Beyond Frames: Dynamics Between the Creative Industries, Knowledge Institutions and the Urban Context [1 ed.] 9789059729230, 9789059728844

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Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context annick schramme rene Kooyman (ed) Giep hagoort

BeyonD Frames

pioneering minds worldwide



2 Contents

4 Introduction Schramme Annick 8 Editorial Rene Kooyman 13 The CCIs Edna dos Santos-Duisenberg

Contents

I Entrepreneurial Spirit 20

Contribution of the Creative Industries to Innovation: a Study Into Creative Spillovers Van Andel Walter, Jacobs Sofie, Schramme Annick

29

CCIs impact on economy-wide innovation Wydra Sven, Kimpeler Simone

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Cooperative ways of working: next practice for mutual and sustainable value creation in cultural and creative entrepreneurship Smit Elselien

47

Nodes of creativity, unlocking the potential of creative SME’s by managing the soft infrastructure of creative clusters De Jong Vera

56

Understanding ‘Cultural Return’: Spillover Management in the Creative Industries Hernández-Acosta Javier

65

Experience economy: management and transformation. Towards the art manager as an ethical figure Kolsteeg Johan, Ruben Jacobs

73 Entrepreneurship in the Fashion Industry: A Case Study of Slow Fashion Businesses Lavanga Mariangela, Brydges Taylor, Von Gunten Lucia 80

Budding Entrepreneurship: An Ethnographic Account Enterprises as Skills Guilds, and Apprenticeship Incubators of indigenous knowledge in Banyankore of S.W. Uganda Mutungi Emmanuel

88

(In)visible entrepreneurs: Creative enterprise in the urban music economy White Joy

96 Strategies and business models of online platforms in CCIs: convergence or differentiation in the ebook sector? Benghozi Pierre-Jean, Salvador Elisa 105 Community-based cultural entrepreneurship as a driver of social innovation in Central and Eastern European cities Dietachmair Philipp

II Urban Environment 113

Creative Urban Renewal Evaluating Cultural and Creative Entrepreneurial Development Rene Kooyman

123 Arts between tradition and marginality: a relational approach Pedrini Sabrina, Nuccio Massimiliano

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132 The Difference that Place Makes: A Case Study of Creative Industries in Greater Manchester Champion Katherine



140

Paris Galaxies in Perspective, aesthetic audit critical report Bidault-Waddington Raphaële

147

Developing creative neighbourhoods in two European medium cities: Plymouth (UK) and Malaga (Spain) Barrera Fernandez Daniel

157

All equal, but some more equal than others? Exploring the differentiation within cultural and creative industries in Chinese cities Karvelyte Kristina

173

Architecture as Mediator for the Creative Industries in Liechtenstein Kaps Vera, Staub Peter, Jochum-Gasser Ruth, Martinez Celina

183

Planning the creative milieu: Analysing creativity-led regeneration with examples from Barcelona and Vienna Hünnemeyer Vanessa

III Knowledge Institutions 192 The relational university: social innovation and entrepreneurial skills in creative industries Castro-Spila, Javier & Unceta, Alfonso 201

Education and Creative Industries: How to Overcome the Gap (Case of St. Petersburg) Sashchenko Anna, Matetskaya Marina, Gordin Valery

Contents

166 The Afrikaander Cooperative: every resident’s cup of tea!? Stimulating creative entrepreneurship in Rotterdam Afrikaanderwijk Nijkamp Jeannette, Chris Kuiper, Jack Burgers

210 From bullet proof to future-proof: how to connect with hybrid disciplines in a post-digital world Koppejan Isjah 217

From knowledge sharing to co-creation: paths and spaces for engagement between higher education and the creative and cultural industries Comunian Roberta, Gilmore Abigail

226

No Museum is an Island. Popoli Irene

234

Towards a learning environment for the creative industry Moerbeek Arjan

242

Developing Cultural and Creative Industry (CCI) Competencies in North American Knowledge Institutions Kuhlke Olaf

251 Incubator of Culture as development centre of entrepre neurial skills for creative and cultural industries – A Case Study Bakowska Sylwia 258

Beyond Frames: Sketching the grand picture A Strategic Research Agenda for the Cultural and Creative Sectors and Industries 2020 (CCSI2020) Giep Hagoort 3

Annick Schramme

Introduction: TOWARDS A FUTURE RESEARCH AGENDA

INTRODUCTION

This book, Beyond Frames (2014), is a collection of the most recent research on the Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs). All of the contributions are written by pioneers within their own fields and all have an international orientation. The book will be the basis of discussions at the international research conference in Antwerp to be held on 22-23 May 2014, the third conference on the Cultural and Creative Industries that the University of Antwerp, the Antwerp Management School and the HKU University of the Arts Utrecht have organized together. On the occasion of the first conference in 2012 in Utrecht, we published a book entitled Pioneering Minds. One could say that we were in the exploration phase of our research agenda on the creative industries worldwide. The conference was also hosted by UNCTAD, represented by Edna dos Santos-Duisenberg. A huge variety of topics were presented in Utrecht, but there was not yet a clear overview of the state of the art in this research field. Now, two years later, the research context has changed greatly. In 2012, most publications were still policy-based reports, requested by local, national or European governments or other international bodies. Although this research (mostly concerning definitions and impact research) was necessary to establish where the creative sectors stood and where we were heading, it also had a weakness: policy-based research is often very time-specific and driven by a particular policy agenda. However, we are now entering another phase in which researchers can follow their own agendas, based on their own interests, expertise and societal needs. Moreover, national funding for academic research in European countries is becoming more open to research in fields other than the traditional disciplines. For example, in 2013, the national funding body in the Netherlands created a special programme for the creative industries. A growing number of researchers are involved in the Cultural and Creative Industries. New academic networks and journals (or special issues) are evolving and the existing academic and education networks, such as AIMAC or ENCATC, are stimulating young researchers to deepen and broaden their academic research in the field. Many academic articles, special issues of existing journals, as well as books, are being published on the creative industries from different perspectives. This has also given a boost to more interdisciplinary research. Economists, sociologists, historians, architects and urban planners are now presenting their insights on actual problems to each other. During these two days in Antwerp we will find out about their experiences. With this publication we want to look beyond the traditional agenda of policy-based research and reinforce a more profound and sustainable research agenda. We were very glad that more than 60 authors from different continents submitted abstracts for our publication; and from a diversity of sectors, such as fashion, the media, music, cultural heritage, architecture and art education. This means that the research community and the critical mass on CCIs are growing across the world. The quality of the research is also improving, with the articles for our book selected through a double-blind review process. The papers chosen all have very different approaches.

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BEYOND FRAMES

Introduction: towards a future research agenda

In this publication we want to focus on three specific dimensions and the dynamics between them: the entrepreneurial spirit of the cultural and creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban environment.

These dimensions are also reflected in the structure of the book. Rather than reading the contributions as separate chapters, they should be understood as connected, with each paper covering a minimum of two of the dimensions of the triple helix. They are thus interlinked with each other through their content, although each also offers a unique point of view. We are very pleased that Edna dos Santos-Duisenberg was able to write the opening article for our book. With her experience as the Founder and Former Chief of the Creative Economy Programme, UNCTAD, and the Special Advisor for the United Nations Institute for Research and Training, UNITAR, she has a lot of expertise and a realistic overview of what is happening on a global level. Her article provides us with a holistic view on recent developments in the creative industries and offers a very good insight into the dynamics at the global and local levels. Her contribution focuses on the role of the ‘creative economy’ in the recovery of cities worldwide from the economic crisis.

INTRODUCTION

This approach undoubtedly reminds the reader of the triple-helix model (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2003). This model of the drivers of innovation is based on theories from the 1980s about the knowledge-based economy. Central to the triple-helix model is the relationship and cross-fertilization between three pillars: policymakers (in this case the urban environment), universities (knowledge institutions) and private companies (the creative industries), a relationship driven by knowledge and innovation. In the literature about the triple-helix model we can detect two approaches: firstly, one that is focused on the configuration of the network and that describes the relationships between the different parties; and, secondly, one that is more focused on the evolution of and the dynamics/interactions between the different subsystems. In this publication we want to focus on the latter, which means looking at the evolution and the dynamics between the three dimensions mentioned above: the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context.

In the first part of the book, the focus is on the entrepreneurial spirit of the cultural and creative industries. It is known that most businesses involved are SMEs or self-employed individuals who are very creative but who also need to be entrepreneurial if they want to develop their own business. Some of the authors in this chapter reflect in a critical way on the concept of entrepreneurship. Looking at the different practices, they have found that these mostly micro-level practices do not always correspond with the traditional literature on entrepreneurship. One author explains that creative entrepreneurs have some characteristics that seem to position them well for a pioneering role in the development of new social creative practices and for cooperative ways of working. Another describes the impact of the so-called ‘NEET’ (Not in Employment, Education or Training – young people) in the urban music economy. Grime music, black Atlantic creative expression, is used as a lens through which to explore and analyse the nature of entrepreneurship within this sector. Another article contributes to

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Annick Schramme

our understanding of the entrepreneurial practices of emerging designers, in particular in the slow fashion industry. It contributes to emerging studies in the fashion and design-oriented industries that consider the value of craftsmanship and the wish to ‘stay local’, predicting a rise or return of makers and small-scale manufacturing in contemporary cities.

INTRODUCTION

A lot of attention is paid to the spillover effects of the CCIs, and the positive impact on innovation output. This research confirms the importance of the CCIs for non-technical innovations. The concept of ‘cultural return’, ‘spillover management’ are being discussed, within the context of great economic challenges. The second part of the book focuses on the urban environment. Since the publication of books on the creative city by Richard Florida (2002), Charles Landry (1995; 2008) and others at the beginning of the millennium, municipal governments are playing an increasing role in the development of the creative industries. Recent decades have seen an upsurge in policymakers’ interest in culture-led urban development. Most of this research is still case-study based or comparative research on the position of the creative industries within this urban context. In his contribution, Rene Kooyman explains a new model of creative clusters, the ‘Creative Zone Innovator’ (CZI), which he recently developed with Giep Hagoort on the occasion of the CURE Project (the Creative Urban Renewal model, 2013). The Creative Zone Innovator aims to create a learning environment which enables entrepreneurs to continually expand their capacity, to create the results they want, and to remain innovative and creative. Based on a number of case studies different forms of art, urban development and cultural production are discussed as a source of social innovation. A number of territories are treated: the island of Sardinia, Naples’ suburbia, the Bolognese Apennines, Manchester (UK), Greater Paris (France), Plymouth and Malaga are analysed, offering a glimpse of the wide-spread influence of the CCIs. The third part of the book is about the role of knowledge institutions in relation to the CCIs. The role of universities in the triple-helix model is described in different ways: firstly, in terms of the valorisation of science; secondly, in terms of the teaching of new ideas, competences and entrepreneurship for the creative industries; and thirdly, in terms of the capacity to produce technology as a source of innovation. Most of the articles in this part of the book reflect on the collaborative practices emerging between knowledge institutions and the CCIs. One article even speaks of the ‘relational university’. Another remarkable article highlights the need to develop a better understanding of the practices as being at the crossroads between CCIs, academia and public policy, as part of complex triple-helix relationships and expectations. At the conclusion of the book, Giep Hagoort is designing the whole picture and gives us a lot of inspiration for some strategic research topics for the future.

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BEYOND FRAMES

Introduction: towards a future research agenda

We can conclude that a lot of the research undertaken has been based on empirical or case study research. Nevertheless, the questions are very critical and go beyond clichés. Many of the authors also take a broader view, considering the dynamics between the three elements of the triple helix, and they also explore the societal value and the spillover effects of the cultural and creative industries. Some authors wish to add a fourth element to the triple helix, that of civil society and its participants, or the ‘Quadruple Helix Model’.

Antwerp University/Antwerp Management School has collaborated with HKU University of the Arts Utrecht on this publication and in the organization of the upcoming conference. The Dutch-Flemish think-tank on Culture and Economics, which includes members from the academic world, will also participate and we believe will contribute to its success. Antwerp University/Antwerp Management School has already organized several conferences bringing together members of important academic networks on the creative industries, such as AIMAC in 2011 and ENCATC in 2013. With this conference we want to further develop Antwerp as a research platform for the creative industries in an international perspective (in collaboration with HKU/University of Utrecht). In the longer term we are hoping to develop a strategic research agenda which takes into account global trends such as digitization, globalization and the changing role of Europe. We still do not know what the impact of these trends will be on the functioning of cities, cultural entrepreneurs and our own research institutions. On the basis of the outcomes of the conference we will look to explore the important challenges for the future. Within two years, when the next conference will take place in Utrecht, it will be possible to evaluate the output of our conference and we might determine whether we have contributed to a better understanding of the dynamics of the creative industries.

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

INTRODUCTION

We hope that this publication stimulates the kind of academic research that has an interdisciplinary approach and that can contribute in a creative way to the academic field. Many participants are looking for more dialogue and greater exchange of their ideas. The University of Antwerp/Antwerp Management School, together with the HKU University of the Arts Utrecht want to stimulate debate, critical reflection and interdisciplinary research.

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Rene Kooyman

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context A READING GUIDE

Since the start of this century we are witnessing the transformation from the (post) industrial society to a knowledge society. The Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs) have sought and received a wide recognition of its fundamental role in this transition. The first decade discussions have concentrated on content and definitions, the size and importance of the sector.

EDITORIAL

In the Introduction Annick Schramme is reflecting upon the two previous publications in this series; Pioneering Minds. We explains that we are entering another phase in time, in which researchers can develop their own agendas, based on their own interests, expertise and societal needs. Moreover, national funding for academic research in European countries is becoming more open to the research community, in fields other than the traditional disciplines. As Edna dos Santos explains in her Preface, the sector was initially seen as a provocative concept, that incited lively debates and certain scepticism inside academic circles, as well as on the part of some artists and professionals involved in the cultural sector as regards the lack of limits of its definition and applicability. Since then, attempts have been made to a broader understanding of the importance of culture in economic development that operates alongside the core notion of culture in terms of values and identity. Complex interactions between formal and informal, commercial and non-commercial, instrumental and intrinsic notions of knowledge and creativity in the process of development were highlighted, demonstrating how cultural, technological, social and economic development can be understood as a holistic process when regarded from the creative economy perspective. This book covers three interlinked discussions; the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context. Part I: Entrepreneurial Spirit Walter van Andel, Sofie Jacobs, Annick Schramme start with the statement that both in academic discourse as in policy it is commonly assumed that the creative industries are a breeding ground for innovation. An example being the contributions in recent years regarding the importance of creative workers for urban development and the many policy initiatives by local and (inter)national governments. Sven Wydra and Simone Kimpeler confirm that the CCIs are believed to play a crucial role for the whole national innovation system via knowledge creation and transfer throughout the economy. They analyse the impact of supply chain and network linkages with the CCIs for innovation in other sectors. They sketch the role and potential impact channels of the CCIs to innovation in the whole economy.

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BEYOND FRAMES

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context. A reading guide

Elselien Smit takes a different perspective, and points at the bottom-up, cooperative ways of working; the social creative network-oriented practices are explored, in relation with mutual and sustainable value creation and to possible roles of cultural creative entrepreneurs. Cultural creative entrepreneurs seem to be well positioned to play a pioneering role in these social creative practices. Vera de Jong focuses on the importance of the soft creative cluster infrastructure for the creative practices of creative small medium enterprises. A framework of five critical ‘soft’ factors is presented, as well as three critical factors related to the management of this soft creative cluster infrastructure. Javier J. Hernández-Acosta approaches production and employment dynamics in the CCIs, which brings entrepreneurship to the centre stage. However, understanding how value is created is important to align business strategies with public policy. He states that cultural entrepreneurship could be developed through four levels or strategies: the business model, cultural management, cultural return and cultural citizenship.

Part I closes off with a number of case-studies. Taylor Brydges, Mariangela Lavanga, Lucia von Gunten explore entrepreneurship in the slow fashion industry at a time of significant restructuring in the global fashion industry. Drawing on a case study of self-employed designers in the slow fashion industry in Geneva (Switzerland), Rotterdam (The Netherlands) and Toronto (Canada), we argue that small, slow fashion businesses, through their innovative design, branding and retail practices, have carved out a unique niche in the hyper competitive fashion marketplace.

EDITORIAL

In recent years the term ‘experience’ has obtained a central role in arts management and marketing discourse as well as in arts management education. Increasingly the term experience is adopted in art organizations’ discourses and educational systems to foster and promote cultural products. Johan Kolsteeg and Ruben Jacobs make a plea for the art manager as an ethical figure. They discuss the concept of the ‘creating experiences’ in the realm of the Creative Industries..

Emmanuel Mutungi discusses the Household Enterprises in Africa, and Uganda in particular. They have been taken over by the modern technologies arguably ushered in by the western ideologies, and which reduced the indigenous knowledge based production, disintegrated the craft guilds that used to be knowledge incubators and apprenticeship think tanks. In spite of this process, household enterprises have remained budding activities in most households holding the possible solution to reducing poverty. Joy White highlights the (in)visible entrepreneurs in the urban music economy. The categorisation of young people as not in employment, education or training (NEET) obscures the significant impact of the accomplishments of those who operate in the urban music economy. Grime music, a black Atlantic creative expression, is used as a lens through which to explore and analyse the nature of entrepreneurship within this sector. The economics and competition of cultural and creative industries (CCIs) have been heavily transformed, in the digital age, thanks to the key role of new business models and the organization of new value chains and ecosystems around different platforms. Pierre-Jean Benghozi and Elisa Salvador explore the Strategies and business models of online platforms in CCIs: the convergence or differentiation in the e-book sector.

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Philipp Dietachmair closes with Community-based cultural entrepreneurship as a driver of social innovation in Central and Eastern European cities. For the past twenty years a significant number of new grassroots initiatives have been established in the cultural sectors of the new EU members states in Central and Eastern Europe. There are still many regions especially in rural areas which have not become part of this development. However, the capital cities but also a growing number of regional towns have meanwhile seen the emergence of an independent scene of cultural groups and alternative non-profit initiatives in the arts.

EDITORIAL

Part II: The Urban Environment Almost all larger cities have to cope with the never-ending cycle of attracting new entrepreneurial activities, economic growth and decay. When trying to renovate run-down quarters, city planners look at the creative industries. Rene Kooyman discusses the concept of Creative Urban Renewal. In order to evaluate urban area developments, the Creative Zone Innovator (CZI) Model has been developed. The CZI identifies four dimensions within a Creative Zone; the development of the Learning lab, a Cultural Value Chain, the Flow of Diversity, and Cultural Business Modelling (CBM). Investments in culture and, in particular the creation of cultural districts, have generated ambiguous effects in urban areas, especially whereas the focus on the so-called creative classes has been higher than the attention given to other professional and social groups. Massimiliano Nuccio and Sabrina Pedrini discuss the effects of these policies in peripheral and disadvantaged contexts. Arguing on the localization of cultural activities as a means to generate economic capital, they reason that the link culture-capital is not direct, but indirect. Broader transformations in the economy are linked to a changing spatial organisation for economic activity, particularly in industries imbued with a high creative content. However, there are competing explanations regarding the nature of this logic. Until recently, relatively more attention has been given to the inter-urban and indeed international scales, than to the intra-urban geography of the economic transformation. Katherine Champion discusses UK’s largest concentrations of creative industry activity outside London; a Case Study of Creative Industries in Greater Manchester, UK. Raphaële Bidault-Waddington takes us to France; ‘Paris Galaxies, a vision for the Greater Paris in 2030’ ; a research project developed by LIID (Idea Engineering Lab, an art-based think-tank. He discusses the non-conventional research experiment, where artistic intuition and formats interact with academic knowledge. The initial premise of Paris Galaxies has been to use the poetic metaphor of galaxies to address the multiple critical challenges raised by the transformation (urban planning, governance, program, immaterial capital, imaginary, digital life, etc.) of Paris, into the Greater Paris, including its vast periphery. Many cities have chosen to concentrate creative industries in specific neighbourhoods. They share common features, such as the mixture of lifestyles, an extensive programme of events and a varied range of cafes, bars and nightlife. Pedestrian areas prevail, they usually have an elegant design and serve as a framework for street art. Built and non-material heritage is used as a source of inspiration and as a way of rooting the business in the local culture.

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Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context. A reading guide

Daniel Barrera Fernández and Kevin Meethan discuss the development of two creative neighbourhoods in two European medium-sized cities: Plymouth (UK) and Malaga (Spain). Kristina Karvelyte explores the development of cultural and creative industries in three Chinese cities, in which the utilization of creative-economy strategies has recently become a very attractive and somewhat fashionable trend. More specifically, it attempts to trace the rationale behind the differentiation between ‘flagship’ and ‘non-flagship’ cultural and creative industries. There is a lot of ongoing debate whether initiatives stimulating creative entrepreneurship contribute to regeneration, and which of the actors involved benefit from these initiatives. Jeannette Nijkamp, Chris Kuiper and Jack Burgers focus on the projects of the Rotterdam Afrikaanderwijk. In this deprived neighbourhood several projects have been initiated, aimed at stimulating creative entrepreneurship by tapping local creativity and bringing local skills together in collective production. They focus on the economic and social development of the residents and the liveability of the neighbourhood.

The Urban section closes with the discussion on creativity-led urban regeneration, with examples from Barcelona and Vienna. Vanessa Rebecca Hünnemeyer focusses on constituting an analytical framework to appraise planned milieus. The three central pillars of the milieu, place, people and partnership, constitute an open framework, which guide the analysis of two case studies in Vienna and Barcelona. As research shows, planning may have both a positive and negative impact on the development of milieus.

EDITORIAL

Peter Staub, Ruth Jochum-Gasser, Vera Kaps, Celina Martinez investigate the potential of architecture as a mediator for strengthening the Creative Industries within the Principality of Liechtenstein and its neighbouring regions. They provide insights into the dynamic relationship of architecture and other branches of the Creative and Cultural Industries, using a small, international region as a case study.

Part III: Knowledge Institutions Javier Castro-Spila and Alfonso Unceta explore the concept of the Relational University, which refers to a new model of University, that is connected to different local social and cultural problems and regional stakeholders. They reflect upon a pilot experience in the Basque Country (Spain), that consisted of the articulation of the Master in Social Innovation and Creative Industries , within the context of training skills of unemployed young people. A new model of cultural policy is currently being developed in Russia, under which creative and cultural industries are becoming more involved in business activities. Traditional cultural institutions and new creative industries seek to create a stable income, which can only be provided by commercial activity. From this perspective, a study on art university students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship is highly topical. Marina Matetskaya, Valery Gordin , Anna Sashchenko offer a theoretical background, based on competence theory, comprising components of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience, motivation, and business capabilities; combined with an expert survey.

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Isjah Koppejan examines the transformation of the combination of art, technology and research in the context of art education. At present, new forms of creativity seem to surface, that is driven by the rise of digital fabrication and the on-going developments in material technology. Artists and designers use advanced means to create artistic expressions that were never before possible. She offers a perspective on how to connect with hybrid disciplines in a post-digital world. Roberta Comunian and Abigail Gilmore offer a chart of the changing dynamics of - and define the drivers for - the different relationships between universities, the creative and cultural industries (CCIs) and the communities they serve. They explore the motivations and rationales emerging from policy making and from the sectors themselves which shape and influence the different modes of engagement.

EDITORIAL

No Museum is an Island. In Europe, public museums occupy a central role in the development of the complex and rich creative system of institutions and organizations devoted to the preservation and promotion of local and national cultural heritage. Irene Popoli discusses two seminal cases of culturally-based regeneration projects that occurred in France, discussing the potentialities and threats related to the opening of new branches of existing museums. Arjan Moerbeek strives for a new, innovative learning environment for the creative industry. He proposes a plea, to work towards another, professional educational culture. Five definitions about such a professional organisational culture are presented. Olaf Kuhlke addresses the critical global need to develop higher education programs at the bachelors level (or higher) to prepare a workforce for employment in the creative and cultural industries. Specifically, it makes the argument that this training should begin with - and deeply embed - foreign language instruction. In 2011, in Szczecin (Poland) an Incubator of Culture was founded to stimulate the entrepreneurial spirit of the local cultural and creative industries (CCIs). The task of the Incubator of Culture is to create conditions to build relationships and knowledge exchange amongst representatives of different CCI areas. Sylwia Bakowska offers a case study, regarding the Incubator of Culture; as a local centre, in support of the development of entrepreneurship and knowledge exchange in the local CCI. Beyond Frames: Sketching the grand picture The book closes with the contours of a Research Agenda 2020. Giep Hagoort reflects upon the recent past of the CCIs. He offers a final reflection upon the articles included in this publication. When looking ahead, he is in search for the creative network economy 2020.

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BEYOND FRAMES

Edna dos SantosDuisenberg

Cultural and Creative Industries, Knowledge Institutions and the Urban Environment

The main findings of the first UN ‘Creative Economy Report – 2008 – The challenge of assessing the creative economy: towards informed policy-making’ emphasized the development dimension of the creative economy. The study pointed out that countries in both the developing and the developed world are enormously rich in cultural diversity and creative talent. All manifestations of local and national cultures are assets, representing the indisputable cultural capital, both tangible and intangible, that can give rise to a complex array of creative products – goods and services that have real potential to generate economic and social gains. From a policy viewpoint, the production and distribution of creative goods and services can yield income, jobs and trade opportunities, promote growth and development, and foster social cohesion and community interaction. Evidence assembled in the report indicated that the creative industries was one of the most dynamic sectors in world trade providing some hint about the potential awaiting countries for further expansion of their value-added creative products in both the domestic and international markets. An attempt was made to broader understanding of the importance of culture in economic development that operates alongside the core notion of culture in terms of values and identity. Complex interactions between formal and informal, commercial and non-commercial, instrumental and intrinsic notions of knowledge and creativity in the process of development were highlighted, demonstrating how cultural, technological, social and economic development can be understood as a holistic process when regarded from the creative economy perspective.

PREFACE

Over the last decade, our society witnessed the rise of the creative economy. Initially as a provocative concept that incited lively debates and certain scepticism inside academic circles, as well as on the part of some artists and professionals involved in the cultural sector as regards the lack of limits of its definition and applicability. In 2004 only ten years ago, the United Nations through the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development - UNCTAD, voiced the need for a comprehensive policy-oriented research to define the conceptual, institutional and policy framework around the emerging creative economy. The aim was to facilitate a better understanding of the topic and provide informed and evidence-based analysis of key issues underlying the creative economy with a view to assist governments in policy-making.

This seminal report was one of the first steps towards clarifying the basic concepts necessary for a proper understanding of the dynamics of the creative economy, putting forward objective evidence, providing some analytical tools and suggesting directions for policy action. Its relevance also reflects the fact that it helped to harmonize views, stimulating more academic research and advancing the policy debate worldwide. Simultaneously, an influential process was set in motion by the United Nations to move ahead the policy and research agenda around the creative economy. Efforts were made by a number of multilateral organizations, not only to sensitize governments and the international community to the potential of the creative economy as a development

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strategy able to foster jobs, trade and innovation, but also to promote public awareness by engaging artists, creative professionals, academics and other players of the civil society in a synergic force to advance policies and actions to enhance the creative economy. The post-crisis period

This movement around the creative economy became even more relevant in the postcrisis period. Today, creativity is a trendy word that has been extensively used for stimulating different aspects of our lives. However, there are challenges and opportunities that need to be addressed with a view to promote a sustainable growth and development gains.

PREFACE

We are living in a period of far-reaching economic, technological, social and cultural transformation and the world has been through turbulent times. Over the last decades the world has changed significantly, as well as Europe and the contemporary society. During the 20th century, mining and manufacturing were the engines of the industrial era; coal, iron and steel were the foundations at the origin of the European Union. Today, in the 21st century at the knowledge-based era, the main drivers of socio-economic growth are creativity, connectivity and innovation. In this scenario, the rise of the creative economy is in line with the gradual metamorphosis of our society. Moreover, six years after the financial crisis, the economic recovery remains uneven and fragile. Public deficits, low wages and competition inside and among countries became a race to the bottom. The sharp economic downturn of 2008 provoked an increase in inequality and a global rise of unemployment particularly among the youth. The year 2013 was characterized by a wave of protests with growing political unrest and social pressures in all continents. A paradigm shift is taking shape and governments are urged to improve global governance and reinforce policy coherence at all levels. Pre-crisis growth strategies are no longer an alternative. More mitigating actions are needed to tackle essential issues and re-orient policies towards a more equitable, sustainable and inclusive growth path. Inevitably there is more dissonance about the key challenges and the priorities in national policies. Nevertheless, critical times offer opportunities for new approaches. In this struggle to regain socio-economic stability, governments started formulating policies to enhance the creative economy as a strategy to promote growth, jobs and trade. Along those lines, promoting culture as a catalyst for creativity and innovation became one of the objectives of the European Agenda. The creative economy is now regarded as a catalytic dealing with the interface among arts, culture, technology, social innovation and business. The creative economy is not a panacea, but can be a feasible option to foster prosperity, if effective policies, regulations and institutions are in place1. In this scenario, the initiative of the European Commission to set-up in 2013 its Creative Europe Program as a framework to support the cultural and creative sectors is highly appreciated. United Nations, (UNCTAD/UNDP) Creative Economy Report - 2010

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Cultural and Creative Industries, Knowledge Institutions and the Urban Environment

In this context, the debates held during the three conferences and the papers presented in this book are well-timed initiatives of great relevance for policymakers and creative professionals. The multi-faceted nature of the creative economy means that it cuts across a wide range of areas of economic and cultural policy, in addition to any intrinsic value. Research shared in this publication covers different, yet complementary aspects of the cultural and creative industries seeking to establish an overview of the linkages and positive externalities into the overall economy. Different perspectives in analysing the influence of culture and technological advances into the creative economy lead to distinct emphases. This publication brings together contributions of academics and practitioners from the global research community. It is the result of a call for research papers covering three mutually supportive topics. The role of education in promoting knowledge, creativity and innovation

Research in this book highlights the need for hybrid disciplines in a post-digital world. Reflections are made on the future of arts, science and technology in education. Arguments are made on how to make better use of the social innovation tools currently available for stimulating knowledge and creativity. Collaboration, co-creations, social networks are guiding the new lifestyle. Jobs generated by the creative economy are knowledge-intensive requiring both specific competences and hands-on practice. The strength of the new generation will be measured by its ability to think, create and act strategically.

PREFACE

Intellectual capital is the main input for the creative economy. Education, knowledge and culture are the basis for stimulating creativity and building the skills required to grasp the opportunities brought by the creative economy. More public and private investments should be targeted to further promote knowledge and continuous learning. Our mind-set has to be reframed and adapted to new realities, and this can only be effectively done through education. The key question is how to stimulate creativity at all levels.

Today, it is no longer possible to work in silos, since we have to deal with cross-cutting issues daily. Curriculum of universities and educational institutions should be revisited and adapted to respond to new demands. Arts, economics, law, management, research, design and digital innovation, should not be learned in isolation but how they interact from the theory to practice. The high-educational system is called upon to adopt a more inter-disciplinary approach allowing for better synergy among courses, in both undergraduate and graduate degrees. New pedagogic ways and methodologies for teaching and learning are required. Cases of some universities that are already moving into this direction are presented. For the educational system the issue is how to implement new didactic learning practices in order to stimulate creative thinking and build the creative capacities needed to match the work requirements of today. Universities and training institutions are designing new inter-disciplinary programs to nurture cultural and creative entrepreneurship with the aim of opening new possibilities for business and job creation, as a pragmatic way to assist governments in addressing structural unemployment among the youth.

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Another important aspect is the role played by universities as the source of knowledge creation, and providers of potential creative talents for the city’s creative economy. Today, universities are more engaged in applied research that can be translated into regional development, their ties with the private sector are growing and many are incubating creative business to foster innovation. Universities can play a pivotal role in attracting and retaining young talents in the cities. Cultural and Creative Entrepreneurship

PREFACE

A great part of this book focuses on a micro-economic approach examining the growing importance of entrepreneurship in modern days. Research findings and case studies at country level and specific creative industries, such as fashion and music support the argument that the presence of cultural and creative entrepreneurs is vital to promote creative business and innovation. It should also be reminded that at the post-industrial era, structural changes have been re-shaping the configuration of the labour market and every day is becoming more difficult for the youth to find stable employments, as in the past. The new generation has to be prepared to develop entrepreneurial spirit and create its own job opportunities. Diversity, flexibility, autonomy, mobility, differentiation became pre-requisites for working in a more creative and connected world. The young talents need to enhance their entrepreneurial skills, because they feel more attracted by unconventional cultural and creative professional activities that usually bring more personal satisfaction. Furthermore, they should have the ability to transform ideas into marketable creative goods or services, with both economic and cultural value. This reinforces the arguments above that youth should be adequately educated and trained for promoting businessoriented initiatives for the cultural and creative industries and develop management skills. Public policies and financing mechanisms should also be designed to encourage the creative class to start-up and/or manage their own micro or small-sized creative enterprises. Entrepreneurship is decisive for the success of many creative projects. The management of creative business requires specific skills in both the entrepreneurial and the artistic or cultural aspects of the business operation. Creative entrepreneurship can provide the basis for product-specific marketing strategies and improve the competitiveness of creative products in the domestic and global markets. New business models are emerging bringing new ways for commercializing cultural events and creative goods and services. Enhancing capacities of potential creative entrepreneurs is a practical way to bring arts, culture and creativity closer to technology, business and markets. Elements for a ‘creative nexus’ should be in place to activate a virtuous circle able to attract investments, offer access and the required infrastructure to make the best use of modern digital technologies, build creative entrepreneurial capacities, and optimize the trade potential of creative products domestically and globally. Creative entrepreneurs are expected to facilitate this process, while governments, companies and academics should work hand-on-hand in order to respond to the aspirations of creative professionals and help them to develop the competences required for the decision-makers of today.

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Urban policies in the creative era

The growing use of the creative cities concept and its application in urban planning is also examined in this book. Some papers address the transformation of urban environments in terms of the locational aspects of creative activity in the form of creative poles, clusters, networks bringing examples of creative districts. Others emphasize the importance of places or the role of public arts and architecture in the process of revitalization of cities by illustrating with the cases of specific cities.

Evidence-based research indicates that the creative economy has the capacity to stimulate urban liveability, social cohesion, cultural identity and diversity, bringing economic vitality to urban cities in the developed and developing countries alike. Innovation and investment are crucial for a vibrant city, but equally essential is to engage communities in the process of urban regeneration. The main challenge for policymakers, urban planners and the civil society is the search for a balance between the economic and environmental goals from one side and the quality of life and urban solutions on the other. Efforts should be made to keep alive the history and cultural heritage of cities, and at the same time harmonize the equilibrium between the old and the new, the traditional and the contemporary, leisure and entertainment, a greener quietness with a lively dynamism, since these are key considerations for cities in the knowledge-based era.

PREFACE

Nowadays, as more than 75% of the world population are urban citizens, the re-design of urban policies became a central issue in the process of regional development or regeneration of cities. Globalization and connectivity brought about profound changes in the way we live, work, engage with our habitat, and interact among ourselves and with our planet. New approaches are needed to modernize and adapt cities, in order they will be able to better respond to the current concerns of its inhabitants and remain a liveable place for the present and future generations.

The quality of life of a city is essential to attract and retain creative minds and increase the vitality of cities, as a place to capture the imagination and aspirations of young creative professionals. Again, universities play a key role as the source of knowledge creation and provider of creative talents required by cities to create and grow technologyintensive and services-oriented companies of the knowledge-based era. Cities should be able to offer educational and job opportunities to attract and retain the youth, stimulate new projects for catching the attention of companies and investors, provide the necessary infrastructure and security in order to ensure wellbeing and social cohesion for its citizens. The rationale is to provide a favourable environment by promoting cultural activities, events and public spaces for leisure and entertainment. In times of economic recovery, concrete actions to develop entrepreneurial skills are even more relevant because there are 26 million young people with age ranging from 15-24 who are idle in developed countries those days (OECD). Against this adverse situation, cities should be more pro-active with a view to ensure professional prospects to the youth, providing public transportation and public spaces: parks, waterfronts, art activities and cultural events; ensuring support for community aspirations and

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facilitating connections and street life. A creative city should provide a lively climate and a policy framework to stimulate entrepreneurship and partnerships. It is decisive to retain the young creative talents; they will be the leaders of tomorrow.

PREFACE

Creativity is also required to find solutions to critical problems. Most cities have to address major social, demographical and environmental challenges. In addition they have to deal with human distress and the city’s most complexes troubles: delinquency, drugs, prostitution etc. In this sense, mechanisms should be put in place for engaging local communities in a broader participatory process bringing together not only the government, but also the private sector, artists and key stakeholders from the civil society. The creative process should be society-inclusive to allow convergence. The ‘creative cities’ are expected to setting standards and reinvent their own practicalities not only to be applied in urban centres but also to be adapted for rural areas and disadvantaged neighbourhoods. Options made by cities today will have lasting consequences for the welfare of its citizens and the environment in the years to come. The primary goal in city planning is to make people’s lives better. Regrettably, we have been witnessing the adverse consequences of climate change in terms of losses in ecosystem, livelihoods and lives due to environmental degradation and unsustainable and polluting business. A gradual transition towards a smart and green economy is taking place and commitment is needed to re-think our modes of living and patterns of consumption. Every city independently of its size, are called upon to define its sustainability agenda, revisiting its policies as regards, water, energy, transport and waste. The creative economy and the green economy are mutually supportive and have common goals in the search for eco-friendly solutions and eco-urban development. Innovation and investment are crucial for a vibrant city. The contribution of the creative sector to the economic vitality of cities can be measured not only in terms of its direct contribution to output, value added, income and employment, but also by its spillovers resulting for instance from the expenditures of tourists visiting a city to experience its cultural attractions such as art exhibitions, festivals, concerts etc. A cultural survey recently released by the Arts Magazine indicates that in 2013 the Louvre museum in Paris had a record attendance of 9.3 million visitors and the Metropolitan Museum in New York City received 6.2 million visitors last year. Moreover, cities with an effervescent culture life can attract inward investment in other companies seeking to locate in centres that will provide enjoyable and stimulating environment for its employees. Every city has the potential to foster creativity, and there is no one-size-fits-all prescription. Each country has its unique cultural traditions and creative talents, and these assets represent their cultural capital, both tangible and intangible. Thus, vision, political will and tailor-made strategies based on the city’s own strengths and weakness are pre-requisites. Priorities, needs and bottlenecks should be identified, and attention paid to the demands voiced by local communities as regards education, social inequalities, diversity and environmental concerns.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, it is noticeable that these three main topics are intrinsically related. At present, it is generally accepted that the cultural and creative industries play a key role in the global economy. It is also understood that creative entrepreneurship is essential to nurture the creative economy and that cities are in a creative process of urban regeneration. However, more research and debates are needed to promote a more creative, equitable and sustainable society. Therefore, the efforts of the University of Antwerp Management School and the Utrecht University School of Arts and Economics in organizing this conference and moving ahead the discussion should be highly recognized. Certainly it will give a meaningful contribution to promote creative approaches to education and support creative projects and collaboration.

