 251 Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arn. Rutaceae EPH 139 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae EPH 140
23
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Topical/oral
Topical/oral
Application
Topical (inhalation) Oral Tropical Oral/topical
Boiled (vapour) Decoction Juice Juice/paste
Topical Oral
Oral Topical
Decoction Juice
Boiled Paste
Powder Oral Decoction/paste Oral
Paste/powder
Paste/powder/ juice
Preparation
SMSD 4 (Sprain) RSD 3 (Chest pain)
DID 7 (Itches, skin diseases) GIA 6 (Stomach disorder) RSD 8 (Cold and cough) Fvr 10 (Fever) SMSD 12 (Rheumatism)
GIA 4 (Bed wetting) Pb 6 (Honeybee sting)
Pb 9 (Snake bite, scorpion sting) SMSD 9 (Headache) GIA 2 (Stomachache) Pb 9 (Snake bite, scorpion sting) SMSD 8 (Headache) GIA 3 (Stomachache) DID 4 (Skin diseases) GIA 9 (Constipation, piles)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.83
2.50
0.17
0.17
1.08
0.58
0.50
0.83
0.42
0.33
1.67
1.08
0.50
1.50
Use value RFC
62 P. S. Tresina et al.
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
S. no.
Basella alba L. var. alba Chenopodiaceae EPH 142 Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Caesalpiniaceae EPH 112 Bauhinia tomentosa L. Caesalpiniaceae EPH 113 Begonia malabarica Lam. Begoniaceae EPH 114 Begonia picta Sm. Begoniaceae EPH 89 Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirvengadam Rubiaceae EPH 130 Bidens pilosa L. var. minor (Blume) Sherff Asteraceae EPH 321 Bischofia javanica Blume Bischofiaceae EPH 322
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Tr
Sh
He
He
Sh
He
Aathi
Kanchini
Narayana sanjivi
Kalthamarai
Kuthupidari
Kattu karisalankanni
Tr
Cl
Kattupasali
Omaviruchu
Life form
Vernacular name
Sb
Lf
Sb
Lf
Ap Lf
Lf
Lf
TU Lf St
Part used
Boiled
Juice
Paste
Raw
Paste Raw/powder
Infusion
Topical (Filtrate)
Oral
Topical
Oral
Topical Oral
Oral
Topical
SMSD 8 (Body pain)
LP 6 (Jaundice)
Pb 6 (Scorpion sting)
GH 7 (Refrigerant)
SMSD 11 (Rheumatism) RSD 7 (Astringent)
CA 4 (Body cooling)
ENT 4 (Removal of dust from eye)
GIA 9 (Colic pain) CA 10 (Body cooling) GIA 8 (Laxative)
Topical Oral Oral
Paste Juice Infusion Juice
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Application
Preparation
0.67
0.50
0.50
0.58
1.50
0.33
0.33
2.25
0.25
0.25
0.17
0.17
0.33
0.17
0.17
0.25
(continued)
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 63
43
42
41
40
39
38
S. no.
Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Heyne ex Roth Acanthaceae EPH 301 Blumea barbata DC. Asteraceae EPH 93 Bupleurum wightii Mukh var. ramosissimum (Wight & Arn) Chandrabose comb. nov. Umbelliferae (nom. alter. Apiaceae) EPH 94 Caesalpinia crista L Caesalpiniacee EPH 95 Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. Asclepiadaceae DPH 303 Canarium strictum Roxb. Burseraceae EPH 305
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Lf
He
He
Sh
Sh
Tr
Mayakkam neeki patchilai
Kattuseeragam
Kalachichedi
Erukku
Kungiliam
Re
Sl Rt Lf
Sd
Ft
Lf Sd
He
Sadhaiotti
Part used
Life form
Vernacular name
1.17
0.67
0.83
1.92 RSD 9 (Cold and Cough) SMSD 6 (Headache, body pain) SMSD 8 (Rheumatism) SMSD 6 (Headache) RSD 8 (Cold) Topical Topical Topical (poultice) Topical (inhalation)
Paste Juice Warmed Powder (burned)
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.50
0.83
0.58
0.50
1.83
Use value RFC
SMSD10 (Hydrocele)
CA 7 (Body cooling)
SMSD 6 (Giddiness)
DID 5 (Weepon. injuries, wound) GIA 11 (Ulcer) GUA 6 (Urinary infection)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Topical
Oral
Topical (inhalation)
Topical Oral
Application
Paste
Infusion
Raw (aroma)
Paste Infusion
Preparation
64 P. S. Tresina et al.
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
S. no.
Canscora perfoliata Lam. Gentianaceae EPH 308 Capparis sepiaria L. Capparaceae EPH 57 Capparis zeylanica L. Capparaceae EPH 60 Capsicum annum L. Solanaceae EPH 61 Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. var. attenauta (Wight) Grav & Mayuranathan Asclepiadaceae EPH 401 Caralluma lasiantha (Wight) N.E.Br Asclepiadaceae EPH 402 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae EPH 300
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
He
Cl
Sirumankeerai
Mudakkathan
Lf
AP
AP
He
Lf
Ft
Cl
Kaathatikaai
Sb Lf
Wp
Part used
He
Sh
Muruvilikodi
Periya usimilagai Periya sirumankeerai
He
Life form
Narayana vembu
Vernacular name
Paste/juice Decoction
Raw
Raw
Paste
Paste
Paste Paste
Juice
Preparation
Topical/oral Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Topical
Topical Oral
Oral
Application
SMSD12 (Rheumatism, Giddiness) RSD 8 (Cold and Cough)
GH10 (Refrigerant, reduce body weight)
DC 4 (Toothache) ENT 3 (Sore throat) GH10 (Refrigerant, reduce body weight)
SMSD 11 (Arthritis)
DID 7 (Eczema, dandraff) CA 6 (Body cooling)
Pb 7 (Poison bite)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.50
1.67
(continued)
0.75
0.83
0.67
0.33
0.42
0.50
0.83
0.83
0.58
0.92
1.08
0.58
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 65
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
S. no.
Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune Boraginaceae EPH 100 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Umbelliferae (nom. alter. Apiaceae) EPH 412 Ceropegia juncea Roxb. Asclepiadaceae EPH 413 Cheilanthes opposita Kaulf Sinopteridaceae EPH 415 Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P.S.Green Oleaceae EPH 27 Cissampelos pareira L. var. hirsuta (Buch-Ham. DC) Forman Menispermaceae EPH 78 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae EPH 79
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Cl
Lf
Rh & Rc
Perandai
He
Poorankadichedi
Sl St
Rt
Cl
Thiralankodi
Lf
Malaithangivaer Cl
He
Vallarai
Wp
Sb
Sh
Siruthani
Part used
Vandukadipattai Tr
Life form
Vernacular name
Juice/paste
Powder
Paste
Paste
Raw Juice
Raw/juice
Raw
Preparation
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Oral
Oral
Topical
Topical
Topical Oral
Oral
ONC 4 (Tumor Tumor-like swelling) SMSD 12 (Rheumatism)
Pb 9 (Poison bite) GIA7 (Stomachache)
DID 4 (Itches)
Pb 4 (Scorpion sting)
Pb 3 (Insect bite) GIA 4 (Anthelmintic)
RSD 6 (Cold and cough, chest pain)
Topical (touch) GH 4 (Puberty)
Application
0.33
0.50
1.33
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.67
0.17
1.33
0.33
0.33
0.58
0.50
0.33
Use value RFC
66 P. S. Tresina et al.
Combretum albidum Maruthankodi G. Don Combretaceae EPH 357
64
Thennai
Cl
Tr
Cl
Vellaikattukodi
Yes Rt Es oil Uft/Sd/St
Rt Lf
Uft/Lf
Cl
Kovai
Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae EPH 33
62
Rt Wp
Sd
Lf
Part used
Vellai kakarthan Cl
63
He
Naaikkadugu
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Cucurbitaceae EPH 434 Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels Menispermaceae EPH 436
60
59
61
He
Kattukadugu
Cleome monophylla L.. C1eomaceae EPH 405 Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae EPH 406 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae EPH 418
Life form
Vernacular name
58
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Oral Oral/topical
Oral Oral Topical Topical
Raw Juice Raw Raw
Topical (bath) Oral
Oral Topical Oral
Oral
Topical
Application
Paste Powder/paste
Boiled
Powder Juice
Infusion/paste
Paste
Preparation
GIA 8 (Stomachache) GH 6 (Refrigerant) SMSD 3 (Headache) DID 7 (Eczema, ulcer, skin diseases) GUA 2 (Diuretic) GUA 3 (Diuretic) DID 8 (Skin diseases) DC 8 (Toothache)
0.50
1.08
(continued)
0.17
0.67
2.00
0.67
0.42
0.67
1.83
GUA 6 (Kidney stone) DID 10 (Skin diseases, leucodema, stomatitis GIA 6 (Piles) SMSD 6 (Body pain) ED 8 (Diabetic)
1.67
0.42
0.42
0.75
0.50
Use value RFC
GUA 9 (Postnatal disease, over bleeding)
SMSD 6 (Headache)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 67
70
69
68
67
66
65
S. no.
Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae EPH 368 Commelina ensifolia R.Br. Commelinaceae Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engler Burseraceae EPH 371 Commiphoran pubescens (Wight & Am.) Engler Burseraceae EPH 372 Coriandrum sativum L. Umbelliferae (nom. alter. Apiaceae) EPH 341 Crataeva adansonii DC. subsp. odora (Buch-Ham) Jacobs Capparaceae EPH 342
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Life form He
He
Tr
Tr
He
Tr
Vernacular name
Amala
Amala
Mangkiluvai
Kodikiluvai
Kothamalli
Mavulingam
Lf Sb
Lf Ft
Es
Es
Ss
Ss
Part used
Oral Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Topical
Application
Boiled (Coconut Topical Oral oil) Decoction
Raw Boiled
Raw
Raw
Raw
Raw
Preparation
SMSD 8 Joint pain SMSD 4 (Headache) RSD 8 (Asthma, cough, bronchitis, skin diseases)
GIA10 (Anthelmintic, digestive stimulant, gastric complaints GIA 12 (Indigestion)
GIA 6 (Stomachache)
GIA 7 (Stomachache)
ENT 10 (Removal of dust from the eyes)
ENT 10 (Removal of dust from the eyes)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.17
0.83
0.25
2.50
1.00
0.17
0.83
0.83
0.50
0.58
0.83
0.83
Use value RFC
68 P. S. Tresina et al.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae EPH 198 Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schultes & Schultes f. Commelinaceae EPH 200 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. Poaceae EPH 201
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Poaceae EPH 202
76
75
74
Vernacular name
Tu Lf
He
He
Taragupullu
Arugampullu
Lf
Tu
Palvalikizhangu He
Rh
He
Tu
Sl
Part used
Ae
Life form
He
Kuluthupokie/ Nilapanai
Reilpoondu Croton bonplandianum Baill. Euphorbiaceae EPH 343 Manjal Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae EPH 199
73
72
71
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Juice
Roasted Juice
Roasted
Powder
Roasted Powder
Raw
Preparation
Oral
Topical (Inhalation) Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral Topical
Topical
Application
0.83
0.91
2.50
3.08
SMSD 4 (Giddiness) GIA10 (Stomachache, dysentery, bowel complaints, vomiting) Fvr 8 (Fever) SMSD 8 (Headache) CSCD 8 (Heart tonic) SMSD10 (Rheumatism) GIA 10 (Gastric complaints, indigestion) CA 9 (Body cooling)
(continued)
0.25
0.83
0.83
0.67
1.00
1.83
0.25
0.33
Use value RFC
DC 10 (Toothache)
GIA 8 (Bowel disorders) Pb 4 (Insect bite) DID 10 (Antiseptic, skin diseases) GUA 12 (Improve sexual vigour)
DID 4 (Thorn injury)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 69
82
81
80
79
78
77
S. no.
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn Mimosaceae EPH 214 Dioscorea bulbifera L. var. vera Prain & Burkill Dioscoreaceae EPH 215 Dioscorea oppositifolia L. var. dukhumensis Prain & Burkill Dioscoreaceae EPH 218 Dioscorea pentaphylla L. var. pentaphylla Dioscoreaceae EPH 220 Dioscorea tomentosa Koen. ex Spreng. Dioscoreaceae EPH 221 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey Cucurbitaceae EPH 101
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Life form Tr
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Vernacular name
Vidathalai
Vethalaivalli/ Karuvalli
Vethalaivalli
Mullvalli
Noolvalli
Malaipusanni
Tu
Tu
Tu
Tu
Tu
Lf
Part used
Roasted
Cooked
Cooked/roasted
Raw/cooked
Raw/cooked
Paste
Preparation
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Application
GUA 8 (Abortion)
GIA 10 (Bowel disorders)
GIA 11 (Piles)
GIA 9 (Dysentery)
GIA 9 (Dysentery)
GIA 5 (Dysentery)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.67
0.83
0.92
0.75
0.75
0.42
Use value RFC
0.67
0.50
0.25
0.17
0.17
0.25
70 P. S. Tresina et al.
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
S. no.
Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq Sapindaceae EPH 102 Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. Drynariaceae EPH 103 Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax & Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae EPH 104 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae EPH 177 Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae EPH 178 Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman Musaceae EPH 179 Eugenia discifera Gamble Myrtaceae EPH 456 Euphorbia hirta L Euphorbiaceae EPH 481
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no. Life form Sh
He
Tr
He
He
Tr
Tr
He
Vernacular name
Virali
Mudavathukaal
Kalvirai
Karisalankanni
Kattukepai
Malaivazhai
Vellainaaval
Amanpatcharisi
Sl Lf Wp
Sb
Pd
Gr
Lf/Wp
Sb
Rh
Lf
Part used
0.42
1.33
GUA 4 (Lactation) SMSD 6 (Swelling) DID 6 (Boils, skin diseases) Topical Topical (Poultice) Oral Raw Warmed Decoction
0.92
(continued)
0.33
0.17
0.75
0.83
0.83
1.50
0.58
0.17
0.25
0.50
0.33
1.00
0.75
Use value RFC
GIA 5 (Stomachache)
GUA 11 (Kidney stone)
HC 12 (Graying Greying of hair, hair loss) CA 6 (Body cooling) ED 7 (Diabetes)
DID 4 (Katti)
SMSD12 (Rheumatic pain, bone fracture)
SMSD 9 (Body pain)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical (bath)
Topical
Topical
Topical (massages)
Application
Powder
Juice
Cooked
Juice
Paste
Paste
Boiled (oil)
Preparation
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 71
Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae EPH 467 Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Flacourtiaceae EPH 468 Foeniculum vulgare Mill Umbelliferae (nom. Alter Apiaceae) EPH 32
96
98
97
95
94
93
92
Euphorbia rosea Retz. Euphorbiaceae EPH 462 Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Convolvulaceae EPH 463 Ficus benghalensis L. var. benghalensis Moraceae EPH 464 Ficus microcarpa L. f. Moraceae EPH 465 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae EPH 466
91
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
He
Tr
Tr
Vishnukarandi
Aal
Punniyavirusu
Tr Sh
He
Arasu
Mullumayilai
Sombu
Tr
He
Amanpatcharisi
Atthi
Life form
Vernacular name
Ft
Ft Uft
Sl
Sl/Lx Sb
Sl
Sl Sb
Lf Rt Wp
Sl
Part used
Raw/powder
Raw/powder
Raw
Raw Infusion Paste
Raw
0.67
2.25
1.83
Fvr 12 (Fever) RSD 10 (Cold and cough) GUA 5 (Venereal diseases) DID10 (Heal cracker) DC 12 (Tooth strength)
Oral
Oral
GIA 9 (Improve digestion)
RSD 5 (Asthma)
0.75
0.42
0.42
0.17
0.42
0.50
2.33 DC 12 (Heal cracker boils, Blisters DC 10 (Mouth wash) DID 6 (Burns) DID 9 (Fissures in foot)
Topical Topical (mouth wash) Topical Topical
0.75
0.50
1.00
DID 12 (Heal cracker)
0.50
0.17
Use value RFC 0.50
GUA 6 (Lactation)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Topical Topical (tooth powder) Topical
Oral
Decoction
Raw Powder
Topical
Application
Raw
Preparation
72 P. S. Tresina et al.
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
99
S. no.
Gardenia resinifera Roth Rubiaceae EPH 457 Givotia rottleriformis Griff. Euphorbiaceae EPH 458 Globba marantina L. Zingiberaceae EPH 459 Gloriosa superba L. Liliaceae EPH 482 Gmelina asiatica L Verbenaceae EPH 483 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. Ex Schultes Asclepiadaceae EPH 484 Gyrocarpus asiaticus Willd. Hemandiaceae EPH 485 Hedyotis brachiata Wight Rubiaceae EPH 486
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
He
Tr
Tanakku
Inbural
Cl
Shirukurinjan
Lf
Es
Lf Wp
Lf Ft
Sh
Rh
Uft
He
Kattumanjal
Cl
Tr
Vandalai
Re Pc Isd Es
Part used
Karthika kilangu Kumulu
Tr
Life form
Kattu koiya/ Vetchi
Vernacular name
Topical
Juice
Raw
Powder Decoction
Oral
Oral
Oral Oral
Boiled (coconut Topical oil) Infusion Oral Juice Topical
Paste
Oral
Oral
Raw Powder Powder
Application
Preparation
GIA 6 (Vomiting)
GIA 6 (Stomachache)
ED 12 (Diabetes) CSCD 9 (Cardiovascular disorders, obesity, lowering cholesterol)
ENT 12 (Ophthalmic problem) CA 6 (Body cooling) ENT 5 (Sore throat)
DID 3 (Katti)
GID 8 (Improve digestion)
RSD 6 (Cough)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.50
(continued)
0.17
0.17
0.91
1.75
0.50
0.42
0.67
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.92
1.00
0.25
0.67
0.50
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 73
113
112
111
110
109
108
107
S. no.
Vernacular name
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. var. indicus Periplocaceae EPH 62 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. var. pubescens (Wight & Arn) Hook.f Periplocaceae EPH 63 Heracleum rigens Wall. ex DC. var. rigens Umbelliferae (nom. alter. Apiaceae) EPH 45 Hibiscus vitifolius L. Malvaceae EPH 501
Cl
Cl
He
He
Nannari
Kattu kothamalli
Periyathutthi
Fl
Yp
Rt
Rt
Ft Lf Rt
Lf
He
Sh
Lf
Part used
He
Life form
Nannari
Hedyotis corymbosa Inbural (L.) Lam Rubiaceae EPH 490 Emburel Hedyotis puberula (G. Don) Arn. Rubiaceae EPH 491 Helicteres isora L. Valamburi Malvaceae EPH 492
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Paste
Subgy
Topical
Oral
Oral
DID 3 (Boils)
GIA 3 (Bowel complaints)
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.17
0.83
2.92
Powder
CA 12 (Body cooling) GIA 11 (Improve digestion) GH 12 (Thirstness)
0.83
2.83
Oral
0.50
1.50
ENT 6 (Sore in ear) DID 5 (Skin diseases, eczema, scabies) RSD 7 (Asthma) CA 12 (Body cooling) GIA 10 (Improve digestion) GH 12 (Thirstness)
Topical Topical Oral
Ash Paste Decoction Powder
0.17
0.33
0.25
0.58
Use value RFC
ED 3 (Diabetes)
GIA 7 (Vomiting)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Oral
Oral
Application
Powder
Juice
Preparation
74 P. S. Tresina et al.
119
118
117
116
115
114
S. no.
Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb) Planch Ulmaceae EPH 504 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. V. Muell Violaceae EPH 505 Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb Umbelliferae (nom. alter. Apiaceae) EPH 510 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae EPH 511 Impatiens scapiflora Heyne ex Roxb. Balsaminaceae EPH 512 Indigofera wightii Graham ex Wight & Arn. Fabaceae
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Lf
Rt
He
He
Cl
He
Orithalthamarai
Kodivallarai
Palvalli
Chinna kalthamarai
Parisa Sh vayittruvali vaer
Rt
Wp
Ap
Lf
Tr
Ayil ilai
Part used
Life form
Vernacular name
Powder
Raw
Powder
Powder
Powder
Paste
Preparation
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Application
GIA 9 (Stomachache)
GH 6 (Refrigerant)
ED 4 (Diabetes) GUA 8 (Stones in the gall bladder)
GH 6 (Refrigerant)
GUA12 (Improve sexual vigour in male)
SMSD 4 (Headache)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.75
(continued)
0.17
0.17
0.33
1.00
0.50
0.17
0.67
0.25
0.50
1.00
0.33
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 75
126
125
124
123
122
121
120
S. no.
Ipomoea barlerioides Benth. ex Clarke Convolvulaceae EPH 521 Ipomoea hederifolia L. Convolvulaceae EPH 523 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker- Gawl. Convolvulaceae EPH 524 Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Schultes Convolvulaceae EPH 525 Jasminum roxburghianum Wall. Oleaceae EPH 555 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae EPH 556 Jatropha glandulifera Roxb Euphorbiaceae EPH557
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Life form Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Tr
Sh
Vernacular name
Thoolikkodi
Neelikodi
Thazhiilai
Onaan kodi
Kattumalli
Kattamanaku
Vellaiadalai
Wp
Lf Rt
Fl Rt
Sl
Lf
Lf
Lf
Part used
Juice
Juice Raw
Boiled Paste
Raw
Paste
Paste
Paste
Preparation
Topical
Topical Topical
Topical Oral
Topical
Topical
Topical
Topical
Application
SMSD 10 (Rheumatism)
SMSD 6 (Rheumatism) GUA 7 (Abortion)
ENT 6 (Oozing pus in ear) GIA 5 (Colic pain)
DID 7 (Fissures in foot)
DID 6 (Boils)
DID 5 (Wounds)
DID 3 (Wounds)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.83
1.08
0.92
0.58
0.50
0.42
0.25
Use value RFC
0.50
0.58
0.17
0.17
0.25
0.25
0.17
76 P. S. Tresina et al.
133
132
131
130
129
128
127
S. no.
Jatropha gossypifolia L. Euphorbiaceae EPH 558 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae EPH 151 Justicia glauca Rottl Acanthaceae EPH 152 Kalanchoe olivacea Dalz. & Gibs. Crassulaceae EPH 154 Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. Crassulaceae EPH 158 Kleinia grandiflora (Wall. ex DC) N. Rani. Asteraceae EPH 156 Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. var. linearis Rubiaceae EPH 157
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no. Sh
Sh
He
He
He
Sh
Sivappuatalai
Adatoda
Neemotchi/ Kattukurinchi
Kulirthamarai
Megasanjeevi
Musakkalli
Vazhukkanangai He
Life form
Vernacular name
Lf
Rt/Lf
Lf
Lf
Lf
Lf
Wp
Part used
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Application
Powder
Oral
Boiled (coconut Topical oil)/Paste (massage) Topical
Raw
Raw
Juice
Decoction
Juice
Preparation
0.25
0.67
SMSD 8 (Joint pain)
Pb 3 (Poison bite)
0.83
0.83
(continued)
0.17
0.25
0.17
0.17
0.25
0.75
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.75
Use value RFC
CA 10 (Body cooling)
CA 10 (Body cooling)
RSD12 (Asthma, cold and cough, respiratory problems) Pb 6 (Poison bite)
SMSD 9 (Rheumatism)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 77
He
Sulukkupatchilai
140
139
Marudondi
Vaivumaram Lepisanthes senegalensis (Juss. ex Poir.) Leenh Sapindaceae EPH 291 Tumbai Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Lamiaceae EPH 292 Siru tumbai Leucas biflora (Vahl) R. Br var. biflora Lamiaceae EPH 293
Sh
Muraikaichal chedi
138
137
136
135
Sb
Lf
Ap
He
He
Lf
Lf
Lf
Fl
Part used
Tr
Sb
Sh
Unnipoo Shrub
Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Mold Verbenaceae EPH 146 Lantana wightiana Wall. ex Gamble Verbenaceae EPH 290 Launaea sarmentosa (Willd.) Sch-Bip.ex Kuntze Asteraceae EPH 641 Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae EPH 44
Life form
Vernacular name
134
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Topical
Topical
Topical
Application
Boiled
Juice
Paste
Topical (inhalation)
Topical
Oral
Boiled (coconut Topical (head) oil)
Paste
Paste
Paste
Preparation
SMSD 10 (Headache)
SMSD 10 (Migraine)
HC12 (Hair growth, hair loss) CA10 (Body cooling) GIA 8 (Gastric complaints)
SMSD 6 (Sprain)
Fvr 5 (Fever)
Pb 4 (Insect bite)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.83
0.83
0.42
0.42
0.17
0.67
1.83
0.67
0.17
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.42
0.33
Use value RFC
78 P. S. Tresina et al.
147
146
145
144
143
142
141
S. no.
Limonia acidissima L. Rutaceae EPH 295 Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Schultes var. nicotianifolia Lobeliaceae EPH 298 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae EPH 299 Memecylon edule Roxb. Melastomataceae EPH 216 Micromeria biflora (Buch.- Ham. ex D. Don.) Benth. Lamiaceae EPH 223 Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae EPH 224 Mimusops elengi L. Sapotaceae EPH 225
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no. Life form Tr
He
Tr
Tr
He
He
Tr
Vernacular name
Vila
Kattupugaiyilai
Maa
Sarkarai vembu
Elumichai vallarai
Thotalsinungi
Mahilampoo
Sb
LR/Wp
Wp
Lf
Es
Lf
Lf
Part used
Paste/juice
Paste
Infusion
Powder
Powder
Chawed
Infusion
Preparation
Oral
Topical
Topical
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Application
GUA 9 (Improve fertility in women)
DID 3 (Insect bite) SMSD11 (Inflamed joints)
HC 10 (Hair tonic, hair growth, hair loss)
ED 8 (Diabetes)
GIA 8 (Stomachache)
GH 3 (Fatigue)
Fvr 6 (Fever)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.75
1.67
0.83
0.67
0.67
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.42
0.58
0.83
0.50
0.17
0.17
(continued)
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 79
153
Sd
Lf Sb
Cl
Tr
Manjanatti
Uft
Lf
He
Kuruvithalai
Wp
Wp
Part used
Tr
He
Pappadai
Kattumurungai Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Gibs. Moringaceae EPH 564 Thellukkai Mucuna atropurpurea DC. Fabaceae EPH 570
151
150
149
152
He
Pappadai
Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser. Molluginaceae EPH 58 Mollugo pentaphylla L. Molluginaceae EPH 59 Momordica charantia L. var. charantia Cucurbitaceae EPH 16 Morinda pubescens J.E. Smith var. pubescens Rubiaceae DPH 560
Life form
Vernacular name
148
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Paste
Paste/juice
Infusion Paste Decoction
Cooked
Infusion Roasted Decoction
Decoction Paste
Preparation
Topical
Oral
SMSD 6 (Bone fracture)
0.50
1.67
0.58
0.58
0.83
1.83
GIA 6 (Digestion disorders, piles) DID 4 (Weapon injury, leucoderma) SMSD 12 (Rheumatism) LP 6 (Jaundice) GIA 8 (Bowel disorder) Oral Topical Oral
0.83
0.58
1.50
GUA 7 (Menstrual discharge) DID 6 (Sore legs) ENT 5 (Eye diseases) GIA 10 (Anthelmintic) ED 12 ((Diabetes)
Oral Topical Poultice Oral Oral
1.83
0.33
1.42
Use value RFC
RSD 9 (Cold and cough) DID 8 (Eczema, bad body odour)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Oral Topical
Application
80 P. S. Tresina et al.
Tr
Tr
Tr
He
Kariveppilai
Karunthillai
Mayilai
Tulsi
He
Tr
Vellaipurasu
Kattutulsi Orthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleensen Lamiaceae EPH 600
159
158
157
156
155
160
Cl
Musumusukki
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M. Roem. Cucurbitaceae EPH 573 Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Cheval. Fabaceae EPH 576 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Rutaceae EPH 66 Nothopegia colebrookeana (Wight) Blume Anacardiaceae EPH 440 Ochna lanceolata Spreng. Ochnaceae EPH 443 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae EPH 444
Life form
Vernacular name
154
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Lf
Lf
Sb
Sd/Lf
Lf
Lf
Lf
Part used
Paste
Boiled (vapour) Paste Raw
Powder/Juice
Powder
Paste Juice
Paste
Juice Decoction
Preparation
Topical (inhalation) Topical Oral Topical
Oral
Oral
Topical Oral
Topical
Oral Oral
Application
DID 3 (Wounds)
GIA 7 (Stomachache) GUA 10 (Abortion, menstrual disorder) SMSD 4 (Headache) DID 8 (Wounds) RSD 10 (Cold and cough)
HC 10 (Hair growth, hair loss, hair tonic) ED 11 (Diabetes) Pb 3 (Snake bite)
DID 6 (Leucoderma)
RSD 10 (Asthma, cold and cough) SMSD 12 (Rheumatism) GUA 6 (Diuretic)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.67
1.83
(continued)
0.17
0.50
1.42
0.25
0.17
0.58
1.75
0.25
0.17
0.67
0.50
2.33
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 81
167
166
165
164
163
162
161
S. no.
Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex Hook. & Grev.) Fras. Jenk. Hemionitidaceae EPH 601 Pavonia odorata Willd. Malvaceae EPH 611 Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. Asclepiadaceae EPH 612 Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. Euphorbiaceae EPH 83 Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae EPH 82 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Euphorbiaceae EPH 81 Physalis minima L. Solanaceae EPH 71
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Cl
He
Tr
He
Velipparuthi
Kilanelli
Nelli
Kilaneli
He
He
Thuthi
Toppipalam
He
Life form
Mayilkal patchilai
Vernacular name
Lf
Ap
Ft
Ap
Lf Rt/Lf
Lf
Lf
Part used
Cooked
Juice
Juice
Juice
Paste Boiled
Paste
Paste
Preparation
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical Topical (massage)
Topical
Topical
Application
GIA 10 (Ulcer)
LP 12 (Jaundice)
GUA 6 (Diuretic) GIA 8 (Digestive disorder)
0.83
1.00
1.17
1.00
0.58
0.83
0.83
0.91
0.75
1.83
GIA 10 (Gastric complaints) SMSD 12 (Joint pain) LP 12 (Jaundice)
0.17
0.17
0.67
0.67
Use value RFC
DID 8 (Wounds)
GIA 8 (Colic pain)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
82 P. S. Tresina et al.
174
173
172
171
170
169
168
S. no.
Pimpinella candolleana Wight & Arn. Umbelliferae (nom. alter. Apiaceae) EPH 72 Piper argyrophyllum Miq. Piperaceae EPH 77 Piper trioicum Roxb Piperaceae EPH 18 Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Lamiaceae EPH 445 Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Lamiaceae EPH 446 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae EPH 630 Polygala javana DC. var. angustifolia Polygalaceae EPH 631
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
He
He
He
He
Omavalli
Poolankilangu
Vellaikoduvilai
Palapirantai
Cl
Kattumilagu
Cl
He
Kothuvallarai
Vethalaikodi
Life form
Vernacular name
Lf
Lf/Rt
Rh
Lf
Lf/St
Lf/Ft
Wp
Part used
Paste
Paste
Paste
Juice
Boiled
Raw Decoction
Powder
Preparation
Topical
Topical
Topical
Oral
Topical (bath)
Oral
Oral
Application
GUA 6 (Breast pain)
Pb 5 (Snake bite) SMSD 6 (Arthritis)
DID 4 (Katti)
ENT 7 (Buring sensation in the eye) RSD 12 (Asthma, cold and cough, bronchitis) GIA 7 (Anthelmintic)
RSD 10 (Cold and cough) RSD 11 (Cold and cough)
GH 3 (Refrigerant)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.50
0.92
(continued)
0.17
0.42
0.25
0.67
1.58
0.33
0.50
0.67
0.42
0.58
1.75
0.25
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 83
Premna corymbosa (Burm, f.) Rottl. & Willd. Verbenaceae EPH 629 Priva cordifolia (L. f.) Druce. Verbenaceae EPH 469 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Fabaceae EPH 470
179
181
180
178
177
176
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae EPH 160 Portulaca pilosa L. subsp. pilosa Portulacaceae EPH 161 Portulaca wightiana Wall.ex Wight & Arn. Portulacaceae EPH 162 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. Urticaceae EPH 155
175
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Life form Tr
He
He
He
Sh
He
Tr
Vernacular name
Pongan
Pillaivalarthikilangu
Pasalai chedi
Kallazhingi
Aadhandai
Aadai otti
Vengai
Re Lf St
Lf
Lf
Rb Pi
Wp
Tu
Sd
Part used
0.58
2.25
SMSD 9 (Joint pain, rickets) DID 7 (Leucoderma, skin diseases) ED 11 (Diabetes) Topical Topical Oral Soaked Paste Decoction
0.83
0.17
0.67
0.67
1.17
0.25
0.58
0.67
0.58
0.42
0.25
0.75
Use value RFC
DID 7 (Wounds)
He 6 (Dandruff) SMSD 8 (Swelling, muscular pain, bone fracture) SMSD 3 (Giddiness)
SMSD 5 (Arthritis)
GUA 3 (Prevent natural abortion)
RSD 6 (Cold & cough) LP 3 (Jaundice)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Topical
Topical (inhalation)
Topical Topical
Topical
Oral
Topical (Necklace)
Application
Paste
Raw (crushed)
Paste Raw/paste
Paste
Raw
Raw
Preparation
84 P. S. Tresina et al.
189
188
187
186
185
184
183
182
S. no.
Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. var. lappacea Amaranthaceae EPH 619 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz var. nasutus Acanthaceae EPH 526 Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae EPH 360 Sansevieria roxburghiana Schultes & Schultes Agavaceae EPH 98 Santalum album L. Santalaceae EPH 99 Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae EPH 120 Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae EPH 50 Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae EPH 51
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Tr He
Sh Lf
He
Sandanam
Neernangai
Aavarai
Kattuyellu
He
Maurl
Sh
Nagamalli
He
He
Pakkattikai
Koduvili
Life form
Vernacular name
Sd
Fl Ts
Lf Wp
Hw
Lf
Rt/Ts
Lf
Ts/If
Part used
Raw
Paste/juice Juice Raw
Raw Decoction
Paste
Raw
Paste
Juice/ powder
Paste
Preparation
Oral
Oral Topical (tied)
Oral
Topical
Topical (bite)
Topical
Oral
Topical
Application
Pb 8 (Poison bite) ED 12 (Diabetes) GIA 9 (Stomachache) GIA 8 (Colic pain) ED 12 (Diabetes) GIA 10 (Laxative) GIA 6 (Colic pain) GUA 8 (Abortion)
CA 12 (Body cooling)
DC 3 (Teeth growth in young children)
DID 3 (Weapon injury)
Pb 10 (Snake bite)
Pb 2 (Unknown insect bite)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.91
3.00
(continued)
0.67
0.83
2.42
0.67
0.58
0.33
0.25
0.83
0.25
1.00
0.25
0.25
0.83
0.17
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 85
Thuduvalai
Solanum trilobatum L. Solanaceae EPH 184 Cl
Lf Uft
Ft
Sb
197
196
Raw (roasted)/ juice
Raw/cooked
Decoction
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral Oral
Lf Uft
Cooked (curry) Cooked
Roasted (Curry) Oral
Uft
Lf
Solanum surattense Kandangathri Bunn. f. Solanaceae EPH 182 Solanum torvum Sw Sundaikkai Solanaceae EPH 183
195
194
193
Oral
Oral Oral
Topical Oral
Application
Decoction
Boiled (coconut oil) Juice Decoction Paste
Preparation
Rt
He
He Sida rhombifolia L. Karunthatti var. rhombifolia Malvaceae EPH 661 Kattuthuduvalai He Solanum anguivi Lam. Solanaceae EPH 180 He Solanum nigrum L. Thaka keerai Solanaceae EPH 181
Wp/Rt Fl
He
192
191
Lf
Part used
Sh
Life form
Sesbenia sesban (L.) Chittakatti Merr. Fabaceae EPH 52 Nilathuti Sida cordata (Burm.f) Borssum Malvaceae EPH 660
Vernacular name
190
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
LP 6 (Jaundice) GIA 9 (Ulcer, anthelmintic) RSD 12 (Cold and cough) RSD 12 (Cold and cough)
DID 7 (Somatitis) RSD 6 (Wheezing) GIA 10 (Stomachache, ulcer) RSD 12 (Cold and cough)
RSD 7 (Dry cough)
HC 9 (Graying Greying of hair, hair growth) GIA 9 (Bile complaints) RSD 10 (Asthma) GUA 8 (Diuretic, urinary disorder) GIA 8 (Ulcer, piles) Fvr 12 (Fever)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.83
0.83
2.5
1.00
0.83
0.67
1.92
1.00
0.50
0.58
0.33
0.67
2.17
1.00
0.50
1.50
Use value RFC
86 P. S. Tresina et al.
203
202
201
200
199
198
S. no.
Sphaeranthus indicus L Asteraceae EPH 620 Sterculia urens. Roxb Sterculiaceae EPH 598 Strychnos nux - vomica L. Loganiaceae EPH 333 Swertia angustifolia Buch. – Ham var. pulchella (BuchHam ex D.Don) Burkill Gentianaceae EPH 234 Swertia corymbosa (Griseb.) Wight ex Clarke var. corymbosa Gentianaceae EPH 235 Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore subsp. laurina (Retz) Nooteb Symplocaceae EPH 421
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no. Life form He
Tr
Tr
He
He
Tr
Vernacular name
Oothuchedi
Vennaali
Kanjirai
Milagainagai
Milagainagai
Tulsimanimarm
Sd
Wp
Wp
St Sd
Es
Lf
Part used Application
Raw
Powder
Powder
Raw Ash
Roasted
Topical (Necklace)
Oral
Topical (kept inside the house) Topical Oral
Oral
Raw (squeezed) Topical (smelled)
Preparation
SMSD 6 (Rickets/Rgchitis)
Pb 3 (Snake bite) GIA 6 (Stomachache)
0.50
0.75
0.83
(continued)
0.33
0.33
0.42
0.25
0.75
GH 3 (Ill effect of evil spirit) SMSD 6 (Rickets/Rgchitis) Pb 4 (Snake bite) GIA 6 (Stomachache)
0.17
0.50
0.50
0.50
Use value RFC
GUA 6 (Lactation)
SMSD 6 (Giddiness)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 87
Tr
Tr
Tani
Thespesia populnea Puvarasu (L.) Soland.ex Correa Malvaceae EPH 621
He
Kuruttukolingi
211
He
Kolingi
Tr
Tr
Puli
Kadukai
Sh
Nandhiavattai
Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae EPH 614
209
208
207
206
205
210
Tr
Naval
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae EPH 422 Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall. Apocynaceae EPH 115 Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae EPH 23 Tephrosia purpurea (L) Pers. Fabaceae EPH 116 Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. Fabaceae EPH 117 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae EPH 613
Life form
Vernacular name
204
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
Ts
Pc Sb Ft
Pc Ft Sb
Lf
Rb
Ft Sd Sb
Pt
Sd
Part used
Oral
Paste Decoction Powder
Topical
Fvr 7 (Fever) RSD 7 (Asthma, bronchitis) GIA 6 (Anthelmintic) GUA 7 (Diuretic) GIA 7 (Dysentry) GUA 7 (Diuretic) CSCD 5 (Cardio tonic) GIA 12 (Laxative) Pb 5 (Scropion sting)
Oral
Decoction Raw Decoction
Paste
DID 6 (Eczema)
Topical
Paste
0.42
0.33
0.67
0.67
2.33
2.58
0.17
0.17
0.50
0.58
0.67
1.58
CSCD 8 (Cholesterol lowering) Pb 5 (Scorpion sting) ENT 6 (Sore throat) GIA 7 (Bowel disorder)
Oral Topical (Rubbed) Oral Oral
Raw Raw Decoction Juice
0.67
0.91
0.83
1.00
Use value RFC
ENT 10 (Improve vision)
ED 12 (Diabetes)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
Topical
Oral
Application
Juice
Powder
Preparation
88 P. S. Tresina et al.
218
217
216
He
He
Cl
Kavuthumbai
Mukoothielai
Nanchianuppan palai
Lf
Lf
Lf
Ft Wp
He
215
Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm. f.) R. Br. Boraginaceae EPH 662 Tridax procumbens L Asteraceae EPH 15 Tylophora indica (Burm. F.) Merr Asclepiadaceae EPH 663
Ft
Sh
214
Sb
Sh
Milagaranai Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam var. floribunda Rutaceae EPH 678 Milagaranai Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam var. gracilis Rutaceae EPH 679 Tribulus terrestris L. Sirunerinji Zygophyllaceae EPH 24
213
St St Rt Wp
Part used
Cl
Life form
Tinospora cordifolia Enthalkodi (Willd) Miers ex Hook. f & Thomas Menispermaceae EPH 622
Vernacular name
212
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Juice Powder
Juice Paste
Roasted
Decoction Juice
Juice
Oral
Topical
Oral
Oral Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral Oral Oral
Infusion/ decoction Juice Juice
Powder
Application
Preparation
GUA 6 (Diuretic) RSD 10 (Asthma, whooping cough) Pb 10 (Snake bite)
SMSD 6 (Shoulder pain) DID 12 (Eczema, wounds, weapon injury)
GUA 12 (Diuretic, urinary disease, antiurolithic aphrodisiac) GIA 8 (Anthelmintic) GIA 7 (Piles)
GIA 8 (Improve digestion)
LP 6 (Jaundice) GIA 6 (Anthelmintic) Fvr 10 (Fever) Pb 6 (Antidote, snake bite, scorpion sting) SMSD 10 (Rheumatism) SMSD 10 (Rheumatism)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
(continued)
0.58
0.67
1.50
2.17
0.67
0.67
1.67
0.58
0.50
0.58
0.91
0.67
0.83
3.16
Use value RFC
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… 89
Waltheria indica L. Sterculiaceae EPH 602 Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br. var. tinctoria Apocynaceae EPH 534 Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd Rhamnaceae EPH 702
222
Life form He
Tr
Sh
He
Tr
Tr
Vernacular name
Vetiver
Mayiladunkuringi
Vennochi
Thuverpuli
Vetpalai
Mullukottai
Sb
Lf
Rb
Lf Wp
Sb
Rt
Part used
Infusion
Soaked (coconut oil)
Infusion
Roasted Decoction
Boiled
Decoction
Preparation
Oral
Topical
Oral
Topical (foment) Oral
Topical (bath)
Topical
Application
GIA 6 (Stomachache)
DID 5 (Eczema)
SMSD 4 (Headache) GUA 3 (Diuretic) GIB 7 (Anthelmintic) RSD 10 (Expectorant) GIA 5 (Bowel disorder)
DID 10 (Skin diseases) HC 10 (Hair tonic, hair loss) ENT 3 (Burning sensation in the eyes)
Ailment category: no. of use-reports
0.50
0.42
0.42
0.33
0.25
0.75
2.00
0.42
0.17
0.58
0.25
1.67
Use value RFC
Part used: Lf Leaf, St Stem, Sb Stem bark, Rt Root, Rb Root bark, Ap Aerial part, Wp Whole plant, Ts Tender shoot, Yp Young plant, Bb Bulb, Hw Heart wood, Ft Fruit, Uft Unripe fruit, If Inflorescence, Fl flower, Sd Seed, Isd Immature seed, Rc Rachis, Re Resin, Pc Pericarp, Es Endosperm, Yes Young endosperm, Sl Stem latex, Lx Latex, Ss Stem sap, Rh Rhizome, Tu Tuber Life form: He Herb, Sh shrub, Tr Tree, Cl Climber, Wcl Woody climber, CHe Climbing herb, She Succulent herb, Su Succulent
224
223
221
220
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Poaceae EPH 21 Vitex altissima L. f. Verbenaceae EPH 664 Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae EPH 22
219
S. no.
Botanical name, family, voucher specimen no.
Table 2 (continued)
90 P. S. Tresina et al.
An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in Grizzled… Series1, others, 32, 14% Series1, Araceae, 2, 1% Series1, Alliaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Aristolochiaceae, 2, Series1, Oleaceae, 2, 1% 1% Series1, Boraginaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Molluginaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Begoniaceae, 2, 1%
Series1, Euphorbiaceae, 14, 6%
91
Series1, Apiaceae, 10, 4% Series1, Lamiaceae, 10, 4% Series1, Fabaceae, 10, 4% Series1, Asclepiadaceae, 9, 4% Series1, Rubiaceae, 8, 3%
Series1, Myrtaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Crassulaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Anacardiaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Cleomaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Portulacaceae, 2, 1% Series1, Arecaceae, 3, 1% Series1, Commelinaceae, 3, 1% Liliaceae, 3, 1% Series1,
Series1, Agavaceae, 8, 3% Series1, Solanaceae, 7, 3% Series1, Acanthaceae, 7, 3%
Series1, Amaranthaceae, 3, 1% Series1, Gentianaceae, 3, 1% Series1, Combretaceae, 3, 1%
Series1, Verbenaceae, 7, 3% Series1, Convolvulaceae, 6, 3%
Series1, Sapindaceae, 3, 1%
Series1, Poaceae, 6, 3% Series1, Malvaceae, 5, 2% Series1, Caesalpiniaceae, 5, 2% Series1, Rutaceae, 5, 2%
Series1, Burseraceae, 3, 1% Series1, Sterculiaceae, 3, 1% Series1, Menispermaceae, 3, 1% Series1, Capparaceae, 3, 1% Series1, Zingiberaceae, 4, 2%
Series1, Piperaceae, 5, 2% Series1, Mimosaceae, 4, 2%
Series1, Cucurbitaceae, 4, 2% Series1, Dioscoreaceae, 4, 2% Series1, Apocynaceae, 4, 2%
Fig. 5 Families of medicinal plants used in the study area
Series1, Climber, 18%, 18% Series1, Tree, 23%, 23%
Series1, Shrub, 12%, 12%
Series1, Herb, 47%, 47%
Fig. 6 Life form of reported common medicinal plants
16, 18] [42–46]. Leaves are dominantly used in making herbal preparations due to the presence of bioactive constituents. Leaves were preferably used by the local people because leaves are easily removed as compared to whole plant and roots that also damage the growth of plants, which leads to the decline in population of medicinal plants [47, 48].
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Series1, Stem latex, 5%, 4% Series1, Endosperm, 3%,2% 2% Series1, Resin, 2%,
Series1, Tuber , 5%, 4%
Series1, Seed , 8%, 7%
Series1, Leaf , 44%, 36%
Series1, Flower, 4%, 3% Series1, Unripe fruit, 4%, 3% Series1, Fruit, 10%, 8% Series1, Bulb, 1%, 1% Tender shoot, 2%
Series1, Whole plant, 3%, 2% Series1, Aerial part, 3%, 2% Series1, Root bark, 1%, 1%
Series1, Stem, 4%, 3% Stem bark, 9% Series1, Root, 10%, 8%
Fig. 7 Percentage of plant parts used for the preparation of medicine
3.3 Method of Preparation and Method of Administration of Plants The preparation and utilization of plant parts used were grouped into nine categories (Fig. 8). Among these, majority of the plant remedies were prepared by paste (35%) followed by juice (24%), raw (24%), powder (16%), roasted (13%), decoction (12%), boiled (8%) infusion (7%) and cooked (5%). Preparation of paste for the treatment of ailments is a common practice among the other tribal people in global level [8, 18, 49–53]. The paste was prepared by grinding the fresh or dried plant parts in the water or oil. The decoction was obtained by boiling the plant parts in water until the volume of the water is reduced to minimum or the required quantity. Infusion was prepared by soaking fresh plant parts in water over night. The inhalation was done by the burning of plant parts and the smoke is inhaled through nose. Most of the informants suggested taking herbal medicines orally (74%), rather than external (55%) use, in consistent with comparable investigations [54, 55]. For topical use, the most important methods used were direct application of paste or medicated oil and mostly dealt with diseases such as skin disorders, wounds, heel crackers, poison bite, rheumatism, body pain, headache and hair growth. Most of the medicines were given orally which is in agreement with some other studies conducted elsewhere [8, 12, 17, 56, 57]
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Series1, Boiled, 8%, 6%
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Series1, Decoction, 12%, 8%
Series1, Roasted, 13%, 9%
Series1, Infusion, 7%, 5%
Series1, Paste, 35%, 24%
Series1, Powder, 16%, 11%
Series1, Juice, 24%, 17%
Series1, Raw , 24%, 17%
Fig. 8 Paliyar’s mode of administration for the preparation of medicine
3.4 Ingredients Added The medicinal arrangements were completed out of a single plant part or in mixture of many plant parts. In case of Paliyar’s medicinal preparation, single mode (184 plants) of preparation was dominating over the multiple modes (40 plants) of preparation. In some cases, Paliyar traditional healers too frequently use some adjuvants such as honey, cow/goat milk, coconut oil, salt, gingery oil and palm jagging (Table 3). Paliyar traditional healers used in the multiple mode preparation, more than two or more plant parts for the preparation of medicine in the treatment of single or multiple ailments. Similar findings were reported by some researchers [16–18]. The use of multiple plant remedies among the traditional healers could be attributed to the belief of synergic reactions where one plant could have a potentiating effect than other [50]. In this study, mostly fresh plant parts were used for the preparation of medicine. Similar findings were reported by Assae et al. [58]; Revathi et al. [59]; Yabesh et al. [18] and Xavier et al. [17]. Local traditional healers too frequently used other adjuvant like honey, milk, sugar, salt and oil to improve the acceptability and medicinal property of certain remedies. The preparation of paste/ medicated oil was commonly used by the oil of coconut and gingery oil. They were using specific plant parts and specific dosages for the treatment of diseases and the dose given to the patient depends on their age, physical status and health conditions. Before giving treatment, the condition of the patients was observed deeply and then they were given the prepared medium.
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Table 3 Ingredients added for the preparation of herbal medicines by the Paliyar traditional healers Botanical name A. columnaris A. indica A. aspera A. scholaris
Other plants added in medicinal preparation Terminalia chebula – – –
A. sylvaticus A. subdecurvens A. tagala
Tamarindus indica – –
A. racemosus B. pilosa var. minor B. javanica C. separia C. perfoliata C. halicacabum
C. asiatica C. quadrangularis C. hirsutus C. adansonii C. dactylon C. cinerea
Curcuma longa Phyllanthus amarus Dodonaea viscosa – – Oriza sativa, Cuminum cyminum, Solanum trilobatum, S. surattense, Ferula asafoetida – Ferula asafoetida – – Cumimum cyminum –
D. palmatus D. viscosa E. discifera
– Bischofia javanica –
E. alsinoides
Ocimum tenuiflorum, Sida rhombifolia var. rhombifolia – – – Plectranthus barbatus – – – – – Allium cepa Allium cepa
F. indica G. resinifera G. rottleriformis G. marantina G. superba H. isora H. indicus var. indicus H. indicus var. pubescens H. rigens var. rigens H. vitifolius H. integrifolia
Other ingredients added Honey Calcium hydroxide Lime Milk, rice fermented water Coconut oil Black soil Urine of a child of opposite sex – Milk Coconut oil Lemon juice Rice fermented water Salt
Milk – Milk Coconut oil – Milk, rice fermented water Ghee Coconut oil Milk, rice fermented water – Milk Milk (dry cough) Milk – Coconut oil Coconut oil Milk Milk Salt – – (continued)
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Table 3 (continued) Botanical name I. obscura J. roxbhurghianum K. grandiflora L. camara var. aculeata L. inermis L. nicotianifolia var. nicotianifolia M. indica M. biflora M. pudica M. elengi M. cerviana
M. pentaphylla M. pubescens var. pubescens M. concanensis M. atropurpurea M. maderaspatana M. koenigii N. colebrookeana P. daemia
P. amarus P. maderaspatensis P. minima P. argyrophyllum P. trioicum R. nasutus var. nasutus S. auriculata S. indicum S. sesban S. rhombifolia var. rhombifolia
Other plants added in medicinal preparation Allium cepa Curcuma longa (colic pain) – Allium cepa, Mimosa pudica – Piper betle, Areca catechu Curcuma longa – Lantana camara var. aculeata, Allium cepa – Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia bellirica, T. chebula, Zingiber officinale, Alpinia calcarata, Piper longum, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Mukia maderaspatana, Evolvulus alsinoides Curcuma longa, Plectranthus barbatus Allium cepa, curcuma longa Piper nigrum, Allium sativum Tamarindus indica – Cocos nucifera – Allium sativam Erythrina variegata, Papaver somniferum – – Ferula asafoetida, Allium cepa Trachyspermum ammi, Piper longum, Zingiber officinale Vitex altissima – Ferula asafoetida, Papaver somniferum – – Evolvulus alsinoides, Ocimum tenuiflorum
Other ingredients added – Gingelly oil (oozing pus from the ear) Coconut oil, black soil – Coconut oil – – Coconut oil – Rice fermented water or milk Palm jaggery
– Coconut oil – – Calcium hydroxide – Milk –
Milk Milk Coconut oil, salt – Coconut oil Milk – Palm jaggery Coconut oil – (continued)
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Table 3 (continued)
S. trilobatum S. urens S. nux - vomica
Other plants added in medicinal preparation – Solanum trilobatum, Cuminum cyminum, Ferula asafoetida Coriandrum sativum – –
S. angustifolia var. pulchella
–
S. corymbosa var. corymbosa
–
T. purpurea T. bellirica
Ferula asafoetida Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, Zingiber officinale, Alpinia calcarata, Piper longum, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Mollugo cerviana, Mukia maderaspatana, Evolvulus alsinoides Curcuma longa Allium cepa Allium cepa – Piper trioicum Hemidesmus indicus var. indicus, Hedyotis puberula –
Botanical name S. anguivi var. anguivi S. surattense
T. chebula T. populnea T. zeylanicum T. procumbens V. altissima V. zizanioides W. tinctoria var. tinctoria
Other ingredients added Coconut oil – Ghee, salt Ghee Castor oil Coconut oil Urine of a child of opposite sex Urine of a child of opposite sex Palm jaggery
– – – Calcium hydroxide Coconut oil Coconut oil Coconut oil
3.5 Plant-Use Value (UV) The most commonly used species was Tinospora cordifolia with 38 use reports by 12 informants, giving the highest use value of 3.16. T. cordifoliais attributed to its use in the treatment of various diseases, and it is well recognized by all informants as the plant having medicinal value. T. cordifoliais is known for its immense application in the treatment of various diseases in the traditional Ayurvedic literature. Recently, the discovery of active components from the plant and their biological function in disease control have activated interest across the globe [60]. Other important plants with high use value were Cynodon dactylon (37 use reports by 12 informants with a UV value of 3.08) followed by Senna auriculata (36 use reports by 12 informants with UV of 3.00), Hemidesmus indicus var. pubescens (35 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.92), H. indicus var. indicus (34 was reported by 12 informant with UV of 2.83), Terminalia chebula (31 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.58), Andrographis paniculata, Azadirachta indica,
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Coriandrum sativum, Cynbopogon citratus, Solanum torvum (each 30 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.50), Scoparia dulcis (29 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.42), Abrus precatorius, Ficus racemosa, Mukia maderaspatana, Terminalia bellirica (each 28 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.33), Basella alba var. alba, Evolvulus alsinoides, Pterocarpus marsupium (each 27 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.25), Sida cordata, Tylophora indica (each 26 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.17), Cocculus hirsutus, Vitex negundo (each 24 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 2.00), Aegle marmelos, Calotropis gigantea, Solanum nigrum (each 23 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 1.92), Blepharis maderaspatensis, Curculigo orchioides, Lawsonia inermis, Mormordica charantia var. charantia, Morinda pubescens var. pubescens, Ocimum tenuiflorum and Pergularia daemia (each 22 use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 1.83). Most of these plants were frequently used by the Kani tribes in Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu and Silent valley of Kerala [16, 18]. The plant with a very low use value was Pupalia lappacea var. lappacea, which is reported by only two informants with a UV of 0.17, but the informant has regularly used this plant in the treatment of unknown insect bite. In general, scarce availability of the plants in the study area leads to a low UV [61], as in the case of GSWS. In the present study, plants reported with a low use value (three use reports by 12 informants with a UV of 0.25) were Anisochillus carnosus, Globba marantina, Hedyotis puberula, Heracleum rigens var. rigens, Hibiscus vitifolius, Knoxia sumatrensis, Lobelia nicotianifolia var. nicotianifolia, Nothopegia colebrookeana, Orthosipbon thymiflorus, Pimpinellea candolleana, Portulaca pilosa subsp. pilosa, Premna corymbosa, Rubia cordifolia, Sansevieria roxburghiana and Vitex altissima. Among them, Sansevieria r oxburghiana is reported to have a very low UV of 0.33 among the Kani tribes of Tirunelveli district in Tamil Nadu, India, for treating ear ache [16], but Paliyars used for dental care.
3.6 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) To gain credibility, scientific studies that use traditional knowledge must be dependable. In ethnobotanical studies, consensus analysis provides a measure of reliability for any given claim providing reliable evidence. General Fic of local knowledge for disease treatment depended on the availability of the plant species in the study area [51]. In order to use the informant consumer factor (Fic), the researchers clarified the illnesses into broad categories (16 categories). The Fic values in the present study ranged from 0.83 to 1.00 (Table 4). The categories with more than 200 use reports were gastrointestinal ailments (541 use reports, 65 species) skeleto-muscular system disorders (451 use reports, 56 species), dermatological infections/diseases (317 use reports, 48 species), respiratory system diseases (278 use reports, 31 species) and genitor-urinary ailments (208 use reports, 29 species). In the present study, oncology, hair care, circulatory system/ cardiovascular disease, cooling agents, endocrine disorder and fever had the highest
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Table 4 Informant consensus factor for different ailment categories Ailment categories Circulatory system/ cardiovascular disease (CSCD) Cooling agents (CA) Dental care (DC) Dermatological infections/diseases (DID) Ear, nose, throat, eye problems (ENT) Endocrine disorder (ED) Fever (Fvr) Gastro-intestinal ailments (GIA) General health (GH) Genito-urinary ailments (GUA) Hair care (HC) Liver problem (LP) Oncology (ONC) Poisonous bite (Pb) Respiratory system diseases (RSD) Skeleto – muscular system disorder (SMSD)
Numbers of use reporter (Nur) 30
Number of taxa Informant consensus (Nt) factor (Fic) 4 0.90
126 55 317
14 7 48
0.90 0.89 0.85
95
14
0.86
112 82 541
12 9 65
0.90 0.90 0.88
70 208
11 29
0.86 0.86
59 54 4 148 278
6 7 1 26 31
0.91 0.89 1.0.00 0.83 0.89
451
56
0.88
2630
341
Fic of 1.00, 0.91 and each 0.90, respectively. In this study, oncology had the highest Fic of 1.00, and it is in the agreement with the previous studies among the neighbouring indigenous communities in Kerala. India [18]. In the present study, hair disease and endocrinal disorders also had the highest Fic of 0.91 and 0.90, respectively, whereas hair disease and endocrinal disease had the highest Fic of 1.00 among the Kani tribes in Thoduhills of Kerala [17] and Irulas in the Tanjore district [62]. Syzygium cumini, Gymnema sylvestris and Momordica charantia var. charanita had been very commonly used for the treatment of diabetes, and Micromeria biflora, Eclipta prostrata and Pouzolzia zeylanica were used for the treatment of hair problems. The least agreement between the informants was observed in poisonous bite with a Fic of 0.83 followed by dermatological infections/diseases with a Fic of 0.85; ear, nose, throat and eye problems; general health and genitor-urinary ailment with a Fic of 0.86, respectively. Thus, the study indicates that the degree of knowledge shared by the users in the study is regarding the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of ailments is high. Dermatological infections/diseases had the lowest Fic of 0.85, but
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this ailment category ranked third in the number of use reports 317 and of taxa 48 attributed to this category. It may be due to the lack of communication among the informants in the study area who are involved in the ailment group [61] or it may be due to the lack of dermatological disorders among the studied tribal people [17].
3.7 Fidelity Level (FL) The analysed categories with major agreements from the higlight and the most important plants in each category are shown in Table 5. Of the reported plants, 39 species had the highest fidelity level of 100% most of which were used in the single ailment category with multiple informants. The plants with the highest FL of 100% were Ficus microcarpa (DID), Gloriosa superba, Tabernaemontana heyneana, Commelina benghalensis, C. ensifolia (ENT), Syzygium cumini, Memecylon edule, Eleusine coracana (ED), Sida rhombifolia var. rhombifolia, Limonia acidissima, Lantana wightiana (Fvr), Amorphophallus sylvaticus, Indigofera wightii, Physalis minima, Lepisanthes senegalensis (GIA), Caralluma adscendens var. attenauta, C. lasiantha (GH), Cleome viscosa, Curculigo orchioides, Diplocyclos palmatus, Ensete superbum, Hybanthus enneaspermus, Mimusopis elengi (GUA), Micromeria bifolra, Eclipta prostrata (HC), Bidens pilosa var. minor, Phyllanthus amarus, P. maderaspatensis (LP) Rhinacanthus nasutus var. nasutus, Justicia glauca (Pb) Justicia adhatoda, Piper argyrophyllum, Solanum trilobatum, S. surattense (RSD), Acorus calamus, Anisomeles malabarica, A. indica, Capparis zeylanica and Mucuna atropurpurea (SMSD). The maximum FL for the above plants indicated the 100% choice of the interviewed informants for treating specific ailments, and this could be an indication of their healing potential. In support to our study, 100% FL was reported in P. amarus for jaundice among the herbal healers in Shimoga district of Karnataka [51], Malasar tribes in Velliangarihills of Tamil Nadu [63], Kani tribes of Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India [16] and Kani tribes in Thodu hills of Kerala, South India [17].
3.8 Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) The RFC shows the local importance of every species with reference to the informants who cited uses of these plant species [39]. In the present study, it ranged from 0.91 to 0.17 (Table 2). Achyranthes aspera, Acorus calamus, Aegle marmelos, Allium cepa, Aloe vera, Andrographis paniculata, Azadirachta indica, Calotropis gigantea, Caralluma adscendens var. attenauta, C. lasiantha, Commelina benghalensis, C. ensifolia, Coriandrum sativum, Curculigo orchioides, Cymbopogon citratus, Cynodon dactylon, Eclipta prostrata, Eleusine coracana, Ensete superbum, Gymnema sylvestre, Hemidesmus indicus var. indicus, H. indicus var. pubescens,
Gastro-intestinal ailments
Fever
Endocrine disorder
Ear, nose, throat, eye problems
Dental care Dermatological infections/diseases
Ailment categories Circulatory system/cardiovascular disorders Cooling agents
Most preferred species with specific ailment Gymnema sylvestre (Cardiovascular disorder, obesity, lowering cholesterol) Aloe vera (Body cooling) Hemidesmus indicus var. indicus (Body cooling) Hemidesmus indicus var. pubescens (Body cooling) Ficus benghalensis var. benghalensis (Tooth strength) Ficus microcarpa (Heal craker) Ficus racemosa (Heal craker) Tridax procumbens (Eczema, wounds, weapon injury) Gloriosa superba (Ophthalmic problem) Tabernaemontana heyneana (Improve vision) Commelina benghalensis (Removal of dust from the eyes) Commelina ensifolia (Removal of dust from the eyes) Abrus precatorius (Eye pain) Syzygium cumini (Diabetes) Memecylon edule (Diabetes) Eleusine coracana (Diabetes) Gymnema sylvestre (Diabetes) Momordica charantia var. charantia (Diabetes) Sida rhombifolia var. rhombifolia (Fever) Limonia acidissima (Fever) Lantana wightiana (Fever) Evolvulus alsinoides (Fever) Andrographis paniculata (Fever) Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Piles) Indigofera wightii (Stomachache) Physalis minima (Ulcer) Lepisanthes senegalensis (Gastric complaints)
Table 5 Fidelity level (FL) values for common medicinal plants used by Paliyar traditional healers by ailment categories FL (%) 42.86 57.14 35.29 34.29 54.55 100.00 42.86 66.70 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 28.57 100.00 100.00 100.00 57.14 54.51 100.00 100.00 100.00 44.44 40.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
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Skeleto – muscular system disorder
Respiratory system diseases
Oncology Poisonous bite
Liver problem
Hair care
Genito-urinary ailments
Ailment categories General health
Most preferred species with specific ailment Caralluma adscendens var. attenauta (Refrigerant, weight loss) Caralluma lasiantha (Refrigerant, weight loss) Cleome viscosa (Postnatal disease, over bleeding) Curculigo orchioides (Improve sexual vigour) Mimusops elengi (Improve fertility in women) Ichnocarpus frutescens (Stones in the gall bladder) Diplocyclos palmatus (Abortion) Ensete superbum (Kidney stone) Hybanthus enneaspermus (Sexual vigor, male) Micromeria biflora (Hair tonic, hair growth, hair loss) Eclipta prostrata (Gray Greying of hair, hair loss) Pouzolzia zeylanica (Dandruff) Bidens pilosa var. minor (Jaundice) Phyllanthus amarus (Jaundice) Phyllanthus maderaspatensis (Jaundice) Cissus quadrangularis (Tumour-like swelling) Rhinacanthus nasutus var. nasutus (Snake bite) Justicia glauca (Poison bite) Justicia adhatoda (Asthma, cold and cough, Respiratory problems) Piper argyrophyllum (Cold and cough) Solanum trilobatum (Cold and cough) Solanum surattense (Cold and cough) Acorus calamus (Sedative, giddiness) Anisomeles malabarica (Rheumatism, headache) Anisomeles indica (Rheumatism, headache) Capparis zeylanica (Arthritis) Mucuna atropurpurea (Bone fracture)
FL (%) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 66.70 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 42.86 100.00 100.00 100.00 25.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
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Justicia adhatoda, Momordica charantia var. charantia, Morinda pubescens var. pubescens, Pergularia daemia, Phyllanthus amarus, P. emblica, P. maderaspatensis, Pterocarpus marsupium, Rhinacanthus nasutus var. nasutus, Scoparia dulcis, Senna auriculata, Solanum surattense, S. torvum, S. trilobatum, Syzygium cumini, Tinospora cordifolia and Vitex negundo were the most cited ethnomedicinal plant species. These plants are dominant in the study area and have been known to local cultures over a long period. Thus, their open properties for curing diverse diseases have become popular and well established among the indigenous people. These results are important as they could form an essential research baseline for following evaluation of plant-derived medicinal compounds, potentially resulting in prospect drug discoveries. The plant species having high RFC values should be subjected to pharmacological, phytochemical and biological studies to evaluate and prove their authenticity for the development of marketable products [64, 65]. These species should be prioritized for conservation as their referred uses may place their populations under threat due to over harvesting. As the values for the UV and RFC are dynamic and change with location and with the knowledge of the people, so the values of UV and RFC may fluctuate from area to area and even within the same area. Plants with lower UV and RFC values are not essentially significant, but their low values may allocate that the young people of the area are not conscious about the uses of these plants and therefore that the understanding of their use is at risk of not being transmitted to future generation, thus their knowledge may eventually disapper [65, 66]. The present study was the first quantitative ethnobotanical investigation to be carried out in the study area; therefore, in the present study, results were compared with similar quantitative studies carried out in other parts of the Southern Western Ghats, India [8, 12, 15–18]. This disclosed that there were variations in most of the cited species and their quantitative values. In a study carried out by Xaiver et al. [17], Plumbago zeylanica (UV of 1.86) was the most cited species, while Yabesh et al. [18] reported that Moringa oleifera (UV of 2.62), Curculigo orchioides (UV of 2.5) and Vitex negundo (UV of 2.37) had the highest use value. These differences can be most likely accounted for by variations in the vegetation and geo-climate of the study area and emphasizes the need for more quantitative studies in a wide range of locations, but particularly in the more remote, mountainous regions where there is still a strong reservoir of ethnomedicinal knowledge amongst the indigenous communities.
4 Conclusion The present study revealed that traditional medicines were still in common use by the Paliyar tribal communities and accurate knowledge of the plants and their medicinal properties were held by only a few individuals in this community. Hence, a need for detailed investigation of ethnobotanical knowledge held by each tribal community is required before such valuable knowledge vanishes. Thus, the present
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study would be useful in preventing the loss of ethno medicinal traditions of Paliyar tribal Communities. The plants with high fidelity level, use values and relative frequency citation in the present study may indicate the possible occurrence of valuable phytochemical compounds, and it requires a search for probable new drugs to cure different ailments. The efficacy and safety of all the reported ethnomedicinal plants need to be evaluated for phytochemical and pharmacological studies especially the plants with high informant consensus factor, use value, fidelity level and relative frequency citation should be given priority to carry out bioassay and toxicity studies. The present study suggested that the plants having higher use reports such as Tinospora cordifolia, Cynodon dactylon, Senna auriculata, Hemidesmus indicus var. indicus, H. indicus var. pubescens, Terminalia chebula and Andrographis paniculata need further investigation in regard to phytochemical and associated pharmacological studies. Acknowledgement The authors express their thanks to Paliyar tribes in the study area for revealing their traditional knowledge. Conflict of Interest No conflicts of interest were reported by the authors.
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Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Irula Tribal Settlement of Attappady in Palakkad District, Kerala, India C. V. Jayalekshmi, Reshma K. Ramesh, M. Vijai, and V. Suresh
1 Introduction Biologically active compounds present in plants account for their use in traditional medicinal systems for centuries. 80% of the world’s population depends on plants for their healthcare (World Health Organization,1993). Traditional communities are intimately familiar with the use of medicinal plants, which is unknown the modern society [1, 2]. This practice of health care is based on the belief and experience of the traditional people, which is a part of their tradition and culture. The modern health care system relies mainly on plant-based ingredients. The traditional use of wild plants not only provides folk medicines for the health care system but also as a food source for local communities. The ethnic people practiced indigenous system of folk medicines for centuries and their knowledge about the usage and maintenance of plants was passed from generation to generation especially through mouth [3–5]. Kerala is lying in the southern end of the Indian subcontinent. The state is known for its cultural and biological diversity. As per the 2011 Census, the tribal population in Kerala is 364,189, which is 1.14% of the total population of the state. The decadal growth of tribal population in the state has been 13.75% [6, 7]. Attappadi is part of three states-Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It is located in the mid-eastern part of Kerala. It is a segment of Western Ghats ranges. Attappadi can be considered as an extension mountain valley, which has an area of 731 sq.km. Attappadi is a part of Palakkad district, adjoining Coimbatore and Nilgiri districts of Tamil Nadu. The population of Attappadi consists of both tribes and non-tribes [8, 9].
C. V. Jayalekshmi, R. K. Ramesh and M. Vijai died before publication of this work was completed. C. V. Jayalekshmi · R. K. Ramesh · M. Vijai · V. Suresh (*) Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad, Kerala, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_4
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The name Attappadi means atta, the blood leach and pad, the habitation. There are three different major tribal communities in Attappadi, they are Irulars, Mudugars and Kurumbas. Tribal groups in Attappadi are the most backward than other tribal communities of Kerala. Their culture is traditional in nature and they depend mainly on land and forest for their livelihood [9]. Tribal settlements in Attappadi are known as Ooru (hamlet). There are 187 hamlets in Attappadi. The Irulas were inhabiting the plains and low elevations of Attappadi constituted the majority tribal population [9, 10]. The Attappadi Block is divided into the three Gram Panchayats—Agali, Pudur and Sholayur. The number of Irula oorus is 53, 43 and 44 in Agali, Pudur and Sholayur, respectively [8]. Traditional knowledge of human health and medicine has recently become a universal consideration. The value of medicinal plants and herbs is being lost due to lack of awareness and deforestation. The ethnobotanical study is the collection of ethnobotanical information and documentation of traditional knowledge. It has gained importance as it saves knowledge that is transferred from generation to generation only inside a particular community. The present study aims to document the plants used by Irula tribes of Palakkad district of Kerala state.
2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Study Area The study was conducted in Attappadi, one of the tribal areas of Kerala, which is part of the Western Ghats of India. The valley is an extensive east sloping plateau on the Western Ghats of Kerala that covers an area of 745 km2, which is located in the Mannarkad taluk of Palakkad district. Geographic coordinates of Attappadi are 3“N and 76°33’43.4”E [9, 11]. Attappadi is a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The population of Attappadi consists of adivasis and non-adivasis. Irulas, Mudugas and Kurumbas are three tribal groups inhabiting the region of which, Irulas inhabiting the plains and low elevations, constitute the majority (79%). There are 187 hamlets in Attappadi, which are inhabited by both the adivasis and the non- adivasis. Each Ooru contains, on average, 50 houses. The tribal people in attappadi were most backward among the tribal groups of Kerala and their livelihood depends mainly on land and forest. The Attappadi comprises three Gram Panchayats – Agali, Sholayur and Pudur [8, 12].
2.2 Data Collection The data collection was done through field surveys conducted at the study area. It was carried out by interviewing traditional healers in different locations of Irula tribal settlement in a period between February to July 2020. Questionnaires were structured for the interview and were applied to 29 informants (12 men and 17
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women) who are in age between 30 and 70 years to gather information about plants that are used by the tribal people for various purposes. The informants were selected based on their popularity among other local people with respect to the knowledge about medicinal plants. Data such as local names, uses for various ailments and disease were collected from traditional healers and other tribes through individual interviews during the survey. The plants were also documented by using digital photography, and voucher specimens were collected along with the survey and the collected specimens were identified using different floras. Voucher specimens of this study have been deposited at the Herbarium of Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad. The botanical names of the plant specimens were updated according to the Plant List.
2.3 Analysis of Collected Ethnobotanical Data The ethnobotanical information collected was analysed for obtaining the importance of individual species. The data obtained were classified into relatively well- defined ethnomedical categories to get a clear picture about the use of particular plant species. Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) The informant consensus factor (Fic) was used to see if there was agreement in the use of plants in the ailment categories between the plant users in the study area. The Fic was calculated. by the following formula:
Fic
Nur Nt Nur 1
Fic, which is the ratio of the number of use reports in each category (Nur) minus the number of taxa used for a particular ailment category by all informants (Nt) and the number of use reports in each category minus one. Thus, Fic value close to 1 was taken as an indication of high intracultural consensus, i.e. more healers use the same species, whereas a value close to zero was regarded as a low probability of medicinal use [13].
3 Results and Discussions The present study aimed to document the plants used by the Irula tribal settlement of Attappady, Palakkad district. Information regarding the use of medicinal plants was collected from 29 informants, 12 males and 17 females aged about 30–70 years. Informants were traditional healers and local people. From the study,
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ethnobotanical information of 126 plant species was recorded. The most cited families were Leguminosae, Apocynaceae, Amaranthaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae. The photographs of some plants cited in the study are given in Fig. 1. The Irula tribes use a lot of plants as food, medicine, fodder and for making mats, hut, etc. Some plants are grown as sacred plants, such as Aerva lanata, Azadirachta indica, Cynodon dactylon, Ficus religiosa and Ocimum sanctum. The information on plants used by Irula tribes is given in Table 1. Scientific name, family, common name and medicinal importance of plants are documented in Table 1.
Fig. 1 Plants cited in the study
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Table 1 Plants cited in the study Sl. No. Scientific name 1 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. 2 Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. 3 Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. 4 Achyranthes aspera L.
Medicinal use/ cures Good for hair
Family Leguminosae
Common name Arapu maram
Leguminosae
Seenkey dag
Euphorbiaceae
Kattumunja
Amaranthaceae
Nayuruvi
Acorus calamus L. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Allium cepa L.
Acoraceae
Vambu
Amaranthaceae
Siru pula
Asthma, abortifacient, diuretic, fever, child care Cold, speech clearness, fever Cough, astringent
Asteraceae
Communist apcha
Ulcer, anti-inflammatory
Amaryllidaceae
Vengam
12
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.
Xanthorrhoeaceae Chothukathala
13
Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthus viridis L.
Amaranthaceae
Porikeeri
Amaranthaceae
Mullukeerrai
Amaranthaceae
Pattikeeri
Amomum subulatum Roxb. Anacardium occidentale L. Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.) Hoffm Annona squamosa L. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Zingiberaceae
Alum
Ulcer, oral infection, dysentery Menstrual problem, face wash, dysentery Cure ulcer, stomach pain Stomach pain, ulcer Cure blood problems, intestinal problems Anti-inflammatory
Anacardiaceae
Mundhiri
Snake bite and anorexia Child care
Annonaceae
Sithapalam
Asparagaceae
Thannervettan
Meliaceae
Vembu
Mental depression, sedative Throat infection, fever Anti-inflammatory, chickenpox, skin problems
5 6 10
11
14 15
16 17 18
19 20 21
Marattiaceae
Other uses
Stomach pain, control ring worms Fever
Veterinary medicine Veterinary medicine
Cosmetic preparation
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Sl. No. Scientific name Family 22 Bambusa bambos Poaceae (L.) Voss 23 Basella alba L. Basellaceae
Common name Mungil Vasala
Medicinal use/ cures Other uses Anti-inflammatory, febrifuge Fever, stimulant and expulsion of worms, used to treat back pain Useful to diuretic, gonorrhoea
Basella paniculata Volkens Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Bauhinia variegata L. Boerhavia diffusa L.
Basellaceae
Sivpuvasali
Leguminosae
Ashamaram.
Bark and fibre
Leguminosae
Mantharia
Nyctaginaceae
Cerandhia
28
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.
Brassicaceae
Kaduku
29
Cajanus cajan Leguminosae (L.) Millsp. Apocynaceae Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. Capsicum annum Solanaceae L.
Cough, stomach problem Stomach ulcer, antibacterial, diuretic, anti-helminthic Treat inflammation Treat abdominal pain Jaundice, oral problem Anti-inflammatory
24
25 26 27
30
31
32
Sapindaceae
35
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Carica papaya L. Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold Cassia fistula L.
36 37
33 34
Thuvarai Losandi
Mulaku
Caricaceae
Pappaly
Apocynaceae
Arali maram
Leguminosae
Kanikundri
Cassia tora L.
Leguminosae
Thira
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don
Apocynaceae
Nithyakalyani
Veterinary medicine
Treatment of ulcer, cancer, anti-inflammatory Stomach upset, headache Stomach ache, digestive problem Controls back pain
Febrifuge, astringent, used against ringworm, jaundice Stomach pain,
Veterinary medicine
Anti-neoplastic, sedative (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Sl. No. Scientific name Family Celastraceae 38 Celastrus paniculatus Willd. 39 Centella asiatica Apiaceae (L.) Urb
40
41
42 43
44 45 46
47
48 49
Common name
Vallarai
Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob.
Leguminosae
Gumul
Asteraceae
Communist pacha
Cinnamomum verum J. Presl Cissus quadrangularis L. Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Clitoria ternatea var. ternatea L. Cocos nucifera L.
Lauraceae
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. Cucurbita pepo L. Cuminum cyminum L.
Araceae
Vitaceae
Rutaceae Leguminosae Arecaceae
Medicinal use/ cures Other uses Laxative, digestive problems, skin disease Veterinary Dysentery, medicine stomach pain increases memory power, ulcer Joint pain and rheumatism
Healing wound and burns quickly cure diarrhoea, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory Karuvapatta Bark used digestion Parandi Breathing trouble in cattle, stomach ache, dysentery Elumichai Indigestion, cold and fever Shankupushpam. Antihelminthic and Brain tonic Thangai Antiviral and anti-fungal, indigestion Chembu Internal haemorrhage
Cucurbitaceae
Sacarakodi
Apiaceae
Chiragam
50
Curcuma Zingiberaceae aromatica Salisb.
Kasthuri manjal
51
Curcuma longa L.
Zingiberaceae
Manjal
52
Cycas circinalis L.
Cycadaceae
Inthpani
Flavouring agent Veterinary medicine
Coir making
Fever, joint pain, dysentery Anti-helminthic, stomach pain, digestive problems Antiviral, antifungal, skin problems Veterinary Itching, skin problem, antiviral, medicine anti-fungal, anti-microbial, hepatic ulcer Stomach pain (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Sl. No. Scientific name 53 Cyclea peltata (Lam) Hook. f. & Thomson 54 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 55 Cyperus rotundus L. 56 Datura metel L. 57
58 59
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw
Family Menispermaceae
Common name Kurupan
Poaceae
Arugampul
Cyperaceae
Koripul
Solanaceae
Sipukaichedi
Leguminosae
Orila
Dioscoreaceae
Nurankizhangu.
Athyriaceae
Pannal
60
Eclipta prostrata Asteraceae L.
61
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Poaceae
Ragi
Myrtaceae
Eucally
63
Ficus benghalensis L.
Moraceae
Aalamaram
64
Ficus racemosa L. Foeniculum vulgare L. Gloriosa superba L. Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Grewia tiliifolia vahl
Moraceae
Atthi
Apiaceae
Koigerakam
62
65 66 67
68
Kuyuni
Colchicaceae Rutaceae
Malakuluki
Malvaceae
Lumanmaram
Medicinal use/ cures Other uses Stomach pain, child care, anti-inflammatory Cattle feed Epistasis, gastro-intestinal problems Febrifuge, diuretic and child care Headache, epilepsy, narcotic Asthma, cough, diuretic, fever For child care, blood tonic Used for the treatment of vomiting, asthma and fever. Laxative, hair tonic, anti-inflammatory Increase strength of child bone Joint pain, cough, Timber cure dental problems, headache and cold Seminal weakness, nervous disorders, laxative Antiseptic, skin diseases Cough, throat pain Cure bone problems Stomach pain, dysentery, acidity and malaria Laxative, good for Cattle feed hair, dysentery, blood coagulant (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Sl. No. Scientific name 69 Helicteres isora L.
Family Malvaceae
Common name Keveram
70
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult.
Apocyanaceae
Nannari
71
Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.
Malvaceae
Chemparuthi
72
Ixora coccinea L. Rubiaceae
Theei
73
Jatropha curcas Euphorbiaceae L. Justicia adhatoda Acanthaceae L.
Kattukotta
74
Adalodakam
75
Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.
Acanthaceae
Karinochil
76
Kyllinga nemoralis (J. R. Forst & Forest). Lantana camara L.
Cyperaceae
Muthanga
Verbenaceae
Paral
Lantana indica Roxb. Lawsonia inermis L.
Verbenaceae
Vettum paral
Lythraceae
Maruthani
80
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link
Lamiaceae
Thumbai
81
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
Solanaceae
Takkali
77
78 79
Medicinal use/ cures Diabetes, ulcer and menstrual pain, stomach pain, malaria Blood purifier, diarrhoea, dysentery, stomach pain increases memory power Hair tonic, laxative, skin diseases Astringent, antiseptic Anti-inflammatory, wound healing Bronchitis and acidity, cough, anti-inflammatory To treat fractures and dislocated bones and chronic indigestion, dysentery, rheumatism, fever and cough. Dysentery and white discharge
Other uses Hair oil preparation
Water purification
Insecticides Abdominal pain, rheumatism, tooth pain Stomach pain and control vomiting Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, nail problems Headache, Veterinary epilepsy medicine anti-helminthic, jaundice, febrifuge, fever Cure pimples on face (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Sl. No. Scientific name Family 82 Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae L. 83
Mimosa pudica L.
84
Momordica Cucurbitaceae charantia L. Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Lam.
85
Leguminosae
86
Murraya koenigii Rutaceae (L.) Spreng
87
Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC Ocimum americanum L. Ocimum basilicum L. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Oxalis corniculata L.
88 89 90 91
92 93
94
95 96
Ranunculaceae
Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Oxalidaceae
Passiflora foetida Passifloraceae L. Pavetta indica L. Rubiaceae
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Phyllanthus emblica L. Piper betle L.
Medicinal use/ cures Other uses Cure teeth problem, dysentery Thotavadi Kidney stone, diuretic, anti- inflammatory, eye problems Paval Intestinal worms, diabetes Murungi Circulatory stimulant, anti-helminthic Karivapu Stomach pain, dysentery, antiprotozoal, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, Kattu kodi Anti-inflammatory, colic wounds and ulcer Kattutulasi Child care, cough, breathing problem Thiruneetu tulasi Cold, malaria, antibacterial Tulasi Asthma, cough, cold Puliyarali Liver tonic, fever, hepato-protective and burning sensation Pottrichedi Edible Common name Mavu
Kollipu
Euphorbiaceae
Kelianelli
Euphorbiaceae
Nelli
Piperaceae
Vettilai
Treat poisonous bite and skin disease Jaundice, dysentery
Jaundice, antibiotic Bronchitis, stimulant, and antiseptic, cough, rheumatism (continued)
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Irula Tribal Settlement of Attappady in Palakkad…
117
Table 1 (continued) Sl. No. Scientific name 97 Piper longum L.
Family Piperaceae
Common name Tippili
98 99
Piper nigrum L. Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. 100 Plectronia parvifolia (Roxb) Benth & Hook. f. exkurz 101 Plumbago zeylanica L. 102 Plumeria alba L.
Piperaceae Lamiaceae
Kurmiluku Iruvali
Rubiaceae
Kari maram
Joint pain, anti-inflammatory, fever
Plumbaginaceae
Ottachedi
Apocynaceae
Vella arali
103 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Piere
Leguminosae
Pongum
Stomach pain, anti-helminthic To treat ulcers and cure nail infections Anti-helminthic, jaundice, febrifuge, haemorrhage, fever Laxative, tonic, dysentery, stomach pain and gas trouble Timber Bark for the treatment of joint pain Good for dysentery, stomachic and vomiting Epilepsy, gastrointestinal problems, fever Veterinary Gastro-intestinal medicine problem, cough, rheumatism, stomach pain Skin disease, ulcer and cough, anti-inflammatory Cooling diuretic, antiseptic, skin disease, anti- inflammatory, antiviral
104 Psidium guajava Myrtaceae L.
Koyya
105 Pterocarpus Leguminosae marsupium Roxb. 106 Punica granatum Lythraceae L.
Madalam
107 Rauvolfia serpentina (L). Benth. exkurz 108 Ricinus communis L.
Apocynaceae
Povaru
Euphorbiaceae
Kottimuttu
109 Rubia cordifolia L.
Rubiaceae
Maruchedi
110 Santalum album L.
Santalaceae
Sandhanam
Medicinal use/ cures Other uses Cough, bronchitis, asthma Antiseptic Fever, snake bite, cough, sore throat
(continued)
C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
118 Table 1 (continued) Sl. No. Scientific name 111 Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb) Voigt. 112 Scoparia dulcis L. 113 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link 114 Sida cordifolia L.
Family Apocynaceae
Common name Karumparandi
Plantaginaceae
Medicinal use/ cures Cure boils
Other uses
Sedative, diuretic, kidney stone Stomach pain, control ring worms
Leguminosae
Thira
Malvaceae
Maruchedi
Solanaceae 115 Solanum americanum Mill. 116 Solanum Solanaceae argenteum Dunal 117 Solanum torvum Solanaceae Sw.
Manathali
118 Solanum verbascifolium L. 119 Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl 120 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 121 Tamarindus indica L.
Solanaceae
Peetachedi
Solanaceae
Nilachundai
Myrtaceae
Naval
Leguminosae
Puli
122 Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. 123 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm 124 Tridax procumbens (L). L. 125 Vitex negundo L.