Edna dos Santos Duisenberg is Founder and Former Chief, Creative Economy Programme, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development – UNCTAD; Special Advisor, United Nations Institute for Research and Training – UNITAR; International expert on creative economy and development. — [email protected]

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PREFACE

About the author

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I. Entrepreneurial Spirit Walter van Andel Sofie Jacobs Annick Schramme

Contribution of the Creative Industries to Innovation: a Study Into Creative Spillovers Introduction

Both in academic discourse as in policy it is commonly assumed that the creative industries are a breeding ground for innovation (Bagwell, 2008). An example being the contributions in recent years regarding the importance of creative workers for urban development and the many policy initiatives by local and (inter)national governments. Besides the commercialization of creative products and services, and the creation of symbolic value (Klamer, 2004; Throsby, 2000), the creative industries are also said to have a tertiary impact in which they facilitate the creativity and innovation in other sectors through spillover effects (positive externalities). In contrast to the alleged importance of the creative industries for innovation in the broader e conomy, surprisingly few studies have been performed on this presumed contribution to innovation external to the creative industries (Bakhshi, McVittie & Simmie, 2008; Miles & Green, 2008). This article aims to explore and map this spillover effects of innovation of the creative industries. Besides a literature review, and development of a conceptual model, two cases are explored to exemplify specific spillovers between creative industry actors and their (economic) environment. Innovation and the creative industries

Ever since Schumpeter (1934) related economic growth to the abilities of entrepreneurs, and consequently highlighted the importance of innovation for creating new possibilities, the topic of innovation and its measurement has been widely studied. Until the nineties the linear or technology-driven approach to innovation dominated literature. Metrics such as Research & Development (R&D) investment and output (such as patents) were widely put forward as the sole indicators to measure innovation, based on the implicit assumption that the most important new technologies are invented in R&D laboratories (Archibugi & Sirilli, 2000). However, R&D and patent data fall short as exclusive indicators of innovation and the lack of a clear definition and operationalization of innovation lead to major conceptual confusion. Garcia and Calantone (2002) found in 21 empirical studies on the development of new products no less than 15 different ‘constructs’ of innovation and 51 different scales, which still however don’t seem to capture (all of) the particular type of innovation present in the creative industries. It is widely assumed that the creative industries are innovative (Müller, Rammer, & Trüby, 2009), and that innovation in the creative industries is different from the more ‘traditional’ sectors (KEA, 2010). Because the creative industries, for example, are strongly involved in social communication and development of ‘meaning’, they are also significant contributors to the broader innovation system. In particular they play an important role on the consumer or demand side in shaping preferences and facilitating adoption and ongoing retention of new ideas and technologies from the rest of the economy (Hartley et al., 2013). Surprisingly, still little is known about the actual innovation outcomes of creative industries and their innovation processes (Bakhshi et al., 2008; 20

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Contribution of the Creative Industries to Innovation: a Study Into Creative Spillovers

Hartley et al., 2013; Miles & Green, 2008). It even seems as if innovation in the creative industries is taken for granted, and is therefore ‘forgotten’ in traditional innovation indicators and studies. One of the reasons is also that most of these creative entreprises are SME’s or selfemployed people that are not taking into account in the usual statistics In that view, it has been noted that innovation in the creative industries is often a form of ‘hidden innovation’, as is aptly expressed by Howkins: ‘The conventional thinking about innovation doesn’t capture what actually happens in the creative industries … The problem is two-ways. People who talk about innovation tend to ignore what happens in the creative industries; and the creative industries tend to downplay the benefits of innovation’ (Howkins, 2002; Bakhshi et al., 2008). Spillovers from the creative industries

Throsby (2008) described the creative industries in terms of a model of concentric circles. In this model, the so-called core creative industries – or the traditional arts – take on the central role and have an effect on the creativity in the applied arts and non-core creative industries. Moreover, the effect prolongs into related industries and the wider (regional or national) economy in general. This multifaceted impact of the creative industries is being increasingly emphasized in the description of the contribution these industries have to the economic, social and cultural development of society. As mentioned, ‘traditional’ quantitative macroeconomic indicators seem to be insufficient to evaluate the true impact of the various creative sectors. Three dimensions can be distinguished for the measurement of the (economic) impacts of these industries: a primary direct economic impact, a secondary symbolic impact, and tertiary economic consequences of productivity in the creative industries, which is here referred to as the positive externalities, or spillover effects (see also UNDP Creative Economy report, 2013).

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In addition to the commercialization of creative and innovative products and services, the creative industries play a role in the supply of creativity and innovation in other sectors, as has been proofed occasionally in (applied) research. For example, Müller, Rammer, and Trüby (2009) showed that companies with a higher proportion of input from the creative industries appeared to be more innovative in terms of their product development.

The concept of spillovers mainly emerged from the field of economics, particularly from theoretical and empirical studies on the economics of innovation and technological change. The importance of spillover effects is mainly linked to the New Growth Theory, which identifies knowledge creation in the form of human capital or learning by doing as an engine for economic growth. This theory mainly endorses the importance of indirect effects (spillovers, also called positive externalities) on economic growth and development in the long term (Aghion & Howitt, 1990; Kleinknecht, Van Montfort, & Brouwer, 2002; Krugman, 1991). Within the concept of spillovers, two distinctive schools of thought have developed throughout history. The first, where knowledge spillovers arise from industry specialization, is usually referred to in literature as MAR (Marshall–Arrow– Romer) externalities. This kind of effect considers that spillovers occur within industry. This would happen because knowledge accumulated by one firm tends to help the development of technologically close firms (Baptista & Swann, 1998). This article, however, follows the second school of thought, commonly referred to as Jacobs externalities. In this type, externalities arise from diversity or variety between complementary industries. Knowledge spillovers would occur primarily between different but complementary industries (Baptista & Swann, 1998). Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Entrepreneurial Spirit

Innovation spillovers are therefore comprised of the effects of innovative activities or processes that affect players (within or outside of the activity-performing industry) who are not directly involved in the activity . Current thinking on the micro approach to innovation is strongly influenced by the so-called chain-linked model of Kline and Rosenberg (1986). They suggest that innovation is not necessarily a sequential process through a series of stages (i.e. research, development, production, marketing), but it’s rather a dynamic process with emphasis on (fundamentally important) feedback loops between the different phases and with links to sources of knowledge inside and outside of the company. The final outcome is considered as a result of a complex interplay between different actors, rather than a planned effort. Hence innovation is highly dependent on the way in which the various participants in the process, such as other companies, customers, or public institutions, interact with each other. Recent literature on spillovers take on a third approach in which the focus not only lies on the sectoral dimension, but on a geographical dimension as well. In these papers, spatial models are applied to investigate the extend of the spillover effect (see e.g. Autant-Bernard & LeSage, 2011; Ponds, Oort, & Frenken, 2010). Porter (Glaeser et al., 1992), like MAR, argues that knowledge spillovers in specialized, geographically concentrated industries stimulate growth. He insists, however, that local competition, as opposed to local monopoly, fosters the pursuit and rapid adoption of innovation. Porter’s externalities are maximized in cities with geographically specialized, competitive industries. Moreover, an additional new emphasis lies on the role of entrepreneurship for spillovers. The knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship (Acs, Braunerhjelm, Audretsch, & Carlsson, 2009; Braunerhjelm, Acs, Audretsch, & Carlsson, 2010) shows how entrepreneurship can contribute to growth by helping knowledge to spill over or to permeate the filter that impedes knowledge spillover. The knowledge spillover theory attributes importance not only to the role of persons but also to regional agglomerations of knowledge activities (entrepreneurship capital) that become the breeding ground for growth (Block, Thurik, & Zhou, 2013). Types of creative spill overs

Chapain , Cooke, The Propris, MacNeill, and Mateos-Garcia (2010) created a typology of spillovers from the creative industries, in which they distinguished knowledge, product, and network spillovers:

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Knowledge spillovers: these occur where new ideas and sometimes technologies developed by the creative industries are applied adequately in other sectors without compensation. These knowledge spillovers also manifests themselves in the high mobility of workers in the creative industries (Jeffcutt & Pratt, 2002).

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Product spillovers: these occur when creative goods and services are adapted to different markets, or increase the demand for complementary goods in other sectors. The specific nature of the creative industries makes that its outputs are often an important value-adding resource or input for other industries. Examples being the outputs of creative business services such as advertisement, architecture, design, etc.

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Contribution of the Creative Industries to Innovation: a Study Into Creative Spillovers

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Network spillovers: these can develop in various ways. Even though our society and economy becomes increasingly ‘networked’ as a result of globalization and increases in data applications among others, these network spillovers also make an important contribution to the local economy. For example, the presence of creative companies, and the formation of clusters in a particular place offer advantages to other local businesses (see e.g. Porter, 1998).

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Suppliers: To be able to continue to bring innovative products and services, creative producers often set high requirements regarding the materials / products and other inputs they work with. For example, creative companies are often heavy users of the latest technologies, of which they commonly even require modifications and additional features which aren’t standard or on the market yet, resulting in a requirement for their vendors to increase their innovative output, also known as the backward linkage effect (Bakhshi et al., 2008).

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Customers: Spillovers can also occur on the purchasing side of the value network, as the creative industries offer innovative products, services and knowledge that forms a direct input for innovative activities for other individuals, companies and organizations, also known as the forward linkage effects (Bakhshi et al., 2008).

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Academia: The creative industries provide a perfect link between the academic and the business world. The natural quest of both academia and the creative industries to innovate creates an inherent attraction in which the creative industries are often willing to test the latest theoretical insights in practice. This cooperation often contributes to the commercial exploitation of scientific findings and approaches (Müller et al., 2009).

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Business World: Project-based working is omnipresent within the creative industries (Jeffcutt & Pratt, 2002). These consortia are often comprised of various players from different sectors and industries. The underlying premise here is most often an exchange of knowledge and skills rather than an economic exchange, with a high degree of cognitive transfer taking place, resulting in positive spillovers into the business world.

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Society: The indirect contribution of the creative industries into its surrounding society has been the topic of research of several economists, with notable examples being Florida (2002) and Landry (2008). Regions that distinguish themselves by a broad range of cultural and creative activities attract creative talent that is essential for a region’s innovativeness, competitiveness, and consequently growth of the urban economy. Meanwhile Florida has already been criticized by several academics and from different perspectives. His theory about the creative class doesn’t seem to survive the reality check (Communian, 2011). In addition, the creative industries can also act as a catalyst and co-producer of social innovations.

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

Entrepreneurial Spirit

These different types of spillovers provide a preliminary framework for the realization of the innovative contribution of the creative industries in a specific region. Figure 1 provides an overview of possible spillover effects from the creative industries, distilled from various literature sources. In this overview, five types of entities are determined on which positive externalities resulting from the creative industries can have its effect:

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Following socio-artistic and community art projects, there is a trend to engage artists and creative producers as developers and co-designers of social cohesion through social design and other creative products. Creative producers that are rooted in the local community can thus contribute to the development and / or cohesion of local and regional cultural identity (De Voldere & Rutten, 2008).

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Competitive effect: A final effect that can be distinguished is an internal competitive effect, which is fueled by the high degree of competitiveness in the creative industries, among others. This ‘chart dependency’ characteristic, in which businesses live or die by the volume and success of their output being valued as ‘best’ in the market place for a limited period (Jeffcutt & Pratt, 2002), causes a high degree of innovative pressure: the output has to be innovative in order to compete in the market.

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Figure 1 Spillover effects of the creative industries

Illustrative cases

To illustrate the innovative contribution of the creative industries, two cases from Flanders are selected exemplifying specific spillovers between creative industry actors and its (economic) environment. CREW – Collaborating with academia

The Brussels art collective CREW has for several years been exploring the relationship between technology and theater. On the basis of its ‘immersive’ technology that the group developed in collaboration with the University of Hasselt, CREW creates interactive installations and hybrid performances that immerse participants in

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Contribution of the Creative Industries to Innovation: a Study Into Creative Spillovers

Two forms of spillovers can be distinguished in the collaborations of CREW. First, the knowledge of CREW in the field of immersive technology itself and the application of this technology in theater is unique. This knowledge is primarily interesting for engineers to design new applications. As part of their operations, CREW took part in the European project ‘2020 3D Media’. This consortium consisted of 16 partners including academic institutions and some of the leading developers of digital technology in Europe. Starting point of this large-scale research was the development of new entertainment experiences based on new technologies for recording, producing and displaying 3D sound and image. CREW focused in this project on technical and narrative possibilities of panoramic, immersive cinema. As the only artistic partner in the consortium, CREW conducted a practice-oriented research on the changing notion of narrativity, presence and the position of the spectator in immersive environments. This is a clear example of a knowledge spillover, in which ideas and technologies, developed by a creative player, find useful applications in other sectors, such as science and technology. The second type of spillover present in the CREW case, is a product spillover. The possibilities with immersive technology in other contexts and sectors are endless and CREW is interested in exploring other horizons, for example within the museum and heritage sector. As the immersion technology is further developed, it is conceivable that more product spillovers will arise. Currently, the technology as such still is non-existent on the open market, but projects such as the 2020 3D media show that interest in immersive techniques is growing rapidly.

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a fictional world. They are constantly looking for new concepts for their projects, but they also act as a supplier of creativity and innovative thinking in their technological partnerships with academic partners and the business world.

Figure 2 CREW’s Immersive technology

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Buda – Facilitating urban development

Entrepreneurial Spirit

The project Buda relates to a physical ‘island’, bordered by two arms of the river ‘Leie’ in the center of Kortrijk. Buda island includes two large entities: the Buda arts center and the ‘Buda Factory’ (Budafabriek). The Buda arts center is a private non-profit organization, founded in 2005, which focuses on the artistic development of Buda and collaborates with other cultural actors in the city. The Buda Factory is an economicartistic project, seeking to actively promote the crossover between entrepreneurs, designers, artists, students and scientists, utilizing their operational motto: Love, Work and Share. Love is about making connections and meeting each other. Work defines Buda as a workplace, a place to realize ideas and make them tangible. Share, finally, outlines Buda as a presentation platform. Everything that is created at Buda, is shared with the widest possible audience. Buda aims to facilitate high levels of network spillover. The connection with different areas and actors is central to their philosophy, wherein Buda fulfills the role of connector and broker. The projects at Buda have spillover effects on different areas and actors, however most importantly on society, academia and the business world. On the one hand, Buda focuses strongly on innovative spillovers to other companies or organizations. For example, the research center Imec and the artist Christoph De Boeck collaborated within this perspective for the art piece ‘steel sky’, an impressive work that consists of a ceiling covered with 80 steel plates with small hammers. Participants receive a portable EEC-scanner on their head while they walk under the ‘steel sky’. Electrical signals from the brains of the participants are then transferred to the installation which determines the rhythm and the intensity of the steel hammers knocking on the plates, thus creating sounds. Through the knowledge gained from this collaboration, Imec was able to develop a more user-friendly EEC-scanner, which is important for medical applications. Next, Buda also provides innovative spillovers to academia. They possess, for example, high-tech equipment in a lab where students can go to try and use new materials and machinery and where they are encouraged to cooperate with artists and students. Finally, in line with the ‘Share’ component of their operation, the development and daily operation of Buda itself is an example of an innovative spillover to the society in which the organization has a direct impact on the district, the city and the wider region in terms of inspiration, facilitation, and dissemination of knowledge.

Figure 3 The Buda ‘factory’

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Discussion

This study attempts to uncover insights into the inner workings of innovation within the context of the creative industries. On the base of the existing literature we identified three kinds of spill overs: knowledge spillovers, product spillovers and network spillovers. Many scholars and practitioners believe that spillovers resulting from creative activities are one of those specific outcomes that are fundamentally inherent to creative activities. Unraveling these is a challenge, since as of today there are no specific indicators or mechanisms that correctly capture the specific types of innovation processes and outcomes within these industries. This research is a first attempt in categorizing these externalities which can form the basis for a framework for further research leading to a more accurate mapping and measuring of innovation and the innovative contribution of the creative industries.

Walter van Andel is a researcher on entrepreneurship and creativity at Antwerp Management School, Belgium. His research focusses on entrepreneurship, innovation, business models, and growth at small and medium-sized creative enterprises. Before joining Antwerp Management School, Walter worked as researcher and consultant in the Netherlands, Mexico and the United States. — [email protected]

Sofie Jacobs is affiliated to Antwerp Management School and the University of Antwerp as a PhD researcher under the supervision of Prof. dr. Annick Schramme. Her research is about unravelling the innovation capacity of small creative enterprises, linked to multilevel mental models. The research work of Sofie Jacobs is funded by a PhD Baekeland grant of the Belgian Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT), and is a collaboration between i-propeller, Antwerp Management School and the University of Antwerp, Belgium.

References Aghion, P, & Howitt, P. (1990). A Model of Growth Through Creative Destruction (Working Paper No. 3223). National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w3223. Archibugi, D, & Sirilli, G. (2000). The Direct Measurement of Technological Innovation in Business. Rome: National Research Council. Autant-Bernard, C, & LeSage, J. P. (2011). Quantifying Knowledge Spill overs Using Spatial Econometric Models. Journal of Regional Science, 51(3), 471–496. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9787.2010.00705. Bagwell, S. (2008). Creative clusters and city growth. Creative Industries Journal, 1(1), 31–46. doi:10.1386/cij.1.1.31_1. Bakhshi, H, McVittie, E, & Simmie, J. (2008). Creating innovation: Do the creative industries support innovation in the wider economy? London: NESTA. Baptista, R, & Swann, P. (1998). Do firms in clusters innovate more? Research Policy, 27(5), 525–540. doi:10.1016/S0048-7333(98).00065-1. Chapain, C, Cooke, P, De Propris, L, MacNeill, S, & Mateos-Garcia, J. (2010). Creative clusters and innovation: Putting creativity on the map. London: NESTA.

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About the authors

Comunian, R. (2011) Rethinking the creative city: the role of complexity, networks and interactions in the urban creative economy, Urban Studies, Vol 48, pp. 1157-1179. Glaeser et al, “Growth in Cities”, Journal of Political Economy, 1992 Vol. 100, No. 6. De Voldere, I, & Rutten, P. (2008). Cultuur, creatieve industrie en innovatie. Discussiepaper voor de CVN conferentie op 26 november 2008, Rotterdam. Florida, R. (2002). The rise of the creative class: And how it’s transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. Basic Books. Garcia, R, & Calantone, R. (2002). A critical look at technological innovation typology and innovativeness terminology: a literature review. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 19(2), 110–132. doi:10.1016/ S0737-6782(01).00132-1. Hartley, J, Potts, J, Cunningham, S, Flew, T, Keane, M, & Banks, J. (2013). Key concepts in creative industries. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Howkins, J. (2002). The creative economy: how people make money from ideas.

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Jeffcutt, P, & Pratt, A. C. (2002). Managing creativity in the cultural industries. In Creativity & Innovation Management, pp. 225–233. KEA. (2010). Business innovation support services for creative industries. Short study prepared for the European Commission. Brussel: KEA. Klamer, A. (2004). Cultural goods are good for more than their economic value. In Culture and Public Action. Stanford University Press. Kleinknecht, A, Van Montfort, K, & Brouwer, E. (2002). The non-trivial choice between innovation indicators. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, 11(2), 109–121. Kline, S. J, & Rosenberg, N. (1986). An overview of innovation. In R. Landau & N. Rosenberg (Eds.), The Positive Sum Strategy: Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth (pp. 275–305).. Washington: National Academies Press. Kooyman, R. (Ed.). (2010). The entrepreneurial dimension of the cultural and creative industries. Utrecht: HKU University of the Arts Utrecht.

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Krugman, P. (1991). Increasing Returns and Economic Geography. Journal of Political, 99, 483–499. Landry, C. (2008). The creative city: a toolkit for urban innovators. New Stroud, UK; London; Sterling, VA: Comedia ; Earthscan.

Annick Schramme is full professor and academic coordinator of the master in Cultural Management at the University of Antwerp, Belgium (Faculty of Applied Economics), and the Competence Centre Management, Culture & Policy. Besides, she is Academic Director of the Competence Centre Creative Industries at the Antwerp Management School. From 2004 until the end of 2012 she was also advisor-expert of the Vice-Mayor for Culture and Tourism of the City of Antwerp. Finally she is member of several boards of cultural organizations and advisory committees in Flanders and the Netherlands.

Miles, I, & Green, L. (2008). Hidden innovation in the creative industries. London: NESTA. Müller, K, Rammer, C, & Trüby, J. (2009). The Role of Creative Industries in Industrial Innovation. Innovation: Management, Policy and Practice, 11(2), 148–168. Ponds, R, Oort, F. van, & Frenken, K. (2010). Innovation, spill overs and university–industry collaboration: an extended knowledge production function approach. Journal of Economic Geography, 10(2), 231–255. doi:10.1093/jeg/ lbp036. Porter, M. E. (1998). Clusters and the new economics of competition. Harvard Business Review, 76(6), 77–90. Schumpeter, J. (1934). The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry Into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle. Transaction Publishers. Throsby, D. (2000). Economic and Cultural Value in the Work of Creative Artists. In Values and Heritage Conservation. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. Throsby, D. (2008). The concentric circles model of the cultural industries. Cultural Trends, 17(3), 147–164. doi:10.1080/09548960802361951. UN/UNDP/UNESCO (2013) Creative Economy Report. Widening local development pathways. New York, 10017/Paris 75352.

Acknowledgement

This article is based on a research that was commissioned by Flanders District of Creativity: Jacobs, S. , Demol, M., Van Andel, W., Schramme, A. (2013) Bijdrage van de creatieve industrieën tot een innovatief Vlaanderen. Flanders DC – Antwerp Management School Kenniscentrum. Leuven/Antwerpen.( ISBN-nr 9789077615225) 28

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Sven Wydra Simone Kimpeler

CCIs impact on economywide innovation Abstract

Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs) are believed to play a crucial role for the whole national innovation system via knowledge creation and transfer throughout the economy. This paper analyses the impact of supply chain and network linkages with the CCIs for innovation in other sectors.

The results indicate that in overall intensive linkages with CCIs are of high importance for innovation. However, the impact differs between various innovation dimensions. While the creative intensity does not lead to higher ‘traditional’ innovation activities, it has a positive impact on innovation output. In particular a high level of creative intensity has a positive impact on product and process innovations in the overall economy. Introduction

Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs) are considered to have an important impact of innovation throughout the economy, as they are the focal point of creative activity and an attractive source of external knowledge for innovating firms (Bakhshi/ McVittie, 2009; Potts, 2007; Müller, et al. 2009). In particular, the CCIs are believed to be a main driver for marketing and organizational innovations (Potts 2011). These industries are typically service industries (e.g. digital content), which do not provide materials or intermediate goods that may be relevant for the development of new technological products, but they provide e.g. ideas and knowledge for user-specific adjustments of products, identify and mediate target groups and provide services or initiate new ways thought patterns (Hölzl 2005; Prognos/Fraunhofer ISI 2012).

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This article sketches the role and potential impact channels of the CCIs to innovation in the whole economy via a review of current literature. On this basis, a hypotheses is created, regarding the impact of supply-chain linkages between the CCIs and innovation in user firms. Using data from the Mannheimer Innovation Panel (MIP) the impact of creative intensity (measured by inputs from the CCIs by gross output) is calculated, on various innovation dimensions in user firms.

However, while there are some anecdotal indications about the importance of the CCIs for innovation in the wider economy, there is less information about the quantitative impact. The importance of the CCIs, as a supplier of key inputs for innovation, has been only analysed by Bakhshi / McVittie (2009) for the UK in the time period 200-2004. They found positive effects of creative intensity for some innovations dimensions, but not for all. The role of CCIs for innovation: a literature review

The contributions of CCIs to economy-wide innovation are manifold. First, they contribute directly to innovation processes through the innovative activities, in which they engage (Chapain et al. 2010). Empirical studies for different countries assess that the innovation performance of the CCIs is above average (Stam et al., 2008; Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Bakhshi and McVittie, 2009, Müller et al., 2009). This result is astonishing as the typical innovation indicators, which are also used in these mentioned studies, are often criticized for underrating the importance of innovation in sectors with mostly non-technological nature of these activities (EC 2010). Second, CCIs contribute indirectly to innovation, by generating spillovers that benefit the wider economies. CCIs are often lead users of innovative technologies, in particular of information and communication technologies (ICT). Their demand for new technological solutions can stimulate technology producers (Müller et al. 2009). In addition, the CCIs spur innovation via knowledge spillovers to user firms. This is the case when new ideas and solutions developed by creative firms, are fruitfully applied elsewhere without full compensation (Chapain et al. 2010).

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In this article, in particular ‘bounded knowledge spillovers’ are of key interest. Through the delivery of intermediate goods and services for R&D and production processes in other companies, both knowledge to the user is transmitted, as well as new knowledge is gained through knowledge transfer (Bakshi/McVittie (2009). While knowledge and innovation spillovers are discussed for many industries, some scholars attribute a special importance in the case of the CCIs. The argumentations mostly build on the close networks of CCIs to other firms as well as the kind of good and services offered by the creative industry. Discussing networks, Müller et al. (2009) emphasize that enterprises in the creative industry tend to be heavily involved in business-to-business activities. They use often large networks of weak, heterogeneous relationships, but in addition they are also integrated in strong functional or regional (business-to-business) network structure(EC 2010). There are many examples of (potential) spillovers induced by CCIs. E.g. the EC (2010) mentions the design of new public service transportation or new interactions between patients and health service staff, the integration of symbolic and aesthetic values into a product or a service to promoting behavioural shifts or fuelling digital devices and networks, ,etc. (EC 2011.). Moreover, the contributions of CCIs may encompass many stages of the innovation process such as idea generation, product design or marketing and product launch, but less R&D (Müller et al. 2009). These contributions point out the importance of the ‘soft’, non-technological elements of innovation processes, which are typically for service industries. Unsurprisingly, user firms report that CCIs are in particular important for innovation processes concerning marketing and sales (Prognos/Fraunhofer ISI 2012). As a consequence, there are many indications that CCIs have strong external impacts on other innovating firms. Hence, a blind focus on their own innovative output is likely to underestimate the importance of the CCIs to the greater innovation system (EC 2010; Müller et al. 2009). A wide range of different dimensions of innovations may be affected by user-producer linkages between user firms and firms from CCIs. In particular, the anectdotal evidence given, indicates the contribution of the CCIs for marketing and organizational innovation and innovation performance.

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CCIs impact on economy-wide innovation

Hence, this literature review leads us to the following hypotheses. a. b. c.

CCIs matter for various dimension of innovation in the whole economy. In particular, CCIs may trigger marketing and organizational innovations in other sectors. However, one can expect different effects across the various innovation dimensions.

While it may appear quite straight forward to expect such impacts, one must remind that a low share of inputs from CCIs in the production value (= creative intensity) may be due to the case other factors of production are used to a greater extent (e.g. human capital, physical capital, R & D), which can be important for innovation success as well. Hence, empirical quantitative analysis appears critical to analyse these sorts of linkages.

We specify several econometric models for different innovation dimensions, as the impact of the creative economy is conceivable at various points of the innovation process. Overall, we distinguish between three phases of innovation and use the following technological and non-technological indicators for the dependent variables in the various models: - Innovation activities: in-house R&D, market introduction of innovation, product and process design; activities related to market innovation: product design, advertisement, product promotion, product placement, pricing; activities related to organizational innovation: business practices, work responsibilities and decision making; external relations. - Innovation outputs: product innovation, process innovation, new to market. - Innovation targets/impact: quality increase; range of supply increase; new markets; impacts of marketing innovations: Increase/ maintain market share, new customer groups, new geographic markets; impacts of organizational innovations: reaction time to respond to customer/ supplier needs, ability to develop new products or processes, quality of goods/ @ services, costs, communication.

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Empirical approach: econometric models

In our empirical approach we aim to test whether supply-chain relationships with CCIs are a significant source for innovation in user firms. We draw on an approach by Bakshi/McVittie (2009) and test for the additional significance of a creative linkage variable in conventional econometric models of business innovation. Therefore we use firm-level data from the latest available Mannheimer Innovation Panel (MIP), which enables to control for well-known determinants of innovation activities and performance in exploring the role of linkages to the CCIs.

Data analyses

We specify the models in such manner that in each model one of the dependent variables is used. For the overall model specification, we largely rely on the work of Bakshi/ McVittie (2009). Binary choice probit regression techniques are applied for the indicators for innovation activities and outputs because of the dichotomous dependent variable.

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The binary response model is defined by 𝑝𝑖=Pr =1=𝐺𝑧𝑖, with 𝑧𝑖=𝛼+𝛽𝐿𝑖+𝑛𝛾𝑛𝐶𝑖𝑛+𝜖𝑖. Here pi is the probability of firm i giving a positive response with respect to certain innovation activities or outputs. This probability is determined by the ‘index’ variable z i. It is assumed here that z i is a linear function of the variable creative intensity L i and the control variables. Since there are a total of N control variables, a total of 𝛼, 𝛽 and N *𝛾𝑛 parameters estimated.

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In the result section we do not refer to the coefficients of the probit regressions but to the marginal effects, which are displayed as mean values (e.g. for the ‘average firm’). This approach has the advantage that - in addition to the direction of impact (positive or negative) - also the effect of the change can be shown in the probability variable. For the model specification for the variables referring to innovation targets and impacts we use ordered probit models. These variables contain ordinal scaled values and provide more information than dichotomous, dependent variables. For the interpretation of results this means that for each variable not only one marginal coefficient is shown, but also the marginal change to the next value. A positive coefficient thus increases the probability of being in a higher group, a coefficient with a negative sign is exactly the opposite. We differentiate between four values. For the econometric analysis we use STATA and the data of the Mannheimer Innovationspanel (MIP), ZEW, Mannheim. This survey is usually part of the European Community Survey but performed yearly and hence the latest available data. In total, the sample consists of 6.404 firms in 2009. Due to non-responses for some questions for most of our models n is around 4.000. As targets for marketing and organizational innovation is a filter question for those who conducted such innovations, the sample is reduced to around 2.200 firms. Creative intensity

While this survey comprises many innovation determinants, it does not contain information about the linkages to the creative industry. Hence, we additionally integrate the variable ‘creativity intensity’ by using data from input-output analysis, which is usually the best source for information about supply relationships between the sectors. The creative intensity for each sector is derived from the consultancy firm Prognos 1 and is based on the latest German input-output tables of 2007. It is calculated by the value intermediates from the CCIs divided by the gross output. Various transformations from the sectorial classification of the creativity industries in Germany (see Söndermann et al. 2009) to the input-output tables and 22 highly aggregated sectors in the Mannheimer Innovation Panel were needed 2 1 We thank Olaf Arndt and Kathleen Freitag for the calculations within the project ‘Die Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft in der gesamtwirtschaftlichen Wertschöpfungskette - Wirkungsketten, Innovationskraft, Potenziale’ on behalf of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Technology. Moreover, we thank Elisabeth Baier (formerly Fraunhofer ISI) for support in the empirical analysis of the MIP.

2

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See Prognos & Fraunhofer ISI (2012) for more details.

CCIs impact on economy-wide innovation

As innovations in user industries are also affected by other factors than ‘creativity intensity’, we use control variables from the MIP, which are equal for all estimations. Some of these variables are of particular importance. We control for industrial sectors, as these differ with respect to the central incentives, possibilities and needs to innovate. By introducing a control variable i at least a significant proportion of these industry differences are separated from the influence of sectorial creative intensity. Similarly, we use control variables (e.g. importance of customers, suppliers, universities and research institutions to innovation) for general knowledge transfer to isolate at least partly the impact of the creative intensity. This approach allows us to isolate the effects of the interaction with the CCIs to the various innovation indicators.

Results

Regarding the results, table 1 shows one regression example for Introduction of new process design, while table 2 summarizes the effects of creative intensity on innovation activities and outputs. 1.

We derive no significant results for ‘traditional’ Innovation activities such as the implementation of R&D, product design and market introduction of new products. Hence linkages to the CCIs do not significantly increase the probability to engage in those innovation activities. However, significant positive correlations arise for the different types of organizational innovation, namely the introduction of new business practices, of methods of organising work responsibilities and decision making as well as of new methods of organising external relations.

2.

For the innovation output indicators all results are significant. A high level of creative intensity influences the probability for product and process innovations positively. These results confirm the importance of the creative economy to innovation in the wider economy. However, the marginal effect is small. An increase in the creative intensity of the ‘average firm’ by 1 percent of probability rises the probability for product innovation by just 0.008 percentage points and process innovations by just 0.032 percentage points. Moreover, the creative intensity has a slightly negative effect for introducing market novelties. This result does not correspond to the qualitative analysis of the importance of the CCIs to generate and transfer knowledge for new customized products.

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Overall the quality of the models is mixed. While the so-called pseudo-R2 is rather high for innovation outputs and traditional indicators for innovation activities and targets, it is consistently lower for the marketing and organizational innovations variables. Therefore, the results for marketing and organizational innovations have to be interpreted with caution.

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Sven Wydra, Simone Kimpeler

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Variable Marketing Level of Standard Innovation: Significance1 Deviation Introduction of new process design (Marginal Effects) Creativity intensity

0,015

**

0,007

Turnover (logarithmic)

0,027

***

0,090

Industry

-0,005 *** 0,001

East-/West Germany (dummy)

0,005

0,144

Percentage of high-skilled workers

0,000

0,003

Regional market activity (dummy)

-0,024

0,014

National market activity (dummy)

0,003

0,018

EU market activity (dummy)

0,010

0,018

Global Market activity (dummy)

0,047

**

0,018

Continous innovation activities 2006-2008 (dummy yes/no)

0,076

***

0,018

Information source customer (dummy)

0,123

***

0,018

Information source supplier (dummy)

0,065

***

0,017

Information source university (dummy)

-0,054

***

0,019

Information source R&D institution (dummy)

0,011

const

-1,137 *** 0,087

Pseudo R2

0,087

N

4042

*

0,027

Table 1 Regression example for Introduction of new process design3 3* = statistically significant at the 10% level or less; ** = 5% or less; *** = 1% or less. For const no marginal effects, but coefficient is shown.

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CCIs impact on economy-wide innovation

Dependent variable Marginal Level of Standard Pseudo R2 N effect significance1 Deviation

In-house R&D

0,003

0,010

0,4365

4270

Product and process design

-0,011

0,089

0,3875

4197

Market introduction of innovation

0,002

0,070

0,3238

4196

Marketing innovations: product design

0,015

0,007

0,0870

4042

Marketing innovations: advertisement

0,007

0,007

0,0392

4041

Marketing innovations: product placement

0,009

0,007

0,0610

4045

Marketing innovations: pricing

-0,004

0,006

0,0336

4040

Organizational innovation: business practices

0,015

**

0,008

0,1054

4073

Organizational innovation: work responsibilities and decision making

0,015

**

0,008

0,0785

4068

Organizational innovation: external relations

0,013

**

0,006

0,1049

4055

**

Innovation output Product innovation

0,008

**

0,007

0,8678

3229

Market novelties

-0,014

*

0,007

0,2372

4216

Process innovation

0,032

***

0,008

0,3362

3388

Table 2 Effects of creative intensity on innovation activities and outputs

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Innovation activities

* = statistically significant at the 10% level or less; , ** = 5% or less; *** = 1% or less.

The results in table 3 focus on the marginal effects of creative intensity on innovation targets and impacts. The interaction with the creative sector increases the likelihood that a firm in the group is medium or high concerning the goal of improving the quality (see e.g. the positive signs of the coefficients for average (2) = 0.005 and for high (3) = 0.013). Very similar results occur for the goal of increasing the supply of product and services through innovation activities. For the innovation target of widening the scope of the business no significant effect arise. Here, probably only certain segments of the CCIs are relevant (e.g. advertising). For the impact of marketing and organizational innovations the results are mixed. The creative intensity has a significant positive impact on the development of new regional markets through marketing innovations, but has no effect on increasing or maintaining the market share or to introduce products to new customer groups. Regarding organizational innovation, the probability for the ability

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Sven Wydra, Simone Kimpeler

to develop new products or processes as well as in respect to the improvement of the quality of products and services through organizational innovation is significantly positive for the values average (2) and high (3).

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Dependent variable Marginal Level of Pseudo R2 N effect significance1 quality increase

(0) -0,018 (1) -0,001 (2) 0,005 (3) 0,013

**

0,3066

4197

range of supply increase

(0) -0,024 (1) -0,001 (2) 0,007 (3) 0,018

***

0,3316

4181

widen the scope of the business

(0) -0,001 (1) 0,001 (2) 0,004 (3) 0,005



0,3183

4191

impacts of marketing innovations: Increase/ maintain market share

(0) 0,001 (1) 0,001 (2) -0,001 (3) -0,001



0,0655

2761

impacts of marketing innovations: new customer groups

(0) -0,009 (1) -0,003 (2) 0,005 (3) 0,007

0,0600

2759

impacts of marketing innovations: new geographic markets

(0) -0,020 (1) 0,003 (2) 0,011 (3) 0,008

0,0552

2758

impacts of organizational innovations: reaction time to respond to customer/ supplier needs

(0) -0,006 (1) -0,003 (2) 0,001 (3) 0,008

0,0505

2256

impacts of organizational vations: ability to develop new products or processes

(0) -0,027 (1) -0,001 (2) 0,019 (3) 0,017



***

0,1083

2245inno-

impacts of organizational innovations: quality of goods/ services

(0) -0,011 (1) -0,007 (2) 0,001 (3) 0,017



**

0,0510

2254

impacts of organizational innovations: costs

(0) -0,004 (1) -0,001 (2) 0,002 (3) 0,002

0,0614

2243

impacts of organizational innovations: communication

(0) -0,007 (1) -0,003 (2) 0,001 (3) 0,001

0,0343

2253



**

Table 3 Effects of creative intensity on innovation targets and impacts * = statistically significant at the 10% level or less; ** = 5% or less; *** = 1% or less. Please note, that the significance level may in principle differ in ordered probit models for the different marginal effects of one variable. But this is not the case in the shown regression models. 0 = not any/not relevant; 1 = low; 2 = medium/average; 3 = large/high

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Entrepreneurial Spirit, Urban Environ-

CCIs impact on economy-wide innovation

Discussion and Conclusion

The analyses show that linkages to the CCIs are of high importance to innovation in the wider economy. However the results differ between various innovation dimensions. Intensive linkages to the creative economy do not lead to higher ‘traditional’ innovation activities, but above all they have a positive impact on innovation output. In particular a high level of creative intensity has a positive impact on product and process innovations in the overall economy. These results are quite similar to those of Bakshi/ Mc Vittie (2009). In their study, the importance of the creative intensity for innovation output was also significantly higher than for active innovation activities and the results of innovation targets and impacts were also mixed.

Overall the results suggest that policy and industry should recognise the important role of CCIs in the wider in Germans ecology of innovation and analyze if possible support for cross-sectoral linkages involving CCIs is needed. About the authors Sven Wydra is research associate and project manager at the Fraunhofer ISI in the competence centre Emerging Technologies since 2005. His research areas comprise the analysis of economic impacts of new technologies and knowledge-intensive sectors, innovation policies and innovations system analysis, indicators and models for future economic growth and employment. — [email protected]

Simone Kimpeler is head of the competence centre Foresight at Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research, ISI. Working in the field of innovation research and

References: Bakhshi, H. & McVittie, E. (2009). Creative supply-chain linkages and innovation: Do the CCIs stimulate business inno-vation in the wider economy? Innovation: management, policy & practice, 11 (2), 169-189. Chapain, C.,Cooke, P., De Propris, L., MacNeill, S. & Mateos-Garcia, J.(2010). Creative Clusters and Innovation. Putting Creativity on the Map. Retrieved from NESTA, webside: http://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/creative_clusters_ and_innovation.pdf.

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Moreover, the CCIs have a positive impact on marketing and organizational activities in the overall economy. This confirms the importance of the CCIs for non-technical innovations. While CCIs may help user firms in different stages of the innovation process, they may in particular important for idea generation, product design or marketing and product launch, but less for R&D, which would refer more to technical innovations (Müller et al. 2009).

European Commision. (2011). Analysis of the consultation launched by the Green Paper on ‘Unlocking the potential of cultural and CCIs’ (Commission Staff Working Document SEC(2011) 399). Brussels: European Commission. European Commision. (2010). European Competitiveness Report 2010. (Commission Staff Working Document SEC(2010) 1276). Brussels: European Commission. Hölzl, W. (2005). ‘Entrepreneurship, entry and exit in CCIs: and exploratory survey’. (Working Paper Series; CCIs in Vienna: Development, Dynamics and Potentials, Working paper No 1).Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration. Miles, I., & Green, L. (2008). Hidden innovation in the creative industries. NESTA Futurlab. Müller, K., Rammer, C., & Trüby, J. (2009). The Role of Creative Industries in Industrial Innovation. Innovation: Management, Policy & Practice 11 (2), 148–168.

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Potts, J. (2007). ‘Art and innovation: an evolutionary economic view of the CCIs’( Multidisciplinary Research in the Arts E-Journal). Melbourne: UNESCO Observatory, The University of Melbourne. Potts, J. (2011). Creative industries and economic evolution. Edward Elgar Publishing. Prognos &Fraunhofer ISI (2012). Die Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft in der gesamtwirtschaftlichen Wertschöpfungskette - Wirkungsketten, Innovationskraft, Potenziale. Söndermann, M., Backes, C., Arndt, O., & Brünink, D. (2009). Gesamtwirtschaftliche Perspektiven der Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft in Deutschland. (Kurzfassung eines Forschungs-gutachtens im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft und Technologie, Forschungsbericht Nr. 577). Berlin: Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologien.

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Stam, E., de Jong, J.P., & Marlet, G. (2008). CCIs in the Netherlands: Structure, development, innovativeness and effects on urban growth. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 90, 119–132.

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ZEW/Fraunhofer ISI (2014): Monitoring Kreativwirtschaft 2012. (im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Wirtschaft, BMWi). Paris. Retrieved from website http://www.kultur-kreativ-wirtschaft.de/KuK/Navigation/Mediathek/ publikationen, did=625724

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foresight since 2000, her work is focused on foresight processes in support to decision makers in policy, society and industry and the analysis of innovation in the Creative Industries. — simone.kimpeler @isi.fraunhofer.de

Elselien Smit Brace

Cooperative ways of working: next practice for mutual and sustainable value creation in cultural and creative entrepreneurship

Introduction

Cooperative ways of working seem to be increasingly popular. They take many forms and exist in all sectors of society. Citizens create energy-, elderly care-, or neighbourhood cooperatives. Neighbourhood networks emerge for sharing the use of cars and tools. Young entrepreneurs cooperate with biologic farmers in their region and deliver farm-fresh fruit and vegetables in the centre of the city. And artists experiment with beehives in urban environments in decay as a contribution to revitalization of the environment. A new way of bottom-up, local social creative entrepreneurship emerges, which connects societal and artistic creativity (Hagoort, 2013). A variety of social creative practices are co-created, with the potential to contribute to social innovation and to reach a higher level of sustainability of the society.

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Abstract

With bottom-up, cooperative ways of working, social creative practices are co-created with the potential of social innovation and mutual and sustainable value creation. Characteristics of these network oriented practices, are explored and related to mutual and sustainable value creation and to possible roles of cultural creative entrepreneurs. Cultural creative entrepreneurs seem to be well positioned to play a pioneering role in social creative practices. They hold characteristics as innovative, creative, and interdisciplinary cooperative approaches. However, lack of coherence could result in only partial exploitation of the potential and hamper sustainable value creation. Studying micro-level practices is needed to obtain insight in the qualities and dynamics of specific cooperative settings.

Where do these initiatives come from and why does it happen now? One explanation is the economic crisis that accelerates change in society. Old certainties disappear, many of our fundamental beliefs and practices no longer serve us and new patterns surface (Lampert & Wijffels, 2012). Furthermore, informed, connected, empowered and active citizens are able and also want to take initiatives themselves (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004). Sometimes for idealistic reasons, sometimes more pragmatic, because they want to be independent from bureaucratic and expensive organizations and systems that do not meet their needs anymore. The growing number of these local initiatives also seems to fit in a more general increasing interest in local developments and a desire to create a human scale counterweight in a huge, complex, interconnected global world. The initiators of these social creative practices often prefer cooperative ways of working and network solutions, instead of hierarchic and bureaucratic ways of organizing (Lampert & Wijffels, 2012).

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Cultural and creative entrepreneurs

In many of these initiatives cultural and creative entrepreneurs are involved. Cultural entrepreneurs and -enterprises have its focus on unifying cultural content and commercial possibilities as a basis for innovation. Creative entrepreneurs and –enterprises focus on how creative and intellectual capital can be exploited (Thomassen, 2012). Cultural and creative entrepreneurs are said to be crucial in social innovation with the potential to galvanize major change across society through co-creation (ibid, 2012).

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This paper seeks to explore, on a conceptual level, characteristics of cooperative ways of working, aiming at the development of new social creative practices and at mutual and sustainable value creation. The exploration also focuses on roles of cultural creative entrepreneurs in these processes. First, the meaning of cooperative ways of working will be explored in the context of new social creative practices. Some characteristics will then be related to mutual and sustainable value creation, followed by a reflection on the possible role of cultural entrepreneurs. The paper is completed with a conclusion, and with a recommendation for the direction of further research. Cooperative ways of working in social creative initiatives

Most of the social creative cooperative initiatives, like the examples mentioned in the introduction, intend to create new practices on a local scale. Usually the initiatives start bottom-up, with a few people who share an interest for a specific idea, problem or question (Wheatley & Frieze, 2006). Individuals recognize their interdependence and self-organize in ways that support the diversity and viability of all, often reinforced by social media (ibid). In this process relationships develop and projects, partnerships, networks or communities of practice, are shaped who explore and develop together. Innovation is usually a central topic, often with a focus at sustainable development (Throsby, 2010). Initiators and participants usually prefer non-hierarchical, network based cooperation- and organization structures. Network based cooperations have some characteristics in common that are typical for their functioning. Brafman & Beckstrom compared network based initiatives, such as Ebay or Alcoholic Anonymous (AA), with traditional organizations, to discover the patterns and potential of self-organizing collaborative systems (2008). They describe network based initiatives as decentralized, adaptable, open systems with a number of specific characteristics. First of all a network based cooperation is flat; there is no central leader. Further it does not depend on a permanent location or a central headquarter. AA for example, has a physical address, but it exists as thousands of community centres wherever a group of members chooses to meet. In contrast with most centralized organizations there is no clear division of roles in network based cooperations. In principle, anyone can do anything. This can result in seemingly chaotic systems, but according to Brafman & Beckstrom this makes them wonderful incubators for creative, destructive and innovative ideas. An additional characteristic is that network based organizations are more or less ‘fluid’. One can take out a chunk of the network, but it will soon rebuild and integrate itself and continue to function. Taking away a department from a centralized organization will have serious consequences for its functioning, maybe even for its survival.

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Cooperative ways of working: next practice for mutual and sustainable value creation in cultural and creative entrepreneurship

In a network based cooperation there is no central brain. Knowledge and power are spread throughout the system, often in a mixture of disciplines and experiences that communicate directly. Because knowledge and power are distributed, individual units quickly respond to internal and external forces, which makes them very flexible (Brafman & Beckstrom, 2008). Several other authors distinguish comparable characteristics. Wheatley & Frieze for instance, remark that from the power of interconnected disciplines new knowledge and practices may emerge, that were unknown to the participating individuals (2006). Vermaak indicates that the cooperation context is highly dynamic. There is a complex choreography of partners who define and redefine their mutual relations. Trust is important, but it is never obvious. It has to be reconfirmed in every conversation (Vermaak, 2009). In the literature two main types of network based cooperative ways of working are distinguished: collaboration and co-creation. Both types are described and illustrated with an example.

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Collaboration

Collaboration in essence is about making connections: between people, between organizations, between communities, with the world around us. Collaboration is of increasing importance to be able to approach situations or problems as a coherent whole and to act from the connection, instead of cutting them in pieces. People and organizations collaborate to be stronger together, to support each other, to create better conditions (e.g. benefits of scale) and to develop practices that none of them could have realized on its own. Collaboration can be considered as promising, if people and organizations are able to connect with each other in a process that meets their interests and that is directed toward a meaningful ambition and to mutually relevant benefits and mutual value creation (Kaats & Opheij, 2012). To create value through collaboration that contributes to social innovation, it is important to understand that larger context and long ideation are pivotal. Social innovation is fuelled by aspirations for longer term, humanistic, and more sustainable ways of living (Sanders & Simons, 2009). An example of collaboration: the Coproducers

The diversity of theatre programs decreased after a number of cost-cutting operations from the Dutch government. As a consequence, talented theatre producers cannot develop themselves sufficiently. Seven theatre directors decided to collaborate to improve the situation. Together they select promising plans for dance- and theatre performances and they collaborate with theatre producers to develop the production plan. As a group they are able to recruit a starting capital as a basis for solid funding. This enables all collaborating partners to bring higher quality theatre productions on stage and to create mutual value. In the long run it also has the potential to improve the viability and sustainability of participating theatres, theatre producers and performing artists (Vestering, 2014).

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Co-creation

Co-creation is considered as a special case of collaboration. It is defined as: ‘any act of collective creativity that is experienced jointly with the intent to create something that is not known in advance’ (Sanders & Simons, 2009). Users, consumers or other stakeholders who will benefit from the results, participate on an equal basis and become joined problem definers and problem solvers. Together with the initiators they co-construct experiences, not just products and services, that are more valuable and compelling to everyone (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004). Different types of co-creation occur, including: co-creation with (urban) communities, between companies and business partners, and between companies and the people they serve: customers or users.

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Example co-creation: Care for the “Jan Eef”

After a robbery and murder on a jeweller in the central shopping street in the neighbourhood, the Jan Evertsen street in Amsterdam, a group of residents decided to take a positive initiative. By means of a ‘care for the jan eef day’ filled with activities and pop-up shops the initiators wanted to take back, embrace and revitalize their shopping street. After the successful day the volunteers continued to organize events like a Christmas market and a terrace day. To make the efforts more permanent and to ensure some financial support, a shopping association was established. Residents, shop- and restaurant owners participate in this association and collaborate to co-create a high quality environment. Missing expertise is hired from professionals in the neighbourhood. New shops and a number of creative entrepreneurs moved in, and a broad and strong network has been developed in the neighbourhood, but also on city- and national level. The shopping street is now a national experiment (De Jong, 2013). Mutual and sustainable value creation

Several authors remark that relational aspects such as interconnection between multiple stakeholders, aligning interests and human interaction play a central role in the success of partnerships and cooperations (e.g. Kaats & Opheij, 2012, Lambrechts et al, 2009, Van der Geest, 2014, Vermaak, 2009). Lambrechts et al stress the importance of mutual engagement of participating actors in high quality relationships. According to them the essence is doing things together in such a quality way that all actors involved benefit from the practice and are able to create value (Lambrechts et al, 2009). Prahalad & Ramaswamy describe it as ‘The interaction becomes the ‘locus’ of mutual value creation’ (2004). In sustainable strategy literature, sustainable value creation is often defined as creating economic value, while at the same time creating social, cultural and ecologic value with a long term focus (Simanis & Hart, 2009). This is aspired by means of processes that focus explicitly on interests of collaborating and/or co-creating partners, users and other stakeholders and of nature (e.g. by focusing on renewable resources, or re-use of materials) and on possible effects of choices: here and there, now and later. Sustainable value creation is mutual value creation. All partners in a process are enabled to create value. The meaning of value is context related. Human interaction and developing mutual relationships are a precondition to discover what sustainable value means in a particular context and also, how it can be co-created with stakeholders. The dimensions of sustainable value creation are presented in Figure 1, which is used in this paper as a working definition.

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Figure 1: Working definition for sustainable value creation (Smit & Geurts, 2013)

From a sustainable perspective the world is a living system and an interconnected whole. Interconnected means among others that interests of OTHERS and of NATURE are also in our own interest. In the same way, what happens ELSEWHERE, for example by globalization, may also influence us HERE in a later stage, in a positive as well as in a negative way. From this multiple, interconnected perspective, sustainable value is future proof, mutual and environment proof. The key activities of a specific network or cooperating community and the role it plays in a local or regional living system determine which dimensions should have priority. From an entrepreneurial point of view economic value creation is a necessity for the viability and sustainability of a company. However, the meaning of economic value seems to be different for different types of entrepreneurs. For ‘regular’ entrepreneurs the necessity of economic value creation is obvious. The transition they have to make is to change focus in the process of value creation. Instead of focusing on products and services as they are used to, mutual and sustainable value creation begins with interaction amongst customers, users and other stakeholders. Cultural creative entrepreneurs desire to prioritize the cultural value of their creation with little motivation for generating economic value (HKU, 2010). If they want to play their pioneering role well in social creative innovation, taking care of economic value is unavoidable to ensure their viability and sustainability.

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The role of cultural creative entrepreneurs

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Cultural creative entrepreneurs have some characteristics that seem to position them well for a pioneering role in the development of new social creative practices and for cooperative ways of working. First of all the cultural and creative sector is involved in a permanent strive for developing new products, technologies and services that have not been here before (Dos Santos Duisenberg, 2010). Innovation is a central topic, a raison d’être. Interdisciplinary cooperation, in networks of multiple and changing clients, competitors, colleagues and other stakeholders, is considered to be an intrinsic part of creative and cultural entrepreneurship (Gardner, 2007). According to the European Commission cultural creative initiatives have the potential to be examples of next practice in mutual and sustainable value creation and to contribute to the transition towards a sustainable economy (European Commission, 2010). Apart from the characteristics mentioned above, the majority of these cultural and creative entrepreneurs also have some complex characteristics that may distinguish them from ‘regular’ entrepreneurs. About 80% of the sector belongs to the small and medium sized enterprises (SME), with less than 10 people involved (HKU, 2010). Over 50% is even smaller than three individuals (ibid). These ‘micro-SME’s’ exist mainly on the basis of permanent networks (Kooyman & Jacobs, 2014). Cultural and creative workers are more than twice as likely to be self-employed than the average for the whole economy (HKU, 2010). Cultural creative entrepreneurs often have multiple jobs, necessary for a minimum income for survival and a degree of security (Kooyman & Smit, 2013). There seems to be a paradox between the pivotal role of creative enterprises and the difficult situation of entrepreneurs in the sector. On the one hand, the creative industry is considered as a top sector geared to drive the innovation we long for (European Commission, 2010). On the other hand, fragmentation and lack of coherence result in only partial exploitation of the potential and hamper sustainable, long term value creation (ibid). In a report on unlocking entrepreneurial skills of cultural creative entrepreneurs the European Commission recommends to stimulate entrepreneurial skills, and adds that a combination of learning by doing in a collaborative manner and peer to peer coaching seems to be preferable over focussing on education curricula (ibid). Apart from that, more clarity is needed about the actual- and possible cooperative roles of cultural creative entrepreneurs in social creative practices. And about conditions that enable them to develop their full potential. Or, in the words of UNDP & UNESCO: ‘It is one thing to recognize potential but quite another to apply the knowledge and skills necessary to harness that potential to bring about beneficial change (2013).’ According to UNDP & UNESCO multiple strategies are needed for new pathways, to emerge from both organic processes and deliberate policy. Conclusion

In this paper an initial exploration has been made of network oriented, cooperative ways of working aiming at mutual- and sustainable value creation with the development of new social creative practices. Also possible roles of social creative entrepreneurs were explored. The exploration shows that there is a trend towards the development of cooperative social creative practices. This trend seems to be reinforced and accelerated by societal developments like the economic crisis and empowered citizens who want to take initiatives. Entrepreneurial initiators often prefer non-hierarchical, network oriented approaches. 44

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Cooperative ways of working: next practice for mutual and sustainable value creation in cultural and creative entrepreneurship

From this first exploration it is not yet clear how these cooperative ways of working function in practice, what makes them work and to what extent value is created and social innovation is realized. More insight is needed in the qualities and dynamics of specific cooperative organizational settings. This requires zooming in on a micro level of cooperative work in its specific local context. Inquiry into small things shows the value of understanding the more intricate life giving qualities of organizational settings, in which seeds for social innovation may be found (Zandee, 2013). More insight is important for the social creative domain itself. This could also be a source of inspiration for other organizational settings in more traditional enterprises and for multi-stakeholder collaborations, that strive for social innovation and mutual- and sustainable value creation. About the author: Elselien Smit, Brace, works as a researcher, practitioner and trainer in the domain of sustainable strategy- and organization development and sustainable and mutual value creation. She is also a PhD candidate in this domain. She facilitated and managed multidisciplinary- and cross organization border collaboration projects and she was project leader of national and international projects. An important source of inspiration for the guiding principles she uses is ways of working based on action research, appreciative inquiry and communities of practice. — [email protected]

References Brafman, O. & Beckstrom, R.A. (2008). The starfish and the spider. The unstoppable power of leaderless organizations. Penguin Putnam Inc. Dos Santos Duisenberg, E. (2010). Creative economy Report 2010. A feasible Development Option. Geneva: UNCTAD. European Commission. (2010). Green paper: Unlocking the potential of cultural and creative industries. Brussels: European Commission. Gardner, W. (2007). ‘Who is an entrepreneur?’ is the wrong question. American Journal of Small Business, 12 (4), 11-32.

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Remarkable is that many characteristics can be related to words like ‘decentralized, open, self-organization, fluid, organic and flexible’. Apart from these ‘hybrid’ characteristics, the exploration shows that network based cooperation is considered as a highly relational endeavour. This is also the case for mutual and sustainable value creation. Cultural creative entrepreneurs seem to be well positioned for a pioneering role in social creative practices, with characteristics as innovative, creative, and interdisciplinary cooperative intiatives. However, lack of coherence could result in only partial exploitation of the potential and hamper sustainable value creation.

Geest, N. van der (2014). Creatief partnerschap. Evenwicht tussen creativiteit en samenwerking. Amsterdam, International Theatre & Film Books. Hagoort, G. (2013). Just arrived: the DIY-Creative Economy 3.0. Denklijnen ter voorbereiding Open Dag Cartesius Museum. Retrieved from: http://www.cartesiusmuseum.org, April 25, 2014 HKU, (2010). The entrepreneurial dimension of the cultural and creative industries, Hogeschool voor de Kunsten Utrecht, Utrecht. Hosking, D.M. (2004). Change works. A critical construction. In: J.J. Boonstra (Ed), Dynamics of organizational change and learning (pp259-276). West Sussex, UK: Wiley and Sons. Jong, de V. (2013). De economische en sociale kracht van Winkelstraatvereniging Jan Eef. Onderzoeksrapportage. Amsterdam, Winkelstraatvereniging Jan Eef. Retrieved from: www.http://janeef.nl/onderzoek, March 25, 2014. Kaats, E. & Opheij, W. (2012). Leren samenwerken tussen organisaties. Deventer, Kluwer.

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Kooyman, R.K. & Jacobs, R. (2014). The entrepreneurial ant: re-thinking art management education. In: ENCATC Journal of Cultural Management and Policy. Brussels (forthcoming). Kooyman, R.K. & Smit, E.Y.M. (2013): Creative Sustainable Urban Development: The coop model, a Dutch example. In: Brazda, J., Dellinger, M. und D. Rössel (Hg). Genossenschaften im Fokus einer neuen Wirtschaftspolitik. Bericht der XVII. Internationalen Genossenschaftswissenschaftlichen Tagung (IGT) 2012 in Wien. Teilband IV, Länderstudien. Wien, Lit Verlag GmbH & Co. KG Lambrechts, F., Grieten, S., Bouwen, R. & Corthouts, F. (2009). Process Consultation Revisited: Taking a Relational Practice Perspective. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 2009; 45; 39. DOI: 10.1177/00218863083326563 Lampert, M. & Wijffels, H. (2012). Netwerksamenleving biedt route uit crisis. Verkenning van veranderingen onder de oppervlakte. Motivaction Research & Strategy, Utrecht Sustainability Institute, Utrecht University.

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Prahalad, C.K. & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). Co-creation experiences: the next practice in value creation. Journal of interactive marketing Volume 18/ Number 3/Summer 2004. Sanders, L. & Simons, G. (2009), A social vision for value co-creation in design. In: Technology Innovation Management Review. Retrieved from: www.http:// timreview.ca/article/310, March 29, 2014. Simanis, E. & Hart, S. (2009), Innovation from the inside out. MIT Sloan Management Review, Summer 2009, pp 77-86. Smit, E. & Geurts, J. (2013). Circle model with working definition of sustainable value creation. Part of PhD research. Not yet published. Thomassen, A. (2012). Co-creation and social entrepreneurship: How to use creative entrepreneurship as the innovator in social contexts. In: G. Hagoort, A. Thomassen en R. Kooyman (ed): Pioneering minds worldwide. On the entrepreneurial Principles of the Cultural and Creative Industries. (Pp. 122-129). Eburon Academic Press, Delft. Throsby, H.B. (2010). Culture of innovation. London: NESTA. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) & United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), (2013). Creative economy Report: Widening local development pathways (pp 123-125). New York, USA and Paris, France. Vermaak, H. (2009). Enjoying tough issues. Dynamics of innovation and stagnation. Deventer. Kluwer. Vestering, A. (2014). Samen sterk. In: Cultuurbericht. Spring 2014, p 13. Wheatley M. D. & Frieze, D. (2006). Using emergence to take social innovation to scale. Downloaded June 2009: www.margaretwheatley.com/articles/ emergence.html Zandee, D. P. (2013). The process of generative inquiry. In: D. L. Cooperrider, D. P. Zandee, L. N. Godwin, M. Avital, & B. Boland (Eds.), Advances in appreciative inquiry Vol. 4. Organizational generativity: The appreciative inquiry summit and a scholarship of transformation (pp. 69-88). Bingley, England: Emerald.

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Vera de Jong

Nodes of creativity Unlocking the potential of creative SMEs by managing the soft infrastructure of creative clusters Abstract

This article, based on an intensive literature review and the analysis of 15 semi structured interviews, focuses on the importance of the soft creative cluster infrastructure for the creative practices of creative small medium enterprises. A framework of five critical ‘soft’ factors is presented, as well as three critical factors related to the management of this soft creative cluster infrastructure.

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Introduction

In recent decades there has been a growing interest in the creative industries and creative clusters. An increasing acknowledgement of the benefits for creative firms to physically co-locate, led to the development of numerous theories and policies on the concept of creative clusters (f.e. Scott, 2006; Stern & Seiffert, 2010; Mommaas, 2004; Kong, 2009; Throsby, 2010; Zhao & Qi, 2012). Nowadays, clustering of creative activities in urban areas occurs on a large scale (Scott, 2000; Stam et al., 2008). Public and private intervention on the development of creative clusters have become very common, as the presence of a creative cluster in an urban district is considered to be beneficial for their regeneration effects and direct economic outputs (Kong, 2009). In addition, creative clusters are believed to be beneficial towards the stimulation of a wider innovative, creative ecosystem (O’Connor & Gu, 2011), which is highly needed in the current knowledge economy. Over the past years, there emerged however a growing criticism among academics on both public and private intervention on cluster development and management, as these clusters are accused of missing out on real cluster benefits by simply co-locating creative industry activities, without ensuring any real interlinkages or network effects (Zheng, 2011, O’Connor & Gu, 2011). This new line of critique, together with the rising academic discourse on the position of social networks within cluster theories, constituted the starting point of this study. Existing theories mainly focus on the regeneration effects or handle an economic cluster approach and scarcely provide explicit knowledge on the dynamics of within creative clusters. The explorative research discussed in this article focuses on the role of the ‘soft’ creative cluster infrastructure and its management in benefit of supporting the practice of creative small medium enterprises (SMEs).

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New generation of cluster theories: the integration of economic, geographic and social concepts

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Many studies on the clustering of creative industries production clusters are based upon two traditional types of cluster approach: Agglomeration economies and the industrial district. The first approach puts an emphasis on external economies of scale generated by geographically co-located specialized firms. The second approach is best described by the example of the ‘Italian industrial district’ (Santagata, 2002). This approach is based on small-scale industrial activities and flexible specialization, a subdivision of complementary activities in the production system.

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A new generation of cluster theories related to the creative industries is emerging. This new approach focuses on the importance of social networks for entrepreneurship and innovation; it offers the ‘relational turn’ in cluster theories (Comunian, 2012). This quite new approach is to a great extent provided by literature on clustering in new knowledge-based industrial areas. One argues that cluster benefits not only derive from the mere co-location of firms and the economic interconnectedness (horizontal or vertical), but also result from social relationships and collaborative networks (f.e. Scott, 2006; McCann, 2008; Comunian, 2012). In this new view, clusters are not just clustered spatial equivalent of markets, but rather ecological networks of social interpersonal and inter-firm relationships (McCann, 2008). The study of Scott (2006) provides a clear example of the integration of sociologic theory with standard economical and geographical approach. Scott in fact regards the grid of the cluster as a whole to be a unit of social capital, which he underpins with the wellknown sociologic concept of strong and weak ties developed by Granovetter (1973). Strong ties include strong relationships within the same network build on mutual trust and reciprocity. These strong ties provide a lot of specific information and trustworthy transactions. Loose ties on the other hand, include weak relationships among various networks. These relationships provide a wider array of information, but the signals are less consistent and less credible (Uzzi, 1996). According to Scott, the ideal network for the creative entrepreneur or any other type of innovator is therefore ‘one that involves some balanced mix of strong and weak ties so that individuals on the reception are likely to pick up an extremely varied mix of stimuli’ (Scott, 2006, p. 5). In this social network theory, a network is primarily approached as a non-spatial concept, but by linking the social network theory to economic and geographical theory, the spatiality of a network does play an important role. Over the past years, this new spatial social network approach has been increasingly accepted by researchers and policymakers (O’Connor, 2004; Scott, 2006; Vang, 2005; Pratt, 2008). However, this approach makes the development and implementation of cluster strategies and policies more complex. From this moment on, initiators of creative cluster do not only have to deal with the co-location of creative activities, providing a proper physical infrastructure and even the direct promoting of business skills, but also deal with the promotion and strengthening of networks (O’Connor, 2004) and implementing networks in the role of a learning and support infrastructure (Comunian, 2012).

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Nodes of creativity Unlocking the potential of creative SMEs by managing the soft infrastructure of creative clusters

Building a conceptual framework for analyzing the soft creative cluster infrastructure

The creative cluster infrastructure can be defined by the fact that it consists of any object, rule, activity or phenomenon, which is collective (i.e. shared among a group of individuals). Also, all infrastructural factors serve as capital inputs in the cultural and creative production process (Andersson & Andersson, 2008). The infrastructure of creative clusters encompasses both hard and soft factors. Hard creative cluster factors have been studied intensely over the past decades and include for example the availability of certain resources including rent levels, the availability of workspace, accessibility, local and national tax regimes, and other regulations and laws affecting the functioning of companies within those clusters (Musterd et al. 2007). There we concentre on soft infrastructure. Soft infrastructure relates to supportive, immaterial factors that can stimulate the creativity and innovativeness of creative SMEs within the creative cluster.

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Why creative clusters are different

The nature of activities within creative clusters is related to the generation of innovations and creativity. The establishment of innovation and creativity requires however distinctive and complex processes that are driven by interfirm interaction and collaboration. This means that a successful creative cluster does not only accounts for standard economic positive externalities towards the creative SMEs, but also provide additional, non-standard externalities such as innovation externalities (Kong, 2009). The most important innovation externality is the knowledge spillover. A face-to-face buzz on new industry trends and the co-location of a diverse portfolio of creative competences is needed for this knowledge spill over to emerge (Vang, 2007). As it is acknowledged that the production process of creative SMEs highly depend on social relationships and networks, an increasing amount of researchers and policy-makers are interested in finding ways to stimulate, foster and manage these networks or clusters (Jeffcutt & Pratt, 2002). It may thus not be very surprising that the presence of human capital, a local creative atmosphere and a high level of social interaction are seen as the most important resources for the creative industries (Zhao & Qi, 2012). Also, creative firms are not only driven by extrinsic, economic motivation but mostly by intrinsic motivation and social interactions (Klamer, 2006). These non-economic, ‘soft’ production inputs are hard to valuate within standard linearly economical concepts. Creativity has proved to be a complex process, which evidently needs a tailored approach. These insights form the starting point for the identification of the concept of the ‘soft creative cluster infrastructure’.

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An intensive literature review resulted in the formulation of seven main elements of a soft creative cluster infrastructure. These main elements are illustrated in the conceptual framework below. Factor Theoretical justification Diversity of located firms

Private, public, non-profit interconnections (Fromhold-Eisebith & Eisebith, 2005). Commercial and publicly funded creative entrepreneurs / Diversity in startups and established firms (HKU, 2012). Overlap of social and professional networks (Comunian, 2012).

Individual learning Offering specialized consulting services in f.e. financing, marketing, planning (Fromhold-Eisebith & Eisebith, 2005). Learning by doing (Comunian, 2012).

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Networked learning Learning by hiring, in project organizations / Peer-to-peer reviewing / Best and worse practice learning (Comunian, 2012). Learning by doing, learning by watching, and learning by ‘being there’ (Pratt, 2002). Interlinkages within the value chain

Alliances of creative entrepreneurs with (co) producers, gatekeepers, distributers and costumers (HKU, 2012).

Creative Business Modeling (CBM) support

Business support: developing entrepreneurial skills (HKU, 2012).



culture and the creative industries (Comunian, 2012). Attracting new industrial investors (Fromhold-Eisebith & Eisebith, 2005).

Identity

Collective identity, trust-based factor / status enhancing capacity (Staber & Sautter, 2011).



Strong identity through reputation and quality of creative firms within the cluster (Kong, 2009; Moreno, 2002)



Contribution of a positive creative cluster image to designing a new urban identity (Santagata, 2002)

Regional embeddedness

Connectedness to regional pre-existing cluster of creative industries (Fromhold-Eisebith & Eisebith, 2005).

Fostering alternative networking and financing (HKU, 2012). Enhance economic interlinkages between publically funded

Table 1 Conceptual framework ‘soft’ creative cluster infrastructure

Managing creative clusters

Besides researching the soft elements of the creative cluster infrastructure, this study also aimed to illuminate its management implications. In practice, creative clusters are managed by various management bodies, ranging from district government agencies, publicly funded project agencies, creative entrepreneurs and commercial real estate project developers (Kong, 2008). These various management bodies are occupied with different dimensions of management like administration, degree of public involvement, programming (Brooks & Kushner, 2001) and degree of physical change in order to

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transform urban space into ‘cultural space’ (Hitters & Richards, 2002). These dimensions can be divided in management of ‘hard’ factors - like the arrangement of rental contracts and fundamental facilities (Zhao & Qi, 2012) - and management of ‘soft’ factors like the stimulation of a fertile internal culture, supporting structural social and economic connections to arise (O’Connor, 2004; Fromhold-Eisebith & Eisebith, 2005; Comunian, 2012). Clusters that are labeled as ‘creative clusters’ and that just enable the fundamental facilities of co-located available workspaces, are often criticized by their lack of interlinkages, networking effects and added value (Evans, 2009; Zheng, 2011). In this view, soft creative cluster factors do need management and coordination to be effective, just like the hard factors. Also Fromhold-Eisebith & Eisebith (2005) stress the importance of the organization of social, soft innovative cluster factors, which in their opinion require a participative approach involving various public and private actors. They call for ‘a new type of coordinator or ‘cluster manager’ who is capable to co-ordinate support across organizational boundaries and to integrate various instruments and interests’ (Fromhold-Eisebith & Eisebith, 2005, p. 1253). Also, in order to be effective, the coordinator or manager should be part of ‘the system of creativity’, which means that the manager needs to be supportive to the creative SMEs in an informal, participating manner. He supports the SMEs, but at the same time avoids restrictive factors which may result in the lock-in of creativity at all time (Fromhold-Eisebeth & Eisebeth, 2005). Methods of datacollection

Our explorative research focuses on the role of the soft creative cluster infrastructure and its management in supporting the practice of creative SMEs. Three case studies have been selected within the city of Amsterdam, on the bases of two main criteria: the three creative clusters should have a fairly comparable size; the presence of a coordinating cluster manager. The three selected creative clusters are Duinjer CS (initiated in 2008, 13.000m2, 150 creative SMEs), Volkskrantgebouw (initiated in 2007, 10.000m2, 300 creative SMEs) and Arts & Crafts Lab (initiated in 2009, 6.000 m2, 100 creative SMEs). The research includes 15 interviews, of which 12 interviews with creative SMEs and 3 interviews with creative cluster managers. All three creative clusters were analysed by a coding system on three main elements: - The presence of interlinkages and network effects - Presence of and need for soft creative cluster infrastructure (based on theoretical framework) - Current and desired management of soft creative cluster factors

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Nodes of creativity Unlocking the potential of creative SMEs by managing the soft infrastructure of creative clusters

Due to the temporary character of the studied creative clusters, Duintjer CS, A&C Lab and Volkskrantgebouw have been closed down in the years 2013 and 2014. Duintjer CS and Volkskrantgebouw are now situated in a redevelopment process and partly keep their function as a creative cluster, for a higher segment of creative firms. The effect of the presence of the hard and soft infrastructure on the end of activities has not been taken into account. However, recent observations show that several strong networks of independent creative SME’s are deliberately re-co-located.

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True Works – Film/documentary production

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Results

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Starting with the results regarding the first topic, all three studied creative clusters include a relatively small amount of interlinkages between creative firms. Out of this small amount of existing interlinkages, social interlinkages with non-sector related creative firms are most common. The majority of the creative SMEs has a strong desire to increase their volume of both economic and social interlinkages with other creative cluster participants. They indicate social interlinkages to be important to obtain a sense of trust, friendship and mutual reciprocity. Factors, which they require in order to share knowledge and to be part of an inspiring yet comfortable working atmosphere. Economic interlinkages are important to the practice of creative SMEs, as these interlinkages often result in project corporations and the acquisition of new work. The lack of interlinkages within the studied creative clusters is regarded to be a loss to the creative practice of creative SMEs located in those clusters. The creative SMEs presume to miss out on possibilities to get inspired, to share knowledge as well as corporation and acquisition possibilities.

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‘ It’s a shame that I am located in this building and that I have no idea who’s here, except in this hallway I know some firms, but the rest .. I really don’t know them’. Regarding the analysis of the presence of soft creative cluster factors in top-down creative clusters and their importance for the creative practices of creative SMEs, it need to be mentioned that the presence of a soft creative cluster infrastructure is no basic requirement for creative SMEs to survive. All 12 interviewed creative SMEs argue that they would be able to continue their businesses without the presence of soft creative cluster factors, as long as they are equipped with a hard creative infrastructure including a working space, internet, heating systems and so on. The creative SMEs do however express that their ideal creative cluster would include an extensive soft creative infrastructure. The learning infrastructure

The most important soft creative cluster factor, mentioned by the interviewed creative SMEs, is the learning infrastructure. Knowledge exchange covers an important part of the practice of interviewed creative SMEs. The creative SMEs make a distinction between two types of knowledge: the first type of knowledge is sector-specific knowledge, which they can only obtain via sector-specific relationships and activities. The second type of knowledge is knowledge of business skills, which they obtain via general (non sector-related) relationships and activities. The major part of the creative SMEs finds the first type of knowledge most important to their creative practice. On basis of theories of Fromhold-Eisebith and Eisebith (2005), Pratt (2002) and Comunian (2012), also another distinction was made on two distinctive types of learning: individual learning (f.e. consultancy and seminars) and networked learning (f.e. learning by doing, learning by watching, peer-review). Within the three studied creative clusters, the most common and most requested way of learning is networked learning.

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Nodes of creativity Unlocking the potential of creative SMEs by managing the soft infrastructure of creative clusters

Diversity

Besides the learning infrastructure, the diversity among the creative firms that are located in the creative clusters turns out to be a very important factor for the creative SMEs. A presence of diversity in sectors is needed as this enhances the creative and inspiring atmosphere, which is beneficial for the creative practice of creative SMEs.

Despite the fact that the interviewed creative SMEs acknowledge the benefits of a soft creative cluster infrastructure for their creative practices, they are not actively engaging themselves in ensuring this soft creative cluster infrastructure. All creative SMEs indicate that they are too busy with running their own projects, which tempers actively organize the soft creative cluster factors themselves. They argue that the organization and management of soft creative cluster factors would be a task for the creative cluster manager. The three creative clusters however do not fully meet this need. In A&C Lab and Duintjer CS, the management considers the organization of the hard infrastructure to be their main task. The soft infrastructure could be an ‘extra’ to their renters, but is often disregarded. The management agency of Volkskrantgebouw, Urban Resort, aims to focus on managing both hard and soft infrastructure. However from a business perspective, the disadvantage of organizing the soft infrastructure is that Urban Resort’s overhead expenses are estimated to be about twice as high as any other manager of such property. Urban Resort indicates this to be a tough dilemma. Critical factors concerning the ‘soft’ creative cluster infrastructure

On the basis of the findings of the literature review confronted with the results of the empirical research, five critical ‘soft’ factors of the creative cluster infrastructure can be recognized: - - - - -

Facilitating a learning infrastructure (programming networked & individual learning events) Balancing the diversity (selection of firms: life phase, discipline, attitude) Ensuring business support (easy access to experts) Ensuring presentation possibilities (programming) Contributing to a collective identity (internal and external communication, social media)

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‘You become far more open to things if you see other things happening around you, new things that you maybe can apply in your own work’.

Additionally, three critical factors of managing creative clusters can be formulated, in relation to these ‘soft’ factors: - Ensuring interaction between both hard and soft factors - Being part of the ‘system of creativity’ (in order to build relation of trust and recognise needs) - Constructing an innovative business model, which includes the organisation of both hard and soft creative cluster infrastructure factors. 3

Andrewsdegen – Graphic design

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Conclusion and implications

This article argues that attention needs to be paid to the organisation of the soft creative infrastructure of the creative cluster in order to unlock the full creative, innovative and professional potential of creative SMEs. Building on emerging interdisciplinary approaches on creative clusters, including economical, geographical and social network theories, as well as empirical research in three creative clusters in Amsterdam, a framework of five key factors on the soft infrastructure of creative clusters and three key factors of managing this soft infrastructure could be outlined. These findings could be helpful for further research on creative clusters and for facilitating debates among stakeholders. Also, the findings can be translated into a practical tool for future development of creative clusters. References

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Andersson, D.E. and Andersson, A.E. (2008) Spatial clustering of culture. In: Karlsson, C. (Eds.) Handbook of Research on Cluster Theories (261-273). Cheltenham/Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Brooks, A.C. and Kushner, R.J. (2001). Cultural districts and urban development. International Journal of Arts Management, 3(4), 4–15. Comunian, R. (2012). Creative networks: complexity, learning and support across creative industries. In: HKU. Pioneering Minds Worldwide. On the Entrepreneurial Principles of the Cultural and Creative Industries (pp. 62-69). Delft: Eburon Academic Press. Fromhold-Eisebith, M. and Eisebith, G. (2005). How to institutionalize innovative clusters? Comparing explicit top-down and implicit bottom-up approaches. Research Policy, 34, 1250–1268. Granovetter, M. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360-1380. HKU (2012). Pioneering Minds Worldwide. On the Entrepreneurial Dimension of the Cultural and Creative Industries. Delft: Eburon Academic Press. Hitters, E. and Richards, G. (2002). The creation and management of cultural clusters. Creativity and Innovation Management, 11(4), 234-247. Jeffcutt, P. and Pratt, A.C. (2002). Managing creativity in the cultural industries. Creativity and Innovation Management, 11, 225–233. Kong, L. (2009). Beyond Networks and Relations: Towards Rethinking Creative Cluster Theory. GeoJournal Library, 98(2), 61-75. McCann, P. (2008). Agglomeration economics. In: Karlsson, C. (Eds.) Handbook of Research on Cluster Theories (23-38). Cheltenham/ Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Mommaas, H. (2004). Cultural clusters and the post-industrial city: Towards the remapping of urban cultural policy. Urban Studies 41(3), 507-532. Musterd, S., Bontje, M., Chapain, C., Kovács , Z., Murie, A. (2007). Accommodating Creative Knowledge A Literature Review from a European Perspective. AMIDST, University of Amsterdam.