Leguminosae
Kolingi
Boraginaceae
Anti-inflammatory, Veterinary medicine rheumatism, cough Sadukkupodukan Anti-inflammatory, stomach pain, fever Notchi Inhaled for cold and cough Inji Stomach ache, digestive problems, gas trouble
126 Zingiber officinale Rosc.
Asteraceae
Verbenaceae Zingiberaceae
Fever, cough and joint pain, nervous diseases and rheumatism, burning and sensation, cooling, cough, hair wash Wounds, ulcer, skin disease, fever
Siru sundi
Jaundice, diuretic
Sundi
Respiratory, fever, skin ailments, ulcer, dysentery Hair wash, cure boils, skin diseases Stomach pain
Kilukkamtumpa
Ulcer, diabetes, dysentery Cure jaundice, laxative, astringent, cooling Urinary disorder, vomiting
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Irula Tribal Settlement of Attappady in Palakkad…
119
Out of 126 plant species documented, 123 plants are angiosperms, 2 are pteridophytes and 1 is a gymnosperm. Cycas ciricinalis is used as edible plant by tribes in Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary [14], and it is also used by Malayali tribe of Servarayan hills for treating leucorrhoea [15]. Angiopteris evecta and Diplazium esculentum were the Pteridophytes documented in this study. Medicinal importance of both these plants were already documented [16, 17]. Out of 126 plant species, 37% of plants were herbs, 23% shrubs, 21% were trees and 19% climbers. Figure 2 depicts the habit of plants. Most of the plants were used to cure digestive system disorders (56), followed by fever (38) and skin disorders (22). Figure 3 depicts the number of plants used for each disease category.
Habit of Plants
Fig. 2 Habit of plants
19%
37%
21% 23%
Herb
Shrub
Tree
Climer
No of plants used Kidney stone Rheumatism and joint pain Healing of wounds Malaria Jaundice Anti-inflammatory activity Hair care Fever Urinary disorders Epilepsy Sexual and menstrual disorders Skin diseases Snake bite Respiratory disorders Digestive system Disorders 0 Fig. 3 Plants used to treat various diseases
10
20
30
40
50
60
120
C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Table 2 Fic value for different disease categories Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Disease category Digestive system disorders Respiratory disorders Snake bite Skin diseases Sexual and menstrual disorders Epilepsy Urinary disorders Fever Hair care Anti-inflammatory activity Jaundice Malaria Healing of wounds Rheumatism and joint pain Kidney stone
Fic value 0.35 0.27 0 0.275 0 0.33 0 0.412 0.54 0.25 0 0.33 0 0.2 0.6
Eight plants were used to treat jaundice, three plants to treat malaria, two plants to treat kidney stones and three plants to treat epilepsy. The most commonly cited plants were Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Leucas aspera and Ricinus communis by 4 informants. Hibiscus possessed analgesic, antipyretic, anti- asthmatic, anti- inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal, antimicrobial and hair growth promoting activity [18]. In the present study, Irula tribes mainly use Hibiscus rosa-sinensis for hair care and also as laxative. Antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal and cytotoxic activities of Leucas aspera were already reported [19, 20]. Ricinus communis possessed antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antifungal, analgesic, insecticidal, antitumour, antiasthmatic, antinociceptive, antifertility and bone degeneration activity [21]. Informant consensus factor or Fic value is high for kidney stone (0.6) followed by fever (0.412). For kidney stone, 2 plants were cited with four used reports. High Fic value indicates that a few taxa are used by the community for the treatment of a particular disease category [22]. The Fic values for different disease categories are given in Table 2.
4 Conclusion The present study documented 126 plants used by the Irula tribal settlement. 29 informants participated in the survey, among them some were traditional healers. Irula tribes use a wide variety of plants to treat various diseases. Documentation of this traditional knowledge is essential as the tribal people do not share their knowledge with a third person. Further studies on these plants may lead to the production of new drug molecules.
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Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Principal, teachers, staff and students of Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad. The authors are thankful to the informants of Irula tribal settlement Attappady for sharing their valuable traditional knowledge. The authors are thankful to UGC and CSIR for financial assistance.
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Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India C. V. Jayalekshmi, S. Reshma, and V. Suresh
1 Introduction Plants are widely used as a source of food, fodder, fuel, medicine, etc. India is rich in plant diversity. The people of India mainly depend on plants to treat many diseases. Our Vedas, Rigveda and Atharvaveda and ancient books like Charakasamhita, Sushruthasamhitha, Dhanwanthari nighantu are the important sources of information on medicinal plants [1]. Traditional medicinal practices are still widely used in various parts of India. According to WHO, about 80% people in developing countries depend on medicinal plants for their primary health care. In India, Ayurveda, Yunani, Siddha, folk medicine and tribal medicine depend mainly on plants to treat various diseases. Kerala is the southernmost state of India with a vast diversity of medicinal plants. The people of Kerala used plants as a source of medicine from very ancient times. Folk medicine commonly called ‘Nattu chikitsa’ originated around the thirteenth century A.D [2]. Folk medicine used around 25,000 plant-based formulations [3]. Folk medicine is still widely practiced in Kerala as it is safe and cheap. Palakkad district is located in the eastern part of Kerala and has no sea coast. Chittur taluk is located 15 km South-east of Palakkad. The present study aimed to document the plants used in folk medicine practices of Chittur taluk, Palakkad district. C. V. Jayalekshmi and S. Reshma died before publication of this work was completed. C. V. Jayalekshmi Research Scholar, Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany, Government Victoria College Palakkad, Palakkad, Kerala, India S. Reshma Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany, Government Victoria College Palakkad, Palakkad, Kerala, India V. Suresh (*) Assistant Professor, Post Graduate and Research Department of Botany, Government Victoria College Palakkad, Palakkad, Kerala, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_5
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2 Materials and Methods The present study was conducted in Chittur taluk of Palakkad district. Frequent field visits were conducted to the study area for collection of information on medicinal plants used in folk medicine.
2.1 Study Area Chittur taluk is located 15 km South-east of Palakkad with the geographical coordinates 10°42″ North, 76° 45″ East. The total area of Chittur taluk is 445.99 sq. meters. The temperature of the region ranges from 20 to 45 °C. Rice, coconut and sugarcane are the important crops cultivated by people of this region.
2.2 Collection of Data Survey was used to collect information regarding the use of plants in folk medicine. Fifty-six informants from 15 villages were interviewed. The data were recorded in survey sheets. Frequent field visits from February to July 2020 were conducted in study areas for data collection. People within the age range of 30–80 years were interviewed. Pothundy, Kuriyallur, Pottakkalpadam, Mettupalayam, Chunkam, Kallandichalla, Thekkechalla, Ayyappankavu, Panniperunthala, Adichera, Kattutheruvu, Athikode, Annikode, Arampadam and Attancheri are the villages selected for the present study. Common name of plants, plant part used, mode of delivery and curative properties of these plants were documented. The plants documented in this study were collected and identified using available taxonomic literatures. The voucher specimens are deposited in Government Victoria College Herbarium.
2.3 Analysis of Data Quantitative ethnobotanical tools are used for analysis of data. Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) Fic value was used to find out the use of plants in different disease categories by the informants. It is calculated using the formula
FicValue N ur N t / N ur 1
Nur = Number of use-reports for a particular disease category Nt = Number of taxa used by the informants in a particular disease category [4].
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India
125
Fig. 1 Map of Palakkad district
Fic value ranges from 0 to 1. Fic values will be high if the informants share their knowledge between the community, and it will be low if the informants do not exchange their use [5] (Fig. 1).
3 Results and Discussion The present study deals with documentation of medicinal plants used in folk medicine of Chittur taluk, Palakkad district, Kerala. The study reported 212 plants. The most commonly cited families were Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae by and Malvaceae. Out of 212 plants, 75 plants were herbs, 52 plants were shrubs, 52 plants were trees and 33 plants were climbers. Figure 2 depicts the habit of plants cited in the study. The plants cited in this study are represented in Table 1 with their botanical name, family, local name, medicinal value and mode of administration. Most frequently used plant part is leaves followed by roots, flowers, fruits, rhizomes, seeds and whole plant. Photographs of some plants cited in the study are given in Plate 1. The most common ailments were fever, stomach problems and skin problems. Seventy-three plants are used to treat digestive system disorders, 8 plants are used to treat respiratory system disorders, 21 plants are used to treat snake bite, insect bite and dog bite, 52 plants are used to treat skin diseases, 44 plants possess wound
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Habit of plants 16%
36%
24%
24%
Herb
Shrub
Tree
Climber
Fig. 2 Habit of plants
healing properties and 65 plants are used for general disorders, etc. Figure 3 depicts the number of plants used for various diseases. Single plant is used for more than one disease. For example, Tinospora sinensis used for fever, kidney problem and diabetes, Sida cordifolia used to treat diarrhoea, fever, urinary infection and skin disease, Ricinus communis was used to treat skin diseases, joint pain, ear pain and constipation and Achyranthes aspera used for fever, cough, cold and scorpion bite. The different parts of the same plant have different properties. For example, in the case of Ocimum tenuiflorum, the leaves are used to treat throat infection, root extract was used to treat cough and the seeds were used to treat eye irritations. Similarly, Sida cordifolia root extract is used to treat fever and leaf extract was used for skin warts and wounds. Tinospora sinensis and Azadirachta indica were the commonly cited plants in this study followed by Curcuma longa. Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective and anti-leishmanial properties of T. sinensis were already reported [6–10]. Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, hepatoprotective, anti- microbial, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-candidal properties of A. indica were also reported [11–13]. These properties indicate the medicinal importance of these plants. Five plants were used to treat jaundice and three plants were used to treat malaria. All the five plants cited in this study were used for treating jaundice are already reported. Ethnobotanical studies from Maharashtra reported that Luffa acutangula fruits are used to treat jaundice [14]. Ethnobotanical studies from Bangladesh reported the use of Asparagus racemosus to treat jaundice [15]. Studies on hepatoprotective plants used by the tribes of Wayanad, Malappuram and Palakkad reported the use of Centella asiatica to treat jaundice [16]. The tribes of Akole taluk of Maharashtra use Sesbania grandiflora to treat jaundice [17]. Studies on folk medicine from Chittur district, Andhra Pradesh, reported the use of Phyllanthus amarus
Common name of plant Vendakka
Kunni
Cheeppika
Munja
Kuppameni
Sapota Kadaladi
Venapacha
Cherula
Sl. No 1
2
3
4
5
6 7
8
10
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss.
Acmella radicans (Jacq) R. K. Jansen.
Achras sapota L. Achyranthes aspera L.
Acalypha indica L.
Acalypha fruticosa Forssk.
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet
Scientific name Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Abrus precatorius L.
Table 1 Plants cited in the study
Amaranthaceae
Asteraceae
Sapotaceae Amaranthaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Malvaceae
Leguminosae
Family Malvaceae
Used to cure (a) To improve memory power and for abdominal disorders (a) Best to treat swellings and joint pain (b) Treats inflammations (a) Used as anti-inflammatory agent (a) Protect new born babies from cold and cough (a) For the treatment of skin allergies (b) Treat rheumatism (c) Cure wounds (a) Fruits provide good diet (a) Cures cough and throat infection in infants and also cure toothache (b) Against scorpion bite (a) Treat toothache, gum infections and also for gum swellings (a) The plant used for the treatment of diarrhoea in children (b) Cures bleeding during pregnancy time (c) Treat urinary infection
(continued)
(a) Decoction prepared with the root of cyperus and fennel seed (b) The extract of whole plant is mixed with milk (c) Decoction of plant taken
(a) Plant extract used as mouthwash
(a) Leaves and flowers boiled in water then to bath babies in the cooled water (a) Take juice extract from leaves and mixed with lime then applied on the skin (b) Leaf juice with coconut oil is applied (c) Powdered leaves can be applied (a) Ripened fruits are eaten (a) Ash of spike is mixed with honey and applied (b) Paste made from spike and applied
Mode of delivery (a) Fruits used as a vegetable in daily food (a) Leaves mixed with coconut oil then placed (b) Leaf and stem extract are used (a) Dried powder
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 127
Chuvannulli
Kattarvazha
Ponnan kannicheera Mullucheera
Kasumavu
kiriyath
Seethapazhm
Nilakkada
Garudakkodi
12
13
14
16
17
18
19
20
15
Common name of plant Vaaka
Sl. No 11
Table 1 (continued)
Aristolochia indica L.
Arachis hypogaea L.
Annona squamosa L.
Andrographis elongata (Vahl) J. Anderson
Anacardium occidentale L.
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. Amaranthus spinosus L.
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.
Allium cepa L.
Scientific name Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Aristolochiaceae
Leguminosae
Annonaceae
Acanthaceae
Anacardiaceae
Amaranthaceae
(a) For good health and to treat ulcers (a) Treatment of snake bite (b) Used as a health drink (a) To treat cough, cold and tonsillitis (b) To heal wounds, treat scorpion bite and snake bites (a) To stop diarrhoea (b) For healing of wounds (a) Source of protein (b) Used as ear drop (a) Treatment of snake bite
Used to cure (a) For stomach cancer (b) Cure sore throat Amaryllidaceae (a) To treat nausea and vomiting (b) Used as dressing agent and healing of wounds (c) For good sleep Xanthorrhoeaceae (a) Cures skin diseases and burns (b) To avoid problems during pregnancy (c) Menstrual problems Amaranthaceae (a) Used to cure snake venom
Family Leguminosae
(a) Leaves used as vegetables or its extract used (a) Grind the seeds and applied (b) Fruit juice is taken (a) Decoction of plant mixed with leaf extract of Adhatoda, ginger and pepper powder then consumed (b) Plant juice applied on wounds (a) Decoction made with bark and taken (b) Leaf extract applied externally (a) Seeds eaten raw or roasted (b) Sap form grounded leaf (a) Whole-plant extract is applied
(a) Leaf paste used externally
(a) Just crush the leaves and applied (b) Take the juice with leaves before delivery (c) Sap of plant taken daily
Mode of delivery (a) Root decoction prepared in hot water (b) Seeds chewed (a) Juice from the bulb taken orally (b) Outer covering of bulb heated in mustard oil is applied (c) Intake of bulb before sleep
128 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Veppu
Brahmi
Mula
Manjakanakambaram Barleria prionitis L.
23
24
25
26
Meliaceae
Oxalidaceae
Family Asparagaceae
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss
Acanthaceae
Poaceae
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Plantaginaceae
Azadirachta indica A. Juss
Averrhoa bilimbi L.
Irimbampuli
22
Scientific name Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Common name of plant Shathavari
Sl. No 21
(a) Treats kidney stone (b) Treatment of difficulty in urination and bladder pain (a) To the treatment of toothache and related gum problems (b) Treats fever including whooping cough
Used to cure (a) Cures jaundice, bleeding and urinary problems (a) Treats itching and swelling (b) Cure cough and cold (c) Control obesity (d) Treat mumps and joint pain (a) Skin problems include pimples, itching and black marks (b) To heal severe wounds (c) Treat nail infection with pain (d) Used as snake poison (e) Used against chickenpox (a) To improve memory power, (b) Cures bronchitis
(continued)
(a) Leaves boiled in water with little salt then the decoction is used as mouth wash (b) Leaves and stem were used to make decoction
(a) Leaf paste mixed with Ocimum leaves and applied (b) Leaves grind with sesame oil and honey is applied (c) Neem oil from leaf and seeds are mixed with curcuma rhizome (d) LLeaf paste applied on wound (e) Leaf paste (a) Whole-plant extract is used (b) Take the plant extract per day for 12 weeks (a) Root decoction consumed (b) Root boiled in water and steamed
Mode of delivery (a) Plant extract is used to prepare a decoction and consumed (a) Leaf paste is applied (b) Decoction of leaves consumed (c) Daily intake of fruit juice (d) Leaf paste is applied
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 129
Common name of plant Vellamandaram
Kattumandaram
Kumbalam
Thazhuthama
Poolamaram
Kadalaspu
Kaduku
Plasu
Sl. No 27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Table 1 (continued)
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Bougainvillaea spectabilis Will N Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.
Bombax ceiba L.
Boerhavia diffusa L.
Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Congh.
Bauhinia racemosa Lam.
Scientific name Bauhinia acuminata L.
Leguminosae
Brassicaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Bombacaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Leguminosae
Family Leguminosae (a) Treat glandular infection and used as external wash for skin diseases (a) Used as anti-inflammatory agent (b) For peptic ulcers (a) To treat difficulty in urination specially for women after delivery (a) To treat rheumatism and swelling (b) Remedy for enlargement of spleen (c) Treat stomach ache and internal inflammation (d) Used treat liver diseases (a) To treat wounds (b) To improve immunity (a) To treat acidity problems, cure sore throat and cough (a) Treats inflammation (b) Treats abdominal pain (a) To treat diarrhoea (b) For cold, cough and septic sore throat
Used to cure (a) Cure wounds
(a) Seeds made into paste and applied (b) Seed extract consumed (a) Leaf extract consumed (b) Red juice from the bark is applied externally
(a) Bark extract mixed with neem leaves (b) The young root chewed raw (a) Leaves decoction is taken
(a) Leaf extract applied externally (b) Decoction prepared with leaf, root and rice water (c) Decoction from root is consumed (d) Leaf decoction is used
(a) Fruit juice or cooked fruits taken
Mode of delivery (a) Crushed bark mixed with Ocimum and neem leaves were applied (a) Bark decoction is applied externally (b) Stem and bark extract mixed equally (c) Extract from flower bud taken
130 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Common name of plant Rajamalli
Thuvara
Mashkhanchi
Punna
Erukku
Manoranjini
Pachamulak Uzhinja
Papaya
Sl. No 35
36
37
38
39
40
41 42
43
Leguminosae
Annonaceae
Apocynaceae
Clusiaceae
Carica papaya L.
Caricaceae
Capsicum annum L. Solanaceae Cardiospermum halicacabum Sapindaceae L.
Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thomson
Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand.
Calophyllum inophyllum L.
Callicarpa tomentosa (L.) L. Verbenaceae
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.
Scientific name Family Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Leguminosae Sw.
(a) Remove intestinal worms and treat kidney stone
(a) Used as an appetizer (a) Treatment of ulcer To cure fever (b) Improves hair growth
(a) Treatment of malaria (b) Used as a perfume
Used to cure (a) To induce abortion (b) For the treatment of cold, cough and fever (c) Used as an eye wash (a) Treat cough, cold and bronchitis (a) For the treatment of malaria (a) For joint pain (b) Used as an anti-microbial agent (a) Relief from neck pain (b) Cures toothache (c) Treats joint pain
(continued)
(a) Leaves applied after mild heating (b) Cotton soaked in plant latex is placed and milky juice mixed with ginger and applied (c) Leaf juice applied on joints (a) Fruits consumed (b) Flowers soaked in water and the water is applied (a) Fruit as an ingredient of food (a) Leaf extract is applied on wounds (b) Leaves boiled in water and drink the water (c) Plant extract mixed with hibiscus leaves and applied (a) Ripe or unripe fruits take on empty stomach
(a) Oil prepared from seeds is applied (b) Paste from seeds can be applied
Mode of delivery (a) Root extract is used (b) Root, bark and leaves boiled to prepare tea and taken (c) Liquid extract from flower (a) Take the extract of leaves and mixed with ginger juice then taken (a) Seed extract applied on swellings
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 131
Common name of plant Cherry
Kanikkonna
Nithyakalyani
Kozhichutta
Kudangal
Poombatta payar
Communistpacha
Swarnapathry
Karuvappatta
Sl. No 44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Table 1 (continued)
Cinnamomum verum J. Presl
Chromolaena odorata (L) R. M. King & H. Rob. Chrysophyllum cainito L.
Centrosema molle Benth.
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Celosia argentea L.
Cassia fistula L.
Scientific name Carissa carandas L.
Lauraceae
Sapotaceae
Asteraceae
Leguminosae
Apiaceae
Amaranthaceae
Apocynaceae
Leguminosae
Family Apocynaceae
Mode of delivery (a) Unripe fruit mixed with honey (b) Root extract used as decoction (a) Powder of bark mixed with milk (b) Decoction from flower or the leaf extract is applied or prepare a mixture with leaves, turmeric, sesame seeds and curd then apply on skin (a) Reduce blood pressure and (a) Consume the flower extract or just treat blood vomiting chew the flower (a) To treat boils and wounds (a) Paste from leaves and stem is applied (b) Reduce fever (b) Powdered seeds applied externally (a) Chewed 10 leaves per day (a) Used as brain tonic (b) Fresh plant made into a paste with 1 (b) To the treatment of liter milk and consumed jaundice and liver problems (c) Chew the tender leaves (c) Relieve from acidity (a) Crushed seeds are applied (a) Treat snake bite and scorpion bite (a) Healing wounds and burns (a) Just crush the leaves and applied (b) Cures diarrhoea (b) Root decoction could consumed (a) Fruit pulp made into juice and used (a) Cure inflammations in larynx and also to treat pneumonia (a) For chest pain and cardiac (a) Leaves consumed (b) Dried bark used as a food ingredient disorders (b) For digestion and treats acidity
Used to cure (a) Improves appetite (b) Removes intestinal worms (a) For bronchial diseases (b) Skin disease and treats itching
132 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Common name of plant Paadavalli
Changala paranda
Naranga
Aadunarivela
Paragu
Sankhupushpam
Sl. No 53
54
55
56
57
58
Clitoria ternatea L.
Clerodendron infortunatum Gearth
Cleome viscosa L.
Citrus limon L.
Cissus quadrangularis L.
Scientific name Cissampelos pareira L.
Leguminosae
Verbenaceae
Capparidaceae
Rutaceae
Vitaceae
Family Menispermaceae
(continued)
Mode of delivery (a) Leaves deep fried with wheat and used (a) Leaf extract mixed with hibiscus leaves (b) Decoction prepared with leaf, stem and rhizome is consumed (a) Plant juice mixed with equal amount of honey is taken (b) Boil the stem extract, cool it then used as an ear drop (a) Five drops of fruit juice mixed with (a) Treatment of dysentery black tea and taken (b) Removes dandruff from (b) Wash the hair with lemon juice hair (c) Root extract is used (c) Cures stomach pain (d) Lemon juice mixed with little salt (d) Stops vomiting (a) Leaf juice used as ear drop (a) To treat ear pain (b) Expelling intestinal worms (b) Seeds made into a powder, mixed with milk and consumed (c) Improves appetite (c) Leaf juice is taken (a) Decoction made from leaves (a) Treats fever, cough and consumed skin problems (b) Treats ulcers and swellings (b) Root grind with leaves and applied (a) Prepare paste with flowers and cow (a) Treatment of general milk weakness (b) Decoction prepared with leaves and (b) To cure bleeding and flowers were taken uterus related issues
Used to cure (a) Used to treat diarrhoea (b) Removes dandruff from hair (c) Used for menstrual disorders (a) Regulate menstrual cycle and reduces menstrual pain (b) To relieve ear pain
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 133
Common name of plant Koval
Parappanji
Thengu
Kappi
Insulincheera
Nagalinkham
Kanakambaram
Kilukkampetti
Mathan
Sl. No 59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
Table 1 (continued)
Lecythidaceae
Zingiberaceae
Rubiaceae
Arecaceae
Cucurbita pepo L.
Cucurbitaceae
(a) Treatment of fever
(a) To cure urinary problems include pain during urination (b) Treat pain on swellings
(a) Used as hand wash and anti-inflammatory (a) For healing of wounds
(a) Stimulate nervous system and quick relief to throat infection and cough (a) Reduces blood sugar
(a) Energy drink (b) For hair growth (c) Treat urinary problems
Used to cure (a) Cures fever, bronchitis and regulate blood sugar (b) For good diet Cochlospermaceae (a) Used as hair wash (b) To treat throat swellings
Family Cucurbitaceae
Crossandra infundibuliformis Acanthaceae (L.) Nees Crotalaria pallida Aiton Leguminosae
Costus speciosus (J. Konig) Sm. Couroupita guianensis Aubl.
Coffea arabica L.
Cocos nucifera L.
Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston
Scientific name Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt
(a) Seeds boiled for 2 hours and wrapped in banana leaves then made into a paste and applied (b) Decoction prepared with root is applied (a) Leaf extract mixed with Ocimum leaves and taken
(a) Flower extract is applied
(a) Flower and leaf extract used
Mode of delivery (a) Fruits can be used as fresh or cooked in different way (b) Leaves used as a vegetable (a) The extract of young leaves is used (b) Sweet gum obtained from the bark is applied (a) Drink coconut water in daily morning (b) Oil prepared from the dried kernel is used (c) Unfermented toddy (a) Prepare coffee with seeds or coffee mixed with pepper powder, Ocimum leaves and a little sugar (a) Leaves were chewed
134 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Common name of plant Nilappana
Manjal
Moodillathali
Puvamkurunthila
Poovamkurunthila
Karukapullu
Sl. No 68
69
70
71
72
73
Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob.
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
Curcuma aromatica L.
Poaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Convolvulaceae
Zingiberaceae
Scientific name Family Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Amaryllidaceae
Mode of delivery (a) Tuber extract is taken
(continued)
(a) Rhizome extract mixed with honey is applied (b) Rhizome grind with curd and applied (c) Rhizome powder mixed with camphor and applied on tooth (d) Rhizome extract mixed with ghee then applied on lip (e) Rhizome extract mixed with cow milk and Ocimum leaves, crushed it, then applied (f) Apply rhizome extract before bath (a) Paste prepared from whole plant is applied (a) Root decoction is consumed (a) Stomach problems (b) To the treatment of urinary (b) Fresh juice prepared from the whole plant is consumed problems includes pain (c) Young leaves crushed and applied (c) Treats skin problems (a) Treatment of red eye and (a) Leaf extract mixed in honey then irritations applied as eye drops (a) To improve blood volume (a) Daily intake of plant extract (b) Plant extract applied on nose (b) Treatment of bleeding (c) Plant extract mixed with cow milk from nose (c) Treatment of seasonal cleft then applied on lip lip
Used to cure (a) Treatment of urinary problems (a) Remove marks due to itching (b) Remove fungal infection from mouth (c) Treats toothache (d)To treat lip problems (e) Treat skin problems like pimples, black marks and other irritations (f) Remove bad odour from body (a) Cures inflammations
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 135
Common name of plant Appela
Ummam
Vattakakka
Bushchedi
Kunjunni
Muyalcheviyan
Eucaly
Sl. No 74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Table 1 (continued)
Solanaceae
Family Commelinaceae
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC.
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
Duranta erecta L.
Myrtaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Verbenaceae
Dregea volubilis (L. f.) Benth Apocynaceae ex Hook. f.
Scientific name Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D. Don ex Sweet Datura stramonium L.
(a) Cure acidity, cough and cold (b) Prevent hair fall and give cooling effect to hair (a) Eye, ear irritations and throat problems (b) Cures thyroid swelling (c) For intestinal worms (a) Cure dental problems (b) Treat headache, cough and cold
(a) To cure inflammations in urinary tract (b) To treat boils or burns (a) Treats malaria (b) Treats urinary problems
(a) To treat swellings (b) To treat rheumatism (c) To treat wounds, boils (d) For throat infection
Used to cure (a) Cures burns and boils
(a) Leaf extract is applied (b) Leaf decoction used for steaming
(a) Juice from leaves used (b) Paste of the whole plant is applied (c) Crush the leaves and taken daily
(a) Fruit juice is used (b) Mix the extract of leaves and fruits then taken (a) Decoction of fresh leaves take orally (b) Prepare oil with the whole plant in it
(a) Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil and applied (b) Leaves boiled in water and the water applied externally (c) Plant extract is consumed (d) Leaves dried and used as a smoking agent (a) Plant extract intake (b) Leaf extract is applied
Mode of delivery (a) Crushed leaves applied on wounds
136 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Common name of plant Nilappala
Arayal
Perumjeerakam
Iravi
Parijatham
Varavalli
Parppadaka
Menthonni
Sl. No 81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
Clusiaceae
Apiaceae
Moraceae
Family Euphorbiaceae
Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug. DC. Gloriosa superba L.
Getonia floribunda Roxb.
Liliaceae
Molluginaceae
Combretaceae
Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis Rubiaceae
Garcina morella (Geartn.) Desr.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Ficus religiosa L.
Scientific name Euphorbia hirta L.
(a) Remove lice from hair
(a) Used as a source of drinking water (b) To treat skin problems (a) Cures stomach problems
Used to cure (a) Treats itching and pus from the wounds (b) For a good feel to eyes (c) Treats swellings and burns (a) To relieve diabetes (b) Cures respiratory problems (c) For skin problems (d) Treats stomach problems and constipation (a) Stimulate appetite and good for digestion (a) Stop bleeding from wounds (b) Used as a weight loss remedy (a) Treats rheumatism
(continued)
(a) Whole-plant extract is used with ginger extract (a) Sap from the stem mixed with Ocimum leaves and applied
(a) Paste made with flower and leaf is applied (a) Stem store large amount of water (b) Fruit juice is used
(a) Resin applied on wound (b) Fruit extract consumed
(a) Seeds as an ingredient of curries
(a) Bark decoction taken (b) Powder made with fruits consumed (c) Paste from flower bud applied (d) Fruits are taken
Mode of delivery (a) Juice from the stem is applied (b) Stem sap is used as eye drop (c) Leaf paste applied externally
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 137
Common name of plant Paanal
Seemakonna
Cheera
Thettipoo
Kalyana sogandikam
Edampiri-valampiri
Sl. No 89
90
91
92
93
94
Table 1 (continued)
Helicteres isora L.
Hedychium coronarium J. Konig.
Hamelia patens Jacq.
Gomphrena globosa L.
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp
Scientific name Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.
Malvaceae
Zingiberaceae
Rubiaceae
Amaranthaceae
Leguminosae
Family Rutaceae
(a) To remove intestinal worms (b) Treatment of rheumatic complaints (c) For stomach problems
Used to cure (a) Easy relief from headache (b) For the treatment of intestinal ailments (c) Cures skin infections (d) To treat joint pain due to fever (a) To protect dried seeds from pest attacks (b) Removes parasites from skin (a) Treatment of cough in children (a) Skin problems like rashes, wounds and also cures menstrual problems (a) To treat tonsillitis (b) Cure glandular swellings (c) Treats joint pain (d) To treat tonsillitis
(a) Decoction from stem or near the rhizome (b) Chew the raw stem (c) Rhizome extract applied (d) Young bud and stem made into a paste then applied on throat (a) Use fried pods (b) Mature fruits boiled with oil then applied (c) Decoction of root bark is consumed
(a) Flowers boiled in water and prepared tea (a) Boiling leaf, stem and flower with water for 10 minutes then applied
(a) Put the seeds of it along with seeds to be protected (b) Crushed leaves applied on it
Mode of delivery (a) Root extract is applied (b) Decoction from root and leaves were consumed (c) Paste made from leaves applied (d) Applied on joints before sleeping
138 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Hibiscus surattensis L. Hibiscus vitifolius L.
Hygrophila schulli (Buch. Ham.) M. R. Almeidia & S. M. Almeidia Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb.
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.
Chembarathi
98
99 Kattuppuliccai 100 Manjachemb arathi
101 Vayalchulli
103 Kattuthulasi
102 Kattulli
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.
Rubber
97
Apocynaceae
Family Boraginaceae
Lamiaceae
Amaryllidaceae
Acanthaceae
Malvaceae Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex Euphorbiaceae A. Juss.) Mull. Aug.
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult.
Nannari
96
Scientific name Heliotropium indicum L.
Common name of plant Thekkada
Sl. No 95
(a) Treats joint pain (b) Cures stomach pain
(a) For wound healing (b) Treat nail infections
(a) Heal wounds and cuts (b) Stop bleeding from wounds (a) Removes dirt from hair and to maintain it clean (a) Provide cooling effect to hair and eye and for black hair (b) Treat cough, cold and fever (a) To treat urinary infection (a) Used as an anti- inflammatory agent (a) Treat stomach pain and urinary tract infection
Used to cure (a) Cures wounds and skin problems (b) Treatment of scorpion bite (a) Treats rheumatism (b) Treats scorpion bite
(continued)
(a) The extract of bulb is used (b) Heated leaves dip in coconut oil then placed around the nail (a) Leaf juice applied on infected part (b) Seeds and leaves were made into paste and consumed
(a) Extract from leaf, flower and bud can be applied directly on hair before bath (b) Boil the flower in coconut oil for 15 minutes, cooled and applied daily (c) Root decoction consumed (a) Leaf and stem decoction taken (a) Leaves shade dried, grounded and applied (a) Leaf extract is mixed with milk and sugar is taken
Mode of delivery (a) Leaf juice is consumed (b) Leaf juice mixed with castor oil and used (a) Oil made with the whole plant is applied (b) Leaf extract is applied on the wounds (a) Use crushed aerial parts (b) Crushed bark applied on wounds
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 139
Indigofera linnaei Ali.
Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.
Ipomoea carnea Jacq.
Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc. Ixora coccinea L.
Jasminum sambac (L.) Sol.
Jatropha curcas L.
106 Nilambarananda
107 Cheriya kulavazha
108 Kulavazha
109 Thiruthali
111 Kodamulla
112 Kotta
110 Thechi
Impatiens balsamina L.
Scientific name Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W. T. Aiton
105 Kashithumba
Sl. Common name of No plant 104 Paarvalli
Table 1 (continued)
Euphorbiaceae
Oleaceae
Rubiaceae
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulaceae
Leguminosae
Balsaminaceae
Family Apocynaceae
(a) Treatment of leucoderma and other skin diseases (a) Cures swellings in the body due to viper bite (a) Cures wound and skin problems (b) Treatment of excessive menstrual bleeding (a) Used as a good sedative (b) For urinary infections (c) Cure skin diseases and burns (a) To treat wounds and ulcers (b) Treats rashes due to parasitic attack (c) Treatment of headache
Used to cure (a) Treats vomiting and weakness (b) Cures headache (a) To treat burns and related pain (a) Treatment of foot infections (a) For diabetic patients
(a) Oil prepared with flower and taken (b) Tea prepared from whole plant is taken (c) Leaf paste and flower bud is used (a) Latex is applied on it (b) Oil prepared from seeds applied (c) Stem extract applied on brow
(a) Root paste is applied (b) Decoction prepared with the flowers and taken with honey
(a) Plant as a whole boiled in water and applied (a) Leaves and stem used to prepare soup or cooked together (a) Milky juice of the plant applied on the skin (a) Root extract is applied on swellings
Mode of delivery (a) Root used to make a tonic and taken (b) Leaves used to make a paste and applied (a) Direct application of crushed leaves or
140 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Justicia adhatoda L.
Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.
Kaempferia galanga L.
Kalanchoe blossfeldiana Poelln. Kyllinga nemoralis (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Dandy ex Hutch. & Dalzel
Lablab pupureus (L) Sweet.
Lantana camara L.
114 Adalodakam
115 Vathamkolli
116 Kacholam
117 Ilamulachi
119 Avara
120 Poochedipu
118 Muthanga
Scientific name Jatropha glandulifera Roxb.
Sl. Common name of No plant 113 Kattukotta
Verbenaceae
Leguminosae
Cyperaceae
Crassulaceae
Zingiberaceae
Acanthaceae
Acanthaceae
Family Euphorbiaceae
(a) Quick healing of wounds
(a) To relieve internal fever (b) Treatment of vomiting
(a) Treat infection and fire burns (a) Relief from acidity problems (b) To treat cold and fever (c) Treat dysentery
(a) To treat rheumatism and severe pain on joints (a) Treat toothache (b) Remove black marks from face
Used to cure (a) Treatment of abdominal enlargement in children and also reduce glandular swellings (a) To the treatment of cough (b) Remove intestinal worms (c) For rheumatism
(continued)
(a) Prepared decoction with the plant and taken (b) Whole-plant extract is used (c) Fresh tubers made into paste and taken with rice (a) Decoction of leaves and seeds consumed (b) Paste of seeds consumed (a) Apply the extract from leaves on it
(a) Seven leaves boiled and take with honey (b) Decoction from barks and leaves consumed (c) Oil made with leaves and bark is consumed (a) Leaves boiled in water and daily applied on joint (a) Leaf extract mixed with salt and applied (b) Rhizome extract mixed with milk and applied on the face (a) Leaf juice is applied
Mode of delivery (a) Root extract mixed with water and boiled, after a while the cooled water is applied on swellings
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 141
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill Magnolia champaca (L) Baill. ex Pierre
125 Thakkali
127 Mulaku chemparathi
Malvaviscus penduliflorus Moc. & Sesse ex DC.
Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.
124 Peechinga
126 Chempakam
Limnophila indica (L.) Druce Plantaginaceae
123 Mannanari
Malvaceae
Magnoliaceae
Solanaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Lamiaceae
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link
122 Thumba
Family Lythraceae
Scientific name Lawsonia inermis L.
Sl. Common name of No plant 121 Mylanji
Table 1 (continued)
(a) To heal wounds (b) Used as a beverage
Used to cure (a) Cures itching and inflammation between fingers and also used as henna on hair (a) Treat acidity (b) Treatment of stomach pain (c) Cure shivering by fever, cough and cold (d) Heals scorpion poison (e) Treat intestinal worms in children (a) Treat wounds and infections (a) Treatment of jaundice (b) Treats eye problems in children (a) Cure wounds due to ringworm infection (a) Cures fever (b) Cures eye problems (c) Treat joint pain
(a) Decoction from bark is taken (b) Fruit juice applied (c) Crushed leaves mixed with coconut oil and applied (a) Plant extract applied on wounds (b) Juice from the flower calyx is consumed
(a) Leaf juice applied on wounds
(a) Fruit juice consumed (b) Fresh leaf juice used as eye drops
(a) Leaves rubbed on affected part
(a) Root decoction is consumed (b) Heat the root with curd and drink (c) Mix the plant extract with 1 spoon pepper (d) Leaf paste is applied on the wounds (e)Decoction from flowers consumed
Mode of delivery (a) Leaves made paste and applied
142 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Manihot esculenta Crantz
Martynia annua L.
Memecylon umbellatum Burm. f.
Mentha piperita L. Merr. Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn Merremia vitifolia (Burm.f.) Hallier f. Mimosa pudica L.
Mirabilis jalapa L.
129 Poolakizhangu
130 Vellakakkapo
131 Kayampoo
132 Pothina 133 Keezharnelli
136 Nalumanipu
135 Thottavadi
134 Maravalli
Scientific name Mangifera indica L.
Sl. Common name of No plant 128 Maavu
Nyctaginaceae
Leguminosae
Convolvulaceae
Lamiaceae Euphorbiaceae
Melastomataceae
Pedaliaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Family Anacardiaceae
(a) Used to treat obesity (b) To treat fever (a) Relief to chest pain (b) To control diabetes (c) Control excessive bleeding during menstruation (d) Cure breathing troubles in children (a) Treat wounds and inflammations
(a) Treatment of sore throat (b) Treatment of snake venom (a) Treats inflammations (b) Treats menstrual pain (c) For healing of wounds (a) For good digestion (a) Treatment of jaundice
Used to cure (a) Cures toothache and maintain hygiene (b) Heal wounds (c) To cure dysentery (d) Treatment of excessive menstrual bleeding (a) To treat skin problems
(continued)
(a) Leaf juice is applied on the wounds
(a) Grinded root is consumed (b) Whole plant decoction is taken (a) Root paste consumed (b) Juice from whole plant is consumed (c) Plant juice takes along with honey (d) Leaf juice mixed with coconut water and taken
(a) Tuber dried, powdered and mixed with milk (a) Leaf juice applied externally (b) Root decoction taken (a) Leaf extract is used (b) Root decoction used (c) Leaf extract applied (a) Leaves used to flavour curries (a) Intake of plant extract with milk
Mode of delivery (a) Leafy twig is used as toothbrush (b) Leaf extract is applied (c) Ground the young leaves and taken orally (d) Seeds grinded with honey and taken
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 143
Moringa oleifera Lam.
Morus alba L.
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M. Roem. Muntingia calabura L.
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng Rutaceae
140 Muranga
141 Mulberry
142 Mindamindi
143 Thanalmaram
144 Kariveppila
Malvaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Moraceae
Moringaceae
Rubiaceae
Morinda coreia Buch. Ham.
139 Manjapavatta
Pontederiaceae
Family Cucurbitaceae
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) C Presl.
Scientific name Momordica charantia L.
138 Kakapola
Sl. Common name of No plant 137 Kaypakka
Table 1 (continued)
(a) To relieve headache (b) Used as sweetener (a) Easy relief from dysentery (b) Treatment of cardiac problems include pain (c) To treat foot cleft and pain
(a) To treat toothache
(a) Treats constipation
(a) Treat stomach pain and toothache (b) Treatment of cough, cold, fever and throat infection (c) For snake bite (a) For digestion and cure wounds (b) Treat inflammations (a) Relieve from joint pain (b) For whooping cough
Used to cure (a) Treatment of oral ulcers (b) To relieve ear pain (c) For diabetic patients
(a) Bark extract mix with cotton seeds applied (b) Bark boiled in water and taken (a) Fruits taken as raw or made wine with dried fruits (a) Seed powder is placed on teeth for 2 hours then removed (a) Flower decoction is applied on head (b) Ripe fruits are used (a) Leaves boiled in curd for few minutes then consumed after food (b) Leaves grinded with garlic and ginger extract, boiled with curd then taken daily (c) Leaves mixed with curcuma rhizome and applied on leg
(a) Leaf juice is used (b) Root extract applied
Mode of delivery (a) Leaf paste applied directly (b) Leaf juice consumed (c) Fresh fruit juice mixed with pepper and takes decoction of leaves (a) Root juice taken (b) Leaves with ginger and honey made into a paste and consumed (c) Tuber extract can be applied
144 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.
Ocimum tenuiflorum L.
Oldenlandia corymbosa L.
Oryza sativa L.
Passiflora foetida L.
Pavetta indica L. Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit. Peperomia pellucida (L.) kunth
146 Pavizhamulla
147 Thulasi
148 Parpadakapullu
149 Nellu
150 Poochapalam
151 Vellathechi 152 Thathamachedi
153 Mashithandu
Scientific name Nerium oleander L.
Sl. Common name of No plant 145 Arali
Piperaceae
Rubiaceae Euphorbiaceae
Passifloraceae
Poaceae
Rubiaceae
Lamiaceae
Oleaceae
Family Apocynaceae
(a) Treatment of fire burns
(a) To cure fever, cough and bronchitis (a) To treat skin problems (b) Treats cold and vocal problems (a) Treating digestive problems including diarrhoea (a) Relief from wound pain (a) Treat insect sting
Used to cure (a) Treats bee sting and insect bite (a) Expulsion of intestinal worms (a) Remove rashes from skin (b) Treat nail infection (c) Cures cough, cold and throat infection (d) Cures eye irritations like dust allergy
(continued)
(a) Plant juice applied on the affected skin
(a) Crushed leaves applied on wounds (a) Plant latex is applied externally
(a) Ripe fruits are taken
(a) Apply steam from boiling rice on face (b) Chew rice with pepper
(a) Leaves put in water and used to take bath (b) Paste made with leaves, turmeric and henna leaves applied on infected parts (c) Decoction made from leaves and root or tea prepared with all the parts, sugar and coffee powder is consumed (d) Put seeds on eye, then closed the eyes, after few minutes the dust will be removed (a) Decoction with Ocimum leaves taken
(a) Extract of leaves and flowers used
Mode of delivery (a) Latex is applied
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 145
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir.
Piper betle L.
Piper nigrum L.
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Leguminosae Benth.
158 Neeluri
159 Vettila
160 Kurumulaku
161 Kodukkapuli
157 Nainellikka
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn Phyllanthus emblica L.
156 Keezharnelli
Euphorbiaceae
Family Verbenaceae
Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels
Scientific name Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene.
155 Arinellikka
Sl. Common name of No plant 154 Podathali
Table 1 (continued)
(a) Treats tooth ache and related problems
(a) Cure cough in children (b) Treatment of cough and asthma (c) To avoid bad breath (a) To the treatment of cold, cough, sore throat and vocal problems (b) Cures stomach pain
(a) To treat cold and fever
Used to cure (a) Treat swellings and wounds, for the treatment of gastric problems (a) Treat cough and mouth sores (b) Used as a tonic (c) Cures skin irritations (a) To treat stomach problems and urinary infections (a) To treat hair fall (b) Reduces blood pressure
(a) Prepare oil with dried fruits and then apply (b) Fruit extract mixed with honey and turmeric then takes one spoon per day (a) Leaf extract mixed with coconut oil and applied (a) Leaves boiled in water and drunk (b) Heated leaves placed on the chest (c) Dry the stem, grind it and then chew at 4 or 5 times per day (a) Pepper powdered and made a decoction or just chewed the pepper with salt (b) Pulverize the pepper and mixed with honey or sugar (a) Fruit pulp and extract of bark can be applied
(a) Leaf extract is consumed (b) Fruits eaten raw (c) Root bark mixed with turmeric powder and applied (a) Whole-plant extract is consumed
Mode of delivery (a) Apply paste from the leaves and consumed
146 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam. Polygonum barbatum L. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre.
167 Parpadakam
170 Karincheera
Portulaca oleracea L.
Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thwaites
168 Cherucholam 169 Pongu
Family Lamiaceae
Portulacaceae
Polygonaceae Leguminosae
Caryophyllaceae
Annonaceae
Plectronia parviflora Harv. & Rubiaceae Sond. Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Plumeria alba L. Apocynaceae
Scientific name Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng.
166 Aranamaram
164 Vellakoduveli 165 Vellaarali
163 Karamullu
Sl. Common name of No plant 162 Kanakoorka
(a) Treatment of fever, cough, cold and headache (b) For skin itching and irritations (a) Heal inflammations and swellings (a) Healing wounds (a) Skin problems (b) Quick healing of wounds and relieve pain (a) Improve vision power
Used to cure (a) Used for the treatment of cough, sore throats and nasal problems (b) To cure fever in children (a) Treat intestinal worms and constipation (a) Treat rheumatic problems (a) To treat ulcers (b) Treatment of nail infection
(continued)
(a) Leaf and stem extract used as a wash (a) Seed oil applied (b) Paste made with leaves and seeds is applied (a) Leaves cooked and taken
Mode of delivery (a) Leaf juice mixed with Ocimum leaves and taken twice a day (b) Leaves roasted with oil and placed at the head (a) Extract prepared from leaves and root is taken (a) Oil prepared from the tuber is applied (a) Latex is applied (b) Flower, stem and bark grind together then mixed with oil and little salt, heating (a) Bark dried and boiled in water then used as a steaming agent (b) Bark and leaves made into paste and applied (a) Plant extract is taken
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 147
Ricinus communis L.
Rosa indica L.
Santalum album L. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde
Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Asclepiadaceae Voigt
173 Avanakku
174 Rose
175 Chandanam 176 Ashokam
177 Somalatha
Santalaceae Leguminosae
Rosaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Apocynaceae
Rauvolfia tetraphylla L.
172 Pampukalanchedi
Family Lythraceae
Scientific name Punica granatum L.
Sl. Common name of No plant 171 Mathalam
Table 1 (continued) Mode of delivery (a) Mix seeds with sugar and taken (b) Dried fruits taken per day (c) Outer covering of fruits dried and make powder then it mixes with ghee (d) Fruit juice is consumed
(a) Prepare decoction with roots and leaves is taken (a) Oil prepared from seeds consumed (b) Castor oil used as soap (c) Leaves soaked in hot mustard oil is applied (d) Leaves boiled with coconut oil and extract apply on ear as drops then take rest (e) Oil prepared from seeds is mixed with milk and consume (a) To cure stomach troubles (a) Leaves, petals and root makes paste (b) Used as an eye wash (b) Boil petals in water, cool and applied (a) Treat skin problems (a) Bark extract applied on face (a) Bark used to make paste and applied (a) Treats wounds due to (b) Leaf juice mixed with cumin seeds is scorpion sting taken (b) Stomach problems (c) Flower juice is consumed (c) Used as an uterine tonic (a) Treatment of skin infection (a) Whole-plant extract is applied on infected part
Used to cure (a) To improve appetite and also health (b) Sudden relief from intestinal inflammations (c) Treatment of acidity (d) Treatment to dryness on mouth (a) Cures wound, treats snake bite and for urinary problems (a) Expelling worms from the skin (b) Skin complaints (c) Relieves joint pain (d) Cures ear pain (e) Treatment of constipation
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Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Sesamum indicum L.
Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.
Sida acuta Burm. f.
181 Thakara
182 Ellu
183 Agathecheera
184 Kurunthotti
Scientific name Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. Scoparia dulcis L.
180 Ponnamthakara
179 Kallurukki
Sl. Common name of No plant 178 Maymasapoo
Malvaceae
Leguminosae
Pedaliaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Plantaginaceae
Family Amaryllidaceae
(a) Relieve from fever and treats asthma
(a) Treatment of stomach problems (a) Treat stomach problems and provide good digestion (a) Treats stomach problems (b) Treatment of jaundice
(a) To treat urinary problems and to cure skin wounds (b) Treatment of kidney stone (a) To cure skin problems, healing wounds and cuts (b) Treat stomach pain (c) Treatment to leukoderma (d) Treatment of skin diseases includes itching
Used to cure (a) To heal wounds
(continued)
(a) Seeds directly as food or the oil prepared from the seeds taken (a) Leaves cooked as vegetable (b) Daily intake of leaf, stem and bark as vegetable (a) Whole-plant extract is prepared into a decoction
Mode of delivery (a) Paste prepared from the bulb is applied (a) Tea made with aerial parts and takes (b) Plant extract mixed with cow milk then taken afternoon morning (a) Leaf and flower extract is applied (b) Seed paste mixed with water and taken (c) Ground the seeds then heated in mustard oil (a) Prepare paste with its seeds and Opuntia leaves (a) Leaves used as vegetable
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Scientific name Sida cordifolia L.
Solanum americanum Mill.
Solanum melongena L.
Solanum rudepannum Dunal
Sphaeranthus indicus L.
Syzygium abbreviatum Merr.
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Sl. Common name of No plant 185 Vallikurunthotti
186 Manathakkali
187 Vazhuthana
188 Chundanga
189 Adakkamanian
190 Chamba
191 Njaval
Table 1 (continued)
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Asteraceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Family Malvaceae
Used to cure (a) Treat diarrhoea (b) For the treatment of fever and cough (c) Treat urinary infection (d) Treatment of skin warts (e) Healing of wounds (f) Treat nervous diseases (a) To treat dysentery and stomach problems (b) Treats ulcer in the stomach and mouth (a) Treatment of liver inflammations (a) Cure cough and cold (b) To reduce body temperature (c) Used as an anti- inflammatory agent (a) For bronchial diseases and treats swellings (a) Provide cool feeling to stomach (b) Wound healing (a) Strength to teeth and gum (b) Stop vomiting, provide cooling and sweet taste (a) Leaf extract used or chew tender leaves (b) Ripe fruits taken
(a) Daily intake of fruit juice (b) Fruit juice applied on wounds
(a) Whole-plant extract is taken
(a) Daily intake of fruit juice or by preparing curry (a) Fruit juice mixed in hot water and taken (b) Leaf juice is consumed (c) Whole-plant extract is applied
Mode of delivery (a) Leaf extract consumed (b) Root decoction consumed (c) Whole-plant extract is taken (d) Apply the leaf extract (e) Root juices applied on wounds (f) Oil prepared with root, bark and sesame (a) Decoction whole plant consumed (b) Make curry from the leaves or eaten raw
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Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth
Tectona grandis L. f.
Terminalia catappa L.
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. Malvaceae ex Correa
196 Thekku
197 Badambi
198 Poovarasu
Combretaceae
Verbenaceae
Bignoniaceae
Leguminosae
195 Manjamani
194 Puli
Portulacaceae
Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Tamarindus indica L.
Scientific name Family Tabernaemontana divaricata Apocynaceae (L.) R. Br. ex Roem & Schult
193 Sambarcheera
Sl. Common name of No plant 192 Nandhyarvattam
(a) Used as antidiabetic (b) For good health of pregnant women (c) To maintain black and thick hair (a) Treatment of psoriasis
(a) Cures headache (b) Treats bronchitis
(a) To treats pain in urinary tract (b) Treatment of red eye (c) For stomach pain due to Datura poisoning (a) Cure swellings on spleen (b) Treats stomach pain (c) For urinary problem
Used to cure (a) Used as anti-inflammatory on wounds (b) Treats redness on eye (a) Reduce fatty liver
(continued)
(a) Oil prepared by heating bark in coconut oil then applied on skin
(a) Crush the bark and its extract is taken (b) Decoction prepared with flowers and bark (c) Prepare tonic with root (a) Paste from the wood applied on head (b) Dried flowers as an ingredient of decoction (a) Leaf extract is used (b) Daily intake of seeds with milk (c) Oil prepared with seeds mixed in coconut oil then heated and applied
Mode of delivery (a) Flower extract applied on wounds (b) 2 drops of flower extract applied on eye (a) Leaves made into curry and consumed daily (a) Chew the seeds raw (b) Leaf extract mixed with curd and applied (c) Fruits eaten raw or its extract is taken
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 151
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
Urena lobata L.
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Leguminosae
202 Mullukaya
203 Oorpam
204 Uzhunnu
205 Payar
Leguminosae
Malvaceae
Tiliaceae
Asteraceae
Tridax procumbens (L.) L.
201 Thalavetti
Ulmaceae
Family Menispermaceae
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume
Scientific name Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.
200 Charcoalmaram
Sl. Common name of No plant 199 Chittamrutu
Table 1 (continued) Used to cure (a) Treats fever, cold and cough (b) Treatment of kidney problems and stomach problems (c) For the treatment of diabetes (d) To treat vomiting (e) To improve immunity (f) Treat acidity (g) Removes odour from body (h) To treat gas trouble and acidity (a) Treats cough, sore throat and toothache (a) Healing wounds or skin infections (a) For easy delivery and relief from pain (a) Skin problems and related pain (b) For urinary problems (a) Cures wounds and inflammations (b) Avoid urinary diseases (a) Treat skin complaints
(a) Dried and powdered seeds applied on skin
(a) Root extract taken (b) Seeds as an ingredient of food
(a) Root extract applied (b) Leaves powdered and boiled in water
(a) Plant extract is taken
(a) Leaf extract is applied on wounds
(a) Decoction of leaves and bark is taken
Mode of delivery (a) Leaf juice is mixed with honey (b) Decoction from plant is mixed with juice of Plumbago leaves (c) Extract from the plant is mixed with ginger juice (d) Whole-plant extract is used (e) Plant extract takes daily (f) Plant extract mixed with cumin (g) Plant extract prepared in water then applied seeds and sugar (h) Plant extract prepared in water then applied
152 C. V. Jayalekshmi et al.
Scientific name Vitex altissima L. f.
Vitex negundo L.
Vitis vinifera L.
Waltheria indica L.
Wrightia tinctoria R.Br.
Zea mays L.
Zingiber officinale L.
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.
Sl. Common name of No plant 206 Mylazhaku
207 Nochi
208 Mundiri
209 Velvetchedi
210 Dantapala
211 Cholam
212 Inchi
213 Ilanthi 214 Chudali
Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae
Zingiberaceae
Poaceae
Apocynaceae
Malvaceae
Vitaceae
Verbenaceae
Family Verbenaceae
(a) Treat stomach pain and digestive problems (b) To treat cough and sore throat treat cough and sore throat (a) For sore throat (a) Used as dressing to wounds (b) For sore throat (c) For healing of wounds
(a) Treatment of stomach problems (b) To stop bleeding from wounds (a) To improve skin health
Used to cure (a) Treat wounds and inflammations (a) To cures skin diseases (b) Treats toothache, cavities and gum bleeding (c) For the treatment of cold (d) Treats swellings and rheumatism (a) To improve beauty and health (a) Used as a painkiller (b) Cures sore throat
(a) Mucilaginous fruit is eaten (a) Stem bark is boiled in water and applied (b) Chew the leaves (c) Root decoction is used
(a) Seed powder mixed with green gram powder and made a paste with water (a) Rhizome extract mixed with garlic paste is taken (c) Decoction of dried rhizome is taken
(a) Plant extract with Ocimum leaves is taken (b) The root bark is chewed (a) Prepare decoction with the bark and seeds (b) Latex from the bark could applied
(a) Prepare wine with fruits
(a) Decoction of leaves applied (b) Leaf twig is used for chew (c) Leaf extract mixed in coconut oil, boiled it then cooled and applied on hair (d) Decoction of bark and leaves applied
Mode of delivery (a) Leaf extract is applied externally
Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India 153
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Plate 1 Plants cited in the study
in treatment of jaundice [18]. Anti-malarial activity of Cananga odorata, Callicarpa tomentosa and Delonix regia was also already reported [19–21]. Informant consensus factor (Fic value) for various disease categories are also calculated. High Fic value is for rheumatism and swelling and is 0.35 followed by pain (0.31). Fic value of various ailments is given in Table 2.
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Folk Medicine of Chittur Taluk in Palakkad District, Kerala, India Fig. 3 Plants used to treat various diseases
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Number of plants used
Table 2 Fic value for different disease categories SL.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Disease category Digestive system disorders Respiratory disorders Snake bite, dog bite and insect bite Skin diseases Sexual and menstrual disorders Pain Urinary disorders General disorders (fever, high blood pressure, stimulants) Hair treatment Eye diseases Jaundice Malaria Healing of wounds Rheumatism and swelling
Fic value 0.26 0 0 0.26 0.2 0.31 0 0.18 0.2 0 0 0 0.085 0.35
4 Conclusion The present study aimed to document medicinal plants used in the folk medicine of Chittur taluk, Palakkad district, Kerala. Traditional remedies used for the treatment of various diseases are considered to be important in the primary health care of people. Most of the people in village areas still depend on plants for first aid remedies and to treat common health problems such as fever, stomach ache and some simple ailments. Majority of the informants were aged above 50 years indicating that younger generations are unaware of many medicinal plants. From the survey, 212 plants with different medicinal properties were recorded. The valuable
156
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knowledge about medicinal plants was unwritten and depleted significantly from generation to generation. So this documentation will help to save the traditional medicines of Chittur taluk. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the principal, teachers, staff and students of Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad. The authors are thankful to the informants of Chittur taluk, Palakkad for sharing their valuable traditional knowledge. The first author is thankful to UGC for financial assistance.
References 1. Rajith NP, Navas M, Thaha AM, Manju MJ, Anish N, Rajasekharan S, George V (2010) A study on traditional mother care plants of rural communities of South Kerala. Indian J Tradit Knowl 9:203–208 2. Rasiya BA, Nayar TS (2011) Plants used for natal healthcare in folk medicine of Kerala, India. Indian J Tradit Knowl 10:523–527 3. Verma S, Singh SP (2008) Current and future status of herbal medicines. Vet World 1:347–350 4. Heinrich M (2000) Ethnobotany and its role in drug development. Phytother Res 14:479–488 5. Bulut G, Tuzlaci E (2013) An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Turgutlu (Manisa- Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol 149:633–647 6. Lam SH, Chen PH, Hung HY, Hwang TL, Chiang CC, Thang TD, Kuo PC, Wu TS (2018) Chemical constituents from the stems of Tinospora sinensis and their bioactivity. Molecules 23:2541 7. Manjrekar PN, Jolly CI, Narayanan S (2000) Comparative studies of the immunomodulatory activity of Tinospora cordifolia and Tinospora sinensis. Fitoterapia 71:254–257 8. Nagarkar B, Kulkarni R, Bhondave P, Kasote D, Kulkarni O, Harsulkar A, Jagtap S (2013) Comparative hepatoprotective potential of Tinospora cordifolia, Tinospora sinensis and Neem- guduchi. Br J Pharm Res 3:906 9. Narkhede AN, Jagtap SD, Kasote DM, Kulkarni OP, Harsulkar AM (2014) Comparative immunomodulation potential of Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook. F., Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merrill and Tinospora cordifolia growing on Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Indian J Exp Biol 52:808–813 10. Singh N, Kumar A, Gupta P, Chand K, Samant M, Maurya R, Dube A (2008) Evaluation of antileishmanial potential of Tinospora sinensis against experimental visceral leishmaniasis. Parasitol Res 102:561–565 11. Lloyd AC, Menon T, Umamaheshwari K (2005) Anticandidal activity of Azadirachta indica. Indian J Pharm 37:386–389 12. Malar TJ, Antonyswamy J, Vijayaraghavan P, Kim YO, Al-Ghamdi AA, Elshikh MS, Hatamleh AA, Al-Dosary MA, Na SW, Kim HJ (2020) In-vitro phytochemical and pharmacological bio- efficacy studies on Azadirachta indica A. Juss and Melia azedarach Linn for anticancer activity. Saudi J Biol Sci 27:682–688 13. Okpanyi SN, Ezeukwu GC (1981) Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities of Azadirachta indica. Planta Med 41:34–39 14. Mulay JR, Sharma PP (2003) Plants used in treatment of jaundice by folklore of Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India. Sci Res Rep 3:216–222 15. Rahim ZB, Rahman MM, Saha D, Hosen SZ, Paul S, Kader S (2012) Ethnomedicinal plants used against jaundice in Bangladesh and its economical prospects. Bull Pharma Res 2:91–105 16. Asha VV, Pushpangadan P (2002) Hepatoprotective plants used by the tribals of Wynadu, Malappuram and Palghat districts of Kerala, India. Anc Sci Life 22:1–8
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17. Wabale AS, Petkar AS (2005) Ethnomedicinal plants used against jaundice by the tribals of Akole taluka (MS). J Phytol Res 18:259–261 18. Reddy KR (1988) Folk medicine from Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India, used in the treatment of jaundice. Int J Crude Drug Res 26:137–140 19. Ankrah NA, Nyarko AK, Addo PG, Ofosuhene M, Dzokoto C, Marley E, Addae MM, Ekuban FA (2003) Evaluation of efficacy and safety of a herbal medicine used for the treatment of malaria. Phytother Res 17:697–701 20. Namdeorao Tankar A. Pharmacognostic phytochemical pharmacological evaluation of different parts of callicarpa tomentosa ll and formulation development of bioactive extract. 2019 21. Tan LTH, Lee LH, Yin WF, Chan CK, Abdul KH, Chan KG, Goh BH (2015) Traditional uses, phytochemistry, and bioactivities of Cananga odorata (Ylang-Ylang). Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2015:1–30
Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis on Ethno-Medicinal Plants R. Manikandan, S. P. Nithya, and R. Mehala Devi
1 Introduction It is worth to explore any area with wide range of forest types and to identify economically and medicinally important plants found there. Further, the reserve forests and territorial forests are preserved for specific purposes, such as proper maintenance of the wildlife in that area and prevention of human interference through activities, like deforestation, cultivation and grazing of animals. It is a rewarding experience to make available a systematic account of the floristic wealth of such region or area. Moreover, the knowledge about the plants in any region is essential with the increasing consciousness of people about the environment and its impact on living organisms in general. Hence, it is very important to conserve our plant wealth or diversity for the major role in providing food, fuel, fibres, medicine, shelter, maintaining a stable environment and to study the scientific value of plants. This is useful in assessing the periodic changes in flora that may occur in the study area. With this conviction the Flora of Sunderdhunga and adjoining is being evaluated. The Botanical Survey of India under the Ministry of Environment and Forest and Climate Change has been allotted a project to document the floristic account of various groups of wild plants of our country. The Sunderdhunga and adjoining in Uttarakhand is one such area located in the Western Himalayas and together with Eastern Himalaya which is one of the largest centres of endemism in India is among the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world [1]. According to Myers et al. [2] biodiversity ‘hotspots’ are the regions containing a high proportion of global biodiversity in a small area. Also biodiversity hotspots can be defined as areas having exceptional concentration of endemic taxa. The Sunderdhunga and adjoining is situated in the Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand a newly formed state from Uttar Pradesh.
R. Manikandan (*) · S. P. Nithya · R. M. Devi Botanical Survey of India, Southern Regional Centre, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_6
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1.1 Area Under Study Sunderdhunga literally means ‘Valley of beautiful stones’. The famous glaciers of this valley are Maiktoli Glacier and Sukhram glacier. Sunderdhunga glacier lies over Sunderdhunga valley and is situated west of Pindari Valley. It is surrounded by peaks Panwaldwar in north and Mrigthuni, Mongtoli and Tharkot in the west. The elevation of the glacier spans from 3200 to 6050 m. It is situated in the higher reaches of Kumaon Himalayas and it is a part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, which is one of the World Heritage Sites, famous for its pristine and exceptional beautiful landscape. Sunderdhunga is bound in the north by Trisul glacier, to the east by Pindari and Kafni glacier mountain peaks and to the south by the Bharadi village. It spreads over an area of about 452 sq km and the altitude varies from 1300 to 6050 m and it is located between 30°02′0.56″ to 30°16′48.13” N latitude and 79°57′14.47″ to 79°58′30.16″ E longitude in the Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand (Map 1 and Map 2).
1.2 Significance of Sunderdhunga and Its Surrounding Areas The Sunderdhunga glacier and its surrounding areas encompass a rich biodiversity of both flora and fauna and it is located at Bageshwar district in the Western Himalaya. It covers of rich Sub-tropical Quercus forest, Himalayan moist temperate forest, Himalayan dry-temperate forest, Sub-alpine forest and moist alpine forest. The area is very rich in medicinal plants many of which form base for certain lifesaving drugs. It is a part of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, which is one of the World Heritage Sites, famous for its pristine and exceptional beautiful landscape. The landscape of the study area is rolling large meadows, criss-cross dancing rivers and streams, high-altitude lakes and snow clad peaks. The elevation varies from 1300 to 6050 m. It has unique social and cultural style of the area altogether represents sole scenic beauty which is unparalleled in the entire Himalayas. Also, it has a great tourism potential especially glacier regions of Maiktoli glacier, Sukhram glacier, etc. The area houses a lot of endangered fauna, e.g. Snow leopard, Brown bear, Black bear, Bharal, Musk deer, Monal pheasant, etc. It is a significant component of one of the snow leopard conservation areas in India. In addition, the India Eco-development Project has also been implemented in the villages surrounding the area in order to reduce the human pressures on wildlife habitat and also various development programmes, such as research, monitoring, training and conservation, are taken up by the Forest Department as well as other Government agencies to meet various issues.
Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis…
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Map 1 Location map showing Sunderdhunga glacier track
1.3 Reasons for Undertaking the Present Work and Its Importance The present study was undertaken to explore this under-explored area which is endowed with a rich floristic diversity. Extensive and intensive plant explorations were undertaken to assess and prepare the floristic account and plant wealth of Sunderdhunga and adjoining.
162 Map 2 Location map of Sunderdhunga valley and its adjoining areas (From Song to Devikund). (a) From Song to way to Dhakuri. (b) From way to Dhakuri to Khati. (c) From Khati to way to Sunderdhunga. (d) From way to Sunderdhunga to Matkoli, Devikund
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Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis…
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According to the report of FAO (1993) shows the rate of deforestation is estimated to be 15 million hectares per annum. Besides, the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) has led to greater vulnerability of forest elements owing to market prices, new seed varieties and patenting laws. There is an alarming trend of forests transforming into agro industries. In addition, introduction of exotic species of flora whether accidentally or intentionally in the forests threatens local biodiversity. Recently, Pitman & Jorgensen [3] found that the number of species unique to each country is a rough guide to the number that is threatened and nearly half of the world’s plants could be close to extinction. According to National Remote Sensing Agencies (NRSA), the natural forests support the maximum biodiversity, which are depleting at a very fast rate. Our country too is losing its natural forests at the rate of 1.3 m ha every year [4]. Ahmedullah & Nayar [5] have estimated about 1500 species accounting for about 10% of the flowering plants of India are threatened. Thus, to protect and conserve the remaining 90% of the flowering plants, a judicious management and innovative methods of conservation are required. India is facing an alarming rate of loss of floristic diversity particularly due to declining forest cover and species. Major problems faced in the present study area are cattle grazing, forest fire, difficulty in managing wildlife corridors and human interference mostly due to tourism. As the reserve forests/territorial forests are the prime centres of conservation and diversity, scientific information on all taxa needs to be collected and documented. Therefore, it is very important to make an assessment of the existing floristic diversity. Considering these reasons, Sunderdhunga valley and adjoining was selected for an assessment of floristic diversity.
1.4 Objectives of the Study • Survey, identification and inventorization of the floristic diversity of the valley • Documentation of plant resources and their utilization practices by local communities living in and around the valley and their traditional conservation approaches • Identification of endemic species and also listing the rare and threatened species • Listing of economically important plants in the valley • Listing of plants having medicinal, horticultural and fodder value
1.5 Past and Present Work 1.5.1 Past Work Hooker & Thomson [6] in their ‘Flora Indica’ reported quite comprehensive information on the flora of Garhwal Himalaya which includes the present study area. Hooker and his collaborators have dealt with many species in The Flora of British
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India [7]. The work of Atkinson [8] on Flora of the Himalayas with special reference to Kumaon, Garhwal, Nepal and Tibet and Duthie’s [9] Flora of Garhwal Himalaya can be conveniently considered as one of the eminent contributions in the field. Some scholars like Deva & Naithani [10], Garg [11], Aswal et al. [12], Dangwal [13] and Nautiyal [14] have made efforts to study the flowering plants of the Garhwal Himalaya in terms of certain families or groups of a given geographical entity. Important information can be derived from Flowers of the Himalaya [15], Blossoming Garhwal Himalaya [16], Flowers of Himalaya [17], Flowers of West Himalaya [18] and Naithani’s Flora of Chamoli [19]. Other important unpublished works include Manis Kandwal’s [20] Grass Flora of Uttarakhand. Many other botanists, like Duthie [21, 22]; Issar & Uniyal [23]; Khullar [24], Osmaston [25]; Pande [26–29]; Pangey, et al [30]; Rai et al. [31]; Randhwa [32]; Rau [33, 34]; Rawat [35]; Rawat & Sharma [36]; Singh et al. [37] and Uniyal et al. [38], have contributed for the Flora of Kumaon Himalaya. 1.5.2 Present Work The present comprehensive account of floristic diversity of the Sunderdhunga and adjoining, Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand, is the outcome of intensive and extensive studies on the vegetation of the area.
2 Materials and Methods Intensive and extensive surveys have been undertaken periodically along different topographic and climatic gradients within the potential area of Sunderdhunga and adjoining, in order to achieve the above said objectives. The duration of each study tour ranged from 15 to 20 days. While carrying out the assessment of floristic diversity, efforts will be made to collect the plants in all seasons. The field observations such as habit, habitat, flower colour, odour, distribution, along with local names and uses, if any gathered from the tribes of the area has to be noted in the field itself and any details which cannot be deduced from a herbarium specimen.
2.1 Herbarium Study After returning from the field, plant specimens, which have been tentatively identified in the field, have been carefully and critically studied, before these could be processed through conventional methods of drying, poisoning, mounting, stitching and labelling [39, 40].
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The identification of the collected specimens has to be done by comparing them with authentic specimens available in different herbaria, such as BSD, CAL, KU and DD protologues, journals and other relevant floras, such as The Flora of British India [7], Plant Wealth of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve [41] and Flowering Plants of Uttarakhand [42], besides many other recent monographs and revisions. These specimens will be processed and deposited at the Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Northern Regional Centre, Dehradun (BSD). In the preparation of the present assessment of floristic diversity of Sunderdhunga, all the available information and data will be gathered from some earlier collections pertaining to the study area, which were available in the above-mentioned herbaria have also been taken into account to incorporate and assess the distribution pattern of all species in this area.
2.2 Topography and General Features 2.2.1 Geology The entire landform lies in the Himalaya stratigraphically zone and is in the vicinity of main central propelled, which shows the serious impact of tectonic movements. As a result, rocks are not only tightly folded but also broken into sheets and arranged one over the other, forming tall heaps. The internal configurations of these sheets are complicated cleavage and have developed inside thrust fold valley, which seriously affected during heavy rains and earth quake. The whole area is prone to large- scale landslide. The elevation of the valley varies from 1300 to 6050 m. 2.2.2 Rocks This area falls under Sub-Himalayan range; however, some parts of upper area extend till Greater and Mid-Himalayan regions. The forest sections of this forest regions extend between the longitudes of 79°28′30″ E to 80°29′30″ E and the latitudes of 29°58′45″ N to 30°9′15″ N. This region consists of three main strips, which are west, north-west, east and south-east, respectively. The whole terrain is broken by numerous streams and nallahs. All aspects of gradients are occurs in the present study area. The greater part being steep to precipitous and only a very few gentle slopes occur in this area. Further, most of the valley or study area is covered by metamorphic rocks. These rocks principally comprise quartzite, lime stone, magnetite, base metal and slate. 2.2.3 Soil The structure and composition of the soil have a marked influence on the nature of vegetation along with other factors, like climate, rainfall and biotic. The soil varies from sandy loam to stiff clay depending on the nature of the schist.
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Decomposition and disintegration of rocks in the main cause of formation of soil and the structure of soil depend upon types of rocks and specific atmosphere. Actually, the formation of soil depends upon erosion by rivers. Decomposition of quartzite is responsible for formation of gravels and light soil, which converts into mold soil. Decomposition of rocks and slates forms clay. Lime stone decomposes and forms red and black soil and decomposition of granite forms sandy and mold soil. 2.2.4 Climate The valley experiences greatly varying climate conditions, mainly due to large variation in altitudes, which is natural to encounter diversified climates in this forest region. Severe cold can be felt during winters and regions higher than 1520 m receive snowfall too. At times the lower parts also go through snowfall. The duration of December to February is of extreme cold in this region and mornings are full of dense fog. 2.2.5 Rainfall The valley receives rainfall from both monsoon and winter seasons. The monsoon starts from the middle of June to the second week of September. The heaviest rainfall occurs during July and August. 2.2.6 Temperature Three seasons, like summer, monsoon and winter, can be recognized in the present study area. The monsoon starts from the middle of June and last till second week of September. The peak rainfall occurs during July and August. The entire area of the valley is subjected to light to heavy snowfall for about 3–4 months from December to March in winter seasons. The summer season starts from March to the second week of June. The temperature during summer goes up to 35 °C in lower parts of Loharkhet and Song valley. 2.2.7 Water Sources The Sunderdhunga and Pindari are the main rivers in the valley and they have several tributaries and also a large number of perennial streams and nallahs, most of which are snow fed.
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2.2.8 Winds The winds are light moderate, but sometimes, high and exposed ridges do experience strong winds.
2.3 Ethnic Groups According to Lynch [43] in India, out of the human population of over 1 billion, 64% of the rural population and 100 million tribes depend on the forests for their sustenance. Over 90 million cattle graze inside the forests [44]. According to Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, the firewood consumption in India is 1,73,412 k. tons with 62% derived from the forests [45]. According to a survey carried out in the mid-1980s, over 65% of protected areas were characterized by human settlement and resource use [46]. In the past two decades, these factors have drawn the attention of policy makers who shifted their main concern from protecting timber supplies to issues concerning local livelihoods, involvement of local people in the forest management while formulating conservation agenda. The inhabitants of Bhotia of Bageshwar district are geographically in Kumaon region, but they are quite different from Garhwalis in their social and cultural group. The distinct and unique feature of hill culture, polyandry, was in vogue in Bhotia areas adjoining. Their houses are made up of Deodar wood and stone, which is three to four storeyed. In these multi-storeyed houses, the lower one is used for cattle and fodder storage and the uppermost one was used by human habitation. These storeys are internally linked for adopting snowbound winters, when it is not possible to go out of the house and away from hearth. Most of them engaged in marginal agricultural and seasonal employment in various departmental works are the only source of livelihood.
2.4 Vegetation (a) Flora The vegetation of the study area has been classified mainly as Sub-tropical Quercus forest, Himalayan moist temperate forest, Himalayan dry-temperate forest, Sub-alpine forest and moist alpine forest [47]. Further, the structural diversity and representativeness of forest vegetation of Kumaun Himalayas studied by many workers like Dhar et al. [48], Rau [49], Rawal et al. [50], Rikhari et al. [51], Singh & Singh [52–54], Tewañ & Singh [55] and Upreti et al. [56].
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2.4.1 Floristic Diversity During the above said period the following species were collected and identified from the study area itself: Acer caesium, Aesculus indica, Alnus nepalensis, Androsace sp., Anemone spp., Orchis nana, Arisaema spp., Arnaria ciliolata, Arnebia benthamii, Astragalus pindreensis, Betula utilis, Brassica juncea, Calanthe tricarinata, Caltha palustris, Cannabis sativa, Corydalis cashmeriana, C. stracheyi, Cupressus torulosa, Fragaria nubicola, Gagea elegans, Gentiana spp., Indigofera spp., Iris kumaonensis, Juglans regia, Lloydia serotina, Micromeria biflora, Ophiopogon intermedius, Poa sp., Polygonum spp., Potentilla atrosanguinea, Primula denticulata, P. edgeworthii, Primula spp., Rhododendron arboreum, R. campanulatum, R. lepidotum, Rosa spp., Sinopodophyllum hexandrum, Schisandra grandiflora, Taxus wallichiana, Trifolium spp., Vincetoxicum hirundinaria, Viola spp., etc. 1. Sub-tropical Quercus forest This type of forests occurs in Song and Loharkhet areas where altitude ranges up to 1300 m. The upper storey comprises Acer oblongum, Alnus nitida, Lyonia ovalifolia, Pyrus pashia, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rhododendron arboreum, etc., and the lower storey comprises Chrysopogon fulvus, Debregeasia salicifolia, Flemingia macrophylla, Heteropogon contortus, Prinsepia utilis, Rhamnus virgatus, Rubus ellipticus, Woodfordia fruticosa, etc. 2. Himalayan moist temperate forest (a) Ban oak forests (Quercus leucotrichophora forests): This type of forests occurs in Dhakuri range where altitude ranges up to 2250 m. The forests are generally well-stocked and main associates are Lyonia ovalifolia, Rhododendron arboreum, etc. and lower storey comprises Berberis aristata, Coriaria nepalensis, Desmodium elegans, Lonicera quinquelocularis, Prinsepia utilis, Rubus ellipticus, R. niveus, Sinarundinaria falcata, Toona sinensis, etc. (b) Moru oak forests (Quercus dilatata forests) It occurs only confined to nallahs above ban and below temperate moist deciduous forests at an altitude of nearly 2250 m. The upper storey comprises Acer caesium, Aesculus indica, Alnus nepalensis, Lyonia ovalifolia, Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus dilatata, etc., and the lower storey comprises Berberis aristata, Clematis montana, Desmodium elegans, Ilex dipyrena, Lonicera quinquelocularis, Parthenocissus semicordata, Rhamnus virgatus, Rubus niveus, Sinarundinaria falcata, Viburnum cotinifolium, etc. (c) Western mixed forests This type of forest is found in Khati and Jatoli with altitudes from 2400 to 3000 m. The upper storey comprises Acer sp., Aesculus indica, Abies spectabilis, Cedrus deodara, Juglans regia, Rhododendron arboreum, R. campanulatum, Taxus baccata, Quercus dilatata, Q. leucotrichophora,
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etc., and the lower storey comprises Adiantum venustum, Bromus unioloides, Impatiens spp., Lonicera quinquelocularis, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Strobilanthes atropurpureus, Valeriana jatamansi, Viburnum spp., Viola pilosa, etc. (d) Moist temperate deciduous forests These forests occupy the cool and moist areas within the temperate region between 2100 to 2750 m. Such forest occupy in between Jatoli and Kathalia. The upper storey comprises Abies spectabilis, Aesculus indica, Betula alnoides, Juglans regia, Quercus semicarpifolia, Rhododendron campanulatum, Taxus baccata, etc., and the lower storey comprises Adiantum venustum, Berberis sp., Bromus unioloides, Habenaria sp., Impatiens spp., Indigofera cassioides, Lonicera quinquelocularis, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Pyrus sp., Rosa macrophylla, R. sericea, Rubus niveus, Valeriana sp., Viburnum grandiflorum, Viola pilosa, etc. (e) Montane bamboo brakes The occurrences of this type of ringals are in small patches found below the Quercus leucotrichophora forests and near nallahs or running streams, i.e. Loharkhet, Jatoli, Kathalia. It is confined between an altitude of 1500 m and 2700 m. On higher altitudes, clumps of Gol ringal (Sinarundinaria falcata) are replaced by deo-ringals (Thamnocalamus spathiflorus). Abies spectabilis and Quercus semicarpifolia are common along with some high- level mixed deciduous species are also found. 3. Himalayan dry-temperate forests This type is found in extremely small strips on the river bank in between Jatoli and Kathalia, where it has colonized in association with Hippophae salicifolia and Populus ciliata. 4 . Sub-alpine forests (a) West Himalayan sub-alpine high-level birch forests It occupies large tracts above 2000 m. The forests are dense and the trees are short boled and ill formed. The upper storey comprises mainly Betula utilis, Berberis spp., Lonicera angustifolia, Quercus semicarpifolia, Rhododendron campanulatum, Rosa sericea, Salix acmophylla, Sorbaria tomentosa, Viburnum grandiflorum, etc., and the lower storey comprises Aconitum spp., Anemone obtusiloba, Allium sp., Corydalis sp., Impatiens spp., Senecio sp., Pedicularis spp., Polygonum vaccinifolium, Potentilla sp., Saxifraga sp., Sibbaldia sp., Salvia sp., Thalictrum sp., Viola pilosa, etc. (b) Sub-alpine pastures This type of pastures occurs in fragmented patches near Jatoli, Kathalia, Baloni top, Devikund, Sukhram cave, etc. It comprises shrubs, such as Cotoneaster microphyllus, Juniperus sp., Rhododendron campanulatum, Rosa sericea, Sorbaria tomentosa, Viburnum grandiflorum, etc., and herbs, viz., Agropyron sp., Brachypodium sp., Bromus spp., Carex spp., Festuca sp., Juncus spp., Poa spp., etc.
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5. Moist Alpine Scrubs (a) Deciduous alpine scrubs It is characterized by dense scrubs of Rhododendron campanulatum with stunted shrub-like growth of Betula utilis and occurs locally above the tree limit but extended down to the nallahs or snow slides. It is found above 3350 m in Baloni top, Devikund, Sukhram cave, etc. (b) Alpine pasture land It occurs throughout the study area above the timber limit except on rocky precipitous areas. This type of forest is broken by colonies of Rhododendron spp. and Juniperus spp. The ground cover is formed by grasses and alpine herbs mainly Aconitum sp., Anemone sp., Fragaria nubicola, Iris kumaonensis, Potentilla spp., Primula sp., etc. ( b) FAUNA The present study area is endowed with a rich and abundant animal life. I. Carnivores Snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Panther (Panthera pardus), Jackal (Canis aureus), Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis), Fishing cat (Felis vevirina), Indian fox (Vulpus bengalensis), Jackal (Felis chaus), Indian grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), Yellow-throated pine marten (Martes flavigula), etc. II. Herbivores Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), Himalayan goat antelope (Naemorhedus goral), Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus), Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), Black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), Brown bear (Ursus arctos), Giant flying squirrel (Petaurista petaurista), Orange bellied Himalayan squirrel (Dremomys lokriah), Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Common langur (Presbytes entellus), etc. III. Avifauna The bird life in the present study area is abundant and outstanding. Some of the birds, such as Impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), Koklass medium tailed Himalayan pheasant (Pucrasia macrolopha), Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichii), Western tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus), Rufous turtle dove (Streptopelia decaocto), Green pigeon (Treron sphenurus), Snow partridge (Lerwa lerwa), etc. IV. Reptiles Common Indian krait (Bungarus caeruleuns), Banded krait (B. fasciatus), Indian python (Python molurus), Russell’s viper (Vipera russelii), Common Indian monitor (Varanus bengalensis), Indian cobra (Naja naja), King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), Himalayan pit viper (Agkistrodon himalayanus), Saw- scaled viper (Echis carinatus), Coral snake (Calliophis sp.), etc. V. Fishes Hill trout (Schizothorax spp.), Indian trout (Raiamas bola), Garra spp., Tor spp., Nemacheilus spp., etc.
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(a) Endangered Animals: 7 species. The present study area is also the natural habitat of several varieties of wild endangered mammals namely Snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), Brown bear (Ursus arctos), Musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis). (b) Endangered birds: 8 species. The endangered birds found in the area are Monal pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), Koklass pheasant (Pucrasia macrolopha), Western tragopan (Tragopan melanoplus), Himalayan snow cock (Tetraogallus himalayensis), Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Black eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) and Bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus).
3 Results Floristic composition of Sunderdhunga valley, Uttarakhand reveals that 99 families, 434 genera and 705 species of Angiosperms, were recorded. Among these, Dicots represent 80 families, 348 genera and 586 species, whereas Monocots represent 19 families, 86 genera and 119 species were recorded from the study area. Besides, Gymnosperms represented with 7 species under 5 genera belonging to 4 families and Pteridophytes represented by 47 species under 28 genera belonging to 16 families. Also information on ethno-medicinal plants of the valley, comprising 83 species of Angiosperms, of these 10 species are Critically Endangered, 13 Endangered, 9 Vulnerable and 7 Least Concern are provided here. The documentation of plants with families are tabularized in Table 1 (Plates 1, 2, 3, and 4).
3.1 Ethno-Medicinal Plants The following some wild ethno-medicinal plants have been reported from the valley are Aconitum heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Anaphalis contorta, A. triplinervis, A. virgata, Androsace sarmentosa, Anemone vitifolia, Angelica glauca, Aster albescens, Cassiope fastigiata, Chaerophyllum villosum, Corydalis cashmeriana, C. meifolia, Cotoneaster duthieana, Cynoglossum nervosum, C. wallichii, C. zeylanicum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Delphinium brunonianum, Epilobium angustifolium, Fritillaria roylei, Galium asperuloides, Gaultheria trichophylla, Gentiana albicalyx, G. stipitata, Gentianella pedunculata, Gnaphalium hypoleucum, Impatiens sulcata, Jurinea dolomiaea, Malaxis muscifera, Meconopsis aculeata, Nardostachys grandiflora, Nepeta eriostachya, Oxyria digyna, Pedicularis hoffmeisteri, P. punctata, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Polygonum cognatum, P. molliaeforme, P. polystachyum, Potentilla atrosanguinea, P. cuneata, Primula elliptica, P. macrophylla, Ranunculus hirtellus, Rheum webbianum, Rhododendron anthopogon,
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Table 1 Documentation of plants in Sunderdhunga valley Binomial Ranunculaceae Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb
3250
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Aconitum laeve Royle
Herb
3400
Herb
2700
Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf Anemonastrum obtusilobum (D.Don) Mosyakin Anemone raui Goel & U.C. Bhattach.
Herb
3200
Herb
2600
Herb
2650
Aquilegia pubiflora Wall ex Royle Calathodes palmata Hook.f. & Thomson Clematis barbellata Edgew.
Herb
3000
Herb Climber
2500– 3500 2500
Clematis buchananiana DC. Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Clematis roylei Rehder
Climber
2600
Climber
2800
Climber
2200
Delphinium cashmerianum Royle Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle
Herb
3300
Herb
2950
Eriocapitella rivularis (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Christenh. & Byng Eriocapitella rupicola (Cambess.) Christenh. & Byng
Herb
2600
Herb
3100
Remarks
Plant is used to cure fever, enlarged spleen, joint pains and inflammation Tuber extract is mixed with honey EN is used to cure fever Root paste is used to treat rheumatism, neuralgia and sciatica. The dried root powder is used in fever and body pains Paste of tuber is applied on insect VU stings The oil extracted from the plant is used to treat rheumatism The plant possess anti- inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities Plant cures skin problems and nervous disorders Plant is used to treat rheumatism Leaf juice is used to cure stomach pain, indigestion, diarrhoea and dysentery Roots are used for treating sinusitis, headache and inflammation Plant paste is applied on blisters, purulent wounds and ulcers Plant is used against rheumatism, head ache, varicose veins, syphilis, gout, bone disorders, etc Leaf decoction is mixed with honey to cure cough and cold Plant is used to treat intestinal worms, fluid retention, poor appetite, and insomnia Leaf paste is applied to relieve head ache. The paste of roots is applied on boils
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Eriocapitella vitifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Nakai Oxygraphis endlicheri (Walp.) Bennet & Sum. Chandra Ranunculus diffusus DC.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2680 Paste of roots and leaves are applied externally on ringworm
Remarks
Herb
3400
Herb
2000
Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Thalictrum alpinum L.