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About the author: Vera de Jong obtained a BAE Art and Economics at the Utrecht University of the Arts and a MA Cultural Economics and Cultural Entrepreneurship at the Erasmus University Rotterdam. Her expertise: creative clusters, creative networks and creative urban development. For over a period of two years, she has worked as a project manager of several creative clusters in Amsterdam. Vera is currently attached to School of the Arts as researcher and lecturer. She is also co-founder of Urban Connectors, an agency specialized in creative urban development. — [email protected]

Nodes of creativity Unlocking the potential of creative SMEs by managing the soft infrastructure of creative clusters

O’Connor, J. (2004). ‘A special kind of city knowledge’: innovative clusters, tacit knowledge and the ‘Creative City’. Media International Australia, 112, 131-149. O’Connor, J. & Gu, X. (2011). Creative industry clusters and the ‘creative milieu’ in Shanghai. Regional Studies, 32(2), 143-170. Pratt, A.C. (2008). Creative cities: the cultural industries and the creative class, Geografiska annaler: Series B - Human geography, 90(2), 107-117. Santagata, W. (2002). Cultural Districts, Property Rights and Sustainable Economic Growth. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 26(1), 9–23. Scott, A.J. (2000). The cultural economy of cities: Essays on the geography of image-producing industries. London: Sage.

Staber, U. and Sautter, B. (2011). Who are we, and do we need to change? Cluster identity life cycle. Regional studies, 50(10), 1349-1361. Throsby, D. (2010). The Economics of Cultural Policy. New York: Cambridge University Press. Uzzi, B. (1996). The Sources and Consequences of Embeddedness for the Economic Performance of Organizations: The Network Effect. American Sociological Review, 61(4), 674-698. Vang, J. (2007). The spatial organization of the news industry: Questioning assumptions about knowledge externalities for clustering of creative industries. Innovation: Management, Policy & Practice, 9(1), 14-27. Zheng, J. (2011). Creative Industry Clusters and the Entrepreneurial City of Shanghai. Urban Studies 48(16), 3561-3582. Zhao J. and Qi, Z. (2012). Cultural and creative industry cluster: a case of Bejing. International Journal Learning and Intellectual Capital 9(1), 51-63.

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Scott, A.J. (2006). Entrepreneurship, innovation and industrial development: Geography and the creative field revisited. Small Business Economics, 26(1), 1-24.

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Javier J. Hernández-Acosta

Understanding ‘Cultural Return’: Spillover Management in the Creative Industries

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Abstract

Production and employment dynamics in the cultural and creative industries bring entrepreneurship to the centre stage. However, understanding how value is created is important to align business strategies with public policy. This chapter establishes that cultural entrepreneurship could be developed through four levels or strategies, presented as concentric circles: the business model, cultural management, cultural return and cultural citizenship. For the first two, an extensive literature has been developed. This chapter will develop the concept of ‘cultural return’, defined as a group of positive effects of cultural activity on creative production ecosystems, which requires what could be described as ‘spill over management’. Performance and evaluation in the creative sector require a balance between financial, artistic and social contribution. Besides this, limited resources require that organizations understand and promote how their activities contribute to the sustainability of their sectors, geographical area or ecosystems. Different enterprises have different roles in creative ecosystems, requiring new tools to assess their impact. The ‘cultural return’ model works as an audit and strategic analysis, understanding positive spill overs with impact in both supply and demand. The six effects of the model include career development, networks and alliances, innovation, education, audience diversity and cultural participation. An additional effect, considers the impact of geographical agglomeration. This model proposes a framework of analysis that could help cultural firms develop strategies and establish links with other levels to promote a sustainable approach to cultural entrepreneurship. Finally, through a case study, indicators and methodologies are discussed. Understanding ‘Cultural Return’

The concept of creative economy is gaining momentum as an alternative for economic, social, and cultural change. Moreover, the complex global economic crisis has positioned the economic dimension of culture as a topic of great importance. In fact, after several years with a focus on the economic contribution at the macro level, the discussion has eventually moved to the entrepreneurial level (UNCTAD, 2010, HKU, 2010 & Hagoort, et al, 2012). The emphasis on cultural and creative entrepreneurship is necessary because it represents the main production dynamic of these sectors. The economy has moved from an industrial era to a knowledge economy, in which creativity, innovation, and identity are their main inputs. Furthermore, it is anchored in the contexts of cities, communities, and social action. Entrepreneurship and management in cultural and creative industries have evolved in recent years. Originally, tools for their development consisted of the application of traditional management practices. However, their characteristics required a separate managerial and entrepreneurial sub-discipline (Hagoort 2003, Evrard & Colbert, 2000). Currently, there is a need to continue building a cultural entrepreneurship model that recognizes the interactions between economic, social, and cultural value, all of them

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anchored in sustainability. A model of cultural entrepreneurship should not only be based on individual performance but also through the concept of ecosystem and how these ecosystems are strengthened through the action of cultural and creative industries. In other words, it requires managing spill overs.

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Cultural Entrepreneurship Model

For this model it is necessary to redefine several concepts. First, creative economy is defined as the production of goods and services based on creativity with the ability to generate wealth through some form of intellectual property (DCMS, 2001). However, this includes sectors that have traditionally operated with negative externalities over independent production and cultural diversity, as is the case of the music and book industries. For this reason, a creative economy should include creative endeavours beyond creative production. Both elements should be central to the concept. On this basis, we propose a cultural entrepreneurship model based on four concentric circles that are linked and exhibit a great level of interaction (Figure 1). The first two correspond to individual endeavours while the last two correspond to collective management. This model allows entrepreneurs to develop a structure through which a comprehensive management approach can be analysed and developed.

Figure 1 Cultural Entrepreneurship Model

1. Business Model

One of the great challenges of a cultural and creative economy is to anchor an artistic or content proposal to a market economy. This implies the development of a value proposition; something that very often goes beyond the core product. Based on this, the value proposition is located with respect to supply and demand, a combination of available resources and customer segments. This is usually one of the biggest challenges in the development of successful business practices.

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2. Cultural Management

Business models provide a framework for viability. However, this operation must be outlined within a management approach based on four components: organizational design, finance, marketing, and innovation. While other levels of the proposed model influence cultural management, this interaction is precisely what makes it creative management. For example, the concept of innovation comprises the four categories proposed by the OECD (2005), which include product, process, marketing, and organizational innovation. The nature of project-based management requires continuous improvement as a key element of management.

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3. Cultural Return

Traditional models limit their focus to an individual approach of cultural and creative entrepreneurship. However, it is necessary to relate cultural management to the concept of creative ecosystem. Cultural enterprises produce a number of positive effects on the sectors in which they operate. Beyond considering them as spill overs, these effects should be incorporated into the strategic designs of creative firms. Understanding, describing, and planning around these effects will produce positive long-term results, something that could be defined as sustainability. Consequently, recognizing that economic performance does not necessarily produce positive effects on the sector, we propose the concept of ‘cultural return’ as an exercise of spill over management and as a complement to financial return. 4. Cultural Citizenship

Finally, cultural and creative work is based on social and cultural commitment. Therefore, operating within a market economy must be balanced with social development. The concept of citizenship allows incorporating aspects as artistic innovation, heritage preservation, education, and community engagement to entrepreneurship models. Creative Ecosystems

The concept of ecosystems is highly relevant to the cultural sector. Primarily, cultural production works as a set of interdependent organizations that share a habitat. Unlike other industries, it is necessary to establish that economic activity is not generated in isolation. It is an environment where each agent has its role and changes to the system have negative results. Therefore, an approach to public policy and corporate governance should be developed to strengthen the ecosystem beyond the immediate economic performance. Usually, this happens naturally through positive spill overs of cultural entrepreneurship. However, unlike the premise that these activities occur outside the control of firms, the cultural and creative sector has to incorporate spill over management into strategic design. One way in which to understand the role of externalities in the ecosystem would be through a pyramid model (Figure 2). Potts and Cunningham (2008) proposed four models that could establish a relationship between the creative industries and the rest of the economy: the welfare model, competition, growth, and innovation. Following their main approach, we propose that there are several roles within the cultural ecosystem: input firms, competitive firms and high-impact firms. The concept of the ‘creative ecosystem pyramid’ suggests the importance of a solid base for the eventual emergence of higher levels. The major premise is that firms do not necessarily move to upper levels, something that does not diminish the importance of their role in the ecosystem if it

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is strengthened through their spill overs. This implies that public policy and creative management should identify mechanisms to understand and measure the impact of firms in the ecosystem beyond their economic performance. This analysis describes the concept of cultural return.

High Impact

Input Firms Figure 2 Creative Ecosystem Pyramid

Cultural Return Analysis

One of the main challenges for the cultural and creative sector is to measure its performance due to the way these firms generate economic, social, and cultural value (Holden, 2004). Consequently, it is necessary to develop models that consider all of these factors. According to Arjo Klamer (2002), eventually, economists will have to deal with national accounts of an intangible nature, normally analysed simply as transaction costs or externalities. The author provides some motivations for the change of paradigm, especially because the performance of cultural organizations includes benefits that are not expressed in economic terms (Klamer, 2002). Authors like Gallego (1999) and Lingane and Olsen (2004), have proposed models of social balance or audit as tools to establish the performance of organizations. Understanding that organizations are dynamic entities that affect and are affected by their environment is necessary to measure the outcome of these interactions. For Gallego (1999), this set of tools include ‘social report’ as the set of social impact activity, ‘social accounting’ as the system for recording and quantifying the impact, ‘social balance’ as the net benefits of these effects, and ‘social audit’ as a process of evaluation and control of the results.

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Competitive Firms

Externalities

Externalities are effects of one economic agent over another for which no economic exchange occurs. This becomes a market failure because agents do not account for their effects in terms of utility or benefit to others, which can be translated as an inefficient use of resources. This dynamic is always present on public goods, and has been described as one of the reasons to justify government intervention (Benegas, 1998). Although the nature of externalities is that economic agents are unaware of their presence and impact, this chapter proposes that the positive effects and net benefits should be incorporated into the strategic action of cultural firms and organizations. In 2007, Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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the Department of Culture, Media and Sports (DCMS) in the UK commissioned a study on spill overs in the creative industries and their potential impact on the economy. The study found that these externalities could be grouped into three categories: knowledge, products, and network spill overs (DCMS, 2007).

Cultural Return Analysis Career Development

SUPPLY

Ү Support to creative ventures Ү Professional Experience Ү Labor Skills Linkages (Intra-Inter)

Innovation

Ү Interaction with projects in other disciplines Ү Links with industries outside the sector through alliances and sponsorships

Ү Development of new or improve products, processes, marketing strategies and organizational design

Clustering (‘cultural vitality’) Ү Contribution to economic and cultural development in a geographic area Ү Links with the community

DEMAND

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In this context, we propose the idea of cultural return as a group of positive effects that cultural and creative firms have on a creative ecosystem. Unlike individual economic performance, cultural return is presented as collective performance, as seen from the sectorial view of the creative economy. The logic is that it is not possible to have an individual economic performance in the long run if the contribution to strengthening the ecosystem is not considered. In order to achieve this, it is important to understand the impacts on supply and demand. Although strengthening the creative ecosystem might be considered a government responsibility, the cultural return model suggests that organizations also have a role in achieving these cultural policy objectives. All effects are proposed under the topic of cultural and creative sustainability. The following Figure shows the different effects of the model (Figure 3).

Education

Diversity

Ү Educational tools that complement the main cultural activity

Ү customer profile (frecuency, demographics, etc.) Ү ‘Un-target Market’ (other segments)

Participation Ү Analysis of multiple levels of cultural participation Ү Facilitating participation

Figure 3 Cultural Return Model

Supply Effects

Three effects on the supply side are proposed: career development, linkages, and innovation. Most of the cultural and creative work is generated by self-employment and is project-based. Thus, it is necessary to consider how organizations get involved in the career development of their human resources. This includes institutional support to the development of individual projects that benefit their employment status,

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continuing education, and skill development. The second effect measures the interactions and linkages of cultural firms. These linkages can be intra or inter-industry and have the effect of strengthening the ecosystem, either through artistic and creative collaborations, business relationships, or sponsorships. These interactions build trust and enhance access to funding and markets for these sectors. Finally, the innovation effect refers to the diffusion of best practices in organizations. Innovation in products, processes, marketing, organizational and soft innovation (aesthetic or design) (Stoneman, 2010) support a strengthening of business practices in the creative sector. This is an example of the interactions between the different levels of the model. While cultural and creative management is focused on generating innovation, cultural return measures the horizontal diffusion of innovation. This suggests a different approach to traditional management based on cooperation beyond competition.

In order to follow participation categories as proposed by Kolb (2013), it is necessary to identify different levels of audience participation. Hence, it is essential to incorporate strategies that increase the strength of the current links with the firm, which can be analysed qualitatively or quantitatively, such as social media networks. These levels of interaction include the relationship between audiences and clients, which stimulates further participation. Finally, the factor of demand diversity raises some discrepancies with the traditional concept of target market. In the cultural and creative sector, it is necessary to ensure impacting various segments, different to the concentration of resources in a single section. Greater demand diversity will represent a greater contribution to audience or customer development. This requires analysing information to enable segmenting demand and targeting multiple segments. Finally, in cases in which there is a fixed location, the agglomeration effect becomes an additional variable to consider. In this case, it is important to analyse the interactions with business and community sectors, and the linkages and contribution to the ‘cultural vitality’ in the area. The location factor must be an integral component of the strategic design of organizations.

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Demand Effects

There are three effects proposed for the demand side: education, demand diversity, and participation. The educational effect includes contextual, historical, and aesthetic approaches. Arts education is seen as a pillar of the creative economy, and given the link between the educational level and cultural consumption, all organizations must get involved in audience development beyond their main economic activity. As expressed in services marketing, education is a key element in the communication variable of the marketing mix. Moreover, access to information creates cultural capital, which will have a direct effect on consumption. Participation is tied to the concept of education, and cultural participation is seen as the level of interaction between the consumer and the firm. According to research by the RAND Institute, there are four activities that increase cultural consumption: aesthetic appreciation, artistic practice, the historical and cultural context, and the ability to interpret and critic (Zakaras & Lowell, 2008).

In terms of implementation, organizations must identify a set of qualitative and quantitative indicators for analysis. In some cases, organizations can use indicators such as budget analysis, customer surveys, interviews with collaborators, analysis of the value

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proposition, and marketing and communication strategies such as social media networks (Figure 4). The cultural return model increases the importance of developing information systems to support management decision-making in the creative sector. The study should produce a situational analysis or ‘audit’ with recommendations to be incorporated into the strategic and operational plans. Cultural Return Analysis - Indicators Career Development

SUPPLY

Ү Experience Ү Mobility Ү Entrepreneurship Linkages (Intra-Inter)

Innovation

Ү Sponsorships Ү Collaborations Ү Strategic Alliances

Ү Products Ү Processes Ү Marketing Ү Organizational Ү Soft innovation

Ү Indirect employment Ү Traffic Ү Community links

DEMAND

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Clustering (‘cultural vitality’)

Education

Diversity

Ү Complementary events Ү Educational resources

Ү Demographics Ү Frequency Ү Segmentation

Participation Ү Social networks interaction (Shares, Likes, Comments) Ү Word of mouth

Figure 4 Cultural Return Indicators

Case Studies

This section will present two cases in which the cultural return analysis is relevant. In the first case, the model has been implemented for two years as part of the firm’s strategic management. The second case will illustrate that in some instances, cultural return is more important than financial return and justifies the importance of understanding the model and its relationship with management. Teatro Breve – Puerto Rico

The case of Teatro Breve could illustrate the implementation of the cultural return model. This performing arts firm in Puerto Rico focuses on producing comedy events and manage a theatre venue. It targets the young professional segment that normally does not attend performing arts events, and its subject matter is based on contemporary issues. The firm has developed a steady workshop for over 8 years and provides sources of employment for approximately 20 people, including actors, technical and production staff. Following the cultural return model, the project gathers and analyses information relevant to the effects of the model and incorporates activities to strengthen its contribution to the ecosystem. For example, the company has created a production platform that allows its members and collaborators to make creative proposals beyond the main

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focus of the firm. Similarly, the career development of actors and production staff is analysed qualitatively. The composition and profile of creative collaborations and partnerships with sponsors are analysed in order to attract new economic resources and audiences with similar projects. In the creative side, the project hires actors from older generations and other artistic disciplines as a resource for education and audience development. This practice is considered annually through budget planning. The company conducts an annual survey in order to analyse the demand profile, set goals to reach new audiences, and understand the magnitude of cultural participation through attendance rates and usage patterns in social media networks. An annual report is developed using this information, which complements the financial analysis. This information is used as an internal resource and to compete for public funds based on the impact over the cultural ecosystem in Puerto Rico.

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Cali suena en vivo – Cali, Colombia

This project was conceived in Cali, Colombia, in 2012 after discussions over the needs of the music sector in the city. An analysis of the music industry value chain reflected the need to strengthen the integration among cultural agents in the city. Therefore, the mission of Cali suena en vivo is to strengthen the local and regional music ecosystems, which makes the cultural return analysis a useful tool to understand their performance. Beyond their individual sustainability, their performance depends on direct and indirect indicators of how it has strengthened the music scene in Cali and its presence at the regional and national level. Through secondary data, it can be established that the project contributes to the professional and entrepreneurial skills of its participants. Similarly, it strengthens networking among participants and other agents in the chain such as cultural venues, and radio programmers. On the demand side, the exposure to a broad scope of music styles contributes to the audience development on the music sector and has begun to create some exposure at a national level in Colombia. A project with this focus could use the model as a tool to structure the multiple dimensions of impact, communicating that impact and strategic planning. Mainly, it could help develop a cultural information system which can be used to assess its indirect impact. Developing quantitative and qualitative indicators through events, audiences, and participants is a useful tool that can strengthen the analysis. Conclusions

Cultural and creative entrepreneurs have a competitive advantage through the way they handle innovation, flexibility, risk tolerance, etc. However, it is necessary to frame these advantages in a structure that allows them to venture into different areas of the creative economy. One of these areas of action is the cultural return. In a context of great economic challenges, cultural and creative enterprises must transcend individual management to incorporate spill over management in order to strengthen the ecosystems. It is not only to monitor with the purpose of monitoring the effects, but also to incorporate them into business models, strategic planning, and cultural management. It is necessary to conduct case studies and value chain analyses in order to identify factors with a higher priority within cultural ecosystems.

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References Benegas, A. (1998). Bienes Públicos, Externalidades y los Free-Riders: El Argumento Reconsiderado. Estudios Públicos, 71, pp. 203-218. DCMS. (2007). Creative Industry Spill overs: Understanding their impact on the wider economy. Frontier Economics, UK. DCMS (2001) Creative Industries: Mapping Document 2001. Department of Culture, Media and Sport. HMSO, London. Dos Santos-Duisenberg, Edna (2010). Creative Economy Report. Geneva: UNCTAD. Evrard, Y. & Colbert, F. (2000). Arts Management: A New Discipline Entering the Millennium? International Journal of Arts Management, 2 (2), p. 4-13. Hagoort, G. (2003). Arts Management: Entrepreneurial Style. Eburon, Utrecht, Netherlands.

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Hagoort, G., Kooyman, R. & Thomassen, A. (Ed.) (2012). Pioneering Minds Worldwide: On the Entrepreneurial Principles of the Cultural and Creative Industries. Eburon: Utrecht, Netherlands. HKU (2010). The Entrepreneurial Dimension of the Cultural and Creative Industries, Utrecht University of the Arts (HKU), Utrecht. Holden, J. (2004) Capturing Cultural Value: How Culture has become a tool of government policy. Demos, UK. Klamer, A. (2002). Accounting for Social and Cultural Values, De Economist, 150 (4), pp. 453-473. Kolb, B. (2013). Marketing for Cultural Organizations: New Strategies for Attracting Audiences. Routledge, New York. Lingane, A. & Olsen, S. (2004) Guidelines for Social Return on Investment. California Management Review, 6 (3), p.116-135. OECD. (2005). Oslo Manual. Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data. OECD Publishing, France. Potts, J. & Cunningham, S. (2008). Four Models of the Creative Industries. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 14(3), pp. 233-247. Proyecto Industrias Culturales de Cali. (2013). Informes de gestión. PRIC, Cali. Stoneman, P. (2010). Soft Innovation: Economics, Product Aesthetics and the Creative Industries (Vol. I), p.355. New York, Oxford University Press. Zakaras, L. & Lowell, J. (2008). Cultivating Demand for the Arts. RAND Institute, California.

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About the author Javier J. Hernández-Acosta is a Marketing Professor at Sacred Heart University in Puerto Rico and PhD Candidate in Entrepreneurial Development at the Interamerican University. He is a musician and founder of Inversión Cultural, a project that support creative entrepreneurs. He is also an advisor on creative economy and cultural affairs for public and private institutions in Puerto Rico, author of the Profile of the Creative Economy in Puerto Rico. — [email protected]

Johan Kolsteeg Ruben Jacobs

Experience economy: management and transformation. Towards the art manager as an ethical figure

The experience as a must

According to the German sociologist Gerard Schulze, the modern idea of ‘experiencing life’ is deeply rooted in our modern Western society. Until the fifties and sixties, the term experience was exclusively used with regards to religious or art domains. Experience has to do with the fundamental moral relationships that people establish in their lives and culture (Schultze, 1999). Today, the word links to all possible relationships. ‘Experience your life’ is the categorical imperative of our time’, (Schulze, 1999: 55). One could say that the term experience suffers from inflation. Our modern cultural obsession with ‘realness’, ‘authenticity’ and ‘the self ’ as a natural source of goodness1 finds its origin in the romantic period of the 19th century and experienced a strong revival in the so called ‘counterculture’ of the sixties. Nowadays it has, according to Houtman (2011), become a mainstream culture in our postindustrial society; our personal experiences have become a prominent source of ‘true’ knowledge and ‘real’ reality. The main difference with the sixties is that the ‘craving for experiences’ is no longer a form of personal resistance on which individuals can escape from the influence of society and her institutions. It has become a compulsory cultural logic, which provides structure to ‘diverse institutional domains, ranging from consumption to religion and healthcare policy’ (Houtman, 2011: 6). In other words: ‘experiencing life’ is no longer opposite to social control, it has become an integral part of the system itself. Experience has become an important element in moulding individuals into society today (Houtman, 2011). Or as Yousefzadeh states it: ‘There is

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Abstract

This contribution discusses the concept of the ‘experience’ in relation to ethics and art management education. Next to the realm of the Creative Industries the concept of ‘creating experiences’ also found its way into the arts domain. In recent years the term ‘experience’ has obtained a central role in arts management and marketing discourse as well as in arts management education. Increasingly the term experience is adopted in art organizations’ discourses and educational systems to foster and promote cultural products. We look at value systems underneath the cloud of ‘experiencing’. This contribution calls for a discussion on the moral aspects of the experience in arts consumption. How does ‘experience’ relate to the act of critical reflection and the transformational on the works of art, traditionally central in the ‘museum experience’. Does the ‘experience economy’ hold its promise to deliver meaningful transformative value, or does it descend into economic exploitation? And where does this leave the cultural entrepreneur/manager as a value driven character in a complex cultural cum economic practice?

Since the French Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau launched his ‘Theory of Natural Human’ Western Societies have become preoccupied with the idea that human nature itself, the natural sense of men, is a source of morality.

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a perceptible push that areas of everyday life—work and after-work, relaxation and exercise, social interaction and the mere biological necessities of eating and walking—be framed as experience ‘ Yousefzadeh, 2013: 44). Today’s ‘experience culture’ can be seen as driven by an existential desire to find meaning. Piët (2006) distinguishes two layers in an experience. The so called ‘upper layer’ refers to superficial consumption and reveals itself in many hyper-commercial created experiences, which appeal to an easy satisfaction of the need to have ‘fun’. Underneath this, there is a hidden ‘under layer’ which refers to the desire for meaningful experience. The problem of many experiences, which are being created by marketing executives, is that they only appeal to the upper layer, which causes the effect that many people will experience dissatisfaction. With regard to this Rifkin (2000) talks about ‘hyper-capitalism’, a societal stage in which culture and significant human experiences are increasingly being targeted by commodification and commercialization. Ironically, the massive pursuit of the experience holds a certain ambiguity; the more people consume it, the less they will ‘experience’ it. The result is erosion of the concept itself (Visser, 2012). Another aspect to concept of the ‘experience economy’ is the tendency to focus on positivism; to frame experiences as ‘positive experiences’. In Pine and Gilmores (1998) view on ‘experience’ there seems no room for complexity or critical reflection, they state it as follow: ‘Ensuring the integrity of the customer experience requires more than layering positive cues. Experience stagers also eliminate anything that diminishes, contradicts or distracts attention from the theme’ (Pine and Gilmore, 1998: 55). Gielen (2013) talks in a somewhat wider context of the dominant discourse of creativity about a ‘positive morality’. ‘Nowadays, creativity is all about positive morality. We expect nothing but good from it’ (Gielen, 2013: 4). Different value systems, same judgement

Contemplating the role of the ‘entrepreneur in cultural production’, Pierre Bourdieu (1992) remarked that this person finds himself confronted with the task to ‘activate a very improbable combination (or in any case a very rare one) of realism, which implies minimal concessions to the denied (and not disowned) ‘economic’ necessities, and of the ‘disinterested’ conviction that excludes them’ (Bourdieu 1996, 149). For Bourdieu, economic and artistic aspects are unlikely to be truly combined in cultural production, since they represent fundamentally incompatible logics of the exploitation of cultural goods and of pure ‘production and research’ (id.). The relationship between the two extremes of the continuum, or as Bourdieu would have it, between avant garde and bourgeois art, is internalised as a generative principle to judge what is art and what is not. We possess the ability to judge artistic and creative work along the continuum. We also traditionally have our value judgement at hand: ‘immediate success has something suspect about it, as if it reduced the symbolic offering of a priceless work to the simple ‘give and take’ of a commercial exchange’ (id.: 148). Combining Bourdieu and Piët’s point, one could say that the market driven (commercially designed) superficial experience relates poorly to ‘pure’ art since they represent opposite logics. The two extremes represent different value systems. The capacity to evaluate a work along a culture / economic continuum is a relevant faculty in the wider societal scheme. Ray and Sayer (1999) observe that in present day society ‘traditional material production is becoming secondary to a more strongly culturally inflected service economy’ (which is not to be considered ‘un-material’) and the growing importance of

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Experience economy: management and transformation. Towards the art manager as an ethical figure

Pine and Gilmore (1999) connect passive aesthetic experience and transformation arguing that in the ‘experience economy’ transformation of individuals can be seen as an intervention, ‘calling human beings to a higher goal’ (Pine and Gilmore, 2007: 50) through the designed experience offering ‘exactly what an individual person […] needs at an exact moment in time’ (Id.: 48). Customization of experiences leads to activation and finally personal transformation: the customer becomes the product (Pine and Gilmore, 1999: 172). In this understanding, the transformative experience is subordinate to a carefully designed economic goal. The aestheticized economy is characterized by a confusion of instrumental and symbolic aspects of goods, leading to a confusion in judgement strategies. There is an element of passive experience and active transformation. This is relevant for the position of the arts in present day society. Artistic goods represent symbolic value and a transformational experience. Judging cultural goods on the basis of their transactional value instead of their symbolic value inflates the connotation of the term experience as a vehicle for the act of personal transformation. We qualify the gradual introduction of a utilitarian principle for conduct in the context of the arts as a phenomenon that calls for ethical discussion. Transformation and the arts

The distinction between the superficial and the meaningful experience (Piët, Pine and Gilmore) is mirrored in Vuyks distinction between two kinds of aesthetic experiences. The ‘aesthetic ego-experience’ applies to many popular, but also artistic expressions in which the receiver is not an outsider but an integral part of the experience. The experience flatters the ego, or in a negative sense, irritates it. It calls for a sense of complacency because it fulfils a personal need. It’s the experience of the ‘comfortable’ (Vuyk, 2011: 30). The ‘aesthetic subject-experience’ confronts the receiver with an outsider position. It leaves the spectator alone with him or herself and evokes a transcendental experience of connectedness with something universal. It temporalily ‘detaches us from everyday existence’ (Vuyk, 2011: 31). In this moment the receiver of the work of art temporarily questions the obviousness of his existence and is being evoked to ask questions like ‘Why is life like this? and ‘Why is it not different?’. Or as Vuyk (2011) states it: ‘A true work of art invites – urges, seduces, appeals – us to step out of the world in which we are originally cast and to realize that it is not our definitive home; that this world is a highly artificial construction – as indeed, the work of art itself is – that in time will wither away if it does not before disappear disruptively’ (Vuyk, 2011: 100) In that moment art reveals it subversive character. This latter we might call the transformational capacity of the artistic experience.

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‘sign value’ of commodities (which is not to be seen as a replacement of exchange value) (Ray and Sayer, 1999: 8). We live in a world in which cultural goods are commoditized, and commodities are aestheticized. This tendency has confused the separation of culture and commodities, or symbolic and instrumental goods, and the sets of judgement required to make sense of them. It has led to ‘displacement of the vocabulary of judgement and well-being [for symbolic goods] by that of preferences and their satisfaction [for instrumental goods]’ (Keat, 1999: 98). The backdrop of this development is a neoliberal political philosophy which tends to understand cultural transactions inside a market-economical discourse driven by consumer behaviour, not counting what considerations could influence the consumer’s deliberations.

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Figure 1. Exterior Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam. The recent addition to the building is ‘not intended as an iconical building but as a super organisation’ (architect Mels Crouwel).

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Figure 2. Interior Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam. The consumption of modern art.

We suggest that the art experience is understood as a combination of a positively-charged ego-experience and a subject-experience, meaning that the art experience inevitably contains, next the working of the art work itself, contextual experiential elements carefully designed to improve the ego-experience of the visit itself. We frame this art experience in the neo liberal context of a dominant market economic logic. It’s the passive, designed, upper-layer, positive ‘ego’-experience which is communicated as the real product, instead of the active, under-layer, ‘subject’-experience. We suggest that this tendency reflects the confusion of the respective evaluative systems. The question is how we can reflect from the position of art management education on the experience as an encounter of these value systems. Dealing with moral questions

Management and entrepreneurial education do not have a strong tradition in thinking about ethics and morality. Contemporary critics on current management education even stress that many educational courses almost completely ignore or pay no attention to moral judgment (Höpfl, 2005). The ability to deal with moral questions does not match the model of rational-bureaucratic business modelling. Managers are nowadays still seen as ‘morally neutral technicians’ held to rational problem solving strategies. In art management however, the tension between ‘rational’ economic (market) logic and the (cultural and societal) value-based logic of the art world has always been central. It is the arts managers task to realize what Bourdieu qualified as the improbable combination of art and economics. Hagoort (2007) gives the arts manager a moral obligation to improve cultural infrastructure, Klamer (2011) understands the practitioner in the field as a value driven character in a complex cultural cum economic context. Therefor ‘moral awareness’ should be part of art management / entrepreneurial education (Kooyman and Jacobs, 2013), including awareness of underlying discourses such as the discourse central in this contribution. utilitarian versus symbolic value systems

These are starting points for a discussion on the role of the arts manager / marketer inside an ethical discourse on the relationship between the structures underlying culture and economy, the utilitarian versus symbolic value systems. The modern use of the concept

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experience economy: management and transformation. Towards the art manager as an ethical figure

of experience and the way it is currently being adopted in the realm of the arts and in the wider Cultural and Creative Industries, provides the manager with a platform for this discussion.

We suggest that arts management / marketing relate actively and critically to the transformational power of art itself, more than to the passive experience of art consumption. It could do this by activating the distinction between the passive experience around a cultural event, and the active experience in the cultural event itself. The experience around the event is ‘manageable’, whereas the experience in the event isn’t.2 Instead of focusing programming, management and presentation of art on the promise of an experience, it could focus on the explication of what is actually going to happen. And more fundamentally: stimulate discussion and debate around what’s precisely at stake. It would make sense for the art manager to retreat from stressing passive experience over active transformation into a different paradigm for communication, and to activate the capacity of the audience to make a distinction between the instrumental and symbolic value judgement. This doesn’t mean art should be marketed like it was fifty years ago. It does however require a connection with (potential) audience in terms of substantive content and subject experience. It requires a vocabulary that can explicate what can be expected to happen.

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Building blocks for an ethical dimension of arts management and marketing

Figure 3. Classical music experience in the Concertgebouw Amsterdam (2014). Figure 4. Thelonious Monk and his orchestra in the Open Door Club (1955).

We are grateful to several speakers during the Bilsen Conference on Arts Management in Antwerp, March 24, 2014, dedicated to the theme ‘Culture = experience. Does the experience economy contribute to a sustainable society?’ (‘Cultuur = beleven. Draagt de beleveniseconomie bij aan een duurzame participatie?’).

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We observe a recent development in this respect which is the growing debate on the level of participation of artists in society. We conclude this article with a suggestion as to how this development may contribute to the discussion at hand. Perhaps expanding on the phenomenon of the ‘artistic intervention’, seeking a developing form of how culture can contribute to ‘social education, better education, health, self-confidence and the pride of belonging’ (Berthoin Antal, 2011). The ‘do it yourself movement’ that Hagoort (2014) observes, schematises an investigation into the relevance of art in society organised through bottom up structures. Hagoort (2014) frames the development of these initiatives as a critical reaction to the neoliberalisation of society and culture, as well as a desire to keep the government at a distance. The result is that artist collectives set up direct communication with audience in relation to relevant cultural and societal themes. The development can be seen as a platform for societal innovation and (or through) active aesthetic transformation, characterised by the immediate relationship between act and experience. Ego and subject experience seem to melt. The DIY development, perhaps until it becomes institutionalised in itself, can work as a platform for the development of an arts marketing paradigm in which the content of the transformative experience is central. It might stimulate a reconceptualization of what is the principle purpose of art management and marketing. The marketing of the DIY movement relies entirely on establishing a connection on the level of the active participation in transformation of arts and society, diverting the attention of artists and audience to a shared transformative experience, to which art is instrumental.

Figure 5. Vechtclub xl, Utrecht.

The artistic autonomy of the transformative experience is compromised, but to the benefit of the emergence of a wider understanding of the act of transformation through art. Looking at it in terms of judgement systems, the dichotomies between the superficial vs. underlying experience, real art vs. bourgeois art, ego vs. subject experience, disappear. Conclusion

We have described a dichotomy between the passive aesthetic experience, connected to commercial goals and the active transformational experience, expected to affect one’s well-being and critical reflection. We position this dichotomy as an instantiation of the separation of cultural and economic logics. This separation is problematised in the modern experience economy, in which functional objects become aestheticized and culture commoditised. This entails that consumers may judge artistic goods not for their substantive and transformational value, but for the utilitarian value of passive experience.

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We posit that this leads to inflation of the transformational value of art. It is a task for the academic and educational field of arts management to recognise this point and to initiate a discussion on how arts managers and marketeers could contribute to the explication of the distinction between the content and context of art. This could start with a critical evaluation of the ‘experience topos’ in current arts management education. We suggest that this evaluation may involve the establishment of a new connection between art and what art consumers consider to be relevant themes. The starting question of this contribution is which position is open for arts managers inside an ethical discourse on the rise of a utilitarian approach of art. We suggest to look at this question in relation to the discourse on new relevance of the arts in society, observed in the emergence of independent artistic / societal structures, which seem to effectively go beyond the dichotomies discussed above, and perhaps allow the ‘very improbable combination’ (Bourdieu) of the societal and the disinterested to be activated. About the authors Johan Kolsteeg studied musiciology and was programmer and producer of concerts in the field of contemporary and classical music. He worked as editor in chief classical music for NCRV radio and television, and was involved in the development of several multimedia concepts. He is co-founder of Monteverdi.tv and co-author of a book on project management in the creative context. Johan is a teacher and researcher at HKU University for the Arts and is in the process of finishing his dissertation on strategy formation in cultural and creative organisations. — [email protected]

Ruben Jacobs is lecturer in cultural sociology & philosophy and ethnographic research at the school of Arts & Economics, Utrecht University of the Arts.

References Berthoin Antal, A. (2011). Managing artistic interventions in organisations. Berlin: WZB. Bourdieu, P. (1992, transl. 1996). The Rules of Art. Stanford University Press. Gielen, P. (2013), Creativity and other fundamentals, Mondriaan stichting. Hagoort, G. (2007). Cultureel ondernemerschap. Oratie Universiteit Utrecht. Hagoort, G. (2014). The DIY-Creative Economy 3.0. Cartesius Museum, Utrecht Houtman, D (2011), Leven in een ervaringssamenleving – De hang naar beleving in het hedendaagse Westen, In: Speling, Tijdschrift voor bezinning.

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This directly pertains to the role of the arts manager as intermediary between the work of art and the audience. This value, for instance in the contextual elements of ‘a night out’ to the opera, is communicated in terms of what is presumed to be the customers preferred value judgement system.

Höpfl, H. (2005) ‘Indifference’. In C. Jones and D. O’Doherty (eds.): Manifestos for the business school of Tomorrow, pp. 61-71, ABO: Dvalin Books. Keat, R. (1999). Market Boundaries and the Commodification of Culture. In Ray and Sayer (ed.): Culture and Economy after the Cultural Turn , 9pp. 92-111).Sage. Klamer, A. (2011). Cultural entrepreneurship. In: The Review of Austrian Economics, 24(2), 141–156. Kooyman, R., Jacobs, R., (2013) The entrepreneurial ant: re-thinking Art Management Education, ENCATC Journal ; Brussels (in print). Visser, G. (2012). Druk van de beleving. Nijmegen, SUN. Rifkin, J. (2000). The Age Of Access: The New Culture of Hypercapitalism, Where All of Life is a Paid-For Experience, Putnam Publishing Group, ISBN 1-58542-018-2.

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Pine, J. and Gilmore, J. (1999). The Experience Economy, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1999. Piët, S. (2006). De emotiemarkt. De toekomst van de beleveniseconomie, Pierson Education Benelux. Ray, L. and A. Sayer (1999). Culture and Economy after the Cultural Turn. Sage. Schulze, G. (1992). Einleitung. In: Die Erlebnisgesellschaft. Kultursoziologie der Gegenwart (2. Auflage, S. 13-31). Frankfurt a. M.: Campus. Vuyk, K (2011a). De zin van ‘belangeloosheid’. De rol van de filosofie van Immanuel Kant in het werk van de Groningse school in Strijd om de Kunst, Pallas Publications. Vuyk, K (2011b). The sheltering agent. Earth as an aesthetic concept in a globalizing world in The International Yearbook of Aesthetics, volume 15.

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Yousefzadeh, M. (2013). Can interaction design civilize the experience economy?, ACM.