Herb
1900
Herb
2000
Thalictrum foliolosum DC.
Herb
2100
Trollius acaulis Lindl.
Herb
3000
Paeoniaceae Paeonia emodi Royle
Herb
2000
Leaves used against urinary infections
Climber
2200
Fruits edible
Climber
2000
Cocculus laurifolius DC.
Shrub
2000
Plant used in the treatment of ulcer, wound, rheumatism, fever, asthma, cholera, diarrhoea, inflammation, snake bite, malaria, rabies Plant cures rheumatic pain, epilepsy, hypertension, abdominal pain, headache, and scalp wounds
Berberidaceae Berberis aristata DC.
Shrub
2600
Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.
Shrub
2200
Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex Lindl.
Shrub
2700
Schisandraceae Schisandra grandiflora (Wall.) Hook. f. & Thomson Menispermaceae Cissampelos pariera L.
Leaves and stems used in rheumatism Plant paste externally used on wounds Plant is used for heat-clearing and detoxification/ Root is a tonic for dyspepsia, peptic ulcers, indigestion, fevers, toothache, haemorrhoids and ophthalmia. Leaf juice is applied to boils and pimples Plant is used to treat respiratory tract infections, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, bronchitis
Plant is used against opthalmia, LC fever. It is a blood purifier Plant is used in treating ulcers, urethral discharges, ophthalmia, jaundice and fever Plant cures jaundice, splenomegaly, leprosy, rheumatism, fever, snake bite (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Berberis jaeschkeana C.K.Schneid. Berberis kumaonensis C.K.Schneid. Berberis napaulensis (DC.) Spreng. Papaveraceae Papaver guilelmi- waldemarii (Klotzsch) Christenh. & Byng Lardizabalaceae Stauntonia latifolia (Wall.) R.Br. ex Wall. Fumariaceae Corydalis cashmeriana Royle
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Shrub 2650 Roots and stems are used to make an eyewash to treat a range of eye problems. Fruits edible Shrub 2650 Plant can act as a good blood purifier and treat jaundice Tree 2000– Plant treats dysentery. The bark 2900 decoction is used as eye drops to treat eye inflammation
Remarks
Herb
3200
Extract of petals is used to cure fever
Climber
3000
Fruit pulp is used to cure dyspepsia and flatulence
Herb
2900
Corydalis cornuta Royle
Herb
2850
Corydalis diphylla Wall.
Herb
1900
Corydalis govaniana Herb Wall. Corydalis meifolia Wall. Herb Corydalis thyrsiflora Herb Prain. Fumaria indica Herb (Hausskn.) Pugsley Brassicaceae Arabis pterosperma Herb Edgew. Herb Arcyosperma primulifolium (Thomson) O.E. Schulz Capsella bursa-pastoris Herb (L.) Medik.
2800
Root extracts applied externally to reduce body swelling and inflammation Leaf juice mixed with equal amount of water is taken orally to cure bone fractures, torn ligaments Plant is used for weight loss and body care Plant extract is used in eye diseases
Cardamine flexuosa With. Herb
2850
Cardamine impatiens L.
2200
Herb
3150 3250 2150
Root extract cures fever Plant cures stomach problems and emotional problems Plant is used in diarrhoea, fever, influenza and liver diseases
2700 3050
1600
Plant is used as vegetable and in the LC treatment of eye diseases and dysentery Leaves edible. Leaves and seeds used to treat skin infections Plant is antirheumatic, diuretic and stimulant. Leaves and young shoots are used as vegetable (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl Nasturtium officinale W.T.Aiton Thlaspi arvense L.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 2200– Plant is antipyretic, antipruritic, 4000 purgative, helminthic, digestive tonic, cardiotonic, astringent Herb 3000 Plant cures urinary tract infections, LC swollen airways, cough, bronchitis, and mild muscular pain Herb 2000 Plant is anti-inflammatory and febrifuge, used in the treatment of pus in the lungs, renal inflammation, appendicitis, seminal and vaginal discharges
Violaceae Viola betonicifolia var. nepalensis (Ging.) Back.
Herb
2100
Viola biflora L.
Herb
2800
Viola hamiltoniana D. Don Viola pilosa Blume
Herb
2500
Herb
2000
Herb
2850
Herb
2050
Herb
2050
Herb
2700
Herb
2550
Herb
2500
Herb
2700
Caryophyllaceae Acanthophyllum cerastioides (D. Don) Madhani & Zarre Arenaria neelgherrensis Wight & Arn. Eremogone festucoides (Benth.) Pusalkar & D.K. Singh Sagina saginoides (L.) H. Karst. Silene setaesperma Majumdar Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Stellaria decumbens Edgew.
Plant is diaphoretic, purgative, astringent, anticancer, antipyretic, and to treat nervous disorders, cough, skin diseases, sinusitis, kidney diseases, pneumonia, and bronchitis Plant used in stomach and intestinal swellings, digestion problems, gas, heartburn, gall bladder disorders, and loss of appetite
Flower extract is used to cure jaundice
Plant is used to treat urinary tract disorders, kidney and bladder stones Taken as tonic to increase lactation
Plant is used to treat food poisoning and diarrheoa
The extract of young shoot is used to treat bronchitis and asthma
LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Stellaria media (L.) Vill.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 2100 Plant is used to relieve itching and LC psoriasis and applied as a plaster for broken bones and swellings Herb 2200 Plant parts can be used as vegetable
Stellaria monosperma var. paniculata (Edgew.) Majumdar Tamaricaceae Myricaria germanica (L.) Shrub Desv. Hypericaceae Hypericum choisyanum Wall. ex N.Robson Hypericum elodeoides Choisy Hypericum hookerianum Wight & Arn. Hypericum japonicum Thunb.
1800– 4000
Wood is used as fuel. Decoction of the bark is aperient, used to treat jaundice
Shrub
2050
Plant extracts an essential oil
Herb
2400
Shrub
2500
Herb
2500
Plant is used in the treatment for anxiety, depression, cuts, and burns Plant is a potential wound-healing agent Plant is used in the treatment of asthma and dysentery, hepatitis, appendicitis, boils and abscesses Plant is used against hepatitis, gastric ulcers, and bee stings
Hypericum oblongifolium Shrub Choisy Hypericum uralum Herb Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Theaceae Eurya acuminata DC. Tree
2100 2200
2150
Leaf decoction is used to cure cholera, diarrhoea and other stomach diseases
Herb
2940
Geranium nepalense Sweet.
Herb
2850
Geranium ocellatum Jacquem. ex Cambess.
Herb
2200
Geranium robertianum L. Herb
2740
Herb
2950
Plant cures rheumatism, gout, dysentery, external and internal bleeding, eczema, scabies Plant used in the treatment of nervous disorders, limb numbness, rheumatism, renal diseases Decoction of whole plant is used to control dysentery in goats and sheep Plant used to treat diarrheoa, to improve functioning of the liver and gallbladder, for toothache and nosebleeds Plant used in the treatment of LC peptic ulcers, toothache
Geraniaceae Geranium collinum Stephan ex Willd.
Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet. Oxalidaceaea
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Oxalis corniculata L.
Oxalis dehradunensis Raizada Balsaminaceae Impatiens devendrae Pusalkar Impatiens edgeworthii Hook.f. Impatiens racemosa DC.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 2000 Plant is used in influenza, fever, urinary tract infections, enteritis, diarrhoea, traumatic injuries, sprains and poisonous snake bites Herb 2800 Plant used in the treatment of fever, pain, inflammation and wound healing Herb
2700
Herb
2250
Plant is used for gonorrhea, burns
Herb
2150
Leaves and roots paste mixed with mustard oil applied for rheumatic pains
Impatiens scabrida DC. Impatiens sulcata Wall.
Herb Herb
2000 2750
Impatiens thomsonii Hook. f. Rutaceae Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook.) Rchb. ex Meisn.
Herb
2100
Herb
2100
Skimmia anquetilia N.P.Taylor & Airy Shaw
Shrub
2730
Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne. Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew.
Shrub
2400
Shrub
2065
Tree
2200
The wood is used for fuel
Shrub
2700
Tree
2230
LC Plant cures respiratory problems, asthma. The root extract is effective in treating whooping cough, malarial fever and renal colic The juice of the bark is used in the treatment of eye diseases, chronic constipation and dyspepsia
Aquifoliaceae Ilex dipyrena Wall. Celastraceae Euonymus echinatus Wall.
Euonymus tingens Wall.
Paste of flower buds applied on pimples
Leaf paste is applied to cuts and wounds. Crushed leaves can be placed in the nostrils to treat malaria Leaves are used in religious ceremonies and also as incense ‘dhup’ Leaves are used in the treatment of smallpox Bark is used in the treatment of rheumatism. A paste made from immature fruits is held between the teeth for about 10 minutes to relieve toothache LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Rhamnaceae Rhamnus procumbens Edgew. Rhamnus purpurea Edgew. Rhamnus virgata Roxb.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses
Remarks
Shrub
2000
Shrub Shrub
2700– 3000 1950
Climber
2050
Climber
2100
Climber
1900– 3000
Fruits edible
Climber
2100
Plant possess anticancer, anti- inflammatory, antimicrobial activities
Tree
2035
Plant is used in skin diseases, rheumatism, headache
LC
Tree
2450
Leaves are used as a tea substitute
LC
Tree
2400
LC
Tree
2350
Acer oblongum Wall. ex DC.
Tree
2300
Acer villosum Wall.
Tree
2800
Plant is anti-rheumatic, purgative, anti-inflammatory, emetic Wood is used for construction, ploughs, bedsteads and poles to carry loads Wood is used for agricultural implements, minor construction, cups The wood is used for agricultural implements. Leaves used as fodder
Shrub
2100
Vitaceae Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.
Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch. Parthenocissus semicordata var. roylei (King ex R.Parker) Nazim. & Qaiser Tetrastigma obtectum (Wall. ex M.A. Lawson) Planch. ex Franch. Hippocastanaceae Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook.f. Aceraceae Acer acuminatum Wall. ex D. Don Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis Acer cappadocicum Gled.
Staphyleaceae Staphylea emodi Wall. ex Brandis Sabiaceae
Plant is used as cardiac stimulant, CNS depressant and analgesic
The fruit is used in the treatment of LC spleen disorders Plant used in the treatment of bone fractures, dysentery, leucorrhoea, dental problems, stomach pain, gout, tuberculosis, dyspepsia, indigestion, body weakness The poultice of the roots is used to set dislocated bones
LC
LC
LC
Plant is used for making walking sticks (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Altitude Binomial Life form (m) Tree 2200 Meliosma dilleniifolia (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Walp. Anacardiaceae 2100 Pistacia chinensis subsp. Tree integerrima (J.L. Stewart) Rech.f. Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.
Tree
2100
Toxicodendron wallichii (Hook.f.) Kuntze Papilionaceae Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl. Astragalus himalayanus Klotzsch Biancaea decapetala (Roth) O.Deg.
Tree
2100
Shrub
2950
Herb
2750
Climber
2050
Campylotropis speciosa subsp. eriocarpa (Schindl.) Iokawa & H. Ohashi Dumasia villosa DC. Hylodesmum podocarpum subsp. oxyphyllum (DC.) H. Ohashi & R.R. Mill Leptodesmia microphylla (Thunb.) H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi Lespedeza gerardiana Wall. ex Maxim. lndigofera cylindrica Grah. & Baker. Lndigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis
Shrub
2300
Climber Herb
2500 2100
Shrub
1900
Herb
2560
Shrub
2500
Shrub
2100
Lotus corniculatus L.
Herb
2050
Ototropis multiflora (DC.) Shrub H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi Parochetus communis Creeper Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don
2050 2000– 3000
Ethno-medicinal uses Good fodder
Remarks
Plant used in the treatment of asthma, diarrheoa, diabetes, liver diseases, fever, pain and inflammation Leaves are used against enlarged spleen, scurf, ringworm, boils and centipede bites Leaf juice is a corrosive vesicant
LC
LC
Root juice taken as a tonic for longevity and strength Powdered flowers and seeds are given in strangury LC Roots, stems and pods act as pain reliever. Also the paste is applied to burns
Seeds contain essential oil Plant is used to cure fever, malaria, coughs and bleeding wounds
LC
Seeds crushed and used for body massage Plant cures cough and cold Flowers are boiled and pickled. Branches are used to make basket, twig bridges Plant is used against skin inflammation Branches and flowers are used for reducing fever by inducing sweat
LC
LC (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.) Sweet Senna occidentalis (L.) Link.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Shrub 2150 Shrub
1700
Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
Shrub
1400
Shuteria involucrata (Wall.) Wight & Arn. ex Walp. Smithia ciliata Royle Sunhangia elegans (DC.) H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi Tateishia concinna (DC.) H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi Trifolium repens L.
Climber
2300
Herb Shrub
1300 2600
Shrub
2100
Herb
2700
Trigonella gracilis Benth. Herb
2200– 3400
Vicia rigidula Royle Zornia gibbosa Span.
Climber Herb
1800 1200
Rosaceae Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.
Herb
2000
Herb
1000– 3000
Herb
2800
Herb
3100
Herb
3500
Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. subsp. japonica (Miq.) Hara var. japonica (Miq.) Nakai Argentina lineata (Trevir.) Soják Argentina micropetala (D.Don) Soják Argentina microphylla (D.Don) Soják
Remarks
LC Plant is diuretic, laxative, blood purifier, antibacterial, and antifungal. It is used in the treatment of haemorrhoids, gout, rheumatism, diabetes, whooping cough Young shoots and leaves are cooked and eaten. The powdered and fermented leaves are used as a condiment A paste of the plant is used to set dislocated bones
The juice of the bark is used in the treatment of peptic ulcers
A tincture of the leaves is applied to gout. An infusion of the flowers is used as eyewash A paste made from the plant is applied topically to treat skin diseases
LC
Plant is anti-inflammatory and astringent; is used in the treatment of inflammations and dysentery Plant is used for abdominal pain, sore throat, headache, heat stroke, boils, eczema and taeniasis Leaf decoction is effective against liver problems
LC
Stolons and stems are astringent
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Argentina polyphylla (Wall. ex Lehm.) Soják Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fernald
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 3200 Herb
3050
Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl. Cotoneaster adpressus Bois Cotoneaster affinis Lindl. Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex Lindl. Dasiphora fruticosa (L.) Rydb. Filipendula vestita (Wall. ex G.Don) Maxim. Fragaria daltoniana J.Gay Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) Lacaita Geum elatum Wall. ex G.Don
Shrub
3000
Shrub
2550
Shrub Shrub
3000 2650
Herb
2340
Herb
3030
Herb
3000
Herb
2750
Herb
3000
Geum urbanum L.
Herb
2340
Griffitharia vestita (Wall. ex G.Don) Rushforth Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. ex. Lehm. Potentilla atrosanguinea G.Lodd. ex D.Don Potentilla crantzii (Crantz) Beck ex Fritsch Potentilla eriocarpa Wall. ex Lehm. Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Sims Potentilla indica (Andrews) Th.Wolf
Tree
1960
Herb
2650
Herb
3060
Herb
1065
Herb
3300
Shrub
1800
Herb
2400
Remarks
A tea made from the roots is used to allay bleeding after child birth, to reduce profuse urination and to treat stomach pains, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea, fevers and internal bleeding
Young fruits taken to cure diarrhoea
Stems are astringent. Leaves used as incense. Fruits edible
The juice of root is used in the treatment of fever. Fruits edible The unripe fruit is chewed to treat blemishes on tongue. Fruits edible Plant used in diarrheoa, inflammation, haemorrhoids and stomach problems Plant is used to treat problems affecting the mouth, throat and gastrointestinal tract. It reduces irritation of the stomach and gut
Crushed flowers applied to reduce the pain caused by insect stings
Root peel extract is used to get rid of intestinal parasitic infections
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Potentilla purpurea (Royle) Hook.f. Potentilla sundaica (Blume) W. Theob. Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. Prunus nepalensis Ser.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 2100 Root is depurative. Ashes mixed with oil and applied to burns Herb 3040 Plant used in the treatment of inflammations, wounds Herb 1400 Decoction of the plant is used in the treatment of colds, influenza, sore throat Tree 2700 Fruits and seeds are edible Tree
2500
Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosa macrophylla Lindl.
Climber Shrub
1700 2200
Rosa sericea Lindl.
Shrub
2630
Rubus ellipticus Sm.
Shrub
2050
Rubus nepalensis (Hook.f.) Kuntze Rubus niveus Thunb. Rubus paniculatus Sm.
Shrub
2500
Shrub Climber
2100 1750
Rubus rosifolius Sm.
Shrub
2200
Sanguisorba diandra (Hook.f.) Nordbong Sibbaldia cuneata Edgew. Sibbaldia cuneifolia (Bertol.) Paule & Soják Sorbus foliolosa (Wall.) Spach Spiraea bella Sims Spiraea canescens D.Don
Herb
3000
Herb Herb
3035 3000
Shrub
3000
Shrub Shrub
3050 1700
Shrub
2300
Herb
2100
Saxifragaceae Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.
A green dye can be obtained from the leaves Plant stimulates wound healing Fruit paste is used against eye sight issues Plant cures uterine diseases. A paste of the flowers is applied on forehead to cure headache LC Plant juice can be used to treat coughs, fevers, colic and sore throat Fruits edible Fruits edible A paste of the bark is used in the treatment of scabies. Leaf paste is used as a poultice on sprains A decoction of the root is used in the treatment of diarrhoea. Leaf paste is applied to itches
LC
Plant is used to make walking sticks
LC
Plant is used for the treatment of ulcer, bleeding during child birth, inflammation, body ache, diarrhoea and dysentery Plant treats urinary troubles. Leaf LC juice used as ear drops (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Bergenia pacumbis (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) C.Y.Wu & J.T.Pan Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f. & Thomson) Engl. Chrysosplenium tenellum Hook.f. & Thomson Chrysosplenium trichospermum Edgew. ex Hook.f. & Thomson Micranthes pseudopallida (Engl. & Irmsch.) Losinsk. Saxifraga asarifolia Sternb. Saxifraga brachypoda D.Don Saxifraga brunonis Wall ex Ser. Saxifraga diversifolia Wall. ex. DC. var. parnassifolia (D.Don) Engl. Saxifraga filicaulis Wall. ex Ser. Saxifraga flagellaris Willd. Saxifraga jacquemontiana Decne. Saxifraga parnassifolia D.Don Saxifraga sibirica L. Saxifraga stenophylla Royle Parnassiaceae Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 1500 Plant is a tonic in the treatment of fevers, diarrhoea and pulmonary affections Herb 3500
Herb
2450
Herb
2840
Herb
2795
Herb Herb
3200– 4600 2960
Herb
3250
Herb
2400– 4600
Herb
2050
Herb
3000
Herb
4000
Herb
3000
Herb Herb
3500 2500
Herb
3300
Hydrangeaceae Deutzia compacta Craib Shrub Deutzia staminea R.Br. ex Shrub Wall.
2500 2250
Remarks LC
Plant extract is act as liver tonic
Root paste applied to cure toothache Plant extract is used for the treatment of food poisoning. Rootstocks are used externally in snakebites
Plant is diuretic (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Hydranzea anomala D.Don Philadelphus tomentosus Wall. ex G.Don Grossulariaceae Ribes glaciale Wall. Ribes griffithii Hook.f. & Thomson Ribes himalense Royle ex Decne.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Shrub 2100 A boiled concoction of the leaves is used to make a syrup Shrub 2000
Shrub Shrub
3000 2500
Fruits edible Fruits edible
Shrub
2000– 3300
The Leaf juice is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery
Herb
3000
Herb
3250
Herb
3500
Herb
2500
Herb
3500
Shoots are used as a remedy against cold, cough and lung infections
Herb
2860
Herb
3000
Rhodiola wallichiana (Hook.) S.H. Fu
Herb
3050
Sedum multicaule Wall. ex Lindl. Sedum oreades (Decne.) Raym.-Hamet Tillaea pentandra Royle
Herb
3032
Plant act as a tonic, antidepressant and anti-inflammatory drug Plant is used for increasing energy, endurance, strength, and mental capacity Plant is used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, diarrheoa, hysteria, hernias, headache Plant is emollient and vulnerary
Herb
3600
Herb
1900– 2500
Herb
2300
Herb
2100
Crassulaceae Crassula campestris (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Endl. Hylotelephium ewersii (Ledeb.) H.Ohba Rhodiola bupleuroides (Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thomson) S.H. Fu Rhodiola chrysanthemifolia (H.Lév.) S.H. Fu Rhodiola heterodonta (Hook. f. & Thomson) Boriss. Rhodiola quadrifida (Pall.) Fisch. & C.A. Mey Rhodiola sinuata (Royle ex Edgew.) S.H. Fu
Melastomaceae Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Onagraceae Circaea alpina L.
LC
Juice of rhizomes given to cure whooping cough
Leaf decoction is taken to cure cough and cold Root decoction is laxative and used to treat fevers
Plant used to treat tumours, fresh cuts or wounds (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 3200
Remarks
Herb
2450
Root paste is applied for wounds
LC
Herb
2780
Plant is used in the treatment of fevers, inflammations, itching pimples
LC
Herb Herb Herb
4500 1500– 2000 3300
Climber
2600
Plant is used in anorexia, digestive problems, flatulence, asthma, gonorrhoea, inflammation
Herb
2900
Plant juice is taken to relieve headache, peptic ulcer. The paste is applied to stop bleeding from cuts and wounds
Herb
2800
Herb
3350
Bupleurum hamiltonii N.P. Balakr.
Herb
3000
Bupleurum lanceolatum Wall. ex DC. Bupleurum longicaule Wall ex DC.
Herb
1400
Herb
3000
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Herb
600
Chaerophyllum reflexum var. acuminatum (Lindl.) Hedge & Lamond Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. ex DC.
Herb
3200
Herb
3000
Binomial Epilobium amurense Hausskn. Epilobium angustifolium L. Epilobium latifolium L.
Epilobium palustre L. Epilobium roseum (Schreb.) Schreb. Epilobium royleanum Hausskn. Cucurbitaceae Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Begoniaceae Begonia picta Sm.
Apiaceae Acronema tenerum (DC.) Edgew. Angelica glauca Edgew.
LC
Root powder is mixed with milk given in empty stomach to cure severe stomach pain Root is used to regulate the metabolism, for the treatment of fever, pain and inflammation
Plant is used against chronic hepatitis, nephrotic syndrome and autoimmune diseases Plant is a brain tonic, to improve memory power also is used to treat leprosy, lupus, varicose ulcers, eczema, psoriasis, diarrhoea, fever, amenorrhoea
EN
LN
Cooked roots are nutritious (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Cortia candollei (DC.) Leute Heracleum candicans Wall.ex DC.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2650 Herb
1800– 5000
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.
Herb
2800
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. Hymenidium brunonis (DC.) Lindl. Hymenolaena candollei DC. Ligusticopsis wallichiana (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov Ligusticum striatum DC.
Creeper Herb
600– 2500 4000
Herb
3800
Herb
2900– 3100
Leaf extract applied on cut and wounds
Herb
1500– 3500
Pimpinella diversifolia DC. Sanicula elata Buch.Ham. ex D.Don Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) C.B.Clarke Trachydium roylei Lindl.
Herb
2300
Plant is used in the treatment of migraine, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases Leaves used to treat stomach ache
Herb
2100
Herb
3000
Herb
2990
Vicatia coniifolia DC. Herb Araliaceae Hedera nepalensis Climber K. Koch. Cornaceae Cornus macrophylla Wall. Tree Caprifoliaceae Leycesteria formosa Wall. Shrub
Remarks
Root is used for the treatment of leucoderma. Decoction of root and stem cures fever. Root paste is applied on snake bite LC Plant is used to cure sore throats and lungs. Leaf juice is used as eye drops to cure eye infection. Leaf paste is used in dressing of wounds to reduce swelling Plant cures fevers, wounds and LC boils
Plant contains an essential oil that is used in the treatment of inflammation
2800 2000
Plant used in the treatment of diabetes
2400
Plant cures malaria, allergy, inflammation, diabetes, cancer
2550
The hollow stems can be made into whistles and flutes
LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Lonicera angustifolia var. myrtillus (Hook.f. & Thomson) Q.E.Yang, Landrein, Borosova & Osborne Lonicera hispida Pall. ex Schult. Lonicera japonica Thunb.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Shrub 2700
Shrub Climber
2900– 4500 1000
Lonicera purpurascens (Jacquem. ex Decne.) Walp. Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.
Shrub
1500
Shrub
2100
Viburnum cotinifolium D.Don
Shrub
2850
Viburnum erubescens Wall. ex DC. Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Viburnum mullaha Buch.-Ham.ex D.Don Viburnum nervosum D.Don Rubiaceae Galium acutum Edgew. Galium aparine L.
Shrub Shrub
1500– 2700 2550
Shrub
2200
Shrub
2700
Herb Herb
3000 2100
Galium asperifolium Wall. Galium asperuloides Edgew. Galium triflorum Michx.
Herb
2800
Herb
2800
Herb
1500– 3000 2050
Himalrandia tetrasperma Shrub (Wall. ex Roxb.) T. Yamaz. Leptodermis lanceolata Herb Wall. Rubia cordifolia L. Herb
2000 2600– 4500
Remarks
Plant is used to cure digestive disorders, pain and swelling of small intestine
Powdered leaves are used for healing wounds. Plant material is used as fuel Leaf extract is used for the treatment of menorrhagia. Fruits edible The juice of the roots is used in the treatment of coughs. Fruits edible The fruit is used in the treatment of typhoid and whooping cough Juice of fruit is used to treat LC indigestion Fruits edible
Plant is used to treat painful urination, infected lymph nodes, psoriasis
Plant paste applied on skin itching LC Plant possess anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial. Antifungal, anti-viral and anti-malarial activities Bark paste is applied on forehead to treat migraine Plant detoxifies the blood (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Spermadictyon suaveolens Roxb.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Shrub 2050 Root extracts are used in the treatment of diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and bloody dysentery
Valerianaceae Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC.
Herb
3200
Herb
2860
Herb
3250
Valeriana jatamansi Jones Herb ex Roxb.
2400
Valeriana hardwickei Wall. Valeriana himalayana Grubov
Dipsacaceae Dipsacus inermis Wall.
Triplostegia glandulifera Wall. ex DC. Morinaceae Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC.
Remarks
CR Plant extracts used in heart-pain, fits and rubbed in muscle fracture to relieve pain also regulate urination, menstruation and digestion Plant helps to improve sleep quality and reduce blood pressure Plant helps reduce sleeping disorders, especially insomnia, anxiety, stress, etc Plants are useful in epilepsy, hysteria, hypochondriasis, nervous unrest, and skin diseases
Herb
2600
Herb
3000
Herb
3000
Plant is used in the treatment of stomach disorders, such as indigestion, vomiting and nausea
2750
Plant is used in treating abscesses, haemorrhage LC Plant is used to treat constipation, infective hepatitis, eczema, epilepsy, fresh wounds, dizziness, diarrhoea, dysentery, sore eyes, fever, headache, intestinal worms, filariasis, vomiting and nausea, wounds and cuts Roots paste is used to relieve stomach ache, constipation, fever Plant used in the treatment of rheumatism, traumatic injuries, edema, stomach ache, and anorexia Plant paste applied to heal wounds
Asteraceae Adenocaulon himalaicum Herb Edgew. Ageratum conyzoides L. Herb
2500
Ainsliaea aptera DC.
Herb
2150
Ainsliaea latifolia (D.Don) Sch.-Bip.
Herb
2450
Allardia glabra Decne.
Herb
3700
The root is used to promote bone growth and to correct bone fractures Plant cures kidney problems
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 2450 Plant is used for diarrhoea, dysentery and pulmonary affections. A poultice of flowers or the whole plant is applied to burns, sores, ulcers, bruises, swellings and rheumatic joints Anaphalis contorta Herb 2300 Smoke of the plant is used as an (D.Don.) Hook f. insect repellent and paste of young flower heads applied on pimples Anaphalis margaritacea Herb 3000 Plant is a good remedy for (L.) Benth. & Hook f. diarrhoea, dysentery and pulmonary affections Anaphalis royleana DC. Herb 2750 Plant is antibacterial, anti- inflammatory, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antiviral, diaphoretic, expectorate, sedative Anaphalis triplinervis Herb 2630 Paste of flower heads applied on (Sims.) C.B Clarke cuts, wounds and boils Anaphalis virgata Herb 2600 Smoke of the plant used as an Thomson. ex C.B.Clarke insect repellent and paste of whole plant applied on wounds Artemisia capillaris Herb 100– Plant cures liver diseases Thunb. 2700 Artemisia nilagirica Herb 2000 Seed oil is extracted and massaged (C.B.Clarke) Pamp. on swollen joints in case of arthritis, back pain and bone fractures Herb 2600 Plant used against colic, diarrheoa, Artemisia roxburghiana Besser constipation, cramps, indigestion, worm infestations, vomiting 2100 Artemisia vestita Wall. ex Shrub The plant is used in anti- Besser inflammatory and antifebrile medicines Aster albescens (DC.) Herb 2700 Plant extracts cure tooth ache Wall. ex Hand.-Mazz. Herb 2800 Flowers are used in the treatment of Aster diplostephioides infectious fevers, influenza, nose (DC.) Benth. ex bleeds, poisoning, sores C.B.Clarke Herb 1700 Seeds used in the treatment of skin Baccharoides diseases, scorpion stings anthelmintica (L.) Moench Bidens pilosa L. Herb 2100 Roots are used to treat constipation and malaria, toothache
Binomial Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don.)
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 2500 The root is tonic, diuretic, astringent, antiphlogistic and hepatic. It is chewed to cure toothache. Root decoction is used to treat worms in children Cirsium verutum Herb 2200 Root extract is used to relieve (D.Don.) Spreng. fevers. Root paste is used in the treatment of stomach disorders. The fresh root is chewed to treat nosebleeds and throat pain Cirsium wallichii DC. Herb 2300 Plant is used to treat fever and nose bleeding 2750 Root decoction applied to wounds Cordiofontis peduncularis Herb (Wall. ex Nees) G.L.Nesom Cremanthodium dacaisnei Herb 3000 C.B.Clarke Dolomiaea macrocephala Herb 3200 Incense of plant used to cure DC. ex Royle breathing problems Doronicum kamaonense Herb 2400 (DC.) Alv. Fern Dubyaea hispida DC. Herb 2440 Duhaldea nervosa (Wall. Herb 1200– ex DC.) Anderb. 2000 Erigeron alpinus L. Herb 3800 Plant is used for cough, cold, nausea, gastric and rheumatism Herb 3300 Plant is used in inflammatory Erigeron multiradiatus diseases (Lindl. ex DC.) Benth. & Hook.f. Eschenbachia japonica Herb 2100 (Thunb.) J.Kost. Eschenbachia stricta Herb 1550 (Willd.) Raizada Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Herb 2200 Plant used to treat eczema, wounds Gamochaeta pensylvanica Herb 4700 Plant is used against diabetes, high (Willd.) Cabrera blood pressure, stomach ulcers, diarrheoa, gut infections Hippolytia longifolia Herb 3600 (Rech.f.) C.Shih Jacobaea analoga (DC.) Herb 3000– Veldkamp 3500 3050 Jurinea albescens (DC.) Herb N.Garcia, Herrando & Susanna
Binomial Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Jurinea auriculata (DC.) N.Garcia, Herrando & Susanna Leibnitzia nepalensis (Kunze) Kitam Leontopodium himalayanum DC. Ligularia amplexicaulis DC. Ligularia sibirica (L.) Cass. Melanoseris brunoniana (Wall. ex DC.) N.Kilian & Ze H.Wang Melanoseris cyanea (D.Don) Edgew. Melanoseris macrorhiza (Royle) N.Kilian Melanoseris violifolia (Decne.) N.Kilian Mulgedium lacertianum Wall. ex DC. Myriactis wallichii Less. Neobrachyactis anomala (DC.) Brouillet Oreoseris gossypina (Royle) X.D.Xu & V.A.Funk Pentanema orientale (Lam.) D.Gut.Larr., Santos-Vicente, Anderb., E.Rico & M.M.Mart.Ort. Pseudognaphalium affine (D.Don) Anderb. Pseudognaphalium hypoleucum (DC.) Hilliard & B.L.Burtt Saussurea leontodontoides (DC.) Sch.Bip. Saussurea obvallata (DC.) Sch.Bip. Saussurea roylei (DC.) Sch.Bip.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 3000
Herb Herb
3200– 4600 3700
Herb
3400
Herb
2750
Herb
2330
Herb
2400
Herb
3300
Herb
3000
Herb
3160
Herb Herb
2730 2900
Herb
2300
Herb
2730
Herb
2100
Herb
2100
Herb
3500
Herb
4100
Herb
3500
Remarks
Plant is used in the treatment of vomiting Leaves cooked and eaten
DD
Juice of fresh rootstock is given to stomach pain
Plant extract applied on cuts and wounds
Extract of petals applied for septic wounds Plant is used in the treatment of wounds Paste of the plant is used as poultice for joint pains (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Senecio graciliflorus DC. Sigesbeckia orientalis L. Solidago virgaurea L.
Synotis alata (Wall.ex DC.) C. Jeffrey & Y.L. Chen Synotis chenopodiifolia (DC.) M.Tang, C.Ren & Q.E.Yang Synotis kunthiana (Wall. ex DC.) Jeffrey & Y.L.Chen Synotis rufinervis (DC.) C. Jeffrey & Y.L.Chen Tagetes minuta L.
Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg. Tragopogon gracilis D.Don Xanthium strumarium L.
Campanulaceae Campanula argyrotricha Wall.ex A.DC. Campanula pallida Wall. Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth. Codonopsis viridis Wall.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2500 Herb 2400 Plant used against arthritis, rheumatism, and gout Herb 2500 Plant is used for gout, joint pain, arthritis, eczema and other skin diseases Herb 2400
Herb
2660
Herb
3050
Herb
2400
Herb
2100
Herb
4500
Herb
2300
Herb
2000
Herb
3020
Herb Climber
2300 3000
Climber
1200– 3000 3000
Cyananthus lobatus Wall. Herb ex Benth. Cyananthus microphyllus Herb Edgew. Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. Herb
Remarks
LC
Plant used against digestive tract problems including poor appetite, gas, stomach pain, colic, intestinal worms and dysentery Roots extract cures headache
LC
Young shoots and fruits can be eaten Plant used in rhinitis, nasal sinusitis, headache, gastric ulcer, urticaria, rheumatism, arthritis and microbial infections
Plant act as the protection against side effects of radiation treatment, heartburn
Plant is used in the treatment of papetic ulcer, serous disorders and constipation
3300 1500– 3000
Plants are useful in treating asthma, bronchitis, and fever (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Ericaceae Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D.Don Gaultheria nummularioides D.Don. Gaultheria trichophylla Royle
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb
3100
Herb
2800
Herb
3100
Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude
Tree
1750
Rhododendron anthopogon D.Don Rhododendron arboreum Sm.
Shrub
3000
Tree
1500– 3300
Rhododendron barbatum Wall ex G. Don Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don. Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex D.Don
Shrub Shrub
2400– 3700 3600
Shrub
2800
Leaf decoction is used against colds, coughs, chronic bronchitis, asthma and excessive mucus formation in the nose or throat
Herb
2500
Plant is used in the treatment of cough
Herb Herb
2700– 3000 2200
Herb
2300
Lysimachia lobelioides Wall. Lysimachia prolifera Klatt. Primula denticulata Sm.
Herb Herb
100– 2000 2600
Herb
3200
Primula elliptica Royle
Herb
3200
Monotropaceae Monotropastrum humile (D.Don.) H.Hara Primulaceae Androsace geraniifolia Watt Androsace globifera Duby Androsace sarmentosa Wall.
Remarks
Incense of whole plant is inhaled to ease respiration Fruits edible Plant used to given for cattle for lactation and immune disease resistant LC Young leaves and buds are used externally as an infusion to treat skin diseases and external parasites Decoction of young shoot given to cure fever LC Leaf paste is applied to the forehead in the treatment of headaches. The juice of the bark is used in coughs, diarrhoea and dysentery
Paste of flower buds applied on cuts
Plant is used to cure tumours, inflammations, serous fluid disorders
Raw flowers are used to make salads Root paste applied for pimples and to kill lice (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Primula macrophylla D.Don Primula munroi Lindl. Primula stuartii Wall. Myrsinaceae Myrsine africana L. Symplocaceae Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. Moore Symplocos paniculata Miq.
Symplocos ramosissima Wall. ex G.Don Symplocos theifolia D. Don Oleaceae Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsh. Jasminum dispermum Wall.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 3100 Plant extract is given to cure urinary complaints Herb 3000– 4500 Herb 3500 Shrub
2700
Plant cures skin allergies, boils
Tree
1100
Tree
2400
Plant is astringent, acrid, refrigerant, anti-inflammatory, depurative and febrifuge Plant used in the treatment of dysentery, bowel complaints, inflammations, snake bites, vaginal discharges and miscarriages
Tree
2200
Tree
2000
Tree
2200
Climber
2050
Osmanthus fragrans Lour. Tree
1300– 3000
Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle Asclepiadaceae Marsdenia roylei Wight
Tree
2400
Climber
2100
Vincetoxicum auriculatum Herb (Royle ex Wight) Kuntze Gentianaceae Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G.Don) I.M.Johnst.
Remarks
LC
Plant is used against malaria and pneumonia The roots and leaves are active against ringworm and tapeworm infections A paste of stem or bark is used in the treatment of boils, carbuncles, whooping cough and retinitis
DD
LC
The juice of the stem is used in the treatment of gastric troubles and peptic ulcers
2100
Herb
3300
Arnebia euchroma (Royle Herb ex Benth.) I.M.Johnst.
3650
Flowering shoots are used in preparation of syrup and jam which cure fever, tongue and throat infections, cardiac problems Root extract is applied along with hair oil will reduce hair fall (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Crawfurdia japonica var. luteo-viridis (C.B. Clarke) C.B. Clarke Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Cynoglossum microglochin Benth. Cynoglossum wallichii G.Don Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Sw. ex Lehm.) Thunb. ex Brand Eritrichium canum (Benth.) Kitam. Gentiana albicalyx Burkill. Gentiana argentea Royle ex D.Don. Gentiana capitata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don. Gentiana carinata (D.Don ex G.Don) Griseb. Gentiana pedicellata (D.Don) Griseb. Gentiana stipitata Edgew. Gentiana tubiflora (G.Don) Griseb. Gentianella pedunculata (D.Don) H.Sm. Hackelia uncinata (Royle ex Benth.) C.E.C.Fisch. Halenia elliptica D. Don. Lasiocaryum munroi (C.B.Clarke) I.M.Johnst. Lomatogonium carinthiacum (Wulfen) A.Braun Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. Swertia cordata (G.Don) Wall. ex C.B.Clarke
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2000– 3200 Herb
2300
Herb
2300
Herb
2800
Herb
2850
Herb
2900
Herb
2350
Herb
2400
Herb
3000
Herb
3200
Herb Herb Herb
700– 3800 2600 3500
Herb
2750
Herb
3010
Herb
Herb
700– 4100 3400– 4000 3250
Herb
2300
Herb
1900
Herb
2900
Herb
Remarks
Whole plant infusion is used to cure cough and cold
Decoction of leaves cures cold and cough
Plant extract applied on cut wounds
Plant juice used to cure fever Whole plant extract with curd is given to cure jaundice Plant extract is used to cure fever
Plant cures liver and bile diseases
Decoction of whole plant cures fever Plant treats liver disorders, malaria, and diabetes Plant shows antioxidant, antibacterial and antidiabetic activities (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Swertia cuneata D. Don Swertia paniculata Wall.
Altitude Life form (m) Herb 3200 Herb 2800– 3300
Ethno-medicinal uses Plant extract is given to cure fever Decoction of plant used in the treatment of malaria and other fevers Plant possess antibacterial and anti-diabetic potential Plant is used in treating hepatitis, cholecystitis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis, dysentery, and scabies
Remarks
2050
Plant is used in the treatment of urinary disorders, muscle pain, cough and also used as blood purifier
LC
Solanaceae Nicandra physalodes (L.) Herb Gaertn.
2100
Nicotiana rustica L.
Herb
1000
Solanum nigrum L.
Herb
2000
Solanum viarum Dunal
Shrub
1000
Plant is used in the treatment of contagious disorders, toothache, intestinal pain, impotence, fevers Plant parts are used as a poultice and a wash in the treatment of rheumatic swelling, skin diseases and scorpion stings Plant is used in ulcers, asthma, skin diseases, whooping cough. The juice from its roots is used against asthma and LC Plant is used for the treatment of cancer therapy, Addison’s disease, rheumatism, chronic asthma, skin disease, obesity, and leukaemia
Herb
1500
Leaf juice is given after child birth
Herb
3000
Herb
3000
Extract of whole plant is used to cure cuts and wounds Plant cures eye diseases
Herb
2500
Herb
3000
Swertia purpurascens (D.Don) C.B.Clarke Swertia speciosa D.Don
Herb
2500
Herb
2700
Tripterospermum volubile Climber (D.Don) H.Hara Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Climber
Scrophulariaceae Bonnaya ciliata (Colsm.) Spreng. Euphrasia himalayica Wettst. Euphrasia schlagintweitii Wettst. Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall. Kashmiria himalaica (Hook.f.) D.Y.Hong
2300– 3100
LC
Plant juice applied to cuts and wounds. Fruits edible
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Lindenbergia grandiflora Benth. Lindenbergia indica (L.) Vatke Majus japonicus (Thunb.) Kuntz. Pedicularis bicornuta Klotzsch Pedicularis bifida (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Pennell Pedicularis gracilis Wall. ex Benth. Pedicularis hoffmeisteri Klotzsch Pedicularis megalantha D. Don Pedicularis pectinata var. rosea P.Agnihotri & T. Husain Pedicularis porrecta Wall. ex Benth. Pedicularis punctata Decne. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2050
Remarks
Herb
LC
500– 1500
Plant juice is given in chronic bronchitis, skin eruptions
Herb
2800
Flowers are used in the treatment of vaginal and seminal discharges
Herb
2800
Herb
3100
Herb
2750
Herb
2300– 4200 3000
Herb
Herb
Herb
Herb
3600– 4500 3400– 3700 3100
Scrophularia calycina Benth. Scrophularia himalensis Royle ex Benth. Torenia crustacea (L.) Cham. & Schltdl.
Herb
3100
Herb
2400
Herb
1500
Verbascum thapsus L.
Herb
2400
Veronica cana Wall. ex Benth.
Herb
3300
Herb
Root infusion is used to treat flatulence and diarrhoea in cattle
Plant used to alleviate stomach pain, flatulence, intestinal problems and high blood pressure
Decoction of plant is given to expel intestinal worms Root extract is used to cure severe EN fever. Rhizomes are used as to treat liver ailments
LC Plant is used in treating bilious disorders, dysentery, amenorrhoea and hepatitis. The powdered herb, mixed with rice water, is drunk to relieve diarrhoea, vomiting and cholera Leaf decoction is mixed with honey LC to cure cough and other pulmonary diseases
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Veronica laxa Benth.
Orobanchaceae Orobanche alba Stephan ex Willd. Gesneriaceae Didymocarpus aromaticus D.Don Henckelia bifolia (D.Don) A.Dietr. Henckelia pumila (D.Don) A.Dietr. Platystemma violoides Wall. Rhynchoglossum obliquum Blume Acanthaceae Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I. Darbysh
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2500 Plant is used in the treatment of disorders of the nervous system, respiratory tract, cardiovascular system and metabolism Herb
2700
Herb
2000
Herb Herb
1000– 2500 2200
Herb
2400
Herb
1800
Herb
2050
Herb
1000
Justicia simplex D.Don Herb Rostellularia procumbens Herb (L.) Nees
2100 2500
Herb
2600
Herb
2400
Herb
2200
Shrub
700– 2800 3000
Strobilanthes atropurpurea Nees Strobilanthes attenuata (Wall. ex Nees) Jacq. ex Nees Strobilanthes penttemonoides (Nees) T.Anderson Strobilanthes tomentosa (Nees) J.R.I Wood Strobilanthes wallichii Nees Phrymaceae
Shrub
Remarks
Plant is used for respiratory problems and chronic asthma Plant cures fever and skin allergy
The essential oil extracted from the plant is used to cure tuberculosis. The paste of the plant is used for sprain and bone fracture Plant used to treat fever, vomiting The leaf juice is used to treat ophthalmia, asthma, coughs, rheumatism, back pain and flatulence
The root juice is used for the treatment of high fever. It is a good fodder
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Phryma leptostachya L.
Lamiaceae Ajuga parviflora Benth.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 4300 A tea made from the roots was gargled to cure sore throats and was drunk in the treatment of rheumatism, fevers Herb
2400
Herb
2100
Herb
2700
Herb
1400
Herb Coleus barbatus (Andrews) Benth. ex G. Don Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Herb Hyl.
1600
Herb Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth.) Benth. Elsholtzia fruticosa Herb (D. Don) Rehder Elsholtzia pilosa (Benth.) Herb Benth.
3650
Elsholtzia strobilifera (Benth.) Benth.
Herb
2350
Lamium album L.
Herb
2400
Leucas lanata Benth.
Herb
2200
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Benth.
Herb
2100
Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl Clinopodium umbrosum (M. Bieb) C. Koch Clinopodium vulgare L.
1500– 3500
2300 2500
Plant used in hypertension, hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver and jaundice Plant cures tumour, polydipsia, LC diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes, fever Leaf juice is applied to cuts and wounds Plant is used for healing wounds and treating warts due to virus infection The root is considered as analgesic, ophthalmic, and febrifuge. It is very useful in epilepsy An infusion is drunk, or vapour from the boiling decoction can be inhaled, in the treatment of common colds, fevers, headaches, diarrhoea The seeds are chewed as a treatment for coughs and colds Plant is used to cure bruises, head ache, constipation, dysentery Plant is used in the treatment of common colds, fevers, headaches, diarrhoea, oedema and oliguria Plant is used in the treatment of colds, headaches, pharyngitis, fever, diarrheoa, digestion disorder LC Plant is used in the treatment of fracture, hypertension, leucorrhoea, paralysis, putrescence, trauma The crushed leaves are used to treat mild fevers, colds, rheumatism and snake bites, roundworm infection A paste of the plant is used as a poultice to treat wounds. A paste of the root is pressed between the jaws to treat toothache (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Nepeta eriostachya Benth. Nepeta govaniana (Wall. ex Benth.) Benth. Origanum vulgare L.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2300 Leaves extract is given for fever Herb
2500
Herb
2600
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton
Herb
600– 2400
Phlomoides bracteosa (Royle ex Benth.) Kamelin & Makhm.
Herb
2800
Pogostemon benghalensis Herb (Burm.f.) Kuntze Prunella vulgaris L. Herb
500– 1000 2400
Salvia hians Royle ex Benth.
Herb
1800
Salvia nubicola Wall. ex Sweet.
Herb
2400
Stachys sericea Cav.
Herb
2800
Stachys splendens Wall. ex Benth. Thymus linearis Benth.
Herb
Thymus serpyllum L.
Shrub
2400– 3600 2300– 3700 1500– 2800
Plantaginaceae Plantago himalaica Pilg.
Herb
Herb
2700
Remarks
Leaves used against cold, for digestive, and respiratory problems LC An edible drying oil is obtained from seed. Seed is used in the treatment of asthma, colds, nausea, abdominal pain, food poisoning, allergic reactions, bronchitis and constipation Powdered leaves are mixed in tea and used against cough and cold. Flowers are crushed and used against toothache Leaves are utilized for relieving body pain, headache and fever LC Leaves shows antibacterial, antioxidant and anticancer activities for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases Plant is a stimulant, used as a remedy for dysentery. The pith of tender stems is pickled Plant is used in the treatment of dysentery, boils, fall injuries, hepatic problems and cancer Plant is used for the treatment of stress, skin inflammations, gastrointestinal disorders, asthma and genital tumours
Seed extract is given for indigestion and stomach pain LC Plant is used in cough syrups, infusions, oil, tinctures and infusions Leaves slightly bruised, to apply on wounds. Oil from the seeds is antimicrobial, for chronic diarrhoea and shigellosis, a bacillary dysentery (continued)
Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis…
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Amaranthaceae Achyranthes bidentata Blume
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses
Remarks
Herb
2400
Amaranthus hybridus L.
Herb
1300
Cyathula capitata Moq.
Herb
2500
Cyathula tomentosa (Schult.) Moq. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L.
Herb
2300
Herb
2500
Plant is used in the treatment of rheumatism, bug bites, sunstroke, urinary problems, skin problems
2000– 2700
The root is used in the treatment of urinary disorders, nephritis, oedema and abdominal distension
2500– 3800 2500
Paste of young shoot is given in empty stomach to cure dysentery Paste of rhizome is applied on sores and wounds Root paste is given to infants for stomach problems. Leaves paste is applied on wounds
Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Herb
Polygonaceae Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Greene Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene Bistorta macrophylla (D.Don) Soják
Herb Herb Herb
3000– 3700
Bistorta vacciniifolia (Wall. ex Meisn.) Greene Bistorta vivipara (L.) Delarbre
Herb
3300
Herb
4500
Fagopyrum cymosum (Trevir.) Meisn.
Herb
1800– 2600
Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Herb Gaertn.
4400
Plant is used in the treatment of aching back and knees and asthenia of the lower limbs Plant is used in the treatment of intestinal bleeding, diarrhoea, excessive menstruation A decoction of the aerial parts of the plant are drunk as a treatment for cough. An infusion of the whole plant is taken as a remedy for fever and dysentery
Plant is used in the treatment of abscesses, as a gargle to treat sore throats and spongy gums and as a lotion for ulcers A decoction is used in the treatment of traumatic injuries, lumbago, menstrual irregularities, purulent infections, snake and insect bites Leaves are cooked. The sprouted seeds are used in salads, or ground into a powder and used as a cereal. Edible oil is obtained from seeds (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Fallopia pterocarpa (Wall. ex Meisn.) Holub Koenigia delicatula (Meisn.) H.Hara Koenigia mollis (D.Don) T.M.Schust. & Reveal
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Climber 2100 Herb Herb
2600– 3500 2050
Koenigia nummulariifolia (Meisn.) Mesicek & Sojak Koenigia polystachya (Wall. ex Meisn.) T.M.Schust. & Reveal Koenigia rumicifolia (Royle ex Bab.) T.M.Schust. & Reveal Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill
Herb
4000
Herb
3300
Herb
3100– 3700
Young shoots and seeds are edible
Herb
3200
Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Gross Persicaria chinensis (L.) H.Gross
Herb
2050
Decoction of young plant is used for colic pain Plant treats urinary calculi and urinary tract infections
Herb
1800– 3300
Persicaria microcephala var. sphaerocephala (Wall. ex Meisn.) H.Hara Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H.Gross
Herb
500– 3200
Herb
2700
Persicaria sinuata (Royle ex Bab.) H.Gross Polygonum paniculatum L. Polygonum recumbens Royle ex Bab. Rheum australe D.Don
Herb
3300
Herb
3000
Herb
1500– 4000 3400
Herb
Rheum moorcroftianum Herb Royle Rheum webbianum Royle Herb
3250
Rumex acetosa L.
2900
Herb
2500
Remarks
Young shoots are cooked as a vegetable or pickled. The whole plant is astringent
The juice of the plant is used in the treatment of eye diseases, eczema of ears Young shoots are cooked as vegetable and condiment Root extract is used in the treatment of fevers. A paste of the root is used as a poultice on fresh wounds
The infusion is used in the treatment of stomach complaints
The whole plant extract cures cuts and wounds
Decoction of stem is given to cure stomach pain Leaf extract applied on cut and wounds (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Altitude Binomial Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Herb 3000 A paste of the root is applied to swollen gums, pimples and ringworm and applied externally to relieve headache Piperaceae Peperomia tetraphylla Herb 2400 Plant treats kidney disorders (Forst.) Hook. & Arn. Lauraceae Tree 1900 Plant used in the treatment of bad Cinnamomum tamala breath from mouth, black spots on (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & face, tooth decay, swelling, cough C.H.Eberm. and also in complications of tuberculosis Tree 2300 The seeds are used as a source of Litsea elongata (Nees) Hook.f. oil for industrial purposes. The wood is used for construction, furniture making Machilus odoratissima Tree 1850 The wood is used in house Nees construction and for furniture. Also burned as firewood Neolitsea cuipala Tree 2200 The oil from the fruit is used to (D.Don) Kosterm. treat itchiness and other skin complaints Neolitsea umbrosa (Nees) Tree 2700 An oil obtained from the fruit is Gamble used for burning Thymelaeaceae Daphne papyracea Wall. Shrub 2400 ex G.Don Eleagnaceae Elaeagnus umbellata Shrub 2400 Plant used in cardiac and Thunb. respiratory diseases. Seed oil is used for the treatment of pulmonary infections, coughs Shrub 2000– A high-quality medicinal oil is Hippophae rhamnoides 3700 extracted from the fruit and used in Serv. subsp. salicifolia the treatment of cardiac disorders, (D.Don.) Serv. also to heal burns, eczema and radiation injury Hippophae salicifolia Tree 2700 The oil is made from the fruit is D.Don used in cardiac disorders Buxaceae Buxus wallichiana Baill. Tree 2200 Leaves are useful in the treatment of rheumatism and syphilis. A decoction is used to combat intestinal worms
Remarks
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Sarcococca hookeriana Baill. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia maddenii Boiss. Euphorbia pilosa L. Euphorbia prolifera Buch.-Ham ex D. Don Euphorbia stracheyi Boiss. Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle Leptopus cordifolius Decne. Phyllanthus parvifolius Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Daphniphyllaceae Celtis australis L.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Shrub 2000 Plant used in the treatment of stomach pain, rheumatism, swollen sore throat and traumatic injury Herb
2600
Herb Herb Herb
2200 500– 2300 2700
Shrub
2300
Shrub Shrub
1200– 2100 1700
Tree
2100
Daphniphyllum himalense Tree (Benth.) Mull.Arg.
2200
Moraceae Ficus auriculata Lour. Ficus hederacea Roxb. Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.
Tree
1600
Climber Tree
2400 2100
Ficus subincisa Buch.Tree Ham. ex Sm. Urticaceae Boehmeria virgata subsp. Shrub macrophylla (Hornem.) Friis & Wilmot-Dear
2100
Shrub
3000
Boehmeria virgata var. macrostachya (Wight) Friis & Wilmot-Dear
2050
Plant is used in stomach problems, dysentery, diarrhoea, eye problems
LC
The decoction can be used to astringe the mucous membranes in the treatment of diarrheoa, dysentery, and peptic ulcers A paste of the wood is applied as a poultice to boils
LC
The plant helps to regulate blood LC pressure and blood cholesterol Wood is used as firewood LC Plant parts are used in leprosy, diarrheoa, headache, fever, earache, ulcer, gastric problems and boils Fruits edible LC
A fibre is obtained from the bark is of excellent quality, is used for making sacks, bags, rough clothes, nets, rope An excellent quality of fibre is obtained from the bark used for making sacks, bags, rough clothes, nets, rope etc (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Boehmeria virgata var. scabrella (Dalzell & A.Gibson) Friis & Wilmot-Dear Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper & J.R.I.Wood
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Shrub 2100
Shrub
1500
Shrub
1800
Elatostema monandrum (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Hara Elatostema sessile J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.
Herb
2800
Herb
1200– 2400
Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis
Shrub
2200
Gonostegia triandra (Blume) Miq.
Herb
2700
Laportea bulbifera (Siebold & Zucc.) Wedd. Pilea racemosa (Royle) Tuyama Pilea scripta (Buch.Ham. ex D. Don) Wedd. Pilea umbrosa Wedd. ex Blume
Herb
3500
Herb
2300
Herb
2200
Herb
2500
Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn.
Herb
2200
Urtica ardens Link
Herb
Urtica dioica L.
Shrub
2400– 2700 2500
Remarks
Leaf juice is applied to scabies. LC Fruits are edible LC The aerial parts of the plant are dried and powdered, then mixed with mustard oil and then applied topically as an antifungal for curing skin rashes, dermatitis and eczema
Poultice of leaves used for abdominal disorders, body pain. Plant paste used on boils, pimples and blisters. Tender leaves consumed as vegetable. Shoots boiled and eaten The plant is a part of antidote to snake bites. Ash of the plant is applied externally for the treatment of ringworm and eczema Plant is used to treat boils and abscesses, abdominal cramps in females and leucorrhoea. Also used to treat bone dislocations and fractures Young leaves cooked and used as spinach
Plant used in liver disorders, cancer, rheumatism and in skin disorders Plant decoction is used to treat cough, pulmonary tuberculosis, sore throat, enteritis, dysentery Plant is used for jaundice, sprain, fractures etc Plant is used in the control of cardiovascular disorders especially hypertension
LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses
Remarks
Tree
2100
Plant helps to cure helminthiasis, diarrheoa, sinusitis, stomach pain, arthritis, asthma, eczema, scrofula, skin disorders, and endocrine diseases
LC
Myricaceae Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don
Tree
2300
Plant used to treat asthma, cough, chronic bronchitis, ulcers, inflammation, anemia, fever, diarrheoa, ear, nose, and throat disorders
Betulaceae Alnus nepalensis D. Don Betula alnoides Buch.Ham. ex D.Don
Tree Tree
2100 2200– 2600
Betula utilis D.Don
Tree
2800– 3700
Carpinus viminea Lindl. ex Wall.
Tree
2100
LC Plant extracts is an antidote against LC snakebites and is used to treat dislocated bones LC Plant act as skin disinfectant, and cures diseases of the blood and ear, convulsions, wound healing, bronchitis, leprosy Wood is used for making furniture, LC articles of sports and weaving shuttles
Tree
1700
Binomial Juglandaceae Juglans regia L.
Fagaceae Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A.DC.
Quercus floribunda Lindl. Tree ex A.Camus
2000– 2800
Quercus leucotrichophora Tree A.Camus
1500– 2400
Tree
2400– 3300
Quercus semecarpifolia Sm.
The bark is a source of tannins and can be used as a dye. Seeds cooked and eaten LC The seeds are astringent and diuretic. They are used in the treatment of diarrhoea, indigestion and asthma Plant is used to cure urinary infection, tooth ache and piles. Leaves are used as an astringent and in the treatment of diarrheoa. Gum resin is used in stomach pain LC Plant is used to treat acute diarrheoa, dysentery and haemorrhages. Also used as a mouthwash to treat toothache or gum problems and is applied topically as a wash on cuts, burns, various skin problems (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Salicaceae Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Tree
2500
Salix calyculata Hook.f. ex Andersson Salix denticulata Andersson
Shrub
3300
Shrub
2500
Salix flabellaris Andersson Salix fruticulosa Andersson Salix lindleyana Wall.ex Andersson Orchidaceae Calanthe plantaginea Lindl.
Shrub
3300
Shrub
3000
Shrub
3200
Calanthe tricarinata Lindl. Crepidium acuminatum (D.Don) Szlach.
Terrestrial 1500– 3300 Terrestrial 2300
Cypripedium elegans Rchb.f. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soó Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl. Dienia cylindrostachya Lindl. Epipactis helleborine (L.) Crantz Goodyera fusca (Lindl.) Hook.f. Goodyera repens (L.) R.Br.
Terrestrial 2800
Terrestrial 2200
Terrestrial 3000
Remarks
A paste of the bark, mixed with the LC ash of cow dung, is used as a poultice to treat muscular swellings
Plant is used for malarial fever; the leaf and seed as a diuretic, for jaundice, cough, dropsy, rheumatism, and urogenital diseases Decoction of bark is given to cure fever Used as fodder
The dried and powdered rhizome is mixed with milk and taken as a tonic and an aphrodisiac Leaf paste is applied as a poultice to treat sores and eczema Plant is used in the treatment of blood disorders, burning sensation in the body, male sterility, fever, dysentery, external and internal haemorrhage and general weakness EN Tuber extract given to cure whooping cough and fever
Epiphytes 600– 2000 Terrestrial 2500– 4000 Terrestrial 2450 Terrestrial 2700 Terrestrial 2900
LC The infusion can be held in the mouth as a treatment for toothache. The root and the leaves cure bladder problems (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. Herminium elisabethae (Duthie) Tang & F.T.Wang Liparis rostrata Rchb. f. Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze
Oberonia ensiformis (Sm.) Lindl. Oberonia micrantha Lindl. Oberonia pachyrachis Rchb.f. ex Hook.f. Oreorchis foliosa (Lindl.) Lindl. Satyrium nepalense D. Don Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Terrestrial 2900
Remarks
Terrestrial 2700
Herb
1500– 3000 Terrestrial 3000
Tubers are used to treat stomach disorders and also used as a tonic Plant is used in sterility, haemorrhages, dysentery, fever, emaciation, burning sensation, rheumatism and debility. Paste applied externally for insect bites
VU
Epiphytes 600– 1000 Epiphytes 2500 Epiphytes 2000 Terrestrial 2500 Terrestrial 2500 Terrestrial 2600
Zingiberaceae Cautleya spicata (Sm.) Herb Baker Hedychium spicatum Sm. Herb
2300 2200
Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta
Herb
1000
Roscoea alpina Royle
Herb
2000– 4300
Roscoea purpurea Sm.
Herb
2600
Plant is used as energetic tonic and cure fevers Tubers are used as tonic. Decoction LC of plants is used in intermittent fever. Paste of stem and roots used in sores The juice of the rhizome is used in the treatment of stomach problems Rhizome extract has antimicrobial activity which used for making various types of drugs including anti cancerous drug and essential oil Rhizome is used to treat fever, rashes, asthma, bronchitis, and intestinal worms Extract of whole plant is given for cough and cold. Dried powder of leaves used in wounds and cuts of cattle Plant is used for the treatment of diabetic, hypertension, diarrheoa, fever, inflammation
LC
LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Nartheciaceae Aletris pauciflora (Klotzsch) Hand.-Mazz. Iridaceae Iris domestica (L.) Goldblatt & Mabb. Iris kemaonensis Wall. ex D.Don Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea bulbifera L.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses
Remarks
Herb
3200
The root is chewed as a treatment for coughs and colds
Herb
2500
Herb
3200
The juice of the root is used to treat liver complaints Plant is used to treat ear pain and weakening of the eyesight
Climber
2050
Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. Climber ex Griseb.
2400
Amaryllidaceae Allium stracheyi Baker
Herb
3100
Allium wallichii Kunth
Herb
3300
Shrub
2050
Shrub
1500– 2500
Clintonia udensis Trautv. & C.A.Mey. Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr.
Herb
3000
Herb
1000– 3000
Fritillaria cirrhosa D.Don Lilium oxypetalum (D.Don) Baker
Herb
3200
Herb
3500
Liliaceae Asparagus curillus Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. Cardiocrinum giganteum (Wall.) Makino
Plant is used in the treatment of piles, dysentery, syphilis, ulcers, cough, leprosy, diabetes, asthma, and cancer Plant act as vermifuge and anthelmintic, to get rid of intestinal worms Dried flowers used to reduce blood cholesterol levels, act as a tonic to the digestive system and circulatory system The bulbs, boiled then fried in ghee, are eaten in the treatment of cholera and dysentery. The raw bulb is chewed to treat coughs and cold
The leaves are used as an external cooling application to alleviate the pains of wounds and bruises. A paste of the root is applied as a poultice to treat dislocated bone Young leaves and shoots are cooked as a vegetable The juice of the roots is used in the treatment of fevers. Tender leaves and young shoots are cooked and used as a vegetable The extract of root is used to cure asthma
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Lloydia longiscapa Hook. Maianthemum purpureum (Wall.) LaFrankie Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don Paris polyphylla Sm.
Polygonatum geminiflorum Decne. Polygonatum multiflorum (L.) All. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Remarks Herb 3300 Herb 2800 Tender young leaves and shoots are cooked as a vegetable Herb 2500 Plant is hacking dry coughs, dry tongue, mouth, and constipation Herb 1800– Roots are analgesic, antiphlogistic, VU 2800 antipyretic, antispasmodic, antitussive, depurative, febrifuge and narcotic. A decoction of the roots is used in the treatment of poisonous snake bites, boils and ulcers, diphtheria Herb 3200 Herb
2700
Herb
2300
Streptopus simplex D.Don Herb
2600
Herb
2350
Herb
3550
Climber Climber
2100 2200
Herb
2200
Herb
2000
Herb Herb Herb
2800 2600 3000– 5000 3600– 4700
Theropogon pallidus (Wall. ex Kunth) Maxim. Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D.Don Smilacaceae Smilax aspera L. Smilax elegans Wall. ex Kunth. Commelinaceae Commelina paludosa Blume Murdannia spirata (L.) G.Brückn. Juncaceae Juncus clarkei Buchenau Juncus concinnus D.Don Juncus himalensis Klotzsch Juncus leucomelas Royle ex D.Don.
Herb
Plant is used in hair growth promotion and hair blackening Plant is made into a salep, a strength giving food. Plant is diuretic
Plant is used in treating cancer, dysentery, open wounds, skin infections, inflammation
EN
LC
Plant is used for treating microbial infections LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2600
Remarks
Herb
2200
LC
Arisaema intermedium Blume
Herb
2400– 3700
Arisaema jacquemontii Blume
Herb
2900
Arisaema propinquum Schott Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott
Herb
2600
Herb
1200– 2300
Sauromatum diversifolium (Wall. ex Schott) Cusimano & Hett. Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon nepalense J.D.Prescott ex Bong. Cyperaceae Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) Kunth ex C.B. Clarke Carex cardiolepis Nees
Herb
2400– 4200
Herb
2000
Herb
2400
Herb
Carex cruciata Wahlenb. Carex nivalis Boott Carex norvegica Retz.
Herb Herb Herb
Carex nubigena D.Don. Carex obscura Nees Carex sanguinea L. var. foliosa C.B. Clarke Carex sanguinea Boott
Herb Herb Herb
2300– 3000 2300 3400 1500– 2300 3000 3200 1500
Carex setosa Boott
Herb
Binomial Luzula campestris (L.) DC. Araceae Acorus calamus L.
Herb
Rhizome paste is applied to treat headache, skin diseases and wounds. Powdered rhizomes are used as insecticide Plant is used to treat asthma, bronchitis, cold, cough, and laryngitis Roots may be cooked and eaten. The leaves are fermented before being eaten Plant exhibits anthelminthic property Plant cures inflammation and arthritis, and used as analgesic, for disinfecting the genitourinary tract and in the treatment of reddish boils
LC
LC
Plant is used to treat urinary tract infections
LC
LC Roots are cooked and eaten
1300– 2500 2700– 4800 (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Carex supina Willd. ex Wahlenb. Carex unciniiformis Boeckeler Cyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntz.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 1300 Herb
3600
Herb
2200
Erioscirpus comosus (Wall.) Palla Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl Poaceae Agrostis pilosula Trin.
Herb
2200
Herb
2050
Herb
2600
Andropogon munroi C.B. Clarke Apluda mutica L.
Herb
2450
Herb
2100
Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. Arundinella bengalensis (Spreng.) Druce Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake Calamagrostis pseudophragmites (Haller f.) Koeler Calamagrostis scabrescens Griseb. Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A.Camus Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone Cenchrus orientalis (Rich.) Morrone Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin
Herb
2100
Herb
2050
Herb
2100
Herb
2600
Herb
3200
Herb Herb
600– 2100 2300
Herb
2400
Herb
2050
Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson Dactylis glomerata L.
Herb
2300
Herb
3800
Remarks
The juice of the roots is used in the LC treatment of coughs and fevers. The ground-up rhizome is applied topically to skin disorders The fibrous leaves are employed for making twine and cordage The culms are used to make an LC inferior matting. Good soil binder Fresh and dry aerial parts directly palatable. Good fodder Good odder grass Leaf paste applied on wounds with bleeding
LC
LC The plant can be used for thatching. An essential oil obtained from the roots can be used as an adulterant for rose oil A lemon-scented essential oil is extracted from this species for medicinal and industrial purposes Plant is used for tumours, kidney and bladder ailments (continued)
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213
Table 1 (continued) Binomial Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Digitaria setigera Roth Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 2100 Fodder grass Herb 2500 Small tree 2100
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Herb
2100
Eragrostis nigra Nees ex Steud. Eulalia mollis (Griseb.) Kuntze Festuca rubra L. Festuca valesiaca Schleich. ex Gaudin Glyceria tonglensis C.B.Clarke Himalayacalamus falconeri (Hook.f. ex Munro) Keng f. Lolium giganteum (L.) Darbysh. Melica scaberrima (Nees ex Steud.) Hook.f. Microstegium falconeri (Hook.f.) Clayton Microstegium nudum (Trin.) A. Camus Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. Muhlenbergia duthieana Hack. Muhlenbergia huegelii Trin. Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) P. Beauv. Phleum alpinum L. Poa alpina L. Poa annua L.
Herb
2350
Herb
2200
Herb Herb
2900 3000
Herb
4100
Shrub
2700
Herb
2600
Herb
2700
Herb
2400
Herb
2050
Herb
2400
Herb
Herb
2000– 3600 900– 3000 2050
Herb
2100
Herb Herb Herb
3000 3300 3000
Herb
Remarks
Young shoots are cooked and used as a vegetable. The leaves are used as a roofing material Plant is applied externally to open LC wounds to stop bleeding. A poultice of the leaves is applied to sprains and back pains
Young shoots are cooked and used as a vegetable
Plant is used as fodder
LC
Good fodder grass Plant is antiseptic, astringent, LC demulcent for dropsy and dysentery
LC LC (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Poa nepalensis (Wall. ex Griseb.) Duthie Saccharum rufipilum Steud. Stipa roylei (Nees) Mez. Tenaxia cachemyriana (Jaub. & Spach) N.P.Barker & H.P.Linder Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Trin.) Munro Tripogon filiformis Nees ex Steud. Trisetum clarkei (Hook. f.) R.R.Stewart Ephedraceae Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Klotzsch & Garcke
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb 1900– Forage grass 3000 Shrub 2300
Remarks
Herb Herb
2640 3100
Shrub
2500
Herb Herb
1000– 4500 3000
Shrub
4000
Plant is used in the treatment for colds, coughs, bronchitis, asthma and arthritis
VU
Cupressaceae Juniperus communis L.
Shrub
3300
LC
Juniperus indica Bertol.
Shrub
3400
Plant is diuretic, anti-arthritis, anti-diabetes, antiseptic as well as used for the treatment of gastrointestinal and autoimmune disorders Plant cures digestion problems including upset stomach, intestinal gas, heartburn, bloating and loss of appetite
Taxaceae Taxus wallichiana Zucc.
Tree
2700
Plant is used to treat common cold, EN cough, fever and throat pain
Tree
2700
Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb.
Tree
2800
Pinus roxburghii Sarg.
Tree
2200
LC Plant is a tonic for bronchitis, haemoptysis, asthma, inflammatory conditions, fever, hypoglycaemia NT Leaf juice is taken to treat asthma and bronchitis and is also given to infants suffering from fever and chest infection LC The wood is aromatic, deodorant, haemostatic, stimulant, anthelmintic, digestive, liver tonic, diaphoretic, and diuretic
Selaginellaceae Selaginella chrysocaulos (Hook. & Grev.) Spring
Herb
2100
Pinaceae Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle
LC
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Loxogrammaceae Loxogramme involuta (D.Don) C.Presl Loxogramme porcata M.G.Price Polypodiaceae Drynaria mollis Bedd. Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) J.Sm. ex Bedd. Goniophlebium amoenum (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd. Goniophlebium fieldingianum (Kunze ex Mett.) T.Moore Goniophlebium lachnopus (Wall. ex Hook.) Bedd. Lepisorus contortus (Christ.) Ching. Microsorum zippelii (Blume) Ching Pyrrosia porosa (C.Presl) Hovenkamp Selliguea capitellata (Mett.) X.C.Zhang & L.J.He Selliguea ebenipes (Hook.) S.Linds. Selliguea oxyloba (Wall. ex Kunze) Fraser-Jenk. Selliguea quasidivaricata (Hayata) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi Sinopteridaceae Hemionitis albomarginata (C.B.Clarke) Christenh. Cryptogrammaceae Onychium lucidum (D.Don) Spreng.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb
2300
Herb
2200
Climber Climber
2400 2200
Herb
2300
Herb
2400
Herb
2500
Herb
2100
Herb
2400
Herb
2500
Herb
2200
Herb
2200
Herb
2400
Herb
2300
Herb
2050
Herb
2100
Remarks
The whole plant paste is applied over cut injuries
Plant is used in the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Binomial Lycopodiaceae Huperzia verticillata (L.f.) Trevis.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Herb
1200– 1900
Plant is antioxidant, anti- inflammatory and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities in the neural system, to prevent Alzheimer’s disease
Pteridaceae Pteris aspericaulis Wall. ex J.Agardh
Herb
2600
Pteris cretica L.
Herb
2100
Pteris wallichiana C.Agardh
Herb
2500
The paste of rhizome is applied in treatment of cuts, boils, and muscular swellings Fronds are antibacterial, is made into a paste and applied to wounds Fresh leaves are crushed and applied to stop bleeding and healing of wounds
Hemiontidaceae Adiantum capillus-veneris Herb L. Coniogramme affinis Herb Hieron
Trisetopsis aspera (Munro ex Thwaites) Röser & A.Wölk Vittariaceae Haplopteris flexuosa (Fée) E.H. Crane Aspleniaceae Asplenium dalhousieae Hook. Asplenium ensiforme Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. Asplenium laciniatum subsp. tenuicaule (Hayata) Fraser-Jenk. Asplenium yoshinagae subsp. indicum (Sledge) Fraser-Jenk. Woodsiaceae
2050 2200
Leaf extracts used in coughs and throat infections Plant shows antioxidant, antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activities. It is used for the treatment of various chronic and infectious diseases
Herb
2500
Herb
2200
Herb
2100
Plant is antibacterial
Herb
2200
Herb
2500
Young fronds and underground stem are edible Plant is used in folk medicine
Herb
2100– 2400
Remarks
LC
LC
(continued)
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217
Table 1 (continued) Binomial Woodsia elongata Hook. Aspleniaceae Athyrium atkinsonii Bedd. Athyrium fimbriatum T.Moore Athyrium schimperi Moug ex Fee Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.
Altitude Life form (m) Ethno-medicinal uses Shrub 2200 Herb Herb
2100 2050
Herb
2100
Shrub
2100
Diplazium maximum (D. Don) C.Chr. Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don) C.Chr.
Shrub
2100
Herb
2050
Dryopteris redactopinnata Soumen K.Basu & Panigrahi Dryopteris wallichiana (Spreng.) Hyl. Polystichum squarrosum (D.Don) Fee
Herb
2400
Herb
2500
Herb
2200
Polystichum stimulans (Kunze. ex Mett.) Bedd. Davalliaceae Davallodes pulchra (D.Don) M.Kato & Tsutsumi Leucostegia truncata (D.Don) Fraser-Jenk. Blechnaceae Woodwardia unigemmata (Makino) Nakai
Herb
2100
Herb
2100
Herb
2100
Rhizome is used as antibacterial and in the treatment of constipation
Shrub
2300
The decoction of rhizome and fronds internally administrated in dysentery. Dried rhizome is used as purgative, fronds used in skin diseases, and infertility
The sporophylls possess anti- bacterial properties Plant is used for the treatment of diabetes, smallpox, asthma, diarrheoa, rheumatism, dysentery, headache, fever, wounds, pain, measles, and high blood pressure Young fronds are edible
Plant is used to treat epilepsy, leprosy, cuts, wounds, ulcers, swelling
The sporophyll extract of is used as an anti-bacterial agent. Fronds are anti-rheumatic
Remarks
LC
218
Plate 1 Vegetation types of Sunderdhunga Valley
R. Manikandan et al.
Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis…
Plate 2 Flowering plants of Sunderdhunga Valley
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Plate 3 Flowering plants of Sunderdhunga Valley
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Checklist Flora of Sunderdhunga Valley, Western Himalaya, with Emphasis…
Plate 4 Flowering plants of Sunderdhunga Valley
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R. campanulatum, Rumex acetosa, Salix flabellaris, Saussurea obvallata, Saxifraga stenophylla, Sedum bupleuroides, S. heterodontum, S. oreades, Selinum elatum, Sibbaldia parviflora, Swertia cuneata, Taraxacum officinale, Thymus linearis, Viola pilosa, Waldheimia glabra [57–60].
3.2 EET Species According to Walter and Gillett [61], over 60, 000 species have been evaluated for conservation status as per the internationally accepted criteria, of which 34,000 are classified as globally threatened with extinction. The Botanical Survey of India has published Red Data Books [62] which contain information on 622 threatened plants. Kandwal has developed an assessment system that prepares global Red List of threatened species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, a comprehensive assessment of the prevailing risk of extinction of thousands of plant and animal species. The global IUCN Red List is updated on a regular basis and the latest version was released in 2020 as version 2020–2 (IUCN Red List, 2020) [63]. According to the criteria for critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable taxa are classified mainly basing on reduction in population size, extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. Sunderdhunga glacier valley and its surroundings, the following Endemic, Endangered and Threatened (EET) species have been reported, viz., Acer caesium, Aconitum heterophyllum, Aconitum violaceum, Acorus calamus, Angelica glauca, Berberis aristata, Cyananthus integer, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Delphinium denudatum, Dioscorea deltoidea, Fritillaria roylei, Habenaria pectinata, Hedychium spicatum, Holboellia latifolia, Jurinea dolomiaea, Malaxis muscifera, Meconopsis aculeata, Morina longifolia, Nardostachys grandiflora, Parnassia nubicola, Picrorhiza kurroa, Polygonatum verticillatum, Rheum webbianum, Rhododendron anthopogon, Rhododendron campanulatum, Saussurea obvallata, Skimmia anquetilia, Swertia alata, Thalictrum foliolosum, etc. Among the threats to the indigenous flora of the valley, the most important anthropogenic species, deforestation, cattle grazing, timber and fuel wood cutting, soil erosion, construction schemes, plantation, plant collection, fire, tourist pressure and the invasive species result in degradation of forests. In addition, environmental factors, such as seismic activity or violent stress strokes and floods, chase landslides or wash away top soil and then alter or destroy the vegetation. The prospective conservation of such unmatched scenic beauty of the floristic composition as well as herbal wealth of the present study area is essential and also it is a home for a lot of endemic plants and endangered animals which helps in maintaining genetic diversity.
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4 Conclusion Several measures are underway for protection of the species reaching extinction and endemic, endangered and threatened (EET) species. These measures include survey and inventorization of plant resources in wild and to develop an accurate database for their planning and monitoring purposes, the Protected Area Network (PAN) has been created for in situ conservation which has been designated as species, habitats and ecosystems oriented. Ex situ conservation of rare, endangered, threatened and endemic species has been undertaken through botanic gardens, zoological parks, gene banks, etc., and as per Biological Diversity Act, 2002, state-wise list of species of plants which are on the verge of extinction along with guidelines to prohibit and regulate their collection, rehabilitate and preserve these species have been proposed. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata, Head of Office (HoO), BSI, Northern Regional Centre, Dehradun, and HoO, BSI, Southern Regional Centre, Coimbatore, for providing the facilities to carry out the said project.
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Phytomedicines Used in Respiratory Diseases by Traditional Healers of Lakhimpur and Dhemaji Districts of Assam, India Pinki Gogoi, Pyonim Lungphi, A. P. Das, and Victor Singh Ayam
1 Introduction The knowledge of ethnomedicine is very ancient. It shares vast information regarding the traditional uses of plants by the people. The use of plants and plant products in human life is immense and their uses as medicines have been in practice since time immemorial and can be traced from the beginning of human civilization. The people of India are using medicinal plants since the prehistoric period [1]. Medicinal plants have a long-standing history among indigenous communities and are an integral part of treating various diseases, particularly to cure day-to-day ailments and this practice of traditional medicine is based on hundreds of years of belief and observations [2]. The earliest record of medicinal plant use in the Himalayas is found in Rigveda. This work was written between 4500 BC and 1600 BC, is supposed to be the oldest repository of human knowledge and describes 67 plants. After the Rigveda, Ayurveda (the foundation of the science of life and the art of healing of Hindu culture) describes the medicinal importance of 1200 plants. This wealthy inheritance of knowledge and the age-old wisdom of India might well be among the earliest in the world. About 70% of the Indian population dwell in rural areas and many of them reside in the neighbourhood of forest and use various plant parts as food, medicines, and for many other purposes for their daily livelihood [3, 4]. Some of the notable contributions in the state of Assam are medical plants used by the Karbi Anglong of Mikir Hills [5, 6]; medicinal plants from the Tezpur district [7] and plants used to cure jaundice in the Golaghat district documented by Pandey et al. [8]. The herbal remedy of the Nepalese of Assam was also reported by Borthakur et al. [6]. Medicinal plants used by Garo tribes are also studied by Rao [9]. The present P. Gogoi · P. Lungphi · A. P. Das · V. S. Ayam (*) Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University (Central), Rono Hills, Doimukh, Arunachal Pradesh, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_7
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study also aims at highlighting the ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources. Like other deadly diseases, respiratory diseases are also a major cause of mortality worldwide. In most of the developing countries like India, it causes a nationwide burden. Pneumonia, asthma, lung cancer, tuberculosis, etc., are some common respiratory diseases that have been causing concern since ancient times. In the present-day scenario, due to so many reasons like air quality, smoking tobacco, etc., the rate of these kinds of patients is on the rise. Children are the most susceptible targets of respiratory illnesses. Pneumonia is reported as the leading killer of young children all over the world, while asthma affects about 14% of children globally each year and is the most common chronic disease among children and adults. Although modern medicines have advanced the quality and lifestyle of humankind in many countries in recent decades yet the cost of health care for respiratory diseases is an increasing burden of all the leading and underdeveloped countries. For example, in the United States, asthma alone costs about $18 billion annually [10]. So, there is an urgent need for information about alternate complementary medicines like traditional ways of curing these diseases using surrounding plants. There are many efficient medicines for these respiratory diseases in the present allopathic medical system. But, in areas where the modern medical system is not easily available, people happily use traditional systems to treat these diseases even today. The knowledge of their ethnomedicine is very ancient, transferred orally for generations and generated mainly through the trial-and-error method. It shares just a part of the vast information regarding traditional uses of common plants by the people. So, the survey of medicinal plants becomes extremely important for researchers because it gives information about a particular plant in a particular area. The northeastern part of India is the huge storehouse of traditional knowledge as the life of numerous tribal communities in this area is almost fully forest dependent. They collect almost everything to survive from the floristic vegetation of their areas. Assam is one of the eight states of Northeast India covered mostly by forest with innumerable forest villages that are yet to avail the benefits of modern developmental facilities [11, 12]. With its boundless forests and hills, Assam is a home of abundant medicinal plants with different individual tribal communities [5, 6]. Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts of upper Assam are also mostly inhabited by many tribal communities who practise traditional plant-based medicines. However, a few such preliminary works have been done in the area that is quite insufficient against the potentiality of the region [13–17].
2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area The survey was carried out in Lakhimpur (26°48′ N to 27°53′ N latitudes and 93°42′ E to 94°20′ E longitudes) and Dhemaji (27°05′27″ N to 27°57′16″ latitudes and 94°12′ to 95°41′ longitude) districts of Assam (Fig. 1) during 2018–2020.
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Fig. 1 Map of study sites, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts of Assam, India
The area is located on the northern bank of the river Brahmaputra and the northeastern corner of the Indian state of Assam, with an area of 2227 sq km for Lakhimpur and 3237 sq km for Dhemaji districts. Both districts encounter hot and humid summer, cold and dry winter with high precipitation during monsoon [18, 19]. Inhabitants of the area belong to different tribes and communities including Mishing, Tiwa, Boro, Sonowal-Kachari, Deuri and Adibasi are living in both the districts. While they are having their respective languages, the main communicating language is Assamese. Earlier the entire area was covered under forest and people were living mainly in the forest. Even today, apart from small township areas, most of the people live in such villages and survive well in their traditional ways.
2.2 Data Collection A random and regular household survey was carried out from August 2018 to March 2020 in different villages of the area selected randomly. A semi-structured questionnaire was prepared for the survey following Jain and Mudgal [20]. Traditional healers, elderly villagers of both sexes, were interviewed for their knowledge about traditional medicinal plants used in treating Pneumonia and asthma.
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2.3 Collection and Identification of Plants Plants are initially identified in their local language (Assamese) and voucher specimens were collected for scientific identification. The specimens were then processed into mounted herbarium sheets [21, 22]. Plants were identified referring to literatures [23–25] and compared with the Herbarium of Arunachal University (HAU-Herbarium). Updated names of plants were obtained from websites of the world online organization on plant taxonomy [26, 27]. Specimens were deposited in the HAU-Herbarium for future reference. Quantitative Evaluation: For a better understanding of the collected information, (i) relative frequency of citations (RFC) and (ii) fidelity level (FL) were calculated following Umair et al. [28]. (i) Relative frequency of citations (RFC): It describes the local significance of each species from a study area. RFC is calculated by the formula RFC = FC/N (0 1), where FC is the number of informants citing for a particular species and N is the total number of informants. (ii) Fidelity level (FL): It is the percentage of informants mentioning a plant species for a single disease. FL is calculated as FL (%) = (Np/N) × 100, where Np is the number of informants that suggested the use of a plant in a particular disease and N is the number of informants. A high FL value indicates the high use of a particular plant species in treating a particular disease by the healers of that area.