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Besides that he is a freelance writer with a special interest in art, society and morality. Currently he is working on a book about the position of the artist in the realm of the Creative Industries and the culture of authenticity. The book is going to be published at the end 2014. He holds a MA degree in Arts Management (HKU) and MSc in Cultural sociology (University of Amsterdam). — [email protected]

Taylor Brydges Mariangela Lavanga Lucia von Gunten

Entrepreneurship in  the Fashion Industry: A Case Study of Slow Fashion Businesses

Introduction

This chapter explores entrepreneurship in the sustainable or slow fashion industry. We experience a time of significant restructuring in the fashion industry. As global luxury brands seek to reinvent their image (Moore and Birtwistle, 2004; Tokatli, 2012) and the prowess of fast fashion in the contemporary fashion marketplace continues to grow (Sull and Turconi, 2008), the slow fashion industry has begun to emerge as an alternative option (Bhardwaj and Fairhurst, 2010; Pookulangara and Shepard, 2013). A key manifestation of this sector is in new independent fashion designers and entrepreneurs who seek to ‘stay local’, in order to exert greater amounts of control over the production process, while also infusing an artisanal ethos into their collections. Herewith we draw upon empirical findings, based on interviews with self-employed designers in the slow fashion industry in Geneva (Switzerland), Rotterdam (The Netherlands) and Toronto (Canada). Beginning with a theoretical analysis of the slow fashion industry, the study will explore the entrepreneurial motivations and strategies of these fashion designers. It becomes clear that these small, slow fashion businesses - through their innovative design, branding and retail practices - have carved out a unique niche in the hyper competitive fashion marketplace. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the main challenges facing the development of this segment of the fashion industry, and it suggests themes for future research.

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Abstract

In this chapter, we explore entrepreneurship in the slow fashion industry at a time of significant restructuring in the global fashion industry. Drawing on a case study of self-employed designers in the slow fashion industry in Geneva (Switzerland), Rotterdam (The Netherlands) and Toronto (Canada), we argue that small, slow fashion businesses, through their innovative design, branding and retail practices, have carved out a unique niche in the hyper competitive fashion marketplace. In particular, we demonstrate that they have an innovative approach to sustainability, characterized by an interest toward the use of salvage materials, the valorisation of craftsmanship, as well as a tendency for handmade productions. Driven by personal beliefs and values, these designers seem to wish to reconcile personal fulfilment with professional achievement, as they seek to compete with the paradigm of fast fashion that continues to dominate the fashion industry. This paper contributes to our understanding of the entrepreneurial practices of emerging designers, in particular in the slow fashion industry. It also contributes to the emerging studies in fashion and design-oriented industries that consider the value craftsmanship and the wish to ‘stay local’, predicting a rise or return of the makers and small-scale manufacturing in contemporary cities.

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Literature Review

Structural challenges facing fashion’s production system: ‘Hard to control and difficult to regulate’ The speed at which clothing can be produced is intensifying over the last twenty years, and even more so in recent years. Agins (2000) mentions four ‘megatrends’ that have permanently altered the fashion industry: the gradual inability of Paris designers to dictate the world’s fashion agenda; the growing ‘casualization’ of the workplace; consumer value changes associated with the rise of fast fashion; and the designers themselves, whom are argued to have stopped taking risks with fashion. As brands became increasingly affordable and accessible, due to low-cost production strategies based on overseas manufacturing contracted out to the lowest bidder, clothing continues to pile up not only people’s closets but landfills too.

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Four concerns

As a consequence, broad concerns relating to sustainability stand out in the fashion industry (Caniato, Caridi, Crippa, & Moretto, 2012). The first concern relates to the industry’s dependence on natural resources required to produce garments. Whereas an increasing amount of synthetic fibres have gained the industry lately, the use of natural fibres such as cotton and wool are still common practice among textile producers. Even though the preparation of natural fibres relies less on chemical processes than synthetic ones, they usually require a lot of water, which in turn casts doubt on which type of fibres should be privileged (Fletcher, 2008). The second concern relates to pollution. On one side production methods, and more specifically chemical dyeing processes for textiles which lead to the important release of chemicals and pollutant through discharges in water and other releases in the environment. On the other side the global scale of production and distribution need to rely on fast and cheap transportation. A third aspect deals with the poor working conditions resulting from outsourcing strategies. The case of the Bangladesh factory collapse in April 2013, which was producing clothing for global fast fashion brands, highlighted the dangerous working conditions faced by this labour force in order to satiate consumer demand for a cheap t-shirt. Furthermore global fashion firms are experiencing difficulties in managing their supply chain efficiently within a globalized system of production which has become increasingly complex, and which lacks both transparency and full traceability. Vermeulen and Ras (2006) highlight the difficulties arising in controlling, managing and tracing fashion supply chains from one hand to another. By outsourcing part of their supply chain, fashion brands have pressured their manufacturers to provide a larger output in a smaller amount of time at the expenses of partly loosing track and control of the entire process. The emergence of slow fashion as an alternative

As a general trend in the economy in recent years, a growing number of industries have started to adopt strategies that are more environmental-friendly. Also in fashion, although it is very costly in terms of both money and time, we can observe a trend to implement various forms of sustainability both internally and externally by both small and big fashion companies (De Brito, Carbone, & Meunier Blanquart, 2008). In particular, there is a small –but growing – segment of the fashion industry that is positioning itself as an alternative to the fast fashion model of production. Slow fashion

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Entrepreneurship in the Fashion Industry: A Case Study of Slow Fashion Businesses

is characterized by small, independent fashion brands, often operated by one or two entrepreneurs, who are designing and producing clothing and jewellery locally in order to control all aspects of the commodity chain.

According to UNCTAD (2010) slow fashion - or eco-fashion - uses textiles made of organic, natural and recycled fibres, but also ‘eco- fashion highlights local identities and cultures, ethnically as well as ethically’ (UNCTAD, 2010: 67). In this sense, slow fashion becomes ‘a philosophy of attentiveness which is mindful of its various stakeholders’ respective needs (with ‘stakeholders’ referring to designers, buyers, retailers, and consumers) and of the impact producing fashion has on ‘workers, consumers, and eco- systems’ (Pookulangara and Shephard, 2013, pp. 1-2). The emergence and rise of slow fashion can be witnessed in the increasing number of smaller fashion brands or independent fashion designers. Opposite to fast fashion brands - who also develop sustainable lines -, such as the ‘H&M Conscious Collection’, slow fashion explicitly use more sustainable modes of production, create a number of prizes and awards, such as the Green Fashion Competition in The Netherlands, operate in various (international) organizations and governments that promote production and trade that both raise living standards, especially in developing countries, while at the same time protect biodiversity. Herewith we focus on the role of independent fashion designers that operate at the local scale, where they have the opportunity to implement (and control) sustainable, smaller scale production processes. Indeed, whereas large fashion groups struggle to green their supply chains and to achieve significant improvements in terms of social and environmental impacts, smaller brands seem to enjoy more flexibility and ease in positioning their operations and brands more sustainably. One example of their commitment to sustainability is to keep production close to home, which may lead to a return of the city as a place for manufacturing. Furthermore, frequently developed by self-employed fashion designers or small associations of designers, the slow fashion brands have multiplied on the market, thanks to the nearly free publicity, visibility and marketing opportunities offered by the internet and web 2.0 technologies.

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The negative externalities arising from the production processes of fashion goods highlighted above have significantly contributed to making the fashion industry a ‘sensitive business area’ (Caniato et al., 2012: 661). One result of these challenges is the emergence of slow fashion firms. But as will be described, they face an uphill battle in competing against larger fashion firms. Given the recent nature of these developments – both in practice and in theory – current definitions of slow fashion have yet to be widely accepted, and continue to change. This section will explore current conceptualizations of slow fashion, in order to set the stage for the empirical case study in part two.

We argue that current definitions fail to take into account the value that is infused through the slow fashion production processes, in particular craft labour practices and attention to quality, that is able to strengthen the niche slow fashion firms seek to occupy. Our research seeks to address a key limitation in the current conceptualization of slow fashion, and it will explore the ways in which craft ethos and emphasis on quality are introduced throughout the commodity chain and different stages of creating a slow fashion product.

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Exploring patterns of entrepreneurship in the slow fashion industry

This research draws on two different but complimentary research projects on slow fashion clothing and jewellery designers in Geneva (Switzerland), Rotterdam (The Netherlands) and Toronto (Canada). We primarily utilized qualitative research methods, in the form of semi-structured interviews with slow fashion entrepreneurs. Two designers per city have been interviewed, for a total of six interviews. The data on designers in Geneva and Rotterdam have been collected between May and June 2013, while the data on designers in Toronto between November 2012 and March 2013. While settled in different cities and context, the interviewed designers are all working in tier-two fashion cities in high-cost countries.

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While generalization of the findings may be limited, the objective is here to favour in-depth interactions with selected and accessible designers in order to draw meaningful insights that allow the exploration of patterns of entrepreneurship in the slow fashion industry. Interviews are therefore particularly suitable in this context.

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Why do independent fashion designers go green?

The first aspect we intended to explore was linked to the motivations behind the decisions of fashion designers to start a business, which embraces the value of sustainability. We were interested in understanding how and why these designers have committed to sustainable fashion, focusing on their specific interests, their ambitions, their opinions about the current development of the industry as well as the position of fashion in contemporary society. Lying at the core of their enterprises, all designers expressed a strong personal motivation to start their business in the fashion industry. This reminds the importance of personal and intrinsic convictions as a powerful tool to achieve durable change in the global fashion industry (Fletcher, 2008; Fletcher, 2010). As one interviewee described: ‘It’s busy, but I love, love, love what I do, so I don’t really feel like I’m working ever. For example, right now I’m in the store and making jewellery and I guess it’s technically work but it doesn’t feel like it. I don’t get much sleep. Success is loving what you do, that is what it is. I used to think I just want to make fast money, the quickest way possible, I’ll do a job that I hate as long as I make a lot of money. No, it’s terrible. You might as well love it. This is what I’ll do forever.’ (Interviewee 1, Toronto) The designers we interviewed decided to start a business in slow fashion, not only because of the love for fashion, the desire to be part of the fashion industry and to be independent, but also the will to break away from the global fashion industry in order to create something different that has not been done yet. In this respect they share one of the most important characteristics of a truly entrepreneur as they are the ‘first to understand that there is a discrepancy between what is done and what could be done’ (Von Mises, [1949] 1966, p. 336). In embracing the values of sustainability and engaging in a more risky production of fashion, they took the challenge to connect uncertainty with profit, and develop a new niche market. Furthermore they are not only entrepreneurs, but also creative entrepreneurs as they engage across cultural and economic values. As Aageson (2008) explains that ‘the cultural entrepreneur has at least two returns: to create wealth for all involved and built cultural value. The entrepreneur creates an enterprise that is both mission-driven and market focused’ (p. 100). On the same line of thought Klamer (2011) argues that ‘a good cultural entrepreneur, so I want them to see, is good at realizing financial as well as cultural values’ (p. 145). BEYOND FRAMES

Entrepreneurship in the Fashion Industry: A Case Study of Slow Fashion Businesses

We argue that in the case of slow fashion, also the values of sustainability (so societal values) enter the game. As the following entrepreneur described it: ‘The current market is disrupted and we have lost the notion of value. People have completely lost this, because at Dior you will buy a very expensive piece of jewellery, but made with non-precious metal and you will end up with a green finger although you have spent 600 bucks for it. These things are real and truly exist. And at the same time, when you go to the flea market you will buy a silver ring for 40 francs because it was made by a little Indian boy paid 10 cents per hour.’ (Interviewee 1, Geneva).

Producing for sustainability

The interviews revealed the different ways entrepreneurs seek to address sustainability issues in the production process, ranging from search for organic textile to search for re-used materials and textile in order to reduce waste. One interviewee, in particular, revealed a strong and personal interest for the environment. Willing to produce as organic as possible, she explained that while researching and sourcing materials was very costly time wise, in the end, it allowed her to produce a product that she knew the origins of, and was proud to produce: ‘I looked deeper into this in order to know where things were coming from and, in my opinion, what seemed to me to be the ‘cleanest’ was the hemp, the linen and things like that; these are quite clean for the environment, as producing them does not destroy grounds.’ (Interviewee 2, Geneva). In addition, even when a good material is found, there are certain issues linked to trust and transparency in the relations with manufacturers that make the production process more risky and costly. There is also a shared distrust for the certifications. Designers appear not to pay much attention to these international certification marks, and if they do, it is with a rather critical eye. Interviewees also reported their frustrations in dealing with fabric mills and suppliers. ‘The fabric mills, where we get our fabric from – and which we have no control over – they are failing us. They deliver one fabric, that our studio will test sample yardage, and shipping another that’s completely different in terms of quality. So we’re cutting a sample that’s washable, produce it and then find out it shrinks 4 inches. That’s out of our control.’ (Interviewee 2 – Toronto) At the same time, even though the concern for materials may not be primarily driven by sustainability concerns, some interviewees revealed choices that may to some extent open the way to a broader perception of what defines sustainability. If we take a closer look at buying patterns and production processes developed by these interviewees, we discovered a whole range of different practices: ranging from purchasing recycled and leftovers materials on an as-need, just in time basis (Interviewee 1 – Rotterdam; Interviewee 1 – Geneva) to buying vintage clothes and transform them into new garments handmade sewed (Interviewee 2 – Rotterdam). Another interviewee (2 – Toronto) reported designing with sustainability in mind. To them, this meant designing with Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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An entrepreneur from Rotterdam echoed a similar sentiment, while also highlighting the perceived difference between fast and slow fashion. ‘I consider that we were throwing a lot, that clothes we are buying from high street brands are of mediocre quality, and this irritates me quite a lot. So, basically I have this specific perception of fashion that does not suit me, I do not identify myself with that.’ (Interviewee 2, Rotterdam). As the next section will demonstrate, it is in the production process where the values behind slow fashion are realized.

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consistent, classic style and using complimentary patterns, so that over time, long-term customers would ‘build a wardrobe’. Through emphasizing the longevity of their designs – in addition to focusing on the quality of the product – the designers seek to break the cycle of disposable, trendy clothing. An overarching goal of interviewees was to reduce the amount of waste that goes into making a product as well as a smart and strategic choice that allows the company to be more flexible and adaptive to demand, cutting costs down by reducing risks of buying materials that they will never use.

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Conclusion

This chapter has presented a case study of slow fashion designers, in clothing and jewellery, in the cities of Geneva, Rotterdam and Toronto. It has explored the entrepreneurial motivations, design and production processes, and branding strategies of these firms. The study contributes to our understanding of the entrepreneurial practices of emerging designers, in particular in the slow fashion industry. It also contributes to the emerging studies in fashion and design-oriented industries that consider the value craftsmanship and the wish to ‘stay local’, predicting a rise or return of the makers and small-scale manufacturing in contemporary cities. A key finding from this research confirms the lack of a clear definition of what is sustainable fashion and what the fundamental characteristics entangles. This observation in turn allows looking at sustainability in the fashion realm as featuring a wide range of possibilities. However, focusing on self-employed designers currently developing their business in sustainable fashion, the most common and recognized sustainable landmarks have been challenged. Self-employed designers in slow fashion have an innovative approach to sustainability. The concepts and experiments developed by these designers, have indeed favoured the rise of an interest toward the use of salvage materials, the valorisation of craftsmanship, as well as a tendency for handmade productions. Very present in the production processes of each of the interviewed designers, these characteristics compose a conception of fashion in complete opposition with the current state of the fashion industry. Driven by personal beliefs and values, these designers seem to wish to reconcile personal fulfilment with professional achievement. However, there are also challenges facing independent, slow fashion firms. Is there a consumer market large enough to support slow fashion designers? What is the role of regulation and oversight bodies to certify sustainable production? Is this segment of the industry destined to remain a niche sector on the fringes? Or will slow fashion mirror the ‘slow food’ movement and rise? However, this segment of the fashion industry is developing in a fascinating area of study with many avenues for fruitful future research. References Aageson, T. (2008). Cultural entrepreneurs: Producing cultural value and wealth. In H. Anheier, & Y. Raj Isar (Eds.), The Cultures and Globalization Series 2: The cultural economy. (pp. 92-108). London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

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About the authors Taylor Brydges is a Doctoral Candidate in the Department of Economic and Social Geography at Uppsala University, Sweden.

Entrepreneurship in the Fashion Industry: A Case Study of Slow Fashion Businesses

Mariangela Lavanga is Assistant Professor in Cultural Economics in the Erasmus School of History, Culture and Communication (ESHCC) - Erasmus University Rotterdam. She has over 10 years of academic and professional experience as a researcher, lecturer and consultant. Her expertise lies in the analysis of the interrelations between cultural and creative industries and cities, as well as the fashion and design industries and the role of intermediaries. — [email protected].

Lucia von Gunten is a current student in t he International Master in Cultural Economics and Entrepreneurship at the Erasmus School of History, Culture and Communication (ESHCC) - Erasmus University Rotterdam. She has done research into the slow fashion industry and she is currently researching the market for digital art/new media art. — [email protected].

Anheier H. and & Yudhishthir Raj Isar: The Cultural Economy. (doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.4135/9781446247174.n8) Retrieved 21 march 2014. Agins, T. (2000). The end of fashion: how marketing changed the clothing business forever. New York: Quill. Bhardwaj, V., & Fairhurst, A. (2010). Fast fashion: response to changes in the fashion industry. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 20(1), 165–173. (doi:10.1080/09593960903498300) Retrieved 21 march 2014. Caniato, F., Caridi, M., Crippa, L., & Moretto, A. (2012). Environmental sustainability in fashion supply chains: an explanatory case based research. International Journal of Production Economics, 135(2), 659-670. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2011.06.001. De Brito, M. P., Carbone, V., & Meunier Blanquart, C. (2008). Toward a sustainable fashion retail supply chain in Europe: Organisation and performance. International Journal of Production Economics, 114(2), 534-553. (doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2007.06.012.) Retrieved 21 march 2014. Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable fashion and textiles: Design journeys. London: Earthscan Publications. Fletcher, K. (2010). Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change. Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design, Creative Process & the Fashion, 2(2), 259–266. Klamer, A. (2011) Cultural Entrepreneurship. The Review of Austrian Economics, 24(2), 141-156. (doi:10.1068/a43473) Retrieved 21 march 2014. Moore, C. M., & Birtwistle, G. (2004). The Burberry business model: creating an international luxury fashion brand. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 32(8), 412– 422. (doi:10.1108/09590550410546232) Retrieved 21 march 2014. Pookulangara, S., & Shephard, A. (2013). Slow fashion movement: Understanding consumer perceptions—An exploratory study. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 20(2), 200– 206. (doi:10.1016/j.jretconser. 2012.12.002) Retrieved 21 march 2014.

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Her thesis project examines new forms of entrepreneurship in the fashion industry through two case studies: slow fashion designers in Toronto, Canada and street style bloggers in Stockholm, Sweden.  — [email protected].

Sull, D., & Turconi, S. (2008). Fast fashion lessons. Business Strategy Review, 19(2), 4–11. (doi:10.1111/j.1467-8616.2008.00527.x) Retrieved 21 march 2014. Tokatli, N. (2012). Old firms, new tricks and the quest for profits: Burberry’s journey from success to failure and back to success again. Journal of Economic Geography, 12(1), 55–77. (doi:10.1093/jeg/lbq046) Retrieved 21 march 2014. UNCTAD (2010) Creative Economy Report 2010. Geneva: United Nations. Vermeulen, W. J. V. & Ras, P. J. (2006). The Challenge of greening global product chains: Meeting both ends. Sustainable Development, 14(4), 245-256. (doi:10.1002/sd.270) Retrieved 21 march 2014. Von Mises, L. [1949] (1966). Human Action: A Treatise on Economics. San Francisco: Fox and Wilkes (fourth edition).

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BUDDING ENTREPRENEURSHIP: an Ethnographic account Household enterprises as skills guilds, and apprenticeship incubators of indigenous knowledge in Banyankore of S.W. Uganda

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Abstract

Household enterprises in Africa, and Uganda in particular, have been taken over by the modern technologies arguably ushered in by the western ideologies, and which reduced the indigenous knowledge based production, disintegrated the craft guilds that used to be knowledge incubators and apprenticeship think tanks. In spite of this process, household enterprises have remained budding activities in most households holding the possible solution to reducing poverty. This article gives an ethnographic account of household enterprises as skills guilds, and apprenticeship incubators of indigenous knowledge, and how these household enterprises fundamentally strengthened the wellbeing and livelihoods of communities. The article particularly traces the art of milk pot carving as an enterprise, illuminating how this practice promotes indigenous knowledge growth and preservation. Taking a pro-vocal approach and using anthropological methods, the article looks at milk pot carvers in Kiruhura district in S.W. Uganda who exhibited that carving is a viable small family business. Results indicate that indigenous skills can be viable household enterprises. Results further indicate that not only are these items used by homes as functional items, but also globalization and modernity have given them another dimension as global works of art. The article concludes that household enterprises fundamentally supplement government programs, and are good opportunities for entrepreneurs in poverty reduction, and good pathways for a sustainable African led development. Household Enterprises: Introduction

It is now universally known that up to 40 percent of households in Africa depend on household enterprises (enterprises that are not farms operated by a single individual or with the help of family members) as an income source, yet household enterprises are usually ignored in low-income Sub Saharan African (SSA) development strategies (Fox & Sohnesen, 2012; Wiggins, 2009; Gough, Tipple & Napier, 2003). Household enterprises (HE) are long practiced family activities in the creative economy, meant to provide solutions to daily operations of the community and have a potential to enhance well-being at the household level ( UNDP & UNCTAD, 2008; Ayende, 2013; Williams &Youssef, 2013; Mutungi & Ghaye, 2013). Moreover, Fox & Sohnesen (2012:3) found out that household enterprises generate most new jobs outside agriculture, and the ‘household enterprise (HE) sector generates the majority of new non-farm jobs in most SSA countries’. Although most developing countries have not managed to harness their creative capacities for development (UNDP & UNCTAD, 2008), Abonge (2012) found out that HEs have the capacity to enhance the livelihoods of the poor because they provide opportunities for the poor to generate income. Moreover, dos

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Budding entrepreneurship: an Ethnographic account Household enterprises as skills guilds, and apprenticeship incubators of indigenous knowledge in Banyankore of S.W. Uganda

Santos-Duisenberg (2008) contend that creative industries are at the heart of creative economy, they form a link between sub-sectors, their products are consumed on daily basis everywhere in the world and they always stimulate demand.

Research reveals that other reasons why communities keep household enterprises, especially those that deal in indigenous items, is either their affordability, durability or the need to identify with those enterprises or their products. Besides, it was found out that families that start household enterprises dealing in imported or factory manufactured goods, regularly collapse before their first anniversary, because they are out competed by the big companies. It is the family enterprise based on local skills that can stand the competition because of their uniqueness. Indigenous skills and knowledge

It would only be possible for households to sustain enterprises based on their indigenous skills and knowledge where such competition does not exist. Governments need to promote such enterprises moreover; promoting entrepreneurship at household level is directly linked to promoting family business (European Commission, 2009). Furthermore, recent studies (United Nations, UNPDP & UNESCO, 2013) show that the creative economy continues to drive development with developing country exports of creative industries, registering a 12.1 per cent annual growth. Yet, a closer look at most imported items in Uganda reveals cottage products produced in other countries by other cultures. It is in this respect that Ndoreliire (2004), Gombe (2012) observe that local production has suffered an over a century lasting, neglect which has reduced the workmanship and the value of local products. For example, the introduction of South African super markets in Uganda – Shoprite - has altered the preference of many local people. Hazell (n.d.:8) contends that such items have ‘altered product selection and market share in favour of imported South African brands at the expense of local farmers, processors, food suppliers and retailers’.

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Household enterprises continue to be undermined by supposedly superior goods on markets which are in an actual sense produced elsewhere as household enterprise activity. Many years of dominance by imported items have made households to shun their own creativity for the imported and commonly referred to as ‘already made’. There is minimal promotion of domestically generated technology and emphasis has been directed on using and operating the available imported technologies (Chavula & Konde, 2011). Evidence shows that Europe deliberately uses products of creative business to form direct economic value (Andreeva, 2012) In Uganda, because of the liberalization of the economy, many imported goods, especially from China, flood the market and hardly allow local innovation and creativity. Household enterprises still exist, because communities lack sustainable incomes to purchase imported items, and also because some indigenous items have a cultural context that makes communities continue using them.

Arguably, HEs are important to the poor and other disadvantaged groups of the society such as the women, youth and persons with disability (PWDs). Although small enterprises have been recognized at household level in Uganda, this has been largely in agricultural sector, but not so much in indigenous knowledge and innovations.

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Yet, in most families in , whether rural or urban, household-based activities are integrated in family enterprises; such small enterprises are recognized as rural income growth and poverty reduction strategies (Haggeblade, et al., 2010), and contribute to income in over 40 percent of households in Uganda (Fox & Sohnesen, 2012). Household enterprises as skills guilds and apprenticeship incubators

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Household enterprises are organized around a common need and they are meant to serve specific functions. They are essentially social businesses and establish indigenous communities, in their quality of being social entrepreneurs. As social businesses, household enterprises are driven by solving a social problem such as overcoming poverty (Yunus, 2010). It is inherently clear that those HEs are solely set up to meet community needs and improving their livelihoods. Household enterprises are important guilds for skills development in communities. Guilds utilize varying levels of expertise of members, and this variety gives all who are participating an opportunity to refine their understanding, and share knowledge with other members (Settlage, Johnston, & Kittleson, 2009). Normally family members and other members of the community participate in these enterprises. Mostly, enterprises are based on gender roles with women and men involved in specific enterprises. Enterprises carried out by women usually harness time slots after working on the family farm while those of men sometimes are considered full time occupation. Women are mostly involved in pottery and basketry while men are involved in carving and iron work. One of the respondents, Kobukuubo (2010) observes that ‘The time for collecting materials for making baskets was the most learning experience. It was a time when both (Bahima) cattle keeper’s women and (Bairu) cultivator’s women moved as a group to collect materials for making baskets.’ This lasted for a whole day and during the exercise women shared stories. The Bahima women would carry milk while the Bairu women would carry cooked food. It is during this time that the Bahima women would eat sweet potatoes (Ebitakuri), millet bread (Karo) and other foods that they were not allowed to eat due to their cultural beliefs. The Banyankole community was traditionally organized around occupations of cattle rearing and the crop growers. Although these occupations prescribed different roles and society status, household enterprises united them. The women moved as a guild to collect materials for producing the items and also these guilds were apprenticeship incubators. In the publication of Kaitsinde (2011) one of the respondents observed that when women went to collect materials for their basketry, pottery or any interior design work, they went with young girls who would in the process be educated on different community issues in regard to their customs, beliefs and morals. Settlage, Johnston, Kittleson, (2009) further assert that guilds have a hierarchy of expertise that initiates the novices into a particular discipline. To strength the importance of such creativity and continuity, in Zambia government established cultural villages where creativity can be incubated (United Nations, 2011).

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Figure. 1 The milk pot platform (Orugyeegye)

On the other hand, men moved in groups to collect materials for carving or melting. The milk pot is carved out of the omusisa tree (Albizzia coriaria) and is used by the inter-lacustrine Bantu families. The milk pot is used for milking the cow, keeping milk and serving it. The milk pot is a non-spill product balanced at the centre, demonstrating the high skills employed by the carver. The art of making milk pots highlights the development of indigenous skills through apprenticeship. All the four carvers that responded to this study learnt carving from either their parents of friends of their parents. Ndimi (75 years interviewed September 2011) learnt carving from a friend of his uncle where his father took him when he was 15 years of age and after three years he became independent. He later trained his son and other four carvers.

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Until recently, the Banyankole lived in semi-permanent structures because of their life styles. They moved from place to place in search of pastures for their animals and also for fertile land for growing crops. Whenever a new house was constructed, a group of women would come together to decorate the interior and also to construct the milk pot form (orugyeegye).

The carving process begins by identifying a mature Omusisa tree which is cut down and divided into short pieces that could make two or three milk pots. The size of the cut pieces (Emisinga) is based on the intended size of the milk pot. The carver removes the outer white part of the wood and makes a suggestive shape of the milk pots on the cut piece. The suggestive pieces are then carried back to the workshop or a secure shade if one is not carving from home. The carvers use different tools to bring out the final piece. These tools are produced by the blacksmith and each plays a distinct role. The blacksmith and carvers always work together and they too belong to a same guild.

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The guilds promoted interdependence among the social classes of the Banyankole. Before the commercialization of agriculture, which can be viewed as a positive thing as it raises gross family incomes, such guilds were important source of livelihood. Women would churn ghee from the milk. The ghee was a source of food for the family in different ways. It was either used for making eshabwe – source made out of ghee and rock salt more or less like the mayonnaise, or enuuniira – a light watery sauce, or it was exchanged with food from Bairu families. This was a reliable household enterprise, which could have been supported in form of cultural food enterprise. It would be a kind of enterprise that would promote social groups of Banyakole. In the contemporary Uganda, there is still a high demand of traditional dishes like Eshabwe and oburo. These dishes are part of the menu of most Banyankole wedding ceremonies, irrespective of whether one is from the Bairu or Bahima caste. This means that even when there is no barter system today, the market for such dishes that are served in special material culture items (Enyabya/orwabya and Endiiro) is still high, and these items would create sustainable vibrant household enterprises.0

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Methodology

Our study used ethnography that way to understand the flourishing aspects of household enterprises in poverty reduction. Ethnography method was found applicable, because the research intended to focus on the sociology of meaning attached to household enterprises, through close field observation and to understand, interpret meanings, and explains how household enterprises are a social phenomenon (Katebire, 2007; Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996; Henn, Weinstein& Foard, 2006). In this regard, the research studied the behaviour and practices of four milk pot carvers in Kanoni and Engari Sub-counties. The research used participant observation and reading of cultural artifacts. The study was carried out in the sub-provinces of Kanoni and Engarisya in Kiruhura district in South Western Uganda. The district is semi-arid with poverty levels standing at 18 % (UBOS, 2010). It is one of the districts that form the greater Ankole; created by colonialists in 1901. Kiruhura district has 40878 families (District population office, 2012) many of whom own household enterprises. The area’s main occupation is cattle rearing and crop production mostly at a subsistence level. Results

Although the pressure for modern living does not entirely promote the meaning, production and use of milk pots, milk pot carving has remained relevant and resilient in the lives of the Banyankole, making it a household enterprise. In spite of the many years of competition from imported items, the need for identity in the global scene by Banyankole has made the milk pot and other material culture products, items for expressing the local identity. In spite of being part of the global family, the Banyankole want to be identified and associated with their traditional practices and artefacts. This need has made producers and users of indigenous artifacts to remain with an opportunity of starting household enterprises in the area they are good at. The milk pots are no longer just containers but international items especially due to their craftsmanship. Milk pots are given as presents to both visitors from the international community and other cultures. In the contemporary communities, a collection of milk pots, assorted gourds and pots (Figure. 2) are the main marriage gifts in both Bahima and well to- do Bairu families. As a result of increased usage as decorative and functional items, milk pots generate money to the carvers. 84

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Wooden watering can (Icuba) Water pots (Engemeko) Churning gourd (Ekishaabo) Milk pot covers (Emihiiha)

On the other hand, milk pots also promote the production of other material culture items hence more household enterprises. The potters benefit by producing the smoking pots (Ebicunga). Milk pots are maintained by smoking them through pots made by potters. The weavers create the covers (Emihiiha), hence promoting basketry, while the iron workers provide the carving tools. It is these attributes that make milk pot carving and other indigenous practices such as basketry and pottery, and iron work become viable household enterprises. The production of the milk pots and other products produced by potters, weavers or smelters and forgers of metal, are all carried out in groups. Working in groups promotes creativity, as members share ideas. Such guilds are good for mobilizing communities as members feel that they belong to one body, promote same values and approach. All respondents interviewed felt that working as a team gives them strength in establishing household enterprises based on indigenous products and technology.

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Figure. 2. A collection of traditional gift items used in marriage. These items include six to ten milk pots, a churning gourd (Ekishaabo), watering bucket (Icuba) and assorted pots (Engyemeko)

Conclusion

To conclude the article argues that outside influences have placed milk pots in a different perspective, but have not robbed it of its socio-economic and cultural importance. Milk pots are more than just containers. In addition to their use as containers and drinking vessels, milk pots display a high level of craftsmanship. They are a concrete representation of indigenous culture. Milk pots contribute to the local economy, generate money, not only to milk pot carvers, but also other disciplines of material culture producers. The potters benefit by producing the fumigation pots (Ebicunga), the weavers create the covers and the iron workers provide the carving tools. In the contemporary communities, milk pots have assumed another important role. Milk pots are the main item in the marriage gift pack in Banyankole. Milk pots have also assumed a decorative role as most families use them to decorate homes. Milk pots are also collected by foreign tourists who identify them with the long horned Ankole/ Watutsi cattle.

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References:

About the author

Abonge, C.V., (2012). Assessing the impact of women’s enterprises on household livelihoods and survival: Evidence from the North West Region of Cameroon, in: Greener Journal of Social Sciences. ISSN: 2276-7800 Vol. 2 (5), pp. 147 - 159, November 2012. www.gjournals.org 147. Andreeva, T., (2012), Beyond Markets: culture and creative industries in EU’s external relations, Report: More Europe debate. Amsterdum, 12 September. Chavula, H.K.& Konde, V., (2011), Innovation and Industrial Development in Africa, in: ATDF Journal Volume 8, Issue 3/4 2011 dos Santos-Duisenberg, E., (2008). Creative Economy Report 2008, The Challenges of Assessing the Creative Economy: towards Informed policy-making. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.

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European Commission, (2009). Promotion of SMEs’ Competitiveness, Final Report of The Expert Group Overview of Family–Business–Relevant issues: Research, Networks, Policy measures and Existing studies, Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry Unit, Http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/ index_en.htm Giles, J., & Middleton, T. (1999). Studying Culture: A Practical Introduction. Black Well Publishing. Gough, K. V, Tipple G.V & Napier M. Making a Living in African Cities: The Role of Home-based Enterprises in Accra and Pretoria International Planning Studies, Vol. 8, No. 4,000–000, November 2003. Gombe, C. 2012. Environment Influence on Indigenous: Luo Lambart. Publishing House USA.

of Kenya.

Haggblade, S., Hazel, P., & Reardon, T. 2010. ‘The rural non-farm economy: prospects and poverty reduction’. In: World Development, vol 38. Mutungi, E. & Ghaye,T. (2013).Enhancing well-being at Household level: The impact of Informal Economy on Poverty Reduction in the Traditional Ankole Kingdom of S.W. Uganda in: Thai M.T.T & Turkina E. (2013) Entrepreneurship in the Informal Economy: Models, Approaches and Prospects for Economic Development, (pp. 241-255) Routledge, New York. Mutungi, E. (2013). When the butter got done: The resilience of Indigenous Design. Processes during Dictatorial regime in Uganda between 1971 -1978 and their continued use in Kiruhura District in S.W. Uganda. Article presented at Gaborone International Design Conference and to be published in Design Future: Creativity, Innovation and Development. Ndoleriire, O. K. (2004). Language, Culture and Development: Uganda’s Experience. Inaugural Lecture. 14 May 2004. Kampala: Makerere University. New Vision, 2013. Kampala city traders close shops New Vision, June 25, 2013. Consumers back Government as traders’ strike enters day four; New Vision, June 27, 2013.

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Mutungi Emmanuel is an artistic professional with over 18 years of progressive experience, working as a director of the National art gallery. He is a University lecturer; an expert in application of art for community development in various issues including refugees, MDGs, health, children, governance, and poverty reduction; A researcher in material culture, house hold incomes and poverty reduction. — mutungiemmanuel @yahoo.com

Budding entrepreneurship: an Ethnographic account Household enterprises as skills guilds, and apprenticeship incubators of indigenous knowledge in Banyankore of S.W. Uganda

Settlage, J., Johnston, A.,Kittleson, J.(2009). Crafts(wo)men and Guilds: Expertise Development among Science Education Researchers, Settlage, Johnston & Kittleson NARST 09. Sohnesen, L. F. (2012). Household Enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa; Why They Matter for Growth, Jobs, and Livelihoods. The World Bank Africa Region Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit. Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2010) Uganda National Household Survey 2009/2010: Social. United Nations, UNPDP & UNESCO, (2013). Creative Economy Report 2013, Widening Local Development Pathways, Special Edition. New York.

Wiggins, S. (2009). Can the Smallholder Model deliver Poverty Reduction and Food Security for a rapidly growing population in Africa? Expert Meeting on How to feed the World in 2050 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Economic and Social Development Department. Yunus, M. (2010). Building Social Business. Public Affairs, New York.

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United Nations, (2011). Strengthening the Creative Industries for Development in Zambia. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development in Collaboration with the Government of the Republic of Zambia, A Multiagency Pilot Project: ACP/EC/ILO/UNCTAD/UNESCO.

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(In)visible entrepreneurs: Creative enterprise in the urban music economy Abstract

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The categorisation of young people as not in employment, education or training (NEET) obscures the significant impact of the accomplishments of those who operate in the urban music economy. Grime music, a black Atlantic creative expression, is used as a lens through which to explore and analyse the nature of entrepreneurship within this sector. East London, a site of poverty, movement and migration is the geographical starting point for the study. This article draws on the findings of a five-year (2007-2012) ethnographic field research project in London, England and Ayia Napa, Cyprus. The national and global reach of those who operate within the urban music sector has a significant socio-economic impact. Practitioners utilise advances in technology as well as innovative business practice to create opportunities for self-employment on a local, national and international scale. Grime music and its related enterprise culture is a mechanism for social and economic mobility particularly for those from ethnically stigmatised communities. This article contends that the activities of these individuals disrupt the accepted interpretation of NEET as a category of deficit and proposes a reconfiguration of current definitions regarding who is an entrepreneur and what constitutes entrepreneurship. The NEET context

In the United Kingdom, NEET is used as a category to define those who are not in employment, education or training. It has existed both as a designator and as an outcome since the late 1990s. However, it has gained momentum against a backdrop of rising youth unemployment and the impact of the global economic downturn that began in 2008. Estimates of those who fit the criteria vary between 10% and 20% of 18-24 year olds in the UK (Department for Education, 2013; Lee & Wright, 2011; London’s Poverty Profile, 2013). This paper draws on the findings of a five-year ethnographic research project to contend that the NEET category disguises and obscures the enterprising activities of young people from marginalised communities At its heart, economics is about the invisible hand of supply and demand. It is concerned with the choices that people make and the impact that those choices have on wider society. Being NEET excludes, or positions one further from the labour market, and it can be demonstrated that self-employment and enterprise can be a way to combat this (Gudmundsson, 2013). The respondents in the research project had had their employment choices curtailed and constrained by circumstance in that they originated from, and were located in, areas of high unemployment and low social mobility. Nevertheless, these artists/entrepreneurs had a desire for their creative practice to be viewed by the widest possible audience and for it to provide them with an opportunity to launch into the world of paid work. This is particularly germane for those that inhabit a world

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(In)visible entrepreneurs: Creative enterprise in the urban music economy

where paid employment offered by external organisations is scarce. When James, a 25 year old DJ and Grime music pioneer, was interviewed in 2008, he outlined his business plan and demonstrated his tacit knowledge of branding and marketing thus:

Since that interview, James who would have been categorised as NEET, has established and sustained an online radio station that has DJs broadcasting from around the world, including Rotterdam, San Francisco, Toronto and Rome. The business model for the radio station emulates the pirate radio set up where James learned his craft, in that budding DJs pay for the opportunity to broadcast. Therefore this business also acts as a training ground and affords a possibility for entry into wider work opportunities. Learning to be enterprising: Becoming an entrepreneur in the urban music economy

As in other occupational and industrial sectors, starting a business in the urban music economy is often a by-product of a hobby or interest. For example, Jamal Edwards was sixteen years old when started his company, SBTV, as an outlet for his interest in making videos for the Grime music that he loved. Firstly, by establishing a YouTube partnership deal - a programme that is designed for regular video makers and offers a shared advertising revenue solution (Cunningham, 2012) and then subsequently acquiring contracts with other companies such as Virgin Unite, Edwards has turned SBTV into a global brand (Edwards, 2013, p. 151; Smale, 2013). Largely invisible to the view of the academy and policymakers are the activities of those who started out in a similar way to Jamal Edwards. In their lyrics for these tracks, Grime artists Lethal Bizzle and Lil Nasty have both referenced their own clothing brands - ‘Dench’ and ‘Nasty by Nature’ respectively. ‘…and it’ts Nasty by Nature […] cos while your sleeping, I’m awake, cos I believe it’s mine o make […]’ Lil Nasty Ft Rootsman & Ken Kodie Game By Storm (Link Up TV, 2011). Other examples from the urban music economy include the ‘Star In The Hood’ clothing line created by Tinchy Stryder (BBC Newsbeat, 2010), the ‘Disturbing London’ brand from Tinie Tempah (Millar, 2012) as well as the Boy Better Know mobile phone network SIM card (Boy Better Know, 2011).

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Well, I just need to […], you have to make yourself like a brand. It’s not just like being a DJ it’s like you have to work it kind of thing. It’s like a game. You have to put yourself about, put CDs out, marketing basically. And if you don’t…if you get that right then you can be big, people will look for you. Like some people they’re not necessarily good DJs, they’ve just worked up their name in a way where it’s a brand and you can see that they’re not actually the best, there are loads of other people there that […] that’s what I want to do, push myself more on the marketing side of it cos it’s all good being good at all that but if no one gets to hear you, it don’t matter. Need to do them extra things.

Young people from impoverished backgrounds moving between unemployment and low paid, poor quality work or training schemes, is not a novel situation. It comes out of a long term pattern that has been the lived experience for previous generations of older workers from poor areas (Shildrick, Macdonald, Webster, & Garthwaite, 2010). What has changed now is that the low paid, and lesser quality work that remains 1

‘James’ is a pseudonym

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available requires increasing levels of qualification. Therefore, those that do not acquire the necessary standard of educational attainment are more likely to be excluded from the world of work (Bainbridge & Browne, 2010; Coles, Godfrey, Keung, Parrott, & Bradshaw, 2010; London’s Poverty Profile, 2013). Since the 1980s, the pursuit of enterprise and a corresponding rise in the number of entrepreneurs has been seen to provide a solution to a profusion of social and economic problems including youth unemployment (Anderson & Warren, 2011; Blanchflower & Oswald, 1998). Indeed, it is almost a given that individuals with entrepreneurial behaviours are vital for economic success. Although the concept of entrepreneurship can appear to be undefined, the entrepreneurial process complex and often beyond reach, entrepreneurs are real people from existent social and cultural contexts, and yet this is often overlooked (Drakopoulou Dodd & Anderson, 2007, p. 348). This paper, foregrounds a little researched area - entrepreneurs from marginalised communities who have used their creative practice in the urban music economy to create self-employment and business opportunities.

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Grime music and its related enterprise

The starting point for the research project was the east end of London. Historically, this area has had a reputation for ‘poverty and widespread dereliction’ (Eade, 2000). However, over the last decade inner east London has undergone a marked and visible shift. Grime music emerged from east London in the early part of this century (Hampson, 2009; Hancox, 2013; Mason, 2008). It is a predominantly young, male and black creative expression, although it is not the exclusive property of the black Atlantic world (Gilroy, 1993, p. 3). Grime sits outside the usual musical conventions. Sometimes, it can be hard on the ear, the beats can be disturbing and brutal and sometimes the lyrics are lost or disguised. It is, however a means to express individuality in a public or community space (Carroll, 2008, p. 184). It is also a space where creative practice and commerce come together and enable the sale of black creative expression in a national and global market place (Hill Collins, 2006). This creative expression/creative enterprise can take the form of live performance, staging of events, the production and sale of mixtapes and other merchandise such as clothing and DVDs, sale of studio time and the creation and distribution of publicity and marketing materials. All of these products and services are exchanged for cash, recognition and knowledge. At its core are MCs, DJs, producers, beat makers and promoters, almost all of them male. Far from being a highly localised, niche creative practice, the act of creating Grime music propels its practitioners out into the world and away from ‘the ends’2 or areas of advanced marginality (Wacquant, 2007). During the interviews, it became apparent that although the respondents were grounded in east London through residence and/or performance, their reach and influence extended far beyond this locale. In the UK it was evident that Grime had an audience and a steady demand for live performance outside of London. In Swindon and Bristol, for example, the Sidewinder events provided a platform for MCs and DJs ‘the ends’ are a locality or neighbourhood

2

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(In)visible entrepreneurs: Creative enterprise in the urban music economy

(Sidewinder, 2006, 2007)3, and Eskimo Dance occasions took luminaries of this musical scene to Watford and beyond (NuthingSorted.com, 2006). As a genre, it has been cited as an incitement to gang membership, criminal activity and violence particularly amongst young black men not only in inner London, but in other cities such as Birmingham (Beauman, 2006; Jones, 2010; Muggs, 2010). This prompted Matt Mason in Pirates Dilemma to call Grime a meme without a scene – because it could not be played publicly and therefore had nowhere to go (Mason, 2008, p. 211). However, Grime did not vanish, instead the performance locations for this creative expression spread outwards. Advances in technology and accessible media such as YouTube (Leadbeater, 2009) and Channel AKA – the digital TV channel (Channel AKA, 2013) allowed for audiences to be established first in the London suburbs, then across the UK to Europe and North America4.

The urban music economy is a repository for a multiplicity of interconnected activities. As a constituent component of the popular music industry, this economy has benefited from the technological advance of the last decade. The traditional recorded music industry is based on a centralised model and it relies on a tight control of the distribution of its product. Now, this industry has evolved from a local and personal activity – shared with co present others, to a space where – due to technological advance – immediate audiences can be established for creative expression. Within this context, urban music artists create and sell online personas in exchange for recognition and feedback (Baym, 2010). The urban music economy is a complex fabric containing a number of activities, with no clear distinction between the formal and informal sectors. Young people from impoverished backgrounds set up their own businesses and become artist/entrepreneurs (Johansson, 2004). The creative economy as it relates to urban music involves artistic creativity, imagination and the capacity to generate original ideas and novel ways of interpreting the world as well as a willingness to experiment. Everyday practice in the urban music sector warrants dynamic business methods and can lead to innovation as well as competitive advantage. The innovative business practices of participants in the urban music economy are highly visible to young people from impoverished areas and present models that can be implemented and adapted. It is entirely possible for independent recording artists in the urban music economy, such as JME and Griminal, to dispense with intermediaries to establish an audience, a fan base and a viable business, (360records09, 2009; Boy Better Know, 2011; ManBetterKnow, 2011; Patterson, 2014).

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Dynamic flows: The socio-economic impact of urban music

3 MCs and DJs from London who performed at these events include in Swindon: Cameo, Mac 10, Marcus Nasty, Logan Sama, Heartless Crew. Hyper Fen, Stormin, Ghetto, Scorcher, Ultra, Cheeky, Bearman, Viper, Wiley, Skepta, Donaeo, JME. In Bristol; Cameo, Snakeyman, Semtex, Ras Kwame, Broke ‘n’ English, Doctor, L.Man, Hypa Fenn & Marcie Phonix, Wiley, JME, Skepta, Faith SFX

4 See for example, the 2012 line up for the Outlook Festival in Croatia which included D Double E – a Grime MC (SBTV: Music, 2012), Wiley’s regular performances in Toronto (ninkyrooz, 2013), a Grime blog from Japan (Grime JP, 2014) and the annual Ayia Napa events (NSCProductions, 2009)

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They offer their music directly on a free or paid for basis (iTunes, 2013a, 2013b). The participants in this economy have learned by doing, others became conversant by watching others and taking their inspiration from them. This was possible in part because of the creative Grime clusters that developed on council housing estates – like Meridian in Tottenham (in north London) and on street corners such as Greengate in Plaistow (in east London), but also due to advances in technology such as the Internet and social media which allowed this creative practice to become highly visible.

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Conclusion

From the research findings it is apparent that a variety of enterprises exist in this sector including online TV channels, music video production, clothing lines, a SIM card for a mobile phone network, record labels, event promotion and internet radio stations. Many of these businesses have been constructed and sustained by young people who have been classified as NEET. It is evident that these individuals have established businesses that have afforded a move beyond the boundaries of their inner city environments to create meaningful work for themselves and others (Thrift 2007; Bourdieu 1993). The fact that they have developed, through informal learning, the necessary skills, knowledge and capabilities to be legitimate players in the urban music economy, disrupts the accepted definition of NEET as a category of deficit (Bourdieu 1993). Entrepreneurs have a distinctive presence, what they do in general and who they are as individuals create images of an entrepreneurial identity. The businesses and individuals that feature here are invisible as entrepreneurs because they are from stigmatised communities – in this case they are young, black and poor (Wacquant, 2007). By foregrounding the entrepreneurial activities of participants in the urban music economy, it is evident that the existing definitions of who is an entrepreneur and what constitutes enterprise and entrepreneurship are key questions that require further examination. References 360records09.(2009). Griminal-Invincible (OFFICIAL VIDEO-HD). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5gpBIfqvojA&feature=youtube_gdata_player. Anderson, A. R., & Warren, L. (2011). The entrepreneur as hero and jester: Enacting the entrepreneurial discourse. International Small Business Journal, 29(6), 589–609. doi:10.1177/0266242611416417. Bainbridge, L., & Browne, A. (2010). Generation Neet (No. CHILD10-5067) (p. 37). York: Report for Children and Young People Now Magazine. Baym, N. K. (2010). Personal connections in the digital age. Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity. BBC Newsbeat. (2010, November 18). Tinchy tips off Jay-Z about Cher. BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/11786854. Beauman, N. (2006, June 11). Is violence holding grime back? | Music | theguardian.com. Retrieved October 20, 2013, from http://www.theguardian.com/ music/musicblog/2006/nov/06/isviolenceholdinggrimeback.

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About the author Joy White is a PhD candidate at the University of Greenwich. Her occupational background is as a teacher in the post compulsory education settings and as a business owner in the vocational training sector. — [email protected] twitter: @JoyWhite2

(In)visible entrepreneurs: Creative enterprise in the urban music economy

Boy Better Know. (2011). Boy Better Know Sim Card - JME Edition. Boy Better Know. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.boybetterknow.com/shop/BoyBetter-Know-Sim-Card-JME-Edition.html. Carroll, S. (2008). The Practical Politics of Step-Stealing and Textual Poaching: YouTube, Audio-Visual Media and Contemporary Swing Dancers Online. Convergence, 14(2), 183. Channel AKA. (2013). CHANNEL AKA OFFICIAL. Facebook. Retrieved February 2, 2014, from https://www.facebook.com/CHANNELAKAOFFICIAL Coles, B., Godfrey, C., Keung, A., Parrott, S., & Bradshaw, J. (2010). Estimating the life - time cost of NEET: 16 - 18 year olds not in Education, Employment or Training (p. 55). University of York.

Department for Education. (2013). NEET statistics quarterly brief: April to June 2013. Department for Education. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/ government/publications/neet-statistics-quarterly-brief-april-to-june-2013 Drakopoulou Dodd, S., & Anderson, A. R. (2007). Mumpsimus and the Mything of the Individualistic Entrepreneur. International Small Business Journal, 25(4), 341–360. doi:10.1177/0266242607078561 Eade, J. (2000). Placing London: from imperial city to global city. Oxford: Berghahn. Edwards, J. (2013). Self belief - the vision: how to be a success on your own terms. Gilroy, P. (1993). Small acts: Thoughts on the politics of black cultures. Serpents Tail. Gudmundsson, G. (2013). Quality Spirals and Vicious Circles among Children of Immigrant Entrepreneurs: How Immigrant Entrepreneurs’ Resources are Remoulded by the Second Generation. Young, 21(2), 173–191. doi:10.1177/1103308813477466

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Cunningham, S. (2012). Emergent Innovation through the Coevolution of Informal and Formal Media Economies. Television & New Media, 13(5), 415–430. doi:10.1177/1527476412443091

Hampson, S. (2009). Interview: Geeneus – FACT magazine: music and art. Retrieved September 11, 2010, from http://www.factmag.com/2009/01/01/ interview-geeneus/ Hancox, D. (2013). Stand Up Tall: Dizzee Rascal and the Birth of Grime. Kindle. Henderson, J., & Weiler, S. (2010). Entrepreneurs and Job Growth: Probing the Boundaries of Time and Space. Economic Development Quarterly, 24(1), 23 –32. doi:10.1177/0891242409350917 Hill Collins, P. (2006). «New Commodities, New Consumers. Selling Blackness in a Global Marketplace». Ethnicities, 6(3), 297–317. iTunes. (2013a). iTunes - Music - Griminal. Retrieved March 29, 2014, from https://itunes.apple.com/gb/artist/griminal/id273716474?trackPage=2#trackPage iTunes. (2013b). iTunes - Music - JME. Retrieved March 29, 2014, from https://itunes.apple.com/gb/artist/jme/id120985134

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Jones, S. (2010, June 20). THE GRIME REPORT: Rap music feud behind gun violence in Birmingham - NEWS. Retrieved October 20, 2013, from http://thegrimereport.blogspot.co.uk/2010/06/rap-music-feud-behind-gunviolence-in.html Leadbeater, C. (2009). We-Think: Mass innovation, not mass production (2nd ed.). Profile Books. Lee, N., & Wright, J. (2011). Off the map? The geography of NEETs A snapshot analysis for the Private Equity Foundati on (p. 17). Lancaster University: Work Foundation. Link Up TV. (2011). Lil Nasty Ft Rootman & Ken kodie - Game By Storm [MUSIC VIDEO] // @linkuptv | Link Up TV. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nofrjbpvcho&feature=youtube_gdata_player

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London’s Poverty Profile.(2013).Not in education employment or training -‘NEETs’ | Poverty Indicators | London’s Poverty Report.Retrieved September 28, 2013, from http://www.londonspovertyprofile.org.uk/indicators/topics/loweducational-outcomes/not-in-education-employment-or-training---neets/ Low, M. B., & MacMillan, I. C. (1988). Entrepreneurship: Past Research and Future Challenges. Journal of Management, 14(2), 139 –161. doi:10.1177/014920638801400202 Macdonald, R., Shildrick, T., & Furlong, A. (2013). In search of ‘intergenerational cultures of worklessness’: Hunting the Yeti and shooting zombies. Critical Social Policy. doi:10.1177/0261018313501825 ManBetterKnow. (2011). Jme - ‘JME.’ Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=71edyENuW6U&feature=youtube_gdata_player Mason, M. (2008). The Pirate’s Dilemma: How Hackers, Punk Capitalists, Graffiti Millionaires and Other Youth Movements are Remixing Our Culture and Changing Our World. Penguin. Millar, J. (2012, May 4). Tinie Tempah is Disturbing Selfridges. GQ. Retrieved July 13, 2013, from http://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/style/articles/2012-04/05/ tinie-tempah-disturbing-london-clothing-selfridges Muggs, J. (2010, November 11). Violent grime on the increase | New music reviews, news & interviews | The Arts Desk. Retrieved October 20, 2013, from http://www.theartsdesk.com/new-music/violent-grime-increase ninkyrooz. (2013). Wiley & Freeza Chin ( radio set in Toronto) 2013 new  !!!!! Bigggg!! Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ZLDJl0dibPo&feature=youtube_gdata_player NSCProductions. (2009). The Official Ayia Napa Send Off - Saturday 13th June 09 - Club Demand - Coventry. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=jPEywOwHfLM&feature=youtube_gdata_player NuthingSorted.com. (2006, February 16). The Eskimo Dance Presents… The UK Link Up at Area (Watford) 16 February 2006 - Event Listing. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from http://www.nuthingsorted.com/index. php?sID=12237633067259

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Patterson, J. (2014, May 4). Grime’s Griminal Gets It On With House. MTV Iggy. Retrieved March 28, 2014, from http://www.mtviggy.com/blog-posts/ grime-griminal-gets-it-on-with-house/ SBTV: Music. (2012). SB.TV - D Double E - Outlook Sessions. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wY7dpWHUTP8&feature =youtube_gdata_player Schumpeter, J. A. (1994). Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. Psychology Press. Shildrick, T., Macdonald, R., Webster, C., & Garthwaite, kayleigh. (2010). The low-pay, no-pay cycle: Understanding recurrent poverty (p. 53). Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Sidewinder. (2007, May 19). Love Music Hate Racism SIDEWINDER – BRISTOL CARLING ACADEMY. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from http:// lovemusichateracism.com/2007/05/sidewinder-bristol-carling-academy/ Smale, W. (2013, November 11). Amateur film-maker turned media boss. BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24801980 Wacquant, L. (2007). Urban Outcasts: A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality. Polity.

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Sidewinder. (2006, October 21). Sidewinder, Tommorow Night! Brunel Rooms, Swindon!! ITS GRIIIIME. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from http://www.hijackbristol.co.uk/board/the-forum/sidewinder-tommorow -night!-brunel-rooms-swindon!!-its-griiiime/?wap2

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Pierre-Jean Benghozi Elisa Salvador

Strategies and business models of online platforms in CCIs: convergence or differentiation in the e-book sector?

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Abstract

96

The economics and competition of cultural and creative industries (CCIs) have been heavily transformed, in the digital age, thanks to the key role of new business models and the organization of new value chains and ecosystems around platforms structuring. These platforms organize the aggregation of content on the supply side and the matching with consumers’ interest and taste on the demand side: they modify the traditional intermediation processes and distribution channels. They influence, therefore, the entrepreneurial specificities that might to focus on market design rather than on creation process. While this phenomenon has been mostly exemplified in the music industry through the Apple’s ITunes App Store, the same dynamic and market design are at stake in all the cultural sectors. The aim of this paper is to investigate the specific role and positioning of these platforms in the French book publishing industry. The results of a factor and cluster analyses on 66 e-book platforms are described and discussed. Introduction

The economics of cultural and creative industries (CCIs) has been heavily transformed, in the digital age, by new business models and the organization of new value chains and ecosystems around platforms structuring (Unesco-UNDP, 2013; Abecassis-Moedas, Benghozi 2012; Green Paper, 2010; Benghozi, Paris, 2007). These platforms organize the aggregation of content on the supply side and the matching with consumers’ interest and taste on the demand side. They support innovative development, competing and entrepreneurial strategies, and, consequently, modify the traditional intermediation processes and distribution channels. While this phenomenon has been mostly exemplified in the music industry through the Apple’s ITunes App Store, the same dynamic and market design are at stake in the cultural sectors and especially in the publishing industry. This sector is particularly interesting to capture from the urbanization and knowledge-based perspective. Actually, its traditional distribution structure (local booksellers/retailers v. large urban specialized bookstores) is closely linked to the spatial organization of social activities. In contrast, the industry moves from actors engaged in buying and selling books to more complex forms of knowledge-based intermediation where electronic platforms substitute the booksellers as the key drivers. The present chapter investigates the particular case of France. It aims at the identification of business models adopted in e-book platforms for characterizing the strategic assets mobilized by entrepreneurs and economic actors. This investigation is based on 66 platforms, using a factor and a cluster analyses in order to ascertain the competitive resources at stake and the variety of existing economic strategies.

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Strategies and business models of online platforms in CCIs: convergence or differentiation in the e-book sector?

Theoretical framework: the e-book and the vision of emerging platforms in the scientific literature

Such new intermediaries are not specific to publishing industries or CCIs: actually, scientific literature recently focused on industry platforms (Gawer, 2011; Cusumano, 2011; Baldwin and Woodard, 2009). Authors (cf. Gawer and Cusumano, 2013) usually distinguish between internal platforms (proving technological support to innovation versioning) and external ones corresponding to a new position in the value chain, meaning the design of a two-sided market (Rochet and Tirolle, 2003). Litterature exhibits the growing importance of ‘platform leaders’ (Gawer, Phillips, 2013; Gawer, Cusumano, 2002). They control the market, but are dependent on other firms that add value, develop innovations and fed the overall ecosystem. While platforms structure and facilitate inter-firm collaboration, they additionally change the nature of the competition: rivalry among platforms stands in for the competition between the traditional economic actors. It raises, especially for the CCIs, an open and important question: is platform leadership available for SMEs or only an option for large companies? Gawer and Cusumano (2008) suggest that two main strategies exist: ‘coring’ focuses on creating a new platform where one has not existed before; ‘tipping’ aims at competing to build market dominance with exclusive contents and incompatible technologies. For the authors ‘coring’ is a possible option for any company, because technology and architectural leadership are not directly dependent on the company size. Our research aims to investigate these concerns in the specific case of the French e-book ‘platforms’.

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The e-book is a very good illustration of the new economic frameworks at stake in the CCIs. In recent years the traditional book publishing industry has been troubled by unanticipated changes (Greco, 2011; Lebert, 2009; Patino, 2008). The first revolution was brought by a newcomer - Amazon - with the on-line distribution system of traditional paper books. But a second one quickly followed, and the e-book that appeared on the market in the 2000s, upset all the phases of the traditional book value chain (Benghozi, Salvador, 2013). New actors emerge: among them, platforms conceived for (e)-books selling and/or consultation is one of the most impressive novelties. These platforms enable to sell only (or also) digital books without (or at the same time of) a physical bookstore.

Methodology

The methodology applied in this article is very similar to the one yet tested and used in the press industry (Benghozi, Lyubareva, 2013). More specifically, the present empirical analysis is based on a comprehensive survey of 66 French e-book platforms (see Annex A). This sample represents 43% of an overall list of 155 platforms available on Hadopi Offre Légale1. The Internet website of every platform has been carefully investigated (and corroborated with the managers of the platforms) in order to identify its main characteristics. These qualitative features have been transformed into quantitative ones and assembled into the same worksheet. Table 1 provides a list of the platforms’ features transformed in binary variables (1, 0). 1 http://www.offrelegale.fr/sites-et-services/categorie/ebook (February 2014). This website is elaborated by public authorities to collect - and promote all the cultural content platforms (music, video, books…) legally available on line.

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Var01

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Institutional category (1-Publisher, 0-others)

Var02

Site available in several languages (1) or only in French (0)

Var03

Focus only on books (1) or also on other sectors (0)

Var04

Location (1UE; 0 extra-UE)

Var05

General themes (1yes; 0no)

Var06

Only e-books selling (1yes; 0no)

Var07

The site sells other cultural products (1yes; 0no)

Var08

The site sells also e-book readers (1yes; 0no)

Var09

The site has a partnership with an e-book reader producer (1yes; 0no)

Var10

The site has a partnership with a publisher or other book-actors (1yes; 0no)

Var11

Free e-books are offered (1yes; 0no)

Var12

Subscription formula (1yes; 0no)

Var13

Personal space on the website (1yes; 0no)

Var14

Apps (1yes; 0no)

Var15

Space dedicated to the press (1yes; 0no)

Var16

Frequently Asked Questions - FAQ (1yes; 0no)

Var17

Newsletter (1yes; 0no)

Var18

E-books statistics (1yes; 0no)

Var19

Link with social networks (1yes; 0no)

Var20

Read & write comments (1yes; 0no)

Var21

Specific social group of the site - blog (1yes; 0no)

Var22

Publicity sponsor (1yes; 0no)

Table 1 Definitions of variables identified on the 66 French e-book platforms

After excluding some variables for correlation problems, a factor analysis has been performed on the main variables identified (cf. Annex B). The principal component extraction factors is the method chosen and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin is the measure of sampling adequacy (providing an acceptable value of 0.6102). To determine the number of components the latent root criterion (Eigenvalue > 1.0) has been applied: a three-dimensional solution explaining 66% of the variance is obtained. In order to ascertain the difference or similarity among the various platforms, the same variables have been further organized into groups by means of the cluster analysis methods (Everitt et al., 2001). Such an approach allows for the identification of groups of objects with small within-cluster variation for discriminating variables and high variation between clusters. After testing various methods, K-means is applied, one of the most widely used partitional clustering techniques.

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Strategies and business models of online platforms in CCIs: convergence or differentiation in the e-book sector?

Analysis of results

The methodology provided interesting results since it brings to light unpredicted Factors that influence the structure of the offering and two principal homogeneous groups of platforms. Five influential factors that reveal alternative innovative strategies

The factor analysis results revealed five main Factors (see Table 2 Annex B). - Factor 1 groups the items relating to the presence of e-book statistics, meaning bestsellers (var18), the presence of FAQ (var16) and the presence of a weekly/ monthly newsletter (var17): we labelled it ‘Information services oriented’. Factor 2 includes the items pertaining to the presence of publicity sponsors (var22), the presence of Apps (var14) and the possibility to have a personal space on the website, meaning an own library (var13): it can be entitled ‘Value added technological services oriented’.

- Factor 3 includes items that show a link with social networks (var19) and the presence of a specific blog and/or social network site of the platform (var21). As a consequence, we named Factor 3 ‘Social networks oriented’. -

According to Factor 4, if there is a partnership with a publisher or another book actor (var10), people have fewer possibilities to actively participate to the content of the platform through writing and reading comments (var20): it can be referred to as ‘Traditional model safeguard oriented’.

- Finally, according to Factor 5, platforms that sell only e-books (var6) are less likely to sell also e-book readers (var8): we designated it ‘Content specialization oriented’. While Factors 3 and 5 highlight obvious results (the link with Facebook and Twitter is usually followed by a specific blog of the platform; publishers are more focused on their unique role of selling books). On the contrary, Factors 1, 2 and 4 exhibit interesting aspects related to platform characteristics and business models: these results will be confirmed and strengthened by the following cluster analysis results (see further).

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-

Two clusters structuring on-line models of platforms

The cluster analysis divided platforms into several groups. Our results demonstrate2 that the best partition is the one that provides a division into two groups. It is noteworthy to underline that the size of these two clusters is similar: both comprise 33 elements3. Yet, some specific variables do characterize each group more than others. 2 In order to choose the more efficient of the grouping divisions, the Calinski/Harabasz pseudo-F index was used (Calinski, Harabasz, 1974; Milligan, Cooper, 1985). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) (see Table 4 in AnnexB) highlights the variables that most contributed towards the identification of the two clusters and confirms the reliability of the factors determined above.

3 Annex A provides details on the name of every platform and its inclusion in Cluster 1 or 2.

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On the one hand, the availability of FAQ (var16), newsletters (var17) and e-book statistics (var18) are the variables that most influenced the grouping in Cluster 1. This result is clearly in line with Factor 1 ‘Information services oriented’. On the other hand, the link with social networks (var19), the possibility to write and read comments on the platform (var20) and the presence of a specific blog on Facebook/Twitter (var21) are the key variables in Cluster 2. This result is clearly in line with Factor 3 ‘Social networks oriented’. Starting from these general considerations, we examined each cluster for other characteristics, both included and excluded from the dataset for correlation problems. The analysis reveals that some variables have about the same weight in the two Clusters. More specifically, the availability of the website in several languages (var2) is equally distributed in the two Clusters, even if only 20% of the 66 platforms are available in other languages besides French. Furthermore, all but 3 platforms are located in the European Union (var4). Platforms selling only e-books (about 60%) or even printed books are well subdivided in the two Clusters (var6) as well as the 19% of platforms that have a press space (var15). About the presence or absence of links with social networks (var19): 82% have this feature and they are equally distributed in both Clusters. Exactly the same result is observable for the presence or absence of a publicity sponsor (var22): only 15% of platforms provide visible publicity on their website and they are perfectly distributed in Clusters 1 and 2. Nonetheless, some specificities are also identifiable. First of all, a slight difference is observable in the institutional category (var1): about 20% of the platforms analysed are publishers, while the others may be retailers, libraries, distributors, diffusers and bookshops. Cluster 1 is characterized by the presence of fewer platforms dealt by publishers. It includes two-thirds of the platforms (23%) focusing not only on books but also on other sectors (var3) and Cluster 1 platforms deal more on general books (var5), while Cluster 2 seems more focused on thematic books (28% of the platforms focusing, in particular, on comics or literature). About 25% of all the platforms sell other cultural products (var7) besides books: most of them –two-thirds– are included in Cluster 1. Only 14% of the platforms sell also e-book readers (var8): they are included all but 1 in Cluster 1, as well as most of the few platforms (about 12%) that have a partnership with an e-book reader producer (var9). Two-thirds of the platforms having a partnership (var10) with a publisher or another actor in the book industry (slightly more than 50%) are also included in Cluster 1. This Cluster has also a predominance of Apps availability (var14), compared to Cluster 2, even if less than 40% of the platforms analysed have this feature. Most of the platforms analysed offer free e-books (86%): Cluster 2 has a prevalence of the few platforms (14%) that do not offer free e-books (var11), but it has also a slight prevalence of the few platforms (17%) offering subscription formulas (var12). Furthermore, it seems that only 40% of the platforms give the possibility to build a ‘personal space’, meaning a personal library: they are grouped most in Cluster 2 than in Cluster 1. It is interesting to underline that 56% of the 66 platforms have a FAQ (var16): all the platforms that do not have a FAQ are included in Cluster 2, while all but a few of the platforms that have this feature are grouped in Cluster 1. A similar result is observable about the presence or absence of a newsletter (var17): 65% of the platforms send a regular newsletter to the registered users, and most of these platforms are included in Cluster 1. On the contrary, all but few of the platforms that seem not to have a newsletter service are included in Cluster 2.

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Strategies and business models of online platforms in CCIs: convergence or differentiation in the e-book sector?

Again, a very similar result is observable for the presence or not of e-book selling statistics (var18): 72% of the platforms provide information about the list of bestsellers and they are more included in Cluster 1 than in Cluster 2. This last one includes all but a few of the platforms that do not provide this service. Cluster 2 is also more characterized by the possibility to read and write comments (var20): 56% of platforms clearly have this feature and two-thirds of them are included in Cluster 2, while most of the platforms –two-thirds– that do not have this characteristic are grouped in Cluster 1. As a consequence, about two-thirds of the platforms (65%) that have a personal blog (var21) on social networks, are included in Cluster 2, while the opposite result is observable for platforms that do not have a specific social group, so they are included mostly in Cluster 1. Results of the cluster analyses

Cluster 1 (33 platforms)

Cluster 2 (33 platforms)

Multimedia store

e-traditional bookshop

+–

not only publishers (but also retailers, + libraries, distributors, diffusers, bookshops etc.), var1

more publishers than other institutional categories (var1)

++

other sectors besides books (var3)

––

other sectors besides books (var3)

++

general themes (var5)

++

specific themes (comics, literature), var5

++

other cultural products (var7)

––

other cultural products (var7)

++

e-book readers (var8) and –– partnerships with e-reader as well as producers (var9) with publishers/book actors (var10)

e-book readers (var8) and partnerships with e-reader producers (var9) as well as with publishers/book actors (var10)

––

free e-books offered (var11) and Apps (var14)

free e-books offered (var11) and Apps (var14)

––

subscription formula (var12) ++ and user’s space/library on the platform (var13)

subscription formula (var12) and user’s space/library on the platform (var13)

+++

FAQ (var16), newsletter (var17), ––– e-book statistics (var18)

FAQ (var16), newsletter (var17), e-book statistics (var18)

++

– – – read & write comments (var20) +++ and blog (var21)

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To sum up, the cluster analysis identified two groups. These two clusters have specific features despite some shared characteristics. According to the above description, we suggest to refer to them as ‘Multimedia store’ (Cluster 1) and ‘e-traditional bookshop’ (Cluster 2). Table 5 provides a summary of the main features of the 2 Clusters.

read & write comments (var20) and blog (var21)

=

Only French language (var2) Located in the EU (var4) Prevalence of e-books selling (than also printed books), (var6) Low presence of press spaces (var15) Many links with social networks (var19) Low presence of publicity sponsors (var22)

Table 2 Main features of Cluster 1 and Cluster 2

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Discussion and conclusions

This empirical investigation is not without limitations: the limited number of platforms, the specific situation of the French context, the codification process. Nonetheless, despite these potential restrictions, the originality of this empirical investigation is given by the provision of ‘original’ data and unforeseen generic strategies. Given the lack of reliable official analyses in this emerging field, this research provides primary data and highlights interesting findings. It is useful for better understanding the actual business models of e-book platforms as well as for stimulating further investigation. As highlighted by Gawer (2009; 2009a), the emergence of platforms outlines new offerings and new forms of competitive dynamics. Our analysis enables to identify several key variables for characterizing the new value proposals and business models of book publishing industries. It reveals that on the one hand, economic actors get the opportunity of the Internet and ICT to enlarge the traditional boundaries of the publishing sector, establishing new relations with customers and trying to diversify their offering for creating value out of their platform. On the other hand, the actors make their best to adapt the traditional bookstore economic model to the Internet, keeping their core value, meaning the section of content. It is significant to underline that these conclusions confirm, in some extent, the results achieved in the press industry (Benghozi, Lyubareva, 2013), exhibiting, putting aside pure players, ‘a minima digital strategy’ vs. ‘exploring leaders’. The French e-book platforms seem significantly influenced by a few large actors that play a historical leading position: they are grouped for the most part in Cluster 1. Nevertheless, platform libraries included in Cluster 2 are also demonstrating interesting innovative perspectives, extending on-line the traditional strong relationship of a customer with the bookseller. These platforms are characterized by active interaction and involvement of users: they can read & write comments and participate to the platform blog. The strategy of active participation to platform’s content building by the users seems to be followed more by platforms in Cluster 2 (innovative newcomers) than in Cluster 1. This last one includes, among smaller actors, many leaders that do not need to follow this strategy for achieving more visibility. As a consequence, these results may sound paradoxical from an innovation and entrepreneurial perspective viewpoint. Actually, Cluster 1 turns to be more closed and traditionally oriented as well as more anchored to the secular and official role played by the book publishing industry. On the contrary, while remaining much closed to the traditional bookstore model, Cluster 2 seems more open oriented with more originality given by the recent emergence of platforms of auto-edition or inspired by the new potentialities given by the use of tools like social networks. Future research along this line, with an enlarged platforms sample and with a focus on a comparison with other countries, could highlight further features for deeply characterizing the context of e-book platforms and their business models. Acknowledgements

This research has been made thanks to the financial support of the French Ministry of Culture and Communications (Département des Etudes, de la Prospective et de la Statistique) and the Centre National du Livre (CNL), Paris.

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Strategies and business models of online platforms in CCIs: convergence or differentiation in the e-book sector?

Benghozi Pierre-Jean is Research Director at the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and professor at Ecole polytechnique (Paris, France). He developed, since the early eighties, a pioneering research group on Information Technology, Telecommunications, Media and Culture. Co-Chairman of AIMAC, the largest international Conference for Art and Culture Management, Pierre-Jean Benghozi is also board member of scientific committees in highest French institutions and numerous international scientific conferences and academic journals. His competencies made him nominated commissioner and member of the executive board of the French national regulatory authority for electronic communications (ARCEP). — pierre-jean.benghozi @polytechnique.edu

Salvador Elisa holds an international PhD in Institutions, Economics & Law from the University of Turin (Italy). She worked for the Italian National Research Council (CNR) on several projects focused on innovation policies. She won the CNR award ‘Promotion of Research 2005’, with the project ‘The financing of research spin-offs: an analysis of the Italian case’.

References Abecassis-Moedas, C. and Benghozi, P.-J., (2012). Efficiency and Innovativeness as Determinants of Design Architecture Choices, Journal of Product Innovation Management 29 (3). 405–418. Baldwin C. Y., Woodard C. J. (2009).The architecture of platforms: a unified view, in Gawer, A. (2009). Ed., Platforms, Markets and Innovation, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, pp. 19-44. Benghozi P.-J., Lyubareva I. (2013). « La presse française en ligne en 2012 : modèles d’affaires et pratiques de financement », Ministere de la Culture et de la Communication, Culture Etudes, n. 3, juin, Paris. Benghozi P.-J., Salvador E. (2013). Investment strategies in the value chain of the book publishing sector: how and where the R&D someway matter in creative industries?, article presented at the XII International Conference on Arts&Cultural Management (AIMAC). 26-29 June 2013, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá (Colombia).and at the XI International Conference TripleHelix, 8-10 July, Birkbeck and UCL, London. Benghozi, P.J., Paris T. (2007).The economics and business models of prescription in the Internetin: Brousseau E. and N. Curien N. [eds.] Internet and Digital Economics – Principles, Methods and Applications, Cambridge (Mass). Cambridge University Press, pp. 291−310. Calinski T., Harabasz J. (1974). A dendrite method for cluster analysis, Communications in Statistics- Simulation and Computation, vol.3, n. 1, pp. 1–27. Cusumano, M. A. (2011). Technology Strategy and Management: the Platform Leader’s Dilemma, Communications of the ACM, vol. 54, n. 10, pp. 21- 24. Everitt B., Landau S., Leese M. (2001). Cluster Analysis, Edward Arnold, London. Gawer A, Cusumano M. A. (2013). Industry Platforms and Ecosystem Innovation, Journal of Product Innovation Management, vol. 3, 0737-6782, forthcoming. Gawer A., Phillips N., (2013). Institutional Work as Logics Shift: The case of Intel’s Transformation to Platform Leader, Organization Studies, vol. 34, ISSN:0170-8406, pp. 1035-1071.

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About the authors

Gawer, A. (2009). Ed., Platforms, Markets and Innovation, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar. Gawer, A. (2009a).Platforms dynamics and strategies: from products to services, in Gawer, A. (2009). Ed., Platforms, Markets and Innovation, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, pp. 45-76. Gawer, A. (2011). What managers need to know about platforms, The European Business Review, ISSN:1754-5501, pp. 40-43. Gawer, A., Cusumano, M. A. (2002). Platform Leadership: How Intel, Microsoft and Cisco Drive Industry Innovation, Boston, Massachusetts, Harvard Business School Press. Gawer, A., Cusumano, M. A. (2008). How companies become platform leaders, MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 49, n. 2, pp. 28-35.

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Greco A. (2011). The book publishing industry, Taylor&Francis. Green Paper (2010). Unlocking the potential of cultural and creative industries, European Commission, COM (2010).183. Lebert, M. (2009).A short history of ebooks, NEF, University of Toronto. Milligan G. W., Cooper M. C. (1985).An examination of procedures for determining the number of clusters in a data set, Psychometrika, vol. 50, n. 2, pp. 159–179. OECD (2012). E-books: Developments and Policy Considerations, OECD Digital Economy Papers No. 208. Patino, B. (2008).‘Rapport sur le livre numérique, Ministère de la culture et de la communication.

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Rochet J.-C., Tirole J. (2003).Platform Competition in Two-Sided Markets, MIT Press, vol. 1(4). pp. 990-1029.

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Unesco-UNDP (2013). Creative Economy Report 2013. Special Edition, Widening local development pathways, United Nations/UNDP/UNESCO.