3 Result and Discussion In the present study, a total of 61 plant species belonging to 35 families were recorded that are used traditionally by local healers and elderly people in treating pneumonia and asthma by interviewing 80 informants. The most dominating families are Lamiaceae and Zingiberaceae with four species each. Young shoots are the most used parts during crude medicine preparation with 22.95% followed by leaves (14.75%), bark (13.11%), fruit, root and whole plant with 9.84% each. Table 1 enumerates all the recorded plants with field number, family, local names, habits, status of all plants, diseases treated, RFC and FL% among 80 informants of the study area, whereas Tables 2 and 3 show the name of the medicinal plants, parts used, mode of preparations (traditional formulations) and nature of administration in managing the diseases. During the preparation of medicine/formulation, healers mainly used freshly collected plants from the wild or their surroundings. Usually, they do not store prepared medicine, for the next batch preparation, they used to collect all required plants freshly from the wild. Crude preparations are in the form of fresh juice, decoction, paste and tablets. The mode of administration is mainly oral but some
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Table 1 Plants recorded from Lakhimpur and Dhemaji districts of Assam for the treatment of respiratory diseases such as pneumonia and asthma Plant names [Family]; field no. Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K. Jansen [Asteraceae]; GPinki-119 Acorus calamus L. [Acoraceae]; GPinki-062 Ageratum conyzoides L. [Asteraceae]; GPinki-031 Allium sativum L. [Amaryllidaceae]; GPinki-158 Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G.Don [Araceae]; GPinki-169 Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T. Aiton [Apocynaceae]; GPinki-200 Asplenium nidus L. [Aspleniaceae]; GPinki-075 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. [Meliaceae]; GPinki-001 Capsicum annuum L. [Solanaceae]; GPinki-022 Carica papaya L. [Caricaceae]; GPinki-035 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. [Apiaceae]; GPinki-011 Cinnamomum verum J. Presl [Lauraceae]; GPinki-112 Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck [Rutaceae]; GPinki-018 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. [Lamiaceae]; GPinki-196 Croton caudatus Geiseler [Euphorbiaceae]; GPinki-064 Curcuma caesia Roxb. [Zingiberaceae]; GPinki-089 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. [Poaceae]; GPinki-110 Cyperus rotundus L. [Poaceae]; GPinki-120 Deeringia amaranthoides (Lam.) Merr. [Amaranthaceae]; GPinki-094 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. [Caryophyllaceae]; GPinki-03 Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton [Zingiberaceae]; GPinki-115
Assamese name Huhoni
FL Habit Status Disease (%) RFC H Wi Pneumonia 1.25 0.025
Bosh
H
Wi
Asthma
Gundhua bon
H
Wi
Pneumonia 2.5
Nohoru
H
Cu
Pneumonia 1.25 0.025
Nol kosu
H
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Palti
S
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Biyonijupa
H
Wi
Asthma
1.25 0.012
Mohaneem
T
Wi
Asthma
1.25 0.062
Jolokia
H
Pneumonia 1.25 0.025
Bor maanimuni H
Wi, Cu Wi, Cu Wi
Pneumonia 3.75 0.162
Daalchini
T
Cu
Pneumonia 1.25 0.037
Gulnemu
S
Cu
Dhopat tita
H, S
Wi
Pneumonia 3.75 0.125 Asthma 1.25 Pneumonia 1.25 0.05
Hunghungi lota S
Wi
Pneumonia 2.5
Kola halodhi
H
Wi
Asthma
Dubori bon
H
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.037
Kera bon
H
Wi
Pneumonia 2.5
Matuktuka
C
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Ghuronia laaijabori
H
Wi
Pneumonia 2.5 0.075 Asthma 1.25
Elichi
H
Cu
Pneumonia 1.25 0.037
Omita
1.25 0.025 0.062
Pneumonia 1.25 0.025
0.025
1.25 0.012
0.025
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Plant names [Family]; field no. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn [Poaceae]; GPinki-013 Ficus racemosa L. [Moraceae]; GPinki-087 Guilandina bonduc L. [Fabaceae]; GPinki-032 Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta [Costaceae]; GPinki-048 Heteropanax fragrans (Roxb.) Seem. [Araliaceae]; GPinki-093 Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. [Araliaceae]; GPinki-02 Hygrophila phlomoides Nees [Acanthaceae]; GPinki-139 Kaempferia rotunda L. [Zingiberaceae]; GPinki-046 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link [Lamiaceae]; GPinki-041 Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Mull.Arg. [Euphorbiaceae]; GPinki-101 Mangifera indica L. [Anacardiaceae]; GPinki-067 Momordica dioica Roxb. Ex Willd. [Cucurbitaceae]; GPinki-050 Myristica fragrans Houtt. [Myristicaceae]; GPinki-113 Ocimum tenuiflorum L. [Lamiaceae]; GPinki-107 Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. [Rubiaceae]; GPinki-012 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz [Bignoniaceae]; GPinki-047 Oryza sativa L. [Poaceae]; GPinki-200 Piper nigrum L. [Piperaceae]; GPinki-004 Piper thomsonii (C.DC.) Hook.f. [Piperaceae]; GPinki-014 Piper betle L. [Piperaceae]; GPinki-063 Plumbago zeylanica L. [Plumbaginaceae]; GPinki-096 Potentilla indica (Andrews) Th. Wolf [Rosaceae]; GPinki-201
Assamese name Bobosa bon
FL Habit Status Disease (%) RFC H Wi Pneumonia 1.25 0.025
Dimoru
T
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.037
Letaguti
T
Wi
Jomlakhuti
H
Wi
Pneumonia 5 0.187 Asthma 2.5 Pneumonia 1.25 0.087
Keseru
T
Horu maanimuni
H
Wi, Cu Wi
Pneumonia 3.75 0.175
H
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Bhumichampa
H
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Durun bon
H
Wi
Asthma
Murulia
T
Wi
Pneumonia 3.75 0.075
Aam
T
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.025
Bhatkerela
C
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Jaaifal
T
Wi, Cu Cu
Pneumonia 1.25 0.037
Kola tulokhi
H
Wi
Pneumonia 2.5
Bonjaluk
H
Wi
Pneumonia 3.75 0.087
Bhatghila
T
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.05
Dhan
H
Cu
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Jaluk
C
Aauni paan
C
Wi, Cu Wi
Pneumonia 22.5 0.412 Asthma 5 Pneumonia 1.25 0.025
Paan
C
Cu
Aagesita
H
Wi
Pneumonia 3.75 0.075 Asthma 1.25 Asthma 1.25 0.012
Gorokhia bon
H
Wi
Asthma
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
1.25 0.1
0.087
1.25 0.012 (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Plant names [Family]; field no. Psidium guajava L. [Myrtaceae]; GPinki-017 Ricinus communis L. [Euphorbiaceae]; GPinki-034 Rubus alceifolius Poir. [Rosaceae]; GPinki-033 Scoparia dulcis L. [Plantaginaceae]; GPinki-010 Sida rhombifolia (L.) [Malvaceae]; GPinki-143 Solanum violaceum Ortega [Solanaceae]; GPinki-043 Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz [Anacardiaceae]; GPinki-066 Stephania rotunda Lour. [Menispermaceae]; GPinki-102 Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry [Myrtaceae]; GPinki-114 Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. Ex Roem. & Schult. [Apocynaceae]; GPinki-074 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth [Asteraceae]; GPinki-168 Thunbergia coccinea Wall. Ex D. Don [Acanthaceae]; GPinki-100 Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott [Araceae]; GPinki-026 Urena lobata L. [Malvaceae]; GPinki-037 Vitex negundo L. [Lamiaceae]; GPinki-044 Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC. [Rutaceae]; GPinki-059 Zehneria japonica (Thunb.) H.Y.Liu [Cucurbitaceae]; GPinki-053 Zingiber officinale Roscoe [Zingiberaceae]; GPinki-118 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. [Rhamnaceae]; GPinki-065
Assamese name Modhuri
FL Habit Status Disease (%) RFC T Wi Pneumonia 5.00 0.15
Ara
H
Jetulipoka
H, S
Wi, Cu Wi
Asthma
1.25 0.037
Pneumonia 2.5
Meetha bon
H
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.05
Hunboriyal
H
Wi
Asthma
Titabhekuri
S
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Omora
T
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Gumraaj
C
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25
Lon
S
Cu
Pneumonia 1.25 0.05
Kathana
S
Wi
Asthma
2.5
Jharu bon
S
Wi
Asthma
1.25 0.012
C
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Kosu
H
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
Hunboriyal
H
Wi
Pneumonia 2.5
0.025
Posotia
S
Wi
Pneumonia 2.5
0.037
Tezmui
C
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.062
Belipoka
C
Wi
Asthma
1.25 0.025
Aada
H
Cu
Asthma
1.25 0.037
Bogori
T, S
Wi
Pneumonia 1.25 0.012
0.087
1.25 0.025
0.037
Abbreviations used: Habit: C climber, H herb, S shrub, T tree. Status: Cu cultivated, Wi wild Total number of informants/respondents = 80
P. Gogoi et al.
234 Table 2 Traditional remedies for pneumonia Part Plants used Preparation Eleusine indica R Extract juice from a handful of the root of E. indica by crushing, squeezing and Piper nigrum F pressing method. Dry fruit powder of P. nigrum (9 to 21 fruits) is added and the crude juice mixture is formed (Whenever fruits/seeds are used they are taken in odd numbers as they belief in getting positive results with uneven numbers. It is also considered more effective with higher amount of P. nigrum. Therefore, as a recommended dose for minors only 9 fruits were added against 21 fruits for matured peoples during preparation). Drymaria YS A handful of leafy young shoots are cordata crushed, squeezed, pressed and extract the juice. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Centella asiatica Oldenlandia diffusa Piper nigrum Typhonium trilobatum
WP
Piper nigrum
F
Calotropis gigantea Capsicum annuum Piper nigrum
R
WP WP F T
R F
Scoparia dulcis R Urena lobata R
Solanum violaceum Guilandina bonduc Piper thomsonii Piper nigrum
F S R
A handful of all the three plants, viz. H. sibthorpioides, C. asiatica and O. diffusa are grounded together and extract the juice by squeezing and pressing. Dry fruits of P. nigrum are grounded to powder (21 dry fruits) and mixed with the juice.
Administration Two tablespoons of the mixture is orally administered, once daily before breakfast consecutively for 3 days
Half a teaspoon of juice before breakfast is administered continuously till cured. About 3–4 tablespoons are orally administered before breakfast once a day for consecutive 3 days
Tuber of T. trilobatum (300 g) and dry fruits of P. nigrum (21 fruits) are boiled in water for about 30 minutes and made a paste.
One teaspoon of the paste is given twice daily, before or after food.
Equal amount of roots (200 g each) of both C. gigantea and C. gigantea and C. annuum are boiled in water and a decoction is prepared. Grounded powder of two–four dry fruits of P. nigrum are added into the decoction and made into a paste. Roots of S. dulcis (150 g) and U. lobata (50 g) are crushed together and juice are extracted by squeeze-press method, a little salt is added, warmed and the mixture is ready for treatment. Six fruits of S. violaceum, one seed of G. bonduc, and root of P. thomsonii (of a plant) are grounded and pressed/squeezed and extract the juice. Dry grounded fruit powder (21 fruits) of P. nigrum is added to the juice mixture and warm.
The paste is applied on chest, once daily for 3 days in adults and once in 48 h in children.
About 1 ml of warm crude juice is orally administered before breakfast, once daily for 3 days. One teaspoon of the crude juice is orally given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
F (continued)
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Table 2 (continued) Plants Oroxylum indicum Piper nigrum Vitex negundo Rubus alceifolius Psidium guajava Piper nigrum Citrus x limon Ageratum conyzoides Piper nigrum Kaempferia rotunda Piper nigrum
Part used Preparation B Bark of O. indicum (200 g) is grounded/ pounded with a little water and juice is extracted. Dry powder of P. nigrum fruit F (21 fruits) are added and the juice mixture is ready for treatment. B About 200 g of bark of V. negundo, a YS handful of young leafy twigs of R. alceifolius and P. guajava are grounded YS and a crude mixture of juice is extracted by squeezing and pressing. A handful of P. nigrum powder is added to the crude juice F mixture, and is administer. L Five leaves of C. limon, and five young YS shoots of A. conyzoides are grounded together and crude juice is extracted by squeezing & pressing and a handful of F P. nigrum dry fruit powder is added to the juice mixture. Rh About 100 g of rhizome of K. rotunda is grounded and juice is extracted by squeezing and pressing. Grounded powder F of 1–2 dried fruits of P. nigrum is added to the juice.
Momordica dioica
T
Croton caudatus Psidium guajava Ziziphus jujube Cyperus rotundus Guilandina bonduc Mangifera indica Citrus x limon Spondias pinnata Piper nigrum
YS YS YS WP S
About 3–4 tubers (100 g approx.) are pressed and juice is extracted and added a little salt to it. A handful of young shoots of C. caudatus, P. guajava, Z. jujuba, S. pinnata, one seed of G. bonduc, 3 whole plants of C. rotundus, 3–4 leaves of M. indica and C. limon are grounded and a thick paste is made. A handful of dry fruit powder of P. nigrum is added to the paste and make tablets.
Administration The crude mixture is orally administered thrice daily before meal consecutively for three days. About 3–4 tablespoons of crude mixture is orally administered on an empty stomach daily, continuously for three days. One teaspoon of the juice mixture is orally given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days. (the preparation is given only to adults) One teaspoon of the juice is given after meal, once daily for a week. (only for children below 5 years of age. The Informants don’t disclose the reason for not applying to other age groups) A teaspoon of the juice is given on empty stomach, daily for three days. Three tablets are given thrice daily, before meal consecutively for 3 days.
L L YS F (continued)
P. Gogoi et al.
236 Table 2 (continued) Plants Citrus x limon Piper nigrum Clerodendrum infortunatum Croton caudatus Ageratum conyzoides Oryza sativa Zanthoxylum nitidum Guilandina bonduc Myristica fragrans Syzygium aromaticum Elettaria cardamomum Piper betle Drymaria cordata Piper nigrum Cinnamomum verum Urena lobata Heteropanax fragrans Carica papaya Piper betle Vitex negundo Piper nigrum Deeringia amaranthoides Piper nigrum
Part used L F YS YS
Preparation A handful of all the ingredients except P. nigrum are mixed and juice is extracted by grinding, squeezing and pressing. Dry fruit powder of P. nigrum (21 fruits) is added to the crude juice and ready to administer.
Administration About (8–10) ml of crude juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
A handful of root of Z. nitidum, a leaf of P. betle, young shoot of D. cordata (one shoot), a seed of G. bonduc are grounded and by squeezing & pressing the juice is extracted. Remaining ingredients are added in a small quantities (0.5–1 fruit/ flower bud) to the crude juice mixture for taste, warm a little.
About 2 tablespoon of the crude juice extract is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
Roots from one or two U. lobata plant(s), with handful of P. betle leaves and young shoot of V. negundo, 100 g (approx..) of bark of H. fragrans and C. papoya, are grounded and juice is extracted by squeezing and pressing. Dry fruit powder of P. nigrum (21 fruits) fruit with a little salt is added to the crude mixture. A handful of root of D. amaranthoides and add dry fruit powder of P. nigrum (9 fruits) with a little salt and warm for a few minutes. About (50–100) g of bark of F. racemosa is grounded and extracted in water by squeezing and pressing. Dry fruit powder of 21 fruits of P. nigrum is added to the crude juice.
About (5–10) ml of the juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
YS F R S F FB F L YS F B R B B L YS F R F
Ficus racemosa B Piper nigrum F
About 1–2 tablespoon of crude juice is given on empty stomach, once daily till cured. About 1–2 tablespoon of crude juice is given on empty stomach, once dail for 3–4 days. (continued)
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Table 2 (continued) Plants Thunbergia coccinea Macaranga denticulata Stephania rotunda Piper nigrum Macaranga denticulate Piper nigrum Hygrophila phlomoides Psidium guajava Rubus alceifolius Cyperus rotundus Ocimum tenuiflorum Guilandina bonduc Piper nigrum Macaranga denticulata Psidium guajava Cynodon dactylon Hellenia speciosa Piper betle Piper nigrum Acmella paniculata Oldenlandia diffusa Alocasia macrorrhizos Piper nigrum
Part used Preparation L A handful of leaves of T. coccinea, tuber of M. denticulate and small piece of S. rotunda are grounded, and juice is L extracted by squeezing-pressing. added dry fruit powder of P. nigrum (21 fruits) are Tu added to the juice mixture. F B F YS YS YS
The bark (200 g) of M. denticulate is extracted by infusion for about 1 h, the extract filtrate is added with fruit powder of 21 dry fruits of P. nigrum. Mix all ingredients (handful) except P. nigrum and extract the juice by crushing, squeezing and Pressing. Dry fruit powder of P. nigrum (21 fruits) is added to the crude juice mixture.
Administration About (3–5) ml of juice is given, once daily till cured.
About 2–3 teaspoon of crude juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days About 5–10 ml of the crude juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
UN YS S F B YS WP
A handful of all the ingredients except P. nigrum are grounded and extracted the juice by squeezing and pressing. The juice obtain is added with dry fruit powder of 21 fruits of P. nigrum and the mixture is ready for use.
About 10 ml of the juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
A medium sized tuber (100–200) g of A. macrorrhizos is boiled in water with 21–31 dry fruits of P. nigrum and the decoction is prepared.
A tablespoon of the decoction is given after meal, twice daily consecutively for 2–3 days.
St L F YS WP Tu F
Abbreviations used: Parts used: L leaf, F fruit, S seed, R root, B bark, T tuber, WP whole plant, YS young shoot, Rh rhizome, St stem, FB flower bud, Fr frond; Extraction solvent: water; Method of extraction: Fresh-Squeeze and Pressing
P. Gogoi et al.
238 Table 3 Traditional remedies for asthma Part Plants used Zehneria japonica T
Piper nigrum F Guilandina S bonduc Ricinus communis L Tabernaemontana divaricata Asplenium nidus Leucas aspera Piper nigrum
B
Curcuma caesia Citrus x limon
Rh F
Fr YS F
Piper nigrum F Zingiber officinale Rh Sida rhombifolia R Plumbago zeylanica Piper betle
L
Drymaria cordata
YS
L
Azadirachta indica L Guilandina S bonduc
Preparation Tuber of Z. japonica 50 g is grounded and extracted by Fresh-Squeeze and Pressing, a little salt is added in the juice for improving taste and mixture is used for the treatment. A handful of leaf of P. nigrum and dry fruits and young leaves of R. communis with seeds (four) of G. bonduc are grounded to powder and make tablets. A handful of all the ingredients except P. nigrum are grounded using pestle and mortar and extracted by pressing & squeezing. Grounded powder of dry fruits (21 fruits) of P. nigrum is added and the mixture is ready to be used. Rhizome (200 g) of C. caesia is grounded and extracted by fresh-squeezing and pressing. The extracted juice is mixed with and the juice extracted from fresh-squeezing and pressing of one whole fruit of C. limon. Rhizome (200 g) of Z. officinale and root (100 g) of S. rhombifolia are mixed and grounded in mortar using pestle with handful of dry fruit powder of P. nigrum. Leaves of P. zeylanica (2 leaves) and one leaf of P. piper are grounded and extracted by squeezing and pressing. The extract is mixed and a paste is made. Juice is extracted from a handful of leaves of D. cordata and mixed with a cup of cow’s milk and is ready to be served. A handful of A. indica leaves with a seed of G. bonduc are boiled in water for 15–20 minutes and the decoction is prepared.
Administration Two tablespoon of the juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days
One tablets is administered until fully recovered.
Within a month of its preparation the crude juice of 10 ml is given on empty stomach, once daily, consecutively for 3 days.
One teaspoon of the mixed juice is given on empty stomach, till fully recovered.
About 10 ml of the juice is given on empty stomach, once daily till fully recovered. The paste is applied on the chest to recover from pneumonia.
Half a teaspoon of the crude juice mixture is consumed regularly before breakfast till fully cured. An amount of 10 ml of the decoction is given thrice daily before meal, till fully cured. (continued)
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Table 3 (continued) Plants Acorus calamus
Part used Rh
Tamarix dioica Piper nigrum
L F
Potentilla indica
WP
Preparation Dry rhizome powder of A. calamus is mixed with a little honey and make tablets. A handful of T. dioica leaves are grounded using pestle and mortar and crude juice is extracted, powder of dry fruits (21 fruits) of P. nigrum is added to the juice, warmed and is ready for use. Handful of the whole plant of P. indica is grounded using a pestle and mortar and crude juice is extracted by fresh-squeeze and press method and is ready for the ailment.
Administration Three tablets to be taken thrice daily, till cured. About 10 ml of the juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
About 10 ml of the juice is given on empty stomach, once daily consecutively for 3 days.
Abbreviations used: Parts used: L leaf, F fruit, S seed, R root, B bark, T tuber, WP whole plant, YS young shoot, Rh rhizome, St stem, FB flower bud, Fr frond; Extraction solvent: water; Method of extraction: Fresh-Squeeze and Pressing
practitioners also use the external mode of administration. Healers often recommend a strict diet to the patients during the period of treatment like restrictions to meat, fish, eggs, certain vegetables, etc. Among the recorded plants, 48 species were found to be used in treating pneumonia (Table 2), while 18 species were used in asthma treatment (Table 3) with some species such as P. nigrum, G. bonduc, C. limon, D. cordata, C. verum, E. cardamomum, M. fragrans and S. aromaticum being used as common additives for both the diseases during the preparation of crude medicines by various healers. A similar ethnomedicinal survey related to respiratory disease was carried out in other parts of India and reported similar plants such as O. tenuiflorum, L. aspera, Z. officinale, A. conyzoides, H. sibthorpioides, C. asiatica, O. diffusa, O. indicum, G. bonduc and P. Guajava [29–33] and for asthma L. aspera, P. nigrum [34] and A. calamus [35]. However, in the present study, the use of Tamarix dioica and Potentilla indica against asthma treatment and the use of Hygrophila phlomoides and Stephania rotunda against pneumonia recorded from the region are new ethnobotanical records.
4 Conclusion The wild plants in Assam are in use in disease management in households and are still popular. Often new ethnobotanical records also surface through similar field studies, viz. Tamarix dioica and Potentilla indica (anti-asthma); Hygrophila phlomoides and Stephania rotunda (anti-pneumonia). Contrary to the anti-bacterial
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properties reported for Thunbergia coccinea [36] none of the informants cited the species for pneumonia treatment from the region. Therefore, for understanding the actual efficacy and for the scientific exploitation for the benefit of mankind phytochemical analysis and biological validation is recommended for each of these plants. Therefore, the present study will open up possibilities for further pharmacological research.
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21. Bridson D, Forman L (1998) The herbarium handbook, 3rd edn. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew 22. Das AP (2021) Herbarium Techniques. In: Bhandari JB, Gurung C (eds) Instrumentation manual. Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 78–94 23. Hooker JD (1872–1897) The Flora of British India, 7 Vols. L. Reeve& Co. Ltd., Ashford, Kent. London 24. Kanjilal UN, Das A, Kanjilal PC, Purkaystha C, De RN, Bor NL (1934–1940) Flora of Assam, vol I–V. Govt of Assam Press, Shillong 25. Barooah C, Ahmed I (2014) Plant diversity of Assam – a checklist of angiosperms & gymnosperms. ASTEC, Guwahati 26. www.plantsoftheworldonline.org 27. http://www.worldfloraonline.org 28. Umair M, Altaf M, Abbasi AM (2017) An ethnobotanical survey of indigenous medicinal plants in Hafizabad district, Punjab-Pakistan. PLoS One 12(6):1–22 29. Dwivedi N, Dwivedi S, Dwivedi A (2015) Herbal remedies for respiratory diseases among the natives of Madhya Pradesh, India. Am J Life Sci Res 3(2):158–162 30. Kala CP (2020) Medicinal plants used for the treatment of respiratory diseases in Uttarakhand state of India. Stud Ethno Med 14(1–2):1–8 31. Bushi D, Bam K, Mahato R, Nimasow G, Nimasow OD, Tag H (2021) Ethnomedicinal plants used by the indigenous tribal communities of Arunachal Pradesh, India: a review. Ethnobot Res Appl 22(34):1–40 32. Yadav N, Ganie SA, Singh B, Chhillar AK, Yadav SS (2019) Phytochemical constituents and ethnopharmacological properties of Ageratum conyzoides L. Phytoter Res 33(9):2163–2178 33. Acharyya BK, Sharma HK (2004) Folklore medicinal plants of Mahmora area, Sivsagar district, Assam. IJTK 3(4):365–372 34. Singh RK, Lego YJ, Sureja AK, Srivastava RC, Hazarika BN (2021) People and plant: learning with Adi community on ethnomedicinal practices and conservation in Arunachal Pradesh, India. IJTK 20(1):74–82 35. Rana CS, Tiwari JK, Dangwal LR, Gairola S (2013) Faith herbal healer knowledge document of Nanda Devi biosphere reserve, Uttarakhand, India. IJTK 12(2):308–314 36. Sultana N, Das S (2019) Preliminary phytochemical screening and in vitro antimicrobial activity of the leaf extract of Thunbergia coccinea (family-acanthaceae). Int J Curr Pharm Res:111–114
Understanding Phytomedicinal Gastronomic Culture of the Nagas in Nagaland, India Lydia Yeptho and T. Ajungla
1 Introduction Nagaland obtained its statehood on December 1, 1963, and lies between 25°06’N and 27°04’N latitude and 93°20′E and 95°15′E covering an area of 16,579 sq. km. The state offers a scenic beauty of mountains and terrains inhabited by several ethnolinguistic tribal groups characterized by similar yet unique traditions and practices. Traditionally the Nagas lived a hunter–gatherer lifestyle but the transition influenced mainly by religion, education, and modernization has led to a sedentary phase with changes in beliefs and palatable flavor profiles. Its land supports a considerable amount of crops like corn, pulses, fibers, potatoes, tobacco, oilseeds, sugarcane, millets, and rice along with abundant wild fruits and vegetables. Historically Nagas were dubbed as inhabitants of thick forests frequenting the bazaar of Sivasagar bartering salt, iron, and other items in exchange for their fine agricultural produce [1]. Christianity is the established religion of the state with social structures and practices burgeoned by their religious beliefs. Traditional food gastronomy reflects the interactions between the environment and local societies which results in the biocultural heritage of traditional food items that help sustain the local traditional foods and implements food sovereignty [2, 3]. It plays the dual nature of prolonging the dynamics of present consumption and tends to idealize the local feebly to promote economic sources for the community. In this context, Barthes [4] suggested the dynamics related to traditional food gastronomy as an idea to express the beliefs and opinions of the individual and social ethical orientation equally. Nagas were once known as “warrior tribes” marked by Lydia Yeptho and T. Ajungla contributed equally with all other contributors. L. Yeptho (*) · T. Ajungla Department of Botany, Nagaland University, Lumami, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_8
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their bravery, but their bravery now manifests itself in the abominable cooking and eating habits they create under the nose of their neighbors. The surprise and lingering suspicion are palpable in the aroma of the fermented food products intriguing celebratory chefs like Gordon Ramsay to broadcasting in shows like “gourmet goes tribal.” Cultural cuisine of local and traditional foods before modernization and industrialization provided a cultural identity among the societies [5]. The continuous interaction of cultures with the local ecosystems resulted in the traditional food systems harboring indigenous knowledge over generations [6]. To recuperate the local gastronomic condition, foodways pave way to an experienced progressive marginalization that unites a community [7, 8] by analyzing the history and cultural roots of a food product and also analyzing the value chains and productive structure of these products [9].
2 Foodways as Phytomedicinal Medium Foodways or the preparation and consumption of foods capture perceptive endowment and strengthen community affiliation on various levels in a variety of ways [10]. Foodways help shape the cultural identity by defining the what, where, how, and when routine activities elaborated personally holding the bonds of families and communities [11]. Thus, it involves the tools, techniques, ingredients, and food culture customs [12] and explicitly involves the cultural geography of the surroundings as well. The gastronomy of Nagas parallels the age-old traditions and practices of the past as food and medicine were synonymous with our way of living. The rich knowledge of the past has lived on through oral traditions and the practices of kitchen living with an emerging new façade of food culture existing at present. The diverse forms of culinary preparations interlinked with indigenous and traditional knowledge reflect the versatile nature of the food, linking the nutritional, health benefits, and health-giving attributes of the food to prevent various health problems and diseases. Foods to improve metabolism to foods that heal cancers are consumed to face the challenges of daily life. A typical traditional Naga meal consists of cooked rice, meat, or vegetable cooked with a fermented food product supplemented with chutney and boiled leafy vegetables as a side dish on a traditional wooden plate. A cup of red tea or water at the end of the meal wraps up the repast. Table 1 describes the traditional food gastronomy of the Nagas, its ingredients, methods of preparation, and the phytomedicinal properties of the foods paving way for understanding the dynamics of non-communicable diseases and the diet at hand. The themes involve lessons gleaned from ethnic patterns of family ties, experiences, beliefs, the oral tradition of the ancestors on food used as traditional medicine, availability and use of resources, culinary skills, and ingredients. Table 2 represents some common plants used as phytomedicinal food with their common name, botanical name, family, and parts used, while Fig. 1 represents some plants used as phytomedicinal foods.
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Table 1 Metonymic food representing its culinary use as phytomedicinal food Main ingredients Tulsi leaves and inflorescence Guava leaves
Method of preparation The leaves and inflorescence are boiled and the brine is taken Tender guava leaves are washed thoroughly and boiled with water and the brine is taken Pomegranate leaves Tender pomegranate leaves are washed thoroughly and boiled with water and the brine is taken Passion leaves The leaves are boiled and both the juice and the leaves can be taken Indian Pennywort The leaves are cleaned and boiled leaves or taken raw as a salad Papaya leaves Brine of the boiled leaves in hot water is taken or leaves are pounded and the juice is taken East Indian glory bower The leaves are either boiled or prepared as a vegetable curry Redwool plantain The leaves are either boiled or prepared as a vegetable curry Stinging nettle The leaves are either boiled or made into curry Cape periwinkle The leaves or flowers are boiled in water Mango leaves The tender leaves are boiled and the juice is taken Neem leaves The leaves are boiled and the juice is taken Crab, tomato, garlic, Crabs are cleaned and cooked with and ginger salt, tomato, garlic, ginger and chilly (optional) as a curry Potato, tomato and a tablespoon of Chinese Knotweed, fermented soybean are cooked and tomato, potato, and the leaves of Chinese Knotweed fermented soybean are added as a garnish rendering (optional) the curry sour Hooker’s chives, potato The leaves of chives are washed properly and cooked with potato, salt and chilly Yam The skin of the tubers is peeled off and salt is added and cooked Prepared as a vegetable curry with Indonesian lemon fermented soybean pepper leaves, potato, and tomato Bitter gourd It is prepared as a curry added with fermented soybean
Phytomedicinal benefits against various diseases Cold and cough, flu, and headache Irritable bowel syndrome
Malaria and typhoid
High blood pressure Diabetes, skin infection, indigestion, gastritis Low level of blood platelets
High blood pressure Stomach ailments Diarrhoea Cancer Stomach ache Fever The brine is believed to heal measles Cancer
Stomach ailments
Gastritis Appetizer/diarrhoea/teeth enamel diseases or bleeding gums High blood pressure (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Main ingredients Goosefoot
Method of preparation Young leaves are cooked as curry or boiled or fried with chilly Taro, longevity spinach The outer skin of the yam is peeled off and prepared as a vegetable curry along with longevity spinach leaves Indian nightshade The fruits are prepared as a curry with fermented soybean and potato or deep-fried in oil Mint The leaves are prepared with chilly and tomato as chutney or cooked with fermented soybean as a curry Sweet basil The leaves are cooked with fermented soybean and potato as a curry or boiled or prepared as a chutney Roselle Fresh/dried roselle leaves are prepared as a vegetable side dish or simply boiled. Boiled with ginger and salt as a Edible mushrooms, Chinese Sumac powder, curry or a pinch of Chinese Sumac powder is added while preparing ginger, mushroom curry Wax gourd Prepared as a vegetable curry or taken as a boiled side dish Vegetable fern, tomato, The leaves are prepared along with potato, tomato, a spoonful of fermented soybean, fermented soybean and chilly as a chilly, and potato vegetable curry Bitter tomato The fruits are boiled or prepared as a vegetable curry along with potato The seeds are crushed and cooked Beefsteak plant, with a small amount of fermented fermented soybean, soybean with chilly, salt, ginger, tomato, chilly, ginger, garlic, and dried taro stems garlic, and taro stems Stalkless Elatostema The leaves are prepared as a vegetable side dish or used for making rice porridge with small amount of fermented soybean Black turtle bean The seeds are boiled with salt and cooked until soft May chang, chilly The fruits of May chang are crushed with chilly and salt and prepared as chutney
Phytomedicinal benefits against various diseases Ulcer, blood purifier, liver problem Increases appetite in children
High blood pressure and fever
Stomach ache, indigestion
High blood pressure
High blood pressure
Tonic to prevent food poising and stomach problems. Powdered Chinese sumac is used to treat allergies or nausea and vomiting Diabetes Headache, fever
High blood pressure Constipation
Gastritis
Mouth ulcer Vomiting and nausea
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Main ingredients Chinese Scallion, tomato, and chilly Ginger and fermented soybean
Fragrant Caper Vine, chilly, tomato Fish mint, tomato and chilly Sawtooth coriander
Tree bean, potato, tomato, and chilly Rice porridge with longevity spinach leaves Jobs tears
Millet, rice
Ginger and honey
Toothache plant
Lime
Sweet potato Holy basil and hooker leaves Himalayan mint, potato, tomato, chilly, and garlic
Method of preparation The bulbs are crushed and prepared as a chutney with roasted chilly and tomato Ginger is crushed and the juice is squeezed, roasted dry red chilly along with salt and fermented soybean is added and prepared as a chutney The fruits are either sundried, made into pickles, or prepared as a chutney with chilly and tomato The leaves are taken as raw or prepared as a chutney with tomato and chilly The leaves are taken as raw, prepared as chutney, or added in curries as a garnish The legumes are prepared with potato as a curry or taken raw as a salad or added in chutneys Rice is soaked, ground, and cooked with water; longevity spinach leaves are added as a garnish. The seeds are soaked, pounded, and cooked with water till it turns soft and served as a porridge It is cooked with rice and water or pressurized until soft and eaten as a porridge Ginger is pounded properly and one teaspoon of the juice is boiled with one teaspoon of honey The flower heads are either chewed or mashed and applied to the affected area The leaves are crushed are inhaled and the juice is taken with water and honey or sugar The tubers are boiled or roasted Crushed with salt and chilly (optional) and the brine is taken The flowers and leaves are added as a garnish in curry preparation with potato, tomato and garlic. It is also prepared with chilly and salt as a chutney
Phytomedicinal benefits against various diseases Fever and loss of appetite
Used as an appetizer and during fever
High blood pressure and diabetes
Heart problem, blood purifier, high blood pressure Increases appetite
Dysentery
Stomach ailments, diarrhoea, fever, gastritis Indigestion
Cancer
Cold and cough
Toothache
Nausea, appetizer
Low blood pressure Headache Headache, loss of appetite
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Table 2 Various plants used as phytomedicinal food with their common name, botanical name, family, and parts used Common name Tomato Chilly Ginger Chinese Knotweed Garlic Potato Tulsi Longevity spinach Guava Pomegranate May chang Hooker’s chive Passion fruit Jobs tears Millet Chinese Scallion Indonesian lemon pepper Fragrant Caper Vine Indian pennywort Bitter gourd Papaya East Indian glory bower Redwool plantain Goosefoot Fish mint Sawtooth coriander Taro Indian nightshade Tree bean Mint Holy basil Roselle Toothache plant Stinging nettle Cape periwinkle Lemon Chinese Sumac Mango
Botanical name Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) H. Karst. Capsicum frutescens L. Zingiber officinale Roscoe Polygonum chinense L. Allium sativum L. Solanum tuberosum L. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr.
Family Solanaceae
Parts used Fruit
Solanaceae Zingiberaceae Polygonaceae Amaryllidaceae Solanaceae Lamiaceae Compositae
Psidium guajava L. Punica granatum L. Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. Allium hookeri Thwaites Passiflora edulis Sims Coix lacryma-jobi L. Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv. Allium chinense G.Don Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC.
Fruit Rhizome, leaves Leaves Bulb, leaves Tuber Leaves Tender shoots, leaves Myrtaceae Leaves, fruit Lythraceae Fruit Lauraceae Fruit Amaryllidaceae Leaves, bulb Passifloraceae Leaves, fruit Poaceae Seeds Poaceae Seeds Amaryllidaceae Leaves, bulb Rutaceae Leaves, fruit
Stixis suaveolens (Roxburgh) Pierre Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Momordica charantia L. Carica papaya L. Clerodendrum glandulosum Lindl.
Capparaceae Apiaceae Cucurbitaceae Caricaceae Lamiaceae
Fruit Whole plant Fruit Leaves, fruit Leaves
Plantago erosa Wall. Chenopodium album L. Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Eryngium foetidum L. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Solanum indicum L. Parkia timoriana (DC.) Merr. Mentha spicata L. Ocimum sanctum L. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Spilanthes acmella (L.) L. Urtica ardens Link Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Rhus semialata Murray Mangifera indica L.
Plantaginaceae Amaranthaceae Saururaceae Apiaceae Araceae Solanaceae Leguminosae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Malvaceae Compositae Urticaceae Apocynaceae Rutaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae
Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Leaves Rhizome Fruit Fruit/pod Leaves Leaves Flowers Young shoots Young leaves Leaves, flower Fruit Fruit Fruit (continued)
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Table 2 (continued) Common name Sweet potato Wax gourd Vegetable fern Tree tomato Neem Beefsteak plant
Botanical name Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Solanum betaceum Cav. Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Perilla frutescens var. crispa (Thunb.) H.Deane Bitter tomato Solanum gilo Raddi Stalkless Elatostema Elatostema sessile J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. Black turtle bean Phaseolus vulgaris L. Sweet basil Ocimum basilicum L. Pleasant Himalayan Elsholtzia blanda (Benth.) Benth mint
Family Convolvulaceae Cucurbitaceae Athyriaceae Solanaceae Meliaceae Lamiaceae
Parts used Tubers Fruit Fronds Fruit Leaves Seeds, leaves
Solanaceae Urticaceae
Fruit Leaves
Leguminosae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae
Fruit/pod Leaves Flowers and leaves
Fig. 1 (a-h) Various plants used as phytomedicinal foods. (a) Gynura procumbens, (b) Ocimum tenuiflorum, (c) Coix lacryma-jobi, (d) Hibiscus sabdariffa, (e) Elsholtzia blanda, (f) Eryngium foetidum, (g) Diplazium esculentum, (h) Solanum indicum
3 Women’s Role in Shaping the Gastronomic Metonymic Itinerary Traditional foods form culturally accepted local products of a particular culture in a community [13] and reflect the cultural identity, sensitivity, and health perception of a community. With the onset of human civilization, the dietary cultures of tribal communities across the world have been shaped by indigenous food products [14]. Ethnic people produce ethnic or traditional foods that are culturally and socially
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acceptable to the consumer by using raw materials that are locally available [15– 17]. The essential concept of Crouch’s [18] 3:12:120 ratio on group of people exponentially creating and enforcing cultural innovation is headed by a posse of mothers or women whose food choices and preferences form the basis of food culture, especially with regard to local and traditional food items that shaped the sustainability of the diet. The essence of ensuing tradition from shaping culture at home to healing the soul with food reflects a woman’s individual ability to nurture and nourish. The sociocultural context heavily influences food choices [19], while the social identity is also contextual as the individual’s daily engagement with the historical, social, and political aspects considered to study identity [20]. Acculturation preserves the original culture while acquiring the new practices, processes, and customs functioning within the main culture [21]. It explains the cultural and psychological change or alteration as a result of merging between cultures [22] and encompasses the domains of language, socioeconomic, and cultural values [23]. Ethnicity, migration to urban areas, education, tribal community, political party representation, and social support are some of the ways that influence the multicultural social policies in Nagaland. The motivation for such social policies has been the desire to ensure tribal harmony among the diverse tribes inhabiting the state. Drawing from culture women creates an organic outgrowth of community living, creating cultural ties between the various tribes, home, and individual level. Her food choice provides a unique camaraderie between the food she creates and the individual pressing toward healing. Her choices, her skills, each story unique to her, and her kitchen form a gastronomic diversity toward healing through food. The Naga community is woven by the thread of religious occasions, festivity, and visitation by friends, family, and neighbors, and each occasion is celebrated by preparing festive foods. Women are dexterous in the preparation of food combining creativity and skills with community ties, social regulations, and ancestral knowledge bringing about food with healing properties. The various dishes create a multiculturalism facet among the Nagas represented by totemic or emblematic dishes signifying a particular tribe. The food culture in Nagaland has emerged to be a product over centuries interspersed by religion, education, and modernity striving to maintain its cultural identity while also abandoning some like the use of alcoholic rice beverages which were once an integral part of the diet culture. Their picking up of a sedentary lifestyle now includes the utilization of resources and practice of pot culture and garden cultivation in the kitchen backyard. Women create foodways connecting the race, ethnicity, or gastronomic culture of a community and help expound the food choices by paving itinerary food pathways of that community. Foods connoisseur social identities and central to foodways are sharing the common goal of healing while seeking to improve an individual’s well-being. Simultaneously the knowledge is inherited yet also created to upkeep the culinary tradition. Their role is proliferated with social structures dictating her foodways while in return they act as culture keepers passionately committed to intrahousehold dynamics powered by the traditional knowledge governing the food choices and practices required for a healthy diet.
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4 Conclusion Culture acts as a catalyst in the evolutionary process of humans and reveals the most profound of meanings that humans carry – their rationale, their origins, and their purpose. Culture links to build a person and the level of values and norms fixed by culture is often what is highlighted in human rights discourse. To encounter heroism in the traditions of patriotic and communal society, women act as cultural keepers creating and enforcing a unique camaraderie through the memories of family and historical stories, rendering an irresistible call to preserve the identity of traditional food practices in a constantly evolving culture. The socioeconomic and consumption patterns reveal the diet culture acting as phytomedicinal foods. Nutrition and health benefit claims reflect their lifestyle rooted in rich ancestral knowledge to strengthen the integrative force of healing. Thus, the traditional gastronomy of Nagaland prolongs the dynamics of the ancient culture which is evident in the daily course of preparing, serving, and gifting of food items that ties the society at an individualistic level, uniting and defining a community interwoven by cultural cuisines and unique food flavor profiles. Declarations Author’s contributions: Lydia Yeptho contributed to the documentation and construction of the manuscript. T. Ajungla supervised the work. Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank all the informants for sharing their valuable knowledge. They thank Mrs. Nihoβli, Miss Viseranuo Pesieye, Miss Rokonuo Kuotsuo, and Miss Andy for their assistance during the interview. Ethics Approval: Not Applicable. Consent to Participate: All the authors have their consent to participate. Consent for Publication: All the authors have their consent to publish their work. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no competing interests. Availability of data and materials: Not applicable. Funding: Not applicable.
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Medicinal Plants in the Indian Traditional Medicine and Current Practices Ritee Basu, Sukanya Dasgupta, Spoorthy N. Babu, and Ayesha Noor
1 Introduction Traditional medicine (TM) has been the world’s ancient form of treatment, used to diagnose and reduce mental and physical ailments [1]. It is also known as complementary and alternative medicine, as well as ethnic medicine, in most of the countries. Natural products, such as microbes, marine organisms, plants and animals, have been used in traditional medication since ancient period. Natural products have a chemical diversity that has emerged over decades, resulting in a variety of biological and therapeutic properties [2]. These substances have proven to be a valuable resource for producing new chemical constituents as well as scaffolds. Natural products are being used to fulfil the urgent need for effective pharmaceuticals without any side effects and thus play a key role in the development of drugs for the prevention/treatment of diseases/disorders [3]. In the study and development of current medications, TM seems to be too vital to be overlooked. Traditional medicine has a wide range of application despite the presence of scientifically validated drugs and therapies. A single plant or formulation may have numerous phytochemical compounds, namely flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenol, terpenoids, alkaloids, etc. [4]. These compounds exert their activity independently or synergistically to impart the desired therapeutic activity [5]. It is important to note that many of the plant-based medications used in clinical practice nowadays are all derived from folk medicine. Also, they have no/lesser side effects compared to the currently available drugs in the market, and hence, people are preferring to incorporate herbal remedies in their lifestyle. Pharmaceutical drugs treat symptoms produced by certain diseases as defined by scientific pathology, whereas R. Basu · S. Dasgupta · S. N. Babu · A. Noor (*) Centre for Bio Separation Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_9
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herbal therapy, on the other hand, focuses on assisting the body’s own healing process. Medicinal plants are commonly used in traditional medicine and considered to be beneficial; however, they may be toxic. If medicinal plant toxicity has been documented, it is due to geographical location, mistaken identity of the plants in which they are supplied, and improper preparation or administration by untrained clinicians [6]. Various societies have evolved in documenting beneficial healing strategies of TM to tackle a variety of health- and life-threatening disorders throughout history [7]. Traditional medicine system includes Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Kampo, traditional Korean medicine (TKM), and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). These therapies make use of natural ingredients and have also been widely practised for many years across the globe, prospering in an orderly regulated medical systems [8]. These may have some drawbacks such as lack of proper formulations and lack of clinical trials, but they are still an important reservoir of human knowledge [2]. Indian Traditional Medicine (ITM) is the medical system believed to have originated in India, which has an ancient heritage of traditional medicine. The materia medica of India provides a great deal of information on the folklore practices and traditional aspects of therapeutically important natural products [9]. ITM is based on various systems including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and Homeopathy. India is considered as a hot spot of various medicinal plants and herbs. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to understand the Indian traditional medicine (ITM) system, the historical background, concepts, and differences amongst the various disciplines in the ITM. Further, the integration of ITM into the current lifestyle, their usage, their scope, and future prospects have also been discussed.
2 Traditional Medicine Systems in the World In most of the cultures, the TM is a comprehensive healthcare system which has evolved over thousands of years. Some of the prominent TM include the Indian traditional medicine (ITM), Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Traditional Korean Medicine (TKM), Kampo (Japan-based Traditional medicine), Traditional Arabic and Islamic Medicine (TAIM), African Traditional Medicine (ATM), and Traditional European Medicine (TEM) [2] (Table 1). The TCM has its origin in China and is utilized to treat 200 million patients every year. TCM records for nearly 40% of all medical services provided in China [10]. The TCM highlights classic East Asian natural philosophy principles which include Yin and Yang and the five-element concept [Blood (Qi, xue), Essence (jing), Spirit (shen), and Fluids (jin ye)] [11]. The Encyclopaedia of Traditional Chinese Medicines provides a thorough examination of TCM, chemistry, pharmacological, plant origin and therapeutic properties. This encyclopaedia contains over 8000 TCM constituents as well as a wide range of pharmaceutical information that is useful not just for TCM research but also for the advancement of modern medicine [12].
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Table 1 Different traditional medicine systems across the world Name of the medicine system Traditional Chinese Medicine
Origin country China
Characteristics TCM is based on Yin yang and Wuxing concepts A TCM formula includes a group of various drugs that function to achieve a synergistic effect
Kampo
Japan
Kampo treats every patient as a complete and self- controlled whole in which body and mind impact mutually
Traditional Korean Medicine
Korea
SCM classifies persons into four Sasang types: Tac-Yang, So-Yang, Tac-Eum, and So-Eum, according to inborn features
Ayurveda
India
Ayurveda is based on the five elements theory and tridoshas Ayurvedic philosophy is to live a healthy life to avoid the appearance of imbalance and unnecessary pain
Unani
India, Greece Also in Arab countries
Unani looks upon the human body as a single unit, which consists of four basic elements with four disparate temperaments respectively
Sidhha
India
Siddha is also based on five elements theory and tridoshas
Current role and scope in modern medicine and research TCM division is present in most ordinary hospitals, and TCM services are provided to all patients Many TCM active compounds and compound-based therapeutics have been discovered and are being studied to understand their mechanism of action Kampo medicines are incorporated into the healthcare system and approved. These are also covered under insurance They are also being studied to understand the molecular mechanisms involved in the disease and its treatment 86% of the Korean population prefers it, which has been covered in insurance schemes It is being studied for genetic diseases and also as a diagnostic approach Around 400,000 Ayurveda practitioners are registered. In addition, the Indian government has an officially recognized body to ensure Ayurveda’s educational efforts, quality, and practice Pharmacologically active compounds of Ayurvedic medicine and their therapeutic potential in treatment have been increasingly recognized Unani is accepted by the Government of India as meeting the immediate healthcare needs of people. Bioactive constituents from Unani medicine have been developed and are available in markets Siddha medicines have been approved by the Indian Government Studies are being undertaken to understand their underlying molecular mechanisms (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Name of the medicine system Homoeopathy
Origin country Germany and India
Traditional African Medicine
Africa
Traditional European Medicine
Greece
Characteristics It is based on cures like the principle
Traditional medicine doctors treat patients holistically. They generally seek to recombine the mental and social equipoise of sufferers according to social relationships and rules It has assimilated the principles of Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha
Current role and scope in modern medicine and research Many homoeopathy medicines are available in the market and have also been approved by the Indian Government Most of the African population prefers traditional African medicine Research is being carried out to study the various pharmacological properties of African medicine The Traditional European medicines are being used by the European population. Research needs to be carried out to understand the mechanisms of these medications
The Traditional Korean Medicine (TKM) was introduced in nineteenth century and has its origin in Korea [13]. Around 86% of the Korean population use TKM. TKM employs a holistic approach and is known for its personalized treatment. The TKM classifies the person into 4 types depending on their inborn characteristics such as Tac-Yang, So-Yang, Tac-Eum, and So-Eum [14] The Government of Korea has supported the TKM to be integrated into modern research and TKM is now being actively studied for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes and also for treatment of genetic disorders [2]. Kampo medicines are the traditional medications used in Japan for more than 1500 years ago. Even though the kampo has its initial origin in China, it differs with TCM based on the treatment principles [15]. While the TCM is based on five principles, the Kampo utilized the principle of Shan Han Lung. Kampo medicines are developed as formulations and abdominal examination is an important aspect of kampo medicine [16]. The kampo medications have been fully integrated into modern medicine in Japan, with 148 formulations being officially approved for treatment and have also been included in insurance. Traditional Arabic and Islamic Medicine (TAIM) refers to healing practices incorporating herbal medicines, spiritual therapies, and dietary practices, applied singularly or in combination for the treatment of diseases [17]. The TAIM is based on Islamic medical and prophetic influences and has its origin in the Middle East. Around 200 to 250 medicinal plants are used in the preparation of TAIM medicine system [18]. The TAIM has a great potential, and research studies are being carried out so as to utilize it in the modern medicine. African traditional medicine (ATM) is a comprehensive healthcare system divided into three categories of specialization: divination, spiritualism, and
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herbalism. Many plants are employed in traditional African medicine, and little is known about their bioactive constituents [19]. Thousands of people in South Africa rely on traditional medicine. It is estimated that 80 per cent of the population consumes traditional medicines known as Muti. Muti is a term derived from the medicinal plant that is attributed to traditional herbal-, mineral-, and animal-based drugs. The plant Muti is generally regarded as a long-term remedy for various treatments. African traditional herbal remedies have a promising future that could be accomplished via collaboration, partnership, and transparency in practice, particularly along with conventional healthcare personnel [20]. The Traditional European Medicine (TEM) is a combination of various systems of medicine across the European continent with its origin beginning in ancient Greece with Hippocrates. The various pharmacopoeias of different folk practitioners contain numerous medicines made from leaves, roots, bark, and minerals found in the nature. The TEM has assimilated concepts of Ayurveda, TCM, Unani, and other traditional medicine systems [21]. However, it has only been partially incorporated into the modern medicine compared to other TMs. Indian traditional medicine’s therapeutic knowledge has developed plenty of significant traditional methods based on different concepts and theories. The ITM has a unique distinction as it has six recognized medicine systems in this category. These include Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Yoga, Naturopathy, and homeopathy [9]. Apart from these, there are tribal groups who practise their own ancient and folklore medicine. For example, Maibaron is a medicinal system practised by the Meiteis, and a tribal group from the Indian state of Manipur and a tribal group in Tamil Nadu named Irular have developed their own folklore medicine [22]. The ITM is based on the five elements theory and the three humoralisms theory [23]. The five elements theory states that the all organisms in the world consist of the five elements which are the earth (Prithvi), water (Jala), fire (Agni), air (Vayu), and ether (Akasha). The three humoralisms theory suggests that the body is balanced by the three kinds of doshas (tridoshas). These tridoshas are vata (gas), pitta (bile) and kapha (mucus). Any imbalance in these doshas leads to diseases. All the medicine systems of ITM have been formed on these above theories utilizing different herbs and medicinal plants.
3 Indian Traditional Medicine (ITM) System India Traditional medicine system has a rich and diverse heritage of cultural traditions which use a variety of medicinal plants and herbs. The Western Ghats, the north eastern region, and the Himalayan region are home to a rich source of medicinal plants [9]. These medicinal plants and herbs are the basis for more than 60% of anticancer medications in the market or in therapeutic applications. Approximately 80% of antibacterial, immunosuppressive, cardiovascular, and anticancer medications are currently derived from plants. Over 70 per cent of the 177 anticancer medicines that have been approved are based on natural compounds. Around 25% of the
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world’s prescription medications are derived from plants and there are nearly 121 of them are in usage [24]. Ayurvedic medicine is thought to use between 1200 and 1800 distinct types of plants, whereas Indian folk therapists use about 7500 different types of medicinal plants in various remedies. To regulate and standardize the usage of traditional medicine, a new department, the Department of Indian System of Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM & H), was established in 1995. In 2003, ISM & H was renamed AYUSH, which stands for Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homoeopathy, as a separate Department within the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of India, India. The different sections of ITM are as follows.
3.1 Ayurveda Ayurveda is regarded as the world’s oldest known system of medicines. The Atreya Inner Medicine School and the Dhanvantari Surgery School were the two branches of Ayurvedic medicine that developed between 1500 BC and 1000 BC as one of the four Upavedas [22]. The main characteristic of Ayurvedic medicine is holistic treatment, which emphasizes the close relationship between both the brain and the body [25]. The Ayurveda system utilizes processed natural drugs rather than derived or synthetic compounds highlighting that maintaining the stability of all parts of the human body is more important than eradicating external infectious agents. Ayurveda employs the “Panchakarma” approach. Panchakarma treatment is used in a variety of ways to promote body rejuvenation, detoxification, and longevity [26]. Panchakarma is made up of five karmas (activities) that are used to eliminate impurities from the body. Virechan (purification by powder, paste, or hot water extract), Rakta moksha (bloodletting), Vaman (force vomiting with medications), Nasya (through nasal medication like smoking, oil, and decocting), and Basti (enema with therapeutic oil) are the five karmas. Ayurveda and biomedicine have different perspectives on how the human body works. The tridoshas – pitta, vata, kapha – are the foundations of this system. It is worth noting that vata, pitta, and kapha are responsible for both physiological as well as psychological wellbeing [22]. The three doshas are in perfect equilibrium, signifying homeostasis. Changes in one has an impact on the other two. The three doshas have been used to categorize all clinical symptoms. Vata, for example, is associated with dryness, lightness, weightlessness, coolness, roughness, minuteness, and mobility. Pitta refers to characteristics such as minor unctuousness, penetrating, producing heat, lightness, foul odour, inducing movement, and liquidity and kapha refers to cold, soft, stable, slow and heavy [27]. All symptoms, including common cold, coughing, fevers, dysentery, oedema, and skin irritations, have already been categorized as vata, pitta, or kapha. The diagnosis in Ayurveda is the removal of toxins, preserve the body functions and remove the imbalance in the body to prevent or reduce the manifestation of the disease [23].
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3.2 Siddha In regard to etiopathogenesis, the Siddha system is similar to Ayurveda, which was then the most popular medical system in North India. Ayurveda was exclusively a medical system, whereas Siddha medication evolved from the siddha yogi’s studies in yoga and alchemy. Only South India possessed Siddha medicine, and the scriptures are mostly written in Tamil and Telugu [28, 29]. The body, according to the Siddha, is more than an organ system, and disease cannot be explained solely by the organs. To prepare remedies, herbs, metals, poisons, and other esoteric elements were used [30]. Yoga and meditation were also included. Siddha‘s contributions to medicine expanded folklore by making it easier to make intricate medicinal preparations at home, similar to food preparations, premised on the idea that “food is medicine and medicine is food“ [31]. The Tridosha theory and the Panchabootha idea were used to define wellness and disease. Earth (prithvi), fire (agni), water (jala), air (vayu), and ether (akasha) were the five elements that made up the universe of nature as well as the human body [32]. According to the Tridosha doctrine, the body has three humours (known as the mukkuttrangal): vali (air), anal (hot), and eeram (moisture) [33]. The three humours accounted for formation, preservation, and elimination, which corresponds to anabolism, metabolism, and catabolism, respectively. The principle of Panchabootha and tridoshas comprise the core architecture of Siddha and Ayurveda, yet their conceptual framework for medicine is the same. Ayurvedic and Siddha pharmacological preparations implement similar approaches when it comes to plant, animal, and mineral ingredients; however, Siddha medications have more metal and mineral (sulphur and mercury) in their formulations for the treatment of diseases [31].
3.3 Unani Unani medicinal approach was developed by the Greeks and later urbanized by Arabs into a sophisticated medical discipline based on the Greek philosopher and physician Hippocrates’ framework [34]. The four circumstances of living, which include hot, sodden, cold, and dry, as well as the four humours of Hippocratic theory, namely mucus, yellow bile, dark bile, and blood, underlie the unani medicine. Unani treatment was combined with ITM during the reign of the Mughal Emperors and is now used by a large portion of India’s population. Afal (capacities), Mizaj (temperaments), Quo (resouurces), Arawh (spirits), Arkan (components), Aklath (humours), and Anza (organs) are the seven levels according to Unani medicine system [34, 35]. Unani medicinal approach is a holistic treatment that remarkably treats a wide range of disease conditions, whether in single doses or multiple doses and or in formulations. This approach shows effective treatment options for gastrointestinal, neurological, and heart diseases [36].
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3.4 Homeopathy Homeopathy is a treatment practice that uses drug preparations whose actions correlate to the disorder’s presentations (associated symptoms, clinical findings, and pathological conditions) in the specific patient. Homeopathy was invented by the German physician Hahnemann and is today used all around the world [37]. Homeopathy works on the principle of law of similar and/or “like cures like”. For example, substance causing a disease symptom in larger quantity can be used to treat the same symptoms with smaller doses [38]. Homeopathic medicines are prescribed in very high dilutions, thereby making them non-toxic. Special pharmacies prepare these medicines with a vigilant and careful process of agitation and dilution. The treatment and medications in homeopathy are patient specific. The physician understands the complete history of the patient which includes the physical and mental fitness and the lifestyle. Depending on the assessment, smaller doses of medicines are initially prescribed and when the results are visible, the infinitesimal doses are given thereafter [39].
3.5 Naturopathy Naturopathy is a drug-free, scientific, non-surgical as well as substantial proof- based medical system that uses natural components and emphasizes the body’s inherent ability to cure itself. Naturopathy is a medical approach focused on the key principles of self-healing capacity of nature, which differ significantly from those of other medical systems [40]. The human body’s vitality, or life energy, is the fundamental source of the body’s capacity to repair and regenerate. According to naturopathy, basic causes of ailment in individuals are diminished altered lymph and blood composition, vitality, the aggregation of morbid material as well as toxins that are all caused by alteration of nature’s constitution. Its drug-free approach is one area where it differs significantly from Western naturopathic therapy [41]. Throughout global networks, India is advancing in developing and promoting the Traditional Medical System in the healthcare industry. Ayurveda, Yoga, Siddha, Unani, Homeopathy and Naturopathy, generally known as AYUSH, have their own department within the Ministry of health and family welfare, India. In 2014, the Government of India created a separate ministry of ITM which is known as Ministry of AYUSH.
4 Importance of AYUSH and the Medicinal Plants Used Traditional medicine has a long history in India. India’s Materia Medica contains a depth of information on traditional and folklore characteristics of therapeutically useful natural ingredients [42, 43]. To meet the modern consumer’s needs, several
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key areas of study must be concentrated on developing scientifically confirmed studies of their reliability, security, and effectiveness. Validated products will be extremely beneficial to the advancement of healthcare and will assist enterprises in competing with their products for export to other countries. There are approximately 7000 therapeutic drug production companies like Himalaya drug company, Dabur limited, Baidyanath, Patanjali Ayurved, Natural Remedies Pvt. Limited, etc., and over 1.5 million traditional clinicians who use medicinal herbs for the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases (Table 2). The Ministry of AYUSH supervises all sections of the development and promotion of natural products utilized in Indian medical systems. Table 2 List of different Indian traditional medicine system products available in the Indian market Product Ingredient AYUSH HERBS PVT LTD A-OXY (AMLA) Standardized Extract of capsules Amla (Emblica officinalis)
Properties
Dosage
Adult 1–2 caplets/ caps thrice a day with water, Child – 1 caplet/cap twice a day or as directed Adult- 1–3 caplets/ Rentone capsules Standardized extracts of Urinary tract infections, tablets thrice a day kidney stones, Bladder Didymocarpus stones, Cystitis, Prostatitis, with water pedicellata, Saxifraga depending upon the ligulata, Rubia cardfolia, Urethritis, Nephritis, patient’s condition. Prostrate hypertrophy Achyranthes aspera, Child (less than Tribulus terrestris, 10 years of age) – Ocimum basilicum, 1–2 caplets/tablets Crataeva religiosa, twice a day with Mimosa pudica, Dolichus water or as directed biforus, Cyperus rotundus, Asphaltum Strengthen the weakened Adult 1–2 caplet/ Arjuna capsules Standardized extract of heart muscles tablet with water, Arjuna (Terminalia thrice a day after arjuna) meal and there after adjust the dose according to monitored blood pressure or as directed by your health provider Carditone Standardized extracts of Strengthens the weakened Adult- 1–2 caplets/ tablet twice a day heart muscles, CHF, high Rauwolfia serpentina, with water after Convolvulus pluricaulis, blood pressure, heart meal and there after palpitation, irregular Terminalia arjuna, adjusting the dose Tribulus terrestris, Rosa heartbeat, and angina according to centifolia, Boerhavia monitored blood diffusa, Inula racemose, pressure or as Onosma bracteatum directed Antioxidant, Natural Vitamin C Provider, Rasayana
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Table 2 (continued) Product Hepo forte (bhui amla) capsules – jaundice support
Ingredient Properties Strengthens the liver, and Standardized extract of Bhumi amla (Phyllanthus helps in hepatitis B Amarus)
Livertone capsules – hepatoprotective
Standardized extracts of Silybum marianum, Boerhavia diffusa, Picrorhiza kurroa, Eclipta alba, Phyllanthus amarus, Tephrosia purpurea, Andrographis paniculata, Swertia chirata Standardized extract of Karela (Momordica charantia)
Karela capsules diabetes support
Standardized extracts of Gymnema sylvestre, Pterocarpus marsupium, Ocimum basilicum, Momordica charantia, Azadirachta indica, Salacia chinensis, Aegle marmelos, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Syzygium cumini, Vinca rosea Immunity kit (for Flucomune caplets Ashwagandha DS whole family capsules protection) Haldi capsules Bio Gymnema – Sugar Metabolism Support
Rakat tone – memory and nervous system support
Standardized extracts of Ginkgo biloba, Bacopa monnieri, Centella asiatica, Ashtavarga, Pueraria tuberosa, Asparagus adscendens, Withania somnifera
All hepatic issues like cirrhosis of liver, fatty liver, hepatitis, anorexia, other drug-induced diseases, etc. It works as a liver cleanser and detoxifier
Useful in type 2 diabetes
Useful in type 2 diabetes, weakness due to diabetes, complication like retinopathy, nephropathy, obesity, etc.
Dosage Adult- 1–2 tablets/ caplets with water, 2–3 times a day before meal, Child- 1 tablet/ caplets twice a day with water before meal 1–2 caplet thrice a day with water before meals
1–3 caplets/tablets (depends upon the blood sugar) thrice a day with warm water or as directed 1–3 cap/tab (depends upon the blood sugar) thrice a day with water half an hour before meal or as directed
Ashwagandha DS: 1 capsules: twice or thrice a day Haldi capsules: 1 capsule twice or thrice a day Flucomune Capsules- 1–2 tablets twice/thrice a day 1-caplet twice a day Loss of memory, Alzheimer’s disease, poor with water or as circulation, stroke, tinnitus, directed asthma and all kinds of neuritis degenerative neuromuscular changes Ayush Pharmaceuticals recently launched an immunity kit to provide adequate immunity for individuals in the event of a pandemic. This Immunity Kit boosts one’s immune system to protect the body from infection
(continued)
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Table 2 (continued) Product Kuff sooth – cough and respiratory support
Ingredient Standardized extracts of Ephedra vulgaris, Emblica officinalis, Ocimum sanctum, Terminalia bellirica, Adhatoda vasica, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Pistacia integerrima, Trikatu, Achyranthes aspera, Zizyphus vulgaris, Nilgiri oil, Solanum xanthocarpum, Viola odorata, Cichorium intybus, Mentha spicata THE HIMALAYA DRUG COMPANY Shigru Leaf extract of Moringa pterygosperma Ashwagandha Root extract of Withania somnifera Arjuna
Bark extract of Terminalia arjuna
Gokshura
Fruit extract of Tribulus terrestris Extract of Chicory and Capparis spinosa
LIV 52
Septilin
Diabecon GS
BAIDYANATH Triphala Guggulu
Ayush kwath tablet
Mahasudarshan Kadha
Extract of Indian Bdellium, Licorice and Tinospora Gulancha Extract of Gymnema sylvestre, Pterocarpus marsupium, Asphaltum punjabianum Emblica officinalis, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellerica, Commiphora mukul Ocimum sanctum, Cinnamomum verum, Zingiber officinale, Piper nigrum Tinospora cordifolia, Picrorhiza kurroa, Terminalia chebula
Properties Allergic sore throat, laryngitis, allergic rhinorrhea, sinusitis, smokers cough, bronchial asthma, and chronic and acute bronchitis
Dosage Adult – 2 tea spoonful thrice a day. Child – 1 teaspoonful thrice a day with warm water or as directed by your health provide
Used in the treatment of inflammatory disorders Enhances immunity by strengthening the antibody and strengthens the body Reduces coronary artery blood flow and protects the heart muscle Helps in managing erectile dysfunction Protects the liver from infection and also restores the functioning of the liver Has immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties Has antidiabetic potential and has the ability to improve pancreatic and liver function
1 tablet twice daily 1 tablet twice daily
1 tablet twice daily
1–2 tablets twice daily As per the advice of the doctor As per the advice of the doctor As per the advice of the doctor
1–2 tablets daily Aids in easy bowel movements, digestion and helps in relieving constipation. Also helps in alleviation of inflammation 1 tablet daily with Immunity booster, and water helps in relieving cough and respiratory distress Immunity booster, removal 3–6 teaspoonful with equal amount of intestinal worms and of water twice aids in proper digestion (continued)
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Table 2 (continued) Product Chandraprabha Bati
Ingredient Tinospora cordifolia, Curcuma longa PATANJALI AYURVED Jivanti, Water, Ksheera, Divya Ghrita, Prapaundarika, Jeevantyadi kakoli, Kshirakakoli Ghrit Pippali, Lodhra, Saindhava lavana, Shatahva, Madhuka, Draksha Sita Daruharidra, Triphala Divya Manjishtha Rubia cordifolia Churna Amvatari Ras
Triphala, Guggul, Chitrak mool, Erand tel, Gandhak, Parad
Properties Dosage 1–3 tablets daily Relieves intermittent urination, burning urination with milk and prevents UTI infection Used in the treatment of eye problems
1 teaspoonful in water
Used in wound healing, skin diseases, gouty arthritis Used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
As advised by physician As advised by physician
4.1 Medicinal Plants Used in Indian Traditional Medicine (ITM) As mentioned earlier, India is a rich and diverse source of different medicinal plants and herbs. There are more than 7500 different medicinal plants which are used in the various disciplines of the ITM. The formulation also changes in accordance to the traditional medicine system. The Ayurveda medicines are available in tablet and syrup forms, while the Siddha medicines are generally available in the form of paste termed as “leha” and homeopathy medicines are in miniscule tablets. The therapeutic properties depend on the composition and also the part from which the medicine is prepared. There is never ending list of medicinal plants in India, some of which are mentioned in Table 3 and a few of them have been discussed. 4.1.1 Camellia sinensis Camellia sinensis L. is commonly known as Tea, which is the second most widely consumed beverage on the globe. People have been consuming it frequently since 3000 BC. Tea is a beverage made from the leaves of Tea originated in China, then expanded to India, Japan, Europe, and Russia [44]. It is a frequently utilized medicinal herb in trials throughout India, and it is prominent in several traditional medical approaches such as Unani, Ayurveda, and Homeopathy. Tea is broadly classified into the following groups: green, yellow, white, oolong, black, and dark tea. Clinical studies have shown that tea has both therapeutic and preventive benefits for
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Table 3 List of different medicinal plants used in the Indian traditional medicine system Plant Allium sativum
Common name Garlic
Part used Bulbs
Properties Lowering cholesterol, infantile convulsion
Camellia sinensis
Tea
Leaf
Antioxidant Anticancer
Aloe barbadensis
Aloes
Leaf Gel
Anti-inflammatory, laxative, Antidiabetic
Desmodium gangeticum
Salparni
Leaf, Root
Antidiabetic Anticancer Antioxidant
Boswellia serrata
Salai gum
Gum
Helps to treat arthritis, anti-inflammatory
Azadirachta indica
Neem
Leaves
Antimicrobial (anti-fungal), antiseptic
Embelia ribes
Vai vidang
Seeds
Piles, headache, skin disease, diabetes
Emblica officinalis
Amla
Fruit
Antioxidant, rejuvenating agent
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Table 3 (continued) Plant Ocimum sanctum
Common name Tulsi
Part used Leaves
Properties Cough, cold, cancer, diabetes, hepatoprotective, bronchial asthma
Tinospora cordifolia
Guduchi
Leaves
Anticancer Antioxidant Cardioprotective Immunomodulatory
Terminalia chebula
Myrobalan
Leaves Fruits
Antidiabetic Antioxidant Wound healing Immunomodulatory
Solanum nigrum
Makoy
Fruit
Digestive property, liver tonic
Withania somnifera
Ashwagandha Leaf India Ginseng
Anti-inflammatory Diuretic Sedative Immunomodulatory
Bacopa monnieri
Brahmi
Leaf
Memory enhancer Immunomodulatory Antidiabetic Anticancer
Terminalia arjuna
Arjuna
Bark
Cardioprotective, diabetes, antioxidant
Moringa oleifera
Drumstick
Leaf
Antioxidant Antidiabetic Anti-inflammatory Anticancer
(continued)
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Table 3 (continued) Plant Curcuma longa
Common name Haldi
Part used Rhizome
Properties Treats cancer, arthritis, antioxidant, anti-septic
Gingko biloba
Maidenhair
Leaf
Antibiotic Anti-inflammatory Anticancer
Gymnema sylvestre
Gudmar/ Gurmar
Leaves
Antihyperglycaemic Anti-inflammatory
Asparagus racemosus
Shatavari
Leaf
Antioxidant Galactagogue Anti-inflammatory Anticancer
Momordica charantia
Bitter gourd
Fruit
Antidiabetic Anti-inflammatory Anticancer
Picrorhiza kurroa
Kutki
Root
Liver support, Neurosis of the stomach, treats Malaria
Rubia cordifolia
Manjistha
Stem
Purifies blood, removes gall stone, treats diabetic ulcer
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268 Table 3 (continued) Plant Swertia chirayita
Common name Chirayita
Part used Whole plant
Properties Treats liver disorders, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, and diabetes
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Methi
Seeds
Blood sugar support, helps in cholesterol management and atherosclerosis
Symplocos racemosa
Lodhra
Bark
Menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, and gonorrhoea
Punica granatum
Dadamchhal
Rind of the Treats hyper acidity, chronic diarrhoea, fruit dysentery, piles, sore throat, prostate cancer
Morinda citrifolia
Noni
Fruit
Used to treat tuberculosis, asthma, broken bones, and wounds
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Mulethi
Root
Treats sore throats, cough, bronchial infection
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum
Dalchini
Bark
Used for digestive purposes
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oxidative stress-related ailments such as cancer, type 2 diabetes, liver disease, and cardiovascular disease [44]. It has pharmacological activities like antistroke activity, antiparkinson, anti-Alzheimer activity, anti-ageing activity, and anti-caries activity. It is effective for weight loss and treating skin disorders. Tea contains approximately 4000 bioactive constituents, such as polyphenols (catechins and flavonoids), volatile oil, amino acids, polysaccharides, lipids, vitamin C, inorganic components (manganese, fluorine, aluminium), and alkaloids (caffeine, theobromine). Green tea seemed to have the largest antioxidant potential as well as a higher concentration of polyphenols, particularly catechins. Furthermore, multiple investigations have revealed that polyphenols and caffeine are the primary components in tea accountable for diverse bioactivities and different organoleptic properties [45]. Caffeine is the primary component of Camellia sinensis and serves as a secondary metabolite. When compared to other plant extracts, the methanolic extract of white tea inhibited DPP-IV enzyme the most [46]. As a result, tea is an appropriate nutritional source of natural antioxidants, particularly phenolic components, which have the ability to be utilized in beverages or nutritional supplements.
4.2 Desmodium gangeticum Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC, also referred as Salparni or Sal Leaves Desmodium or Salwan is a valuable medicinal herb that belongs to the legumes family (Fabaceae). It is found throughout tropical as well as sub-tropical areas, and it is extremely frequent in India’s lower Himalayan areas. It is also common in Tropical Africa, China, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia, and northernmost part Africa. D. gangeticum has been practised for centuries in traditional and folklore medicine throughout India to cure a variety of diseases [47]. This medicinal plant is included in many Ayurvedic formulations and is regarded as a “Master of Medicinal Plant” in Ayurveda due to its extensive use in formulations [48]. D. gangeticum contains flavonoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, pterocarpans, coumarins, and volatile oil. Flavonoids, alkaloids, and pterocarpans are the most important of these bioactive compounds. D. gangeticum exhibits significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-leishmanial, cardioprotective, anti-ulcer, antidiabetic, wound healing, hepatoprotective, and renal protective activities. An aqueous extract of D. gangeticum showed a significant DPP-IV inhibitory potential [46]. The toxicity of D. gangeticum extract was investigated in mice at various dosages (50–2000 mg), with hyperactivity, grooming, convulsions, sedation, hypothermia, and mortality being reported. No mortality was reported following oral administration of the maximum dose (2000 mg/kg) of extract. Furthermore, gangetin was found to have no toxic effect up to 7 g/kg orally, indicating that it is rather safe and no data of D. gangeticum toxicity have been reported in traditional medicine [49].
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4.3 Aloe barbadensis Miller Aloe barbadensis Miller, commonly known as Aloe vera, is a succulent perennial plant in the Aloeaceae family that has been used since many centuries. Aloe vera is termed as the ‘Miracle plant’ due to the vast therapeutic properties in it [50]. Aloe vera thrives in desert and subtropical conditions in countries such as India, Africa, and Iran, and in India, it is found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka [51]. Aloe vera is well known for its medical capabilities, which are utilized in Ayurvedic, Homoeopathic, as well as allopathic medicines. For generations, it has been used for cosmetic, health, therapeutic, and skin care benefits. The anti-fungal activity, anti-bacterial activity, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties of Aloe vera have been documented, and these have been attributed to the synergistic actions of several bioactive compounds present in Aloe vera. There are over 75 distinct phytoconstituents in Aloe vera which include polyphenols, proteins, saccharides, sterols, vitamins, flavonoids, anthraquinones, minerals, etc. [52, 53]. All these constituents are responsible for the various pharmacological properties and these have also been explored in pre-clinical and clinical trials. Phytosterols from Aloe vera have been reported to have antidiabetic and anticholesterolemic property in vivo, while aloin and aloesin have been reported to reduce glucose levels in clinical trials [54]. Virectin and polysaccharides have been observed to reduce the sugar levels in clinical trials [55]. Peptide fraction of Aloe vera is able to regulate the GLP-1 pathway and polysaccharide fraction is able to activate the glycogenesis pathway to regulate the sugar levels [51, 56]. All the pre- clinical and clinical trials of Aloe vera and its phytoconstituents revalidate the use of this medicinal plant in modern medicine proving that Aloe vera has massive potential in modern medicine.
4.4 Moringa oleifera Moringa oleifera is a naturally cultured species of Moringa, which is a member of the Moringaceae family. Moringa is also known as “Mother’s Best Friend” or “Miracle Tree” and has been used in Ayurveda and Unani medications [57]. M. oleifera is believed to have originated in Agra and Oudh, both of which are located in India’s northwest area, south of the Himalaya Mountains. This plant is high in vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B7, D, C, K, and E. Copper, calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, zinc, and manganese are some of the essential minerals found in Moringa [58]. It contains over 40 natural antioxidants. M. oleifera has been employed in ancient diets for memory and concentration as well as healthy skin. M. oleifera pods, leaves, gums, seeds, flowers, and bark are utilized in over many countries to treat vitamin and mineral deficiencies, aid a healthy cardiovascular health, improve blood glucose levels, scavenge free radicals, minimize tumour, offer incredible support for anti-inflammatory activity, and boost immunity. It also enhances vision,
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mental acuity, and bone density. It may help treat malnourishment, general fatigue, breastfeeding women, menopausal symptoms, anxiety, and osteoarthritis [59]. M. oleifera contains a unique mixture of minerals, amino acids, and antioxidants that are beneficial to both nourishment and ability to heal. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended M. oleifera as a substitute to food sources to address malnutrition. It has the highest amount of isothiocyanates and glucosinolates, and it also contains rhamnose. M. oleifera leaf, seed, and root extracts have been shown in vitro and in vivo to have anticancer, hypoglycaemic, hepatoprotective, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antifungal, and anti-sickling properties [60]. Leaf extracts have the highest antioxidant activity, and aqueous leaf extracts have been shown to be safe in a variety of animal experiments. The reported effects are thought to be caused by a variety of phenolic acids, polyphenols, as well as glucosinolates, flavonoids, and possibly alkaloids. Up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg, M. oleifera leaves (aqueous extract) were proven to be safe. 250 and 500 mg/kg doses of the extract were administered intraperitoneally in fasting streptozotocin- induced diabetic rats leading to remarkable reduction in blood glucose levels [61]. 8 g of the powdered M. oleifera leaves per day for 40 days was administered to treat type 2 diabetic individuals, and blood glucose during fasting and postprandial were decreased by 28% and 26% in participants [61]. In terms of cost and efficacy, the M. oleifera plant is the most cost-effective and dependable option for both healthy nutrition, disease prevention, and cure.
4.5 Terminalia chebula Terminalia chebula Retz. belonging to family Combretaceae, commonly known as black- or chebulic myrobalan, is also considered as the ‘King of medicine’ in Tibet and is constantly charted as the priority of Ayurvedic Materia Medica due to the exceptional medicinal properties [62]. The entire plant is highly therapeutic and has been used for centuries to heal a variety of human diseases such as respiratory problems, sore throat, vomiting, dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, ulcers, gout, and heart and bladder problems [63]. The plant is reported to have antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antimutagenic, radioprotective, antiproliferative, antiarthritic, anticaries, cardioprotective, gastrointestinal motility, and wound healing property [63]. The tree’s fruit provides a variety of health advantages and it has been utilized as household remedies in traditional medicine remedies for a variety of human illnesses. T. chebula is widely used in Unani, Ayurveda, and Homoeopathy medicine and has been in focus as a modern medicine. Tannins are abundant in the fruits of T. chebula (32–34%) [64]. Additionally, phenolics like ellagic acid, chebulinic acid, and anthraquinones are present. Rest of the compounds includes coumarin, triterpenoids, galloyl glucose, corilagin, punicalagin, maslinic acid, and terflavin A. Moreover, amino acids, fructose, betasitosterol, succinic acid, and resin are also present. T. chebula at a dose of 300 mg/kg was administered to diabetic rats induced with streptozotocin for up to four weeks and
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resulted in a considerable decrease in blood glucose. Phytoconstituents from T. chebula have also been studied for their therapeutic properties. Ellagic acid has been reported to have antimicrobial property, while chebulinic acid has been known to possess antioxidant and hepatoprotective potential [65]. T. chebula is one of the versatile plants in ITM with a broad range of medicinal and pharmacological properties, and the changing scenario in the herbal industry makes it a promising plant worth exploring for its various therapeutic potentials.
4.6 Tinospora cordifolia Tinospora cordifolia, also known as Guduchi, is an herbal shrub belonging to the moonseed family Menispermaceae. It is found throughout India and also in China, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. This plant has been used to treat wide variety of diseases throughout the history of traditional medicine practices in Ayurveda and Siddha medicine, which includes skin diseases, jaundice, and gout [66]. T. cordifolia primarily consists of bioactive compounds like glycosides, alkaloids, aliphatic compounds, essential oils, steroids, fatty acids mixture, polysaccharides, phosphorous, calcium, and protein. The stem and root contain alkaloids as active constituents. These include magnoflorine, tembetarine, tinosporin, choline, berberine, jatrorrhizine, isocolumbin, aporphine alkaloids, palmatine, and tetrahydropalmatine [67]. All these constituents contribute to different pharmacological activities like anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-psychiatric, anti-viral, and immunomodulatory properties. T. cordifolia root extract (TCRE) was studied by Prince et al. to lower tissue lipid as well as serum levels in diabetic male albino Wistar rats [68]. The extract had a better effect than glibenclamide at doses of 2.5 and 5.0 g/kg BW (body weight). The plant extract was administered for six weeks, which resulted in a notable decrease in tissue and serum cholesterol, free fatty acids, and phospholipids in the alloxan diabetic rats. The hypolipidaemic effect of TCRE is explained by a direct decrease in blood glucose concentration. Apart from this T. cordifolia has been studied for its antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties [67]. All these studies indicate the T. cordifolia is an incredible source which can contribute extensively to the scientific world of medicine.
4.7 Withania somnifera Withania somnifera from the Solanaceae family, also called as Indian ginseng or Ashwagandha, is widely available in India, Afghanistan, China, Africa, Yemen, and Nepal. “Somnifera” in Withania somnifera in Latin is “sleep-inducer”, which justifies its widespread use as a neuroprotective agent [69]. W. somnifera has been widely used in Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani medicine systems. Ashwagandha contains over 35 phytochemicals that have been successfully isolated and
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characterized. Alkaloids and steroidal lactones are the main chemical compounds [70]. The alkaloids found in Ashwagandha include somniferine, somniferinine, somnine, withanine, tropine, pseudo-withanine, pseudo-tropine, cuscohygrine, 3-a-gloyloxytropane, and anaferine, amongst which withanine is the most abundant [71]. Phytopharmacological studies have proved that Ashwagandha has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimalarial, antimicrobial, sedative, immunomodulatory, diuretic, and cardioprotective properties. Various researchers have examined the use of Ashwagandha to treat Parkinson’s disease. A study by Bhatnagar et al. 2017 has proved that the ethanolic extract of Ashwagandha roots has been shown to reverse Parkinson-like symptoms in MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydrop yridine) Parkinson induced Balb/c mice [72]. It has shown to restore behavioural performance and significantly improve oxidative stress profile as a dose of 40 mg/ kg body weight. Ashwagandha has also been studied for its antidiabetic potential wherein the phenolics present in the plant have been reported to reduce sugars levels and Withaferin A is able to protect the islet cell damage through anti-inflammatory property [73]. Withaferin A is also reported to have anticancer and antioxidant property. Rasayana is a branch of Ayurveda which helps in promotion of body’s resistance to diseases and increase the strength. W. somnifera is one of the prime rasayana plants having a vast therapeutic property making it an excellent candidate to be used in modern medications.
4.8 Bacopa monnieri Bacopa monnieri, commonly known as Brahmi (family Plantaginaceae), has been used since ancient times in Indian and Chinese medicine. The use of B. monnieri in India for the enhancement of memory dates back since 3000 years or more [74]. It is often used as a tranquilizer, cardiotonic, and sedative and it is a nervine tonic and diuretic for nervous and psychological strain, and it is used in epilepsy, hysteria, asthenia, and nervous breakdown. B. monnieri is distinguished by its chemical components, which consists primarily of dammarane-type triterpenes, saponins known as bacosides. Bacopasides I–XII, a different group of saponins, have recently been recognized as an essential component of the herbal extract [75]. In addition to hersaponin, D-mannitol, cucurbitacin, apigenin, plantainoside B, and monnierasides I–III, the alkaloids such as nicotine and herpestine have been also identified as active compounds of the plant. Antioxidant, neuroprotection (via redox as well as enzyme induction), choline acetyltransferase activation and/or acetylcholinesterase inhibition, increase in cerebral blood flow, β-amyloid reduction, and moderation of the neurotransmitters (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT], acetylcholine [ACh], dopamine [DA]) are thought to be mechanisms involved in disorders related to nervous system [76]. Brahmi is a medicinal wonder plant with numerous therapeutic properties. Brahmi has been extensively studied for its effects on nervous system but it is a great plant with hidden potential whose other medicinal properties need to be explored.
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4.9 Ginkgo biloba Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as ginkgo or the maidenhair tree, which is native to Korea, China, and Japan, belongs to the family Ginkgoaceae. It is also found in certain parts of India like Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, and Meghalaya. It is used for weight loss effects along with antihypertensive, anti- lipidaemic, and antidiabetic properties which may be effective in treating of metabolic syndrome [77]. G. biloba nuts have long been used as food as well as medicine throughout Asia. Because of their antibiotic properties, raw G. biloba nuts have been used in Chinese traditional medicine to treat bacterial pathogens, asthma, bronchitis, bladder, and kidney disorders [78]. Terpene lactones (bilobalide as well as ginkgolides C, B, and A) and flavone glycosides (kaempferol, isorhamnetin, and quercetin) are the main components of the plant [79]. Studies have shown that G. biloba extract has successfully reduced body fat in overweight high-fat diet fed rats. An eight-week study where the rats were administered 500 mg/kg body weight of the extract as treatment has shown to minimize both body weight gain as well as food intake compared to untreated rats [80]. The anti-inflammatory effect of the plant extract may diminish the negative effects of high-fat diet consumption through the reduction of TNF-retroperitoneal fat depot levels [77] Apart from this, G. biloba is also known to have antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. The polysaccharides of G. biloba have also studied for their medicinal properties such as antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant properties [81]. G. biloba is one of the oldest plants in the ITM which has captivated the human beings for centuries through its promising application in traditional medicine.
4.10 Asparagus racemosus Asparagus racemosus, also known as Satamuli, Satawar, and Shatavari, is a Liliaceae plant that grows at low altitudes throughout India. A. racemosus is a very well Ayurvedic rasayana and has also been used in Siddha and Unani medicine for treatment of nervous disorders, dyspepsia, tumours, anti-ageing, neuropathy, inflammation, and hepatopathy [82]. It is also extremely efficient in issues regarding the female reproductive system. Shatavari has been used for the treatment of gonorrhoea, piles, diabetes, gastric problems, etc. Treatment of mice with Shatavari improved glutathione peroxidase activity and the glutathione content in the brain. Shatavari was able to increase the antioxidant enzyme levels in rat at a dose of 100 mg/kg bw [83]. Shatavari’s antioxidant properties are because of the occurrence of isoflavones, especially racemosol, racemofuran, and asparagamine A. Apart from its well-known antioxidant property, Shatavari is known for its galactagogue activity, antiulcer activity, anti-bacterial activity, anticancer, antiprotozoal activity, and cardio protective and gastro protective activity [82, 84]. The ITM’s usage of Shatavari have been demonstrated by vast experimental and scientific studies indicating the plants potential in healthcare industry.
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5 Current Usage and Scenario of Indian Traditional Medicine System According to WHO, 80% of world population rely and use traditional medicine. Even though a large population of these are present in India, China, and Africa, the developed countries have also started to explore the traditional medicine system [22, 33]. Nature has been a constant source of medicinal herbs and plants. Earlier, aspirin, digoxin, morphine, and quinine have been derived from plants [85]. The use of phytotherapy is being used on a regular basis and the trend has again shifted to the use of herbal remedies for the treatment of various diseases and disorders [86]. The ITM has also seen a rise in its usage in the last few decades [87]. The practitioners of ITM have started addressing the core issues due to which the ITM industry has started gaining importance [88]. More recently, isolating the compounds from the medicinal plants and studying their pharmacological properties have gained interest (Fig. 1, Table 4). The phytocompounds isolated have been reported to work in targeted therapy. However, India had already started isolating compounds from the medicinal plants in 1930s. Sen and Bose isolated two alkaloids from Rauwolfia serpentina in 1931 [33]. In the same year, Siddiqui and Siddiqui isolated five alkaloids, namely Ajmaline, Ajmalinine, Ajmalicine, Scrpentine, and Serpentinine from the same plant [89]. In the years that followed, several other studies were also conducted by Indian researchers. During that time period, around 90% of Indian doctors prescribed Rauwolfia serpentina as a daily antihypertensive, and with manufacturers selling approximately 50 million tablets due to the work of Rustom Jal Vakil [90].
Fig. 1 Structures of different phytoconstituents isolated from the medicinal plants of the Indian traditional medicine system
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Table 4 List of phytoconstituents isolated from some of the medicinal plants and their pharmacological properties Plant Aegle marmelos Allium cepa
Plant part Unripe fruits Dried bulbs Allium sativum Dried bulbs Aloe Gel barbadensis
Phytoconstituent Marmelosin
Pharmacological properties Antidiarrhoea, aids digestion
Alliin and Allicin
Cardioprotective, antidiabetic, antibiotic
Alliin and Allicin
Antibacterial, antigout, anti-inflammatory
Aloin and aloesin Halophenols emodin
Anti-inflammatory, wound healing, antidiabetic, immunomodulation Antidiabetic Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, anticancer Purgative, aids digestion
Cassia angustifolia Centella asiatica Curcuma longa
Dried leaves Herb
Echinacea purpurea Ferula asafoetida Gingko biloba
Dried herb Alkylamide, echinacoside Oleo gum Ferulic acid, resin umbellic acid Leaves Ginkgolide, bilobalide
Glycyrrhiza glabra Hydrastis canadensis Hypericum perforatum Panax ginseng
Root
Valeriana officinalis
Dried root
Valerate, Valerenic acid
Zingiber officinale Camellia sinensis Terminalia chebula Tinospora cordifolia Withania somnifera
Rhizome
Fruits and leaves Leaves
Gingerol, Zingiberene Catechin Epigallocatechin Chebulinic acid Β-sitosterol Magnoflorine
Leaves
Somniferine
Rhizome
Dried root Dried aerial part Dried root
Leaves
sennosides Asiaticoside and Madecassoside curcumin
Glycyrrhizin and liquiritin Berberine and hydrastine Hypericin and hyperforin Panaxosides, Ginsenosides
Antianxiety, coolant Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiseptic, wound healing, immunomodulation Anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory Immunostimulatory, relieves flatulence, expectorant Antioxidant, stimulates platelets formation, treatment of migraine, and other cerebrovascular diseases Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, expectorant Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antihaemorrhagic, antioxidant, antidiabetic Anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, expectorant, antioxidant, Immunostimulant, treatment of nervous system disorders, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory Tranquilizer, anti-inflammatory, relieves pain and menstrual cramps, migraine treatment Immunostimulant, antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, immunomodulation Antioxidant, antidiabetic, anticancer Antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory Antidiabetic, immunomodulation, anticancer Memory enhancer, neuroprotective
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National/International research has discovered many medicines from plants that have been used in ITM since ancient times. Phytoconstituents have been employed as a source of lead and in the treatment of a variety of ailments and disorders [3] Some of the in vivo studies have reported the isolation of vasicine and vasicinone (Adhatoda vasica), asparanin A and B (Asparagus adscendens), morphine and codeine (Papaver somniferum), Shatavarin (Asparagus racemosus), etc. [33]. Glycyrrhizin from Glycyrrhiza glabra has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities in Wistar rats [91], whereas Aloin from Aloe vera has been used to treat cancer in vivo [92]. Gingerol has been reported to have anti-tumour potential [93] Several plant compounds are also being tested in clinical studies. Amoora rohituka derivatives Binectariferum and flavopiridol are in the early stages of human trials as anticancer agents. In Ayurveda, guggulu, an oleogum resin produced from the bark of the Commiphora wightii tree, is used to treat obesity, gout, dyslipidaemia, inflammation, and rheumatism [94]. Several compounds have been identified, such as Z-guggulsterone, E-guggulsterone, guggulsterol I, and guggulsterol II [95]. These constituents of guggulu have also been studied for their therapeutic effects with guggulsterone being studied for its cardioprotective effect in clinical trials. In the development of alternative herbal medicines or formulations, 77 Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India and its member laboratories are participating in the following areas [33, 94]: (i) standardized fraction of Guglipid (Guglip®, Cipla Ltd) for marketing as a drug for hyperlipidaemia and atherosclerosis. (ii) Artemisia annua’s Artemisinin (a semi-synthetic derivative of the substance) is being marketed by Themis Chemicals Ltd as an antimalarial medication. (iii) Consap, which contains saponin from Sapindus mukorossi, has been developed as a spermicidal cream. (iv) Picroside and kutoside from Picrorhiza kurroa have been developed as a liver protectant. (v) A standardized herbal preparation has been developed as a memory enhancer from B. monnieri. (vi) An anti-diabetes drug (BGR34) has been co-developed by CSIR-NBRI and CSIR-CIMAP. Attempts are being undertaken to uncover numerous formulations and create novel pharmaceuticals as part of the “Golden Triangle Partnership” effort involving AYUSH, the Indian Medical Research Council (ICMR), and the CSIR. This partnership aims to increase the usage of ITM and its integration into modern medicine so as to increase the prospects of herbal medicine industry in India as well as the world.
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6 Scope and Future Prospects of Indian Traditional Medicine System The use of herbal medicines is booming and the market is growing tremendously as sales of herbal medicines in India as over-the-counter products, ethical and conventional formulations, and home treatments by ITM are approximately one billion dollars, and export of plant extracts is about 80 million dollars [85]. Apart from this, some Americans and Europeans come to India to enrol in courses and participate in a comprehensive Indian medical treatment plan, which includes massage, food, yoga, spiritual lectures, and meditation. This is turning into a unique marketing feature for tourism in India. In addition, exports of medicinal plants and herbs have been quite large in recent years. The main products of ITM from India are isabgol, opium alkaloids, senna derivatives, Vinca rosa, Cinchona alkaloids, ipecac root alkaloids, solasodine, diosgenin, menthol, gudmar grass, henna leaves, papian, Rauwolfia guar gum, jasmine oil, sandalwood oil, etc. [96]. Indian pharmaceutical companies and researchers with modern scientific knowledge and technology, and ideas have begun rediscovering medicinal plants as a source of new drug candidates based on traditional knowledge. Himalaya Drug Company, Dabur Limited, Baidyanath, Patanjali Ayurved, Natural Remedies, etc., are some of the prominent industries which have led to the introduction of ITM-based products in the Indian market [94]. Modern technology and techniques have revolutionized the advancement of drug research from the medicinal plants. Research using the latest equipment and methods have helped separate and develop plant components as new medicines present in traditional herbal/medicinal plants formulations [22] (Fig. 2). Modern technology monitors and maintains the quality of conventional formulations, using phytochemicals as the basis for new drug discovery, determines pharmacokinetic profiles and toxicity, and discovered mechanisms of existing herbal medicines [97]. It has become an indispensable tool for finding new uses for prescribing, speeding up drug discovery processes, synthetic and semi-synthetic processes for producing natural ingredients, and more [98]. Traditional medicine is an important tool for discovering new drugs as they are less expensive with minimal side effects and is readily available locally. Quality control of marketed herbs/herbal formulations is critical for obtaining maximum amount of phytochemicals/constituents for therapeutic efficacy. As a result, herbal drug standards are essential. For comparing the quality of herbal drugs, standard references such as the Indian Pharmacopoeia Reference Substances, particularly botanical and phytochemical reference standards, are necessary [99]. The Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission has now focused on standardizing the herbal products and promoting the usage of Indian traditional medicine system.
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Fig. 2 Prospect of drug discovery from the Indian traditional medicine system
7 Conclusion Traditional medicine plays an important role in maintaining health in rural and remote areas. The introduction of traditional herbal medicine into clinical practice will help achieve the goal of “health for all” as it easily accessible, and are less expensive and more importantly with no/minimal side effects. Traditional Indian medicine like Ayurveda and others have a solid scientific basis for their effectiveness and are well recognized by recent studies. However, efforts are needed to overcome obstacles such as inappropriate usage, quality control and standardization problems, and pharmacovigilance. Rigorous application of rules, monitoring, and periodic revision of regulations are absolutely necessary to promote the traditional Indian medicine. In general, adequate systematic knowledge, high-quality clinical trials, and pertinent information about these drugs and their effectiveness in the general population are needed to increase the awareness of herbal medication. The integration of Ayurvedic medicine and other traditional Indian medicines into clinical practice will help to improve the health of those who cannot properly access modern medicine. The use of ITM along with conventional drugs is certainly more valuable in promoting health or curing disease in a better way. Therefore, the combination of IMT with the modern medication and technology will be very helpful in providing the best medical services, not only in India but also all over the world.
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Conservation of RET Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Their Traditional Medicines and Current Practices in Indian Himalayan Region Rajeev Ranjan Kumar, Jaidev Chauhan, V. K. Purohit, P. Prasad, and M. C. Nautiyal
1 Introduction India has been a hub of the treasure of traditional knowledge for ages which, besides others, also explains the way outs for solving most of the present-day problems. Plants are the primary source of all medicines worldwide, providing mankind with new remedies. Natural sources of medicines maintain equilibrium between agriculture and industrial sectors in terms of demand for natural medicine and economy, and there is also a minimum harmful effect on human bodies. The traditional medicinal plant system plays a vital role in remote areas. In the primary healthcare sector, little work so far has been done regarding the documentation and promotion of associated knowledge [1]. Medicinal and aromatic plants are always in high demand worldwide in both areas of health management, that is, traditional and modern systems of medicine. The traditional medicine system works through two distinct streams, one is local, tribal or folk, and the other is codified or structured. Indian Medicine Systems such as Ayurveda, Homoeopathy, Siddha, and Unani are formed from both sources, plants and animals, but electrohomeopathy medicines are prepared from purely herbal sources. Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants in higher Himalayan ranges are new trends and is the only last option for maintaining the wild population of medicinal plants, which are most endangered and fulfil the industrial demands of pharmaceutical industries in global markets [2, 3]. In India alone, less than 10% of the medicinal plants traded in the country are cultivated, and about 90% are collected from the wild, very often in a destructive and unsustainable manner [4]. However, in recent years, attention has been given to the development of propagation methods and collection (which can support conservation objectives overall) R. R. Kumar (*) · J. Chauhan · V. K. Purohit · P. Prasad · M. C. Nautiyal High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_10
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[5]. Most medicinal plants are being extracted from wild populations for drug and pharmaceutical industries, traditional use and research purposes. These activities adversely affect the existence of a number of plants, particularly those of high commercial value. Further, the developmental activities in the higher Himalayan region without rehabilitation work of these valuable resources are one of them.
1.1 ISM India is a diverse rich country not only in terms of biodiversity but also in its unique Traditional medicinal system and this integration leads to formation of AYUSH, which is system of Ayurveda, Siddha, Yoga and Naturopathy. It’s an old Indian tradition medicine system and practiced in our country, multifaceted culture and traditional medicines evolved over centuries blessed with a plethora of traditional medicines and practices. A separate department of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM & H) was set up in 1995 to ensure the optimal development and propagation of AYUSH healthcare systems. The department of ISM & H was renamed as the department of AYUSH (an acronym for – Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy) in November 2003 [6] (Table 1).
1.2 ASM The Ayurvedic System of Medicine is a natural Indian medicine system that originated in India more than 3000 years ago. The term Ayurveda originated from the Sanskrit word, Ayur = life, Veda = Knowledge). This medicine system deals with physical and mental health and covers the art of living. In the Ayurvedic system, Table 1 Humours (vital force, OD force, bioforce) enlisted according to different alternative medicine systems Ayurveda Pita (Bile) Vayu (Wind) Kapha (Phlegm) –
Siddha Azal Vali Aiyam –
Unani Blood Phlegm Yellow bile Black bile
Homoeopathy Syphilis Sycosis Psora –
Electrohomoeopathy Sanguine Lymphatic Nervous Bilious
Notes: In future, it is obvious that the use of medicinal and aromatic plants will increase day by day for fulfilling the industrial demands, hence for the preparation of any medicines in Indian Medicine Systems (Ayurveda, Homoeopathy, Siddha, Unani, and Electrohomoeopathy) it totally depends on plants supply. These medicines have no harmful effects on humans and animals, hence if these MAP’s were not comes under cultivation it will lead them to face RET category due to over exploitation from their natural habitats. So the need for developing efficient protocols of various Agro-techniques, in vitro propagation methods and hydroponic techniques are required
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diseases are cured by using drugs (phytocompound products, animal products, and earth material products), diets, exercise, acupressure, massage, panchakarma, etc. According to Ayurveda, it is classified into three essential elements: Vata, Pita and Kapha, present in all living beings. Such elements originate from five elements – Vayu (air), Tej (energy), Akash (space), Jal (water) and Earth (soil and minerals); Space + Air = Vata, Tej+ Jal = Pita, Jal + Earth = Kapha. Diseases are caused by such biological elements imbalance [6].
1.3 YNSM Yoga and Naturopathy system is a culture and civilization of India. According to Hindu mythology, God Dhanvantri was first described in Ayurveda. As texted from ancient scholars, rishi muni such as Rishi Patanjali, Rishi Charak, Sushruta plays an important role for developing this system. Yoga, naturopathy, mudra, and acupressure are healing art for maintaining physical and mental health and preventive methods for diseases and cures [6].
1.4 USM Unani System of Medicine is based on the principle of great physicians such as Hippocrates and Galen. This alternative medicine system originated in Greece but is now practised primarily in India. This system includes herbal remedies, dietary practices, and prevention and treatment of disease. According to the Unani system, health is based on the balance of bodily fluids called four humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile), which play an important role in a healthy body [6].
1.5 ISM Indian Siddha System of medicine is the oldest traditional system of healing that originated in south India. The system belongs to the Tamil civilization. The term Siddha comes from Siddhi, which means achievement. The system is based on the combination of ancient medicinal practices with spiritual disciplines, alchemy, and mysticism. Six thousand species of medicinal plants were documented and published in different research papers of ethnobotanical literature in India, among which 750 species are generally used in the preparation of Siddha medicine from both plant and animal kingdoms based on minerals and substances [6].
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1.6 HMS Homoeopathic system of medicine is an alternative medicine system that originated in Germany more than 200 years ago but is now practised primarily in India. Dr. Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann is the father of Homoeopathy. In this medicine system, extremely dilute amounts of certain natural substances from the plant kingdom, animal kingdom, earth materials, etc., are used to treat various diseases. According to the homoeopathic system of medicine, diseases are caused by three constituents, Psora, Syphilis and Sycosis, which develop mental and physical symptoms in the human body [6].
1.7 ESM Electrohomeopathic system of medicine from Italy, but now the Indian government allow these practices and research development in this system. The term of electrohomeopathy means that Electro = Electro word comes from the electro i.e, bioenergy that is extracted from medicinal plants by cohabitation methods, While Homeopathy word means a type of medical science which treats the diseases by using similar amount of small doses of herbal remedies as prescribed by physician. The father of electrohomeopathic system of medicine is Count Ceaser Mattei. According to this system of electrohomeopathy remedies that have capability to gently stimulate the natural body’s healing system (Immune system) and also equilibrium between the blood and lymph, hypo, hyper function physical and chemical consistency of the cells or tissues established in a same manners as that of healthy state of the body [7, 8].
1.8 SEM System of Ethnomedicine is an ancient traditional system in India. It is derived from our ancestor’s continuous practices and experiments, which they applied, and passed this knowledge from their generation to another but in a secret manner; hence, this is the biggest drawback of this system since a lot more is needed to be documented so that in future it can come under research. This system is now also under threat because many traditional healers have discontinued this due to less attention taken by local peoples; hence, it must be conserved [9].
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2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Uses of High-Altitude and Temperate Medicinal and Aromatic Plants This chapter focuses on the uses of medicinal plants. Pharmaceutical companies use nearly 90% of medicinal plants from natural sources, which is considered to be the main cause for the extinction of various species of medicinal and aromatic plants in the Himalayan region. Government agencies, institutions and non-government organizations have taken steps to cultivate medicinal plants in suitable habitats for conservation purposes and further use in future. Here we have presented the data based on extensive surveys done during 2018–2021 all over the Uttarakhand state in both temperate and subalpine villages (Fig. 1), along with some research papers and books.
Fig. 1 Glimpses of various survey and awareness meetings for collecting TMK and other technical know-how
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3 Results Uses of medicinal plants are also discussed in many ancient texts like Ayurveda and in many scientific books; these literatures also focus on the importance of medicinal herbs. Several literature that discuss the importance of herbal philosophy are available not only in India but also in other countries like Italy, Greece and China. Bioactive or phytochemical compounds are found in whole parts (roots, tuber, rhizome, stem, leaves and flowers) of medicinal plants. Parts used from medicinal plants basically depend upon the amount of phytochemical and specific regions of plants as varied species to species of medicinal and aromatic plants. Roots, rhizomes, tubers, as discussed in Tables 2 and 3, underground (tubers, roots and rhizomes) parts are used for some species (Aconitum species, Saussurea costus, Saussurea obvallata, Inula recemosa, Nardostachys grandiflora, Valeriana walichii, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rheum species, Picrorhiza kurroa) to cure human and animal related health problems. Some species (Swertia chirayita, Swertia ciliata, Swertia speciosa, etc., of whole parts of plants, are used for curing the disease of animals and humans. Therefore, we should always use plant parts with proper post- harvest practices as well as Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), that is, underground parts or upper parts for the preparation of medicine.
4 Conclusion MAPs are the spinal cord of the Indian AYUSH System since India is a rich hotspot of many primary and secondary centres of origin, especially the Indian Himalayan Region; hence the role of traditional medicinal knowledge is very important and must be encouraged in a scientific, holistic manner by means of cultivation practices so that the rich biodiversity would be maintained. Yet there is a lot of scope in ethnomedicinal concepts because very little scientific approach has been made related to this field, and there is much more to be revealed, but before that, we have to conserve these RET species of MAPs because all pharmaceutical products need to be prepared from plant sources; hence, medicinal and aromatic plants will play a crucial role in solving many futuristic health problems like COVID and its other mutant variants like omicron, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson disease, etc.
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Table 2 Name of species S.no Latin name 1. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.ex Royle 2. Aconitum balfourii Stapf 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Sanskrit name Ativisha
Hindi name Atis
Vatsnabh
Mithaa vish, Mohru Dudhia Atis
Aconitum violaceum Jacq. Vatsnabh Ex Stapf Angelica glauca. Edgew Chorak
Choru,
Local (Garhwali) name Atis Mithaa vish Dudhia Atis, Dugdh Atis Choru, Chora, Chhipi Shalampanja/Hatha jari Rishbhak
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Paris polyphylla Sm.
Hatha jari
Hatha jari
Rsabhaka
Risbhak
Bankakri
Rikhpat, Kakhraya
Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissin Rheum moorcroftianum Royle Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Saussurea obvallata (DC Edgew)
Amalparni pitmula, Revat-chini Amlaparn
Bankakri, Banbaigan, Papri Satuwa, Sankh puspi Archa, Revandchini Dolu
Agada, Kushta
Kuth
Kuth
Braham kamal
Braham kamal
Innula racemosa Hook. f Valeriana wallichii DC Nardostachys grandiflora DC Bergiana ciliata (Haw.) Sternb Picrorhiza kurroa Royle. ex Benth Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Flem) Karsten Swertia ciliata (D. Don ex G. Don) BL Burtt. Swertia speciosa Wall. ex.D.Don
Pushkaramula Tagar Jatamansi, Mansi Pasanved
Pushkar mool Tagar Jatamansi, Balchar Pasanved
Kaunl, brahamkaunl, Suraj aul Pushkar mool Saumaiya Masi, Mansi
Kutki, Katuka
Kutki, Kuru
Kardwi, Karvi
Kirata-tikta
Chirayata
Chiraytu
Kirata-tikta
Chirayata
Chiraytu
Kirata-tikta
Chirayata
Chiraytu
Svetavaca
Satuwa Archa, Archu Dolu
Pakhanved, Silpado
Habitats
A. heterophyllum is grown on steep slopes at the alpine region of Himalaya (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) at 3000–4000 m asl
Aconitum balfourii is generally distributed in Uttarakhand Himalaya region (Kedarnath, Tungnath, Madhyamaheshwar, Panwalikantha) at 2800–3600 m asl
The alpine zone of the Himalayas from Gilgit to Kumaon and Garhwal region (Hakidoon, Bednibugyal) 3600–4000 m
About species
(1) Aconitum heterophyllum Family-Rannunculaceae Parts used – Tuber Cultivation status – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig. 2k
(2) Aconitum balfourii Family – Rannunculaceae Parts used – Tuber Cultivation status – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig.2j
(3) Aconitum violaceum Family – Rannunculaceae Parts used – Tuber Cultivation status-Not applied Fig.2i
Indaconitine [11, 16]
9-Hydroxysenbusine A [14] Balfourine, 8-O-Methylveratroyl pseudaconine, pseudo-aconitine, aconitine, picroaconine, aconine, benzyl aconine, and hemonapelline
Anthorine [17] Atidine [18] Atisenol [19] 6-Benzoylheteratisine [19] 11,13:11,16-Diepoxy-16,17-dihydro-11, 12-ecohetisan-2-ol [14], Dihydroatisine, Heterophyllidine, Heterophylline, Hetidine, Hetisinone, O-Methylheterophylline Isoatisine, Hetisine [17–19] N- Di-ethyl-N-formylly aconitine [17] O-Methylaconitine (15)Methyl-N-succinoyl anthranilate [17]
Bio active compound
Table 3 Importance of medicinal plants, habitats, bioactive compounds and current status
Nervine tonic [11, 16]
Used in treatment of arthritis, fever and rheumatism, leprosy and boils [10–12]
Such medicinal plant is non-poisonous, tubers are generally used in Ayurvedic, Unani medicine preparations as anti-pyretic, analgesic, antiperiodic, aphrosidic, astringent, anti-venom, anti-inflammatory, ant-rheumatic, vermifuge, etc. It is also used in form of ethno medicine such as stomach disorder (diarrhoea, dyspepsia, dysentery, anorexia, etc.), to reduce obesity, cough, thirst associated with fever and headache problem caused from eating excessive amounts of greasy foods, yellowish sclera, nausea, vomiting, throat pain and piles [10–12]
Pharmaceutical properties and uses
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
CS
India (Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh), Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Tibet and Bhutan
Malaxis muscifera Different types of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, is grow in temperate to phenols and sterols are bioactive compound present in sub-alpine region of Himachal Malaxis muscifera [12, 20] Pradesh, Uttarakhand at 2400–3600 m asl
(5) Dactylorhiza hatagirea Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2r
(6) Malaxis muscifera Family – Orchidaceae Part used – Underground parts Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2q
Tubers contain bioactive compounds, that is, mucilage, phosphate, chloride and glucoside-loroglossin and trace of volatile oil and ash consisting major of potassium and lime [10–12]
Bio active compound
Habitats
Native and endemic to the Valeric acid, angelic acid, and Angeline resin Himalayan region of Kashmir, bioactive compounds contained in the underground Himachal Pradesh, and part (Roots) [10–12] Uttarakhand, Angelica glauca Edgew (Apiaceae) is a high-value perennial medicinal herb
About species
(4) Angelica glauca Family – Apiaceae Parts used – underground parts (rhizome/roots) and leaves may also be used in vegetable spices and curry Cultivation status – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig.2s
Used as an aphrodisiac to cure burning sensation, dysentery, fever, febrifuge, internal and external haemorrhage, seminal weakness, sterility etc [10–12, 20]
(continued)
Vulnerable
Critically Endangered
Used in treatment for diarrhoea, dysentery, chronic fever, leucorrhoea and also used in Unani medicine, Ayurvedic medicine preparation such as treatment for paralytic affection, seminal debility and general weakness in debilitated females after the delivery period [10–12]
CS Endangered
Pharmaceutical properties and uses stimulant, cardioactive, carminative, digestive, sudorific, expectorant and also for stomachic properties Also, it is useful in cough, ulcer of the palate, menorrhoea, menopausal, anaemia, infantile atrophy, debility, bronchitis, vomiting, typhoid, fever, spasms, increasing appetite and in various stomach disorders in humans and animals (diarrhoea, rinderpest, dysentery, constipation, anorexia, flatulent colic, etc.) and to treat loss of kidney heat, accumulation of excess lymph in the joints. The root powder is mixed with warm water and given to children with stomach ailments and vomiting. Due to its strong fragrant odour, it is widely used in industries, that is, fixative of perfume [10–12]
(9) Rheum emodi Family – Polygonaceae Cultivation status – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig. 2g
Rheum emodi is grown in temperate and sub-temperate in Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Sikkim at 2800–3000 m asl
Temperate Himalayas Glucoside, from Uttarakhand, Shimla to alpha-paristyphnin, Steroids [14] Bhutan and in Lushai and Aka Hills
(8) Paris polyphylla Family – Liliaceae Part used – Rhizome Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2f
Bio active compound
Anthraquinone (rhein, chrysophanol, aloe-emodin, emodin, physcion, and their glycosides) and stilbene (picetannol, resveratrol and their glycosides) bioactive contain in underground parts [15]
The rhizome contains phytochemical compounds, that is, resin, podophyllin, podophyllotoxin, podophyllol, querctin, kampferol, astragalin, essential oil, wax and mineral salt [12]
Habitats
Temperate, alpine, subalpine Himalayan regions from Afghanistan to South West China, Myanmar, and India (Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh) grow at 2800–4000 m asl in a moist shady area
About species
(7) Podophyllum hexandrum Family-Podophyllaceae Parts used – fruits and underground parts Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2t
Table 3 (continued) Pharmaceutical properties and uses
CS Endangered
Rhizome and root of Rheum emodi contain medicinal Threatend properties such as anticancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antifungal, antiulcer along with hepatoprotective and nephroprotective and also used as traditional systems as laxative, tonic, diuretic and to treat fever, cough, indigestion, menstrual, gastrointestinal infections, respiratory infections, liver and skin infections [11, 12, 15]
Sedative, analgesic, Vulnerable haemostatic, anthelmintic rhizome of Paris polyphylla contain medicinal properties antihelmintic, antispasmodic, digestive stomachic, expectorant and vermifuge and also used as ethnomedicines, that is, fever and food poisoning. Root paste is applied as an antidote to snake bites and poisonous insect bites and also to alleviate narcotic effects [10–12, 14]
Used as treatments for cancer, tumour, hepatic stimulant, cholagogue, purgative, vermifuge, control watery stool and bitter tonic. Podophyllu pellatum is American species, and it is used in electrohomeopathic medicine [8, 10–12]
Saussurea obvallata is grow in alpine region of Himalaya (Kedarnath, Madhaymaheswar, Hemkund) at 3600–4800 m asl
Uttarakhand, Kashmir to Sikkim alpine and subalpine region of Himalaya at 4000–4500 m
Innula racemosa is found in East Asia to Western Himalaya region at 2000–3200 m asl. Inula grandiflora is found in Uttarakhand Himalayan region (Tungnath, Uttarkashi) and Inula racemosa is found in Himachal Pradesh
(12) Saussurea obvallata Family-Asteraceae Parts used – Underground parts (Rhizome/Roots), Flowers are also used for religious purposes Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2o
(13) Innula racemosa Family – Compositae Part used – Underground parts (Rhizome/Roots) Cultivation staus – Himachal Pradesh (Lahu spiti) Fig. 2a Inulin and sesquiterpene lactones, mainly alantolactone, isoalantolactone and their dihydro derivatives [11]
Alkaloid, saussurine, sesquiterpene, resinoids, and essential oil, alkaloid, inulin, saussurea lactone [11, 12]
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh (11) Saussurea costus and Uttarakhand in some Cultivation status – Pauri, districts Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig. 2b
Bio active compound
Habitats
Rheum moorcroftianum grows Emodin and rutin, chrysophanol and chrysophenol in cold and dry desert alpine acid bioactive compounds in the rhizome part of places in Garhwal and Rheum moorcroftianum [11, 12] Kumaon Himalaya region at 3000–5200 m asl
About species
(10) Rheum moorcroftianum Family – Polygonaceae Cultivation status – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig. 2h
Antispasmodic, stomachic, antihistaminic, expectorant, and anticatarrhal. Used for asthma, chronic bronchitis and pulmonary disorders [11]
Roots contain medicinal properties antiseptic, styptic, and anti-inflammatory. Applied to wounds and cuts. Plant – hypothermic. – lower – CNS active, antiviral. The flowers, after frying, are used in rheumatism [11]
(continued)
Endangered
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Root contains medicinal properties, such as antispasmodic, expectorant, carminative, astringent, antiseptic. An ingredient of prescriptions for dyspepsia, asthma, cough, chronic rheumatism, skin diseases. Applied locally to wounds and ulcerations [11, 12]
CS R
Pharmaceutical properties and uses Substitute of Rheum emodi
Habitats
Bio active compound
Pharmaceutical properties and uses
(17) Picrorhiza kurrooa Family – Plantaginaceae Part uses – Rhizome Cultivation status – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig. 2c
Picrorhiza kurroa is distributed in the Himalayan region from Kasmir to Sikkim at 3000–4000 m asl
D-mannitol, kutkiol, kutkisterol, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyacetophenone (apocyanin); vanillic acid, cinnamoyl-a and 6-cinnamoyl-D-glucopyranose; phenol glucosides; androsin and picein iridoid, glycosides; 6-feruloylcatalpol, kutkin, kutkoside, picroside-I1, III; minecoside, picrorhizin, veronicoside; cucurbitacin glycosides, arvenin III [8, 11–13, 15, 16]
CS
Co
Critically Endamgered
Co
hepatic disorders; antipyretic; antiperiodic, effective in Endangered malaria. Stomachic is used in dyspepsia; in small doses, the powdered root acts as an anthelmintic and laxative; in large doses can be used for curing cathartic and dropsy. Combined with liquorice effective in heart diseases and hiccups. Used in scorpion sting [3, 6]
Bergiana cilliata is distributed Bergenin, gallic acid, glucose, tannins, Vomiting, diarrhoea and in temperate to alpine region mucilage and wax; a C-glycoside and beta-sitosterol dysentery, indigestion, bile and liver disorders Himalay at 2000–3400 m asl is present in the underground part of plants [8, 11, 12] Toxicity: Non-toxic [8, 11, 12] (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
(16) Bergiana ciliata Family – Saxifragaceae Part uses – Rhizome Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2d
Antiseptic, antispasmodic, aromatic, bitter, deobstruent, diuretic, emmenagogue, laxative, stomachic, tonic; infusion given in chorea, epilepsy, hysteria, palpitation of heart, fresh root used as an adjunct in the preparation of medicinal oils, as an important ingredient in many useful Ayurvedic formulations; spikenard oil, hypotensive, having distinct depressant action on central nervous system; promotes appetite and digestion, growth and darkness of hair; useful in leprosy and jaundice; tincture of rhizomes given for intestinal colic and flatulence [8, 10–13, 15, 16]
Antispasmodic, antitumor, antineoplastic, insomnia, antianxiety, obesity, skin diseases, insanity, hysteria, cholera, muscle pain, carminative, etc [8, 12]
Nardostachys grandiflora is d-nardostachone, valeranone and jatamansone as the grown on moist rocks or major ketonic sesquiterpenes, Jatamansone [8, 10–12] stones in coarse sandy loame and distributed of alpine, sub-alpine region of Himalaya (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) at 3200–3800 m asl
cyclopentapyrans, acacetin-7-O-rutinosides, valtrate, didrovaltrate, linarin iso-valerinate, valepotriates and an iridoid, ester glycoside, valerosidatum [8, 12]
(15) Nardostachys grandiflora Family – Valerianaceae Part used – Root/Rhizome Cultivation status – Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig. 2p
(14) Valeriana wallichii Valeriana wallichii is found in Family – Valerianaceae the temperate region of the Parts used – Root/Rhizome Himalaya at 2000–2800 m asl Cultivation status – Pauri, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, districts in the state of Uttarakhand Fig. 2e
About species
Table 3 (continued)
Habitats
S. chirayita is found in the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan has an altitude of 1500–3000 m asl and is also found in the Khasi hills at an altitude of 1200–1500 m asl Chirayita can be cultivated at between 1200 and 2100 m asl
About species
(18) Swertia chirayita Cultivation status – Himachal Pradesh Fig. 2l
Pharmaceutical properties and uses
Antimicrobial, antidiabetic, skin disease, blood 1,3,8-tetrahyroxyxanthone, purifier, fever [22] 1,3,7,8-tetrahydroxyxanthone, 1,3,8-trihydroxy-5methoxyxanthone, 1,5,8-trihydroxy-3methoxyxanthone, 1,8-dihydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyxanthone (swercherin), 1,8-dihydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyxanthone (7-o-methylswertanin), 1-hydroxy-3,5,8trimethoxyxanthone,1-hydroxy-3,7,8trimethoxyxanthone,2,5-trihydroxyterephthalic acid (aromatic carboxylic acid), 21-α-H-hop-22(29)-en-3-β-ol (triterpenoid), amarogentin, amaroswerin (Secoiridoid glycoside), chiratanin (dimeric xanthone), chiratenol (hopane – triterpenoid), chiratol (1,5-dihydroxy 3,8dimethoxyxanthone), decusstain (xanthone), enicoflavine (xanthone), Episwertenol (Triterpenoid), Erythroidiol (Hexane extract), Gammacer-16-en-β-ol (Triterpenoid), Gentianine (Titerpenoid alkaloid), Gentiocrucine (Triterpenoid alkaloid), Kairatenol (Hexane extract), Lupeol (Triterpene alcohol), Mangiferin (Xanthone), Mangostin (Xanthone), Oleanolic acid (Triterpenoid), Pichierenol (Swertane terpenoid), Sweroside (Secoiridoid glycoside), Sweroside-2-o3,5-trihydroxy biphenyl-2”carboxylic acid ester (Secoiridoid glycoside), Swerta-7,9(11)-dien-3-β-ol (Swertane trepenoid), Swertanone (Triterpenoid), Swertenol (Triterpenoid), Swertianin (1,7,8-trihydroxy-3-methoxyxanthone), Syngaresinol (Lignan), Taraxerol (Triterpenoid), Urosolic acid (Triterpenoid), β-Amyrine (Triterpenoid alcohol), βSitosterol-3-β-D-glucoside(Sterol), ϕ-Taraxasterol or heterolupeol (Hexane extract) [22]
Bio active compound
(continued)
Critically Endangered
CS
S.speciosa is found in moist alpine region of the Himalaya from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh) at 3300–3600 m asl
(20) Swertia speciosa Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2n
Bio active compound
S. speciosa contains a new xanthone glycoside, two known xanthones and urosolic acid, Amaroswerin (Bitter secoiridoid glucoside). Nine elements (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Na, K, Ca and Li) [21, 22]
The whole plant contains a number of tetraoxygenated and Penta-oxygenated Xanthone. Amaroswerin, Amarogentin, Xanthone –c – Glucoside (Mangiferin) were reported from aerial part of S. ciliata [22]
Pharmaceutical properties and uses
a
CS Common
Least The roots of S. speciosa contain bioactive molecules Common such as mangiferin, amaroswerin, amarogentin, bitterseco-iridiod-gluco-sides (amaroswerin), xanthone–C-glucoside (mangiferin) and urosolic acid. Chauhan et al. (2015) reported that the bioactive compound of S. speciosa are used for its medicinal properties such as hepato-protective, anti-hepatotoxic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-leprosy, hypo-glycemic, anti-malarial and antitumor. The Monpa tribal people used the roots of S. speciosa for curing cold, cough, fever and dysentery, it has febrifuge, antipyretic nature and work effectively against anorexia, can be used as substitute of S. chirayita [21, 22]
Decoction of plant is given three times a day for 5–7 days to control cough, cold and fever used as ethanomedicine. S. ciliata used as substitute for S. chirayita [22]
Abbreviations Used: CS Current Status, C En Critically Endangered, En Endangered, Co Common, L Co Least Concern, R Rare, Vu Vulnerable
Habitats
Himalayan Endemic, S. ciliata is found in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Assam, Sikkim, Nepal, Tibet, Afghanistan
About species
(19) Swertia ciliata Cultivation status – Not applied Fig. 2m
Table 3 (continued)
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Fig. 2 (a) Inula racemosa, (b) Saussurea costus, (c) Picrorhiza kurroa, (d) Bergiana ciliata, (e) Valeriana wallichii, (f) Paris polyphylla, (g) Rheum emodi, (h) Rheum moorcroftianum (i) Aconitum violaceum, (j) Aconitum balfourii, (k) Aconitum heterophyllum, (l) Swertia chirayita (m) Swertia ciliata, (n) Swertia speciosa, (o) Saussurea obvallata, (p) Nardostachys grandiflora, (q) Malaxis muscifera, (r) Dactylorhiza hatagirea, (s) Angelica glauca, (t) Podophyllum hexandrum
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References 1. Gidey M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z (2009) Medicinal plants of the meinit ethic group of Ethopia: an ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 5570:9 2. Dobhal P, Purohit VK, Chauhan J (2021) High frequency plant regeneration from fully mature shoot portion of Nardostachys Grandiflora DC. Int J Conserv Sci 12:1053–1060 3. Purohit VK, Mengwal BS, Dobhal P, Chauhan J (2021) Cultivation of high altitude medicinal and aromatic plants: a key for sustainable development and bioresource conservation in Higher Himalayan Region (HHR) of Uttarakhand, India. Ed. Deb CR, Paul A. Mittal Publications Daryaganj, New Delhi, pp 51–73 4. Natesh S (2000) Biotechnology in the conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants. In: Chandha KL, Ravindran PN, Sajiram L (eds) Biotechnology in horticultural and plantation crops. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 548–559 5. Rajasekharan PE, Ganeshan S (2002) Conservation of medicinal plant biodiversity in Indian perspective. J Med Aromat Plant Sci 24:132–147 6. Ministry of AYUSH, CCRS, Government of India, New Delhi (2019) ISBN -978-81-937426-3-1 7. Kundu D (2019) The OD force. Int J Herb Plant Med 3:55. https://doi.org/10.5580/ IJHPM.54807 8. Pandey S, Pandey PS, Mohanty D (2019) Electrohomeopathy: a revolutionary system of plats medicine. European J Biomed Pharm Sci 6:301–305 9. Parkash R (2015) Medicinal plants used by tribal communities: a study of Uttarakhand Himalaya region. Int J Humunit Soc Sci Invit 4:55–61 10. Samant SS, Nandi KS (2009) Conservation status and cultivation of selected medicinal plants in the Indian Himalayan region. In: Advances in agriculture environment and health. Satish Serial Publication House, Azadpur 11. Khare CP (2007) Indian medicinal plants. In: An ilustrated dictionary, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/ Heidelberg, ISBN 978–0–387-70637-5 12. Nautiyal MC, Nautiyal BP (2004) Agrotechniques for high altitude medicinal and aromatic plants. Bishen singh Mahendra pal singh, Publisher and Distributors of scientific books, ISBN: 81-211-0338-X 13. Chadha KL, Ravindran PN, Sahajram L, Natesh S (2000) Biotechnology in the conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants. In: Chadha KL, Ravindran PN, Sahajram L (eds) Biotechnology in horticulture and plantation crops. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 548–561 14. Madhu KS, Phoboo S, Jha KP (2010) Ecological study of Paris polyphylla ecological society Nepal. Ecoprint 17:87–93
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15. Malik AM, Bhatt AS, Fatima B, Ahmad BS, Sidiqui S, Shrivastava P (2016) Rheum emodi as valuable medicinal plant. Int Acad Sci Eng Technol 5:35–44 16. Shyaula LS (2011) Phytochemicals, traditional uses and processing of Aconitum species in Nepal. Nepal J Sci Technol 12:171–178 17. Pelletier SW, Aneja R, Gopinath KW (1968) The alkaloids of Aconitum heterophyllum wall: isolation and characterization. Phytochemistry 7:625–635 18. Pelletier SW, Ateya AM, Finer-Moore J, Mody NV, Schramm LC (1982) Atisenol, a new entatisene diterpenoid lactone from Aconitum heterophyllum. J Nat Prod 45:779–781 19. Aneja R, Locke DM, Pelletier SW (1973) The diterpene alkaloids: the structure and stereochemistry of heteratisine. Tetrahedron 29:3297–3308 20. Kant R (2015) Survival threats and conservation of Malaxis muscifera (Lindl). Kuntze, a threatened medicinal Orchid at Fagu, Himachal Pradesh. IJBASA 1:20 21. Chauhan SR, Dutt P (2015) Swertia speciosa wall: a new source of amaroswerin. Med Plants 7:2 22. Kumar RR, Chandola V, Chauhan J, Prasad P, Purohit VK (2009) Medicinal importance of Swertia speciosa. Wall.ex.D.Don. J Emerg Technol Innov Res 6:6
Traditional Amchi Medicinal Practice in Trans-Himalaya of Nepal: Conservation and Bioprospecting Neva Chaudhary, Suresh K. Ghimire, and Ram P. Chaudhary
1 Introduction Traditional medicines comprise ancient and culture-bound health practices that existed before the application of science to health care in modern allopathic medicine. Sowa Rigpa (gso ba rig pa), also referred to as “Amchi System of Medicine,” “traditional Tibetan Medicine,” or “Himalayan Medicine” is an ancient synthesis of arts of health care that is practiced traditionally in a wide region of South and Central Asia. The practitioners of Sowa Rigpa are known as amchi. This medical tradition, originated with influences mainly from traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda, was established during the seventh to twelfth centuries A.D [1, 2]. However, the fundamental core text, known as the “Four Treatises” or “Four Tantra,” upon which Sowa Rigpa is based, has both Bön (bum bzhi) and Buddhist (rgyud bzhi) versions, and these texts were written as early as the third or fourth century A.D. [3]. According to the Tibetan world view, this medicinal knowledge was passed on by Shakyamuni Buddha himself [1]. Amchi Medicine (or Sowa Rigpa) is a holistic approach that explores the interconnectedness of the mind and body and involves the harmonious operation and balance of all the energies that constitute the human psychophysical being [4]. It uses a diverse array of biological resources and minerals for compounding N. Chaudhary (*) Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal Resources Himalaya Foundation, Sanepa, Lalitpur, Nepal S. K. Ghimire Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal R. P. Chaudhary Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (ReCAST), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_11
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medications [5]. This system of medicine plays a pivotal role in health care in many remote villages in the Himalaya. In addition, it also emphasizes water and spring cleanliness, a good diet, and a healthy way of living [6]. The highlands of the Himalaya, the Tibetan mountain range, and its adjoining areas are among the few remaining areas where the Amchi system of medicine (Sowa Rigpa) remains effective [7]. This medicinal practice is extended northwards to Mongolia and beyond, eastwards to Sichuan and Yunnan, westwards to Ladakh, and Himachal Pradesh (north-western India) and a few parts of the former Soviet Union, and southern regions to Nepal trans-Himalaya [1, 6]. It is the most legitimate and popular medical system in the mountainous areas of Nepal adjoining the Tibetan Plateau [2]. However, amchi in the Himalaya are now facing several challenges, mostly related to the unavailability and increased cost of ingredients used in compounding medications, financial constraints, lack of formal state recognition, and loss of traditional knowledge [3, 8]. Especially, India, Nepal, and China have been facing the loss of traditional knowledge along with the loss of species [1, 9–12]. Overexploitation of medicinal plants in response to the commercial demand from natural product industries in the region and beyond has increased the risk of extinction of many valuable species [13]. Therefore, critical systematic review and research is necessary on the traditional amchi practice and the status of medicinal species. The objective of the review is to discuss about the amchi’s medicinal practice and the major issues related to this system in the trans-Himalaya of Nepal. For a systematic review, we searched accessible literature related to Sowa Rigpa. We used “Google Scholar” for the web-based search using keyword combinations “Nepal,” “India,” “China,” “Tibet,” “Myanmar,” “Bhutan,” “Ladakh,” “Himachal Pradesh,” “Himalaya,” “Trans-Himalaya;” and “amchi,” “Sowa Rigpa,” “Tibetan traditional medicine.” A total of 92 literature were retrieved but most of them described the use of plant species, where 12 of the literature were not able to be downloaded. We downloaded 47 related articles and reports through the initial screening. In addition, we used our own experience and observation while conducting field work in different parts of Nepal.
2 Amchis Medicinal Practice Traditionally, amchi’s knowledge and practice have been passed down within a family as a lineage-based tradition or from teacher to disciples under the guru–shisya tradition. Most of the amchi in Nepal (mainly those in Dolpa and Mustang Districts) are the sixth generation of an unbroken family lineage [3]. Medical knowledge is also taught in the monastery as part of religious training. Some amchis in Nepal have also obtained higher Sowa Rigpa degrees from formal Tibetan medical schools in India or Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. Normally, amchis begin to treat patients after at least five to seven years of study and practice as an assistant. Most amchis in Nepal, except those in urban areas, provide health care services almost free of cost.
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According to Sowa Rigpa philosophy, a healthy mind and a healthy body are connected, and health or illness is related to our relationship to attachment, anger, and ignorance. Wind (rlung), bile (mkhris pa), and phlegm (bad kan) are the three dynamics (humors), the imbalance of which leads to illness. In addition, earth, water, fire, air, and space/consciousness are the five elements that help to regulate our health. Amchis perform their diagnosis of disease by examining a person’s overall physical condition. The following are the common approaches used for disease diagnosis [2, 3, 10, 14]: interviewing, visual examination, pulse analysis (tactile test), and urine examination. First, the patient’s medical and social history, diet, and behavior are carefully considered to find out the causative factor, the site of illness, and the signs and symptoms. Then, patient’s physical characteristics and complexion of five sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin) are visually examined. Pulse examination is the most important component of diagnosis, which involves the analysis of the relationships between the three dynamics (wind, bile, and phlegm), the five elements and the seven bodily constituents. The other areas of concern include body temperature and inflammations. Finally, a thorough examination of urine is done, which includes the use of sight, smell, taste, and touch. Pulse analysis and urine examination form the most distinctive and important parts of diagnosis. Amchis apply a variety of approaches for the treatment of illnesses [2, 3, 10, 14]; the most important ones are diet, modification of behaviors, use of herbal medicines, and physical therapy. In Sowa Rigpa, the first recommendation for the treatment of disease constitutes diet and behavior practices. The behavioral approach focuses on routine, seasonal, and incidental behaviors. When the diet and routine behavior are not effective in relieving the disease conditions, then medicines as well as physical therapy are prescribed. The medicines are prepared from natural resources, including plants, minerals, and animal-derived products and administered in different forms such as decoctions, pills, powder, gruel (thin porridge), medicinal butter, medicinal calx (ash powder), concentrated extractions, medicinal incense, medicinal wine, or other formulas. Apart from prescribing natural drugs, the physicians may apply other therapeutic techniques such as massages, hot and cold compresses, mineral spring bath therapy, medicinal baths, golden needle therapy, bloodletting, and moxibustion (heat therapy by burning the leaves of moxa herbs, which include several species of Artemisia, Ajania, Anaphalis, and Leontopodium). Generally, surgery is no longer practiced by amchi; some minor operations are done including the draining of abscesses.
3 Issues of Amchis Medicinal Practice in Nepal Himalaya Amchis have been serving local communities in the remote mountainous areas of Nepal since ancient times. Even today, in many of the remote high-altitude areas, Amchi medicine is the only form of health-care service available. The modern allopathic medicine with its less formal infrastructure has brought few benefits or is virtually non-existent in most of the remote mountainous areas of Nepal. Therefore,
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in such areas, amchi’s service has been indispensable for maintaining people’s health. In addition to the health care services, the contribution of amchi from the Himalayan region of Nepal and particularly those from Dolpo (present-day Dolpa District) for the advancement of Sowa Rigpa theory and practice has been well known [3, 15]. Now, this practice is under threat in Nepal as it faces several challenges of socio-political, economic, and ecological in nature, mostly related to the lack of formal recognition, and inappropriate support from the governmental and non-governmental sectors, loss of traditional knowledge, loss of biodiversity and unavailability and increased cost of the ingredients, and lack of a mechanism for sharing and integrating amchi’s knowledge and practices [2, 3]. In most of the Asian countries, including Bhutan, China, India, and Mongolia, where Sowa Rigpa is practiced, this system has been recognized officially. In Bhutan, Sowa Rigpa has been officially recognized as a Bhutanese Traditional Medicine and it has been integrated in the state healthcare system. In India, it was officially recognized as an Indian System of Medicine. In Nepal, despite more than 20 years of effort from the amchi community, Sowa Rigpa still lack full support and recognition from the Government of Nepal [3]. Recently, the Public Health Service Act, 2075 (2018), of the Government of Nepal has just listed Sowa Rigpa under the alternative medicine but does not provide sufficient space to recognize it as a Nepali System of Medicine. In order to help protect the traditional knowledge and practice of amchi and provide efficient health services for remote high-altitude communities, Sowa Rigpa need full official recognition, and the profession of amchi should be properly institutionalized with a full certification and registration system. Sowa Rigpa should be supported through universities, hospitals, pharmacies, and departments within health and education ministries of the Government of Nepal [3]. In the trans-Himalaya of Nepal, amchis pass on their knowledge and skills mostly from father to son/daughter or apprentices. However, only a few persons take interest in Amchi medicine. Since amchi’s knowledge and profession are declining, the standard of health care in the region is likely to suffer. The loss of amchi’s knowledge can be attributed mostly to the lack of access to resources, lack of infrastructure, and human resources and monetary problems. The traditional way of collecting herbs for the preparation of medicines is labor-intensive and difficult due to the migration of skilled human resources to the cities [3]. The most important challenge to sustain this practice in the remote trans- Himalayan region of Nepal is the unavailability and increased cost of several ingredients traditionally being used in compounding medication [3]. Many amchi feel difficulty in acquiring their full skills due to declining population or lack of proper medicinal plants. Recent study by Ghimire et al. [3] has shown that amchi in Nepal utilize ingredients from over 570 species of plants and 54 different types of minerals (extracted from stones, gems, precious metals, and soil) for compounding medications. Of the plant-based medicines, over 100 species are locally rare, including about 40 species which are either threatened and included in IUCN Red List or are regulated by CITES. These also include medicinal plant species legally protected by the Government of Nepal but are of great significance for the traditional Amchi medicinal practice. Commercial overharvesting has been identified as the main
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threat for the viability of medicinal plant populations in the high Himalaya of Nepal, although habitat destruction, fragmentation and loss are also important. Harvesting of plants for traditional use by amchi themselves does not necessarily pose a serious ecological threat as they need very small quantity, usually 0.1–8 kg per amchi per year (depending on the species and types of formulations) in the Nepal’s trans- Himalaya [3], and they use unique cultural criteria for the selection of medicinal plants and apply harvesting methods, following the guidelines indicated in the standard Sowa Rigpa texts, which are often evaluated as sustainable [3, 15, 16]. Commercial harvesting has imposed extreme pressures on the populations of several valuable species including Aconitum spp., Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Nardostachys jatamansi, Fritillaria cirrhosa, Valeriana spp., Dendrobium spp., so that these are no longer available to most of the trans-Himalayan amchis. In addition, ingredients from several exotic plant species (26 of such species) have been documented recently [3], including Aquilaria malaccensis, A. sinensis, Aucklandia costus, Commiphora wightii, and Pterocarpus santalinus, highly needed for Amchi Medicine are now not easily available as these are threatened and included under IUCN Red List or regulated by CITES. Price has dramatically increased for such plant-based ingredients, which most amchi are unable to pay given their very low annual income. The professional ethics of amchi is based on Buddhist and Bon concepts of universal compassion and do not allow them to charge their patients fees for their service. But in the present context, amchi cannot afford to purchase plants and other products from the lowlands [3, 15]. Only a few amchi can place an order and get sufficient plant materials and products supplied, whereas the majority do visit the lowlands to sell medicinal herbs collected in their localities during winter and to buy materials for ingredients. Similarly, most of the amchi also cannot afford to purchase expensive minerals, precious metals, and gems due to high price. Earlier, amchi also used wildlife parts such as musk pod, gall bladder of the Himalayan black bear, rhino horn, etc., to prepare quality medicine; however, these are endangered species and the GoN has put a ban on poaching of endangered wild animals. Therefore, most learned amchis in Nepal practice plant- or mineral-based substitute of animal parts [3]. Despite recent efforts in documenting amchis knowledge and practices from trans-Himalayan region of Nepal, there is still a need to assess the availability and ecological status of species used in Sowa Rigpa. Particularly, the use of rare and threatened species in medicine has posed ethical and environmental challenges to amchi. Therefore, eminent amchis have identified locally available common plants and minerals as possible substitutes for rare and threatened plant and animal parts used in the preparation of medicine [3, 15]. Thousands of substances are recorded as medicinal in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Asia [17], and there are regional and local variations in the selection of these resources. In many cases, the use of enormous resources is yet uncertain. There is also a lack of mechanism for integrating knowledge and practices covering amchis from all over Nepal and neighboring countries.
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In several instances, misidentification of Tibetan plant names remained a great challenge. Authentication of Tibetan names with botanical names is one important step forward to conserve knowledge about traditional medicinal practices. Molvray [17] considers that the identification of many plants referred to in the extensive Tibetan medical literature or mentioned by Tibetan doctors and local informants will now be difficult due to the inaccessibility and geographical bias of the extant translations. Readers do not obtain proper information about the localities. However, the list of medicinal plants used in Sowa Rigpa practiced in Nepal published by WWF-Nepal provides authentic botanical names, Tibetan names and descriptions of Tibetan medicinal plants in both the Nepali and Tibetan languages [3, 15]. Dawa et al. [1], together with the Medical College of the Mentsi Khang in Dharamsala, India, and the further help of Amchi Tsewang Smenla (Ladakh) and Amchi Sonam Namgyal (Jharkot, Mustang) have extended the scope of Tibetan medicinal plants by including correct nomenclature in a comprehensive manner in the book Tibetan Medicinal Plants. Amchis believed that for the identification of Himalayan medicinal plants extensive experience is always needed [18]. Finally, proper policy and legal mechanisms provide a sound base for bioprospecting. The threat to biological resources in Nepal has, in the past, been due to a lack of appropriate policies to guide the legal, institutional, and operational development of this sector. Biodiversity policy in Nepal in the past has been shaped by political and economic motives rather than social and ecological considerations [19].
4 Revitalizing Traditional Amchi Medicinal System The Amchi medicinal system is suffering because it is based on a strong sense of communal belief, which is now declining. In the last two decades, things have dramatically changed due to globalization. In the rural communities amchis hold strong social status as a medical doctor and community leaders [20]; however, the amchi medicinal practice has not been given the proper means to flourish alongside the Western medical system in these impoverished areas. The intention behind introducing Western medicine in these areas may be worthy, but the result has been a marginalization of the holistic skills which such communities used to depend upon. As a result, the traditional skills of amchi have begun to disappear. Further, a very few amchi get opportunities to acquire scholar training from formal institutions [20]. Attempts are being made to revitalize the traditional Amchi medicinal practice through increased support from the WWF Nepal, People and Plants Initiative, DROPKA Foundation, the Japan Foundation Asia Centre, the Remote Area Development Committee (RADC), HimalAsia Foundation, and Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA) of Nepal. The HAA have been doing research on documenting the Sowa Rigpa practice in Nepal and providing training on sustainable harvesting practices of medicinal herbs from the wild (Box 1).
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Box 1: Himalayan Amchi Association The Himalayan Amchi Association (HAA) was formed in 1998 as an NGO based in Kathmandu, Nepal, and comprises more than 200 amchi members from across Nepal. HAA is dedicated to the preservation and development of Sowa Rigpa (Amchi Medicine) and medicinal plants in Nepal. HAA’s long- term vision is to improve the quality and standard of amchi as professionals and to obtain formal recognition from the Government of Nepal. The association program goals include (i) improving the quality of medical care in remote areas; (ii) conducting training programs on Sowa Rigpa and valuable Himalayan medicinal resources, including their cultivation and sustainable harvesting; (iii) creating educational opportunities for amchis through developing and establishing standard curriculum for existing amchi schools and Sowa Rigpa curriculum for college level education in Nepal; (iv) conducting research for cultivation and sustainable harvesting of medicinal herbs; and (v) establishing networking with individuals and organizations in Asia and the West. Source: Sherpa et al. [2] and Lama et al. [15].
5 The Cultural Construction of Efficacy The selection of plant species for medicine is guided by cultural practice, which is directly related to the question of efficacy. (i) Compound medicine Traditional Amchi medicinal practice is frequently composed of more than one constituent. Compound medicines can be pharmacologically different from their individual plant constituents. In plant combinations, the activities of two or more plants may add to increase efficacy such as (i) the action of one constituent may be potentiated by another so that the effect is greater than the additives themselves; (ii) one constituent may diminish the activity of another through antagonistic interaction; or (iii) the effect may be synergistic, when one constituent substantially amplifies the activity of another [21]. For example, plants used as common additives, such as black pepper (Piper nigrum), long pepper (Piper longum), and ginger (Zingiber officinalis), potentiate the action of additional plants in the medicine by markedly increasing the bioactivity of their active constituents [22]. The association of plants may diminish the toxicity of their individual constituents (such as tannins and saponins) [23]. The Amchis in Dolpo use Nepal aconite (Aconitum spicatum), a highly poisonous plant, for treating coughs, bile fever, pulmonary and intestinal infections, headaches, cuts and wounds after detoxifying the root tuber by boiling it with an extract of Terminalia chebula [15]. Amchis also purchase medicinal plant resources from the lowlands Tarai that include Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Phyllanthus emblica, Santalum album, Terminalia bellirica, and Terminalia chebula, and these are mixed to make drugs with locally
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available plants. In Nepal, the medicinal plants that are being used in treating common ailments and diseases need authentication and standardization of efficacy and dosage with the help of pharmacognostic analyses in the laboratory so as to encourage the indigenous peoples’ and local communities (IPLCs) to continue to use the effective medicinal plants and discourage the use of ineffective and potentially harmful ones. (ii) Harvesting sustainability Amchis usually begin their studies early in their teenage years. Apart from learning the diagnosis of illnesses/diseases and therapeutic measures, they are trained to identify the high-altitude plants in their natural setting during summer, and low-altitude plants during winter. In addition, they also learn the related aspects of biology, distribution, habitat, density and local availability, as well as sustainable harvesting and cultivation practices. Amchis possess an in-depth knowledge of how to harvest plants at the proper stage for better medicinal efficacy and sustainability. In the trans-Himalayas, such as upper part of Manang District, harvesting is managed culturally, with the head lama restricting the harvesting of both fodder grass and important medicinal plants to a specific period (September–October) just before crop harvesting begins, so that annual and biennial plants can complete their full life cycle [24].
6 Threat to Medicinal Plants The amchis possess in-depth knowledge about the ecology and economy of plant species and are quite familiar with which species are becoming difficult to find, due to either limited geographical distribution or habitat destruction or overexploitation. They have a practical interest in the conservation of medicinal plants, which is valuable for developing management guidelines for plant conservation, as bulk of medicinal resources is derived from plants (Box 2). Box 2: The Kunphen Mentsi Khang, West Nepal The Kunphen Mentsi Khang (House of Medicine and Astrology), established in 2000, is supported by WWF/Nepal at Polam (Dolpa), the park headquarters of Shey Phoksundo National Park, and is run by local amchi. The Lo Kunphen Mentsi Khang in Lo Manthang was constructed in 1997/8 with the initial support of HimalAsia Foundation. These clinics are notable examples of medical care centers using local resources to prepare drugs and providing health care to both the local communities and visitors/tourists. Over 100 species of plants collected locally along with some plant materials obtained from the lowland Tarai are being used by amchi. Bioassay tests have been established to validate herbal medicines, enhance an understanding of the etiology of illness and compile knowledge for use in ethical collaboration. This initiative is an example of a demonstration project that promotes the transfer of information on the sustainable use of natural resources. Source: Chaudhary [25] and Lama et al. [15].
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The trade in medicinal plants from Nepal to Tibet dates back to the eighth century (728 CE/AD) and constitutes a considerable part of Tibetan medicine’s materia medica [26]. Some vulnerable plant species that are carefully collected by the amchi in Nepal for traditional medicinal practice include Aconitum naviculare (bongkar), Aconitum spicatum (bongnak), Arnebia benthamii (muktsi), Corallodiscus lanuginosus, Cypripedium himalaicum (dakya habo), Dactylorhiza hatagirea (wanglag), Halenia elliptica (tikta), Meconopsis grandis (upal ngon po), Meconopsis horridula (ajaktsergun), Nardostachys grandiflora (pangpoe), Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (honglen), Rheum australe (churtsa), and Valeriana jatamansii (nahpoe) [15]. In general, the collection of medicinal plants for traditional local use is not a problem, since this use has usually developed gradually, and in harmony with nearby natural ecosystems. However, when selected species are gathered in large quantities and supplied to meet increasing demand of national and international trade, then pressure can quickly mount and cases of overexploitation are common [27]. It is obvious that medicinal plant species collected for commercial purposes represent the most popular and often most effective herbal remedies. The majority of species that were popular in the past are still popular today. It is interesting to note that the widespread commercial harvesting and sale of the same plants have been going on for a long time in Nepal [28]. Commercial collectors of medicinal plants are those people whose main aim is not resource management but earning money. To obtain a clear view of the relationship between people and their natural environment and to suggest sustainable options, it is necessary to gather data, such as the type, source, and quantity of the resources used, their importance within the cultural context and alternatives if the resource is scarce and needs to be conserved for the preservation of genetic diversity [29]. The knowledge possessed by the Dolpo Amchis relating to the use and management of medicinal plants will contribute towards devising appropriate systems for sustainable harvesting, which may ultimately be transferred to commercial collectors who tend to overexploit the resources. In trans-Himalaya (Dolpo, Mustang and Manang), amchis and women have a keen interest in the conservation and management of medicinal plants [15, 30]. In terms of conservation, climate change possess significant challenges for highly traded prioritized medicinal plants [31]. It is experiencing the alternation of the habitat, distribution, ecology, and phenology of the medicinal plants in the Himalaya. As a result, there is an adverse effect on medicinal plants, and some of the species may get extinct too. These changes are likely to have negative consequences on the vulnerable population across the Himalaya [32].
7 Conservation Approach Conservationists are much concerned about the protection of Amchi’s medicinal practice and knowledge associated with it, and biological resources used by them. Some important issues are as follows.
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(i) Education Educational program for the young generation is an important way of practicing medicinal practice. Supporting programs encourage children to study the local uses of plants. This approach would ensure that the ancient lore of the Himalayan plants will be protected within the communities and customary institutions. This will raise awareness among the people that conservation education can be a powerful means of preserving both their culture and nature [33]. In the educational program, attention should be given for the diversity of in-depth knowledge within and cultural groups for the resource management and developing scientific understanding of the ecological status of key resources [16]. (ii) Storage of medicinal plants Medicinal plants and their voucher specimens (herbarium specimens) stored in the community center or school provide local people with a permanent record of the useful species documented in the course of sustainable use and conservation. It is important that the materials are stored in tightly sealed cabinets protected from humidity and insects since the biological activity of plant materials ceases after a few years of storage. An antibacterial and antifungal study of a total of 19 medicinal plants in Nepal was conducted by Griggs et al. [34] showing that after six years of storage, 3 ceased all activity, 6 retained all activity, and the remaining 10 plants retained only partial activity. This type of study is extremely important for assessing the “self-life” of herbal medicines which are being utilized by the communities, herbal practitioners and amchi in Nepal and provides a reason to test the efficacy of stored medicinal plants used by Amchis and pharmaceutical companies. (iii) Nature tourism In the Himalaya, nature tourism is based on spectacular landscapes, and rich and unique biodiversity combining with the context of a specific cultural heritage – all interacted in sustainable manner. Nature tourism in Nepal is largely confined to the activities of mountaineering and hiking, so that a sustainable nature tourism that focuses on natural history, customary practices and culture is yet to be explored and established [35]. Ethnoecologists can play a key role in designing interpretive programs for tourists or other visitors that enhance the conservation of traditional ecological knowledge. Naturalists in Kinabalu Park (a 735 km2 protected area in Sabah, Malaysia) have been training local Dusum guides who are knowledgeable about the plants and animals and speak Western and local languages. The bilingual Dusum guides accompany the tourists, explaining the use of plants such as rattan palms and other forest products both in the natural history museum located at the park headquarters, and along the summit trails [33]. The prospects for such a program in the Himalaya have yet to be adequately explored, strengthened, and popularized.
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8 Bioprospecting An important aspect of biodiversity prospecting or bioprospecting is the exploration, extraction and screening of biodiversity of commercially valuable biochemicals [36], and socially valuable genetic resources; and their associated indigenous knowledge. Bioprospecting provides political, economic, and cultural values to ensure the long-term conservation of natural biodiversity in countries rich in biological and cultural diversity. Even today, biological resources are being collected around the world in order to develop modern medicines and other products. Agents and collaborators of pharmaceutical companies obtain samples of plants and other evidence of biodiversity and undertake research on local and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. Due to technological and other developments, many see today’s biodiversity as “green gold” [37]. Today this activity is called bioprospecting. But, it is called biopiracy when misappropriation of indigenous knowledge and biological resources takes place. People have been undertaking bioprospecting since the dawn of civilization. Biodiversity prospecting does not always involve the use of indigenous knowledge. However, it is clear that valuable chemical compounds derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms are more easily identified and proved to be of greatest commercial value when research is conducted based on the basis of indigenous knowledge and/or found in territories traditionally inhabited by IPLCs [38]. (i) Ethical collaboration The biggest challenges in biodiversity prospecting from the Nepalese perspective have remained not only to make a comprehensive inventory and database of biodiversity and associated knowledge to ensure long-term conservation, but also to address the social, economic, and political issues in an integrated approach. The priority areas of biodiversity prospecting have not been well identified by researchers, planners, and policy makers for the development of the country. The conservation projects and aid for Nepal have, so far, not been fully successful in conserving the biodiversity due to the lack of meaningful involvement of IPLCs and utilization of their knowledge [39, 40]. The blending of indigenous knowledge with science and technology is a strategy for bioprospecting; however, a gap exists in infrastructure, particularly in developing countries. Nepal’s position for bioprospecting is weakened by the lack of strong research-based infrastructures. Establishing ethically motivated international collaboration for strengthening biodiversity prospecting will also require foreign investment. Equally important from industry’s perspective is that most foreign companies would prefer to work with institutions than individuals, under a stable political and economic condition. But, there is a lack of clarity within biodiversity-related national legislation in terms of biodiversity prospecting, technology transfer, access to genetic resources, fair and equitable sharing of benefits, intellectual property rights regimes and other incentives, and this may reduce the flow of foreign investment in Nepal [25, 39, 41].
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(ii) Searching plants for new medicine One of the crucial questions is how we should begin the search for new medicines with the vast number of plants to be studied. Cox and Balick [42] have discussed three approaches. The first approach is random screening; one can simply screen everything that can be collected in quantity, the so-called mass or blind screening approach. Obviously, such a strategy requires investment of time and money. The discovery of taxol from Taxus brevifolia (the Pacific yew tree) is an example of a random-screening program conducted by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). A second approach is the chemotaxonomy- oriented approach, which is more guided in that it screens those species that belong to certain families or genera and are likely to contain certain classes of natural compounds, such as alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, and amino acids. A realistic ethnopharmacological approach selects those plants which are being used for remedies/medicines by the indigenous peoples and local communities for further study. This approach calls for the exploration of biologically active agents, traditionally employed or observed by traditional healers and indigenous communities. A number of essential drugs used in allopathic medical practice are derived from plants, and have been developed based on indigenous knowledge; a few examples include aspirin from Filipendula ulmaria, codeine from Papaver somniferum, ipecac from Psychotria ipecacuanha, pilocarpine from Pilocarpus jaborandi, pseudoephedrine from Ephedra sinica, quinine from Cinchona pubescens, reserpine from Rauvolfia serpentina, scopolamine from Datura stramonium, theophylline from Camellia sinensis, and vinblastine from Catharanthus roseus [42]. Only 1.5% (about 4000 species) of the flowering plants of the world have been screened for pharmaceutical compounds; and of this number, 3% currently provide major drugs. Lower groups of plants, animals and microorganisms remain neglected [43]. Some promising taxa that have yielded chemicals for major drug development include Aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut), Fraxinus rhynchophylla, Camellia sinensis (tea), Ephedra sinica (ma-hang), Podophyllum peltatum (may apple), Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), Rhododendron molle (yellow azalea), Artemisia maritima (levant wormseed), Corydalis ambigua (birthwort), Thymus vulgaris (common thyme), Valeriana officinale (valerine), Justicia adhatoda (malabar nut), Daphne genkwa (pinyin; yuan hua). These taxa indicated a positive correlation between traditional medical use of the plant and the current therapeutic use of the chemical extracted from the plant [43]. The other species of the above genera found in the Himalayan region could provide valuable information under the chemotaxonomy- oriented approach, while the knowledge of the Amchis and indigenous peoples and local communities in the Himalaya lend themselves to the ethnopharmacology approach.
9 Enabling Environment and Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) The importance of and global commitment towards the conservation of biodiversity and accessing genetic resources and sharing of benefits has been assured following the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development adopted in 1992,
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and the Nagoya Protocol on “access to genetic resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization” adopted in 2010 [44]; however, there is a continuing controversy over the impact of intellectual property rights (IPRs) systems on the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities. Many indigenous peoples’ representatives and outside commentators feel that existing IPR systems are inadequate for protecting indigenous intellectual and cultural property rights (e.g., Mataatua Declaration [45]). The UN Convention on Biological Diversity, particularly Article 8(j), addresses traditional knowledge and equitable benefit sharing. The vital role of indigenous peoples and local communities [including women] is focused in its call to “respect, preserve, and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices.” The article, however, does not provide details on how to recognize, reward, and protect the contribution of local communities, farmers, indigenous peoples, and women. The biggest challenge facing governments and society today is how to distribute the economic benefits of biodiversity fairly and equitably. Because establishing a system of intellectual property rights to biological resources has proved contentious. Biological diversity (both wild and cultivated) is most prominent in developing countries, and the economic benefits it generates are disproportionately captured by industrial nations at the global level. The Constitution of Nepal recognizes the importance of biodiversity conservation by incorporating different clauses on natural resource conservation (Article 51), intellectual property rights (IPRs) (Article 25) under different sections including Fundamental Rights and Duties (Part 3), Directive Principles (Part 4), and other sections [46]. The constitution also guarantees the rights of every person to live in a clean environment as a fundamental right (Article 30). Article 51 of the Constitution of Nepal requires all three tiers of the governments to protect, promote, and use available natural resources of the country in agreement with national interest. Further, it also adopts the concept of inter-generational equity and make equitable distribution of benefits according to priority and preferential right to the local communities (Article 51, Clause G) [47]; however, conservation of biological resources for peoples’ livelihood, access to genetic resources and benefit sharing giving priority to the indigenous communities have yet to be addressed as Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of Nepal. Intellectual property is the human mind’s creation of ideas, information, and knowledge that can be incorporated into creative or inventive works, such as inventions, designs, trademarks, books, paintings, or other literary and artistic works. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) provide legal rights to grant ownership to inventors, who may be individuals, enterprises or other entities that create products by intellectual effort. However, IPR protection is being developed to benefit the countries/companies in the developed countries that have access to high technology;
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whereas the traditional healers, farmers, and indigenous communities in the developing countries are not given due recognition for their contribution. Therefore, the most suitable approach for Nepal appears to be to define the role of indigenous peoples and local communities, farmers, and their knowledge in the national legislation that brings the convention into effect [48]. Traditional knowledge is a valuable heritage for the communities and cultures that develop and maintain it. Medicinal and food plant genetic resources represent the most important category of all biological resources because of their importance in primary health care and pharmaceutical products. Traditional knowledge and biodiversity conservation are complementary phenomena essential to human development. Very little of the traditional knowledge has been recorded; yet, it represents an immensely valuable source of information [49]. The indigenous knowledge of traditional healers and women, particularly in the Nepalese context, has long been ignored. Today, however, a growing number of Nepalese researchers and institutions, and international development agencies are recognizing that the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous peoples, and local communities relevant to conservation and the sustainable use of biodiversity are under threat [15, 28]. Nepal has made an attempt to incorporate such obligation as far as possible into “Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing (AGRBS) Bill” awaiting for approval from the parliament as national legislation. However, access to genetic resources and benefit sharing (AGRBS) will remain incomplete unless the social and economic well-being of people and governance issues related to the same are addressed properly. In this context, the Center for International Environment Law (CIEL) has proposed several initiatives as the next steps in using intellectual property as a tool for conserving traditional knowledge and biodiversity [50]. (i) Free Prior informed consent (FPIC) and mutually agreed terms (MAT) The Nagoya Protocol ensures that the genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge are accessed in accordance with the domestic legislative framework meeting the provisions of Free and Prior Informed Consent (FPIC) and Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT). Following CBD (Article 15.5), developing countries have extended their demand to obtaining free prior informed consent (FPIC) from the concerned country of origin before patent applications are filed. Developing countries are also demanding an amendment to Article 29 of TRIPS (The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) “Conditions on Patent Application” that would be constraining patent applicants to make adequate disclosure of the “country of origin” of the biological resources or traditional knowledge. It is obvious that without an amendment to TRIPS, there is a weak legal basis for benefit sharing. The FPIC of all peoples and their communities must be obtained before any research is undertaken [51]. Indigenous peoples, traditional societies, and local communities have the right to obtain information about any program, project or study that affects them. It is generally presumed that all potentially affected communities will be provided with complete information regarding the purpose and
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nature of the research activities and the probable results through FPIC and MAT. These will also help to reasonably foresee benefits and risks of harm (be they tangible or intangible) to the affected communities. Key elements of FPIC and MAT, and their application procedures have been discussed by Oli and Dhakal [52]. In order to give full force to the FPIC and MAT requirement, the Government of Nepal established an authority under the Ministry of Forests and Environment (MoFE) at the national level as a focal point for coordinating and implementing access to genetic resource agreements. (ii) National registers of traditional knowledge Biodiversity cannot be protected by regulations only; the active support and participation of IPLCs are fundamental. There is a need to address various aspects of biodiversity use and conservation at the community level. Our knowledge of Nepal’s biological resources and associated traditional ecological knowledge need to be completed and consolidated. Biodiversity registration involves a systematic documentation of the resources, knowledge, and skills of the people at the local and national level by initiation of the people themselves. The basic philosophy behind this endeavor is that it will rejuvenate both the ecological basis of the resources and the social, cultural, and economic conditions of the people by making the people knowledgeable about, capable of, and responsible for biodiversity management. The National Biodiversity Registration (NBR) initiated in Nepal is the beginning of a process of creating mechanisms to (i) ensure recognition of the indigenous knowledge of communities, (ii) avoid the misappropriation of specialized varieties and genetic resources used by farmers, and (iii) enhance future benefit sharing [53– 55]. The Ministry of Forests and Environment has been pursuing to extend biodiversity registration at province and local levels throughout Nepal. Developing a common agreement on the registration of biological resources and knowledge among the countries in the Hindu Kush Himalaya has yet to be worked out. For instance, the members of the Andes Pact (Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela) have developed a common agreement on biosafety and a special regime for the safeguarding of traditional knowledge [56]. (iii) Document case studies on sharing of benefits from specific uses Discussions of the impact of IPRs on the sharing of benefits from the commercial use of traditional knowledge and associated genetic resources could benefit from more fact- based analysis of specific cases. Traditional knowledge is usually accessed by companies through internet and literature and, in some cases, through multiple intermediaries and reports. Rarely companies provide grants to communities possessing traditional knowledge, with which they work. Aveda Corporation, Minnesota, has developed production and marketing of Bixa orellana, a common and widespread species throughout the neotropics and in the “public domain” with the Yawanawa community of Brazil. Aveda Corporation uses bixa as a colorant in lipstick and other personal care and cosmetics products. In 1993, the partnership between Yawanawa and Aveda involved a package of benefits over the number of years that includes the supply of technical assistance, start-up funds to begin initial production, local processing, transportation and
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other logistics, facilitation of organic certification, guaranteed market for the product; as well as distribution of benefits [57]. However, the following are some common examples of patents in which the contribution of traditional knowledge has been ignored (Box 3). Box 3: The Turmeric Patent In 1995, the US Patent and Trademark Office granted patent number 5401504 for the use of powdered turmeric (Curcuma longa) to speed the healing of wounds. The patent was held by the University of Mississippi Medical Center. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) of India filed a challenge to the patent in October 1996. The CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi) argued that the patent failed the legal requirement of novelty, because the use of turmeric to heal wounds was part of a prior art. The CSIR presented publications from India indicating that turmeric was a well-known folk remedy in the south Asia. In August 1997, the US PTO rejected the patent [58]. The Neem Patent For hundreds of years at the least, rural people in Asian and African continents have turned to various parts of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) for a variety of uses ranging from toothpaste to pesticide. A number of corporations, both Indian and foreign, had taken patents out on various products that employ materials derived from the neem tree for things that often relate to traditional uses of neem. For instance, a US company, W.R. Grace, patented a number of products relating to the neem tree. One patent taken out by W R Grace and Co. in the US in 1990 covered a technique for improving the storage stability of neem seed extracts containing ‘azadirachtin’ (US Patent No 4946681). Another obtained by the same company in 1994 covered a long- term storable stable insecticidal compound that includes neem seed, for increased stability (US Patent No 5124349). The increase in stability of this preparation over traditional neem preparations presumably made it more convenient for commercial distribution as well as on-farm use. Thus, the seed itself-being a product of nature is not patentable unless considerably modified (Jain and Mudgal 1999). India has won a ten-year battle at the European Patent Office (EPO) against a patent granted to the US Department of Agriculture and multinational WR Grace on anti-fungal product derived from neem (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4333627.stm accessed on 14 January 2022).
10 Women in Conservation and Bioprospecting The vital contribution of women to the management of biological resources, and to economic production generally, has been ignored or underestimated. Women produce 80 percent of the food in Africa, 60 percent in Asia, and 40 percent in Latin
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America. Rural women are often the most knowledgeable about the patterns and uses of local biodiversity (Box 4). Therefore, the important role of women in the management of biological resources must be recognized, and they must be allowed to participate in decision-making. Agenda 21 calls for women to be fully involved in decision making and in the implementation of sustainable development activities. In the Himalaya, for example, rural women normally play a major role in the collection of various forest products, including food and medicinal plants; in farming and managing water resources. Hence, women’s knowledge needs to be recognized and their participation at three levels of management be encouraged: national policy, the meso-level and grassroots [59].
Box 4: Cleyera japonica var. wallichiana: A Tea Beverage Plant of the Himalaya During botanical exploration in eastern Nepal, a tea-like beverage was documented in 1999 from Makalu-Barun National Park, Eastern Nepal. The leaves of Cleyera japonica var. wallichiana, locally available, are collected, processed, stored and utilized to prepare tea, locally called chhasing, (Bhote chiya in Nepali) by the indigenous communities. Sherpa women possess knowledge about the plant species, and skill to prepare chhasing drink which is prepared by boiling dried leaves for 10–15 min with water, sugar, and milk, and then put in a long bamboo vessel. A small quantity of salt is added and the mixture is churned for 5 min with a loosely fitted piston. The researchers, in fact, could not tell the difference between chasing and regular tea by either the taste of the beverage or by physiological effects upon the body. On an investigation, the leaves tested with High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) for caffeine content revealed no detectable amount of caffeine. Several elution peaks of chhasing matched with unknown compounds in the black and green teas (Camellia sinensis). The authors were surprised to learn that no caffeine is present in Chhasing. Whether or not there are other alkaloids similar in chemical structure to caffeine that are present in the leaves of Cleyera japonica is a question that other investigators can pursue. The growing of this plant species yielding tea-like beverage has provided self-sufficiency to the local communities in the upper Arun River basin of the Makalu Barun region. Not only is the production of chhasing an interesting local custom, but it may prove to be of economic importance to the people in the area if it can be harvested in a sustainable manner, successfully marketed, and benefit ensured to the local communities. Source: Chaudhary et al. [60].
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11 Conclusions A comprehensive documentation of biological resources and traditional knowledge of amchis and IPLCs focusing in the trans-Himalaya should be urgently carried out on an institutional basis in order to promote conservation and strengthen bioprospecting. Policy and infrastructure development enabling policy should be developed to flourish traditional Amchi medicinal practice and give it due national recognition in Nepal. Conservation of landscapes where biological resources are used by amchis to prepare drugs is urgently needed as the habitats are under threat to degradation, commercial collection and over-exploitation. Similarly, institutions should be promoted to protect the Amchis knowledge as well as to transfer the knowledge to the youngers. Screening of medicinal plants for bioprospecting based on ethnoecological knowledge is likely to be more successful to revitalize traditional amchi practice. Improving low-tech preservation techniques, collaborative research, and bioassay screening will help to explore traditional Amchi medicinal practice or Himalayan medicinal practice and enhance our understanding of holistic traditional health care systems by conserving both indigenous knowledge and biological resources as well as establishing intellectual property rights to ensure benefit sharing to the IPLCs. AGRBS should be endorsed as a fundamental right of the indigenous peoples and local communities including women who are strongly dependent upon the availability and sustainable use of biological resources for their livelihoods. Nepal has made an attempt to incorporate such obligation as far as possible into Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing (AGRBS) Bill awaiting for approval from the parliament as national legislation.
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Appraisal of Medicinal Plants Diversity Inhabited in Deserts Areas Salman Majeed, Muhammad Zafar, Mushtaq Ahmad, Shazia Sultana, Fethi Ahmet Ozdemir, Omer Kilic, Ghulam Yaseen, and Nabila
1 Introduction 1.1 Medicinal Plants Medicinal herbs have been used as a source of medicine to treat various ailments from ancient times. Methodological approaches used in ethno-biological and ethno- pharmacological surveys for collecting information on traditional applications of plants and their natural products have improved over time. Plants with significant medicinal significance that are utilized in primary health care have been the subject of a number of research [1, 2]. Traditional medicine is used by 70–95% in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East for their fundamental health needs [3]. Natural products have emerged as an alternative form of treatment for a variety of S. Majeed (*) · M. Zafar · S. Sultana · Nabila Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected] M. Ahmad Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Pakistan Academy of Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan F. A. Ozdemir Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bingol University, Bingol, Turkey O. Kilic Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Science of Pharmacy, Adıyaman University, Adıyaman, Turkey G. Yaseen Department of Botany, Division of Science and Technology, Township Campus, University of Education, Lahore, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_12
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disorders in recent decades, as traditional drugs have been linked to a number of side effects [4]. The local people always disturb the availability of plants in their natural habitat due to excessive usage of natural remedies [5]. Plants are commonly used by local people in many underdeveloped nations to cure their daily health issues because allopathic drugs are expensive and health-care facilities are difficult to reach [6]. In Pakistan, the majority of rural communities live in poverty and are completely reliant on traditional medicine for their health care [7, 8]. The country is rich in natural resources, with a diverse range of climates, ecological, and geographical zones, and a wide range of medicinal plants. It also contains a large diversity of floral plants (6000 species), of which 600 are reported to be medicinal [9].
1.2 Desert Areas Rangelands cover around 40% of the world’s geographical area and are just as vital to the environment as rain forests. One-third of the world’s land surface is covered by arid environments, is home to 14% of the world’s population, and produces a major portion of global agriculture [10]. Rangelands are one of the most significant ecosystems, offering pastoral and agro-pastoral inhabitants a wide range of services and houses. They encompass a wide range of environments and biological communities in particular. They are also economically significant due to the abundance of culinary, fodder, medicinal, and economic plant species. Rangeland plant biodiversity is more visible and profound than in other habitats; therefore, any disturbance has a greater impact [11]. Deserts, which have low and irregular rainfall, nutrient- poor soils, and limited vegetation cover, cover about a third of the earth’s land surface. Deserts offer a variety of features that can suit the needs of both local residents and those in the nearby communities. Water, food, medicine, and raw resources are among the advantages. Desert rangelands are subjected to harsh natural factors such as high rates of soil erosion and extremely low rainfall patterns, which may be induced in part by climate due to their geographic location [12]. The distribution, pattern, and quantity of plant species and communities in desert environments have all been associated with physical ecological factors such as water availability, soil chemistry, and anthropogenic disturbance [13]. Desert vegetation is adapted to extreme temperature and moisture changes, as well as edaphic environments. Plants in this region grow slowly but respond fast to climatic changes, and a major portion of the species can regrow even if there is not enough rain [14]. Traditional folk knowledge preservation, traditional medicine preference over others, and biodiversity conservation have all gained popularity among many groups, researchers, academicians, and policymakers. Traditional medical knowledge (a source of low-cost herbal medicine) required effective techniques for its preservation in indigenous communities in order to ensure its long-term sustainability [15] (Figs. 1 and 2).
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Fig. 1 Field pictorial photographs of desert dicot species: (a) Acacia jacquemontii, (b) Achyranthes aspera, (c) Aerva javanica, (d) Amaranthus viridis, (e) Boerhavia diffusa, (f) Capparis decidua, (g) Carthamus oxyacantha, (h) Chenopodium album, (i) Chenopodium murale, (j) Corchorus olitorius, (k) Cucumis melo var.agrestis, (l) Cuscuta reflexa, (m) Fagonia indica, (n) Heliotropium europaeum, (o) Launaea procumbens
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Fig. 2 Field pictorial photographs of desert dicot species: (a) Leptadenia pyrotechnica, (b) Malva parviflora, (c) Peganum harmala, (d) Prosopis cineraria, (e) Prosopis juliflora, (f) Rhazya stricta, (g) Rumex dentatus, (h) Salvadora oleoides, (i) Solanum surratense, (j) Tamarix aphylla, (k) Tecomella undulate, (l) Trianthema portulacastrum, (m) Tribulus terrestris, (n) Withania coagulans, (o) Ziziphus nummularia
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1.3 Ethnomedicine in Deserts of Pakistan Ethnomedicinal appraisals of plant species are vital for conservation and preservation, as well as for the development of herbal medications. Plants have been used extensively, and their therapeutic potential has been documented globally. Around 400–600 medicinal plants have been recognized as being used in Pakistan’s traditional health-care system. Pakistan is blessed with a diverse range of temperatures, ecological zones, and topographical regions that are endowed with a variety of medicinal plants, and the desert sections of Pakistan are believed to be as of yet untouched in terms of ethnomedicinal surveys of medicinal plants [16]. The desert supports a substantial human and livestock inhabitants. The majority of the population is made up of nomads who follow the distribution of rainfall and the forage it provides. The only source of income for the residents of the study region is livestock keeping [17]. Despite the fact that 88% of Pakistan’s total land area is categorized as dry or semi-arid, less focus is given to conducting research on desert environments [18]. Much research has been made in Pakistan on ethnomedicinal investigations in northern hilly areas and plains, but the vegetation of the deserts has been ignored for a number of reasons. Pakistan has a distinct geographical location in Asia’s Deserts. Pakistan’s deserts have a peculiar plant richness, with an estimated 400–600 medicinal species. Based on a review of earlier studies, we uncovered only a few references to medicinal plants from Pakistan deserts. Traditional plant-based treatments are still more popular in desert communities than allopathic and biomedical medicine. People with poor income and social status, in particular, must rely on traditional medication due to the unavailability of drugs and access to contemporary health--care systems [19].