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She recently collaborated with the Polytechnic of Turin, with the Chaire Entrepreneuriat as well as with the Centre d’Etudes et de Recherche Amérique Latine-Europe of the Business School ESCP-Europe. She is now a researcher at Ecole Polytechnique, Paris. — elisa.salvador @polytechnique.edu

Philipp Dietachmair

Community-based cultural entrepreneurship as a driver of social innovation in Central and Eastern European cities

Introduction

Patterns, socio-economic effects and organisational models of community-based forms of such predominately non-profit cultural entrepreneurship have hardly been studied. The article presents two cases which illustrate how a highly transformational situation has motivated a new generation of cultural entrepreneurs in cities of Central and Eastern Europe to develop their community- and social change oriented agendas. For understanding their strategic intentions a re-interpretation of social entrepreneurship literature in arts management theory turned out to be useful. The article starts with an introduction to the overall Central and Eastern European context in which these new cultural initiatives have emerged. It then discusses start-up motives identified in a case from Slovakia in relation to some social entrepreneurship theories. The second case from Croatia serves as an argument for applying more holistic and trans-sectorial urban development models which acknowledge all social, economic and even ecological aspects of cultural entrepreneurship in city governance and planning processes. However, holistic and culture-based urban development would require many more studies on new entrepreneurial models and public roles of cultural non-profits as the article suggests at the end.

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Abstract

For the past twenty years a significant number of new grassroots initiatives have been established in the cultural sectors of the new EU members states in Central and Eastern Europe. There are still many regions especially in rural areas which have not become part of this development. However, the capital cities but also a growing number of regional towns have meanwhile seen the emergence of an independent scene of cultural groups and alternative non-profit initiatives in the arts (Dragicevic-Sesic & Dragojevic, 2005; Ohana, 2007). As cultural civil society such independent groups play a critical role in the socio-economic transformation processes of cities across Central and Eastern Europe (Isar, 2010). They introduce new artistic concepts and cultural services beyond the public or commercial arts fields and become new creative knowledge centres in formerly strictly state-driven urban contexts. The examples introduced here show how the organisational start-up phase of such initiatives is driven by and focused on deep engagement for the local community.

A new generation of independent cultural organisations in Central and Eastern Europe

In the formerly socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe and the countries of Ex-Yugoslavia the 1990s went along with a collapse of many public funded cultural institutions. Previously, all official cultural infrastructures were heavily state-funded as their political task was to secure an ideologically-driven cultural education of the socialist citizen. After 1989, many of these cultural institutions quickly lost their public role and also their audience and rapidly started to lack budgets, skilled personnel Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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and strategies for successfully tackling newly arising cultural questions, changing audience requirements and structural modernisation needs (Dragicevic-Sesic & Dragojevic, 2005). Meanwhile, a new generation of independent cultural groups and initiators slowly entered public cultural life – especially in urban contexts and on local level. Compared to the public institutions which carried the established top-down and state-engineered cultural policy models, their new type of independent cultural work followed a much more entrepreneurial start-up spirit. Initially, many of these alternative groups only operated as informal structures. Gradually however, they started to consolidate their project-driven and usually non-commercial initiatives, mostly by seeking legal registration as nongovernmental organisations. This legal form also offered them access to financing by international donors. State-funding for culture however continued to be spent on the traditional canon of official arts and the increasingly idle public institutions whose conceptual approaches often remained in the past. This new, younger and more dynamic generation of independent cultural actors initially had or still has insufficient access to public budget support (Ohana, 2007). They stay continuously short of financial or structural means but an even greater challenge is the absence of a broader acknowledgement of their public role in the cultural field and their societies at large. Financial support and capacity building programmes of a number of international agencies and foundations only to some extent facilitated the consolidation of a viable cultural NGO scene in the Central and Eastern European countries (Milohnic, 2005). As a result of strengthening independent and more innovative structures over the course of many years local cultural initiatives often were confronted with massive shortcomings of policy reforms in wider socio-political and economically still very volatile contexts (Dragicevic-Sesic & Dragojevic, 2005). These often went along with structural obstacles in the organisational start-up phase. Discontent with outdated policy models and governing attitudes therefore became a first motivational source of advocating for change beyond demanding reform for the cultural sector only. Entrepreneurial start-up and growth patterns in urban socio-cultural contexts

By the end of the 1990s newly founded cultural initiatives in Central and Eastern Europe often started as nothing more than an informal group of engaged individuals. In the beginning these groups were usually involved in small and very local cultural projects or realised independent productions in a particular art field, typically as unpaid volunteers (Ohana, 2007). The next development phase which can be observed is a diversification of activities, themes and outreach. A portfolio of innovative artistic productions and independent cultural services, which these initiatives provide for a relatively small constituency of followers, then can grow towards a much broader socio-political and more common cause-driven organisational agenda. Newly established cultural initiatives - such as an independent theatre group, a digital culture club or a contemporary art project space - eventually turn into advocates for the interests of an independent arts and cultural scene that is very often only marginally acknowledged by the socio-political establishment. Some of the most successful independent cultural organisations in Central and Eastern European cities have even managed to scale their activities and collaboration networks further up, towards larger social impact agendas which aim to serve the benefit of their entire communities and cities (Domes, Medak & Celakoski, 2014). 106

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Social entrepreneurship definitions vs. cultural entrepreneurship in Central & Eastern Europe

Martin and Osberg have proposed three components for defining social entrepreneurship and refer to a set of motivational factors which is possibly valid also for paraphrasing ‘non-commercial’ or ‘civic’ cultural entrepreneurship in Central and Eastern Europe: 1. identifying a stable but inherently unjust equilibrium that causes the exclusion, marginalization, or suffering of a segment of humanity that lacks the financial means or political clout to achieve any transformative benefit on its own; 2. identifying an opportunity in this unjust equilibrium, developing a social value proposition, and bringing to bear inspiration, creativity, direct action, courage, and fortitude, thereby challenging the stable state’s hegemony; 3. forging a new, stable equilibrium that releases trapped potential or alleviates the suffering of the targeted group, and through imitation and the creation of a stable ecosystem around the new equilibrium ensuring a better future for the targeted group and even society at large (Stanford Social Innovation Review, spring 2007, p.35).

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Gregory Dees has defined social entrepreneurs as ‘change agents in the social sector’: Social entrepreneurs are reformers and revolutionaries, as described by Schumpeter, but with a social mission. They make fundamental changes in the way things are done in the social sector. … They seek to create systemic changes and sustainable improvements. Though they may act locally, their actions have the potential to stimulate global improvements in their chosen arenas (Duke University Centre for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship, May 30, 2001, p.4). There are apparent analogies between the meaning of social entrepreneurship and founders of independent cultural initiatives who set up new organisations and grow them until they start to reach larger transformational impact in their communities. This is why in correlation to the term ‘social changemakers’ used by the Ashoka network the expression ‘cultural changemakers’ came in use (Ohana, 2007). But what are the initial strategic intentions of these ultimately still culturally motivated start-up entrepreneurs?

For examining the assumed validity of social entrepreneurship research for describing patterns of non-profit cultural entrepreneurship of newly founded NGOs in Central and Eastern Europe, the author has carried out some investigation interviews with founders of independent cultural initiatives in Žilina (Slovakia), and Zagreb (Croatia). Field research

Marek Adamov and Robo Blaško are founders of a grassroots initiative called Truc Spherique. Since 2003, the association converted a still operating, but neglected train station in the city of Žilina in North-Western Slovakia into a theatre venue, gallery and multi-functional community arts centre. Since 2012, they also have been converting a local synagogue into Slovakia’s first non-institutional Kunsthalle for contemporary arts and community culture. Both projects can be described as grassroots cultural infrastructure construction projects which largely build on voluntary work, in-kind donations (e.g. in construction materials or working time). and local sponsorship.

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Žilina is a regional centre of around 80,000 inhabitants that has gone through substantial socio-economic transformation since Slovakia joined the EU. The start-up years of Stanica, as pioneering theatre venue and main independent cultural operator in town, were heavily influenced by urban development issues which went along with highly intrusive shopping mall projects in the inner city in combination with outright nationalistic city government policies. The train station meanwhile is firmly established as key meeting point of many different local community groups. Its cultural activities, creative local development initiatives and policy proposals are acknowledged by local, regional and national authorities and serve as an example of socially innovative cultural work across Slovakia. Although their mission statement claims that Stanica shall be more than ‘just the next cultural centre in town’ its founders actually deny to be guided by higher altruistic or societal motives: ‘We should say that our first target group was and to some extent still is actually ourselves. This centre is very different from a public cultural institution, charity or social organisation. We don’t really believe in organisations which claim to dedicate themselves entirely to a group in need or a larger purpose in an totally selfless way. We wanted to change something in our city, in our own lives, so we started to do it and still give all our energy for this purpose. We established this space first for ourselves, for our families, our friends and neighbours and only then in fact also for everyone in the city’1 The Zilina example allows only preliminary insights, that need to be confirmed with a larger number of analytical samples. Nevertheless, this case suggests that the ‘strategic motives’ (Hagoort, 2000) of founders of new cultural NGOs in different EU neighbourhood countries, are at the beginning largely driven by an often very subjectively experienced need for creating an alternative cultural offer. A strong personal aspiration for changing the local cultural landscape, which is often experienced as truly uninspiring, seems to be a decisive element in taking the initiative for founding a new cultural organisation. Personal dissatisfaction - with the often outdated cultural productions of the public-funded institutions, the general absence of cultural infrastructure in local communities, a lack of adequate places for engaging in contemporary artistic innovations, and a commercialised mainstream culture - then function as a strong trigger to create new structures, which propose alternatives outside the established cultural frameworks. A very individually, emotionally experienced necessity for change in a highly dynamic political and socio-economic transformation context, hence, becomes a key motive for starting up a whole new organisation. A wide field of key literature from commercial and social entrepreneurship research describes personal drive and ambitions for changing existing practices, rather than only improving already existing structures as crucial motivational factors for entrepreneurs (Drucker, 1999; Dees, 1998, 2001; Light, 2008;). But what causes initially only personally motivated cultural innovators, and their fragile and often exposed independent initiatives in the EU neighbourhood, to scale-up their activities towards tackling much larger political questions and socio-economic change agendas? The next case from Zagreb can help to find some first answers. Semi-structured interview with Marek Adamov & Robo Blasko (founders of cultural centre Stanica, Zilina, Slovakia) carried out April 11 & 12, 2013

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From cultural innovation to larger social movements

In parallel to this collaboration process, public discussions about usage and accessibility of public space for independent culture had prompted a growing protest campaign against a larger shopping mall development project in the main pedestrian zone of Zagreb. The very same independent cultural groups joined forces with a broader protest group of civil society organisations, activists and advocacy networks from other social fields, such as environmental protection, human rights and education. They formed an initiative called Pravo na Grad (Right to the City) Zagreb. This consortium was the driving force behind several years of citizen protests against the so-called Flower Square development projects. Despite dozens of creative protest actions which involved thousands of citizens the shopping mall project was finally realised, even though in a reduced layout. Nevertheless, the Pravo na Grad initiative was described ‘as first and hence most precedent-setting examples of collaboration between culture and society and the struggle for the urban ‘commons’ (Harvey, 2012) in the context of transformational processes in South East Europe’ (Domes, Medak & Celakoski, 2014, p. 170). A group of initially only few cultural NGOs ultimately tried to launch a much larger local movement for tackling questions of citizen participation in urban development projects in Croatia. A locally limited question of how to position independent cultural groups in the capital city, thereby became part of a much wider discussion process on local economic development, privatisation and commercialisation of public goods and democratisation.

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The Zagreb-based initiative Pravo na Grad (Right to the City) represents a multistakeholder civil society campaign, which has been active in the Croatian capital since 2006. It illustrates a cultural community process in urban context where the fight for an appropriate meeting and production space for independent culture eventually turned into a much larger civil society initiative against excessive private property development projects in the city centre of Zagreb. The struggle for appropriate facilities for Zagreb’s independent cultural scene concluded with an agreement between NGOs and the city authorities and in 2008 resulted in a ‘civic-public’ co-development project (Domes, Medak & Celakoski, 2014), which turned the abandoned Badel liquor factory into the Pogon Centre for Independent Culture & Youth.

Breaking prevailing patterns and initiating change processes is strategically often inevitable for the survival of new cultural initiatives, which operate inside turbulent political transformation and rampant economic development processes in Central and Eastern Europe. However, the socio-economic turbulences caused by the financial crisis meanwhile have initiated a transformation of the cultural sector all over Europe. Striving for ‘pattern-breaking change’ of an existing social equilibrium that is experienced as stable but inherently dissatisfactory (Martin & Osberg, 2007) has been described as part of the logic chain of social entrepreneurship (Light, 2008). Cultural entrepreneurs - who extend their initiatives towards applying cultural strategies in the wider civic and social realm of local community questions like in Zagreb - seem to follow a similar logic of process.

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Culture as 4th Pillar of Sustainable Development

The example of the Pravo na Grad initiative however also supports the conceptual framework of culture as fourth pillar of sustainable development which was developed by Jon Hawks (2001; Duxburry, 2012). Hawks claims that next to social equity, environmental responsibility and economic viability the aspect of cultural vitality is the essential fourth pillar in public planning processes. A growing network of cities worldwide have signed up to the so-called Local Agenda for Culture, which has developed a set of shared standards and policy measures along this concept. Hawks uses a notion which understands culture rather as a system in which a society’s values are built and expressed, rather than a field of artistic production and consumption. ‘The way a society governs itself, he states, cannot be fully democratic without there being clear avenues for the expression of community values, and unless these expressions directly affect the directions society takes. These processes are culture at work.’ (Hawks, 2001, p. 7). The concept of Culture as Fourth Pillar of Sustainability therefore provides arguments for a public planning methodology which includes cultural impact in an integrated framework together with all other economic, social and environmental aspects of urban development. All locally operating cultural players thus can and should become subject and actors of larger sustainable development agendas which reach far beyond arts and culture as such. Social breakthrough networks – Hybrid organisational patterns – New research fields

Looking back the Pravo na Grad initiators conclude that ‘it is impossible for a civil initiative to position itself on the public agenda while operating within the narrow institutional field of arts and culture’. Cultural actors, they claim, ‘need to innovate their own institutional field, broaden the social base of their operations, build alliances with various actors (and not only those with similar or complementary values) and make tactical use of public protest.’ (Domes, Medak & Celakoski, 2014, p. 170). For the Zagreb initiatives ‘tactical’ use of public protest meant to propose and achieve tangible improvements for acknowledging and positioning independent culture and civil society organisations in local governance structures (e.g. by partnering with local authorities for the Badel factory project). Social entrepreneurship scholar Paul C. Light conceptually endorses such processes, when he states the necessity to evolve from ‘agitating the prevailing wisdom’ towards real ‘social advocacy’ (Light, 2011). In order to achieve real social breakthrough, Light claims, an entire system of actors has to engage in multilateral ‘social breakthrough networks’. As more cultural organisations across Europe start to assume new public roles, as social innovators and change agents in the framework of larger social breakthrough networks, this also effects their organisational setup and strategic working models. The founders of Stanica Zilina explain that the many volunteers and in-kind contributors they bring together, are attracted by their informally shared organisational, social and aesthetic ‘value system’2. Right to the City Zagreb has resulted in a multitude of organisational alliances and cross-organisational strategy teams, whose structures Semi-structured interview with Marek Adamov & Robo Blasko (founders of cultural centre Stanica, Zilina, Slovakia) carried out April 11 & 12, 2013

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largely deviate from conventional organisational models. Years of working under precarious financial conditions and finding pragmatic management solutions in a volatile environment have resulted in a complex hybridity of organisational configurations and strategy formation concepts. Still, creative entrepreneurship seems to be generally valid for describing cultural start-up initiatives in Central and Eastern Europe. Entrepreneurial qualities of newly founded cultural organisations

A vast body of practice-based experiences and applied knowledge can be found directly in the urban environments which ‘breed’ community-based cultural entrepreneurship. Local urban communities in Central and Eastern Europe are informal knowledge centres for culture-driven social innovation. However, research still needs to develop a much broader and deeper understanding of the independent cultural catalysts who drive this process: - How are their organisational structures working and what are sustainable financing models for non-profit cultural entrepreneurs? - How significant is their public role in interaction with other cultural players, government and creative businesses?

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Konrad (2010) has shown the link between entrepreneurial qualities and behaviour of newly founded cultural organisations and their increased chances for survival. Hagoort (2001, 2007) sees cultural entrepreneurship as the leading organisational philosophy for the 21st century, as it emphasises innovation and social responsibility. A number of other academics have described practice-based strategies for arts management in the turbulent circumstances of Central and Eastern Europe. New planning models were developed, which aim to assist new cultural organisations especially in navigating the rapid changes of these particular environments (Dragicevic-Sesic & Dragojevic, 2005; Varbanova, 2010).

- Which cultural policy frameworks need to be in place to fully tap into the potential of independent cultural organisations? These could all be questions of new studies which should combine a multitude of social and economic views on the subject. Future research projects should also link cities which act as innovation centres in this field, especially as comparing practical approaches in Eastern and Western Europe might deliver interesting new insights.

About the author Philipp Dietachmair (Austria) works as Programme Manager for the European Cultural Foundation (ECF) in Amsterdam where he leads the EU Neighbourhood Programme.

References Aldo Milohnic, Evaluation (2005). Kultura Nova Programme. European Cultural Foundation, Open Society Institutes, unpublished, Amsterdam. Dees, Gregory J. (2001). The Meaning of Social Entrepreneurship, Duke University Centre for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship. Dragicevic Sesic, Milena & Sanjin Dragojevic (2005). Arts Management in Turbulent Times. Boekmanstudies, Amsterdam.

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Drucker, Peter F. (1999). Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Harper Collins Publishers, New York. Duxbury, Nancy (2012). Cities, Culture and Sustainable Development, Coimbra. Hagoort, Giep (2000). Arts Management Entrepreneurial Style. Eburon, Delft. Harvey, David (2012). From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution. Verso, London. Hawkes, Jon (2001). The Fourth Pillar of Sustainability: Culture’s essential role in public planning. Cultural Development Network (Vic), Common Ground Publishing Pty Ltd, Altona, Victoria. Konrad, Elmar D. (2010). Kulturmanagement und Unternehmertum. W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, 2010. Lidia Varbanova (2013). Strategic Planning for Learning Organisations in the Cultural Sector. Routledge, London.

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Light, Paul C. (2011). Driving Social Change. John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey.

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Light, Paul C. (2008). The Search for Social Entrepreneurship. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Martin, Roger L. & Sally Osberg (2007). Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition. Stanford Social Innovation Review, Stanford. Medak Tomislav, Tomislav Domes, Teodor Celakoski (2014).‘Right to the City’ – ‘Pravo na Grad’ in Zagreb. Bilgi University Press, Istanbul. Raj Isar, Yudhishthir (2010). Civil Society and Cultural Organizations, in: Encyclopedia International of Civil Society, H.K. Anheier, S. Toepler & R. List (eds.). New York: Springer. Yael Ohana (ed.)(2007). Supporting Cultural Actors of Change in Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine - Synthesis Report. German Marshall Fund of the United States, European Cultural Foundation, Bratislava.

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For more than ten years he has been designing and implementing cultural policy- and capacity development projects for the cultural sector in Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Turkey, North Africa, Russia and the Western Balkans. His academic interests focus on the practice-based analysis of independent cultural organisations as actors of socio-economic transformation. — PDietachmair @culturalfoundation.eu

II. URBAN ENVIRONMENT Rene Kooyman

Creative Urban Renewal Evaluating Cultural and Creative Entrepreneurial Development Abstract

Almost all larger cities have to cope with the never-ending cycle of attracting new entrepreneurial activities, economic growth and decay. When trying to renovate rundown quarters, city planners look at the creative industries. In order to evaluate urban area developments, the Creative Zone Innovator (CZI) Model has been developed. The CZI identifies four dimensions within the Creative Zone; the development of the Learning lab, a Cultural Value Chain, the Flow of Diversity, and Cultural Business Modelling (CBM). Within the Creative Industries we can identify two different positions. Often we look at the Art Managers, holding managerial responsibilities within cultural and art organisations. In this article we point at the Cultural and Creative Entrepreneur. The largest part of the Cultural and Creative Industries consists of very small, independent entrepreneurial initiatives. This Cultural Ant works within a continuous, fast changing environment, characterized by uncertainty. We challenge the social dynamics of the Creative Urban Renewal (CURE). Introduction

The changing dynamics of our industrial societies have an impact on our built environments. Urban areas that once served as industrial quarters, are abundant and become derelict areas, once the original entrepreneurs have left and moved to more attractive quarters. Entrepreneurial behaviour is driving these local developments. Almost all larger cities have to cope with the never-ending cycle of attracting new entrepreneurial activities, economic growth and decay (Jarvis, 2009). When trying to renovate run-down quarters, city planners look at the creative industries. It is seen as a win-win situation. Creative entrepreneurs, often in their start-up phase, are looking for low-cost working spaces, and the city planners want to attract new initiatives, visitors and users, in order to create a viable, urban creative zone. The creative economy, urban area development, and the entrepreneurial dimension

When examining the Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs) one is confronted with a complex, multi-layered discussion. One is not only discussing the built environment; the ‘bricks and mortar’. The city-developer has in addition to deal with the social dimension. And one is confronted with cultural policies; does it stimulate art production and art-participation, and if so should it be supported by governmental financial funding?

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Urban Environment

The concept of the ‘creative economy’ is an evolving one, that is gaining ground in contemporary thinking about economic development (Dos Santos-Duisenberg, 2010). It entails a shift from the conventional models towards a multidisciplinary model dealing with the interface between economics, culture and technology and centred on the predominance of services and creative content. Given its multidisciplinary structure, the creative economy offers a feasible option as part of a results-oriented urban development strategy for different policy actors. Urban Planning starts with the assumption that social, economic and environmental developments can be identified by analysing the territorial consequences (World Planners Congress, June 2006). For several decades there has been a discussion amongst urban planners regarding the paradox of (a) developing urban areas on the basis of rational processes, and (b) the place and position of the creative sector. Part of these discussions is based on the question whether developments can be invoked by rational planning mechanisms (Etzioni, July 2009). More persistent is the debate about the social characteristics of the cities developed. Jane Jacobs was one of the first who pointed to the contribution of creativity regarding the vital characteristics of a neighbourhood (Jacobs, Feb 1993 [1961]). In her view, cities are the unique places where innovations are promoted. In her book The Economy of Cities she describes that cities – by nature – have the capability of supporting creative potential, because they can build upon the various diversified environments (Jacobs, 1970). Attracting the creative class can put a hold on the ongoing decay of underprivileged neighbourhoods. Richard Florida (Florida, 2006) struggles to grasp why creative and talented people settle in a certain city or region. He uses the sociological concept of the ‘cultural class’ introduced by Pierre Bourdieu (Bourdieu, 1984). Bourdieu makes a distinction between ‘financial capital’ and ‘cultural capital’ and put these two on an equal footing. In Florida’s view, what cities and regions should attract is not the creative companies, but the people that work for these companies or might start such companies themselves; the creative class. Referring to Jane Jacobs (1961; 1970) as one of his main inspiration sources, Florida claims that creative and talented people prefer to live in cities with a diverse population and a tolerant atmosphere. In more recent work Florida (2006) added that ‘talent is not a stock, it is flow’. Talent can move from one place to another. Clustering of Socio-economic development

Since the 1990s, the importance of geographic location and context has enjoyed a revival in economic and economic-geographic theories (Gritsai, 2007). Phelps and Ozawa (Phelps, 2003) have highlighted the main shifts in agglomeration factors from the late industrial to the post-industrial era. They refer amongst others to shifts in geographic scale (from town with suburbs to the global city-region), shifts in the intra-regional structure (from hierarchically organized monocentric structures, to polycentric structures that have a more complementary organization), shifts in economic specialization (from manufacturing to services), and shifts in the mode of production and the division of labour (applying new principles and increasingly complex labour inputs with major impacts for labour composition within firms and for relations between firms, within and between sectors and within and between cities and regions).

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Few of the concepts referred to above have been as influential in the academic and political debate as the cluster concept. The cluster concept as defined by business economist Michael Porter. Porter points at the emergence of clusters as ‘critical masses – in one place – of unusual competitive success in particular fields’ (Porter, 1998, p. 76). More specifically he states: ‘Clusters are geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and institutions in a particular field. Clusters encompass an array of linked industries and other entities important to competition’ (p. 78). The cluster concept has, however, been repeatedly criticized (Turok, 2004).

- Demographics: An increase in median income, a decline in the proportion of racial and cultural minorities, and a reduction in household size, as low-income families are replaced by young singles and couples.

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Sustainable urban development

There is an ongoing debate about how creative industries contribute to sustainable and evenly distributed economic and urban development. (Musterd c.s., 2007) At first sight, the emerging ‘creative class’ seems to be synonymous with a new bourgeois-bohemian component of the population with individual and protective values (Brooks A. C., 2001). This would have repercussions both at the production and consumption levels in cities. Concerns about creative knowledge strategies for social cohesion should be taken seriously. Yet it is important to stress that a creative knowledge economy offers chances to people of all socio-economic and educational strata to profit from their talents. An economy focusing on creativity does not need to be an elitist economy. It can also offer new chances to marginal groups that have been unable to participate in urban and regional economic progress (Musterd c.s., 2007, p. 64) The current trend of policy initiatives to create or enhance creative quarters reminds one strongly of the heated debate on gentrification in social science and society. Gentrification is a general term for the arrival of wealthier people in an existing urban district, a related increase in rents and property values, and changes in the district’s character and culture. The effects of gentrification are complex and contradictory, and its real impact varies (Pekarchik, June 11, 2001):

- Real Estate Markets: An increase in rents and home prices, increases in the number of evictions, conversion of rental units to ownership (condos) and new development of luxury housing. - Land Use: A decline in industrial uses, an increase in office or multimedia uses, the development of live-work “lofts” and high-end housing, retail, and restaurants. - Culture and Character: New ideas about what is desirable and attractive, including standards (either informal or legal) for architecture, landscaping, public behaviour, noise, and nuisance. Butler (2003) found that gentrifiers largely live in their own world (or ‘bubble’ as he phrases it) and almost exclusively mingle with ‘people like them’ in all aspects of social life. These findings comply with the cultural distinction created by those who create the class of ‘cultural capital’. (Bourdieu, 1984)

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The Creative Urban Renewal (CURE) model

Recently six mid-sized cities in the North West of Europe have combined their effort to renovate local underprivileged areas.1 The CURE Project aims to develop innovative solutions to the question how the creative economy can play an active role in urban renewal processes in medium-sized cities in NW Europe (Koppejan, 2011). Creative Urban Renewal (CURE) is meant to facilitate triggered allocation of the creative economy in decayed urban areas. Once it is decided to use cultural and creative entrepreneurs in order to develop urban neighbourhoods, the basic problem is how to evaluate the developments that take place. When is the process a success, or how to look at failures? What model can we use, in order to evaluate creative urban development?

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Urban interaction can be divided into four dimensions that can be translated into ‘Sub-values’ and ‘Indicators’ to initiate strategic measuring and monitoring activities. The four dimensions constitute the Creative Zone Innovator (CZI) conceptual model. They represent the dynamics of the functioning of C SMEs in a particular context (Kooyman R. , dec. 2010). 1. Learning lab: The Creative Zone Innovator (CZI) aims to create a learning environment, which enables entrepreneurs to continually expand their capacity, to create the results they want and remain innovative and creative. The knowledge dynamics of a creative quarter is the combination of individual and networked learning; to facilitate people to develop their skills and capacities to be able to respond flexible and imaginatively to the opportunities and difficulties faced as a creative entrepreneur. 2. Cultural Value Chain: The CZI aims to stimulate and strengthen the networked alliances of the creative entrepreneurs with gatekeepers, (co-)producers, distributers and customers in the creative quarter. An enhancement of the infrastructure by filling the gaps in the supply chain improves sustainable development of the entrepreneurs and the value of creative products and services. 3. Flow of Diversity: The CZI aims to create a natural flow with an emphasis on diversity offering continuous new impulses and avoiding the creation of a non commercial bubble. By combining commercial with subsidized entrepreneurs, start-ups with established firms, or combining different functions and stimulating embedded networking diversity generates a natural stream of new and spontaneous encounters. 4. Cultural Business Modelling (CBM): The CZI aims to describe the specifics of the creative workforce and the dynamics of urban planning, including specific alternative networking and financing structures in order to accelerate the successful development of entrepreneurial companies. The creative zones are strongly focused on the entrepreneurial spirit of the creative professionals (C SMEs). City of Hagen, Dinslaken, Kettwig (DE), Brugge (BE), Colchester, Edinburgh (UK), Lille (FR)

1

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Figure 1 Creative urban renewal (Cure)

urBan envIronment

Creative urban renewal Evaluating Cultural and Creative Entrepreneurial Development

the method used

In order to be successful urban re-development needs to handle the complex interaction of social, geographical, economic, and physical development. It has to deal with the built environment, financial investments, social behaviour, commercial marketing, identitybuilding, etc. Within CURE urban re-generation is done by means of including and the Cultural Creative Industries. The Concept of the Creative Zone Innovator (CZI) has been used to describe, analyse and evaluate the developments in the different projects. All cities have been reflecting upon the original state of affairs at the start of the Project. They have been looking at the four dimensions, initiated within the CZI Model. A number of systematic steps have been taken. a. Defining the core values. Within each of the four dimensions the basic values at stake have been defined. For each dimension CURE identified the core values at stake: Creating a permanent learning environment, Developing networks with gatekeepers, Promoting connectivity and interaction, Cultural business modelling. Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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b. Identify and select sub-values. In order to compare and measure developments basic indicators are needed. At a more specified level each dimension has been broken down into the specific indicators at stake. In order to get a more practical idea of what is at stake, the four dimensions, with their essential core values, have been split up in a number of sub values. c. Specify and select common indicators. Each Dimension has been broken down in a large number of indicators. Out of the total of 72 indicators, the CURE cities have chosen 13 that are applicable in all cities.

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Evaluation and adaptation of the ZCI Model

All projects initiated under the CURE umbrella Project are part of an un-going stream of activities. They stem from earlier experiences in the past, and are executed within an ever-changing context. It is therefore not easy to isolate the effect of the CURE activities from the other activities initiated. It seems obvious that the cities collected within the project offer very different characteristics. Hence, the different dimensions get diverse attention and priority at the different locations. If needed, the individual city could add additional indicators. Two cities, both Bruges and Kettwig have added an extra Indicator; pointing at the necessity to create a dedicated communication strategy of building a creative zone. Bruges is struggling with a drain of young creative people. Through this project, the city aims to generate a new creative buzz and to profile Bruges as a centre of modern handcraft design, re-attracting creative minds to the city. In Kettwig, the Grundstücksgesellschaft Kettwig a Real Estate Investment Company) has considered following a communication strategy that is not the typical way for a real estate company, but much more geared towards the creative community. Looking at the interaction between the three subjects of this publication – the entrepreneurial activities, the urban area development and the educational institutions, three discussions have been developed. a.

Formal/informal education One of the problems identified is the question how to combine both formal and informal educational initiatives. The need to promote qualitative improvements in the field of entrepreneurship is felt in all projects. Yet, often educational experiences are built upon informal contacts and initiatives.

b. Different needs at different entrepreneurial phases The different cultural entrepreneurs do have different needs, based upon the experience that they have or have not gathered. Within the lifecycle of a creative enterprise one can identify the start-up phase, the next step towards growth and consolidation, and the mature phase of the initiative. In these three phases different educational needs have to be identified. As a consequence a different educational offering is needed in each of these phases. c. Interactive and receptive initiatives Often formal educational initiatives are offered to the creative entrepreneurs. These can react on the initiatives offered, and decide whether they would like to participate or not. 118

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Informal learning is more likely based on existing social networks. Here the learning processes are combined with working activities, and thus form a more interactive learning environment.

Interactive

Experienced

Informal

Formal

Start-up

Figure 2: Learning Lab: three variables

Lessons learned: the developers’ toolkit

Looking back, the overall analyses offer a number of general principles, when developing Urban Creative Zones. a.

Take Time…. Urban Area Development is not done within a short term strategy. It takes several years (if not decades) to develop a viable Creative Zone. Creative urban area development cannot be done on a project basis, but needs at least a strategic planning. Defining and realising an urban identity takes long-term planning.

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Receptive

b. Persist…. Even in times of economic and/or political down-turn one has to persist in order to succeed in the longer term. It is essential that you can convince the different (potential) stakeholders that your ideas are feasible. One has to change the existing, negative perspective into a much more promising one. c.

Spread the word, in a double sense…. Communication is key-factor, both in creating support, and in getting stakeholder involved and committed. You have to communicate your activities to significant interest holders on a permanent basis. And let your partners ‘spread the word’ through the grape-vine (mouth-to-mouth), social media, create buzz…



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d.

Build Alliances….. Along the line you have to create support by mutual value-creation, built upon strategic alliances. You might have to re-visit and re-define your activities in order to create actual joint ventures. Creating alliances is seen as a critical component in the development of a creative zone, that can enable creative entrepreneurs to grow and expand by providing the right environments and business support.

e.

Learn when you move along…. Bruges started out with a shop-window strategy, in a street with abandoned buildings, which made the street unattractive to entrepreneurs and the public. The project originally started as a revitalization project, yet after various meetings and encounters with the city of Bruges they agreed on a new project: using the existing vocational tradition as a breeding-ground for innovating handcrafts techniques. Hagen Elbers Hallen started off with a limited scope. In the recent years it became clear that a certain diversity in businesses, disciplines, events and target groups is inevitable in order to realise a sustainable development, etc..

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Why do we need a conceptual model?

Developing a conceptual model is essential when describing and evaluating urban regeneration processes. Conceptual frameworks help researchers (Trafford V, et al., 2007) by modelling relationships between theories, reducing theoretical data into statements or models. By explicating theories that influence the research, provide a theoretical bases to design, or interpret, research. Thus, conceptual frameworks introduce explicitness with research processes. In testing such a model we offer the opportunity to offer direction to a research design and accompanying fieldwork; looking for coherence between empirical observations and conceptual conclusions. Thus, conceptual frameworks offer a self-audit facility to ensure cohesion and appropriate conceptualisation for creative urban renewal processes. References Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction. A social critique of the judgement of taste. New York/Paris. Brooks A. C., R. J. (2001). Cultural Districts and Urban Development. International Journal of Arts Management(No 2). Christiane Eisenberg, R. G. (2006). From Gentlemanly Publishing to Conglomerates: The Contemporary Literary Field in the UK. In S. Gesa, Cultural Industries: The British Experience in International Perspective. Berlin: Humbold University. CURE. (2009). INTERREG IVB North Wets Europe Application 7th Call. Hagen: HKU School of the Arts. Dos Santos-Duisenberg, E. (2010). Creative Econmy Report 2008. United Nations Committee on Trade, Aid and Development. Geneva, CH: UNCTAD. Drücker, P. (1985). Innovation & Entrepreneurship. New Yorh: Harper and Row.

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About the author Rene Kooyman (NL) graduated with a major in Urban and Regional Planning. He received a Diplôme Educations Approfondies from the University of Geneva, Switzerland. Recently Rene Kooyman has been Managing Editor for the EU EACEA Research Project on the Entrepreneurial dimensions of cultural and creative industries.

Creative Urban Renewal Evaluating Cultural and Creative Entrepreneurial Development

He is Lecturer at the HKU University of the Arts Utrecht, and Project Manager and Executive Secretary at the CURE Monitoring Board. — [email protected]

Etzioni, A. (July 2009). Mixed scanning; a third approach to Decision Making. In A. C. Coates, Strategic decision making paradigms. USAWC. EU, D. R. (2009, 21-10). Evalsed: the resource for the evaluation of socioeconomic development. Retrieved 2011 11-July from Regional Polica - Inforegio: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/evaluation/evalsed/ glossary/index_en.htm Feuerstein, R. &. (2006). La pédagogie à visage humain. Paris: Le Bord de l’Eau. Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books. Florida, R. (2006). The Flight of the Creative Class: The New Global Competition for Talent. New York: Harper Collins. Gardner, W. (2007). ‘Who is an entrepreneur?’ is the wrong question. American Journal of Small Business, 12(4), 11 - 32.

Hagoort, G. (2007). Cultural Entrepreneurship. On the freedom to create art and the freedom of enterprise. Utrecht: Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Hagoort, G., & Kooyman, R. (2011). On the principles of cultural entrepreneurship. Balancing between imagination and financial profit. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Utrecht University/HKU. Jarvis, D., Lambie, H. & Berkeley, N. (2009). Creative industries and urban regeneration. Journal of Urban Regeneration and Renewal, 2 (4). Jacobs, J. (1970). The Economy of Cities. New York: Random House. Jacobs, J. (Feb 1993 [1961]). The death and life of great American cities. New York: Random House. Kirzner, I. M. (1973). Competition and Entrepreneurship. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.

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Gritsai, O. (2007). Target group importance in the Barcelona Case Study. Amsterdam: UVA.

Knight, F. H. (1921). Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit. Library of Economics and Liberty. Retrieved 2011 йил 11-07 from http://www.econlib.org/library/ Knight/knRUP1.html Kooyman, R. (aug 2009). Preliminary Inventory of existing literature. In The entrepreneurial dimension of cultural and creative industries. Utrecht: HKU School of the arts. Kooyman, R. (dec. 2010). Study on the Entrepreneurial dimension of cultural and creative industries. Utrecht/Brussels: HKU University of the Arts/AECEA. Kooyman, R. (July 2011). Creative Zone Innovator: Conceptual Framework, Sub-values and Indicators. Theoretical notions. Utrecht: HKU. Kooyman, R., & Jacobs, R. (2014). The entrepreneruail ant: re-thinking art management education. (p. (in print)). Brussels: ENCATC. Koppejan, G. H. (2011). CURE Project Kick-off Document. Utrecht: HKU School of the Arts.

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Montmarquette, G. L. (1996). A micro-econometric study of theatre demand. 20(1). Musterd c.s., S. (2007). Accommodating Creative Knowledge. Amsterdam: ACRE University of Amsterdam. Pekarchik, K. (June 11, 2001). Alphabet City: The ABCs of Gentrification. Businessweek. Phelps, N. a. (2003). Contrasts in agglomeration: Proto-industrial, industrial and post-industrial forms compared. Progress in Human Geography(5), 583 - 604. Porter, M. (1998). Clusters and the new economics of competition. Harvard Business Review, 76(6), 77 - 91. Reidl, S., & Steyer, F. (2006). Zwischen Unabhanginkeit und Zukunftangst. Quantitatieve Ergebnisse in der Wiener Creatieve Industries. Wien.

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Schumpeter, J. (1975). Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. New York: Harper.

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Sternberg, R. &. (2005, April). Determinants and effects of new business creation using global entrepreneurship monitor data. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 24(3), 193-203. Towse, R. (2004). Towards an economy of creativity. FOCUS, Vienna. Trafford V, & Leshem, S. (2007, February). Overlooking the conceptual framework. 44(1), 93-105. Turok, I. (2004). Cities, regions and competitiveness. Regional Studies, 38(9), 1069 - 1083. World Planners Congress. (June 2006). Reinventing Planning: A new governance paradigm for managing human settlements. Vancouver: American Planning Association.

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Massimiliano Nuccio Sabrina Pedrini

Arts between tradition and marginality: a relational approach Abstract

Investments in culture and, in particular the creation of cultural districts, have generated ambiguous effects in urban areas, especially whereas the focus on the so-called creative classes has been higher than the attention given to other professional and social groups.