1.4 Ethnobotanical Prospective in Pakistan Ethnobotany is now a well-recognized discipline in Pakistan, exploring various prominent medicinal plant species for herbal drug development and sustainable utilization, but many regions, such as deserts and arid lands, remain unexplored. Communities of remote areas and mountainous regions in Northern regions have been practicing traditional medicines for many generations. Knowledge of traditional herbal medicine helps researchers discover new therapeutic plants with valuable pharmacological qualities in Pakistan’s most remote areas. Local populations in several rural regions of Pakistan still use the old folk medicinal system. In rural areas and villages, herbal traditional remedies are mostly practiced by traditional health practitioners (THPs), often known as Hakims. These hakims market profitable medicinal plants and educate from their elders [20]. Many botanical inventories on medicinal plants have been surveyed in various regions of Northern Pakistan (KPK and GB), Azad and Jammu Kashmir, Plain areas of Punjab, Baluchistan, and
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Sindh, but the majority of the studies have been conducted in Northern mountainous regions of Pakistan, while the southern plain regions of Pakistan have either fewer studies or are still unexplored. Among these areas, the deserts of Thal, Punjab, have yet to be explored. Only a few studies from the Thal desert area have been documented in the literature [21, 22]. In addition, [23] reported 63 species from Sindh’s northern deserts, while another study collected ethnomedicinal data on 51 plant species from the Nara desert [17]. Although Thal desert area in Punjab province of Pakistan has a rich diversity of medicinal plants and culturally important indigenous people that have a very strong cultural link with medicinal plants used as herbal drugs, but the ethnobotanical documentation of important and precious medicinal plant species is still lacking behind. The goal of this chapter is to deepen the knowledge of sustainable ethnomedicinal uses of medicinal plants along with cultural recipes as practiced in the Thal desert. An annotated list of dicot plants traditionally used as medicinal products has been compiled along with a quantitative data analysis of specific herbal medicines used in the desert area rangelands.
2 Methods 2.1 Data Documentation Field surveys were conducted to acquire data from rural communities in Thal desert zones in order to obtain quantitative data on dicot medicinal plants, followed by participant observation and interviews. Traditional healers, herbalists, and local residents are among the interviewers. Men and traditional healers provided the majority of the medicinal data during open conversations. Because the majority of the population speak Saraiki dialect, the interviews were conducted within this language. A total of 87 people between the ages of 40 and 95 were interviewed, including 74 men and 13 women. Plants’ local names, modes of use, parts used, and medicinal uses were all recorded and represented in Table 2. Plants have been collected, pressed, dried, poisoned, mounted, and submitted to the Herbarium of Pakistan (ISL) for future research. Medicinal plant names were validated via the plant list (www.theplantlist.org). Specimens were identified by Flora of Pakistan and authenticated by comparing with herbarium specimens.
Herb
Kapok bush
Aerva javanica (Burm.f) Juss.ex Schult. (Amaranthaceae)
Alhagi maurorum Camelthorn- Medik. (Fabaceae) bush
3.
4.
Herb
Herb
Prickly chaff flower
Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae)
2.
Habit Tree
Common name Vachellia jacquemontii
Botanical name/ S. No family 1. Acacia jacquemontii Benth (Fabaceae)
April– September
October– December
July– September
Flowering season July– September
Whole plant
Whole plant
Root, leaves, flowers
Part used Bark Preparation Medicinal aspects Paste The dried bark is converted in the form of paste with water. The paste is applied on the cut by snake bite. Juice Juice of fresh leaves is used in aching teeth. Paste of spike is applied as anti-venom against scorpion sting. Root paste is applied to regulate the menstruation cycle. Powder The flower is consumed against stomach problems and stem is applied for ear pain. Inflorescence is used in making cushions. Young shoots are also browsed by camels. Powder Roasted seeds are mixed with Gur (raw sugar) to make specific recipe, which is used in dry and chronic cough, cold, and fever.
Table 2 Ethnomedicinal uses of dicot medicinal species inhabited in the deserts of Pakistan
3
2
31
63
3
22
0.43
0.21
0.15
(continued)
0.020 0.0014
0.014 0.0003
0.020 0.0005
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 19 1 0.13 0.007 0.00007
Appraisal of Medicinal Plants Diversity Inhabited in Deserts Areas 335
Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. (Capparaceae)
Karel
Boerhavia diffusa Red L. (Nyctaginaceae) spiderling
7.
8.
Herb
Dill
Anethum graveolens Linn. (Apiaceae)
6.
Shrub
Herb
Habit Herb
Common name Green amaranth
Botanical name/ S. No family 5. Amaranthus viridis L. (Amaranthaceae)
Table 2 (continued)
March– April
July– September
February– April
Flowering season July– September
Fruits, bark, leaves
Leaves, stem
Fruits, seeds
Part used Leaves, stem Preparation Medicinal aspects Paste Paste of fresh leaves is used for ulcerated mouth and throat. Leaves are cooked as vegetable which is an effective laxative. Raw Dried fruits and seeds are used as spices and condiments due to their specific flavor and aroma. Dried seeds have aromatic, carminative, and diuretic properties. Paste Fresh leaves are grinded into a paste, and it is applied as plaster on boils to release the pus. Juice of fresh leaves is used in asthma and dropsy. Raw Fruits are sweet in taste and eaten by local people. Bark has laxative and anthelmintic properties. 2
3
2
41
21
55
0.37
0.14
0.28
0.014 0.0005
0.020 0.0005
0.014 0.0004
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 22 2 0.15 0.014 0.0002
336 S. Majeed et al.
Herb
Herb
White goosefoot
Nettle-leaved Goosefoot
Chenopodium album L. (Amaranthaceae)
Chenopodium murale L. (Amaranthaceae)
10.
11.
Habit Herb
Common name Wild safflower
Botanical name/ S. No family 9. Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. (Asteraceae)
August– October
February– April
Flowering season February– April
Part used Preparation Medicinal aspects Flowers, Decoction, Decoction of flowers is seeds oil given to children for anthelmintic. Seed oil is also helpful for ulcer patients. Whole Juice Juice of fresh leaves is plant used as an anthelmintic, antifungal, and insecticidal effect. It has laxative and purgative properties. Whole plants after slight heating are used as a bandage on the parts where the patient feel pain and on invisible injuries to convert them into wounds. Aerial Decoction Decoction made from parts the aerial part of plant is used for gastrointestinal disorders. 4
1
44
35
0.24
0.30
(continued)
0.007 0.00001
0.027 0.0017
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 17 2 0.12 0.014 0.0002
Appraisal of Medicinal Plants Diversity Inhabited in Deserts Areas 337
14.
13.
Common name Bitter apple
Corchorus olitorius L. (Malvaceae)
Nalta jute
Ponwar Cleome brachycarpa (Forssk.) Vahl ex DC. (Cleomaceae)
Botanical name/ S. No family 12. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae)
Table 2 (continued)
Herb
Herb
Habit Herb
August– October
August– September
Flowering season May, June, July, August
Leaves, roots
Leaves, flowers
Part used Fruits, seeds, roots Preparation Medicinal aspects Juice, raw Fruit pulp and juice is traditionally used in treating yellow fever and jaundice. Fruits are highly purgative and used in cattle for gastrointestinal disorders. The dried fruit powder is also mixed with honey and used against constipation. Careless use of fruits and seeds may also be fatal. Paste Young shoots with leaves are grinded and mixed with mustard oil and the paste is applied on arms and legs relieve from fever. Vegetative parts are aromatic and insect repellent. Decoction Leaves and roots are used for treating many problems such as thirst, biliousness, vomiting, and leprosy. 1
3
26
29
0.20
0.18
0.020 0.0006
0.007 0.00009
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 76 4 0.49 0.027 0.0030
338 S. Majeed et al.
Habit Herb
Climber
Herb
Common name Muskmelon
Giant dodder
Thorn apple
Botanical name/ S. No family 15. Cucumis melo var.agrestis Naudin (Cucurbitaceae)
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (Convolvulaceae)
Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae)
16.
17.
July– September
End of October
Flowering season June– September
Leaves, flowers, fruits
Whole plant
Part used Leaves, stem, fruits, seeds Preparation Medicinal aspects Raw Locally ripened fruits and seeds are used as an edible fruit. Ripened fruits are effective laxative and are also useful in painful urination. Juice The juice of the plant, mixed with the juice of Saccharum officinarum, is used in the treatment of jaundice. Juice, Juice of leaves and infusion flowers is used in the treatment of asthma and pains. Leaves in fresh form are soaked in hot mustard oil and then fastened over the area under inflammation. 1
4
11
28
0.19
0.07
(continued)
0.027 0.0010
0.007 0.00004
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 12 2 0.08 0.014 0.0001
Appraisal of Medicinal Plants Diversity Inhabited in Deserts Areas 339
Herb
Herb
Herb
Common heliotrope
Gorakh pam
Creeping Launaea
Heliotropium europaeum L. (Boraginaceae)
Heliotropium strigosum Willd. (Boraginaceae)
Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopal (Asteraceae)
19.
20.
21.
Habit Herb
Common name Dhamasa
Botanical name/ S. No family 18. Fagonia indica Burm.f. (Zygophyllaceae)
Table 2 (continued)
April–June
July– September
July– October
Flowering season April–June
Leaves, stem
Leaves
Leaves, stem
Part used Whole plant Preparation Medicinal aspects Decoction, The plant is acrid and paste bitter and has cooling properties. Decoction of leaves is used in asthma, fever, thirst, vomiting, and dysentery. Paste of leaves is applied on tumors and swellings of neck. Juice The juice of fresh leaves is laxative and diuretic. It is also used for the treatment of sore eyes, boils, sores, wounds, ulcer, and snakebite. Poultice Laxative, diuretic, and as a treatment for snake bites and stings of nettles Paste, latex Latex of leaves is taken to treat constipation. Paste of leaves is applied on the head of children which are suffering from fever. 7
3
2
33
32
23
0.16
0.22
0.22
0.014 0.0002
0.020 0.0007
0.048 0.0039
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 73 5 0.50 0.034 0.0044
340 S. Majeed et al.
27.
26.
Rosy Milkweed Vine
Herb
Herb
N/A
June– September
July– September
March– May
Herb
Melilotus indicus (L.) All. (Fabaceae) Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem. (Cucurbitaceae) Oxystelma esculentum (L.f) Sm. (Apocynaceae)
25.
Yellow sweetclover
Malva parviflora L. (Malvaceae)
24.
January, November, December
April– November
Shrub
Broom bush
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.)Decne. (Apocynaceae)
23.
Flowering season July– September
Little mallow Herb
Habit Herb
Common name Lesser swine-cress
Botanical name/ S. No family 22. Lepidium didymium L. (Brassicaceae)
Whole plant
Leaves
Whole plant
Whole plant
Whole plant
Part used Whole plant Preparation Medicinal aspects Decoction A decoction of the whole plant is drunk to treat headache and fevers. Infusion The plant is macerated in water and the macerate is taken as a diuretic to treat urine-retention. Poultice The whole plant is emollient and pectoral. It can be used as a poultice on swellings, running sores, and boils. The seeds are demulcent. Poultice It is used externally as a poultice or plaster on swellings. Powder Dry leaf powder is mixed with butter and used in dermatological problems. Decoction A decoction of the plant is useful as a gargle in infections of throat and mouth. 1
1
8
34
1
2
17
11
2
9
0.07
0.23
0.05
0.12
0.06
(continued)
0.007 0.00004
0.007 0.0001
0.007 0.00003
0.014 0.0007
0.014 0.00006
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 12 2 0.08 0.014 0.0001
Appraisal of Medicinal Plants Diversity Inhabited in Deserts Areas 341
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (Fabaceae)
Mesquite
Prosopis cineraria Ghaf (L.) Druce (Fabacaeae)
30.
31.
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene (Verbenaceae)
29.
Sawtooth fogfruit
Botanical name/ Common S. No family name 28. Peganum harmala Wild rue L. (Nitrariaceae)
Table 2 (continued)
Tree
Tree
Herb
Habit Herb
March– May
May–June
July– September
Flowering season April– September
Seeds
Bark
Leaves, stem
Part used Seeds Preparation Medicinal aspects Powder Seeds of the plant is used in treating skin cancer Paste Paste of fresh leaves is applied on the head to prevent premature graying of hair. Vegetative parts are also used as teeth cleanser that also strengthen the poor teeth. Decoction The bark of the tree is dry, acrid and bitter with a sharp taste; cooling anthelmintic tonic also cures leprosy, dysentery, bronchitis, asthma, leukoderma, hemorrhoids, and muscle tremors. Powder Syrup made from powder of pods is used to increase lactation. 2
8
1
29
66
25
0.17
0.45
0.20
0.007 0.00009
0.054 0.010
0.014 0.0003
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 69 1 0.47 0.007 0.0002
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34.
33.
Common name N/A
Habit Herb
Salvadora oleoides Decne. (Salvadoraceae)
Large toothbrush tree
February– April
Whole plant
Root
Flowering Part season used December– Leaves March.
Evergreen March– April tree or shrub
Rumex dentatus L. Toothed dock Herb (Polygonaceae)
Botanical name/ S. No family 32. Rhazya stricta Decne (Apocynaceae) Preparation Medicinal aspects Extract Extract of leaves is used for the treatment of diabetes, sore throat, helminthiasis, inflammatory conditions, and rheumatism. Powder The root is used as an astringent and also used in the treatment of cutaneous disorders. Raw Fruits are edible and have a digestive role. They are also used in removing kidney and gall bladder stones. The leaves after heating, bound in the form of poultice on areas affected by rheumatism. The root bark is highly effective in toothache and gum inflammation. Short cuttings of roots and young shoots are used as a Miswaak. 2
6
8
78
0.53
0.05
(continued)
0.041 0.0068
0.014 0.00006
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 72 4 0.49 0.027 0.0028
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Small tree February– March
Rohida Tree
Tecomella undulate (Sm.) Seem (Bignoniaceae)
39.
July– September
July– September
July– August
Flowering season July– August
Tree
Tamarix aphylla (L.) H.Karst. (Tamaricaceae)
38.
Herb
Herb
Habit Herb
Athel tree
Yellow- berried nightshade Spiny sowthistle
Solanum surratense L. (Solanaceae) Sonchus asper (L.) Hill (Asteraceae)
36.
37.
Common name Blackberry nightshade
Botanical name/ S. No family 35. Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae)
Table 2 (continued)
Stem, leaves, flowers
Galls
Leaves, latex
Fruits
Part used Leaves Preparation Medicinal aspects Poultice Fresh leaves are used to relieve pain and reduce inflammation. Raw Used against indigestion, diarrhea, stomach ache. Poultice The plant is pounded and applied as a poultice to wounds and boils. The latex in the plant has been used as a treatment on warts Powder The galls are astringent; it is used for treating eczema and other skin diseases. Paste The paste of fresh leaves is applied on the head in relieving headache. The decoction of bark is used in constipation and gastric pain. Fresh flowers are used in tea which is used by sterile woman. 3
3
2
4
7
22
12
21
0.14
0.08
0.15
0.05
0.027 0.0008
0.014 0.0001
0.020 0.0005
0.020 0.0002
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 13 1 0.09 0.007 0.00005
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Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight. & Arn (Rhamnaceae)
43.
44.
Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal (Solanaceae)
42.
Wild jujube
Poisonous gooseberry
Vegetable rennet
Bindii
Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae)
41.
Shrub
Herb
Herb
Herb
Common name Habit Desert Herb horsepurslane
Botanical name/ S. No family 40. Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)
July– September
June– September
July– September
July– September
Flowering season June– October
Leaves, bark
Roots
Whole plant
Leaves, fruits, seeds
Part used Whole plant Preparation Medicinal aspects Juice In villages, juice of leaves is considered as diuretic and also useful in thirst and kidney problems. Decoction, Decoction of mature powder seeds is locally used to remove kidney obstruction and to ease urination. Powdered form of fruits is used to enhance the sexual desire in males. Decoction Decoction of dried fruits is used in digestive and liver complaints. Leaves and root extract is also used as blood purifier. Powder Roots are ground and mixed with honey to prepare a tonic for hair growth. Decoction The leaves are antipyretic and reduce obesity. Bark is used as a remedy for diarrhea and cures boils. 14
10
76
66
3
1
3
2
0.10
0.07
0.52
0.45
0.020 0.0003
0.007 0.00004
0.020 0.0017
0.014 0.0006
FC*1 UR*2 RFC*3 CI*4 CV*5 18 2 0.12 0.014 0.0002
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2.2 Validation of Data Through Literature The ethnomedicinal data were confirmed from scientific literature catalogues such as Pubmed, Web of Science, Google Scholar and Science Direct. The scientific name of the desert species were authenticated with the comprehensive list of plant species (https://wfoplantlist.org/).
2.3 Quantitative Analysis The data were quantitatively analyzed via following parameters. 2.3.1 Relative Frequency Citation Percentage (RFC) Based on the number of informants, RFC is calculated to illustrate the local relevance of indigenous species in the study area. It is calculated using the formula provided by [24]. RFC = FC / N
where FC represents frequency citation and N is the number of total informants. 2.3.2 Informants Consensus Factor (ICF) This statistical indicator is used to determine the information’s homogeneity. All references were categorized according to the illness categories that each plant was reported to address. The formula calculates the informant consensus factor [25, 26].
ICF NUR Nt / NUR 1
Where NUR is the number of use citations in each category and Nt is the species number taken as medicine. 2.3.3 Cultural Value Index This statistical index is calculated using the formula given by [27, 28].
CV NU / NC FC / N UR / N
NU is an abbreviation for the number of uses documented in the study. The word NC denotes the total number of participants in the study. The relative frequency of
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citation is the second component, while the overall number of use reports is the third. The numbers UR and N denote the total number of people participated. 2.3.4 Cultural Importance (CI) This is calculated by using formula of [29]. CI = UR / N
UR signifies use reports, and N is the total number of informants. This index is used to determine the number of uses, and the range of applications for each species.
3 Results 3.1 Informants Demography Totally 87 informants were interviewed (Table 1). Dominant informants were males; females were less in number because of the strict culture and traditions of the rural areas of the study area. As compared to urban communities of the area, the rural peoples in deserts have much knowledge about the herbal remedies. Mostly informants who were interviewed have average ages between 40 and 90 years (Table 1). Even in previous studies regarding medicinal plants utilization in Pakistan, the same Table 1 Demographic information of Informants in Thal Deserts S. No 1.
Variables Categories Gender
2.
Age
3.
Education
Participants THPs Local people Male Female 40–50 50–60 60–70 70–80 80–90 90–95 Illiterate 05 years 08 years 10 years 12 years Undergraduate Graduated
Number 19 68 73 14 35 21 15 9 5 2 46 14 9 7 5 4 2
Percentage 22 78 91 9 40 24 17 23 10 2 53 16 10 8 6 5 2
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fact was recorded regarding the male dominancy in informants [30–32]. Regarding the informants’ ages, recent research has shown that elderly folks have more knowledge than younger people [33]. In this study, most of the informants were illiterate (46%), and it is also observed after interviews that the usage of medicinal plants was dominant in desert areas as compared to urban areas as these results were similar in accordance with the previously published literature [34, 35].
3.2 Medicinal Plant Diversity In the present study, 79% species are herbs. Other highly observed species are trees 12% and shrubs 8.6% (Fig. 3). Herbaceous plants are commonly used in previous reports of [36]. Herbs are used most commonly in making herbal medicine due to the wide distribution and presence of bioactive phytochemicals in them [37, 38]. The plant species used as medicine is mentioned in Table 3 with complete information about the part used, mode of administration and their recipes. In this study, 44 medicinal plants classified to 22 families were recorded (Fig. 4). The most dominant family was Amaranthaceae (six species) followed by Fabaceae and Solanaceae
Fig. 3 Dominant plant families along with number of species
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Table 3 Informant consensus factor of plants and diseases treated in the desert area Disease categories Cardiovascular disorder Digestive disorders Eye disorders Fever Gastro intestinal disorders Gynecological disorders Hormonal disturbance Liver disorders Musco-skeleton disorder Oral disorders Urinary tract disorders Respiratory diseases Sexual diseases Skin disorders Wounds
Total number of disease 3 21 3 3 3
Total number of plants that treat this disease 5 33 4 4 4
ICF 1.00 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.50
7 2 4 7 7 10 11 4 18 2
8 3 7 10 11 15 18 5 35 3
0.17 0.25 1.00 0.50 0.67 0.56 0.70 0.33 1.00 0.50
Fig. 4 Pie chart of Life form/Habit in desert dicot species
with five species each, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Malvaceae (three species each), Polygonaceae, and Apocynaceae, Boraginaceae, and Zygophyllaceae (two species each) (Table 2). The family Amaranthaceae has a high potential for medicinal plants as previously reported by [39] as this family and its species are widely distributed in the world desert areas [40]. Fabaceae, Solanaceae, and Asteraceae are also effective in the treatment of common ailments [41, 42].
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Fig. 5 Graphical illustration showing mode of utilization in dicot species
3.3 Parts of Plants Used for Herbal Medicine The ways medicinal plants prepared for utilization are mentioned in Table 1. The plant parts used in this study are leaves, whole plant, and stem. Roots, seeds, and fruits of some trees and shrubs are also used to make herbal medicine. The most frequently used part of the medicinal plant is leaves (28%) followed by whole plant (19%), stem (11%), fruits (10%), roots and flower (8% each), roots (7%), and bark (6%) (Fig. 5). Leaves are the most used part of the plant in making herbal medicine as most of the people belonging to rural communities of Pakistan utilize them [30, 36]. Also, the leaves contain a large amount of different phytochemicals and also plays a vital role during photosynthesis process [43]. The same results were documented in studies carried out in the previous literature of [44]. The stem leaves and flowers of different medicinal plants are used for treating several diseases such as digestive disorders, hypertension, colic, respiratory disorders, and others [45].
3.4 Mode of Utilization of Herbal Medicine In this study, herbal medicine is utilized in the form of decoction, powder, paste, juice, infusion, poultice, extract, and raw form (Fig. 6). The majority of these medicines are made in the form of decoction (25%) followed by powder (23%), paste (20%), juice (18%), and raw form (14%). Decoction is considered to be the most mode of administration in previous studies conducted by [46, 47]. It is easily made by simply boiling plant parts in water. Powder form of plant is also mixed with butter to treat skin problems (e.g., Mukia maderaspatana). Similar results were obtained from previous studies reported by [48]. Traditional therapies for joint pain, fever, muscular pain, cramps, wounds, and other ailments include oil, juice, infusions, and paste made from various herbal remedies [49].
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Fig. 6 Graphical representation of plant parts used among desert dicots
3.5 Use Reports and Aliments Treated UR (Use report) is commonly used to determine the significance of a specific plant species. In total, 114 use reports were documented in this survey, which are categorized into 15 different diseases. The highest disease category is for digestive and respiratory disorders with eight reports (Table 2). Plants with a high use value are reported by a large number of informants, whereas plants with a low use value are considered to have low UV. Plant species with a high UR value may have a good medicinal potential for treating specific disorders. Plant species that have been shown to have a high use value should be treated further for their pharmacological properties in order to obtain important compounds for biological drug discovery development [50].
3.6 Quantitative Analysis 3.6.1 Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) and Cultural Index (CI) The highest RFC value commonly refers to utilization, priority, and popularity of plants listed by the informants for curing the specific ailment. Highest RFC values are observed in Salvadora oleoides (0.53), Withania coagulans (0.52), and Fagonia indica (0.50) (Table 2). The most cited species were most importantly used by people for medicinal purposes [40]. The plants with the highest RFC value should be involved in pharmacological, phytochemical, and biological actions [51]. Prosopis
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cineraria has a maximum number of use reports (UR = 8) followed by Heliotropium europaeum with (UR = 7) and Salvadora oleoides with (UR = 6), respectively; hence the values of the cultural index are also high for such species (Table 2). Plants with highest values indicate that they were mentioned by many people and are the most commonly used plants of that area. The highest values also indicate the diverse uses of that particular species. 3.6.2 Informant Consensus Factor The informant consensus factor of 15 reported disorders is represented in Table 3. The ICF values in this study vary (0.17–1). The highest value is obtained for liver disorders, cardiovascular complaints, and skin disorders (ICF = 1.00), while the lowest value of ICF is shown by gynecological ailments (ICF = 0.17). This study revealed that although most people in rural desert areas have access to health care, they still use traditional medicinal plants for their diseases. Medicinal plants have not lost their importance among folk people. Higher ICF values were measured in order to identify medicinal plants for the purpose of searching for essential phytochemical bioactive ingredients [26]. 3.6.3 Cultural Value In this study, CV values ranges from 0.01 to 0.00001. Prosopis cineraria shows the highest value CV = 0.010 followed by Salvadora oleoides CV = 0.0068 and Fagonia indica with CV = 0.0044. The highest CV values indicate that these plants have more than one medicinal use; for example, Prosopis cineraria is used in treating leprosy, bronchitis, asthma, leukoderma, dysentery, hemorrhoids, and muscle cramps (Table 2). The lowest CV would be seen in Chenopodium murale (CV = 0.0001) followed by Amaranthus viridis, Carthamus oxyacantha, Peganum harmala, Solanum surratense with the same CV = 0.0002 lowest value indicates single uses of plant species.
3.7 Study Limitations Ethnomedicinal study on deserts in Pakistan reveals a widespread usage of wild medicinal herbs by indigenous communities. The research presented in this book chapter confirms traditional bio-resource use and ethnomedicine of wild desert plants. Global industrial expansion and rapid technical innovation have resulted in ecological changes within urban civilization, followed by cultural changes in rural and remote communities. As a result, knowledge about using plant richness and resources is diminishing in desert places. This study also reveals a decrease in indigenous knowledge among the younger generation on the health benefits of medicinal
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flora. Indigenous peoples in deserts typically lose a considerable percentage of the medicinal plant due to a lack of sufficient expertise in plant collection and processing. Over time, such irresponsible behavior might lead to a decline in plant diversity. As a result, this study is also useful in raising awareness about desert plants and assisting pharmaceutical industries in paying close attention to these valuable plants for the manufacture of novel pharmaceuticals.
4 Conclusion This chapter demonstrated the rich diversity of medicinal plants used to cure a wide range of illnesses in desert settings. The chapter was prepared to document ethnomedicinal knowledge in the desert rangeland using quantitative indices. Totally 44 medicinal species from 22 families have been reported to be utilized to treat a variety of disorders. The leaves were reported to be the most commonly utilized plant part (28%) while herbs were the most commonly used life form (79%) and decoction was the most commonly used route of administration (25%). Due to the obvious growing awareness of medicinal plants and the relevance of ethnomedicinal research, it is considered critical to record traditional medicinal plant knowledge gathered from indigenous peoples of desert areas before it is lost forever. The research establishes a baseline for future phytochemical and pharmacological screening to evaluate the efficacy of medicinal plants in the development of herbal drugs. It is thus recommended that policies for conservation of important medicinal plant species should be planned. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the Herbarium of Pakistan, Quaid-i-Azam University, (ISL) for identification of plant specimens and providing lab facilities. We are also grateful to Higher education commission of Pakistan for funding under project No NRPU-7837. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no potential conflict of interest regarding publication of this book chapter.
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Bush Medicinal Plants of the Australian Wet Tropics and Their Biodiscovery Potential Karma Yeshi and Phurpa Wangchuk
1 Introduction The “Wet Tropics” encompasses 450 km along the northeast coast of Australia, covering approximately 8940 km2 of Australian tropical rainforest with latitude −17° 29′ 59.99″ South and longitude 145° 44′ 59.99″ East (Fig. 1) [1]. The Wet Tropics stretch from low sea level to high mountains, such as Mt. Bartle Frere, which is at an altitude of 1622 m above sea level. It is listed as one of the 35 international global hotspots in 2010 [2], and it covers 0.12% of Australia [3]. The Wet Tropics bioregion on large scale has seven different vegetation groups: rainforest, sclerophyll and sclerophyll rainforest transition vegetation groups, sclerophyll forests and woodlands, vegetation complex and mosaics, shrublands and heathlands, non-woody vegetation, and mangroves with 24 plant communities [4, 5]. The Wet Tropics experience an early wet season from October to December and a monsoon season from January to April [6]. The Wet Tropics bioregion is home to more than 2800 plant species, out of which more than 700 species (i.e., approximately 25%) are endemic to the area [2]. The “Wet Tropics” is significant not only from an ecological point of view but also for preserving important historical, cultural, and anthropogenic activities, including Aboriginal people’s vast knowledge about edible and medicinal plants [7]. At present, about 20 Aboriginal communities comprising 120 clans speaking eight languages live in the “Wet Tropics” [7]. These Rainforest Aboriginal people have lived in harmony with nature for thousands of years and their knowledge in utilising plants for food, shelter, and medicine is commendable. They are the pioneers in managing biodiversity and landscapes, through activities such as plant K. Yeshi · P. Wangchuk (*) Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_13
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Fig. 1 Map of Australia showing the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area
cultivation and active traditional mosaic burning, even before the onset of Australia’s early colonial period (1788–1850) [8–10]. For instance, cultivation of cycads and fruit trees and mosaic burning among Yalanji country people in the northern Wet Tropics is well-documented [9], and their cultural burning is valued and incorporated into the forest management practices. At least two seats in the Wet Tropics Management Board of Directors are reserved for Aboriginal people as custodians and traditional knowledge owners [7]. About 87.5% of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area is constituted by native titles and other rainforest Aboriginal land interests [11]. Two native title representative bodies (North Queensland Land Council and Cape York Land Council) in the Wet Tropics region are responsible for protecting and securing native titles [12]. Aboriginal peoples’ ecological legacy is recognized with increasing administrative support for the documentation, preservation, and promotion of their ancestral knowledge, through establishing rangers’ groups, traditional owner leadership groups, indigenous protected areas, and research collaborations with researchers, scientists, and various academic institutions across Australia. Tropical Indigenous Ethnobotany Centre (TIEC) is one such example of indigenous initiatives. TIEC is the first indigenous-driven ethnobotanical research center in Australia, established
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in 2009 by Traditional Owners in North Queensland in partnership with the Queensland government, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), James Cook University’s (JCU) Cairns Institute, and the Australian Tropical Herbarium (ATH) [13]. TIEC is headed by Gerry Turpin (Fig. 2), a trained Indigenous Ethnobotanist. Its main aims are to document, preserve, and promote traditional knowledge, including bush medicines and bush tucker knowledge. Archaeobotanical evidence from tropical rainforest areas occupied by Aboriginal people suggests that they might have used plants more than 5000 years ago for food and medicine [7]. Many medicinal plant species have been reported to grow in the tropical region (including Wet Tropics) of Australia [14]. Some of these Bush medicines have been exported to other countries. For instance, before synthetic drugs were available, Duboisia myoporoides, commonly called soft corkwood, were grown commercially to be used as ophthalmic and sedative drugs [15]. This plant is rich in hyoscine alkaloids, and a large quantity of hyoscine is known to have been exported during World War II to treat travel sickness and shell shock among military
Fig. 2 An Indigenous Ethnobotanist (Mr. Gerry Turpin at work) collecting herbarium specimens. He is leading a Tropical Indigenous Ethnobotany Centre (TIEC) at Australian Tropical Herbarium (ATH), James Cook University, Cairns. (Courtesy: Phurpa Wangchuk)
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troops. More than 500 tonnes of dried and powdered leaves were exported to German and Swiss pharmaceutical industries in 1989 [15]. While the Rainforest Aboriginal communities still practice bush food and bush medicine cultures, only a limited number of plants have been explored for commercial activities. Some Traditional Knowledge requires rediscovery, and TIEC is working closely with various Aboriginal communities to document and protect their bush medicine knowledge. Part of this documentation identifies plants on their lands that offer new business potential in the food, beverage, ornamental, health- promoting, and nursery industries. There is an urgent need to develop a complete inventory list of plants that grow in the Wet Tropics and determine their economic values and market potential. This chapter highlights 30 medicinal plants that grow in the ‘Wet Tropics’ region. We identified only three medicinal plant species endemic to the Wet Tropics and Cape York region. Many medicinal plants listed here are reported to grow in other parts of Australia. The traditional uses, phytochemical content, and pharmacological properties were extracted from the published documents, including journal articles, books, book chapters, and official websites. The botanical names of the plants were confirmed using ‘The World Flora Online’ (https://wfoplantlist.org/plant-list). The information on the distribution of plants was obtained using ‘The Australian Virtual Herbarium’ (https://avh.chah.org.au/) and the ‘Discover Life’ (https://www. discoverlife.org/20/q). The information gathered from these sources is presented below individually.
2 Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Individual Medicinal Plant Grouped by Disease Categories 2.1 Narcotics and Painkillers 2.1.1 Alphitonia excelsa (Fenzl) Reissek ex Benth. (Rhamnaceae) Alphitonia excelsa is a medium-size tree with grey to golden-brown hairy buds and stems, when young. It grows up to a height of 21 m. It is commonly called the ‘red ash’ or ‘soapbush’ (because the wet leaves create a lather) or ‘leatherjacket.’ Ethnomedicine: People bath in warm infusions prepared from leaves to relieve headache [16]. Leaves are also applied to eyesore [17]. While infusion prepared from roots, bark, and wood is applied to the body to heal pain [17]. Wood and bark decoction is effective for toothache [16]. Young shoot tips are chewed to ease stomach upset [16]. Aboriginal people of Yaegl country use leaves to treat sores, wounds, and skin infections [18]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: γ-sitoserol, nonanal, n-tetracontane, docosane, 1,54-dibromotetrapentacontane, tetradecane, and hexadecane were identified
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from leaves [18]. Betulinic acid was also isolated from its twigs [19]. The crude leaf extract (dichloromethane and hexane extract) showed moderate antibacterial activity (Staphylococcus aureus) at MIC of 312.5–625 μg/mL and 1250–2500 μg/mL, respectively [18]. Betulinic acid showed antiproliferative activity against human ovarian cancer cell line A2780 with an IC50 value of 20.6 μM [19]. 2.1.2 Clerodendrum floribundum R.Br. (Lamiaceae) (Fig. 3a) Clerodendrum floribundum is a tall shrub or a small tree that produces black seed surrounded by red calyxes, leading to the common name ‘lolly bush.’ Ethnomedicine: Decoction prepared from wood is used to treat aches and pains [16]. A water extract made from the leaves was used on the skin to reduce itching [20]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: No phytochemical and pharmacological studies reported for this plant. 2.1.3 Cymbopogon bombycinus (R.Br) Domain (Poaceae) Cymbopogon bombycinus is a grass, and it is commonly called ‘Cymbopogon,’ ‘silky oilgrass,’ ‘citronella grass,’ ‘lemongrass,’ and ‘lemon-scented grass.’ Aboriginal languages have various names, such as Giwiri, Guwuru (Jaru), Naliny
Fig. 3 Selected bush medicinal plant photos. (Courtesy: Paul Williams and Phurpa Wangchuk). (a) Clerodendrum floribundum. (b) Excoecaria parvifolia. (c) Canarium australianum. (d) Erythrophleum chlorostachys. (e) Flagellaria indica. (f) Macaranga tanarius
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(Mal), Jorroy (Mang), Guruguruny, and Gububu (Yarr) [21]. This grass is native to Northern Territory. Ethnomedicine: A whole grass is burnt and rubbed on the body for pain and colds. In some cases, the grass is soaked in water and the liquid treats sore eyes [17]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: There is no record of phytochemical studies. 2.1.4 Ehretia saligna R.Br. (Boraginaceae) Ehretia saligna is a shrub or a small tree that grows up to 6 m tall. It has common names such as ‘Ehretia,’ ‘coonta,’ ‘peachwood,’ ‘peach bush,’ ‘false cedar,’ and ‘native willow.’ Aboriginal people call it Warlagarri [21]. This plant occurs in the Gulf of Carpentaria and the coastal area of Northern Queensland. Ethnomedicine: The latex and chopped inner bark are boiled, and the resulting red liquid is applied to cuts and sores [22]. The decoction prepared from the wood has been taken orally to alleviate aches and pains [16]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: No phytochemical and pharmacological studies reported for this plant. 2.1.5 Excoecaria parvifolia Müll.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) (Fig. 3b) Excoecaria parvifolia is a semideciduous tree that grows up to 7 m tall. It is also commonly called ‘Excoecaria,’ ‘guttapercha,’ ‘gutta percha’ (because it exudes white latex), and ‘northern brown birch.’ Aboriginal people call it Gurniny, Yilili (Mal), Yeworr (Mat), Gilirr (Mang), and Manyingila [21]. Ethnomedicine: A heated infusion prepared from the mashed bark is applied to all body parts to ease pain and sickness, and as an antiseptic for sores [17]. The white sap can cause short-term blindness [20]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Isolated 12 beyerane diterpenes, including ent-3-oxa-beyer-15-en-2-one, ent-15,16-epoxy-2-hydroxy-19-norbeyer-1,4-dien-3- one, methyl ent-2,4-seco-15,16-epoxy-4-oxo-3,19-dinorbeyer-15-en-2-oate, ent-2,17-dihydroxy-19-norbeyer-1,4,15-trien-3-one, stachenone, stachenol, Diosphenol, and the triterpene lupeol from the heartwood [23]. Diosphenol showed a potent cytotoxic effect against leukemia cells (L1210) [23]. 2.1.6 Pandanus spiralis R.Br. (Pandanaceae) Pandanus spiralis is a small tree that grows up to 8 m tall. It is commonly known as Pandanus, Screw-palm, and Pandanus palm. In Aboriginal language, it is known by various names: Gulmarri (Jam, Ngal, Nung), Wirnbu, Muram muram (Mal), Tyangatya (Mat), Mangarrayi, Jamog, Jangawa, Merriny (plant), and Gujangak (fruit) [21]. This plant is also reported from Northern Territory and Western Australia.
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Ethnomedicine: The inner core of the upper section of the trunk of young trees is eaten by Aboriginal people to heal stomach pain and diarrhea [24]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Not studied for its phytochemical and pharmacological activities. 2.1.7 Pteridium esculentum (G. Frost.) Cockayne (Dennstaedtiaceae) Pteridium esculentum is a perennial fern with an extensive creeping rhizome, and the stem grows up to 1.5 m long. It is commonly called ‘common bracken.’ Aboriginal people called it ‘Gunggai’ (Dharawal). Ethnomedicine: Young fronds are crushed and rubbed on the area when bitten by insects and ticks to ease the pain of stings. Moreover, tea made from leaves and leaf stalks is used against rheumatism [25]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Ptesculentoside, ptaquiloside, and caudatoside were isolated from immature croziers [26]. No pharmacological study was conducted for this plant. 2.1.8 Rhaphidophora australasica F.M.Bailey (Araceae) Rhaphidophora australasica is a climber. It is commonly called ‘needle berry.’ It occurs in Northern Queensland and its coastal areas. Ethnomedicine: Aboriginal people have used the decoction prepared from leaves and roots to get rid of rheumatic pains. However, decoction causes an itchy sensation [27]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: There is no record of phytochemical and pharmacological studies for this plant. 2.1.9 Zieria smithii Jacks. (Rutaceae) Zieria smithii is a robust shrub that grows up to 2 m high with glandular stems and leaves, which emit a pungent smell when crushed. There are many common names including ‘turmeric,’ ‘sandfly bush,’ ‘lanoline bush,’ ‘stunk wood,’ and ‘sandfly zieria.’ Ethnomedicine: Leaves are crushed and then inhaled to cure headache, but excessive use may make headache worse [28]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Identified α-pinene, thymol, chrysanthenone, citronellol, safrole, bicyclogermacrene, and butylated hydroxytoluene from its essential oil [29]. The hexane extract of Zieria smithii showed anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activities [29].
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2.2 Headaches, Colds, and Fevers 2.2.1 Calamus caryotoides A.Cum. Ex Mart. (Arecaceae) Calamus caryotoides is a climber slender cane-like stem about 15 mm in diameter [21]. It is commonly called a ‘fish-tail lawyer cane’ and ‘wait-a-while.’ It only occurs in Wet Tropics of Queensland, with other species of Calamus in Southern Australia. Ethnomedicine: Aboriginal people usually eat the young shoot of this plant to treat headache [30]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: There is no record of phytochemical and pharmacological studies for this plant. 2.2.2 Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T.Black (Myrtaceae) Melaleuca quinquenervia is a tree of wetlands that grows up to 25 m tall with slightly a dull green or yellowish-green crown and spreading twigs. It is commonly called a ‘broad-leaved tea tree’ or ‘paperbark.’ Ethnomedicine: Young leaves are bruised in water, and the resultant liquid is drunk to heal headache, colds, and general sickness [31]. The oil obtained from leaves is used for cough and colds and also applied externally for neuralgia and rheumatism [30]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Isolated from leaves – gallic acid, ellagic acid, 3-O-methylellagic acid, 3,4,3′-tri-O-methylellagic acid, 2,3-O-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-(α/β)-D-4C1-glucopyranose, castalin, and grandinin [32]. Leaf essential oil has longifolene and eucalyptol as major constituents [33]. 5,7,3′,4′-Tetrahydroxyflavone 2′-O-beta-D-glucopyranuronide is also present in the leaves [34]. Grandinin showed free-radical (DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) scavenging antioxidant activity at EC50 of 4.3 ± 0.3 μg mL−1 and was found non-toxic in mice at LD50 of 316 mg Kg−1 body weight [32]. Leaf essential oil showed anthelminthic activity by inhibiting the larval development of Haemonchus contortus Embrapa2010-resistant isolate at IC50 and IC90 values of 0.44 and 0.94 mg/mL, respectively [33]. Essential oil (EO) and its major constituents (1,8-cineole, α-pinene, and α-terpineol) showed anti-tyrosinase and anti-melanogenic activities by decreasing melanin content in α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)stimulated murine B16 melanoma cells [35]. The EO also showed antioxidant activity by restoring glutathione levels, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activities in α-MSH-stimulated B16 cells [35].
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2.2.3 Tephrosia varians (Bailey) C.T.White (Fabaceae) Tephrosia varians is a shrub and it is native to Northern Queensland. Ethnomedicine: The root of this plant is considered medicinal, and they are either eaten raw/or boiled in water and drank its decoction to cure rheumatism by Aboriginal people [30]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: There is no report on its phytochemicals and pharmacological activities.
2.3 Digestive and Bowel Disorders 2.3.1 Canarium australianum F.Muell. (Burseraceae) (Fig. 3c) Canarium australianum is a deciduous tree that grows up to 30 m tall. It is commonly called ‘Canarium’ or ‘mango bark.’ In Aboriginal languages, the plant is called Kunerre, Bird (Mang, Yang) and Yangman, Birnak or Birnalin in Wangiman, and Gal in Warray [21]. Canarium is native to the Northern Territory and occurs on the Gulf coast of Carpentaria, NW Australia, and the North coast of New South Wales. Ethnomedicine: The bark is crumbled in water to make a resinous milky liquid that is strained and can be drunk for treating intestinal problems such as troubles- stomachache and diarrhea. In Northern Territory, it is not used for consumption as it is considered hazardous. They refer to it as a septic tree as inner bark is used for stopping bleeding (only for minor cuts). Single crushed fruit can be infused in a small amount of water, softened pulp is then put on the end of a thin twig and used as an applicator to insert the pulp into the uterus. The residual mixture is discarded as it is considered poisonous [30, 36]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: There is no record of phytochemical and pharmacological studies on this plant. 2.3.2 Cymbidium madidum Lindl. (Orchidaceae) Cymbidium madidum is an epiphytic herb with stem-like pseudobulbs covered with a sheathing base of leaves. It is commonly called a ‘giant boat-lip orchid.’ Ethnomedicine: Stem-like pseudobulbs is chewed by Aboriginal people of Northern Queensland when they suffer from dysentery [17]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Vitexin 7-glucoside, isovitexin-7-glucoside (Saponarin), and vitexin were identified from the leaves [37].
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2.4 Antiseptics and Bactericides 2.4.1 Ajuga australis R.Br. (Lamiaceae) Ajuga australis is an herb, and it is also known by the common name ‘Australian bugle,’ which is widespread over East Australian states. Ethnomedicine: The whole bruised plant is mixed with hot water to make an infusion and used for bathing sores and boils [30]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Ajugapitin and (15R)-14,15-dihydro-15- hydroxyajugapitin are isolated from aerial parts [38]. A crude foliar extract showed contact toxicity against the crop pest Tetranychus urticae [39]. 2.4.2 Brachychiton diversifolius R.Br. (Malvaceae) Brachychiton diversifolius is a tree that grows to 3–25 m tall. The plant is commonly known as ‘Brachychiton,’ ‘kurrajong,’ and ‘northern kurrajong.’ In Aboriginal languages, it is referred to as Birdba (Ngal, Nung), Dagdag (Jam), Ngaliwurru, Nungali, Pinkyekper (Mal), Pinyengertpe (Mat), Dirlay (Mang, Yang), Dakdakkin and Gulguldum in Warray [18]. It is often harvested for its edible seeds and fibre. This tree is also spotted in Northern Queensland, Northern Territories, and Western Australia. It usually grows along stony hills, riversides, red sandy soils, basalt, and limestone areas. Seeds are usually cooked and eaten but have low protein and fats [40, 41]. The plant is also harvested to sell as a decorative plant [42]. Ethnomedicine: An extract prepared from the inner bark is used as an eyewash. Leaves, usually from the young plant, are pounded and soaked in water for one hour, and the resultant infusion is used as body wash and a little liquid placed in each ear. Such liquid is also used for treating skin lesions. A flexible bark, stripped from the tree, serves as a handy bandage to wrap cuts and wounds [28]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: The phytochemical analysis of the crude ethanol extract of wood branches showed the presence of tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, phenols, and steroids [43]. The seed oil contains triacylglycerols, such as linoleic and oleic acids, and amino acids [41]. Essential oils from wood, bark, and leaves were analysed using gas chromatography and identified 21 methyl esters of fatty acid, out of which myristic acid in the wood and palmitic acid in bark and leaves were major methyl esters of fatty acid [44]. There is no record of isolation of pure compounds from any plant parts of this plant. The fatty acid fraction obtained from the wood, bark, and leaves showed mild to moderate anti-bacterial (Bacillus subtilis and Sarcina lutea), anti-fungal (Penicillium selerotigenum, Paecilomyces variotii, and Aspergillus niger), and antioxidant activities [43, 44].
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2.4.3 Erythrophleum chlorostachys (F.Muell.) Baill. (Fabaceae) (Fig. 3d) Erythrophleum chlorostachys is a medium-sized tree (height of 18 m tall). The tree is valued for its timber. It usually grows in the open forest but is also found in monsoon forests and rainforest margins up to 500 m above sea level. Its common names are ‘ironwood,’ ‘leguminous ironwood,’ and ‘camel poison’ [21]. Incidents of poisoning caused by the leaves being washed into the water reservoirs or the roof gutters have been reported. It also occurs in the northern territory, Queensland, and Western Australia. Ethnomedicine: A bark infusion is applied on spear wounds and over the body for general malaise. The root infusion is applied for cuts and open sores [16, 25]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Alkaloid β-dimethylaminoethyl cinnamate was isolated from the leaves [45]. Norerythrostachaldine hydrochloride, norerythrostachamine hydrochloride, and norerythrophlamine hydrochloride are isolated from the bark [46]. There is no pharmacological studies conducted on the plant. 2.4.4 Persoonia falcata R.Br. (Proteaceae) Persoonia falcata is a shrub commonly called ‘Persoonia,’ ‘wild Pear,’ and ‘milky Plum.’ In Aboriginal languages, it is called by different names as Warlwaya (Jam, Ngal, Nung), Gilayi, Ngerrinytya, Ningggij (Mang), Gayabam (Yang), Warlaya, Garttan, and Makbuny [21]. The plant is native to Northern Territory but also occurs in Queensland and Western Australia. Ethnomedicine: Fruits are eaten raw. Leaves and bark are considered medicinal. An infusion of the leaves and barks are used as a treatment against sore throat and colds [27]. An infusion from wood is applied externally to eyesores [16]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: The crude extract from the leaves and stem showed anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines in the human peripheral blood mononuclear cells assay [47]. There is no report on its phytochemicals.
2.5 Skin Disorders 2.5.1 Acacia falcata Willd. (Leguminosae) Acacia falcata is a shrub or tree that grows about 2–5 m tall (erect or spreading). The plant is commonly called a ‘sickle wattle.’ It also occurs as far as inland to the tablelands in Queensland and on the central coast of New South Wales, including Narooma. It usually grows in sclerophyll forests, particularly coastal areas [21]. Ethnomedicine: The tree’s bark is used by Aboriginal communities (Yaegl people of North NSW) to prepare embrocation to treat cutaneous diseases [48, 49].
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Moreover, in the counties of Cumberland and Camden, the people used bark (based on tannin content) to stupefy fish. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Leaves contain alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, anthraquinones, and condensed tannins [48]. Exudate contains glucuronic acid, galactose, arabinose, and traces of rhamnose [50]. A crude extract of leaves showed anti-bacterial activity against multi-drug- resistant Staphylococcus aureus with the MIC value ranging from 250 to 1000ug/ mL. It is also anti-oxidative through DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl- hydrate), ABTS (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) assays [48]. There is no record of isolation of pure compounds from any parts of this plant.
2.6 Anti-inflammatory or Wound-Healing Plants 2.6.1 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. (Compositae) Ageratum conyzoides is an erect branched and hairy annual herb, that grows up to 30–60 cm tall. Herb is commonly called ‘billygoat weed’ or ‘billygoat plant.’ It is not native to Australia, where it is a weed, but it originates from Central and South America. Ethnomedicine: Aboriginal people of Northern Queensland mash the whole plant and then apply it to wounds to promote healing [51]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: 5′-methoxy nobiletin, coumarin, and eupalestin are isolated from aerial parts [52]. All these three compounds exhibited anti- inflammatory activity in a carrageenan-induced inflammation of mouse model by inhibiting inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IFN-γ, p65 NF-kB, and MAPK activation. Coumarin also increases the level of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 [52]. The activity shown by these compounds is relatable to the wound-healing property of the herb. Other active constituents: 5,6,7,8,3′,4′,5′-heptamethoxyflavone [53], coumarin, [54, 55], lycopsamine, dihydrolycopsamine, and acetyl-lycopsamine, stigmasterol, precocene II, encecalol, demethoxyencecalol, sesamin, linderoflavone B, 3′-hydroxy-5,6,7,8,4′,5′-hexamethoxyflavone, 2-hydroxycinnamic acid, and 3,4-dihydrocoumarin [56]; eupalestin, 5,6,7,5′-tetramethoxy-3′,4′methylenedioxyflavone, 5,6,7,3′,4′,5′-hexamethoxyflavone, ageconyflavone C [57]; ageconyflavones A-B, sinensetin, and 5,6,7,8,3′,5′-hexamethoxy-4′hydroxyflavone [58]. 2.6.2 Cynanchum viminale subsp. australe (P.I.Forst.) Liede & Meve (Apocynaceae) Cynanchum viminale subsp. australe is a succulent shrub that grows up to 5 m tall, and it is commonly called a ‘caustic bush’ because of the white sap it exudes.
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Ethnomedicine: Aboriginal people use latex of this plant to treat bleeding wounds sores, skin lesions, and cuts [59]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: There is no record of any phytochemical and pharmacological studies on this plant so far. 2.6.3 Dodonaea polyandra Merr. & L.M.Perry (Sapindaceae) Dodonaea polyandra is a small tree growing up to 30 cm tall. It bears winged fruits and becomes brown when ripened. It is commonly called ‘hop bush.’ Aboriginal people of Kuuku I’yu centered on the Wenlock and Pascoe Rivers in the Cape York Peninsula called it Uncha. Ethnomedicine: The root is considered medicinal. The Aboriginal people of Northern Kaanju of Cape York Peninsula prepare decoction from the roots and apply it on cuts, wounds, sores and skin lesions [60]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′(3-methylbut-2-enyl)-3- methoxy flavone, 5,7-dihydroxy-3′(3-methylbut-2-enyl)-3,4′-dimethoxy flavone and 5,7,4′-trihydroxy-3′,5′(3-methylbuyt-2-enyl)-3-methoxy flavone, viscosol, and 5,4′-dihydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyflavone were isolated from the leaves and stems [61]. Non-polar hexane and methylene chloride/methanol extracts prepared from leaves inhibited inflammation in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced mouse (male Balb/c) ear oedema by 72.12 and 79.81%, respectively, after 24 h at 0.4 mg/ear dose [62]. Flagellaria indica L. (Flagellariaceae) (Fig. 3e) Flagellaria indica is a semi-woody climbing plant with stems 10–15 m long and 1–2 cm thick. It is commonly called as ‘false rattan.’ Ethnomedicine: Astringent leaves are used for treating wounds [63]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: There is no record of analysing phytochemical constituents of this plant, but the aqueous leaf extract had phenolic content of 65.88 ± 1.84 mg gallic acid equivalent/g. The crude extract showed a protective effect against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-mediated liver injury by suppressing oxidative stress markers (4-hydroxynonenal and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine) and pro- inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and PGE2 [64]. 2.6.4 Grevillea coriacea McGill (Proteaceae) Grevillea coriacea is a shrub, and it is usually differentiated from other species of the same genus by its convex leaves. It is commonly called a ‘fine-leafed beefwood.’ Ethnomedicine: Leaves are considered medicinal, and a bitter infusion made from leaves is used as a gargle for sore throat in Cape York [65].
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Phytochemistry and pharmacology: There is no record of phytochemical and pharmacological studies on this plant. 2.6.5 Grevillea striata R.Br. (Proteaceae) Grevillea striata is a 10 m tall tree with dark, persistent fissured bark. It is commonly known as ‘Grevillea’ and ‘beefwood.’ In Aboriginal languages, it is known as Iyltenty, Lyent, Gulburru, Jirrirndi, Jawilyi, Piltentye, Wubgaji, Yiltilypa, Iltilpa, Yiltilypa and Yilykinji, and ltyantye [21]. This species is easily distinguishable from other species of the same genus as it has long strap-like leaves, cream flowers, and a unique growth form. This plant is native to Northern Territory. It also occurs near the coast in Queensland and the Northwest of Western Australia [21]. Ethnomedicine: Fruit is edible. Sap and wood are considered medicinal. The sap is used to treat sores and wounds, and charcoal made from wood is used for stopping bleeding from certain spear wounds [17]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Striatol is isolated from heartwood [66]. Striatol showed a potent inhibition of PM Ca2+-ATPase, with an IC50 value of 16 μM [67]. 2.6.6 Macaranga tanarius (L.) Mull.Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) (Fig. 3f) Macaranga tanarius is a deciduous shrub or small tree and grows up to 4–15 m tall. It is commonly called ‘macaranga.’ It is also known as Dokoo-ral among the Aboriginal people of Yirrganydji and Djabugay. Ethnomedicine: Aboriginal people apply red sap to cure skin wounds and deep cuts [28]. Aboriginal people also use leaves for cooking and wrapping food. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Diterpene macarangonol isolated from the leaf and stem [68]. Macaflavanones A-G, nymphaeol, nymphaeol C, tanariflavanone A & B, and kolavenol are isolated from leaves [69, 70]. Macaflavanone G showed toxicity against the KB cells (epidermal nasopharyngeal carcinoma, human cell line) and A549 cell lines (lung cancer cell line) using 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2 -yl]-2,5- diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay with IC50 values of 12.3 and 13.4 (3.0 and 2.1 μM for KB and A549 cells), respectively [69, 70]. 2.6.7 Melaleuca leucadendra L. (Myrtaceae) Melaleuca leucadendra is a large tree often called paperback tree and prefers to grow in the moist forest where fresh water is available all year round. Leaves become hairless upon maturity, which is why sometimes it is also called ‘white- leafed tea tree.’
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Ethnomedicine: The bark of the tree is used as a bandage to wrap around wounds [71]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Oil from leaves is extensively studied for its chemical constituents. Active constituents in leaves include ellagitannin and casuarinin [72], methylisoeugenol, trans-Ocimene and linalool [73]. Myricetin 3-O-β- 4 C1-galactopyranuronoid, gallic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, myricetrin, methyl gallate, isoquercitrin, astragalin, myricetin 3-O-glucoside, rutin, myricetin 3-rutinoside, myricetin, and quercetin are also present [74]. Viridiflorol, eucalyptol, α-terpineol, and limonene are present in the leaf oil [75]. Globulol, guaiol, and α-pinene are present in the fruit oil [76]; Ellagitannin and casuarinin (100 mg/kg) reduced ulceration in rats, and this activity can be relatable to its wound-healing property [72]. 2.6.8 Pterocaulon serrulatum (Montrouz.) Guillaumin (Compositae) Pterocaulon serrulatum is a strongly scented, hairy perennial herb that grows about 40–90 cm tall. It is commonly known as ‘ragweed’ or ‘pintye-pintye.’ In Aboriginal languages, it is called Tjungarai, Alworm-angka-ina, and Penja-pemja [77]. Ethnomedicine: Aboriginal people rub the whole plant over wounds and stuff them with this herb [17]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Ayapin, 5-methoxy-6,7- methylenedioxycoumarin, 6,7,8-trimethoxycoumarin, 5,7-dihydroxyflavanone, and 5-methoxyscopoletin were isolated from aerial parts [78]. Pharmacological data is not reported for this species. 2.6.9 Sterculia quadrifida R.Br. (Malvaceae) Sterculia quadrifida is a tree that grows up to 20 m tall. When ripened, it has an attractive bright orange or red pod containing seeds that are edible. Aboriginal people have different names for this plant: Redfruit kurrajong, Kurrajong, Calool, Gorarbar, Ko-ral-ba, Dundil, Balkpalk, and Ku-man [77]. Ethnomedicine: Aboriginal people of Northern Queensland apply crushed leaves over their wounds to promote healing [51]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Major constituents identified from extracts of leaves, seeds, and bark: Tributyl acetyl citrate, 2,6,10,14,18,22-Tetracosahexaene, and hexadecanoic acid [79]. Hexadecanoic acid possesses anti-inflammatory activity, which could be responsible for wound healing. Leaves are also known to contain steroid compounds [80].
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2.7 Miscellaneous 2.7.1 Doryphora aromatica (F.M.Bailey) L.S.Sm. (Atherospermataceae) Doryphora aromatica is a medium-sized tree with smooth bark and dark-green leaves, both possessing a strong aromatic smell. It is commonly called a ‘northern grey sassafras,’ ‘grey sassafras,’ and ‘net sassafras.’ Ethnomedicine: A decoction prepared from bark is taken as a tonic [27]. Due to its strong fragrance, Aboriginal women inhale its strong aroma to rid of nausea during menstrual periods [28]. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology: Isolated (R)-nomimantharine trifluoroacetate, 12-demethylphaeantharine trifluoroacetate, nominanthranal trifluoroacetate, 1-hydroxy-6,7-dimethoxy-2-methylisoquinoline trifluoroacetate, and phaeantharine trifluoro-acetate from leaves [81]. Other active constituents are alkaloids including isocorydine, daphnoline, homoaromoline, daphnandrine, aromoline, isotetrandrine, 1,2-dehydroapateline [82]. (R)-nomimantharine trifluoroacetate and phaeantharine trifluoroacetate showed moderate activity against Mycobacteria and multi-drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus [81].
3 Scope for Drug Discovery from Wet Tropics About two-thirds of medicinal plant species used worldwide are sourced from their natural habitats [83]. Australia’s tropical forests, including ‘Wet Tropics,’ are home to vast numbers of medicinal plant species. Many plants growing in the Wet Tropics are affected by climate change and to survive, and the plants produce interesting and higher concentration of biomolecules that could be exploited for pharmaceutical research and development [84]. Most of these medicinal species remain least explored for their phytopharmaceutical properties and have huge potential for discovering natural product solutions for infectious and chronic diseases [85]. For instance, only 16 out of 30 plant species included in this chapter have been studied for their phytochemical or pharmacological properties. Rest 14 medicinal plants are either not studied or only partially studied. Of the studied plants, 71 compounds have been isolated from 16 medicinal plants included in this chapter. Out of 71 compounds, 10 compounds showed potent pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, and anti-proliferative activities (see Fig. 4 for the representative structures of bioactive molecules isolated from Wet Tropics medicinal plants). Many compounds remain unassessed for their pharmacological properties. Compounds such as coumarin from Ageratum conyzoides, ellagitannin and casuarinin from Melaleuca leucadendron, grandinin from Melaleuca quinquenervia, and hexadecenoic acid from Sterculia quadrifida showed potent anti-inflammatory activities [32, 52, 72, 80]. These medicinal plants are used by Aboriginal people to
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Betulinic acid
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Coumarin
Casuarinin
Diosphenol Eupalestin
Striatol
Macaflavanone G
5’-Methoxy nobitelin
Fig. 4 Chemical structures of selected bioactive compounds isolated from Wet Tropical medicinal plants
heal wounds and inflammations, which makes it interesting. Thus, these compounds are worth assessing further to develop wound-healing drugs or creams. Macaflavanone G isolated from the leaves of Macaranga tanarius and diosphenol from Excoecaria parvifolia (Fig. 4) are found to be toxic against human cancer cell lines [23, 69, 70]. Betulinic acid isolated from leaves and twigs of Alphitonia excelsa (Fig. 4) also showed anti-proliferative activity against human ovarian cancer cell lines [19]. These compounds could be potential candidates for developing anti- cancer drugs. The crude extract obtained from the leaves of Acacia falcata showed potent anti-bacterial activity, including against multi-drug resistant species Staphylococcus aureus, and thus, this medicinal plant may contain promising anti- microbial drug leads. Overall, many bush-medicinal plants included in this chapter remain less explored for their phytochemical profiles and pharmaceutical applications. This could be partially due to limited accessibility as their collection is strictly regulated by The Convention on Biological Diversity [86], Queensland Biodiversity Act and other local state and federal Biodiversity Protection Acts, requiring collection permits for accessing and studying the plants. Recently, there has been a renewed interest among TOs aspiring to collaborate with scientists to investigate their bush food and medicine and add value to it. A few
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successful collaborations between the indigenous communities and research institutions have been conducted. For example, the Mbabaram people in Far North Queensland work with the University of Western Sydney’s National Institute of Complementary Medicine to develop new medicines based on bush medicine remedies. The same community is also working with the TIEC and the Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM) at James Cook University, Cairns, to discover and develop novel anti-inflammatory drugs for inflammatory bowel disease from a few FNQ medicinal plants used to treat inflammatory conditions. A biodiscovery pathways including screening for antioxidant, anti- inflammatory, anthelmintic, and antimicrobial properties have been established by the senior author of this chapter at JCU [87, 88]. This is expected to help the Wet Tropics’ Aboriginal communities commercialise their knowledge and protect their intellectual property rights. While undertaking such initiatives, it is crucial to respect their culture and knowledge and engage them with their consent by signing a formal collaborative and benefit-sharing agreement as per the Queensland Biodiscovery Act [89].
4 Conclusion Wet Tropics has both cultural and ecological significance to Australia. Culturally, “Wet Tropics” is home to many indigenous communities, whose ancestors were highly skilled and knowledgeable explorers of the Wet Tropics vegetation. They learned to survive for millennia utilising their rich flora and fauna in food, medicine, shelter, and protection. Even today, the Aboriginal communities possess vast traditional knowledge of plants, and they play a critical role in conserving the Rainforests of the Wet Tropics of Australia. Most medicinal plants growing in the “Wet Tropics” are either native or endemic to Australia, and they are least explored for their phytochemical properties. Of many tropical medicinal plants of Australia, 30 medicinal plants included in this chapter grow in the Wet Tropics region. Of 71 compounds that have been isolated from 16 of these medicinal plants, ten compounds showed potent pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, and anti-proliferative. Thus, “Wet Tropics” presents an excellent resource for drug discovery. Traditional custodians and their younger generations have started documenting their traditional knowledge and establishing research collaboration with bigger academic institutions across Australia, especially with James Cook University. Such initiatives are a welcoming sight as they could validate the traditional uses of wild plants, develop bush foods and health-promoting products, and provide novel drug lead molecules for treating many diseases. Acknowledgement We would like to thank Mr. Gerry Turpin (Ethnobotanist) of TIEC, JCU and Paul Williams (Botanist) of Vegetation Management Science, Malanda, Queensland for their suggestions and comments.
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Trillium govanianum – A Promising Endemic Medicinal Herb of the Himalaya Kausar Rashid, Sufiya Rashid, Aijaz Hassan Ganie, Irshad A. Nawchoo, Mudasir A. Tantry, and Anzar A. Khuroo
1 Introduction Plants have been used for medicinal purposes long before recorded history. Even today, the traditional medicinal uses of plants play an important role in providing primary health care [1, 2]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has documented over 21,000 plant species all over the world used as medicinal [3]. About 70–80% of people around the globe rely on medicinal plants for primary healthcare and livelihood [4]. About 3.5–4 billion people in the world are dependent on plants as potent sources of drugs [5]. However, simultaneously, the recent increase in market demand for herbal products has resulted in huge pressure on natural populations of medicinal plants, which in turn has brought many prized species to the brink of extinction [6–8]. A systematic review of medicinal plant species especially with a detailed focus on their botanical, ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, and pharmacological aspects effectively integrates the precious information but scattered in research studies [9]. The reviews critically synthesize the disparate research knowledge at a single scientific platform and help researchers to assess the progress achieved so far, highlight knowledge gaps and suggest future research directions. In recent times, reviews on several medicinal plant species with a focus on their ethnomedical use, phytochemistry and pharmacology have been published [10]. These critical review help in K. Rashid (*) · S. Rashid · A. H. Ganie · I. A. Nawchoo Plant Reproductive Biology, Genetic Diversity and Phytochemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J & K, India M. A. Tantry Department of Chemistry, S. P. College, School of Sciences, Cluster University Srinagar, Srinagar, J & K, India A. A. Khuroo Centre for Biodiversity & Taxonomy, Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J & K, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_14
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linking the novel leads from ethnomedicinal uses of plant species to active phytochemical constituents and pharmacological properties. These studies show that the use of medicinal plant products has been growing not only as therapeutically active agents, but also unlock the rich reservoir of naturally occurring lead compounds in drug discovery [11]. Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D.Don (English Name: Himalayan Trillium) has recently emerged as one of the most important medicinal species of the Himalayan region with a high therapeutic value [12]. The market demand for the raw material of this medicinal plant has increased manifold owing to its high concentration of diosgenin; and the quantity of the diosgenin is almost threefold higher than reported from other plant sources: Asparagus, Chlorophytum, Dioscorea and Trigonella species [13]. Diosgenin has many pharmaceutical uses: it is used as anti-cancerous, anti-ageing, anti-inflammatory and precursor for manufacturing many steroidal drugs [14, 15]. However, the collection of this medicinal plant species to meet the rising demand of the pharmaceutical industry, and more worryingly its unsustainable harvesting from the wild, is alarmingly depleting its natural populations across the Himalaya. The species is almost threatened now in the entire Himalayan region [7]. Its slow life cycle taking several years to reach the flowering stage, specific habitat requirement, low population density, no commercialization alternatives, herbivory and overharvesting for pharmaceutical industries has brought this species to the threatened status [16]. It is in this background that the present review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the research studies conducted on the botanical, ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of T. govanianum. Hopefully, this scientific synthesis on T. govanianum will help in stocktaking the research progress achieved so far and prospects of future research opportunities on this promising endemic medicinal plant from the Himalaya.
2 Materials and Methods The published literature on T. govanianum were retrieved using popular and relevant science search engines and database including scientific journals, books, theses and electronic search (Google Scholar, Science Direct, Research Gate, JSTOR and PubMed). We used the following keywords: “Trillium”, “Trillium govanianum”, “T. govanianum”, “Himalayan Trillium” independently, and combined with other terms: “botany”, “morphology”, “taxonomy”, “phenology”, “biogeography”, “traditional uses”, “ethnic uses”, “ethnomedicine”, “local uses”, “ethnomedicinal uses”, “phytochemistry”, “steroids”, “saponins”, “steroidal saponins”, “active compounds”, “chemical constituents”, “pharmacology”, “biological activity”, “activity”, “toxic”, “toxicity”, “propagation”, “threat” and “conservation”. In total, 54 studies spanning from the year 1994 to April 2020 were critically read, evaluated and incorporated in this review (Fig. 1). The chemical structures and formulae of compounds have been sourced and validated by using the PubChem database. Chemical structures were drawn using Chem
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Fig. 1 Temporal trends in research publications on ethnomedicine, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of Trillium govanianum
Draw Ultra Version 6 software. Ethnomedicinal data compiled include species name, part used, local name, location, medicinal uses (Table 1). Data on phytochemicals reported from T. govanianum include chemical constituents extracted and their chemical structure, the identification method and source(s) (Table 2).
2.1 Botany Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D. Don, an endemic species from the Himalaya, is one of the 49 species known in the genus Trillium [44, 45]. Previously, the members of the Trillium were placed within the family Liliaceae, because sepals and petals both resembled: often large and shiny as commonly seen in Lilies (Lilium) [46]. However, the genus Trillium along with other genera is now placed in its own separate family Melanthiaceae under the order Liliales [46–48]. T. govanianum is reported to be an allotetraploid species [x = 5, 2n = 4x = 20] composed of two genomes – an intergeneric hybrid between Trillium tschonoskii and the diploid Daiswa polyphylla [49, 50]. It is a perennial herb, having stout rhizome with numerous fibrous adventitious roots possessing three leaves in one whorl at the top of the scapose stem and a solitary, purple flower in the centre [51]. Plant is up to 12–20 cm tall. Rhizome is creeping, slightly elongate and terete. Stem solitary. Leaves petiolated, leaf blade ovate to cordate, leaf apex acute to acuminate, glabrous, and venation reticulate. Flowers are bisexual, solitary, terminal, pedicellate and pedicel 0.9–2.3 cm long. Perianth segments dark purple, narrowly lanceolate, outer segments 2–4 mm broad, inner narrower; perianth spreading in flower, and reflexed in the fruiting stage. Stamens 6, in
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2 whorls, shorter than the perianth; filaments ca. 4 mm long; anthers basifixed, 4–5 mm long, curved, and dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary superior, purple-red, ovoid-globose, 3-loculed and ovules few to many per locule. Fruit red, globose berry, 1–2 cm in diameter, seeds numerous, oblong, ca. 2.5 mm long, with a pulpy lateral appendage (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Trillium govanianum. (a) Habitat, (b) Habit, (c) Rhizome, Individual plants with (d) one leaf, (e) two leaves, (f) threes leaves, (g) Bisexual flower, (h) Dark purple tepals (i) Berry fruit
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2.2 Biogeography The genus Trillium, with ca. 49 species world over, is one of the representative elements of the northern temperate forests. It has been reported that the genus originated in Arcto-Tertiary and shows geographical distribution between North America and eastern Asia including Japan [52, 53]. About 40 species occur in North America, the remaining nine species are found in Asia [54]. T. govanianum (Himalayan Trillium), one of the Asian species, is endemic to the Himalayan region. It is distributed in temperate and subalpine zones of the Himalaya at altitudes ranging from 1800 to 3500 m (m.s.l.), especially in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bhutan, Nepal and China (Tibet) [55, 56]. In the Indian Himalaya, this species is primarily distributed in the western region (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) and is less common in the eastern region [16]. The species usually prefers moist shady areas in forest understory for its profuse growth [57, 58].
2.3 Phenology and Life Cycle T. govanianum is a typical early spring geophyte. It grows each year in late March after snow melts, flowering starts usually in April and fruiting season lasts from May to June. Leaf senescence occurs in July/August at lower altitudes and September/October at higher altitudes. During the flowering phase, both vegetative and flowering individuals can be found on the forest floor. The vegetative individuals comprise three morphologically distinct forms: individuals bearing 1-leaf, 2-leaves and 3-leaves (Fig. 2). As the plant shows a relatively slower growth rate, taking many years to enter the reproductive phase, the life span of the species is reported to be ca. 30 years [16, 59].
2.4 In Vitro Regeneration Plant tissue culture refers to the culturing of different plant explants such as leaves, seeds, tissues, cells or protoplasts on a chemically defined synthetic nutrient media under sterile and controlled conditions of light, temperature, humidity, etc. [60]. The in vitro multiplication technique has an advantage over in vivo conditions, as it can yield a definite and uniform production system of quality and yield [61, 62]. In fact, in contrast to the time-consuming indigenous techniques, micro-propagation has led to the easy generation of somatic clones (ramets) of selected genotypes [63]. T. govanianum, being a rich treasure of novel phytochemicals, has led to its overexploitation from its natural habitats rendering it endangered [12]. Therefore, plant tissue culture offers an important and potential alternative method for rapid multiplication and germplasm conservation of this medicinally important plant species.
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Recently, Chauhan et al. [64] reported to have standardized a micro-propagation protocol for T. govanianum, wherein shoot tip and complete shoot bud explants regenerated into shoots and callus-like structures when cultured on MS media supplemented with hormones. They also reported that the in vitro-raised plantlets were acclimatized in greenhouse with a survival rate of more than 90% in the first growing season.
2.5 Ethnomedicinal Uses T. govanianum has been widely used in traditional medicinal systems because of its broad therapeutic properties. It is commonly known as “tri pater”, “nag chhatri” or “chotasatwa” in India, “teenpatra” or “matarzela” in Pakistan, and “Xizangyan ling cao” in Tibet (China). The underground part of the plant, i.e. rhizome is a prime raw material used in trade. The plant is used in several traditional medicine systems and used for the treatment of ailments such as boils, dysentery, inflammation, menstrual disorders, sex-related disorders, wounds, as an antiseptic, and for improving general health [18, 20, 25, 65–67]. It has been reported that the powdered rhizome is used as body and sexual tonic [28]. In Jammu and Kashmir (India), the Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes make tea from dried rhizomes to cure inflammation and kidney diseases [17]; and fresh rhizome is consumed with herbal tea to treat appetite disorder [33]. In Himachal Pradesh (India), tribal communities take dried form of rhizome with cow milk in early morning to cure menstrual and reproductive disorder [18]. In Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh people use leaves and root paste to cure minor cuts, wounds, and foot cracks [35]. The migratory shepherds in Kinnaur district in Himachal Pradesh use dried leaves and root powder for curing cough, fever, vomiting [37], and the juice of fresh leaves and roots is used for the treatment of body pain, internal injury and foot and mouth diseases [38]. In Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Pakistan), dried root powder is applied externally to cure wounds [19]. Besides human diseases, the leaves of this plant are used for treating indigestion and parasites in livestock [28]. In the Bandipora area of Jammu and Kashmir (India), the crushed rhizome is given in the form of balls to livestock against worms [21]. The summary of the reported ethnopharmacological uses of different parts of T. govanianum is presented in Table 1.
2.6 Phytochemistry T. govanianum synthesizes a suite of chemical compounds including glycosides, terpenoids, tannins, sterols, saponins, sapogenins, flavonoids and carbohydrates [39, 68, 69]. Rehman et al. [26] carried out the phytochemical investigation of the species and reported the isolation of four steroidal saponins from the methanolic extract of rhizome of the species. Among the steroidal saponins reported,
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Table 1 Ethnomedicinal uses of Trillium govanianum under different traditional systems Plant part used/ Mode of use Rhizome/ Tea prepared from 5 to 10 g dry rhizome is given once in a day for 3 to 4 days. Rhizome/ Reproductive disorder (erectile dysfunction and Dried form of sexual tonic) and rhizome taken with menstrual disorder cow milk in early morning Rhizome/ Infectious diseases; healing of wounds; Topical application antiseptic; bacterial of dried rhizome diarrhea; dysentery powder Dysentery Rhizome/ Oral application of dried powder
S. No. Diseases 1. Backache; fever; inflammation; headache; kidney problems
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Anti-helminthic and skin Rhizome/ infections Crushed rhizome is given in the form of balls to livestock against worms. It is used to cure boils by applying externally. Cancer Rhizome/
7.
Gastro-intestinal disorders(abdominal spasms)
8.
Bleeding and diarrhea
Dried form of rhizome powder is used Rhizome/
Local name(s)/ Place Lardli/ Rajouri and Poonch Districts, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Reference(s) [17]
Nag chhatri/ Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh, India
[18]
Lar-ri-saag/ Leepa Valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan Satwa/ Parbati valley, Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, India Gildi/Surnganda/ Reechkijadi/Tripater/ Bandipora District, Jammu and Kashmir, India
[19]
Matarzela, MatajarraMatajarai, Matajarra/ Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
[25]
[20]
[21–24]
[25, 26] Surnganda, Reechkijadi, Tripater, Matarzela/ Bandipora District, Oral application of Jammu and Kashmir, dried form of India; Khyber rhizome Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Rhizome/ Yakhajarrai/ [27] Dried powder is used District Shangla, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. (continued)
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10.
Arthritis
11.
Rheumatism, fever, and sexual disorder
12.
Body weakness
13.
Impotency; tumor
14.
Appetite disorder
15.
Tonic and emetic
16.
Wounds and cut healing
17.
Cough; fever; vomiting
18.
Body pain; internal injury
Plant part used/ Mode of use Rhizome/ Powdered form used as body and sexual tonic. Rhizome/ Dried powder along with buttermilk is used Rhizome/ Powder or paste is given with warm water Rhizome/ Rhizome are boiled in milk and taken orally Root/ Dried powder is used Rhizome/ Fresh rhizomes consumed in herbal tea Rhizome/ Oral administration of watery extract of rhizome. Rhizome, Leaves/ Fresh leaves or dry rhizome paste and slurry is applied externally on wounds, minor cuts and foot cracks till it heals Leaves, Rhizome/ Oral application of dried powder of leaves and rhizome Leaves, Rhizome/ The juice of fresh leaves and rhizome are given orally
Local name(s)/ Place Tandhijarri/ Saifalmaluk Lake, Naran Valley, Pakistan
Reference(s) [28]
Nag chhatri/ Churah subdivision, District Chamba, Himachal Pradesh, India ChhotaSatuwa, Nag chhatri/ Uttarkashi District, Uttarakhand, India
[29]
Nag chhatri/ North western Himalaya, Jammu and Kashmir, India Tripatra/ Bheri, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan Sheethkhar/ Bandipora District, Jammu and Kashmir, India Matarjarai/ Hindukush Range, District Swat, Pakistan
[31]
Nag chhatri/Satwa Chopal region, District Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
[35, 36]
Nag chhatri/ Rakchham area, District Kinnaur, Himachal Predesh, India Nag chhatri, Baspa valley, District Kinnaur, Himachal Predesh, India
[37]
[30]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[38]
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Table 2 Phytochemicals isolated and characterized from Trillium govanianum S. No. Compound name 1. 2,4-Decadienal 2. Pentanoic acid-5-hydroxy-2,4-di-t butylphenyl ester 3. 9-Hexadecenoic acid methyl ester 4. 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester 5. 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid ethyl ester 6. 9,12-Hexadecadienoic acid methyl ester 7. 9-Octadecanoic acid methyl ester 8. cis-13-Eicosenoic acid 9. 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid-2-hydroxy-1(hydroxy methyl) ethyl ester 10. 6-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester 11. Govanic acid (7, 8,9-trihydroxy-(10Z)-10- octadecenoic acid 12. 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid 13. Ethyl 13-methyl-tetradecanoate 14. Hexadecanoic acid methyl ester 15. 2-Methyl hexadecanoic acid methyl ester 16. Octadecanoic acid 17. Isopropyl 9-oxononanoate 18. Nonanedioic acid monomethyl ester 19. 10-Hydroxydecanoic acid 20. Quercetin 21. Myrecetin 22. Kaempferol 23. Gallic acid 24. Govanoside A [(1β,3β,23S,24S)-1-[O-β-D- glucopyranosyl(1 → 3)-O-β-D- glucopyranosyl (1 → 6)-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl]-3,23 dihydroxyspirosta-5,25-dienyl-24-[O-β-L- rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 4)-β-D-6- deoxygulopyranoside] 25. Borassoside E 26. Pennogenin (Spirost-5-ene-3,17-diol) 27. Diosgenin (Spirost-5-en-3-ol) 28. Ecdysone (20-hydroxyecdysone) 29. 5 Hydroxy, β-ecdysone (5,20 dihydroxyecdysone)
Molecular formula C10H16O C19H30O3
Identification method Reference(s) GC-MS [39] GC-MS [39]
C17H32O2 C19H34O2 C20H36O2 C17H30O2 C19H36O2 C20H38O2 C21H38O4
GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS
[39, 40] [39] [39] [39] [39] [39] [39]
C19H36O2 C18H34O5
GC-MS NMR
[40] [41]
C18H32O2 C17H34O2 C17H34O2 C18H36O2 C18H36O2 C12H22O3 C10H18O4 C10H20O3 C15H10O7 C15H10O8 C15H10O6 C7H6O5 C56H88O29
GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS HPLC-PDA HPLC-PDA HPLC-PDA HPLC-PDA NMR
[40] [39] [39, 40] [39] [40] [40] [40] [40] [42] [42] [42] [40] [43]
C45H72O16 C27H42O4 C27H42O3 C27H44O7 C27H44O8
NMR NMR NMR NMR NMR
[43] [43] [43] [41] [41]
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borassoside E, pennogenin (Spirost-5-ene-3,17-diol), and diosgenin (Spirost-5en-3-ol)were already known whereas govanoside A(1β,3β,23S,24S)-1-[O-β-D- glucopyranosyl(1 → 3)-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl (1 → 6)-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl]-3,23 dihydroxyspirosta-5,25-dienyl-24-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 4)-β-D-6- deoxygulopyranoside) was a new report and was found only in this species. According to this study, NMR spectra of two significant compounds govanoside A and diosgenin indicated the same aglycone structure whereas the only difference was in the number of sugar moieties. These steroidal saponins were synthesized from squalene through isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) via cytosolic mevalonate (MVA) and plastidial 2-C-methyl-Derythritol4-phosphate (MEP) pathways. Rehman et al. [39, 43] studied the metabolite profile of this species using 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectrometry and gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The GC/MS analysis of the n- hexane fraction of the methanolic rhizome extract identified 12 compounds, which included 70% unsaturated and 30% saturated fatty acids. Preliminary phytochemical screening of T. govanianum has indicated the presence of phenolics and flavonoids. The total phenolic (TP) and flavonoid (TF) contents of methanolic extract of leaf, stem and rhizome were quantified by Folin-Ciocalteu photometric, colorimetric, and UV-spectrophotometric methods, respectively. From the results, the mean amounts of TP content (mg GAE/gfw) in leaf, stem and rhizome were in the range 0.14–2.73, 0.01–2.64 and 0.20–2.80, respectively, and TF content (mgQE/g fw) 0.36–2.57 in leaf, 0.03–0.97 in stem and 0.07–0.67 in rhizome [70]. Khan et al. [42] based on reverse-phase HPLC-PDA quantification and GC/MS analysis revealed the presence of significant amounts of flavonoids, phenolics and fatty acids. Three flavonoids namely: Quercetin (0.221 μg/ mg DW), Kaempferol (0.528 μg/mg DW) and Myrecetin (0.09 μg/mg DW) were quantified from the methanolic extract of roots of this species. GC/MS analysis of the n-hexane fraction of methanolic extract of root identified six fatty acids; and among these then-Hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, n-Hexadecanoic acid, 9, 12-Octadecadienoic acid and Octadecanoic acid were the major constituents found. Khan et al. [40] reported the total phenolic and flavonoid contents of the methanolic extract of T. govanianum were 20.27 ± 3.03 mg GAE/g DW (measured for gallic acid) and 9.250 ± 0.50 mg QE/g DW (measured for quercetin). In another study, phytochemical screening of chloroform soluble fraction of the methanolic extract of rhizome revealed the isolation of a new trihydroxylated fatty acid, named govanic acid (7,8,9-trihydroxy-(10Z)-10-octadecenoic acid) along with phytoecdysteroids, i.e. 20-hydroxyecdysone and 5, 20-dihydroxyecdysone. The structure of isolated compounds was elucidated through 1D, 2D-NMR spectroscopic analysis [41]. The results confirm that phytochemicals and their concentration is more in underground parts. The bio-active compounds isolated also depend upon the chemical nature of the extract. The rhizome is a rich source of steroids, such as trillarin, which on hydrolysis yields diosgenin, a corticosteroid hormone used in the preparation of steroidal medicine and sex hormones, such as testosterone, glucocorticoids and progesterone besides being useful in rheumatism and regulation of menstrual flow in traditional medicine [71, 72]. The phytochemical constituents identified and isolated from T. govanianum are illustrated in Table 2 and Fig. 3.
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Fig. 3 Structure of phytochemicals isolated and identified from Trillium govanianum: Unsaturated fatty acids (1–12); Saturated fatty acids (13–19); Phenolics (20–23); Steroids (24–29)
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Fig. 14.3 (continued)
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Fig. 14.3 (continued)
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Fig. 14.3 (continued)
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Fig. 14.3 (continued)
2.7 Pharmacology The crude extracts as well as pure compounds obtained from T. govanianum have been used to validate the ethnomedicinal uses and further assessed for novel biological activities. The key bioactive constituents from the species have been recently subjected to various pharmacological investigations and this has revealed promising antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antifertility contraceptive, analgesic, anti- inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-parasitic properties of the species. 2.7.1 Antibacterial Activity In recent times, antibiotic resistance of pathogenic microorganisms has emerged as a major concern. Therefore, researchers have shifted their focus towards plants for new possible antimicrobial compounds. The rhizome extracts of T. govanianum, being a rich source of alkaloids, phenolics and flavonoids possess considerable antibacterial activity. Sagar et al. [73] screened the rhizome extracts of the species against three pathogenic bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Yersinia pestis. Agar well diffusion method was used for in vitro study with different concentrations of plant parts extracts (25%, 50%, 75% and 100%). T. govanianum
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Fig. 14.3 (continued)
was found to be more effective against S. aureus at all the concentrations as compared to E. coli and Y. pestis in three solvents: ethanol, methanol and acetone; and in case of distilled water rhizome extract, Y. pestis was found to be more effective as compared to S. aureus and E. coli. In another study [40], antibacterial activity of the MeOH extract of rhizome of T. govanianum and its solid phase extractions (SPE) was tested on three gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus), and two gram-negative bacteria(Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca). Using Resazurin microtiter plate assay method, higher
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Fig. 14.3 (continued)
antibacterial activity was detected against gram-positive bacteria. In case of its SPE fraction TGMF1, the most significant activity was detected against M. luteus (MIC: 0.156 mg/mL). The SPE fraction TGMF2 showed the most significant antibacterial activity against B. subtilis and M. luteus (MIC: 0.615 and 1.25 mg/mL). The SPE fraction TGMF3 showed the most significant antibacterial activity against B. subtilis, M. luteus and S. aureus (MIC: 0.0195, 0.039 and 0.31 mg/mL). The SPE fraction TGMF4 exhibited a notable antibacterial activity against S. aureus, B. subtilis and M. luteus (MIC: 0.615, 0.039 and 0.156 mg/mL) and showed no activity against E. coli and K. oxytoca (MIC: 1.25 and 0.615 mg/mL).
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2.7.2 Antifungal Activity The steroidal saponins govanoside A, borassoside E, pennogenin and diosgenin isolated from the rhizome of T. govanianum were tested against fungal strains: Aspergillus niger ATCC 16888, A. flavus ATCC 9643, A. fumigates ATCC1022, Candida albicans ATCC 18804 and C. glabrata ATCC 90030. The results showed that steroidal saponins govanoside A and borassoside E were active against C. albicans and C. glabrata with effects more prominent against C. albicans. In case of filamentous fungi, A. niger and A. flavus responded well while A. fumigates remained unaffected. However, compounds pennogenin and diosgenin were inactive at the highest test concentration of 20 μg/ml [43]. The sugar moieties attached to aglycone steroidal nuclei has been found to be responsible for the antifungal activity. Borassoside E that has three sugar units showed better antifungal activity in comparison to govanoside A which has five sugar units. The hetero-sugar moiety causes the hetero-polarity of these compounds leading to different membrane permeability and selectivity [74]. In another study [41], hydro-methanolic extract of T. govanianum rhizomes and its subsequent solvent-soluble fractions were tested against different fungal strains, i.e. Trichophyton rubrum ATCC 40051, A. niger ATCC 16888, C. albicans ATCC 18804, Microsporum canis ATCC 32903 and Fusarium lini ATCC 16888. The hydro-methanolic extract showed significant activity against T. rubrum and M. canis with 80% and 75% inhibitions, respectively. Among the fractions, chloroform soluble fraction showed 90% inhibition, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 10 μg/mL against T. rubrum followed by ethyl acetate, butanol and n-hexane fractions. A new trihydroxylated fatty acid named govanic acid isolated from T. govanianum showed significant activity against T. rubrum with 70% inhibition and MIC value of 5 μg/mL, but lacked activity against the other test strains. 2.7.3 Anticancer Activity Khan et al. [67] evaluated the cytotoxic potential of methanolic extracts of the rhizomes of T. govanianum and its solid phase extraction (SPE) fractions and also their application on the breasts (MCF7), liver (HepG2), lungs (A549) and urinary bladder (EJ138) cancer cell lines using in vitro MTT (3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) cytotoxicity/viability assay, demonstrated their concentration-dependent activity. The MeOH extract displayed the highest level of cytotoxicity against the urinary bladder cell line (EJ138; IC50 = 5 μg/mL). The SPE fraction TGMF1 showed the most significant cytotoxicity against EJ138 (IC50 = 6 μg/ mL). The SPE fraction TGMF2 showed the most prominent cytotoxicity against the lung cancer cell line A549 (IC50 = 6 μg/mL) and the SPE fraction TGMF3 showed the most significant cytotoxicity against the EJ138 cell line (IC50 = 9 μg/mL). The SPE fraction TGMF4, which contained the least polar components of the parent MeOH extract, exhibited notable cytotoxicity against the EJ138 cell line (IC50 = 13 μg/mL). In another study, Sharma et al. [75] showed cytotoxicity of
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rhizome and hydroalcoholic extract which were carried out by the MTT (3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay on three cell lines: MDCK, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-23. The results indicated that hydrolyzed extract showed less toxicity in MDCK (normal cell line) cells but significantly reduced the proliferation of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. Rehman et al. [39] studied the cytotoxic activity of methanol extract and its fractions against two cancer cell lines, HeLa (cervical cancer cells) and PC-3 (prostate cancer cells) by using the MTT(3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. In this study, based on IC50 (μg/mL) values, chloroform (0.8 ± 0.2), ethyl acetate (1.4 ± 0.1) and butanol (1.6 ± 0.3) fractions exhibited anti-proliferative activity on HeLa cells in comparison to anticancer drug doxorubicin (0.3 ± 0.0). Similarly, the chloroform fraction was effective against PC-3 cells while ethyl acetate and butanol fractions were least effective. 2.7.4 Antifertility Activity and Contraceptive Potential Being a rich source of steroids, T. govanianum has been shown to possess antifertility properties. The anti-implantation activity of T. govanianum rhizome extract was performed in female wistar rat with proven fertility and its estrogenic/anti-estrogenic effect was evaluated in ovariectomized females. A dose-dependent anti-implantation effect and a significant increase in uterus weight were observed. It was observed that, at 250 mg/kg dose, 100% inhibition of implantation was found. This anti- implantation effect was attributed to endometrial thickening and changes in the estrogenic profile [76]. 2.7.5 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activities The inflammation produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn further perpetuate inflammation. The ROS produced during the inflammatory process causes tissue damage [77]. The production of highly reactive species such as ROS, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) at the site of inflammation exacerbates tissue damage as well as the inflammatory cascade [78, 79]. This ROS-induced tissue damage forms the basis of the pathogenesis of many chronic inflammatory diseases [80]. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of extracts of T. govanianum have been evaluated in animal models to confirm its pharmacological properties. Both in vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity have been determined through carrageenan-induced paw edema assay and luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence assay, respectively. The in vivo results demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity possibly by inhibiting release of iNOS, COX2 and inhibiting the production of tissue necrosis factor (TNF), cytokines (IL-1, IL-2) and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) release associated with inflammation. This anti-inflammatory activity of T. govanianum may provide a new path in pharmacological development. The in
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vitro study also depicted anti-inflammatory activities associated with the quenching of reactive oxygen species or inhibiting the enzymes involved in their production. The isolated compounds such as pennogenin showed a significant in vitro inhibitory activity by controlling the release of ROS with an IC50 of 5.0 ± 0.8 μg/mL while borassoside E and diosgenin showed a weaker inhibition activity. The in vivo analgesic activity was assayed in chemical and thermal-induced nociceptive pain models. The methanol extract and its solvent fractions showed analgesic responses, which were exhibited by significant tonic visceral chemical and acute phasic thermal nociception. Therefore, the rhizomatous part of this plant species could act as a potential and novel source of compounds, which are analgesic and anti- inflammatory [81]. 2.7.6 Free Radical Scavenging Activity Free radicals being highly reactive species have the potential to cause oxidative damage to life-essential molecules such as lipids, proteins and nucleic acids, which eventually leads to atherosclerosis, ageing, cancer and several other diseases in humans [82–84]. Besides the antioxidant vitamins, a number of several other compounds such as vitamins E, C, beta-carotene and folic acid have been reported to have strong antioxidant potential [85]. There are continuous research efforts being made to search for new and elite compounds and the identification of food ingredients with an antioxidant potential [86]. The in vitro antioxidant activity of methanol extracts and its fractions (EtOAc.Fr, CHL.Fr, BuOH.Fr, Hex.Fr) of T. govanianum rhizome was determined by the DPPH (1, 1-diphenylpicryl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging assay. This activity was analyzed against the synthetic antioxidants BHT and ascorbic acid. The results have shown that a higher scavenging capacity was measured in Hex-Fr and CHL-Fr when compared with other fractions. This was due to the presence of certain antioxidant fatty acids (9, 12-octadecadienoic acid and hexadecanoic acid) in n-Hex-fr, and glycosides, saponins and flavonoids in CHL-fr. However, the antioxidant potential of the MeOH extract as well as its successive solvent soluble fractions was lower than some synthetic antioxidants BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) and ascorbic acid. This low scavenging property might be due to the presence of large-size fatty acids [39]. In another study [70], the antioxidant potential of methanolic extracts of leaf, stem and rhizome of T. govanianum was determined using 1,1-diphenyl-2-pycrylhydrazyl (DPPH); 2, 20–azinobis, 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6sulfonic acid (ABTS) and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) free radical scavenging assay. It was shown that DPPH, FRAP, activities in the methanolic extract of rhizome were maximum, whereas ABTS activity was maximum in the methanolic extract of leaf. IC50 values were found maximum for rhizome (0.15 mg/ ml) followed by leaf (0.165 mg/ml) and least for stem (0.192 mg/ml). Therefore, the rhizome part was having stronger antioxidant potential than leaf and stem.
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2.7.7 β-Glucuronidase Inhibiting Activity An enzyme, β-glucuronidase catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-glucuronides produced in the body such as benzo[α]pyrene glucuronides and natural plant glucuronides such as glycyrrhizin [87]. This enzyme occurs in animals, plants and bacteria. It has been demonstrated that liver injury causes an increase in the levels of this enzyme in blood. Overexpression of this enzyme has also been related to liver cancer, arthritis and AIDS; and β-glucuronidase of intestinal bacteria in humans and rats is related to colon cancer. In addition, β-glucuronidase of bacteria, which are present in the biliary tract, is also associated with the gallstone formation [88, 89]. Phytochemical screening of T. govanianum has revealed the presence of steroidal glycosides, flavonoids and saponins. The methanolic extract of its rhizome and its butanol fraction possesses a promising level of β-glucuronidase inhibiting activity with an IC50 value of (140.8 ± 3.8) and (196.2 ± 1.9) compared to the IC50 value of (46.7 ± 2.2) shown by the standard inhibitor, D-saccharic acid 1,4 lactone [39]. Thus, the rhizome of this species may be effective in the treatment of liver and colon cancers associated with an increased activity of β-glucuronidase enzyme. 2.7.8 Anti-leishmanial Activity The anti-leishmanial potential of the methanolic extract of T. govanianum rhizome and its SPE fractions was evaluated against Leishmania tropica KWH23 strain. The methanolic extract and its SPE fraction TGMF1 showed the most significant results. The rest of SPE fractions TGMF2, TGMF3 and TGMF4 also showed promising leads [42]. 2.7.9 Cytotoxic Activity Cytotoxicity potential of the MeOH extract of rhizome of T.govanianum and its SPE fractions was determined through brine shrimp lethality assay, and concentration- dependent lethality was observed. In this cytotoxicity assay, the LC50 value of methanolic extract was 38.5 μg/mL which was most toxic, while LC50 values of its SPE fractions TGMF1, TGMF2, TGMF3 and TGMF4 were 40.5, 189.2, 105.6 and 66.5 μg/mL, respectively. The doxorubicin, as a positive control, showed an LC50 value of 1.98 μg/mL [42]. 2.7.10 Protein Kinase Inhibitory Activity The protein kinase inhibition assay of the MeOH extract of rhizome of T.govanianum and its SPE was performed by observing hyphae formation in purified isolates of Streptomyces 85E strain. The effect of MeOH extract and its SPE fractions was
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assessed through the formation of different levels of protein kinase inhibition zones. The results revealed distinguishable protein kinase inhibitory activity against Streptomyces 85E strain with 18 mm bald phenotype. This effect might be attributed to the presence of quercetin which has been reported to inhibit multiple kinases, thus playing an important role in cancer cell biology [42].
3 Conclusions Trillium govanianum, an endemic medicinal plant of the Himalayas, is used in the treatment of various ailments without any documented adverse effects so far. The available scientific literature is replete with its importance in various ethnomedical treatments. The plant species is a rich reservoir of some of the major phytochemicals, particularly steroidal saponins, with promising pharmacological efficacy against several human diseases. The future scope of the species lies in the advanced phytochemical characterization of other bioactive compounds, including the generation of more novel derivatives which can reveal more novel biological activities. T. govanianum has been shown to possess a number of distinct pharmacological activities. However, the mechanisms of action of component molecules are lacking and require further investigation. Various bioactive phytochemical classes including glycosides, terpenoids, tannins, sterols, sapogenins and carbohydrates were identified by qualitative analysis. Further investigation is required for their quantitative estimation. So far, most of the pharmacological studies that have been conducted are under in vitro conditions. Future in vivo studies must be carried out exploring their activities in model animals to validate the in vitro activities. Most of the pharmacological activities are reported from plant extract and its fractions. Future investigation is needed to evaluate the exact bioactive metabolites which are responsible for certain bioactivity and thus extend the area of potential applications. No information is available about the pharmacokinetics and toxicity and no major side effects have yet been discovered. Further studies on the pharmacokinetics and toxicology are needed in order to evaluate the uses of this plant, its extract and isolated compounds in clinical practice and validate its safety in humans. Therefore, toxicological investigations should be carried out in order to validate its safety. In vitro studies have revealed the cytotoxic potential against various cell lines. Further studies must be conducted evaluating T. govanianum cytotoxic activity through in vivo studies and clinical trials to prove its role as an anticancer agent. The active compounds studied are those identified in the rhizome of the plant, so more studies are required of the chemical constituents of the aerial parts of species. Furthermore, the peculiar life cycle, habitat specificity, unaccounted harvesting for herbal drug preparations and increased market demand have made T. govanianum alarmingly threatened plant species. The plant has recently attracted attention from pharmaceutical industry which has led to its overexploitation and depletion of its natural populations across the Himalaya. Effective measures are required to conserve the dwindling wild populations of this plant species. Formulation of cultivation techniques
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should be prioritized for effective and sustainable utilization of the plant at commercial scale. Therefore, for the proper conservation and management of this precious plant species, it is incumbent to carry out conservation-focused research as well. Since there is no scientific breakthrough in its commercial farming and production, the review recommends further research toward its ex situ propagation and in vitro regeneration, so as to reduce pressure on the natural populations. It is also recommended that public awareness and sensitization campaigns should be carried out to prevent the destructive harvesting by local people in natural habitats across the Himalaya.
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Comprehensive Review on Wild Basil Genus Orthosiphon of Lamiaceae K. Abirami, P. Revathi, K. Thenmozhi, and K. Sowndhararajan
1 Introduction Phytochemicals possess significant biological activity and are used in human therapy, agriculture, and scientific research [1]. Scientific validation of such phytochemical constituents has been used to discover novel therapeutic agents and synthesize complex chemical substances [2]. Molecular biology has become tools and assays prerequisite factors for medicinal plant drug discovery by determining and implementing appropriate screening assays directed toward physiologically relevant molecular targets. Modern pharmacognosy also encapsulates all these relevant novel arenas of a distinct interdisciplinary science [3]. For cultivating and processing medicinal plants and for manufacturing herbal medicines, agro-industrial technologies must be applied [4]. The importance of traditional medicine has been well recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) which has created strategies, guidelines, and standard procedures for botanical medicines. Medicinal plants are the resources of novel drug sources, and many modern treatments are produced indirectly from them. The development and recognition of medicinal plants increase at an exponential rate in both industrialized and developing nations [5]. The manufacture of morphine on an industrial scale by E. Merck, Germany, in 1826 marks the beginning of the commercialization of plant- derived drugs [6]. Nearly half of the top-selling pharmaceuticals in 1991 were based on either natural products or their analogs derived from them [7]. Flowering plants embark on the most numerous, highly diverse, and successful extant higher plants in the tropics. India is one of the megadiversity nations with wide variations in climate, soil, altitude, latitude, and all known types of K. Abirami · P. Revathi · K. Thenmozhi (*) · K. Sowndhararajan PG and Research Department of Botany, Kongunadu Arts and Science College, Coimbatore, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_15
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agroclimatic, ecologic, and edaphic conditions [8]. The present knowledge records over 47,500 species of plants belonging to various groups documented from India [9]. Angiosperms from the most dominant and conspicuous vegetation cover over 18,000 species, representing more than 11.4% of the world’s known flowering plant species. It has about 19,530 flowering plants, of which 5400 are endemic [10]. On a global basis, the International Union of Conservation of Natural (IUCN) has estimated that about 12.5% of the world’s vascular plants, totaling about 34,000 species, are under varying degrees of extinction. The International Union of Conservation of Natural resources (IUCN) has enlisted 560 Red List of threatened plant species in India, of which 247 species are on the red list of threatened species category [11]. Drug research based on ethnobotanical evidence discovered hundreds of beneficial compounds and pharmacologically active substances in nature, including common drugs such as aspirin, digoxin, quinine, and opium. Natural constituents have become the basis and great promise for novel drug sources, and it gratifies abiding interest in plant-derived medicines described in the folkloric claims of various countries [12]. In the Indian traditional system of medicine, plants attain novel interest in finding novel lead molecules for treating various ailments. Medicinal plants contain substances used for therapeutic purposes or as precursors to synthesize valuable drugs due to their inherent active ingredients [13]. Herbal products are produced by extraction, fractionation, purification, concentration, or other physical or biological processes of plant materials [14]. In the last few decades, global interest in studying various medicinal plants has rapidly increased. Investigations have focused on medicinal plants as potential regimes for treating oxidant-induced diseases. The plant-based chemical constituents could protect against chronic oxidative stress-related diseases because they contain variable contents of chemical families and good antioxidants. Certain classes of secondary metabolites namely, vitamins, and carotenoids have been witnessed in several experiments suggesting that natural compounds have more robust inhibitive ability than synthetic radical inhibitors. They are natural agents characterized by numerous biological activities used in humans, such as antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and countless other physical activities [15]. However, drug development from natural resources is also associated with certain disadvantages; particularly, it is expected that about 25,000 plant species would cease to exist by the end of this century [16]. So, it is necessary to identify novel drug lead molecules for the treatment from alternate sources with low prices, high efficiency, and fewer side effects. Hence, revealing new indigenous medicinal herbs is the required uphill task for this recent scenario. Hence, the current study was focused on scientifically validating the traditional importance, phytochemical constituents, and biological activity of the endemic plant species, Orthosiphon. Based on the varied reasons, assessments and exploration of its potential are essential for conserving them from extinction. In this point of view, in the present study, detailed investigation on the validation of phytochemical constituents and their role on metabolism have been majorly emphasized to
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reveal the therapeutic efficacy of Orthosiphon species. In addition to the problems encountered in medicinal plant research, usage and applications were also discussed.
2 Traditional Health Benefits Plants have always been a common source of medicaments, either in traditional preparations or pure active principles. It is thus reasonable for decision-makers to identify locally available plants or plant extracts that could usefully be added to the national list of drugs or even replace some pharmaceutical preparations that need to be determined. The genus Orthosiphon comprises an impressive number of species, some of which have been used in traditional medicine. Orthosiphon species are considered as an important medicinal plant used in herbalism which exerts great therapeutic properties. To date, the genus provided many chemical compounds, of which some species provide dynamic pharmacological activity [17]. Plants belonging to the family Lamiaceae have traditionally and historically been exploited worldwide for their numerous applications as flavoring agents, food preservation agents, and as a source drug of medicinally active compounds. Each species has a unique blend of bioactive compounds, exhibiting antibacterial, antioxidant, anti- inflammatory, antiviral, and anticancer properties [18]. In ethnobotanical surveys, genera Orthosiphon (Lamiaceae), Orthosiphon aristatus, O. pallidus, O. thymiflorus, and O. stamineus are widely used in traditional medicine to prevent various ailments such as diabetes, kidney stone, edema, rheumatism, hepatitis, hypertension, and jaundice. Orthosiphon aristatus has a long history of medicinal use in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Southeast Asia for various biological activities (Table 1). O. aristatus Benth. (Lamiaceae) is also an essential plant in traditional folkloric medicine. The plant has extensively been exploited traditionally to treat several human ailments. It is widely used to manage various diseases [19]. The traditional indigenous uses and pharmacological claims of ethnobotanical herbs provide fundamental knowledge for further developing medicinal plants and practical drug discovery approaches [20]. O. diffusus (Benth.) ‘Senthulasi’ synonym of Endostemon viscosus (Roth) M. Ashby. is widely used by folkloric medicinal practitioners of Western Ghats, India, for treating inflammation, hepatitis, and jaundice for many years and its effectiveness is widely acclaimed among the tribal communities [21]. O. pallidus is a herbaceous shrub native to South East Asia and India and has been used to treat various infectious diseases (Table 1). The plant O. stamineus is known for its several ailments and is used extensively in several countries, especially in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, and Myanmar. The traditional use of O. stamineus meets its scientific evidence in phytochemical, pharmacological, toxicological, and clinical trials and is developed as a new source of drugs [22]. The members of the family Lamiaceae include aromatic plants that are being used in traditional medicine for various disorders. Pieces of information about the
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Table 1 Medicinal and health effects of Orthosiphon spp. S. no Plant name 1. Orthosiphon aristatus 2.
Orthosiphon diffuses
3.
Orthosiphon pallidus
4.
5.
Orthosiphon stamineus
Orthosiphon thymiflorus
Biological activity Diabetes, kidney stone, and hypertension treatment Antioxidant activities Antimicrobial activities Inflammation, hepatitis, and jaundice treatment Repel ticks Hepatoprotection and antioxidant activities Cytotoxic activity Urinary infections, edema, fever, influenza, rheumatism, hepatitis, and jaundice treatments Antioxidant, antimicrobial activities, and anticancer activities against human breast cancer cell lines Fever, hepatitis, edema, jaundice, rheumatism, antioxidant activities, and the cytotoxicities Diabetes, hypertension, edema, epilepsy, fever, influenza, and jaundice treatments Epilepsy Inhibit proliferation and induced apoptosis Improved effect on memory and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease Diabetes, gallstone, jaundice, and menstrual disorder remedies Diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiangiogenic, and hepatoprotective properties Anti-proliferative activity against HeLa, PC3, HCT116, HL-60, SK-UT-1 cells, and HepG2 cells Antimicrobial activity and antioxidant immunomodulatory properties Antidiabetic effects Antiulcer activity Protect liver against hepatocellular carcinoma Antioxidant activity Hepatoprotective activity Anti-inflammatory activity, antioxidant, and free-radical scavenging abilities Diuretic, hypouricemic, renal protective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antimicrobial, and anorexic activities Cytotoxic, diabetic, anti-inflammatory, and hypertensive activities Antioxidant activity Cytotoxic potential Antibacterial properties
References [71–74] [19] [75] [21] [76] [21] [64] [77] [78] [79, 80] [54, 81–83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] [92] [93] [94] [95] [53, 96, 97] [29]
[17, 98, 99] [19] [63] [100]
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medicinal aspects of Becium obovatum (E. Mey. ex Benth) N.E.Br, Calamintha nepeta (L) Savi, Fuestia Africana T.C.E. Fries, Hyptis pectinata (L) Poit, Hoslundia opposita Vahl, Leonotis nepetifolia (R. Br. ex Ait. F), Leucas calostachys Oliv, Ocimum kilimandscharicum Baker Ex. Gurke, Plectranthus barbatus Andrews Satureja biflora (Ham Ex. D.Don) Brig were studied. These plants were used widely to treat gastrointestinal infections, urinary infections, cold and sore throat, rheumatism, and skin infections [23].
3 Phytochemical Constituents Since ancient times, herbs and spices have improved food‘s sensory characteristics, nutritional, and health properties. Herbs and spices are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and excellent chemical additive substitutes. Essential oils are mixtures of volatile compounds obtained mainly by steam distillation from medicinal and aromatic plants, and they are an alternative source to synthetic additives for the food industry. They are considered potential sources of natural food preservatives due to the growing interest in developing safe, effective raw food and additives in order to reduce food demand. Lamiaceae is one of the most influential families producing essential oils with potent antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Aromatic plants are rich in essential oils and are mainly found in the Mediterranean region, where such oils are a good source of ecological and economic development. The use of essential oils with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to increase the shelf life of food is a promising technology. The vital oils of the family Lamiaceae such as rosemary, thyme, and sage have been studied extensively concerning their use as food preservatives [24]. The phytochemical research approach is considered effective in discovering the bioactive profile of plants of therapeutic importance. Phytochemicals are essential in cosmetic and medicinal preparations as antimicrobial agents and antioxidants. The application of investigated plant species in various medicinal aspects is based on their phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities. Herbal-based medicines have gained more popularity due to less toxicity and easy accessibility, along with technological advances in manufacturing processes [25]. Therefore, it is imperative to search for novel, practical, accessible drug sources without toxicity. There has been a broad spectrum of action to face various maladies, and medicinal plants are considered as a significant asset [26]. Hyptis suaveolens and Ocimum gratissimum plants were endowed with nutrients, mineral compounds, and secondary metabolites (flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, phenolic compounds, saponins, steroids, glycosides, and essential oils). Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, antiparasitic, antidiabetic, anticancer, antiulcer, wound healing, and insecticidal activities were well reported for both the species, H. suaveolens and O. gratissimum. Further, in phytochemical profiling, both the plant species also evidenced substantial variation in essential oil composition. This variation is the
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consequence of several chemotypes of essential oils, which can influence the biological activities of the species [27]. Phytochemical screening also revealed that sterols, terpenoids, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, and glycosides contributed to the medicinal aspects of the Lamiaceae. This research has provided insight into the use of secondary metabolites in traditional medicine in maintaining proper human health [23]. O. aristatus (Blume) Miq. of the family Lamiaceae is called kumis kucing in Indonesia, which is a valuable medicinal plant known for its pharmacological properties. Fifteen genotypes of O. aristatus obtained from the ethanolic leaf extracts were undertaken based on its phytochemical content and pharmacological activities. Chemometric analysis was also used to investigate the genetic variability based on the phytochemical content and pharmacological activities of O. aristatus genotypes [28]. Extensive research has been carried out on O. stamineus Benth. (Lamiaceae) since 1930s. Phytochemical studies reported 116 isolated compounds from O. stamineus. Different in vitro and in vivo model studies have been addressed, along with a survey of all phytochemicals identified in this plant O. stamineus, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and essential oils. Previous studies revealed that O. stamineus possess several pharmacological activities attributed to its phytochemical content. It has broad conventional and pharmacological uses in various pathophysiological conditions [29]. Phytochemical studies for O. stamineus also revealed the presence of abundant bioactive compounds, including terpenoid, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, saponin, essential oil, and organic acids [30]. Choo et al. [31] also registered that the ethanolic extract of O. stamineus, exhibited anticonvulsive activity in Zebrafish Choo, Kundap [32]. Coelho et al. [33] demonstrated the anticonvulsant potential of rosmarinic acid in mice, which is considered as an active chemical constituent in the extract Coelho, Vieira [34]. The proteins extracted from the leaves of O. stamineus leaves may also hold valuable protective potential for central nervous system (CNS) disorders such as epilepsy.
3.1 Essential Oil Many Lamiaceae members are consumed in Lebanese cuisine as food or condiment and are primarily used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases, including microbial infections. In a survey, the traditional medicinal uses of Lamiaceae species, namely, Coridothymus capitatus L., Lavandula stoechas L., L. Angustifolia Mill., Mentha spicata L. subsp. condensata, Origanum syriacum L., Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia fruticosa Miller., Satureja cuneifolia Ten., S. thymbra L., Thymbra spicata L., and Vitex agnus-castus L., and the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of their essential oils were well documented. The survey evidenced that Lamiaceae species are mainly used against gastrointestinal disorders and microbial infections. Chemical analysis of the essential oils obtained from these plants has led to the identification of 75 compounds describing more than 90% of the relative
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composition of each essential oil. Essential oils with high thymol and carvacrol determined the most potent antimicrobial activity. As expected, these two compounds demonstrated an interesting antifungal efficacy against the filamentous fungus T. rubrum. Results confirmed that some of the species of Lamiaceae members used in ethnopharmacological practices as antimicrobial agents possess antibacterial and antifungal potential consistent with their use in alternative or complementary medicine [35].
Essential Oils with Principled Antimicrobial Properties [36]
3.1.1 Structural Properties of Essential Oil Thymol, chemically known as 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol is a colorless crystalline monoterpene phenol [37]. Dietary thymol and its isomer, carvacrol, were evaluated as alternatives for antibiotic feed additives in female broiler chickens [38]. In recent years, medicinal herbs have been used for the prevention and protection against infectious diseases. Thymol and carvacrol are active ingredients of the family Lamiaceae; these components possess antibacterial and antifungal effects [36].
Essential oil from Endostemon tereticaulis
Endostemon tereticaulis (Poir.) M.Ashby is used in traditional medicine due to its varied biological potentialities. Therefore, the chemical composition of their essential oil and its antibacterial effect for the ethanolic extract and essential oil of E. tereticaulis were tested against resistant pathogenic bacterial strains. Gas chromatography- mass spectrometric analysis of the fractionated crucial crude extract has identified 43 bioactive compounds representing 99.55% of total essential oil. The major components were caryophyllene oxide (15.17%) followed by
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α-humulene (13.96%), α-copaene (11.75%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (8.44%), and δ-cadinene (6.78%) [39].
3.2 GC-MS Phytochemical Profile In the last few decades, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has become firmly established as a critical technological platform for secondary metabolite profiling in plants and non-plant species [40, 41]. The GC-MS identified phytochemicals were found reasonably responsible for multitherapeutic uses and effects of herbs in various health disorders. The advances in analytical techniques including GC-MS and FT-IR were considered as powerful tools for identifying and determining phytochemical compounds, providing valuable insight into their use in traditional medicine [42]. The chemical composition of essential oils obtained from Lamiaceae members has been analyzed using GC-MS and GC-FID to examine their volatile compound profiles, responsible for their respective flavors and fragrance. Experimental data revealed a typical volatile constituent pattern for the family Lamiaceae. Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, accountable for these plants‘taste and medicinal use, were the most abundant group of volatile constituents. The principal component analysis also grouped these analyzed species into four main clusters [43].
Sesquiterpene Hydrocarbon [47]
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis for various extracts of Orthosiphon showed that the crude extract was composed of different phytochemical components. They comprised hydrocarbons, aldehydes, terpenoids, phenolics, and fatty acids. Sesquiterpenes were found to be at higher composition, contributing to the total amount of 41.63%, 31.32%, and 22.58% in hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extract of Syzygium polyanthum, respectively [44]. The traditional indigenous uses and pharmacological aspects of ethnobotanical herbs provide basic knowledge for the further development of medicinal plants and a useful approach to drug discovery [20]. Solid-phase microextraction of Nepeta conferta, Origanum onites, Satureja cuneifolia, and a few other Lamiaceae species
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was analyzed for GC-FID/MS. The main components of the volatile organic components were p-cymene (25.5%), eucalyptol (9.8%), limonene (5.0%), sabinene (4.8%), carvacrol (3.7%), E-linalool oxide (3.3%), Z-linalool oxide (3.0%) in N. conferta; carvacrol (47.3%), p-cymene (15.8%), γ-terpinene (8.6%), myrcene (8.6%), caryophyllene (2.0%) in O. onites and carvacrol (32.6%), p-cymene (22.2%), γ-terpinene (15.1%), myrcene (5.5%), and caryophyllene (3.3%) in S. cuneifolia. Carvacrol was the most abundant component in the volatile organic compounds of O. onites (47.3%), S. cuneifolia (32.6%), and N. conferta (3.7%) [45]. The hydro-distilled essential oil from the aerial parts of O. pallidus Royle, ex Benth (Lamiaceae), was investigated using gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Fifty-two compounds representing 98.4% of the total oil constituents were identified. The major constituents were β-caryophyllene (17.4%) and 7-epi-α-selinene (15.2%). The other minor constituents were terpinolene (6.9%), β-pinene (6.8%), β-element (5.1%), α-humulene (4.9%), α-copaene (4.8%), epi-cubebol (4.5%), and zonarene (3.9%). The oil was found to be rich in sesquiterpene hydrocarbon-type constituents [46]. The chemical composition of the essential oil of O. diffusus was investigated. Extraction by hydrodistillation followed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) yielded 25 compounds representing 95.3% of the oil. The major volatile components of the oil were n-eicosane (19.5%), t-caryophyllene (18.6%), octocosane (12.2%), limonene (11.6%), β-ocimene (4.2), methyl palmitate (2.8%), and elemol (2.6%) [47]. The chemical composition of the volatile oil from the leaves of Endostemon obtusifolius (E.Mey. ex Benth.) N.E.Br. was investigated. The composition of oils obtained by hydrodistillation followed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) yielded 50 compounds representing 99.8% of the oil. The major volatile components of the oil were phenol (26.92%), 1,3,6,10-cyclotetradecatetraene, 3,7,11-trimethyl-14-(1-methylethyl)-,[S-(E,Z,E,E)] (19.13%), acetic acid, 1,7,7- trimethyl-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-2-yl ester (6.44%), cyclooctene (5.25%), 1H-cyclopropa[a]naphthalene,decahydro-1,1,3a-trimethyl-7-methylene-[1aS-(1a. alpha.,3a.alpha.,7a.beta.,7b.alpha.)] (4.98%), 3-cyclohexen-1-ol,4-methyl-1-(1- methylethyl) (3.81%), cycloisolongifolene, 8,9-dehydro (3.52%), and 1H-cycloprop[e] azulene, decahydro-1,1,7-trimethyl-4-methylene (3.12%). Phenol was the major compound detected from E. obtusifolius used as an oral anesthetic and analgesic agent to treat pharyngitis. It is considered as a versatile precursor for large collection of drugs including aspirin, herbicides, and pharmaceutical drugs [47]. 3.2.1 Structural Activity of Sesquiterpene Hydrocarbon Sesquiterpene structural diversity arises in the assemblage of 15-carbon skeletons making up the backbone of all sesquiterpenes. They are found particularly in higher plants and in many other living systems such as marine organisms and fungi. The
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second source of diversity is due to the layering of functional groups and substituents upon the structural scaffolds in distinct regio- and stereospecific manners. Sesquiterpenes also include essential oils and aromatic constituents with several pharmacological activities [49, 50]. Essential oils are widely used in pharmaceutical, sanitary, cosmetic, agriculture, and food industries for their bactericidal, viricidal, fungicidal, antiparasitical, and insecticidal properties. Their anticancer activities are well documented. Over a hundred essential oils from more than 20 plant families have been tested on more than 20 types of cancers in last 10 years [48]. In addition, cytotoxic effects have been reported for many essential oils [51, 52]. However, very few studies have been done on the combination of essential oils and their major compounds to find assumed synergistic constructive effects.
3.3 Bioactive Flavonoid Compounds of O. stamineus The flavonoid-rich chloroform extract fraction (CF2) of O. stamineus leaf containing sinensetin (2.86% w/w), eupatorin (5.05% w/w), and 3′-hydroxy-5,6,7,4′tetramethoxyflavone (1.101% w/w) significantly reduced rat hind paw edema due to the presence of flavonoid compounds capable of affecting the NO pathway [53]. Akowuah et al. [54] also registered that sinensetin, eupatorine, 30-hydroxy-5,6,7,40- tetramethoxyflavone, rosmarinic acid, and quercetin form the major components in an O. stamineus extract which possess significant free-radical scavenging and antioxidant ability. Thus, the properties of O. stamineus combined with its traditional usage have made it a therapeutic drug for the treatment of epilepsy.
Bioactive flavonoid compounds of O. stamineus
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3.3.1 Properties of Sinensetin and Eupatorin In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that sinensetin possesses strong anticancer activities and a wide range of pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiobesity, antidementia, and vasorelaxant activities [55]. Eupatorin, as a major bioactive flavonoid constituent in O. stamineus, possesses numerous strong biological activities, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and vasorelaxation activities [53, 56–62].
Major terpene of php?ecno=4.2.3.86)
Orthosiphon
pallidus
(https://www.brenda-enzymes.org/enzyme.
Plant-derived compounds with high therapeutic effects are gaining more concern all over the Globe. Researchers are mainly targeting ethnic and folkloric knowledge to explore novel drug candidates. Orthosiphon thymiflorus is a medicinal, aromatic herb used in folkloric medicine and in Ayurvedic preparations. Hence, it is imperative to evaluate the cytotoxic potential and chemical profile of the plant [63]. Phytochemical profiling of O. diffusus has resulted in the isolation of four relatively rare, novel polychiral furanopyrans, namely, orthodiffenes A–D, characterized from the detailed studies of their 1D and 2D NMR spectral analysis. The X-ray crystallographic analysis of orthodiffene A was also accomplished. The in vitro cytotoxic activity of orthodiffenes A–C was tested against Jurkat and HL-60 cells using camptothecin as a positive control. Orthodiffenes A and B showed comparable camptothecin activity against HL-60 and Jurkat cells, respectively [64]. 3.3.2 Structural Properties of Major Terpenes of Orthosiphon pallidus Due to its unique ability to bind with CB2 receptors, beta-caryophyllene has potent anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties. It is known to relieve anxiety, pain, reduce cholesterol, prevent osteoporosis, and treat seizures. Also, some research has shown that it may help against certain neurodegenerative diseases and cancers. It is considered as a therapeutic agent to prevent and treat osteoporosis [65]; it acts as a local anesthetic agent by releasing the same endorphins as morphine without any additives. Additionally, when used together
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with alpha-humulene and caryophyllene, it increased their anticancer activity in human tumor cell lines. Also, it can reduce inflammation connected with multiple sclerosis and immune system dysfunctions. The interaction of Humulene + BetaCaryophyllene can have anti-inflammatory properties that make it practical for treating arthritis, bursitis, and fibromyalgia (https://foreverest.cn/news-list/the- benefits-of-the-%CE%B2-caryophyllenebcp). 7-Epi-α-selinene—An isomer of selinene where the double bond in the octahydronaphthalene ring system is endocyclic with (2S,4aR,8aR)-configuration. (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?ch ebiId=CHEBI:62224).
4 Problems Encountered and Future Directions The publication trend shows that increasing interest in medicinal plant research and analysis is reflected in the number of recent publications, with more than a threefold increase from 4686 publications during the year 2008 to 14,884 in 2018. Output published during the 8 years of the present decade alone outnumbered all those combined before 2000 [66]. There is good scope for medicinal plants as there are about half a million plants worldwide, and most of them were not investigated for their medicinal properties. The hidden potential of therapeutic activities could be decisive in treating diseases [67]. Among the variety of modern medicines, many are produced indirectly from medicinal plants, such as aspirin. Studying medicinal plants helps to understand plant toxicity and protects humans and animals from synthetic poison. The medicinal effects of plants are due to the nature of secondary metabolites inherent in them. Keeping this in consideration, there has been a renowned interest in the field of natural product chemistry. This interest can be due to several factors, including therapeutic needs, the remarkable diversity of both chemical structure and biological activities of naturally occurring secondary metabolites, the utility of novel bioactive natural compounds as biochemical probes, the development of novel and sensitive techniques to detect biologically active natural products, improved approaches to isolate, purify, and structurally characterize these bioactive constituents and advances in solving the demand for supply of complex natural products [68]. Most of the pharmaceutical industry is highly dependent on the wild population to supply raw materials to extract medicinally essential compounds. Unfortunately, the genetic diversity of medicinal plants in the world is getting endangered at an alarming rate due to ruinous harvesting practices and over-harvesting for the production of medicines, with little or no regard for the future. Also, extensive destruction of plant-rich habitats has been made due to forest degradation, agriculture encroachment, and urbanization. In modern medicine, plants are used as a source of direct therapeutic agents, a model for new synthetic compounds, and a taxonomic marker for elaborating more complex semi-synthetic chemical compounds [69]. The ability to process data using multivariate analysis software has opened up new vistas to metabolomics, giving us greater capacity to understand many
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variations of chemical compounds occurring within medicinal plants, allowing us to have greater certainty of not only the quality of the plants and medicines but also of their suitability for clinical research [66]. In addition to that, conservation strategies and resource management should adequately be taken into account mere consideration for the sustainable utilization of medicinal plant resources as well [70].
5 Conclusion and Comments Plants are sessile organisms dependent on the deployment of secondary metabolites to respond to biotic and abiotic challenges. A trade-off is envisioned between resources allocated to growth, development, reproduction and biosynthesis, storage, and maintenance of secondary metabolites [101]. However, increasing shreds of evidence suggest that secondary metabolites serve auxiliary roles, including functions associated with primary metabolism. An additional benefit is that the small molecules can be applied in a conditional, reversible, and dose-dependent fashion, thus allowing a temporary perturbation of its biological system. Although the use of small molecules to alter biological systems has a rich repository of service through the therapeutic aspects of plant compounds, its true potential has been recognized only recently. Besides, evaluating the effects of plant secondary metabolites on a biological system rather it is imperative to predict its future perspectives. Research has specified that the genus Orthosiphon possesses active components with biological potentials like anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiulcer, antimicrobial, and hepatoprotective activities. Traditional validation of Orthosiphon has a remarkable pertinence in emerging drug discovery. Therefore, further research is essential to manifest a comprehensive background that has to evident their pharmaceutical effects along the concerns of conservation and sustainable utilization. Lamiaceae, or Labiatae, is a family of flowering plants comprising valuable medicinal plants used in traditional folkloric medicine. Various potent phytochemical constituents have been isolated from the Orthosiphon species, and subsequent phytoconstituents correlated pharmacological studies have also been well reported. This family and the genus are special for their essential oil, though only a few are in the market. The research is focused on tapping plant components and delivering the most beneficial health products out of them.
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Zingiberaceae Plants: A Cornucopia of Promising Chemotherapeuticals for Cancer Cure T. Soumya
, P. R. Jayasree, and P. R. Manish Kumar
1 Introduction Cancer, the second leading cause of human death worldwide, behind cardiovascular disease, might soon rank as the leading cause of death. It is the single most important barrier to increasing life expectancy in every country of the world in the 21st century [1]. Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells caused by multiple changes in gene expression which leads to dysregulation in balancing cell proliferation and cell death. As a consequence, a population of cells evolve at the site of origin, capable of invading into tissues at distant sites, causing significant morbidity and death of the host, if untreated [2–5]. Cancers are conventionally treated using a combination of three major modes - surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Chemotherapy involves treatment of cancer with one or more chemicals known to have cytotoxic, antineoplastic activity. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents, which act by killing rapidly dividing cancer cells, also harm cells that divide rapidly under normal circumstances, thereby resulting in side effects such as immunosuppression and mucositis among others. Newer anticancer drugs (targeted chemotherapy) are not indiscriminately cytotoxic, but rather target proteins that are abnormally expressed in cancer cells and are essential for their growth [6]. It is believed that anticancer effects of plants develop by suppressing pathways involved in cancer progression, DNA repair, increasing body immunity, and inducing antioxidant effects [7–9]. During the last few decades, ethnomedicinal plants have played a significant role in the development of anticancer drugs with fewer side effects in different continents of the world. Out of 121 prescription drugs that are being used today for T. Soumya · P. R. Manish Kumar (*) Department of Biotechnology, University of Calicut, Malappuram, Kerala, India e-mail: [email protected] P. R. Jayasree School of Health Sciences, University of Calicut, Malappuram, Kerala, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_16
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cancer treatment, 90 are plant-based and 75% of them were discovered from folklore claims. Secondary metabolites from plants, including alkaloids, terpenoids, and polyphenolic compounds with promising anticancer potential, have been developed for clinical practice [10, 11]. Classical examples include Vinca alkaloids (vinblastine and vincristine), isolated from Catharanthus roseus G. Don. (Apocynaceae), paclitaxel and docetaxel - semisynthetic derivatives of Taxanes (diterpenoids) from the Pacific Yew tree, Taxus brevifolia and T. baccata respectively, irinotecan and topotecan - semisynthetic derivatives of Camptotheca alkaloids, isolated from Camptotheca acuminate and Podophyllum lignans from mayapple tree, Podophyllum peltatum and P. hexandrum [11–13]. Zingiberaceae is one of the largest families of the plant kingdom, distributed widely throughout the tropics, particularly in Southeast Asia [14, 15]. The family consists of a large number of economically and medicinally important plants well known for their use in ethnomedicine. The Zingiberaceae plants contain a number of volatile and essential oils including terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, and sesquiterpenes, which have been reported to possess anticancer activity [16– 19]. Hence, these plants are considered to be excellent candidates for development of novel chemotherapeutics. Various extracts and pure compounds / secondary metabolites isolated from Curcuma, Zingiber, Kaempferia, Alpinia, Amomum, and Hedychium genera reportedly possess anticancer activity as evidenced by in vitro and in vivo studies [20–24]. Few notable examples for anticancer compound include curcumin/curcuminoids (Curcuma longa), zerumbone (Zingiber zerumbet), gingerol, and shogaol (Zingiber officinale) among many others [25–29]. Even though a number of review articles were available about various biological activities of different genera of Zingiberaceae family, a comprehensive scrutiny about anticancer potential of these plants was found lacking. Hence, this chapter aims to overview anticancer potential of organic solvent extracts and compounds identified therein belonging to different genera of Zingiberaceae plants.
2 Zingiberaceae The taxonomic position of the Family Zingiberaceae is as follows: Kingdom: Subkingdom: Superdivision: Division: Subdivision: Class: Subclass: Order: Family:
Plantae Trachebionta Spermatophyta Magnoliophyta Angiospermae Monocotyledonae (Liliopsida) Zingiberidae Zingiberales Zingiberaceae
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Zingiberaceae commonly known as ginger family is a one of the largest families of flowering plants comprising 52 genera divided into more than 1300 species. These aromatic herbs, with creeping horizontal or tuberous rhizomes, are distributed throughout tropical Africa, Asia, and the America [14, 15]. India is one of the richest regions displaying high diversity of Zingiberaceae with 21 genera and around more than 200 species, confined to northeastern, southern parts of India and Andaman-Nicobar Islands [15]. The members of Zingiberaceae are perennial rhizomatous herbs. The rhizome is sympodially branched and composed of distinct segments. The rhizomes are variously colored ranging from pale yellow, orange- yellow, deep yellow, blue, greenish blue, pink, or combinations of these in different species. The young rhizomes and axillary buds are protected by scale leaves. Leafy shoots are generally unbranched and true aerial stem is present in some genera and absent in others; yet others have very short true stem or pseudostem with clasping leaf sheaths. Other general characteristics of Zingiberaceae include distichous simple leaves, presence of terminal or lateral inflorescence on the leafy shoot, highly modified - ephemeral - delicate flower and capsular fruit [15, 30]. Members of the family are usually aromatic in all plant parts, have functions as natural sources of spices, herbal medicine, natural dyes, perfumes, and as multipurpose aesthetic compounds [31, 32]. Zingiberaceae is well known for its use in ethnomedicine. It constitutes a vital group characterized by the presence of volatile oils and oleoresins. Generally, the rhizomes and fruits are aromatic, tonic, stimulant, and occasionally nutritive. Some are used as food as they contain starch in large quantities, while others yield an astringent and diaphoretic juice. Some of the medicinally and economically important genera of Zingiberaceae include Alpinia, Amomum, Curcuma, and Zingiber, followed by Boesenbergia, Kaempferia, Elettaria, Hedychium, Elettariopsis, and Etlingera [30, 33, 34]. Detailed literature survey reveals that many species of the family are used for treatment of various ailments due to their unique medicinal values. They are part of many herbal preparations in Chinese, Thai, African, and Indian traditional medicinal systems including Ayurveda [33, 35–38]. Zingiberaceae species Alpinia, Amomum, Curcuma, Elettaria, Hedychium, Kaempferia, and Zingiber play a major role in the preparation of many Ayurvedic drugs [33]. Various species from Zingiberaceae reported with different biological activities include antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, antiviral, antidiabetic, antiarthiritic, larvicidal, neuroprotective, and heptoprotective activities [25, 39–52].
3 Phytochemistry of Zingiberaceae Various pharmacological activities of Zingiberaceae plants are credited to the presence of phytochemicals / secondary metabolites therein. Phytochemical analyses of different genera of Zingiberaceae have revealed the presence of a wide range of pharmacologically active phytochemical groups which mainly include terpenoids, diarylheptanoids, phenylpropanoids, and flavanoids [16]. Interestingly, these
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phytochemical groups have been considered to be potential candidates for chemotherapeutics development [17–19, 53]. Close to 100 terpenoid compounds have been identified from Zingiberaceae. Mono- and sesquiterpenoids such as α-pinene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, camphor, terpinen-4-ol, β-caryophyllene, and zingiberene are common chemical constituents of most of Zingiberaceae species, especially in essential oils extracted from rhizome [26, 39, 54]. Among diterpanoids, labdane- type diterpenes occur commonly in species of Alpinia, Amomum, Hedychium, Curcuma, and Zingiber [55–59] and pimarane diterpenes have been reported from Kaempferia species [60]. Diarylheptanoids is another pharmacologically prominent group of secondary metabolites from Zingiberaceae plants, commonly found in Curcuma, Alpinia, and Zingiber species. Curcuminoids, isolated from several Curcuma sp., is a good example for diarylheptanoids with remarkable biological activities [61]. Another group of bioactive phytochemicals are phenylpropanoids, mostly reported from Alpinia, Kaempferia, Curcuma, and Zingiber spp. [62–66]. Flavonoids and related derivatives are the constituents of plants such as Alpinia, Amomum, Boesenbergia, Kaempferia, and Zingiber genera [67–71]. Phenylbutanoids are yet another rare group in nature found only in the genus Zingiber [72, 73]. The molecular structures of some of the well known bioactive phytochemical compounds from Zingiberaceae plants reported with anticancer activity have been shown in Fig. 1.
4 Anticancer Activities Reported from Different Genera of Zingiberaceae Family Anticancer activities reported from various Zingiberaceae species can be categorized according to different genera. This in itself reveals the hidden treasure trove within the Zingiberaceae plant family, which can contribute tremendously to chemotherapeutic drug development. Table 1 highlights the significant anticancer activities of different extracts, essential oils, and pure compounds from different genera of Zingiberaceae family.
4.1 Genus Alpinia Roxb. The tropical and subtropical genus, Alpinia Roxb., with about 230 species, is mainly distributed in the Indo-Pacific region [15]. The genus is generally called as ‘shell ginger’ and several species are cultivated as ornamentals. Alpinia species are well known medicinal herbs with incredible biopharmaceutical potential. The presence of bioactive substances such as terpenoids, diarylheptanoids, phenylpropanoids, and flavonoids is key to their therapeutic efficiency [175]. Many in vitro studies carried out in diverse cancer cell lines and in vivo studies with animal models reflect
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Fig. 1 Molecular structures of some phytochemicals from Zingiberaceae plants reported with anticancer activities
clearly the anticancer potential of Alpinia species. Antiangiogenic potential of n-hexane and ethyl acetate fractions from A. oxyphylla fruits has been tested against zebrafish model, human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and tumor cell lines [74]. Hexane and chloroform extract of A. galanga rhizome lead to the isolation of two compounds, viz. 1’(S)-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate and p-coumaryl alcohol γ-O- methyl ether, both of which were found to exhibit significant cytotoxicity against human cancer cell lines like A549, SNU638, HT1080, HL60, and HCT116 [75]. 1’S-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA) is a phenylpropanoid compound reported from various Alpinia spp. such as A. galanga and A. conchigera, and is known to induce apoptotic cell death in various cell lines [76, 176]. ACA was found to inhibit
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Table 1 List of anticancer bioactive extracts, fractions, and pure compounds of various genera of Zingiberaceae family Parts Species name used Genus Alpinia Roxb. A. oxyphylla Fruits
A. galanga
Rhizome
A. conchigera Rhizome
A. officinarum Rhizome
A. mutica
Rhizome
A. purpurata
Leaves
A. pahangensis
Rhizome
Bioactive extract / fractions / compounds Hexane and ethyl acetate fractions
Antiangiogenic against zebrafish model, human umbilical vein endothelial cells and tumor cell lines Cytotoxicity against 10S-10-Acetoxychavicol acetate and p-coumaryl alcohol A549, SNU638, HT1080, HL60 and c-O-methyl ether HCT116 human cancer cell lines 10S-10-Acetoxychavicol Apoptotic induction in acetate MCF-7, HSC-2, HSC-4, HepG2 and CaSki Galangin Prevents skin cancer 7-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-1-(4- Cytotoxicity against hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-4- HepG2, MCF-7 and SF-268 cancer cell en-3-heptanone lines Diarylheptanoids Induces mitochondrial apoptosis and S-phase cell cycle arrest in neuroblastoma IMR-32 cell line Pinostrobin Cytotoxic against KB, MCF-7 and Caski cancer cells Ethyl acetate extract Cytotoxicity against OAW42 and HeLa cells Hexane and ethyl acetate Cytotoxic against KB, extracts CaSki and HCT116 cancer cells Hexane and dichloromethane Cytotoxic effect extracts against SKOV-3 cells
Rhizome and leaves A. katsumadai Seeds Rubraine, isorubraine, and sumadain A. murdochii
Anticancer activity
Cytotoxicity against HepG2, MCF7 and MDA-MB-435 cancer cell lines
References [74]
[75]
[76]
[77] [78]
[79]
[80]
[81, 82]
[83]
[84]
[85]
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Parts Species name used A. zerumbet Flowers
Bioactive extract / fractions / compounds Anticancer activity Dichloromethane and methanol Antitumor activity extracts against Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma (EAC) cells in vivo Flowers 5,6,dehydrokawain Cytotoxicity against MCF7, HepG2, HEP-2 cancer cell lines Inhibit cell migration A. nantoensis Rhizome Ethanol extract and invasion MCF-7 and leaf and MDA-MB-231 extracts breast cancer cell lines Hexane and chloroform extract Cytotoxic against A. scabra Leaves MCF7 and SKOV-3 and cell lines rhizome A. Seeds Diarylheptanoids Antiproliferative blepharocalyx against HT-1080 (human) and 26-L5 (murine) carcinoma cell lines A. pricei Rhizome Ethanolic extract Induce apoptosis against KB carcinoma cell lines through mitochondria- dependent pathway Genus Amomum Roxb. A. subulatum Fruit Cardamonin Induce apoptosis in HCT116 cancer cell lines through extrinsic apoptotic pathway Seeds Hexane and ethyl acetate Cytotoxicity against extracts MCF7 and HeLa cancer cell lines A. aculeatum Leaves Aculeatin A and B Cytotoxic against MCF7 breast cancer cell line A. kravanh Fruit Ethanol extract Cytotoxicity against SMMC-7721 cell lines
References [86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
[90]
[91]
[92]
[93]
[46] (continued)
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434 Table 1 (continued) Parts Species name used A. tsao-ko Fruit
Bioactive extract / fractions / compounds Tsaokoarylone
Essential oil Isotsaokoin, hannokinol, 2,3-dihydro-2-(4′-hydroxy- phenylethyl)-6-[(3″,4″dihydroxy-5″-methoxy) phenyl]-4-pyrone and 4-dihydro-2-(4′-hydroxy- phenylmethyl)-6-[(3″,4″dihydroxy-5″ methoxyphenyl) methylene]-pyran-3,5-dione Ethanol extract
A. villosum
Seeds
Polysaccharides
A. verum
Shoots
Essential oils
A. xanthioides Seeds
A. maximum
Roots and Fruits
Monoterpenoids, Sesquiterpenoids, Terpene Glycosides, Amoxantin A (diterpenoid) Labdane diterpenoids
Genus Kaempferia L. K. rotunda Rhizome Pinostrobin
Lectin
Anticancer activity Cytotoxic against A549 and SK-Mel-2 cancer cell lines Induces apoptosis against HepG2 cell line Cytotoxicity against HepG-2, SMMC-7721, HeLa and A549 cancer cell lines
Antitumor activity against ovarian cancer SKOV3 cells with antiangiogenic activity in vivo Cytotoxic effects against human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines Hep G2 Cytotoxic against Human prostate DU145 cancer cell line Cytotoxicity against SK-OV-3, SK-MEL-2, A549 and HCT15 cancer cell lines Cytotoxicity against MCF-7, SMMC-7721, MG-63 and HepG2 cancer cell lines
References [94]
[95] [96]
[97]
[98]
[99]
[100–103]
[104]
[105] Antitumor activity against human breast cancer, T47D cell line (in vitro) and xenograft model (in vivo) [106, 107] Induces apoptosis in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells, SW48 and SW480 colorectal cancer cell lines (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds K. galanga Rhizome Alcoholic extracts and Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate
Polysaccharides
Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate
K. parviflora
Rhizome Ethanol extract
Polymethoxyflavones
5,7,4-trimethoxyflavone
K. angustifolia
Rhizome Abietene diterpene and kaempfolienol
K. elegans K. pulchra
Rhizome Labdane and clerodane Rhizome diterpenoids
Anticancer activity Antitumor activity against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells and human cholangiocarcinoma CL-6 cell line (in vitro) as well as in vivo model Antitumor activity on H22 solid tumor (in vivo) Cytotoxicity against HSC-3 and Ca922 cell lines Apoptosis induction in leukemic HL60 and U937 cell lines inhibition of cell migration and invasion and induction of apoptosis in HeLa (cervical) and SKOV3 (ovarian) cells Cytotoxicity against human cervical (HeLa) and gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) cell lines Cytotoxicity against human cholangiocarcinoma HuCCA-1 and RMCCA-1 cell lines Cytotoxicity against HL-60 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines Cytotoxicity against leukemic HL60 cell line
References [108, 109]
[110]
[111]
[112]
[113, 114]
[115]
[116]
[117]
[118]
Genus Curcuma L. (continued)
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436 Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds C. longa Rhizome Various extracts
Curcuminoids / Curcumin
C. amada
Rhizome Supercritical CO2 extract
Rhizome Methanol extracts and leaves C. aromatica
Rhizome Aqueous extract
Essential oil
Ethanolic extract
C. caesia
Rhizome Methanol extract
Anticancer activity Cytotoxicity against U937, Molt4, A549, T98G, HeLa, MDA-MB-231 human cancer cell lines and murine melanoma cell line, B164A5 Anticancer activity against multiple human carcinomas including melanoma, head and neck, breast, colon, pancreatic, prostate and ovarian cancers Cytotoxicity against human glioblastoma (U-87MG) cell line Cytotoxicity against human MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines Induces apoptosis and G2/M arrest in colon carcinoma cell lineLS-174-T Antitumor and chemoprevention against hepatoma in mice models (in vivo) Antiangiogenic and proapoptotic activity in Ehrlich ascites tumor model (in vivo) Antitumor activity on Ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma (EAC) bearing mice. Antitumor potential against DEN-induced hepatocellular carcinoma
References [119–122]
[123–128]
[129]
[130]
[131]
[132–134]
[135]
[136]
[137]
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds C. zedoaria Rhizome Ethanolic extract
Hexane and chloroform extracts Essential oil
Isocurcumenol
Anticancer activity Antiproliferative and invasive activities against human esophageal squamous carcinoma TE-8 cells (in vitro) and suppress tumor formation in mice (in vivo) Cytotoxicity against ovarian cancer cells SKOV3 Cytotoxic effects on gastric cancer AGS cells and induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis Cytotoxic and induces apoptosis in non-small cell lung carcinoma H1299 cells and antitumor activity against H1299 xenograft mice model (in vivo) Antiangiogenic activity both in vitro and in vivo -suppressing melanoma growth and lung metastasis Cytotoxicity against human cancer KB, A549, K562 cell lines and mice DLA (Daltons Lymphoma Ascites) cells
References [138]
[139]
[140]
[141]
[142]
[21]
(continued)
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438 Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds C. Rhizome Xanthorrhizol xanthorrhiza
C. Rhizome Dichloromethane extract purpurascens
Essential oil
C. mutabilis
Rhizome Petroleum ether extract and labdane diterpenoid (Cm epoxide)
C. kwangsiensis
Rhizome Essential oil
C. phaeocaulis
Rhizome Ethanol extract
Anticancer activity Inhibit tumor nodules in a spontaneous mouse lung metastasis model (in vivo) Induce apoptosis via activation of p53- dependent mitochondrial pathway in HCT 116 MCF 7 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cell lines Induce caspase- independent apoptosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma SCC-15 cell line Induces apoptosis through mitochondrial- dependent pathway in colon cancer HT-29 cells Cytotoxicity against MCF7, Ca Ski, A549, HT29, and HCT116 human carcinoma cell lines Induce apoptosis in colorectal cancer HCT116 and leukemic K562 cells Cytotoxicity against B16 and LNCaP cancer cells Antiproliferative activity and induces apoptosis in breast cancer MCF7 cell lines
References [143]
[144, 145]
[146]
[147]
[148]
[149]
[150]
[142]
Genus Zingiber Boehmer (continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds Z. officinale Rhizome Ethanol extract
6-shogaol and 6-gingerol
6-shogaol
Gingerol
Leaves
Methanol extract
Anticancer activity Cytotoxicity against Human pancreatic cancer cell lines (Panc-1, AsPC-1, BxPC-3, CAPAN-2, CFPAC-1, MIAPaCa-2 and SW1990) as well as induces autophagic cell death in Panc 1 cells both in vitro and in vivo (xenograft mice model) Induce apoptosis in against B164A5 murine melanoma cells Induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis against in colon cancer cell line HCT-116. Antitumor activity against colon cancer cells (in vivo) Induces endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial apoptosis induction in cervical cancer HeLa cells Induce apoptosis in SW-480 and HCT116 cancer cells Induce apoptosis in A549 cells via extrinsic pathway Induce apoptosis in human colorectal cancer HCT116 and SW480 cells
References [151]
[48]
[152]
[153]
[154]
[155]
[156]
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds Z. zerumbet Rhizome Petroleum ether extract fractions
Anticancer activity Cytotoxicity against human breast cancer MCF 7 cell lines Zerumbone Induction of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in chronic myelogenous leukemia K562cells Induces apoptosis in CEM-ss, H1299, HCT116, NB4, P-388D1 and Raji cancer cell lines. Antitumor activity against colorectal, liver, lung and cervical in vivo mice models Z. Rhizome Chloroform extract Cytotoxicity against cassumunar Cis-3-(3’, human T-acute 4’-dimethoxyphenyl)-4-[(E)-3, lymphoblastic 4 dimethoxystyryl] cyclo-hex- leukemia (CEMss) and cervical (HeLa) cancer 1-ene and 8-(13,14-dimethoxyphenyl)-2- cell lines methoxynaphto-1,4-quinone Genus Elettaria Maton E. Seeds Aqueous extract Cytotoxicity against cardamomum mouse lymphoma YAC-1 cells. Genus Hedychium J. Koenig
References [157]
[158]
[159, 160]
[161]
[162]
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds H. Rhizome Ethanol extract coronarium
Labdane diterpenes
Labdane diterpenoids (Hedycoronals A and B) and Diarylheptanoids
Coronarin D
Anticancer activity Induce G1 phase cell arrest, apoptosis and inhibition of migratory potential of cervical cancer HeLa cells Chemo preventive and antiproliferative activity against HepG2 cancer cells Cytotoxicity against A-549, SK-N-SH, MCF-7 and HeLa cancer cell lines Antiangiogenic activity and cytotoxic activity against B16, HT-29, HepG2 and HeLa cancer cell lines Induces G2/M arrest, apoptosis and autophagy in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma NPC-BM and NPC-039 cells Induce apoptotic cell death through the upregulation of JNK/ MAPK pathways in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) Huh7 and Sk-hep-1 cells
References [163]
[164]
[165]
[166]
[167]
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued) Parts Bioactive extract / fractions / Species name used compounds H. spicatum Rhizome Labdane-diterpenoids
Sesquiterpenes
Essential oil
Genus Boesenbergia Kuntze B. rotunda Rhizome Methanolic extract
Panduratin A
Boesenbergin A
Hexane and methanol extracts, Cardamonin
Anticancer activity Cytotoxic activity against Colo-205, A-431, MCF-7, A549, HL-60, THP-1, A-375 cancer cell lines and Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO) Cytotoxicity against A549, B-16, HeLa, HT-29, NCIH460, PC-3, IEC-6 and L6 cancer cell lines Cytotoxicity against A549, DLD-1, SW 620, FaDu, HeLa MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cell lines Cytotoxicity against MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, CaOV3, HT-29 and HeLa cancer cell lines Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction against HT-29 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines Cytotoxicity against A549, PC3, HepG2 and HT-29 cancer cell lines Antiproliferative activity, induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis against nasopharyngeal carcinoma, HK1 cells
References [168]
[169]
[170]
[171]
[172]
[173]
[174]
inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB, growth of oral squamous cell carcinoma, and potentiate effect in combination with cisplatin by modulating pro-inflammatory microenvironment [177, 178]. Flavonoid mixture as well as galangin (3, 5, 7- trihydroxyflavone) isolated from A. officinarum reportedly exhibits a broad absorption band at 270–290 nm related to the UV-B area, supporting that galangin could be a potential whitening agent capable of preventing skin cancer [77].
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Recently, galangin was found to induce apoptosis via p53-dependent pathway in ovarian cancer cells, A2780/CP70 and OVCAR-3 [179]. A compound, 7-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-(4-hydroxy-3methoxyphenyl)-4-en-3-heptanone isolated from A. officinarum, was found to possess remarkable cytotoxicity against HepG2, MCF-7, and SF-268 [78]. Diarylheptanoids isolated from A. officinarum have been shown to wield multiple antitumor effects in neuroblastoma cell lines [79]. A novel compound, pinostrobin chalcone, has been isolated from A. mutica which displays notable cytotoxic potential against various human carcinoma cell lines (KB, MCF-7, and Caski) with significant IC50 values [80]. A. purpurata ethyl acetate extract exhibited antioxidant and anticancer activity against OAW42 and HeLa cells [81, 82]. Crude extracts from A. pahangensis and A. murdochii, endemic to Malaysia, have shown cytotoxic activity against different cancer cell lines [83, 84]. A novel monoterpene-chalcone conjugate, sumadain, isolated from A. katsumadai showed potent cytotoxicity against HepG2, MCF7, and MDA-MB-435 cancer cell lines [85]. Dichromethane and methanol extracts from A. zerumbet flowers exhibit potent antitumor activity against Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma (EAC) cells in vivo and 5,6,dehydrokawain (DK) isolated from the extract displayed potent antiproliferative activity against various human cancer cell lines, MCF7, HepG2, HEP-2 with noteworthy IC50 values [86]. Ethanol extracts prepared from A. nantoensis rhizome and leaf were reported to inhibit cell migration, invasion, and sphere formation in breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. This study also revealed the extracts’ capability to inhibit signal transductions in EGFR as well as the PI3K/ AKT and Ras-ERK pathways, which are crucial players of tumor cell migration and invasion [87].
4.2 Genus Amomum Roxb. Amomum is the second largest genus after Alpinia within Zingiberaceae with about 150 -180 species, widely distributed in Southeast Asia. In India, the genus is represented by 22 species, mostly restricted to North-Eastern and southern India. A chalcone, namely, cardamonin (2′,4′-dihydroxy-6′-methoxychalcone), first isolated from A. subulatum (black cardamom) fruit, has been reported to affect cell growth by modulation of a variety of cell signaling pathways, including mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), NF-κB, cell surface receptors, and Wnt/β-catenin pathways [180, 181]. Cardamonin also potentiates TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) for induction of apoptosis through ROS-CHOP (CCAAT/Enhancer- Binding Protein Homologous Protein)-mediated upregulation of death receptors (DRs), which makes TRAIL more effective as an anticancer therapy [91]. Hexane and ethyl acetate extracts of A. subulatum seeds exhibited cytotoxicity against MCF7 and HeLa cancer cell lines besides being immunosuppressive effect against peripheral blood mononuclear cells [92]. Activity-guided fractionation of hexaneand chloroform-soluble extracts of A. aculeatum leaves led to the isolation of aculeatin A and B, found to be cytotoxic against MCF7 breast cancer cell line (in vitro)
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and in vivo hollow fiber assay [93]. A. villosum and A. kravanh have cytotoxic effects against human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines SMMC-7721 and Hep G2, respectively [46, 96, 182]. Essential oil and various pure compounds such as tsaokoarylone, isotsaokoin, hannokinol, 2,3-dihydro-2-(4′-hydroxy-phenylethyl)-6[(3″,4″-dihydroxy-5″-methoxy)phenyl]-4-pyrone, and 4-dihydro-2-(4′-hydroxyphenylmethyl)-6-[(3″,4″-dihydroxy-5″-methoxyphenyl) methylene]-pyran-3,5-dione isolated from A. tsao-ko fruit (part of traditional Chinese medicine) have been reported with cytotoxicity against various human cancer cell lines [94–96]. Ethanol extract from this plant was found to inhibit ovarian cancer and decrease angiogenesis in vivo, through endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated interruption in p-STAT3/NF-κB/IL-6 and VEGF loop of angiogenesis regulation [97].
4.3 Genus Kaempferia L. The genus includes about 70 species, two third of which are found in Asia and remaining one third in Africa [33]. The flavanone, pinostrobin, isolated from Kaempferia rotunda rhizome chloroform extract, has been shown to possess anticancer activity against human breast cancer in vitro (T47D cell line) and in vivo (Xenograft model). Repair of breast tissue and suppression of c-Myc expression were evident on mice with T47D breast cancer xenograft [105]. Lectin isolated from K. rotunda was found to inhibit proliferation of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells and induce mitochondrial apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells, SW48 and SW480 [106, 107]. Alcoholic extracts of K. galanga rhizome were reported to possess antineoplastic activities in both in vivo and in vitro model systems [108, 109]. Interestingly, water-soluble polysaccharides purified from K. galanga rhizome reportedly protect thymus and spleen of solid tumor bearing mice and also capable of enhancing immunoregulatory ability of CD4+ T cells, the cytotoxic effects of CD8+ T cells and NK cells, thereby inhibiting tumor [110]. Additionally, major constituent of volatile oil of K. galangal, Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate, has been reported with anticancer potential against oral cancer HSC-3 and Ca922 cell lines [111]. Ethanol extract of K. parviflora rhizome, commonly known as Thai black ginger used in traditional medicine, showed dose-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis in leukemic HL60 and U937 cell lines [112]. The ethanol extracts of K. Parviflora rhizome supercritical CO2 fluid extracts (SFEs) of K. parviflora have been contained in higher concentration of polymethoxyflavones (PMFs), which showed potent antiproliferative activity against both human cervical (HeLa) and gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) cell lines [115]. It is also reported to possess anticancer properties as evidenced by suppression of growth and survival signaling pathways, inhibition of metalloproteinase 2 activity, inhibition of cell migration, and invasion and induction of apoptosis in cancer cell lines such as HeLa (cervical) and SKOV3 (ovarian) cells [113, 114]. Extracts and flavone derivatives from the rhizome of K. parviflora have been shown to suppress multidrug
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resistance-associated proteins (MRP) in A549 (lung cancer) cells, making it useful as modulators of drug resistance in cancer cells [183]. 5,7,4-trimethoxyflavone isolated from K. parviflora rhizome extract reportedly possesses anticancer activity against human cholangiocarcinoma HuCCA-1 and RMCCA-1 cell lines [116]. Methoxyflavones isolated from K. parviflora have been demonstrated to exhibit melanogenesis inhibition in theophylline-stimulated murine B16 melanoma 4A5 cells, without notable cytotoxicity to normal cells [23, 184]. K. angustifolia rhizome extracts and pure compounds abietene diterpene and kaempfolienol present therein were found to be cytotoxic against Leukemic HL-60 and breast cancer MCF-7 cell lines [117]. Labdane and clerodane diterpenoids isolated from K. elegans and K. pulchra found cytotoxic against leukemic HL60 cell line [118].
4.4 Genus Curcuma L. The genus Curcuma L., with around 120 species, is distributed mainly in tropical and subtropical Asia. Curcuma longa, commonly known as turmeric and a major source of curcumin, has been consumed as a dietary spice and a cure for human ailments for thousands of years in Asian countries. The potential anticancer activity of turmeric and curcumin was demonstrated by Kuttan et al. 1985 [185] in both in vitro and in vivo models. Various crude extracts of C. longa were reported to have antiproliferative activity against different human cancer cell lines such as, U937 (myeloid leukemia), Molt4 (acute lymphoblastic leukemia), A549 (lung carcinoma), T98G (glioblastoma), HeLa (cervical cancer), MDA-MB-231 (breast cancer), and murine melanoma cell line (B164A5) [119–122]. The immunomodulatory activities of the polar fractions of C. longa hot water extracts were investigated using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). High polarity fraction containing polysaccharides exhibited stimulatory effects on PBMC proliferation, thereby attesting to its potential use as an adjuvant supplement for cancer patients with suppressed immunity due to exposure to chemotherapeutic drugs [186]. Other Curcuma sp. reported with antiproliferative potential include C. amada (mango ginger), C. aromatica (wild turmeric), C. caesia (black turmeric), C. zedoaria (white turmeric), and C. xanthorrhiza (Java turmeric). Supercritical CO2 extract of C. amada rhizome reported to have specific anticancer potential against human glioblastoma (U-87MG) cell line induces apoptosis or drug resistance in a dose- dependent manner [129]. Methanol extracts from C. amada leaves and rhizome also reportedly possess antiproliferative activity against breast cancer cell lines MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 [130]. Aqueous extract of C. aromatica inhibited LS-174-T (colon carcinoma) cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner, inducing extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis by activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3 and G2/M phase arrest. Downregulation of cyclin B1 and CDK1 without the participation of p53 was also observed in a study by Hu et al. [131]. Treatment with C. aromatica oil also inhibited growth of implanted hepatoma in mice models which could be correlatable with
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suppression of PCNA (Proliferating cell nuclear antigen) protein [132–134]. Alcoholic extracts of C. aromatica and C. caesia rhizome have been found to possess potent antiangiogenic and proapoptotic activity under in vivo conditions [121, 135–137]. C. zedoaria rhizome termed Ezhu in Chinese is extensively used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat various ovarian and cervical cancers. Ethanolic extract of C. zedoaria rhizome is known to exhibit strong antiproliferative and invasive activities against human esophageal squamous carcinoma TE-8 cells and suppress tumor formation in mice. Upregulation of PTEN and downregulation of phosphorylated Akt, mTOR and STAT3 expressions, attenuation of FGFR1 and MMP-2, activation of caspase-9, -3 and PARP, and suppression of Bcl-2 leading to apoptosis were observed in the same study [138]. Hexane and chloroform extracts of C. zedoaria were found to have moderately potent cytotoxic activity on ovarian cancer cells (SKOV3) as well as umbilical vein endothelial cells [139]. Essential oil obtained from C. zedoaria, known as ‘zedoary’, possesses efficient cytotoxic effects on H1299 (non-small cell lung carcinoma) and AGS (gastric cancer) cells and can induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Potential active compounds of Zedoary oil, detected using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS), were 8,9-dehydro-9-formyl-cycloisolongifolene, 6-ethenyl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-3,6- dimethyl-5-isopropenyl-trans-benzofuran, eucalyptol, and γ-elemene [141, 142]. Zedoary oil also reportedly exhibits antiangiogenic activity both in vitro and in vivo, resulting in suppressing melanoma growth and lung metastasis, associated with downregulating MMPs [140]. Isocurcumenol isolated from C. Zedoaria rhizome shows antiproliferative potential in KB (nasopharyngeal carcinoma), A549 (lung carcinoma), K562 (leukemic), and DLA (Daltons Lymphoma Ascites) cells [21]. Methanol extract of C. xanthorrhiza rhizome possesses cancer chemopreventive potential [187]. Xanthorrhizol is the most active and abundant compound isolated from the essential oil of C. xanthorrhiza, rhizomes. Studies have shown that xanthorrhizol is an attractive chemopreventive agent as it inhibited tumor nodules in a spontaneous mouse lung metastasis model and TPA (12-O tetradecanoylphorbol-13- acetate) - induced skin cancer promotion in mice, by decreasing phosphorylated ERK (pERK), JNK, and p38 expression [143, 188]. This compound is known to induce apoptosis via activation of p53-dependent mitochondrial pathway in HCT 116 (colon cancer), MCF 7, and MDA-MB-231 (breast cancer) cell lines [144, 145]. Xanthorrhizol also reported to induce caspase-independent apoptosis through ROS- mediated p38, MAPK, and JNK (c-jun N-terminal kinase) activation in SCC-15 (oral squamous cell carcinoma) cells [146]. A combination of xanthorrhizol with other compound(s) like tamoxifen, astaxanthine, and α-tocopherol showed more effective antiproliferatve activity against breast and esophageal cancer cell lines [189]. Dichloromethane extract from Javanese medicinal plant C. purpurascens rhizome induces apoptosis through mitochondrial-dependent pathway in colon cancer HT-29 cells [147]. C. mutabilis is an endemic Zingiberaceae plant confined to Western Ghats of India and the petroleum ether extract of this plant rhizome as well as a novel labdane diterpenoid isolated from this extract reported to be cytotoxic to
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various cancer cell lines and induce apoptosis in colorectal cancer HCT116 and leukemic K562 cells [149]. Essential oil isolated from various Curcuma species, such as C. elata, C. kwangsiensis, C. yunnanensis, C. nankunshanensis, C. sichuanensis, C. rubescens, C. purpurascens, and C. mutabilis, also exhibited cytotoxicity against various cell lines [148, 150, 190, 191]. Curcumin : Anticancer activity of curcumin need a special mention, as it’s a most studied compound from Curcuma species of Zingiberaceae family. Curcuminoids represent a major component of the phytoconstituents found in various Curcuma species [192]. Of the various curcuminoids known, curcumin (1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione), also called iferuloylmethane, deserves a special mention. It is one of the most studied curcuminoids displaying a wide spectrum of biological actions, including cholesterol-lowering, chemopreventive, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities [193–195]. Other commonly found curcuminoids are derivatives of curcumin which are known as demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin [196]. Curcumin has been studied in multiple human carcinomas including melanoma, head and neck, breast, colon, pancreatic, prostate, and ovarian cancers [123–128]. Curcumin’s potent antioxidant and free-radical quenching properties play an important role in the inhibitory effects of the compound on the initial stages of carcinogenesis as demonstrated by animal models of various tumor types [197]. NF-κB and AP-1 are two transcription factors intimately involved in the cellular pathways leading to tumorigenesis. NF-κB and AP-1 expression is induced by various stressful stimuli (tumor promoters including oxidative stress, UV irradiation and infectious antigens, pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1), resulting in expression of genes involved in inflammation and cellular proliferation [198]. Curcumin has an inhibitory effect on both NF-κB and AP-1 activation. Its effect on NF-κB, is mediated through inhibition of IκK and results in inactive NF-κB remaining bound to IκBα in the cytoplasm leading to suppression of a variety of gene products involved in carcinogenesis and tumor growth including cyclin D1, VEGF (Vascular endothelial growth factor), COX-2 (cycloxygenase-2), c-myc, Bcl-2, ICAM-1, and MMP-9 (Matrix metalloproteinase-9) [199]. Curcumin also has a stimulatory effect on the extrinsic apoptotic pathway, which is triggered by the binding of ‘death activators’ such as TNF-α and Fas-ligand to their corresponding cell surface receptors. In addition to proapoptotic effect, curcumin also induces autophagic cell death in chronic myelogenous leukemia, esophageal cancer, and malignant glioma cells, mediated through inhibition of the Akt/mTOR/p70S6 kinase pathway and the ERK1/2 pathway [200, 201]. Curcumin has demonstrated antiangiogenic effect in vivo xenograft models, by regulating a variety of proangiogenic growth factors, enzymes, and transcription factors like bFGF (basic fibroblast growth factor), VEGF, angiopoetin-1 and 2, COX-2 MMP-9 [126, 202]. Its derivative, demethoxycurcumin (DMC), has been reported to affect a number of cellular adhesion molecules involved in the processes of metastasis [203]. Curcumin is known to target mTOR, which is recognized as a key therapeutic target for the prevention and / or treatment of cancer [204]. Curcumin has been shown to have numerous cytotoxic effects on cancer stem cells (CSCs) by
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suppressing the release of cytokines, particularly interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and IL-1, which stimulate CSCs [205]. It is an inhibitor of enzymes involved in epigenetic changes of chromatin such as DNA methyltransferase, histone acetyl transferase, and histone deacetylase (HDAC) leading to selective activation or inactivation of genes (oncogenes/tumor suppressors) implicated in cancer death and progression. Curcumin also modulates miRNAs (miR-15a, miR-16, miR-21, miR-22, miR-26, miR-101, miR-146, miR-200, miR-203, and let-7) and their multiple target genes. Altogether, curcumin is able to restore the epigenetic regulation balance and appears as an attractive preventive and/or therapeutic approach against human cancer [206, 207]. Although curcumin has long been used extensively to treat several inflammatory diseases including cancer, poor aqueous solubility and reduced bioavailability limit its efficacy as a promising therapeutic agent in cancer therapy. Various research groups have focused on increasing the bioavailability of curcumin by combining other phytochemicals as adjuvants. For instance, curcumin has often been used in combination with other phytochemicals such as resveratrol, quercetin, sulforaphane, retinoic acid, and folates in cancer treatment [208–210]. The chemosensitizing effect of curcumin has been reported in cancers of the breast, colon, pancreas, gut, liver, lung, prostate, brain, lymphoma, and leukemia [211, 212]. Various types of curcumin nanoparticles appropriate for cancer treatment have been developed, such as polymer nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), and polymer conjugates, with improved bioavailability, devoid of degradation and further metabolism and with enhanced targeting capacities [207, 213, 214].
4.5 Genus Zingiber Boehmer The genus Zingiber represented by 141 species is distributed mainly in tropical Asia. Z. officinale rhizome extract and its major pungent components, 6-shogaol and 6-gingerol, have been reported to induce antiproliferative effects on several tumor cell lines [48]. Ginger extract significantly reduced the elevated expression of NF-κB and pro-inflammatory TNF-α in in vivo model with liver cancer, thereby acting as an anticancer and anti-inflammatory agent [215]. Ethanol extract of ginger is also reported to have potent anticancer activity against pancreatic cancer cells, inhibit cell cycle progression, and induce ROS-mediated apoptosis [151]. Experimental studies also showed that ginger extracts as well as the purified constituents therein such as 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol exerted anticancer activity against gastrointestinal cancer cells by modulating several signaling molecules like NF-κB, STAT3, MAPK, PI3K, ERK1/2, Akt, TNF-α, COX-2, cyclin D1, cdk, MMP-9, survivin, cIAP-1, XIAP, Bcl-2, caspases, and other cell growth regulatory proteins [22]. The remarkable increase of shogaols in steamed ginger contributed to its improved anticancer potential [216, 217]. 6-shogaol significantly inhibited cell proliferation in colon cancer cell lines HCT-116 and SW-480, with IC50 values of 7.5 and 10 μM, respectively, and can cause cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase by p53/
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p21-mediated pathway [152]. It is known to act through endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial pathways involved in apoptosis induction in HeLa (cervical cancer) cells [153]. Gingerol was also found to sensitize A549 cells to TRAILinduced apoptosis by inhibiting the autophagy flux [155], inhibit cell proliferation, and induce apoptosis in SW-480 cells and HCT116 (colon cancer) cells [154]. Methanol extract of ginger leaves also reportedly induce apoptosis and reduction of cell viability in human colorectal cancer cells [156]. Various organic solvent extracts and bioactivity guided column chromatography subfractions of Z. zerumbet rhizome displayed strong antiproliferative effects on breast cancer MCF7 cells [157]. Zerumbone, a natural cyclic sesquiterpene from Z. zerumbet, reported to have a diverse range of biological activities, including anticancer and antitumor activities. Studies have demonstrated that zerumbone has little or no cytotoxic effect on normal human cells but induces apoptosis in many cancer cell lines [158–160]. Chloroform extract of Z. cassumunar rhizome and compounds therein cis-3-(3’, 4’-dimethoxyphenyl)-4-[(E)-3, 4 dimethoxystyryl] cyclo-hex-1- ene and 8-(13,14-dimethoxyphenyl)-2-methoxynaphto-1,4-quinone showed strong activity against human T-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (CEMss) and cervical (HeLa) cancer cell lines [161].
4.6 Other Zingiberaceae Plants with Anticancer Potential Experimental evidence suggests that aqueous extracts of Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom) extracts exert anti-inflammatory roles (immunomodulatory). It is evident that black pepper and cardamom aqueous extracts together significantly enhance the cytotoxic activity of natural killer cells, thereby indicating their potential anticancer effects [162]. E. cardamomum extract also possesses potential chemopreventive effects evidenced by preventing diethylnitrosamine (DENA)-induced hepato-cellular carcinoma through blocking oxidative stress, decreasing pro- inflammatory cytokine, NF-κB, and ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) [218]. Labdane diterpenes (isocoronarin D, methoxycoronarin D, ethoxycoronarin D, and benzoyl eugenol) from Hedychium coronarium ethanol extract reported to possess chemopreventive effect [164]. Other labdane-type diterpenes reported from this plant showed moderate to potent cytotoxic activities against different cancer cell lines. They are reported with antiangiogenic activity, proved through inhibition of human vascular endothelial cells [165]. Coronarin D from H. coronarium induces significant G2/M arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy in various human cancer cell lines including nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells [166, 219]. It is also reported to induce cell death through the upregulation of JNK/MAPK and caspase-dependent apoptosis pathways in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) Huh7 and Sk-hep-1 cells [167]. H. coronarium rhizome ethanol extract can induce apoptosis-mediated G1 phase cell arrest, while inhibiting the migratory potential of cervical cancer HeLa cells [163].
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Two novel labdane-diterpenes isolated from chloroform extract of Hedychium spicatum rhizomes have shown good cytotoxic activity against Colo-205 (Colon cancer), A-431 (skin cancer), MCF-7 (breast cancer), A549 (lung cancer), and Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO) [168]. Six new sesquiterpenes, including two potent cytotoxic (against HeLa cells) compounds, have been isolated from this extract [169]. Essential oil isolated from Hedychium spicatum rhizome also reported cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines [170].
5 Conclusion To conclude, members of family Zingiberaceae continue to provide innumerable bioactive extracts and compounds reported with potent cytotoxic and anticancer activities. As a matter of fact, many of these plants are utilized either as ingredients of traditional food varieties or additives in time-tested, traditional ethnomedicinal herbal preparations, well known for their efficacious cure of a plethora of diverse ailments. Discovery of various anticancer compounds from these plants is emerging as a highly enriched, promising, and biocompatible bioresource for modern /complementary or alternative medicine systems. Compared to the notorious and undesirable side effects of chemotherapeutics used in the past decades, these compounds can be developed for effective and specific targeting of key proteins of cancer- related signaling pathways. Despite an impressive array of such compounds, the hunt needs to continue for hitherto unexplored, yet to be discovered drug candidates within the Zingiberaceae family of plants.
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Moringa oleifera Accessions: Perspectives and Application as Nutraceuticals and Phytomedicines Nikita Patel
and Ramar Krishnamurthy
1 Introduction Moringa oleifera Lam., commonly known as drumstick tree or horse radish tree, is an important tropical medicinal plant known for its multifarious nutritional and phytomedicinal property. It is frequently used by ethnic and local people of developed and emerging nations for their medicinal value and culinary use [1]. According to the report of World Health Organization (WHO), nearly 70–80% of the global population relies on herbal plants for their basic health care needs. The genus Moringa comprises 13 species, out of which Moringa oleifera, Moringa stenopetala, and Moringa peregrina are mostly studied because of their availability and multifunctional properties [2]. Moringa is distributed in India, Africa, America, and Madagascar. They are drought-resistant, fast grower (propagated through seeds/cuttings), and can withstand wide range of soil with minimum nutrient requirement [3]. Being a tropical deciduous tree, Moringa oleifera possesses bipinnate/tripinnate leaves on grayish white stem with drooping branches. It also bears pendulous 25–35 cm long pods with isodiametric/ovate seeds (Fig. 1) [4]. Leaves and seeds are known to have wide range of amino acids, minerals, protein, carbohydrates, and vitamins. In addition to that, they are also known to have important plant secondary metabolites such as polyphenols, flavonoids, moringin, alkaloids, and tannins [5, 6]. Traditionally, Moringa was used by warriors to gain energy and also by queens and king to maintain healthy skin and bones [7]. Medicinal, aromatic, or horticultural plants in general have nutraceutical value as these plants are preferred as tonic or in maintaining vitality and sometimes aphrodiasic. They are medicinally used and exploited for commercial purpose by plant- based industries. For instance, Gymnema sylvestre is having gymnemic acid N. Patel · R. Krishnamurthy (*) C.G. Bhakta Institute of Biotechnology, Uka Tarsadia University, Surat, Gujarat, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_17
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Fig. 1 Moringa oleifera field
recommended for antidiabetic potential [8, 9].There has been an unprecedented growth in use of plants with nutraceutical and phytomedicinal value because of the non-toxic effect of plants with great medicinal value. Currently, studies are going on to boost the nutraceutical value of less nutritious food and Moringa, being an important food and medicinal plant, plays a vital role in increasing the health promoting effects of food via food fortification. Hence, the present book chapter deals with phytomedicinal, functional, nutraceutical, and cosmo-nutraceutical property of Moringa oleifera with a view to enhance the use of Moringa in developed and emerging nations in combating malnutrition and protein deficiency to harmonize cultural and modern medicine system with minimal side effects.
2 Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry of Moringa oleifera The application of phytocompounds as medicine/ drug is well known since time immemorial when the willow tree leaves were prescribed by Hippocrates to treat fever. Since then, different parts of plants are used in classical and modern medicine system. Phytochemicals are the plant secondary metabolites which are present in abundance with no relation to plant health and development [3, 10]. There are certain classes of phytochemicals (Fig. 2) classified into alkaloids, polyphenols, triterpenoids, sulphur-based compounds, and terpenoids [11, 12]. Almost all the classes of phytochemicals are present in Moringa which confers disease resistance potential. Alkaloids are the main group of phytochemical present in form of phenylacetonitrile pyrrolemarumine, 4′-hydroxyphenylethanamide-α-l-rhamnopyranoside – its glucopyranosyl derivative and N,α-l-rhamnopyranosyl vincosamide.These alkaloids are organic nitrogen-containing compounds generated from amino acids.
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Fig. 2 Classes of phytochemicals in Moringa oleifera
Efforts were made to isolate and identify the potentiality of alkaloids from Moringa leaves which indicated that they possess cardioprotective activity along with the antihypertensive property [13]. Polyphenols are the second group of phytocompound found in both fresh and dry leaves of Moringa conferring them antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Chemically, polyphenols are either in form of phenolic acid with one phenol ring or in form of flavonoids with more than one phenol ring and they are often quantified as tannic acid equivalent and gallic acid equivalent, respectively [12, 14, 15]. Several researchers have identified presence of quercetin, myrecytin, and kaempferol along with 11 more compounds through GC-MS profiling of leaves except roots, seeds, and flowers [16, 17]. Chemical and agronomical variations were observed in accessions collected and identified from India, Pakistan, and Africa which shows that there is higher possibility of genetic variation among them regulating their metabolic pathway [16, 18, 19]. Geographical and environmental variations were also observed in some accessions of Moringa with predominant difference in tannins, flavonoids, and polyphenols including major quantities of ellagic acid, coumaric acid, and caffeic acid [20–22]. Another group of phytochemical known as carotenoids are coloured molecules found in Moringa oleifera leaves as provitamin A or β-carotene which implicate vitamin A deficiency. Carotenoids are generally characterized by their colour either in form of yellow, red, or orange and are mostly present in vegetables and fruits imparting their coloured complexity. Several compounds such as lutein, luteoxanthin, and zeaxanthin were isolated and purified from Moringa exploring their health benefits [23]. Apart from polyphenols, flavonoids, and pigmented compounds, Moringa leaves, pods, and seeds are known to have isothicyanate and glucosinolate compounds. Basically, these compounds are synthesized from amino acid moieties. A group of researchers have identified glucosinolate from wild and cultivated source
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of Moringa as glcomoringin and glucosoonjnain, suggesting that they may differ in taste but not in their myrosinase activity or protein content [24, 25]. Recently, denovo computational biology studies have suggested the probability of using compounds from Moringa against SARS CoV- 2 M-Pro [26]. A total of 35 compounds were identified from Moringa leaves, peduncle, roots, and flowers which include tetradecanoic acid, n- hexadecenoic acid, gamma sitosterol, anthonin, siphorochin, vanillin and β-sitosterol, isoquercitrin, rhamnetin, and kaempferitrin [27–29]. Whole gum exudates of Moringa revealed the presence of sugars such as rhamnose, l-arabinose, d-glucuronic acid, d-mannose, d-xylose, d-galactose, and leucodelphinidin-3-O-B-D-galactopuranosy (1 -> 4)-O-B-D-glucopyranoside [30]. Furthermore, tannins are also present in Moringa. They are hydrophilic compounds which aid in precipitation of gelatin, alkaloids, and other proteinaceous compounds and hence they are not desirable for human or animal consumption. However, it can be removed by proper processing techniques [31]. Isoprenoidal aglycone also known as saponins is also found in Moringa in appreciable amounts, which exhibits anticancer effects [32]. Each and every tribal or local culture has different perspectives on utilization of medicinal plant and hence, it is imperative to study their geographical and ethnobotanical variation to expand the knowledge regarding drug designing, value addition, and genotypic variation. This information helps in expanding the economic importance of medicinal plant exponentially. Information and knowledge about geographical diversity of plant is a pivotal part of diversity study to ascertain the superior and high yielding accession for commercialization [33]. Ethnomedicinally, different parts of Moringa such as seeds, stem, leaves, fruits, flowers, bark, and gum exudates are used in treatment of malaria, fever, stomach pain, wound healing, diabetes, sores, piles, tooth ache, anaemia, dropsy, and hysteria [34, 35].
3 Phytomedicinal Property of Moringa oleifera Over the past years, utilization of plants with medicinal properties has increased rapidly. Current research is focused on medicinal and nutritional property of plants covering phytochemistry, horticulture, pharmacology, and nutraceuticals. However, the potent phytomedicinal action often results from consortia of plant secondary metabolites/bioactives [36]. Studies have revealed the incidence of various diseases associated with different age groups. It was observed that the key factor responsible for this situation is generally the weakened immune system, autoimmune diseases, or immunosenescence [37]. Phytomedicines are termed as use of plant or plant parts in treatment and improvement of human health. It was first coined by Henry Leclerc in 1913. Phytomedicines are advantageous in terms of minimum side effects caused by synthetic drugs. Moringa being a food plant has many phytomedicinal properties (Fig. 3).
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Fig. 3 Phytomedicinal property of Moringa oleifera
3.1 Moringa oleifera as Potent Antioxidant Agent Moringa leaf, seeds, flowers, and roots are known to have remarkable DPPH radical scavenging activity. This activity is conferred to any plant/ plat tissue because of high amount of polyphenols in it. They help to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) by reducing oxidative stress. Study on antioxidant capacity of saline and alcoholic extracts revealed that the extracts of flowers, leaf rachis, and leaves were able to react and scavenge free radicals; however, ethanolic seed extract and saline extracts were able to react slowly [38]. A compound myrecitin isolated from seeds showed higher antioxidant activity when compared to BHT and α- tocopherol [39]. Free radicals are generally categorized into hydroperoxyl, hydroxyl, superoxide, halogen, hydrogen, and nitrogen dioxide along with reactive oxygen species (ROS). A study on methanolic extract of M. oleifera leaves depicted higher antioxidant activity through in vitro FRAP, DPPH, and metal chelating assay [40]. Hence, the bioactives from plants help them to stabilize/neutralize free radicals enabling them to be used as phytomedicine.
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3.2 Moringa oleifera as Antihypertensive Agent Hypertension or high blood pressure is a global health concern affecting around 1.13 million people worldwide. Blood pressure can be lowered by inhibiting ACE enzymes [41]. Moringa leaf is known to reduce blood pressure. It was reported that two flavonoid glycosides from ethyl acetate fraction of Moringa leaves were able to inhibit ACE enzyme attributing it to antihypertensive property [42]. Apart from this, thiocarbamate glycosides, glycosides, and nitrites isolated from the leaves alleviate vascular dysfunction and promote vasorelaxation [13]. A comparative study of seed and leaf diet conducted by [43] revealed that this supplemented diet could improve the systolic and diastolic blood pressure by increasing nitric oxide and minimizing lipid peroxidation (LPO) in hypertensive state. Secondary bioactives such as α-L- rhamnopyranosyl vincosamide, acetonitrile, glucopyranosyl derivatives, 40hydroxyphenylethanamide-α-Lrhamnopyranoside, and its derivatives along with β- sitosterol (a cholesterol lowering compound) were identified and isolated from Moringa and showed potent antihypertensive activity [44–46].
3.3 Antispasmodic and Hepatoprotective Behaviour of Moringa oleifera Herbal antispasmodic agents help relieve gastrointestinal muscle spasm by their therapeutic action [47]. Moringa seeds, roots, and leaves exhibited antispasmodic activity against acetylcholine-induced contractions. As leaf is the most studied part of Moringa oleifera, the ethanolic fraction of leaves exhibited antispasmodic effect by blocking the calcium channel. Hence, this information provides the base for traditional use of Moringa [13, 48, 49]. Liver plays an important role in detoxifying certain drugs and xenobiotic compounds. Study on carbon tetrachlorideinduced hepatotoxicity revealed that leaves’ extract of Moringa helps in improvement of hepatic fatty disintegration and balancing their architecture [50]. Several researchers have observed an increase in liver functioning enzymes, but they did not report any histopathological kidney or liver damage which stated that Moringa ameliorates the hepatic damage induced by certain chemicals. Recent studies on Thiamethoxam-induced hepatotoxicity also suggested that Moringa can inhibit the deleterious effect TMX to normal levels [51]. On the other hand, several chemical compounds, rifampicin, isoniazid, gentamicin pyrazinamide, and acetaminophen, that cause hepatotoxicity also revealed the beneficial role of Moringa in treating them [52–55].
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3.4 Moringa oleifera as Antidepressant and Neuroprotective Agent Depression is a widely known mental disorder across the globe and almost half of the population is suffering from anxiety and mood swings. The constant state of depression is due to oxidative stress and neurological imbalance [56]. An approach was made to identify the efficacy of Moringa as antidepressant agent through in vivo animal model study. It was depicted that ethanolic fraction of Moringa leaves along with fluoxetine has potential antidepressant activity [57]. Ethanolic leaf extract of this plant was able to minimize the chronic stress in zebrafish model [58]. Antidepressant study through tail suspension and forced swim test also indicated the potential of n-hexane and ethanolic fraction of Moringa in relieving stress and depression [59, 60]. Neurological disorders are also associated with nervous system mostly affecting brain cells and spinal cord along with ganglia and nerves. Dementia (Memory loss) mostly seen in aged people is a form of neurodegenerative disorder. Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson disease, Schizophrenia, and Huntington disease are associated with reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress [61, 62]. Many efforts were made to treat these diseases, but none of them were effective to halt their progression [63]. As the cost production of synthetic drugs is higher, natural phytocompounds were searched and synthesized. Moringa leaf extracts (MLE) were proved to have nootropic and antioxidant properties and hence several studies stated that solvent fractions of Moringa can be beneficial in terms of colchicine-induced Alzheimer’s disease in animal model study [64, 65]. Current in vitro studies using SHSY5Y neuroblastoma cells also noted the neuroprotective effect of Moringa leaf extract (MLE) [62].
3.5 Moringa oleifera as Antimicrobial Agents Many studies have been undertaken to determine the role of Moringa as antimicrobial agent. The bioactives from Moringa leaf, stem, roots, seeds, and bark exert potent antimicrobial property against various pathogens [66, 67]. They show inhibitory activity by altering their cell permeability, growth, and multiplication rate. Various aqueous, hexane, methanolic, and ethanolic extracts have shown potent bioactivity against Enteropathogens, Salmonella sp., Vibrio sp., Pseudomonas sp., Erwinia sp., and Bacillus sp. [3, 67, 68]. Moringa roots were also found to have antibacterial activity against peptic ulcer caused by Helicobacter pylori. It was noted in another study that presence of pterygospermin and isothiocyanate molecules in the roots attributed this phytomedicinal property to Moringa [69, 70]. Different solvent preparations of Moringa showed potent inhibitory activity against various fungal strains such as Aspergillus sp., Fusarium sp., Alternaria sp. and Candida sp. [71, 72]. In vitro studies of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, aqueous,
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methanolic, and alcoholic fraction of Moringa leaves predominantly decreased the fungal strains affecting the productivity of Papaya [73].
3.6 Moringa oleifera as Anticancer Agents Various physical and environmental stress lead to accumulation of reactive oxygen species leading to cell death. Several approaches are made to mitigate the cell death caused by oxidative stress. However, radiotherapy, surgery, and chemotherapy are expensive and toxic to humans [74]. Recent advances in phytomedicine have led to the development of plant-based drugs with minimal side effects. The cold water extract of leaf demonstrated potent antiproliferative effects against A549 lung cancer cell line in an in vitro assay [75]. Mostly, glucosinolates and niazimicin isolated from leaves are known to have chemopreventive property. Fruits and leaves were apparently reported to have anticancer property against B16 F10 melanoma tumor with a sizeable rise in survival rate and lifespan of cancer patients [76]. The in-depth study on apoptotic and cytotoxic property carried out by Sreelatha et al. [77] showed the inhibition of cell proliferation of KB cell line in a dose- dependent manner. Other than that, several in vitro studies on acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, acute myeloid leukaemia, and hepatocarcinoma cell line through MTT assay also proved the efficiency of Moringa as anticancer agent [78]. Recently, nanotechnology has evolved into great dimension by their enhanced functionality. Green synthesized gold nanoparticles were also found to be effective against MCF-7 breast cancer cell line [79]. Colorectal cancer (CRC) or colorectal carcinoma is considered as the most prevalent type of gastrointestinal cancer affecting both men and women equally. A study on Moringa-based silver nanoparticles found that they were able to prevent quantitative and qualitative alteration in colon carcinoma induced by chemicals exploring them to be employed as phytomedicine [80].
3.7 Moringa oleifera as Antidiabetic Agent Diabetes is a common metabolic disorder usually marked by chronic hyperglycaemia often resulting into aberrant insulin action or production with major consequence. Later it develops into macro/micro vascular complications leading to cell death. Several synthetic medications and insulin treatment are mostly detrimental to health. Hence, there is always a need to search non-toxic natural plant-based product to treat diabetes type I and type II with lesser side effects [81, 82]. Many studies were reported on hypoglycaemic property of leaf, roots, and pods of Moringa [83]. The presence of polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and carotenoids is known to attribute antidiabetic property to Moringa. The Moringa leaves were proven to ameliorate diabetes in Streptozotocin-induced diabetic albino rats STZ [84]. Another
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study conducted on antidiabetic property of Moringa seed and aqueous leaf extract also showed reduced level of Interleukin 6 in STZ-induced rats [85]. According to International Federation of Diabetes (IDF), about 360 million people are affected by Diabetes mellitus (type 2) globally and it is expected to rise by 552 million by 2040 [86]. In silico study was conducted to identify the targeted therapeutic drug that can bind the protein moiety. It was identified that anthraquinones, anthocyanins, hemlock tannins, and phenolics from Moringa oleifera could easily bind the targeted protein molecule which assisted in treatment of diabetes mellitus [87]. Alloxan-induced diabetic rats were treated with hydroalcoholic extract (95%) of Moringa leaves by reducing the serum glucose levels at the level of 250 mg/kg [88]. Generally, the mechanistic action of Moringa works by inhibiting the activity of glucose transporter proteins- GLU 1 and GLU 4, thereby increasing insulin production and treating damaged pancreatic β-cells [89].
3.8 Moringa oleifera as Anti-asthmatic Agent Asthma is a chronic syndrome caused due to increased responsiveness of bronchi and trachea manifested by chronic and recurrent attacks due to narrowing of airway passage. It is mostly expressed by inflammation of pulmonary airway and hyper- responsiveness of bronchi. Mostly, lymphocytes, cytokines, histamines, and eosinophils are involved in constriction of bronchi leading to asthma [90, 91]. Asthma accounts for more than 90% of population worldwide [92]. Several studies on guinea pigs demonstrated low levels of lung tissues and plasma of the animal [93, 94]. Studies on seed kernel and butanol extracts were carried out against ovalbumin and acetylcholine-induced bronchial constriction which showed potent anti- asthmatic effect [90, 95]. It has been observed from several studies that phytocompounds such as rutin, apigenin, quercetin, and kaempferol are helpful in prevention of asthma and airway inflammatory response [96, 97]. Methanolic (MeOH) leaf extract of Moringa was also found effective against bronchospasm, oedema, and mucus secretion confirming its potent anti-asthmatic activity [98].
3.9 Moringa oleifera as Antiviral Agents Therapeutic potential of Moringa has been traced long time back in yielding potent antiviral activity owing to the profound activity against HIV, EBV, HBV, HSV, NDV, and FMDV [99–103]. The flowers, seeds, gum, root bark, and leaves were reported to be used as immunobooster and antiviral drugs. However, evidence-based reports were revealed to be scanty on the use of Moringa against small pox virus/ Chicken pox as world health organization has declared countries to be free from small pox virus since May-1980 (World Health Organization, 1980) [123]. Recently, baseline study carried out against Influenza virus depicted that Moringa A isolated
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from seed material was able to decrease the expression of transcription factor EB and weaken the autophagy in virus-infected cells [104].
3.10 Moringa oleifera as Wound-Healing Agent Skin is one of the important protective barriers and first defence system towards the noxious pathogenic micro-organisms. As result of wound or injury, this barrier gets disrupted which results into impairment into the connectivity of epithelial tissues. It represents significant burden on patients affecting their mental state [105]. Generally, the tissue regeneration/wound healing process involves hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling of tissues [106]. Study on bioguided solvent fractions of leaf was carried to ascertain the cell viability, proliferation, and wound scratch test which depicted enhanced wound healing property. This property was known to be attributed by vicenin-2compound isolated from methanolic fraction [107]. Recently, the intervention of nanotechnology has paved an effective way in phytomedicine through green synthesis. The polysaccharide extracted from Moringa seed and its nanocomposite prepared from silver were found to be better candidate as optimal wound dressing material [108].
4 Nutraceutical/Cosmo-Nutraceutical Value of Moringa oleifera The cruciferous plant Moringa oleifera (Drumstick tree) is a staple food in majority of the countries across the globe. Due to its versatile nutritional and medicinal property, Moringa is known as “Miracle Tree”. During ancient period, both leaves and fruits were known to maintain skin and health of Queens and King [109]. Leaves of this tree are worthy and precious in terms of providing nourishment to the malnourished and pregnant woman. The drumstick leaves are highly packed with minerals, vital amino acids, fatty acids, protein, and carbohydrates [110]. Most of the studies on leaves have suggested its efficacy for combating malnutrition and also for pregnant women and infants [111, 112]. Moreover, Moringa oleifera is known to provide 7 × more of Vitamin C, 17 × more of Calcium, 10 × more of Vitamin A, and 25 × more of iron [113]. In emerging and underdeveloped countries where food security is a major concern, Moringa is a great healthy diet for them. Apart from this, immature pods are good source of fibres, minerals, and proximates [114]. As per the report suggested by Moyo and his coworkers, dietary polysaturated fatty acid and unsaturated fatty acids were identified in dehydrated leaves of Moringa where linolenic acid, α-linolenic acid, and linolenic acid were present in considerate amount [115]. The culinary usage of this plant ranges from soup, salads, to main dishes. The seed portion of this plant is well-known for highly valued ben
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oil used as cosmeceutical, cooking, and perfume industry. The specific protein peptides are also used for premature skin ageing and maintaining skin health [116]. The inflorescence/ flowers of this miracle tree are also used in brewing infused tea and chutney preparation due to high mineral content in them [117]. The oil separated from Moringa seeds is also used in aromatherapy process [118]. Furthermore, the sunscreen prepared from different herbs along with kernel oil of Moringa effectively reduced UV radiation associated with conjugation system [119]. Additionally, the facial mask prepared from leaves extracts was also demonstrated to be efficient as cosmeceutical agent [120]. It was also observed by several researchers that the protein and nutritional content of accessions vary from cultivar to source with substantial difference among mineral content (approx.270–271 mg/100 g Vit C;17–27% leaf protein and 36–38% seed protein) [121, 122].
5 Conclusion People’s accessibility to food has three dimensions including physical, social, and pecuniary and the condition of life in the contemporary world is often alternating in which poverty and malnutrition are the major factors. The increasing comorbidities, malnutrition, and viral infection have become a major concern for all the age groups and use of synthetic drug has increased the complications through their side effects. The multipurpose phytomedicinal and nutraceutical plant Moringa could help in maintaining food security by providing vital micronutrients, antioxidants, and protein at an economical cost. Therefore, it can be concluded that Moringa-based phytomedicine can be a great paradigm for the future.
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An Overview of Ethnobotany, Phytochemicals, and Pharmacological Properties of Ficus Species Sreeja Puthanpura Sasidharan, Xuefei Yang, and Karuppusamy Arunachalam
1 Introduction Nature has been a source of medicinal agents for thousands of years and an impressive number of modern drugs have been derived from natural sources; many of these isolations were based on the uses of the agents in traditional medicine [1]. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as the “diverse health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animaland/or mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well-being, as well as to treat, diagnose, or prevent illness”. It is clear, however, that there is a need to validate the information through an organized infrastructure for it to be used as an effective therapeutic means, either in conjunction with existing therapies, or as a tool in novel drug discovery. It is therefore imperative to study medicinal plants and to determine and evaluate their potential biological activities and efficacy. The use of natural
S. P. Sasidharan Department of Botany, NSS College Nemmara, Palakkad, Kerala, India X. Yang Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology and the Yunnan Key Laboratory for Wild Plant Resources, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China Center for Studies in Stem Cells, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics (CeTroGen), Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil K. Arunachalam (*) Center for Studies in Stem Cells, Cell Therapy and Toxicological Genetics (CeTroGen), Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_18
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products with therapeutic properties is as ancient as human civilization. For a very long time, mineral, plant, and animal products were the main sources of drugs [2]. The development of organic chemistry resulted in a preference of synthetic products for pharmacological treatment. The reasons for this were that structural modification of synthetic compounds to produce potentially more active and safer drugs could be performed. Furthermore, the treatment of diseases with natural products differed from place to place as various cultures had different points of view regarding the treatment of various diseases [3]. Thus, the twentieth century became a triumph for the synthetic-chemistry- dominated pharmaceutical industry, which replaced natural extracts with synthetic molecules that often had no connection to natural products. The spectacular rise of the pharmaceutical industry had a tremendous impact on disease treatment and prevention, saved countless lives, and became one of the outstanding achievements of the twentieth century. Inclusion of traditional medicines in the development of twenty-first century treatment paradigms can help assure their convenience, acceptability, and accessibility. Furthermore, pharmacological synergism, a principle employed by many traditional medicines, lessens the likelihood of 2 development of genetic resistance by the pathogen or disease against drug monotherapies. Synergy research inspired by a “reverse pharmacological approach” could lead to a “new generation of phytopharmaceuticals”. Inclusion of traditional medicines in the development of the use of powerful ‘omics’ technologies facilitates disentangling such complexity: metabolomics analyses enable profiling of major and minor metabolites and bioactive components that contribute to synergism; and computational approaches for analysis of multiple-activity networks have become powerful tools for defining the principal components of mixtures with synergistic modes of action, for prediction of drug metabolism and toxicity, and for high-throughput prioritizing of agent combinations [4]. Thus, conventional medicine by and large brought serious infectious diseases under control, although there were worrying signs that infectious organisms were becoming resistant to antibiotic treatment [5]. However, some synthetic drugs had serious side effects. There has been a renewed interest for plants as source of pharmaceuticals [6]. Some herbal preparations are now so commonly used that they are accepted as part of everyday life. An example is evening primrose oil, which is used by hundreds of thousands of women in Britain to help relieve premenstrual tension [5]. About 25% of the drugs prescribed worldwide come from plants, with 121 such active compounds being in current use [3]. Of the 252 drugs considered as basic and essential by the World Health Organization (WHO), 11% are exclusively of plant origin and a significant number are semisynthetic drugs obtained from natural precursors [6]. Examples are the cardiotonic glycosides of Digitalis species such as digoxin, the analgesics morphine and codeine obtained from the Opium poppy Papaver somniferum, the antispasmodic tropane alkaloids hyoscine and atropine from Atropa belladonna, quinine and quinidine from Cinchona species, and vincristrine and vinblastine from Catharanthus roseus [3]. It is estimated that 60% of antitumor and antiinfectious drugs in use or under clinical trials are of natural origin [7]. The vast majority of these cannot be synthesized and are still obtained from
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wild or cultivated plants. Natural compounds can thus be lead compounds, allowing the design, development, and the discovery of new therapeutic agents [8]. A search in the natural product alert database suggested that only about 15% of all plant species had been studied to some extent for their phytochemistry and only about 5% for one or more biological activities [9]. Although extensive research on medicinal plants is published every year, only a few plants have been comprehensively studied for their pharmacological properties. Thus, traditional medicines and medicinal plants obviously represent a great source of novel medicines and leads for drug development. Living organisms require ample amount of oxygen for their metabolism and energy production. However, free radicals are produced during the energy production process [10], as the unavoidable consequence of respiration in aerobic organisms. Free radicals have very important role in origin of life and biological evolution, leaving beneficial effects on the organisms [11]. Free radicals are atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons in the outermost bonding orbital and are likely to take part in chemical reactions. Electrons prefer to be in pairs and when an electron is alone in its orbital, it will try to take an electron from another atom to become more stable. When the other atom loses its electron, it tries on its turn to steal an electron from another atom, often resulting in a dangerous chain reaction. Free radical can cause damage to our cells, but they also play an important role in a number of biological processes, such as the intracellular killing of bacteria by the white blood cells and some cell signaling processes. Overproduction of free radicals can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules (lipids, proteins, and DNA), eventually leading to many chronic diseases such as atherosclerosis, cancer, diabetics, rheumatoid arthritis, postischemic perfusion injury, myocardial infarction, cardiovascular diseases, chronic inflammation, stroke and septic shock, aging, and other degenerative diseases in humans [12, 13]. Pain and inflammation are associated with virtually all diseases. Typical inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, colitis, and hepatitis are the leading cause of disability and death [14]. Recently, chronic inflammation has been found to contribute to the development of cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases [15]. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory 4 drugs relieve mild to moderate pain and reduce inflammation. All these analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents produce their therapeutic effects by inhibiting various prostaglandins substances involved in development of pain and inflammation as well as regulation of body temperature. Due to extensive use of analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents, the toxicity and untoward effects do occur many times especially when therapy of pain and inflammation involves use of higher dose for longer period [16]. The conventional drugs used for the management of pain and inflammation include the steroidal and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents as well as the opiates. It is estimated that about 30 million people worldwide take nonsteroidal anti- inflammatory drugs [17, 18]. However, their prolonged use has been associated with serious side effects such as gastric ulceration, hemorrhage, bronchospasm, and kidney dysfunction [19]. Also, because of adverse effects of such dyslipidaemia, Cushing’s syndrome, hypertension and immunosuppression by steroidal
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anti-inflammatory drugs and tolerance and dependence induced by opiates, the use of these drugs as anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents has not been successful in some cases [20]. Therefore, there has been an intense search for new anti- inflammatory and analgesic drugs lacking these side effects as alternatives to these drugs. In this direction, attention has been focused on the investigation of the efficacy of plant-based drugs used in traditional medicine. This is because investigation of the efficacy of certain plant-based drugs used in traditional medicine led to the discovery of potent anti-inflammatory agents in clinical use such as aspirin and colchicine [21]. Other natural products, with marked anti-inflammatory effects, which have provided effective adjuncts to the management of inflammatory conditions include: omega 3-fatty acids from fish oil, curcumin from the spice turmeric (Curcuma longa), frankincense from Boswellia serrata, capsaicin from Capsicum annum, and ginger root extract from Zingiber officinalis [22]. These agents have been used successfully as adjuncts in several chronic inflammatory diseases [23]. Thus, plants still present a large source of compounds that might serve as leads for the development of novel anti-inflammatory drugs. Unlike their synthetic counterparts, they have not been shown to accelerate cartilage destruction or produce 5 liver and kidney toxicities [24]. For these reasons, natural products can be considered as viable alternatives to conventional anti-inflammatory drugs in a large percentage of patients suffering from various inflammatory diseases. The excessive production of reactive oxygen metabolites by phagocytic leucocytes during the inflammatory process, as part of host defence, deregulates cellular function causing tissue injury which in turn augments the state of inflammation leading to chronic inflammatory diseases [25]. These oxidants also inhibit wound healing. Antioxidants, which scavenge these reactive oxygen metabolites, have been found to complement the anti-inflammatory process, promoting tissue repair and wound healing. A number of plant secondary metabolites such as apigenin, quercetin, luteolin, and silymarin have been found to exhibit anti-inflammatory activities due to their antioxidant properties [26, 27]. Thus, antioxidative phytochemicals, especially phenolic compounds, found in vegetables, fruits, and medicinal plants could be explored for their potential role in the prevention of inflammatory diseases.
2 Historical Importance of Herbal Drugs Plants have also been a source of various anti-infective agents. The bacteriostatic and fungicidal properties of lichens and the antimicrobial action of allicin in garlic (Allium sativum) are a few examples of age-old antibacterial therapy [28]. An expansive range of plants belonging to an equally wide variety of plant families has yielded products with antibacterial properties. Such families include the Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae, Fabaceae, Leguminoceae, and Rutaceae [29]. Although no major antimicrobial drug has been developed from higher plants,
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innumerable studies have generated data showing antimicrobial properties of medicinal plants [30]. This body of results indicates that medicinal plants, even if not fully developed into new mainstream antimicrobial drugs, could indeed be an effective alternative if properly processed and incorporated into primary health care systems. In the past, our ancestors made new discoveries of the healing power of plants through trial and error. Although some of the therapeutic properties attributed to plants have proven to be erroneous, medicinal plant therapy is based on the empirical findings of hundreds and thousands of years [31]. Wound infection is one of the most common diseases in developing countries because of poor hygienic conditions [32]. Wounds are the physical injuries that result in an opening or breaking of the skin and appropriate method for healing of wounds is essential for the restoration of disrupted anatomical continuity and disturbed functional status of the skin [33]. In other words, wound is a break in the epithelial integrity of the skin and may be accompanied by disruption of the structure and function of underlying normal tissue and may also result from a contusion, haematoma, laceration, or an abrasion [34]. Healing of wounds starts from the moment of injury and can continue for varying periods of time depending on the extent of wound and the process can be broadly categorized into three stages; inflammatory phase, proliferative phase, and finally the remodeling phase which ultimately determines the strength and appearance of the healed tissue [35]. Wound healing process holds several steps which involve coagulation, inflammation, formation of granulation tissue, matrix formation, remodeling of connective tissue, collagenization, and aquisation of wound strength [36]. Research on wound healing agents is one of the developing areas in modern biomedical sciences and many traditional practitioners across the world particularly in countries like India and China have valuable information of many lesser-known hitherto unknown wild plants for treating wounds and burns [37]. Traditional forms of medicine practiced for centuries in Africa and Asia are being scientifically investigated for their potential in the treatment of wound-related disorders [38]. Free radicals may play an important role in the causation and complications of Diabetes Mellitus [39]. In Diabetes mellitus, alterations in the endogenous free radical scavenging defense mechanisms may lead to ineffective scavenging of reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative damage and tissue injury. Oxidative stress is currently suggested as mechanism underlying diabetes and diabetic complications [40]. Enhanced oxidative stress and changes in antioxidant capacity, observed in both clinical and experimental diabetes mellitus, are thought to be the etiology of chronic diabetic complications [41]. In recent 7 years, much attention has been focused on the role of oxidative stress, and it has been reported that oxidative stress may constitute the key and common event in the pathogenesis of secondary diabetic complications [42]. Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia and disturbances of carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolisms, secondary to an absolute or relative lack of insulin [43]. The WHO estimates that more than 220 million people worldwide have diabetes, and this number is liable to double by 2030 [44]. Hyperglycemia is known to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) which plays a
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central role in complications of diabetes [45, 46]. Antioxidants play a major role in protection against molecular oxidative damage [47]. In integration to oxidative stress, insulin action is also impaired in diabetes, which leads to increased hepatic glucose production. Due to the side effects of the existing synthetic drugs, plant- derived food drugs are in great demand in industrially developed countries as alternative approach to treat diabetes. The WHO expert committee has recommended that plants possessing hypoglycaemic activity may provide a utilizable source of new oral antidiabetic drug for the development of pharmaceutical entities or may act as simple dietary adjuncts to the existing therapies [48]. Until today, there is no treatment that can completely cure diabetes mellitus. In a study by Maria et al. [49], it was found that insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or type I, otherwise, depends on insulin therapy to prevent the pathology that would arise from insulin deficiency due to a dysfunction of the β-cells. However, exogenous therapy which is the main treatment does not permit glycemic control as precise as that provided by natural secretion from functional islet β-cells, and acute decompositions and long-term complications are always present [50]. It is therefore appropriate to look at possible alternative therapeutic strategies for IDDM. Type II diabetes, otherwise known as adult-onset diabetes, results from a combination of insulin resistance and inadequate secretion of insulin [51]. Management of type II diabetes is rarely straightforward. It requires rigorous control of blood glucose and special attention to a syndrome of associated vascular risk factors including hypertension, dyslipidemia, and abdominal obesity. The pharmacological agents currently used for the 8 treatment of type II diabetes include sulfonylureas, biguanide, thiazolidinedione, and α-glucosidase inhibitor. These agents, however, have restricted use due to several undesirable side effects including haematological effects, coma, and disturbances of the liver and kidney. In addition, they are not suitable for use during pregnancy [52]. Furthermore, the synthetic hypoglycemic agents also fail to significantly alter the course of diabetic complications [53]. Therefore, the search for more effective and safer antidiabetic agents has continued to be an area of active research [54]. Moreover, studying the antidiabetic property of herbal remedies will increase the chance of finding new antidiabetic drugs and possibly finding a cheaper treatment for diabetes mellitus. Historical accounts of diabetes mellitus first appeared in medical texts of several ancient cultures over 2000 years ago, and since ancient times, diabetes has been treated orally with several medicinal plants. Ethnobotanical information indicates that more than 800 plants belonging to 28 families are used as traditional remedies for the treatment of diabetes [55]. However, only a few of these plants have undergone comprehensive scientific investigation, while 81% of these plants are hitherto unreported as antidiabetic agents. Traditional medicines may be of considerable benefit especially during the early stages of the illness, but most of the researchers worry about the side effect of these products. Normally, herbs have ingredients with therapeutic activity, but their preparation must be standardized to yield consistent products, which therefore can be given in doses that are maximally safe and effective. In the absence of such standardization, the use of herbs in diabetes mellitus must be approached cautiously. So,
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WHO has recommended that the research focus should now be directed to this area. Sawarkar et al. [56] reported that numerous plants synthesize substances that are useful in the maintenance of health in humans and animals. With a view to increasing the wide range of medicinal uses, now the present day entails new drugs with more potent and desired activity with lesser or no side effects against particular disease [57]. The genus Ficus (Moraceae) constitutes one of the largest genera of angiosperms includes with more than 800 species and 2000 varieties of Ficus genus, occur in the most tropical and subtropical forests and this plant is commonly known as fig [58]. Sirisha et al. [59] reported that all Ficus species possess latex-like material within their vasculatures that provide protection and self-healing from physical assaults. Various studies indicated that Ficus species are widely used in the management of various types of diseases like respiratory diseases, sexual disorders, central nervous system diseases (CNS), cardiovascular disorders (CVS), gastric problems, skin infections and diabetics, etc. [59]. Fig fruits hold the highest levels of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins and exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, which can be free of side effects than those of synthetic antioxidants [60]. Shukla et al. [61] revealed the significant antioxidant effect of F. bengalensis. In addition, Duduku et al. [62] reported that F. microcarpa bark contains highest free radical scavenging activity. Further, epidemiological studies have shown that many of these antioxidant compounds possess anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, and antiviral activities to a greater extent [63]. A large number of plants/plant extracts/decoctions or pastes are equally used by tribal and folklore traditions in India for treatment of cuts, wounds, and burns [37]. Besides, in Ayurvedic medicine, F. racemosa L. is used as a wound-healing agent [64], whereas the aqueous extract of F. deltoidea was reported to have wound- healing activity [65]. Medicinal plants play an important role in cure of diabetes mellitus all over the world. A variety of ingredients present in medicinal plants are thought to act on a variety of targets by various modes and mechanisms. They have potential to impart therapeutic effect in complicated disorders like diabetes and its complications [66]. According to Ayurvedic system of medicine, F. bengalensis, F. carica, F. glomerata [67, 68], F. exasperate Vahl, and F. arnottiana Miq [69–71]. are well known in the treatment of diabetes. F. carica [60], F. bengalensis extract of bark [72], and F. glomerata were reported to have hypoglycemic effect.
3 The Family Moraceae Moraceae, often called the mulberry family, is a family of flowering plants comprising of about 40 genera and over 1000 species of which over 800 species are members of the genus Ficus (http://science.jrank.org/pages/4494/Mulberry- FamilyMoraceae.html). They occur primarily in tropical and semitropical regions
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and include a wide variety of herbs, shrubs, and trees, characterized by a milky sap [73–75]. Moraceae have been divided into five tribes: Artocarpeae, Moreae, Dorstenieae, Ficeae, and Castilleae [76]. Ficeae has only one genus, Ficus, with approximately about 750 species largely distributed in 58 the tropics and subtropics [77]. They can be either monoecious with bisexual inflorescences or dioecious [78]. Taxonomically, Ficeae is divided into two main groups [79]; one group, comprising the subgenera Urostigma and Pharmacosycea, consists of approximately 370 species, all of which are monoecious.
4 Genus Ficus The genus Ficus L. (Moraceae) was first published in “Systema Naturae by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735”. Ficus is one of the largest genus among angiosperms. Among the genera of seed plants it ranked as the twenty-first [80]. The use of foods and medicinal plants to improve health is nearly as old as humanity. Among such, none may be older than the fig, which recent investigations have indicated has been cultivated for over 11,000 years, possibly predating cereal grains [81]. However, this finding has recently been challenged [82]. A number of Ficus species are used as food and for medicinal properties in Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), especially among people where these species grow. These uses, however, originated and are most widely found in the Middle East. It is reasonable to consider that a survey of ethnomedical uses of a plant may provide useful clues for drug discovery.
4.1 Ethnobotanical Studies of Ficus Species Ayurvedic medicine utilizes at least three different Ficus species [83, 84]. Figs are used as external treatments for eczema, leprosy, rheumatism, sores, ulcers, and pains. Like TCM, Ayurvedic medicine recommends gargling with fig decoctions for sore throats and the ingestion of figs as a treatment for 59 diarrhea. Other Ayurvedic uses include treatment of dysentery, gonorrhoea, and menorrhagia and as an aphrodisiac [83]. In TCM, the fig is only rarely used, partly because this fruit is found only in the most Southern regions of China, but also because the fruits are regarded more as a food rather than a medicine and served after being salted like pickles, cooked in water, or sun-dried. Medicinally, figs are recommended both for improving the appetite and as treatment for diarrhea. For hemorrhoids, a decoction of the leaves is applied locally, while simultaneously cooked figs are also ingested orally. Ficus religiosa (Peepal), F. benghalensis (Bar), F. benjamina (Sami), F. racemosa (Dumri), etc., possess high religious value for both Hindus and Buddhists [85] and are deemed sacred. Ficus religiosa is not uprooted; it grows on shrines and buildings, because it represents the Hindu god lord Vishnu, the god of sustenance. It
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is widely worshipped as Bodhi tree under which lord Buddha attained enlightenment [86]. Ficus benjamina is locally known as “Beringin, Waringin and Jejawi” [87]. It is traditionally used as a stomachic, hypotensive, and anti-dysentry agent [88]. Previous studies on Ficus species revealed the presence of several compounds such as alkaloids [89], triterpenes [90], ascorbic acid [91], and flavonoids [92]. Ficus exasperata is commonly known as sand paper tree and is spread in West Africa in all kinds of vegetation and particularly in secondary forest regrowth. The leaf extract from F. exasperata reported to have diverse uses such as treating hypertensive patients [93], hemostative ophthalmia, coughs, and hemorrhoid [94]. In Nigeria, young leaves of F. exasperata are prescribed as common anti-ulcer remedy. Various pharmacological actions such as antidiabetic, lipid lowering, and antifungal activities have been reported in F. exasperata [69]. F. bengalensis is the world’s largest tree in terms, its spread with some old trees covering over an acre of ground. The tree’s name “banyan” refers to the merchants who set up shop under the spreading trees. It is commonly found throughout India and grows at deciduous and semi evergreen forests. F. bengalensis, known as Vata in Sanskrit, is one of the reputed panchavalkala drugs of Ayurveda [95]. Different parts of the tree have been found to possess medicinal properties; leaves are good for ulcers, aerial roots are useful in gonorrhea, seeds and fruits are cooling and tonic. The roots of F. bengalensis are given for obstinate vomiting and infusion of its bark is considered as a tonic and astringent and is also used in diarrhea, dysentery, and diabetes. Ayurvedic practitioners in India are using the milky juice (latex) of F. bengalensis stem bark for the treatment of rheumatism and other inflammatory diseases. Ficus religiosa is commonly known as peepal in India. The plant is used to treat gout, stomatitis, leucorrhea, ulcers, inflammation, and glandular swelling of the neck [96]. F. religiosa has been reported for its wound healing [97], antibacterial [98], and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities [99]. F. religiosa has been used in the traditional system of Ayurveda to treat diabetes [100]. The leaves of F. religiosa have been studied for antihyperglycemic activity [101]. F. glomerata Roxb. Syn. F. racemosa L. is commonly known as Gular in Hindi and Cluster fig in English. It is medium sized to large evergreen or occasionally deciduous tree and found all over India and Southeast Asia. Its fruits are mixed with rice for making bread and used in several dishes. Traditionally, the bark, fruits, and latex are used to treat anemia and gastrointestinal disorders like constipation and dysentery [102]. F. racemosa L. (Indian fig) bark and fruits are well known to be useful in diabetes [103] and found that Fistein and Resveratol were as effective as vitamin E in their inhibitory action of lipid peroxidation. F. racemosa showed significant anticancer [104] and antihelminthic activities [105]. The bark is antiseptic, antipyretic, and vermicidal and a decoction of the bark is used in treating various skin diseases and ulcers. It is used as a plaster in inflammatory swellings and boils. It is also effective in the treatment of piles, dysentery, asthma, gonorrhea, hemoptysis, and urinary diseases.
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Ficus retusa has been used as aphrodisiac, antihypertensive, anticancer, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, antidiabetic, anti-helmintic, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial. Root barks and leaves are used in wounds and bruises. Dried roots mixed with salt are applied to decaying or aching tooth. Roots are used in the treatment of liver diseases [106]. Ficus septica fresh root sap is taken orally for treating whooping cough. Leaves are chewed and saps swallowed to relieve cough. Fresh leaves are used for headaches and decoction of the dried leaf is taken to prevent fever. Leaf buds are eaten for treating upset stomach and to prevent diarrhea. Leaves are crushed, mixed with seawater, and the solution is drunk to treat stomachache. Crushed leaves are applied on sores and to treat fungal infections. Moistened leaves with salt are used as a hot compress to the forehead; other body pains are treated in similar manner. Fresh root sap is used orally as poison antidote. Leaves mixed with coral lime and water are rubbed on the body to treat aches and pains normally experienced with fever [107].
4.2 Phytochemistry of Ficus Species Several authors have isolated and identified various classes of compounds from the genus Ficus. They include flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolic acids, steroids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, and coumarins (Fig. 1). 4.2.1 Steroids β-sitosterol was isolated from the leaves and roots of F. carica and F. septica, respectively. Stigmasterol has been reported in the leaves and roots of F. hirta and F. septica [108]. 24-methylenecycloartenol, ψ-taraxasterol ester, lupeol, and baurenol have been isolated from the leaves of F. carica [109], whereas sitosterol-3-O-βD- glucoside has been reported from the leaves of F. septica [110]. β-sitosterol-α-D-glucoside has been isolated from the stem bark of F. benghalensis [60]. 4.2.2 Alkaloids Few alkaloids, mostly phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids, have been isolated from the leaves and stem bark of F. septica and F. hispida. The alkaloids, ficuseptine-A, 62 antofine, and tylophorine have been isolated from the leaves of F. septica, whereas ficuseptine-B ficuseptine-C, and ficuseptine-D have been reported from the stem bark. Tylocrebrine and isotylocrebrine have been isolated from both the leaves and stem bark of F. septica [107, 111, 112]. Hispidin and 2-demethoxytylophorine have been reported from the stem bark and leaves of F. hispida, respectively [113].
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Fig. 1 Various classes of compounds from the genus Ficus
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Fig. 18.1 (continued)
4.2.3 Coumarins Another class of constituents commonly found in this genus are coumarins particularly, of the furanocoumarin type. They have been isolated from the stem, leaves, and roots of some Ficus species and are reported to be responsible for the contact dermatitis associated with Ficus species [114]. The coumarins psoralen, bergapten,
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Fig. 18.1 (continued)
marmesin, umbelliferone, and 41, 51-dihydropsoralen have been reported in the leaves and stem bark of F. carica [115]. Psoralen has also been reported in the roots of F. hirta [108]. Chang et al. [116] isolated 5-O-β-Dglucopyranosyl-6- hydroxyangelicin, 6-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-5-hydroxyangelicin, 5-O-β-Dglucopyranosyl-8-hydroxypsoralen, 8-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-5- hydroxypsoralen, and 5, 6-O-β-D-diglucopyranosylangelicin from the leaves of F. ruficaulis. Esculin has also been isolated from the leaves of F. septica [110]. Bergapten and oxypeucedanin hydrate have been isolated from the aerial parts of F. pumilla. The stem bark of F. religiosa has also been found to contain coumarins bergaptol and bergapten [117]. 4.2.4 Flavonoids Genistin and kaempferitrin have been isolated from the leaves of F. septica [110]. Also, the leaves of F. ruficaulis and F. carica are reported to contain rutin and isoquercitrin [116]. Sheu et al. [118] reported the isolation of carpachromene, isoglabranin, and norartocarpetin from the stem bark of F. formosana. Luteolin has also been isolated from the aerial parts of F. pumilla [119]. The flavonoid apigenin has been reported in the stem bark and roots of F. hirta and F. formosana. Also, the root of F. hirta is reported to contain hesperidin, 5-hydroxy-41, 6, 7, 8- tetramethoxy flavone, and 41, 5, 6, 7, 8-pentamethoxyflavone [108, 118]. Several other flavonoids, including alpinumisoflavone, cajanin, derrone, 5, 7-dihydroxy-4-methoxy31-(2,3-dihydroxy-3-methylbutyl) isoflavone, erycibenin A, erycibenin C, genistein, 31-(3-methylbut-2-enyl) biochanin A, and 5,7, 21- trihydroxy-41-methoxyisoflavone, have been isolated from the stem bark of F. nymphaeifolia [120].
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4.2.5 Triterpenoids Squalene has been isolated from the leaves of F. septica [110]. Li et al. [108], isolated 3β-acetoxy-α-amyrin, 3β-acetoxy-β-amyrin, and 3β-hydroxystigmast-5-en-7one from the roots of F. hirta. A number of triterpenoids with C-28 carboxylic acid functional group have been isolated from the aerial roots of F. microcarpa. They include betulonic acid, oleanonic acid, 3-oxofriedalan-28-oic acid, ursolic acid, and ursonic acid [106]. Lupenol, lupenol acetate, 20-taraxastene-3β, 22α-diol, 29, 30-dinor-3β-acetoxy-18, 19-secolupane, 3, 22-dioxo-20- taraxastene, and 3β-hydroxy-20-oxo-29(20 → 19) abeolupane have also been isolated from the aerial roots of F. microcarpa. Others include 3-acetoxy-12, 19-dioxo- 13(18)- oleanene, 3-acetoxy-1,11-epidioxy-12-ursene, 3-acetoxy-12,13-epoxy-11- hydroperoxyursane, 3-acetoxy-11,12-epoxy-16-oxo-14-taraxerene, 3-acetoxy-11, 12- epoxy-14- taraxerene, 3-acetoxy-20, 21-epoxytaraxastane, 3-acetoxy-21, 22- epoxytaraxastan-20-ol, 3-acetoxy20, 21-epoxytaraxastan-22-ol, and 3-acetoxy-18- hydroperoxy-12-oleanen-11-one [106]. 4.2.6 Miscellaneous Other compounds which have been isolated from this genus include bergenin and racemosic acid from the stem bark of F. racemosa [108], cyanidin 3-O-glucoside and cyanidin- 3-O-rhamnoglucoside from the fruits of F. carica [121], ficuformodiol A and ficuformodiol B from the stem bark of F. formosana [118].
4.3 Pharmaceutical Activities of Ficus Species A number of Ficus species have shown diverse biological and pharmacological activities. They have been investigated as potential repository of natural products for the treatment of various diseases including tumors, diabetes, pain, inflammatory, microbial diseases, and wound healing and as antioxidants (Fig. 2). 4.3.1 Analgesic Activity Analgesic activity of the leaf extract of Ficus glomerata Roxb. and stem bark of F. bengalensis Linn has been confirmed, respectively, by Sehgal [122] and Patil and Patil [71]. The ethanol extracts of F. racemosa bark and leaves were evaluated for analgesic activity by analgesiometer at 100, 300, and 500 mg/kg and were found to possess dose-dependent analgesic activity [123].
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Antiinflammatory Anti-microbial
Anti-cancer
Anti-diabetic
Ficus species
Wound healing
Immunomodu latory
Anti-ulcer Analgesic
Fig. 2 Pharmacological activities of Ficus species
4.3.2 Anticancer Activity Medicinal plant products exhibiting anticancer activity continue to be the subject of extensive research aimed at the development of new or alternative drugs for the treatment of different human tumors. Lalla [124] reported F. glomerata and F. racemosa Linn. for the treatment of skin cancer. Both the natural and compounds synthesized from F. carica showed in vitro inhibitory effects on proliferation of various cancer cell lines [60]. Fruit extracts of F. benjamina Linn., F. bengalensis, F. religiosa Linn., and F. sycomorus Linn., an African species, exhibited antitumor activity in the potato disc bioassay [125]. 4.3.3 Antiulcer Activity The healing activity of whole plant extract of F. deltoidea Jack. was studied in gastric ulcer induced by ethanol in rats; the extract promoted ulcer protection as ascertained by the comparative significant decreases in ulcer areas and inhibition of
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submucosal edema and leucocytes infiltration of submucosal layer [126]. Sivaraman and Muralidharan [127] reported F. hispida as a potent anti-ulcerogenic as well as ulcer healing properties and could act as a potent therapeutic agent against peptic ulcer disease. The antiulcer potential of the ethanol extract of stem bark of F. religiosa against in vivo indomethacin, cold restrained stress-induced gastric ulcer and pylorus ligation assays was validated. The extract (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) significantly reduced the ulcer index in all assays used. The extract also significantly increased the pH of gastric acid, while at the same time reduced the volume of gastric juice, free, and total acidities. The study provides preliminary data on the antiulcer potential of Ficus religiosa stem bark and supports the traditional uses of the plant for the treatment of gastric ulcer [84]. 4.3.4 Antioxidant Activity Cell membranes are especially vulnerable to the aggression of free radicals. When the nucleus is damaged, the cell loses its ability to replicate itself. The impaired cell replication results in the weakened immune system, skin aging, and many age- related disorders. Various antioxidants deactivate the free radicals and prevent oxidation on a cellular level. Some commonly used plants as antiaging agents include F. bengalensis [72, 84]. The water extract (WE) and crude hot-water soluble polysaccharide (PS) from F. carica fruit were investigated for scavenging abilities on DPPH, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals, and reducing power. The immune activities of PS were evaluated using the carbon clearance test and serum hemolysin analysis in mice. Both WE and PS have scavenging activities on DPPH with the EC50 0.72 and 0.61 mg/ml, respectively. The PS showed higher scavenging activity than WE on superoxide radical (EC50, 0.95 mg/ml) and hydroxyl anion radical (scavenging rate 43.4% at 4 mg/ml). The PS (500 mg/kg) also has a significant increase in the clearance rate of carbon particles and serum hemolysin level of normal mice. This indicates the scavenging activity and immune responses of the extract [60]. The antioxidant effect of species of Ficus may be attributed to the polyphenolic compounds they possess. The antioxidant effect of aqueous extract of the bark of F. bengalensis has been evaluated in hypercholesterolemia rabbits by Shukla et al. [61] and confirmed its significant antioxidant effect. The potential health-promoting constituents of fig fruits were studied with six commercial fig varieties differing in color (black, red, yellow, and green) for total polyphenols, total flavonoids, antioxidant capacity, and profile of anthocyanins. In the dark-colored mission and the red Brown-Turkey varieties, the anthocyanin fraction contributed 36 and 28% of the total antioxidant capacity, C3R (cyanidin- 3-O-rutinoside) contributed 92% of the total antioxidant capacity of the anthocyanin fraction. Fruits of the mission variety contained the highest levels of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins and exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity [60].
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The ethanolic extract of leaves of Ficus religiosa was evaluated for antioxidant (DPPH), wound healing (incision, excision, histopathological, and dead space wound model), and anti-inflammatory (Carrageenan-induced paw edema) activity. The tested extract of different dilutions in range 200 μg/ml to 1000 μg/ml shows antioxidant activity in range of 6.34% to 13.35%. Significant increases in wound closure rate, skin breaking strength, and granuloma breaking strength were observed. The extract shows prominent anti-inflammatory activity as compared to that of standard (Ibuprofen gel) [128]. 4.3.5 Antidiabetic Activity The aqueous extract of Ficus religiosa Linn. was assessed at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg orally and it decreased the fasting blood glucose in streptozotocin- induced type 2 diabetic rats. The drug had enzyme induction effect with respect to catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) activity, however, decreased the exaggerated activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in type 2 diabetic rats. F. religiosa modulated the enzymes of significant antioxidant defense system to combat oxidative stress. Drug at higher dose (200 mg/kg) had more pronounced effect. F. religiosa, a rasayana group of plant drug having antidiabetic activity along with antioxidant potential, was beneficial in treatment of type-2 diabetes [129]. According to Ayurvedic system of medicine, F. bengalensis is well known in the treatment of diabetes [67]. This attracted the attention of many earlier workers who studied the hypoglycemic effect of extracts from its bark and tried to isolate active compounds. Bark of this plant has antidiabetic properties. The hypoglycemic effect of extract of bark was demonstrated in alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits, rats, and in humans. Potent hypoglycemic water-insoluble principle was isolated from the bark and a water-soluble hypoglycemic principle was also isolated from the bark which was effective at a low dose of 10 mg/kg, bw/day [72]. Both the banyan bark principles were effective in mild as well as severe alloxan-induced diabetes in rabbits and improved lipid profile [130]. The aqueous leaf extract of F. carica induced a significant hypoglycaemic effect in oral or intraperitoneal administration in streptozotocin - diabetic rats. Weight loss was prevented in treated diabetic rats and the survival index was significantly altered by plasma insulin levels [60]. Singh et al. [68] reported that F. bengalensis, F. carica, and F. glomerata are effective in the treatment of diabetes. The hypoglycemic activity of ethanol extracts of leaves of F. glomerata has significant antihyperglycemic effect in experimental albino rat model of diabetes mellitus [71]. Hypolipidemic effect of the water extract of the bark of F. bengalensis was investigated in alloxan- induced diabetes mellitus in rabbits; showing a good glycemic control also corrects the abnormalities in serum lipid profile associated with diabetes mellitus in view of the ability of the extract to improve carbohydrate and lipid metabolism [61]. The fruits of F. glomerata, locally known as Gular, have been used since ancient times in the ethnomedicine including as a remedy of diabetes mellitus [102]. The aqueous extract of F. bengalensis at a dose of 500 mg/kg/day exhibits significant
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antidiabetic and ameliorative activity as evidenced by histological studies in normal and F. bengalensis-treated streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. F. exasperata Vahl and F. arnottiana Miq. are also reported to have antidiabetic activity by Sonibare et al. [69] and Mazumdar et al. [70], respectively. The antidiabetic effect of aqueous extract of F. religiosa bark (FRAE) in normal glucose-loaded hyperglycemic and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats, at the dose of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, was investigated. The effect was more pronounced in 50 and 100 mg/kg than 25 mg/kg. FRAE also showed significant increase in serum insulin, body weight, and glycogen content in liver and skeletal muscle of STZ- induced diabetic rats, while there was significant reduction in the levels of serum triglyceride and total cholesterol. FRAE also showed significant antilipidperoxidative effect in the pancreas of STZ-induced diabetic rats [131]. The glucose-lowering efficacy of methanol extract of F. racemosa stem bark was evaluated both in normal and in alloxan-induced diabetic rats at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg p.o. The activity was also comparable to that of the effect produced by a standard antidiabetic agent, glibenclamide (10 mg/kg), proving its folklore claim as antidiabetic agent [132–134]. The relationship of the post-absorptive state to the hypoglycemic studies on F. racemosa showed that the absorption of the drug leads to a better hypoglycemic activity [135]. The ethanol extract (250 mg/kg/day, p.o.) lowered blood glucose level within 2 weeks in the alloxan diabetic albino rats confirming its hypoglycemic activity. β-sitosterol isolated from the stem bark was found to possess potent hypoglycemic activity when compared to other isolated compounds [136]. F. racemosa methanol extract of powdered fruits at the dose 1, 2, 3, and 4 g/kg reduced the blood glucose level in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits [137]. Ethanolic extract of F. racemosa leaves lowered the blood glucose levels by 18.4 and 17.0% at 5 and 24 h, respectively, in sucrose challenged streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model at the dose of 100 mg/kg body weight [138]. 4.3.6 Skin Diseases As one of the oldest known human foods, figs as a fruit have a very high safety profile. However, the toxicological evaluation of other fig products is in an early stage. Skin contact with latex may provoke allergic reactions like dermatitis, asthma, and anaphylaxis, while orally administered latex may induce hallucinosis [139]. Effects other than discussed above may be therapeutic or toxic, depending on the clinical context [140]. 4.3.7 Hepatoprotective Activity The ethanol extract of F. carica, at doses of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg, showed significant dose-dependent reduction in normal body temperature and yeast-provoked elevated temperature. The effect extended up to 5 h after drug administration when
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compared to that of paracetamol (150 mg/kg.), a standard antipyretic agent. This shows the antipyretic effect of ethanol extract of F. carica [60]. F. bengalensis also shows antipyretic activity [72]. F. racemosa methanol extract of stem bark was evaluated on normal body temperature and yeast-induced pyrexia in albino rats, at doses of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg body wt. p.o. It showed significant dose-dependent reduction in normal body temperature and yeast-provoked elevated temperature which extended up to 5 h after drug administration. The anti-pyretic effect was comparable to that of paracetamol [141]. Shade-dried leaves of Ficus carica were extracted using petroleum ether (60–80 °C) and tested for antihepatotoxic activity on rats treated with 50 mg/kg of rifampicin orally. The result indicated promising hepatoprotective activity [142]. The ethanolic extract of F. benjamina possesses hepatoprotective activity against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in rats [143]. An ethanolic extract of Ficus racemosa leaves was evaluated for hepatoprotective activity in rats by inducing chronic liver damage by subcutaneous injection of 50% v/v carbon tetrachloride in liquid paraffin at a dose of 3 mL/kg on alternate days for a period of 4 weeks. The biochemical parameters SGOT, SGPT, serum bilirubin, and alkaline phosphates were estimated to assess the liver function [144]. In another study, the methanol extract of stem bark at the doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg was evaluated for its hepatoprotective activity in rats against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage with silymarin as standard. It showed significant reversal of all biochemical parameter to normal when compared to carbon tetrachloride-treated control rats in serum, liver, and kidney [145]. 4.3.8 Anthelmintic Activity The latex of F. glabrata has been evaluated clinically and shown to be a potent and well-tolerated anthelmintic agent [146], 1986). The methanolic, chloroform, and petroleum ether extracts of the roots of F. bengalensis have potent anthelmintic activity when compared with conventionally used drug and are equipotent to standard anthelmintic drug [147]. The aqueous extract of F. racemosa possesses wormicidal activity and thus may be used as an anthelmintic [148]. 4.3.9 Anti-inflammatory Activity The anti-inflammatory effects of ethanolic and petroleum ether extracts of the bark of F. bengalensis were evaluated in carrageenan-induced hind paw edema in rats and the paw volume was measured plethysmometrically at 0 to 3 h after injection. The results indicated that the ethanolic extract of F. bengalensis exhibited more significant activity than petroleum ether in the treatment of inflammation compared with the standard drug Indomethacin [72]. The methanolic extract of the stem bark of Ficus religiosa L. was screened for its anti-inflammatory activity in Wistar albino rats. A significant inhibition of carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, comparable to
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that produced by indomethacin, was obtained with all the three doses of the extract. The anti-inflammatory activity of F. racemosa extract was evaluated on carrageenan, serotonin, histamine, and dextran-induced rat hind paw edema models where the extract (400 mg/kg) exhibited anti-inflammatory effect of 30.4, 32.2, 33.9, and 32.0%, respectively. In a chronic test, the extract (400 mg/kg) showed 41.5% reduction in granuloma weight, which was comparable to that of phenylbutazone [144]. The acetone extract of Ficus amplissima leaves was studied for antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory by using carrageenan and histamine-induced rat paw edema models and wound healing activity. In this study, the acetone extract of Ficus amplissima leaves exhibited better anti-inflammatory, wound healing, and in vivo antioxidant activity probably due to phenols constituents [149]. In addition, the effect of methanolic extract of the bark of Ficus amplissima (FAB) in streptozotocin- induced diabetic rats and found that 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg than 150 mg/kg, three doses, caused significant reduction in blood glucose levels. Also showed significant increase in serum insulin and body weight, glycogen content in liver, skeletal muscle, total protein contents, and significant reduction in the levels of serum triglyceride and total cholesterol [150]. 4.3.10 Immunomodulatory Activity Gabhe [151] evaluated the immunomodulatory activity of the aerial roots of F. bengalensis. The successive methanol and water extracts exhibited a significant increase in the percentage of phagocytosis versus the control. In the in vivo studies, the successive methanol extract was found to exhibit a dose-related increase in the hypersensitivity reaction to the SRBC antigen. It also resulted in a significant increase in the antibody titter value to SRBC. The immunomodulatory effect of alcoholic extract of the bark of F. religiosa in mice was investigated. Administration of extract remarkably ameliorated both cellular and tic rats, while there was humoral antibody response [152]. In Ayurvedic medicine, F. racemosa L. is used as a wound healing agent [64]. The aqueous extract of the whole plant of F. deltoidea was investigated by Abdulla et al. [65] to evaluate the rate of wound healing enclosure and the histology of healed wounds in rats and results strongly document the beneficial and significant effects to accelerate the rate of wound healing enclosure in the experimentally induced wounds in rats. The wound-healing activity (incision and excision model) of Ficus religiosa leaf extract prepared as ointment form (5 and 10%) was investigated. Povidone iodine 5% was used as standard drug. The healing of wound was assessed by the rate of wound contraction, decreased in the period of epithelialization, high skin breaking strength was observed in animals. Ten percent ointment shows better wound healing activity than 5% concentration [57].
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4.3.11 Other Pharmacological Activities Mukherjee et al. [153] evaluated ethanol extracts of F. bengalensis (hanging roots), Eugenia jambolana Lam. (bark), F. racemosa (bark), and Leucas lavandulaefolia Rees (aerial parts) and showed significant inhibitory activity against castor oil- induced diarrhea and PGE2-induced enter pooling in rats. These extracts also showed a significant reduction in gastrointestinal motility in charcoal meal tests in rats. The results obtained establish the efficacy of all these plant materials as antidiarrheal agents. Mandal and Kumar [144] reported F. hispida Linn. leaf extract as an antidiarrheal agent. Extracts of F. bengalensis bark were screened for its antiallergic and anti-stress potential in asthma by milk-induced leucocytosis and milk-induced eosinophilia. Aqueous, ethanol, and ethyl acetate extracts showed significant decrease in leucocytes and eosinophils in the order given, while petroleum ether and chloroform extracts were inactive. This shows the application of polar constituents of F. bengalensis bark as anti-stress and antiallergic agents in asthma [154]. F. religiosa is also used for the treatment of bronchial asthma. Malhotra et al. [155] were the first who investigated the antiasthmatic potential of the alcoholic bark extract of the F. religiosa. The extract showed inhibitory effect on both acetylcholine-induced and histamine-induced experimental asthma [155]. The majority of the medicinal uses of figs in humans are based on historical reports or anecdotal evidence with only a few reports coming from modern clinical trials. In one such report, 40 g/day of dried figs were fed to healthy volunteers and found to potently reduce oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) as measured by the trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) antioxidant assay [156]. In a second study, an aqueous decoction of Ficus carica leaves was found to be effective in ameliorating postprandial hyperglycemia in Type 1 diabetes mellitus and was well tolerated [157]. Most recently, Ficus carica leaf latex proved as effective as cryotherapy when applied externally to common warts [158].
5 Significance of Ficus Species Fig trees of several different species show multiple cancer preventive, cancer therapeutic, and anti-inflammatory activities from their bark, roots, leaves, fruits, and latex. Pharmacological and chemical studies have demonstrated antineoplastic or anti-inflammatory activity of both the crude extract and pure compounds, of particular promise, due to their potent cytotoxic activity against a number of cancer cell lines, which are the phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids and the triterpenoids with C-18 carboxylic acid functional groups. In fact, these alkaloids, which have also been found in a small number of other plant genera, are currently under active investigation as potential therapeutic leads [159]. In addition to these cytotoxic compounds, several flavonoids, including anthocyanins, as well as other phenolic compounds, demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities [108, 161].
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Furthermore, lectins in the seeds may function as immune modulators [161]. The sterols found in figs may also help bolster immunity, as well as inhibiting inflammation and invasion while promoting apoptosis and differentiation [162]. Coumarins, in many cases, are selectively cytotoxic to cancer cells and also have antioxidant activity and may interfere with formation of the lipoxygenase product 5-HETE to suppress inflammation [163]. Some correlation between the ethnomedical employment and the pharmacological activities has been duly observed and noted in the present review. As only a small fraction of the known Ficus spp. and parts has been evaluated for anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities, figs may constitute a rather large untapped source for new chemical entities with anticancer actions. In last few years, there has been an exponential growth in the field of herbal medicines to cure various diseases including diabetes.
6 Conclusions and Future Perspective Ficus species have been identified as a potential and significant medicinal plant used to treat a variety of diseases, according to a comprehensive literature assessment. The world is abundant in therapeutic herbs, which is quite pleasurable. The scientific work of the Ficus genus was reviewed in this article. The traditional uses, phytochemical components, and medicinal action of these plants were discussed. The goal of this research is to compile a list of articles on Ficus species. Secondary metabolites such as triterpenoid, steroid, saponin, flavonoid, phenolic compound, and alkaloid were discovered in various Ficus species, according to a critical study of the literature. Quercetin, quercetin 3-O—L-arabinopyranoside, epilupeol acetate, oleanolic acid, friedelin, elastiquinone, pinocembrin-7-O—D-glucoside, and ficusoside B were all isolated as pure compounds. These opportunities derive primarily from the extremely benign safety profile of fig fruit products, pleasant taste, and its antioxidant constituents. Because the antioxidant action is also a means of lowering chronic anti-inflammatory action and insulin resistance, fig fruits hold potential in functional food approaches aimed at normalizing metabolic syndrome and boosting wellness beyond the widely accepted role of figs in the diet for improving bowel performance and as a source of naturally sweet, readily available, quick energy. Ficus species are rich source of polyphenolic compounds, flavonoids, which are responsible for strong antioxidant properties that help in prevention and therapy of various oxidative stress-related diseases such as pain reliever, cancer, anti-ulcerogenic, aging, diabetes, fever, antherogenesis, helminths infections, inflammation, immune system, diarrhea, allergy, and stress [160]. Traditional uses, phytochemical components, and medicinal activities of Ficus plants were summarized. The majority of the species were utilized as traditional medicine in Asian nations such as Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Vietnam, Pakistan, Thailand, and Vanuatu, according to the literature review. Some Ficus species require additional research into their pharmacological properties, based on processes and chemical content.
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Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Sunil Kumar and Bikarma Singh
1 Introduction Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don and Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz are important and the most explored plant species belonging to the dogbane family Apocynaceae. These species recorded as endemic to Madagaskar and originate from India (Fig. 1). C. roseus is commonly known as pink periwinkle, rose periwinkle, Cape periwinkle, bright eyes, Madagascar periwinkle, graveyard plant, and old maid, whereas Indian snakeroot, sarpagandha, Chandrika and devil pepper, or serpentine wood are common names of R. serpentina [1–5]. In the Ayurvedic system of medicine, different parts of C. roseus and R. serpentina are used in folklore herbal medicine for the treatment of many types of cancer, diabetes, stomach disorders, kidney, liver, snakebites, hypertension, and associated cardiovascular diseases by the local people of tropical regions of Africa, Asia, America, and various Oceanic islands [6–11]. C. roseus is an ornamental plant that has flowers of a different color for most of the year. Both the plant species have been distributed throughout the world and used in traditional medicine for ages in various parts of the world [11]. The extracts, fractions and compounds of C. roseus and R. serpentina plants are extensively studied for their pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiprotozoal, antitrypanosomal, antipsychotic, cardioprotective, cholinesterase inhibitory, and hepatoprotective due to the rich content of bioactive S. Kumar Department of Chemistry, Ma. Kanshiram Government Degree College, Ninowa (affiliated to Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University (CSJM) Kanpur), Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh, India B. Singh (*) Botanic Garden Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_19
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Fig. 1 Pictures of Catharanthus roseus (a), Rauvolfia serpentina (b), and Rauvolfia serpentina root (c)
monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) and bisindole alkaloids [11–17]. Reserpine, ajmalicine, ajmaline, serpentine, and yohimbine (aphrodisiac) are MIAs reported as antihypertensive and antiarrhythmic, cerebral vasodilators, and anticancer agents (vincristine and vinblastine) and included in the World Health Organization (WHO) Model List of Essential Medicines [18–25]. In the 1960s, vinblastine and vincristine were isolated from C. roseus and approved by the US Food and Drug Administration as chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of several types of cancer [26, 27]. This chapter aims to provide updated and comprehensive information on the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of C. roseus and R. serpentina (Table 1).
2 Phytochemistry 2.1 The Biosynthetic Pathway of Terpenoid Indole Alkaloids The biosynthesis of indole alkaloids in MIAs is very complex, involving more than 50 metabolic steps to synthesize the most important alkaloids (Fig. 2). About 20 of the 50 enzymes necessary for their biosynthesis have been identified and characterized by different techniques. Thus, there are still a number of important enzymes that are essential to be characterized, which can only be done after the isolation and
Reserpiline
Ajmalicine
Serpentinic acid
Serpentine
Rauvoyunnanine B
Yohimbinic acid (Yohimbic acid)
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
340
414
348
334
352
412
412
Isoreserpiline
5.
3.
2.
4.
MS (Da) 354
10-Methoxynormacusine 324 B (Lochnerine) (10-OMethylsarpagine) Tetraphyllicine 308 (serpinine) Ajmaline 326
Serial no. Compound/subclass 1. Sitsirikine
Stem bark
C20H24N2O3 Root
C22H23ClN2O4 Whole plants
C21H20N2O3
Whole plant
Leaves, stem, and root
C21H24N2O3 C20H18N2O3
Leaves, stem bark, and root
Leaves, stem bark, and root bark Leaves, stem bark, and root bark Leaves, stem bark, and root
Distribution or source Leaves, stem bark, and twigs Leaves, stem bark, root bark
C23H28N2O5
C23H28N2O5
C20H26N2O2
C20H24N2O
C20H24N2O2
Molecular formula C21H26N2O3
C. roseus, R. serpentina
R. serpentina
R. serpentina
R. serpentina
C. roseus, R. serpentina
C. roseus, R. serpentina
C. roseus, R. serpentina C. roseus, R. serpentina C. roseus, R. serpentina
Species C. roseus, R. serpentina R. serpentina
Cytotoxic
Immunosuppressive
Antioxidant, possible anticancer
Immunosuppressive
Immunosuppressive
Antipsychotic, antigastric secretion, antihypertension
(continued)
Antiarrhythmia, antifibrillation, cardiac and liver toxicity, immunosuppressive Antipsychotic
Myocardial excitation
Immunosuppressive
Activity Immunosuppressive
Table 1 Different classes of Secondary metabolites with mass, molecular formula, their distribution in parts, and pharmacological properties of Catharanthus roseus and Rauvolfia serpentina
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354
β-Yohimbine
18-Hydroxyyohimbine
Reserpine
Rescinnamine Akuammine Catharanthine
Vindoline
Vinblastine
Vincristine
14.
15.
16.
17. 18. 19.
20.
21.
22.
825
811
456
634 382 336
608
370
354
α-Yohimbine
MS (Da) 340
13.
Serial no. Compound/subclass 12. Isorauhimbinic acid
Table 1 (continued)
C46H56N4O10
C46H58N4O9
C25H32N2O6
C35H42N2O9 C22H26N2O4 C21H24N2O2
C33H40N2O9
C21H26N2O4
C21H26N2O3
C21H26N2O3
Molecular formula C20H24N2O3
Leaves, stem bark, and root Stem, stem bark, and root bark Leaves, stem bark, and root Leaves and root bark Root Leaves, stem bark, and root Leaves, stem bark, and root Leaves, stem bark, and root Leaves, stem bark, and root
Leaves, stem bark, and root
Distribution or source Root
C. roseus
C. roseus
C. roseus
C. roseus, R. serpentina C. roseus, R. serpentina C. roseus, R. serpentina R. serpentina R. serpentina C. roseus
Species C. roseus, R. serpentina C. roseus, R. serpentina
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy
Antihypertension Antimalarial Acethylcholinesterase inhibition
Antipsychotic, antihypertension, antidepression, anticancer, carcinogenesis Immunosuppressive
Immunosuppressive, antibacterial, cytotoxic, pre- and postsynaptic α2-adrenoceptor inhibitor, stimulant and aphrodisiac effect, antidiabetic Cytotoxic
Activity Cytotoxic
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Fig. 2 Biosynthetic pathways of indole alkaloids in Catharanthus roseus, Rauvolfia serpentina
cloning of the relevant genes. It is also of fundamental importance to identify the regulatory aspects of TIA biosynthesis, both at the cellular and the molecular levels, to address the question of their function in the plants and to increase their production by biotechnological approaches. In the biosynthetic pathways, tryptamine and monoterpenoid secologanin are starting materials for the biosynthesis of MIAs. Tryptamine and secologanin are the precursors for the synthesis of terpenoid (isoprenoid) and indole biosynthesis, respectively. The stereospecific condensation of tryptamine and secologanin yields the universal MIAs precursor, strictosidine,
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which has S-configuration at C-5 and is produced through Pictet-Spengler-type reaction. The major dehydrogeissoschizine is formed as an intermediate due to loss of glucose moiety which is a starting material for the biosynthesis of sarpagine, ajmaline, ajmalicine, and reserpine classes of MIAs. Biosynthetic pathways of ajmaline, ajmalicine, sarpagine, and reserpine classes of compounds have been illustrated in R. serpentina, but some enzymes and synthetic processes are yet unexplored (Ruppert et al., 2005; O’Connor and Maresh, 2006). Various enzymatic condensations, rearrangement, oxidation, and reduction lead to the synthesis of different types of MIAs from dehydrogeissoschizine in R. serpentina [28–32]. Vindoline and catharanthine, which are produced by 3α (S)-strictosidine via multistep enzymatic reaction, can form α-3, 4-anhydrovinblastine by condensation reaction. In the biosynthesis of bisindole alkaloids like vincristine and vinblastine, combination of catharanthine and vindoline is modified and converted into iminium ions. The iminium ions and 3′,4′-anhydrovinblastine are interconvertible to each other and biosynthesized vinblastine. Furthermore, vincristine and leurosine are synthesized from vinblastine, but convertible enzymes are involved during the biosynthesis. Only 26 genes involved in the assembly of these two bisindole alkaloids are known; two key reactions have eluded characterization to complete the documentation of the vinblastine pathway in C. roseus [33–40]. Many traditional methods have been reported for analysis of indole alkaloids from C. roseus and R. serpentina for more than five decades. In this study, a rapid and validated method was developed for fingerprinting roots, leaves, and culture of R. serpentina by direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry (DART-MS) for tentative identification of ten MIAs on the basis of their exact mass measurements from the intact plant parts [41]. More than 40 MIAs were identified by using high- performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, along with reserpine, ajmalicine, ajmaline, serpentine, and yohimbine that were unambiguously identified and quantified by comparison with their authentic standards in ethanolic extracts of R. serpentina [42, 43]. More advanced strategies have been reported for the identification and characterization of the same classes of MIAs using multistage mass analysis (MSn). More than 30 MIAs have been reported in R. serpentina on the basis of chromatographic and mass spectrometric features as well as HRMS/MS, an MSn analysis [44, 45]. Similarly, the rapid and realizable HPLC-MSMS methods were reported for identification and characterization of total of 72 MIAs, out of which 11 were unambiguously identified by comparison with their standards and the remaining 61 were tentatively identified on the basis of diagnostic fragmentation pathways for vinpocetine, vindesine, catharanthine, vinblastine, vindoline, and vincristine. Ajmaline, ajmalicine, reserpine, vincristine, vinblastine, vindesine, yohimbine, and serpentine were quantified by a rapid, sensitive, reproducible, and validated method using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization hybrid triple quadrupole-linear ion trap mass spectrometry in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode [46–48].
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Fig. 3 Flowchart of isolation of MIAs
2.2 Isolation of Bioactive Alkaloids Various studies available that reported the isolation procedure of different components from C. roseus and R. serpentina in detail and identified bisindole alkaloids (Fig. 3). The various objective behind the old extraction procedures were designated as selective or distinction extraction, since a weak organic acid (tartaric acid) was used to bind the stronger bases with the help of acidic proton, allowing the separation of alkaloids that complex only weakly with the acid, and in this form, are soluble in benzene. The partially deactivated chromatography on alumina with 10% acetic acid follows, then another form of differential extraction was used. The pH plays an important role and involved stepwise adjustment of the pH, and extraction with benzene after each adjustment of pH values. Following this procedure, vincristine and vinrosidine were separated and isolated. Vinblastine and vinleurosine did not need this procedure, since they could be separated by crystallization rather readily. Vinleurosine was crystallized from methanol, whereas vinblastine could be crystallized with ethanol but not methanol [17, 20, 49–55].
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3 Pharmacological Activities The crude extracts and isolated MIAs from different parts of C. roseus and R. serpentina have been reported for various pharmacological activities (Fig. 4). The ethanolic and methanolic crude extracts of both species have strong pharmacological bioactivities in both in vivo and in vitro studies. The crude extracts of R. serpentina and its MIAs have been shown to have effects on the central nervous system and CVD. C. roseus has been used in chemotherapies. Anthelminthic, antibacterial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal antihyperlipidemic, antihypertensive, anti- inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitrypanosomal, cardioprotective, cholinesterase inhibitory, hepatoprotective, and cytotoxic activities were reported in different extracts/fractions of plant parts [56–60].
3.1 Chemotherapy The pharmacological actions of the C. roseus and R. serpentina were reported due to the presence of indole alkaloids that localized most parts of the plants. Both C. roseus and R. serpentina are as well one of the most extensively explored
Fig. 4 Different biological activities of the various extracts of C. roseus and R. serpentina
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medicinal herbs. C. roseus is more important and in high demand due to its anticancerous bisindole alkaloids, vinblastine and vincristine. Besides, the significance of C. roseus plant in modern system of medicine has been recognized only after the coincidence discovery of vinblastine and vincristine which are localized in its leaves. Currently, four main alkaloids derived from Catharanthus are clinically accepted – vinblastine, vincristine, vinorelbine, and vindesine; however, only vincristine, vinblastine, and vinorelbine are allowed for clinical use in the United States [60, 61]. Ajmalicine, ajmaline, reserpine, and serpentine are also isolated from stems and roots of C. roseus and R. serpentina because of their clinical importance in the management of high blood pressure and obstructive circulatory problems as well as enhanced cerebral blood circulation [42, 43]. C. roseus plant parts such as leaves, stems, and roots also contain serpentine, which is used in the management of hypertension [46–48]. The discovery of bisindole alkaloids, vincristine and vinblastine, isolated from C. roseus symbolizes one of the most imperative introductions of plant-derived products into cancer chemotherapy. These alkaloids are used for the treatment of malignant and nonmalignant cancers. Besides chemotherapy, vincristine and vinblastine are also used in the treatment of thrombocytopenic disorders such as Moschcowitz syndrome (thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura) and immune thrombocytopenia (idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura), and microangiopathic hemolytic anemia arises [62, 63]. Even though vincristine and vinblastine are efficient in platelet and platelet-associated disorders, they are required parts of the pharmacopoeia that is used for the treatment of malignancy. Vincristine and vinblastine are also used in a broad spectrum of biochemical applications within the cells and tissues. The exact mechanism of vincristine and vinblastine within tissue and cell for cytotoxic action is stated as the interactions with tubulin protein and disruption of microtubule (spindle fibers) actions, particularly of microtubules comprising the mitotic spindle apparatus, directly inducing metaphase arrest. Vinblastine is also used for the treatment of testicular cancer effectively. Hodgkin lymphomas and the non-Hodgkin lymphomas are other types of blood cancer that may be treated with combination regimens that comprise vinblastine. Vinblastine is also useful as an effective therapy for the treatment of Kaposi’s sarcoma, Alibert-Bazin syndrome (granuloma fungoides), and breast cancer. Vincristine is also a potent drug of cancer therapy recommended for the treatment of Hodgkin’s lymphoma and other lymphomas, as well as pediatric tumors, for example, nephroblastoma (Wilms tumor) and embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma. These drugs were initially available in the 1960s; today, the C. roseus alkaloids are incorporated in each efficient combination chemotherapy curriculum, due to their uniqueness in relation to therapeutic action and toxicities. Vincristine and vinblastine are unusually imperative in both regimens (curative and palliative). Some of its alkaloids are approved as antineoplastic agents for the treatment of leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, malignant lymphomas, neuroblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, Wilms’ tumor, and other cancers. Its vasodilating and memory-enhancing properties have experimentally been showing to alleviate vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease [64–66]. The plant also has antihypertensive and antispasmodic properties [67]. The cytotoxic activities of eight bisindole alkaloids, including catharine, leurosidine, leurosine, vinamidine, etc., have been
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reported on MDA-MB-231 cells and were tested by MTT assay. These alkaloids might induce a marked reduction of the cell viability after 72 h treatment. Among these, leurosine has exhibited the most potent inhibitory activity, while catharinine (vinamidine) the weakest activity. It is found that leurosidine showed much weaker activity than that of vinblastine. The 17-deacetoxyvinamidine has a more potent activity than catharinine (Vinamidine), implying that the lack of acetoxy at C-17 seems to be an advantage in increasing cytotoxicity. These results provided a clear indication for further structural modification in bisindole alkaloids [39, 68, 69]. Reserpine (100 ng/ml) significantly enhanced the cytotoxicity of heat-shocked- activated T cells against both Molt-4 and T98G tumor cells [70]. Yohimbinic acid and reserpine were found to be the most significant inhibitors against human topoisomerase I and II than α-yohimbine, 18-hydroxyepialloyohimbine, Nb-methylajmaline, Nb-methylisoajmaline, 3-hydroxysarpagine, isorauhimbinic acid, and reserpinine. Both compounds, yohimbinic acid and reserpine, showed 50% inhibition for topoisomerase I and II at doses of 30 and 20 μM and 20 and 40 μM, respectively, under the same conditions. α-Yohimbine, 18-hydroxyepialloyohimbine, and reserpinine were inactive and had no effect as inhibitors of topoisomerase I and II. Yohimbinic acid, isorauhimbinic acid, and reserpine also inhibited human promyelocytic leukemia (HL-60) cell growth, and reserpine showed an IC50 value of 67 μM. This inhibitory effect of reserpine was approximately the same as that of dehydrotramentenoic acid which was reported as an inhibitor of both topo II effect and HL-60 cancer cell growth [71]. Among them, compound 11-hydroxyburnamine showed promising effects. The crude extract, its fractions, and its isolated compounds, lupeol, N-methylsarpagine, and spegatrine, showed inactive cytotoxicity at 50 μg/mL against HeLa cells [72].
3.2 Antihypertensive Therapy These clinical trials were undertaken to determine whether the hypotensive action of extracts or tablets of R. serpentina is strictly limited to the period of its administration and whether it has prolonged effect. The hypotensive effect of extract of R. serpentina root (tablets) has been exposed to clinical trial in a series of 55 cases of important benign hypertension. After treatment for two weeks, the results showed that the R. serpentina root (tablets) was effective and safe for the treatment of hypertension [73, 74]. Mild to moderate hypertension has been studied via a double-blind controlled trial using 381 patients in the random distribution. During treatment, the elevation of the blood pressure effect was reported. A combination of chlorothiazide (500 mg/kg BWT) and R. serpentina root (100 mg/kg BWT) was more effective if taken twice daily and did not show any serious side effects. Controlled double-blind studies showed that compound reserpine acted as a mild antihypertensive agent at oral doses of 0.8 to 1.5 mg/day BWT; a reduction of blood pressure has also been reported [75–77]. In a study, the hypertensive effect of a whole-root preparation of R. serpentina with compound reserpine carried out on 58 patients. It has been
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observed that the whole-root preparation of R. serpentina (400 mg/day) and reserpine (0.4 mg/day) showed hypertensive effect without any significant difference. About 40% of patients who used the preparation showed a satisfactory reduction in blood pressure without any serious side effects [78]. The extract of the whole root of R. serpentina or compound reserpine was significantly effective in the treatment of hypertension with the optimal dose varied from 0–75 to 6–0 mg/kg (serpasil tablet) and 150–800 mg/kg (raudixin tablet) in 19 ambulatory patients. Sixteen patients showed reduced blood pressure but with some unavoidable side effects such as temporary heart failure and weight gain [79]. Thirty-eight patients were treated with R. serpentina preparations at a dose of 1 g per day for 6 to 20 months. About 67% of patients showed a reduction of blood pressure (10–20 mm. Hg) consistently after being treated with R. serpentina preparation. The effect of crude root extract (dosage from 150–450 mg/per day) and compound reserpine (dosage from 0.75–3 mg/ per day) along with addition of apresoline or hexamethonium in a group of 76 patients with arterial hypertension was studied for time varying between two and twelve months. The combination of apresoline or hexamethonium with crude root extract of Rauvolfia showed better results than when given alone. A cases study was reported for reserpine confirmed as a treatment for constitutional leanness [81]. A comparative study of compounds reserpine and rescinnamine for periods ranging from 5 to 12 weeks with doses ranging from 1 to 2 mg/ daily in 32 patients showed that reserpine is more effective than rescinnamine with comparatively minimum side effects [82].
3.3 Antipsychotic Activity The alkaloids (compounds 10-methoxytetrahydroalstonine, isoreserpiline, reserpiline, 10-demethoxyreserpiline, 11-demethoxyreserpiline and α-yohimbine) were tested in vivo for their antipsychotic potential on amphetamine-induced hyperactive mouse model, and the results showed that alkaloids, the mixture of compounds 11-demethoxyreserpiline and 10-demethoxyreserpiline, α-yohimbine, and reserpiline, were significantly active with 75%, 81%, and 69% inhibition, respectively, while compound isoreserpiline was moderately active (57%) and 10-methoxytetrahydroalstonine inactive (12%). α-Yohimbine was even active at 6.25 mg/kg dose followed by a mixture of alkaloid reserpiline (25 mg/kg) and 10-Demethoxyreserpiline (12.5 mg/kg) and 11-demethoxyreserpiline [82, 83]. A study showed that the root bark extract of R. vomitoria and its alkaloid reserpine with antipsychotic agent chlorpromazine in mice using 0.25, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg/ kg for extract and 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 mg/kg for reserpine were administered 24 h before testing. The extracts as well as chlorpromazine decreased locomotors’ behavior at 4.0 mg/kg (p