The article argues that forms of art, which are usually considered ‘minor’ or ‘marginal’ in the cultural production, are able to activate processes of construction and reconstruction of the so-called ‘social’ value, acting as relational goods and, therefore, source of social innovation. The argument for these effects is discussed on the basis of different case studies placed in three peripheral Italian territories: the island of Sardinia, Naples suburbia, Bolognese Appennines. We stipulate that not-institutionalized performing arts have effectively addressed social issues, by enabling relational power in the local communities. Culture and margins: the relational value

The ‘industrial’ approach to cultural production unfolded the idea that fostering cultural activities in a regional or urban context should directly generate economic capital. According to the taxonomy recently proposed by Sacco (2011), the role of culture in the contemporary knowledge economy has gone through three different steps.

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This article discusses the effects of these policies in peripheral and disadvantaged contexts. Arguing on the localization of cultural activities as a means to generate economic capital, we reason that the link culture-capital is not direct, but indirect. The process of ‘sociability building’ triggered by common cultural experiences enhances cohesion.

The first step - culture 1.0 - corresponds to the growth of the industrial society and artistic patronage. The second step - culture 2.0 - witnesses the mass productions’ rise in the arts, where cultural and economic values co-exist in a parallel evaluation framework (Throsby, 1999). In the latest phase of this step, the term creative industries seemed to set up the case for a profitable cultural economy (Scott, 2000; Florida, 2002; Pratt, 2004; Amin and Thrift, 2007). Culture 3.0 is characterized by two main processes: the switch from passive cultural audience to active cultural practitioners and the pervasive diffusion of culture in many social and economic practices (Sacco et al., 2009; 2013).

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Our contribution is placed in the latter context. Arts are a key source for relational goods, since they build and rebuild relationships: at the cultural level, they produce meanings; at the social level they combine and confront diversity; at the economic level, they point at alternative modes of exchange. It is not a single blockbuster event - however extraordinary and catalyst for tourism – that generates these effects, but the continuous presence of cultural participatory activities. Value creation

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Although this process of value creation is already widely studied and applied in the context of urban regeneration, where it generates also controversial side-effects, the outcome of this process in marginal areas is less investigated. Cultural participation can be seen as a platform for the production of relational goods (Uhlaner, 1989), which cannot be financially sustained by self-interested optimization, but relies upon an articulate set of pro-social attitudes (Benkler, 2006). Differently from the ‘industrial’ approach to arts, where artists are supposed to deliver a work to their audience, relational goods cannot be enjoyed alone, excluding those who participate in their production (Bruni and Stanca, 2008). Their production and consumption are on the same side, becoming ‘prosumption’, and their value depends on the social orientation of the individuals involved (Antoci et al. 2007). Individuals search for relations to various degrees, and they generally meet such a need in a mix of private and public goods connected to recognition, empowerment, friendship and sense of belonging. This provision is particularly inadequate in context pervaded with human isolation, indigence, exclusion, difficulty of movement and generalized criminality. Only in combination with specific development policies, cultural policies can strengthen a paradigm of social transformation (Brown and Zinkin, 2000) and contribute to achieve social change, influencing economic development (Yunus, 1998; Scott and Storper, 2003). Hypothetically, relational goods may be produced everywhere, but - due to the nature of the specific interactions that characterize them - the cultural context is one of the most effective, since people show strong intrinsic motivation to participate in meaning production. These kind of participatory activities shape a cultural attitude, which is not only a prerogative of the creative class, but it is a diffused behaviour relevant in the perspective of economic and social innovation. Good-based relationships have a dual value, social and economic. In essence, Sacco and Zamagni (2006) suggest that goods that are particularly important in encouraging economic activity come from interpersonal relationships and, as a consequence, establish relational goods, which shall foster dissemination of knowledge and protection, as well as social support and coordination, enabling cooperation and reciprocity in society. As far as culture has been able to create such a relation, it became a source of social innovation.

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On the geographies of arts: peripheral and marginal territories

In peripheral and marginal territories, where the need to rebuild relationships is stronger, the cultural activities contribution is vital since they design virtuous pathways for the conception of relational goods. While the production of private goods and of many intangible assets generated in the knowledge economy requires a distribution networks typical of dense urban contexts, relational goods do not need specific spatial concentration to be planned and can be developed also in unconnected territories.

Economic policies aimed at economic growth and development have followed two main patterns (Barca et al., 2012). On the one hand, spatially-blind development strategies rely on the assumed global mobility of people who can decide to live where they can be better-off. Since they are spatially neutral, these policies tend to merge with the global city model, according to which urban agglomerations are the engine and the magnet of any economic, social and cultural innovation. On the other hand, so-called place-based strategies flourish on the interactions between institutions and geography. From this perspective urban and regional systems of different sizes and density are more important than urban hierarchies in fostering innovation, and the specific assets and cultural capital of the local context has to be explicitly taken into consideration. Departing from the early work of one of the fathers of the economic science, Alfred Marshall, the analysis of economic development has emphasized the spatial function of ‘clusters’ or ‘districts’ – in terms of external economies based on the agglomeration of specialized activities. Today, agglomeration phenomena are still on the top of the policy agenda – more than ever – and have grown in scope and geographical application. The recent debate has introduced a significantly new approach, namely ‘the cultural district’, which underlines the emergence of the cultural dimension and the growing complementarities between culture and local tangible and intangible assets, that eventually can lead to an improvement of the economic, social and environmental dimensions (Santagata, 2002; Mommaas, 2004; Roadhouse, 2010; Sacco et. al., 2013).

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The cultural turn, the supposed culturalisation of the contemporary good and service production, raises a main issue around what is included and what is not into the definition of creative industries and cultural economies. In other words, is there room for authentic artistic production outside the core of the contemporary arts? And strictly connected to this question, which art can be created and appreciated beyond the glorified international centres for the arts, which often coincide with world cities?

Value creation in arts and cultural industries has often been absorbed by the rhetoric of creativity according to which the creative and creating process are more important/ valuable/visible than the destructive one. The literature on culture-led urban regeneration has been exposed to a profound critical review because, after several years of application, cultural planning strategies that supported the formation of cultural districts are struggling to get positive and measurable results. In many cases, indeed, amenity based cultural regeneration and cultural districts have sharpened social tensions, produced further impoverishment of the lower classes, and with gentrification have erected new borders across quarters and social groups (Scott and Storper, 2009). Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Criticising the Creative Class

One of the most critical points is that the ability to generate innovation has often been attributed to specific categories of knowledge workers, the so-called creative class proposed by Florida (2002). This notion has been highly criticized and provoked a strong opposition to strategies of city development based on cultural assets and excluding large part of subaltern urban workers and ethnic communities (Tremblay and Tremblay, 2010). Contrary to the narrative espoused by Florida and other proponents of high-density cities, artistic creation is a basis for a cohesive and sustainable development only if most of the people are involved in the cultural and creative activities, rather than being passive observers: at best, homologated consumers of ‘coolness’, at worse, totally excluded.

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Arts a relational builder unleash the creative and innovative power of such productions: understanding culture and its attitudes and values towards space, place and nature is preliminary to any cultural creation, that turns out to be a powerful resource for social integration (Raven, 2000). A positive cultural attitude can help in building social links within the community, increase self-esteem at the individual and collective level (McCarthy, 2006), increase safety and respect in the different neighbourhoods (Perez et al. 2000; Sharp, 2007). There are many definitions of this complex process and this kind of impact on society (Murray et al., 2010; Phills et al., 2008; Bakhshi and McVittie, 2009). We adopt the definition provided by OECD’s LEED Programme, where social innovation is defined as a ‘[...] conceptual, process or product change, organisational change and changes [...] can deal with new relationships with stakeholders and territories’ (OECD, 2014). The construction of a social space as a direct spillover of a culture atmosphere reflects a new hierarchy of values, which includes explicit wish to innovate, critical thinking, personal development, solidarity, cooperation, networking, the value of diversity, participation and community empowerment. In its ability to spread quickly, the concept of social innovation has a rich evocative power and has become particularly popular when the institutions show signs of stress and when social cohesion’s problems, decay and unemployment among people seem resistant to traditional solutions (Mulgan and Landry, 1995). Art in peripheries as a source of social innovation: three case studies

The empirical evidence shows that vertically integrated culture-led policies, in which cultural amenities are considered only one of the assets to boost economic development, are ill-advised because do not provide explanation for the specific circumstances of innovation (Scott and Storper, 2009). The creative city model has been more effective to support the reconfiguration of power in the urban environment (Smith, 2012) than to increase jobs and welfare (Markusen, 2013; Boschma, and Fritsch, 2009). The rhetoric flourished around the alleged social and economic impacts (Miles, 2005; Belfiore and Bennett, 2007) suggests not to underestimate the complexity of urban environment and look at micro-interactions in arts networks (Comunian, 2011).

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Arts between tradition and marginality: a relational approach

After the last financial crisis, consensus grew over the main contribution of art and culture to the local development paradigm, i.e. to promote innovation (Bakhshi and McVittie, 2009) and system-wide horizontal integration of diverse activities (Sacco et. al. 2009). In this perspective, marginal territories, urban peripheries and small towns and villages can assume a more active part in the arts and cultural ‘prosumption’. Nevertheless, there are neither ready-made receipts nor one-fit-all formulas to promote a vibrant cultural scene at the regional level. On the contrary, it can be effectively considered a balance between different dichotomies (Table 1). Geographies Centre vs. Periphery

Word art cities regional hubs are perceived in a hierarchy of artistic value not in terms of complementary systems

Organization External vs. Internal and Networks

Endogenous processes should be combined to exogenous resources in order to bridge links with global actors outside the region and to attract external resources;

Governance Profit vs. Not-for-profit regional and national institutions

Not only a vertical coordination of policies between local, is recommended, but also it becomes crucial to tear down the walls -horizontally- between public funded institutions, private stakeholders and the third-sector (non-for-profit)

Policies Top-down vs. Bottom-up

Policies should not limit to a mere participation of professionals and practitioners in decision-making, but also guarantee access and opportunities to a wide range of citizens.

Output Excellence vs. Participation

Innovation in the artistic field is traditionally pushed by the artists and by production and distribution system, while audience-orientation, even when embedded in a social dimension, is often assimilated with commercial output.

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Institutions Established This opposition should be addressed in terms of quality Organization standard of cultural production, innovative capabilities vs. Independent and access to cultural opportunities Small-Medium Organization

Table 1 Theoretical dichotomies

On the basis of these dichotomies, we present some cultural experiences that are peripheral, relatively small, place-based, not for profit, bottom-up and participatory. These local initiatives have based their work on the construction of solidarity networks involving public and private institutions and local communities. They generate economic value due to their ability to generate social value. The Italian experiences chosen took place in three different typologies of social and disadvantaged contexts: an insula (Sardinia), an urban periphery (Scampia, Naples), a mountain area (Apennines, near Bologna). Books and freedom

In Sardinian language Liberos means both ‘books’ and ‘free’ and mirrors the spirit of an initiative, that involves editors, writers, booksellers, librarians and readers in a virtuous circle that responds to a strict ethics code: an unconventional mode of reaction to the Sardinian publishing industry crisis.

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On the average Sardinia has more readers than Italy. Literature and poetry festivals like ‘Island Stories’ in Gavoi1 and ‘September of poets’ in Seneghe2 attract thousands of visitors, while authors such as Michela Murgia, one of this network’s founder, have achieved great notoriety. Liberos represents a new way to connect people who live in difficult and isolated areas with lack of development. Twenty-three Sardinian municipalities are currently part of the network, with 240 members in the independent book supply chain, 116 of which are based on the island, seven in the other parts of Italy and three work from abroad (Spain, Germany and Chad). In 2012 the project won the 100k Euros first award of CheFare!, a new brand national funding initiative in the culture industry. Performing in deprivation

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The Punta Corsara3 theatre company was founded in 2007 in Scampia (Naples), one of the most deprived and dangerous quarters in Southern Italy urban areas. In 2010 it became an independent cultural association and in the same year won the Special Prize at the Ubu Award and the Hystrio Prize-Altre Muse. Punta Corsara was founded with the aim of converting the Scampia Auditorium into an art centre for the neighbourhood and for the city. Nowadays, the Auditorium included two theatre seasons and fifteen young actors have just finished an acting course. In addition, twenty fellows between 18 and 23 years could follow a specific training programme for the show business. The course did not comply with the school orthodoxy, but started from different poetics and artistic approaches discussed by nationally recognized directors and curators. Punta Corsara has produced four different works which have been touring also in other Italian theatres and collaborated with several authors. Small is beautiful

The Tuscan-Emilian Apennines is a mountain and remote area with scattered villages and small towns, many of which are subjected to decline. The abandonment of rural villages is widespread and seemingly unstoppable, especially for new generations. Experiences such as those carried out by the Sassiscritti4 association show that it is possible to rediscover spaces geographically and culturally emarginated. To operate a resistance capable to overcome the socio-demographic centripetal dynamics of these places, through actions and unusual practices, is a kind of challenge that can be addressed only if it is equipped with foresight, dedication, energy and resources. The experience of Sassiscritti through the music and poetry festival ‘The importance of being small’ is significant for its ability to create occasions of meeting and mutual understanding between visitors and residents. The summer festival is a sort of poetic mapping of the Apennines land and comes at the end of a creative working year over the Apennines, where drama, writing and creative workshops, books presentations, small exhibitions and performances turn a light on the artistic possibilities of this mountain. 1 http://www.isoladellestorie.it/ http://www.settembredeipoeti.it/ 3 http://puntacorsara.com/ 4 http://sassiscritti.wordpress.com/ 2

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Conclusion

Relational goods favour the flourishing of cohesive societies, which in turn provide preconditions to local development in marginal territories. In this preliminary work we underlined six dichotomies which helped to select some unique artistic practices in remote Sardinian villages, in the Naples suburbia and over the Bologna Apennines. Poetry, drama, literature and various forms of cultural participation have showed how is it possible to meet the need for relations in areas with different kind of social difficulties. We argue that the specific contribution of cultural activities should be measured in terms of innovation in meanings, recognition of diversity and experimentation of economic forms. Traditional social and economic impact cannot be applied when cultural policies operate outside classical market contexts, frequently not supported by corresponding economic and social policies. The social relations established in these circumstances trigger mutual cooperation that shape a more cohesive, active and responsible community, premise for any kind of sustainable growth.

Massimiliano Nuccio holds a PhD in Information Economics. He is currently Adjunct Professor in Cultural Policies and Urban Planning at Bocconi University in Milan. He has lectured in several universities in Italy and abroad and published different articles on regional studies, cultural policies and cultural consumption. — massimiliano.nuccio @unibocconi.it

References Amin, A., and Thrift, N. (2007). Cultural-economy and cities. Progress in human geography, 31(2), 143-161. Antoci, A., Sacco, P.L. and Vanin, P. (2007). Social capital accumulation and the evolution of social participation. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics (formerly the Journal of Socio-Economics). Elsevier, 36(1), 128-143. Bakhshi, H. and McVittie, E. (2009). Creative supply-chain linkages and innovation: Do the creative industries stimulate business innovation in the wider economy? Innovation: management, policy and practice, 11(2), 169-189. Barca, F., McCann, P. and Rodríguez-Pose, A. (2012). The case for regional development intervention: place-based versus place neutral approaches. Journal of Regional Science, 52, 134-152.

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About the authors

Belfiore, E. and Bennett O. (2007). Rethinking the social impacts of the arts. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 13(2), 135-151. Sabrina Pedrini holds a PhD in Economics, published on social tourism, cultural districts and cultural indicators. She is Adjunct Professor in Cultural Economics at Bologna University. Her main research interests are about contemporary arts networks, culture-lead development process, social innovation. — [email protected]

Boschma, R. A., and Fritsch, M. (2009). Creative class and regional growth: empirical evidence from seven European countries. Economic Geography, 85(4), 391-423. Benkler, Y., (2006). The wealth of networks: how social production transforms markets and freedom. Yale University Press. Brown, D., and Zinkin, L. (Eds.) (2000). The psyche and the social world. Developments ingroup analytic theory. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley. Bruni, L. and Stanca, L. (2008). Watching alone: Relational goods, television and happiness. Journal of Economics and Organization, 65 (3-4), 506-528. Comunian, R. (2011). Rethinking the creative city the role of complexity, networks and interactions in the urban creative economy. Urban Studies, 48(6), 1157-1179.

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Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class. Harper Business. Markusen, A., (2013). Fuzzy concepts, proxy data: why indicators would not track creative placemaking success. International Journal of Urban Sciences, 17(3), 291-303. Miles, M. (2005) Interruptions: testing the rhetoric of culturally led urban development. Urban studies, 42(5-6), 889-911. Mommaas, H. (2004). Cultural clusters and the post-industrial city: towards the remapping of urban cultural policy. Urban studies, 41(3), 507-532. Mulgan, G. and Landry, C. (1995). Creativity and Social Innovation. In: The Other Invisible Hand: Remaking Charity for the 21st Century, Demos, London. Murray, R., Caulier-Grice, J. and Mulgan, G. (2010). The Open Book of Social Innovation, The Young Foundation.

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OECD(2014).DefinitiononSocialInnovations.Retreivedfrom:http://www.oecd.org/ cfe/leed/leedforumonsocialinnovations.htm#Definition (April 2014) Phills, A. and Deiglmeier, K. and Miller, D. T. (2008). Rediscovering Social Innovation. Stanford Social Innovation Review, Fall, 34-43. Pratt, A. C. (2004). The Cultural Economy A Call for Spatialized ‘Production of Culture’ Perspectives. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 7(1), 117-128. Raven, J. (2000). The Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Change and Stability over Culture and Time. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 1-48. Roadhouse, S. (2010). (Ed.) Cultural Quarters: Principle and Practice. Intellect. Sacco, P.L., Ferilli, G., Tavano Blessi, G. and Nuccio M. (2013). Culture as an engine of local development processes: System-Wide Cultural Districts. I. Theory, Growth and Change, 44(4), 555–570. Sacco, P. L. (2011). Culture 3.0: A new perspective for the EU 2014-2020 structural funds programming, OMC Working Group on Cultural and Creative Industries. Sacco P.L., Tavano Blessi G. and Nuccio M. (2009). Cultural policies and local planning strategies: What is the role of culture in local sustainable development?. The Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, 39(1), 45-64. Sacco, P.L. and Zamagni, S. (2006). (Eds.).Teoria economica e relazioni interpersonali. Il Mulino. Santagata, W. (2002). Cultural districts, property rights and sustainable economic growth. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 26(1), 9-23. Smith, N. (2012). The new urban frontier: Gentrification and the revanchist city. Routledge. Scott, A. J. and Storper, M. (2009). Rethinking human capital, creativity and urban growth. Journal of Economic Geography, 9(2), 147-167.

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Scott A., and Storper, M. (2003). Regions, globalisation, development, Regional Studies, 37(6-7), 549-578. Scott, A. J. (2000). The cultural economy of cities: essays on the geography of image-producing industries. Sage. Tremblay, R. and Tremblay, D.G. (2010). La Classe Créative selon Richard Florida: un paradigme urbain plausible? Québec/Rennes: Presses de l’Université du Québec and Presses universitaires de Rennes. Throsby, D. (1999). Cultural capital. Journal of Cultural Economics, 23, 3-12. Uhlaner, C.J. (1989). Relational goods and participation: incorporating sociability into a theory of rational action. Public Choice, 62(3), 253-285. Yunus, M. (1998). Banker to the poor: The autobiography of Muhammad Yunus, founder of the Grameen Bank. Aurum Press.

Venturelli, S. (2000).From the information economy to the creative economy: moving culture to the centre of international public policy, Centre for Culture and Arts, Issue Paper, 1-39. Ulaga, W., & Eggert, A. (2006). Relationship value and relationship quality – broadening the nomological network of business-to-business relationships, European Journal of Marketing, 40(3/4), 311-327. United Nations/UNDP/UNESCO (2013). Creative economy report. Widening local development pathways. Special edition. UNCTAD, New York. Zeithaml, V.A., Berry, L.L, & Parasuraman, A. (1993). The nature and the determinants of customer expectations of service, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21(1), 1-12.

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Storbacka, K., Strandvik, T., & Grönroos, Ch. (1994). Managing customer relationship for profit: the dynamics of relationship quality, International Journal of Service Industry Management, 5(5), 21-38.

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The Difference that Place Makes A Case Study of Creative Industries in Greater Manchester, UK Abstract

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Broader transformations in the economy are linked to a changing spatial organisation for economic activity, particularly in industries imbued with a high creative content. However, there are competing explanations regarding the nature of this logic. Until recently, relatively more attention has been given to the inter-urban and indeed international scales, than to the intra-urban geography of the economic transformation and, within this, there has also been a tendency to focus on a small set of global cities. With the aim of redressing these imbalances, this article examines the logic guiding creative industry concentration in the central core of a city, as opposed to more peripheral sites in the wider city region, and uses the example of a transforming regional city negotiating its place in the knowledge economy, Manchester, UK. This city, while seeing a decimation of its traditional manufacturing industries over the previous three decades, had by the beginning of the 21st century built up one of the UK’s largest concentrations of creative industry activity outside London. It is argued that the city centre still provides a considerable pull related to traditional agglomeration advantages, including access to skilled labour and strong transport connectivity, as well as a sense of place brand. The article concludes by stressing that more research is needed in order to develop a better understanding of the nature and relative strength of the factors influencing the intra-urban location of economic activity in the creative industries. Introduction

Herewith we take as a starting point Castells’ (1996: 67) claim that ‘We are witnessing a point of historical discontinuity’ related ‘to the emergence of a new technological paradigm’. Castells was referring to the implications of growth of knowledge-based industries at all spatial scales and for the processes of uneven development generally. Despite the many anticipations of the ‘death of distance’, the structural changes in the economy, that have resulted in an increasingly central role for knowledge and information, do not seem to have reduced the importance of the role of place to the economy, due to the advantages provided by proximity (Pratt, 2000). Research has argued that urban concentration is the dominant spatial pattern for the location of knowledge economy firms, provided the basis exists for assembling a set of factors likely to encourage a central location. These include agglomeration advantages (Gordon and McCann, 2000; Marshall, 1920) and theories of clustering and social networks (Porter, 2001). They also encompass the resurgence in interest in the role of quality of life and other more intangible factors (Florida, 2002; Glaeser and Kahn, 2004). These factors are envisaged to operate within a ‘complex space of flows’ where they are traded off against the forces of disagglomeration, such as congestion and high property and labour costs in cities (Christopherson, 2013; Convery et al, 2006; Storper and Manville, 2006). Agglomeration economies might be all the more powerful – and diseconomies of

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congestion and pollution all the less significant – in an economy dominated by information, knowledge, creativity and innovation, rather than manufacturing of routine commodities with bulky inputs and outputs and detrimental environmental consequences.

The research employed a mixed methods approach, probing the spatial pattern of creative industry activity there, and selecting two sectors with somewhat different degrees of spatial concentration: advertising, and film and television. Semi-structured interviews with 28 firm directors and eighteen policy-makers and other stakeholders were used to probe the determinants affecting the decisions regarding firm location. In addition, contextual information was gathered from a range of documentary sources.

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Economic regeneration strategies

Despite extensive research into the organisation of economic activity in the knowledge economy, the evidence base had been found patchy regarding the spatial rationale of its creative industries. Relatively more attention has been given to the inter-urban and indeed international scales than to the intra-urban geography of the economic transformation. Evidence has been focused mainly on the global, world or capital cities with much less knowledge regarding regional cities, despite the high policy salience of this sector in terms of regenerating these places. This article draws on empirical research in Greater Manchester, UK. Manchester, while seeing a decimation of its traditional manufacturing industries over the previous three decades, had by the beginning of the 21st century built up one of the UK’s largest concentrations of creative industry activity outside London (DePropis et al, 2009). As with other formally industrial cities, there has been a strong public sector push behind an economic regeneration strategy. This strategy had been partly based on the creative sector and by the associated claim that focusing efforts on the rejuvenation of the conurbation’s core would also bring economic benefit to the outer parts of Greater Manchester, that had - if anything - suffered a sharper decline in economic fortunes in the 1960s and 1970s than its core.

Privileging the core

Within Greater Manchester, the city centre was found to exert a considerable pull on the firms in the interview sample, broadly consistent with observations in that part of the literature which argues for the continued importance of geography and the ‘power of place’ in a globalised world (Christopherson et al, 2008; Morgan, 2004; Pratt, 2000; Scott and Storper, 2003). Factors associated with agglomeration, as developed by Marshall (1920) and Scott (2000), were crucial to the firms. Amongst the firms that were able to afford the high price of space in the city centre, great emphasis was placed on the benefits that this location provided for the ease of access to both staff and clients due to the effective density of the core. The importance of access to labour is clearly supported by existing literature (Gordon and McCann, 2000; Polese and Sheamur, 2004; Scott and Storper, 2003). The high level of external connectivity by rail offered by the central area of Manchester was a particular benefit to the most competitive firms which had interactions outside the region, most notably with London. This is sometimes overlooked amongst the creative industries literature, with its dominant focus on the possibilities for local inter-firm collaboration and networking offered by a central or concentrated location. Exceptions to this would be the work of Bathelt et al (2004), Bathelt (2005) and Turok (2005).

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The importance of co-location

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At the same time, these findings gave less support to the importance of co-location in the urban core alongside other creative industry firms. While co-location is often seen to benefit businesses through extending knowledge, reducing risk and sharing inputs (Banks et al, 2000; Wu, 2005), there was a lack of evidence on this point. Whilst faceto-face meeting was important in terms of formal meetings with clients at the start of or during a piece of work, rather little importance seemed to be attached to opportunities of meeting face-to-face with other creative workers to share ideas. Linked to this, the interviews also turned up little evidence of spatially concentrated ‘knowledge spillovers’ such as described by Turok (2005). While participants did keep in contact with past colleagues and often asked for their advice, this was largely done via the phone or email rather than in serendipitous or arranged face-to-face meetings. The importance which the firms attached to being able to access low-cost workspace in or close to the city centre, however, is much more in conformity with previous studies. For instance, the concentration of creative industry activity in the Northern Quarter, an area in the West of Manchester city centre (see Champion, 2010 for more detail), followed processes similar to those identified by Cameron and Coaffee (2005), Barnes and Hutton (2009) and Zukin (1988). The colonisation of cheap space had led to a ‘revalorization’ of the area, and the Northern Quarter had become a site of cultural production and consumption (O’Connor and Gu, 2010). Similarly, the findings suggest that, in conformity with the findings of Drake (2003), Hutton (2004) and Markusen (2006), cost was not the only consideration in how firms experienced the value of particular spaces. The development of Northern Quarter seemed to be a complex process, with the area’s popularity for the location of creative industry firms being attributed to a range of factors. These included the Quarter’s aesthetic appeal and the quality of the built environment, its proximity to the city centre and to the key transport nodes there, its history of creative production and the area’s ‘cool’ image associated with its sites of counter-cultural consumption. This chimes with the conclusions of Barnes and Hutton (2009: 1252), who assert that, ‘Microgeographical contingencies matter enormously for the new economy and its consequences in the form of particular buildings, streetscapes, squares, parks, piazzas and landmarks. The microgeographical is not incidental, but the stuff of study’. The importance of quality-of-place: branding

The interviews also tested the quite widely accepted importance of quality-of-place as a location factor. It was found that the influence of quality-of-place assets tended to preference the centre, though this was not related to personal preference for the sort of ‘people climate’ advocated by Florida (2002). It was much more associated with the importance attached to place reputation for business success, especially attracting clients and staff (Nathan and Vandore, 2013). The city-centre amenities were regarded as linked to the sense of a ‘Manchester brand’, with a strong feeling that the type of employees valued by creative firms would prefer to work in the city centre. In fact, many of the directors of firms located in the city centre of Manchester felt that they were already accessing liveability by virtue of being based in Greater Manchester rather than in London. Many were willing to undertake a lengthy commute from the desirable areas of South Manchester and Cheshire to their firm location in Manchester City Centre. This could possibly be linked to the broader escalator effect (Centre for Cities, 2014; Champion et al, 2013; Fielding, 1992) 134

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which draws skilled workers to London and the South East early in their career. In this study, there were participants who - having worked for a number of years in London in order to advance their career - then moved (and in some cases returned) to the Manchester area in order to take advantage of quality-of-life benefits such as larger and more affordable houses, good schools and access to the countryside. The fact of opting for a home in the suburbs or beyond, however, did not seem to influence the location of their firms, all of which were located in the city centre.

One key factor behind seeking out a more peripheral location can be traced back in industrial location theory to the behavioural school of thought, namely the quest to reduce risk (Pred, 1967). While this is more normally associated with firms putting a distance between themselves and their keenest competitors and attempting to cover their own section of the market, two other aspects of risk minimisation were more frequently mentioned in the study’s interviews with firms. One was the purchasing of premises, which was generally more affordable in the less central locations, in line with the Alonso model. They felt that this offered them a key mechanism for offsetting risk, which is divergent from traditional views (Fothergill, Monk and Perry, 1987) about small firms purchasing property. Purchasing property was seen to reduce risk by providing an investment, and giving firms increased control over their business premises.

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Favouring the periphery

The strong emphasis placed on the value of central location by the recent literature on the knowledge economy and the creative industries within it would, at first glance, seem to leave little room for those elements of industrial location theory which stress the advantages of more peripheral locations. Aspects of Weber’s transportation cost model (Weber, 1929), Alonso’s bid-rent model (Balchin, Bull and Kieve, 1995) and more generally the neo-classical approach (Marshall, 1929) predict that businesses with less need of proximity to other firms will seek out sites with more abundant, and thus cheaper, land and labour. There was some evidence of creative industry firms locating in a more peripheral area, to avoid agglomeration diseconomies of one sort or another.

Bohemian culture and distance

Accessing managed workspace, where services were shared, was the other method of reducing risk, particularly amongst very small and young firms. It may be that this method of offsetting risk was regarded as an alternative to cultivating strong networks. On the other hand, one site of genuine collaboration and networking was identified in the managed workspace based in a former mill in Salford. The firms interviewed within this workspace had all collaborated with other individuals and firms based there and informal networks had been facilitated by communal spaces and events. The sense of trust, engendered by colocation, had been crucial to these processes. Despite this workspace being relatively close to Manchester City Centre, it lacked some of the assets in the immediate area that firms in the centre had ready access to, notably in terms of transport linkages and amenities. The character of these firms diverged from those based in the city centre in that they were more artistic and bohemian and possessed less ambition to grow in a corporate and solely profit-orientated way.

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Industrial gentrification

There was some evidence of displacement, as often identified in the literature but most frequently associated with the global city (Gornostaeva, 2008; Hutton, 2006; Zukin, 1988). Instead of being associated with global city processes, these would have been seen to be more in line with the issues discussed by Cameron and Coaffee (2005) and related to the extensive city centre regeneration of the late 1990s onwards. There was some evidence of newly developed concentrations of activity in some areas outside the city centre, but not a great distance from it, as with the mill providing artist studio and creative workspace in Salford. This concentration did not have strong links into the established firms of the sector, nor does the area possess the same advantages as the city centre. The study suggests that affordable space for production within the city centre was being squeezed, preventing new creative firms from accessing premises there. This compounds the problematic nature of closed networks and makes inertia more likely. The process identified here is similar to that investigated by Pratt (2009) in Hoxton. Industrial gentrification is thought to be damaging spaces of creative production and regeneration efforts may also be contributing to this negative process.

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Conclusions

In terms of the factors determining location choices, the hard assets of place, access to clients and labour enabled by transport connectivity and also the availability and cost of space, were particularly important. The more intangible feature of place brand, specifically associated with the centre of Manchester, and its perceived advantage of attracting staff and clients played a notable supporting role. There was a strong emphasis placed on the importance of proximity and the way that this appears to have led to the geographical clustering of firms in this sector at the very localised scale of ‘quarters’ or ‘neighbourhoods’ within these. The findings further gave an indication of a possible firm lifecycle relating to location within the creative industries sector with firm characteristics such as profile, size and function influencing the relative importance of determinants, especially regarding settlement in the core versus periphery. Within SMEs individual preferences are likely to be very important. Where these firms are ambitious, a central location is likely to be favoured to raise the profile of the firm and help recruit the best staff. Firms with more routinised functions, by contrast, were likely to be located in the periphery, as they did not need to attract the most highly skilled and creative employees, and tended to be less intensive users of space. A larger firm is likely to make decisions in a more objective way that does not preference the prejudices of a single staff member, even a senior one. This is likely to ensure an important role for agglomeration economies including accessibility, tax incentives, available qualified labour, connections and forward and backward linkages (Musterd and Gritsai, 2013). Finally, inherited decisions are also likely to influence future moves. The complexities found within this sample of creative industry firms in Manchester demonstrate ‘complex interweaving of the relations of production, work and social life’ found within the creative industries (Chapain et al, 2013). Location factors are understood not as external, independent influences on business decisions, but as intimately bound up with the whole process of industrial growth, change and reorganisation. This process reflects wider economic circumstances as well as spatial conditions. It illustrates the need for a better understanding of the nature and relative strength

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Developing this understanding which takes account of local contingencies, context and histories is important for an area where there is considerable policy making. It also problematises the use of generic policy templates (Champion, 2013; Indergaard et al, 2013; Pratt and Hutton, 2013; Sacco et al, 2013) suggesting that policymaking should ‘entail a process that is as situated and context-dependent as the creative economy itself ’ (Indergaard et al, 2013: 4). It is crucial to get a better handle on the actual patterns and how they are changing over time, not least in order to help advise policy makers on how far these activities are likely to remain highly concentrated in the centre of an urban region like Greater Manchester, and thus how much pay-off there might be from trying to encourage the decentralisation that would seem to be needed to boost the economic fortunes of the other centres in the region. This involves a move away from ‘mono-causality’ and the development of ‘new analytical attitudes willing to explore and reconstruct the highly context dependent micro-structures determining the social and economic viability of a specific production milieu’ (Sacco et al, 2013: 10). About the author Katherine Champion is a research associate within CCPR at the University of Glasgow, UK. She has published work on the spatial organisation of creative and digital media industries, managing creative work and creative cities. She is currently employed as a research associate on the ESRC-funded project ‘Multi-platform media and the digital challenge: Strategy, Distribution and Policy’. — katherine.champion@ glasgow.ac.uk

References Balchin, P. N., Bull, G. H., and Kieve, J. L. (1995). Urban Land Economics and Public Policy, London: Macmillan Press Ltd. Banks, M., Lovatt, A., O’Connor, J. and Raffo, C. (2000). Risk and trust in the cultural industries, Geoforum, 31, pp. 453-464.

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of the factors influencing the intra-urban location of economic activity in the creative industries. As Scott and Storper (2009: 153) assert, ‘an economic geography of urban growth that takes seriously the spatial logic of production can simultaneously account for how, from small initial events, clusters of economic activity grow and evolve on basis of various kinds of external economies and they then are reinforced through circular and cumulative growth’.

Barnes, T. and Hutton, T. (2009). Situating the new economy: contingencies of regeneration and dislocation in Vancouver’s inner city, Urban Studies, 46 (5&6)., pp. 1247-1269. Bathelt, H., Malmberg, A. and Maskell, P. (2004). Clusters and knowledge: local buzz, global pipelines and the process of knowledge creation, Progress in Human Geography, 28 (1)., pp. 31-55. Bathelt, H. (2005). Cluster relations in the media industry: exploring the ‘distanced neighbour’ paradox in Leipzig, Regional Studies, 39, pp. 105-127. Cameron, S. and Coaffee, J. (2005). Art, gentrification and regeneration: from artist to pioneer to public arts, European Journal of Housing Policy, 5 (1)., pp. 39-58. Castells, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Centre for Cities (2014). Cities Outlook, London: Centre for Cities Champion, K. (2010). Hobson’s Choice? Constraints on accessing spaces of creative production in a transforming industrial conurbation, Creative Industries Journal (3).: 1 pp. 11-28

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Champion, K (2013). Problematising a homogenous spatial logic for the creative industries: the case of the digital games industry in Hotho, S. and McGregor, N. (Eds). Changing the Rules of the Game: economic, management and emerging issues in the computer games industry, London: Palgrave Macmillan Champion T, Coombes M & Gordon I, (2013)., How Far Do England’s Second-Order Cities Emulate London as Human-Capital ‘Escalators’? SERC Discussion Paper 132 Chapain, C. Clifton , N. and Comunian, R. (2013). Understanding Creative regions: Bridging the Gap between Global Discourses and Regional and National Contexts , Regional Studies, 47:2, pp. 131-134 Christopherson, S. (2013). Hollywood in decline? US film and television producers beyond the ere of fiscal crisis, Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 6 pp. 141-157

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Christopherson, S., Garretsen, H. and Martin, R. (2008). The world is not flat: putting globalization in its place, Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 1, pp. 343-349. Convery, F., Mcinerney, D., Sokol, M. and Stafford, P. (2006). Organising Space in a Dynamic Economy: insights for policy from the Irish experience, Built Environment, 32(2)., pp. 172-183. DePropis, L. Chapain, C., Cooke, P., MacNeill, S. and De Matteos-Garcia, J. (2009). The Geography of Creativity. London: NESTA Drake, G. (2003). ‘This place gives me space’: place and creativity in the creative industries, Geoforum, 34, pp. 511-524. Fielding, A, J. (1992). Migration and social mobility: South East England as an escalator region, Regional Studies, 26, pp. 1-15. Fothergill, S., Monk, S. and Perry, M. (1987). Property and Industrial Development, London: Hutchinson. Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class, New York: Basic Books. Glaeser, E. and Kahn, M. (2004). Sprawl and urban growth, in Henderson, V. and Thisse, J. F. (eds)., Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics Volume 4, Amsterdam: North-Holland. Gordon, I. and McCann, P. (2000). Industrial clusters: complexes, agglomeration and/or social networks, Urban Studies, 37 (3)., pp. 513-532. Gornostaeva, G. (2008). The film and television industry in London’s suburbs: lifestyle of the rich or losers’ retreat? Creative Industries Journal, 1: 1, pp. 47-71 Hutton, T. (2004). The new economy of the inner city, Cities, 21 (2)., pp. 89-108. Indergaard, M. Pratt, A. and Hutton, T. (2013). Creative cities after the fall of finance, Cities, 33, pp.1-4 Marshall, A. (1920). The Principles of Economics, London: Macmillan and Co. Marksuen, A. (2006). Urban development and the politics of a creative class: evidence from a study of artists, Environment and Planning A, 38, pp. 1921-1940.

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The Difference that Place Makes A Case Study of Creative Industries in Greater Manchester, UK

Morgan, K. (2004). The exaggerated death of geography: learning, proximity and territorial innovation systems, Journal of Economic Geography, 4, pp. 3-21. Musterd, S. and Gritsai, O. (2013). The creative knowledge city in Europe: Structural conditions and urban policy strategies for competitive cities, European Urban and Regional Studies, 20(3). pp. 343–359 O’Connor, J. and Gu, X. (2010). Developing a Creative Cluster in a Postindustrial City: CIDS and Manchester, The Information Society, 26: 2pp. 124-136 Polese, M. and Shearmur, R. (2004). Is distance really dead? Comparing industrial location patterns over time in Canada, International Regional Science Review, 27 (4)., pp. 431-457. Porter, M (2001). Regions and the new economics of competition, in Scott, A J (ed). Global City Regions: Trends, Theory, Policy, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Pratt, A. and Hutton, T. (2013). Reconceptualising the relationship between the creative economy and the city: Learning from the Financial Crisis, Cities, 33, pp.86-95 Pratt, A. (2009). Urban regeneration: from the arts `feel good’ factor to the cultural economy: a case study of Hoxton, London, Urban Studies, 46: pp. 1041-1061. Pred, A. (1967). Behavior and location: foundations for a geographic and dynamic location theory, part 1, Lund Studies in Geography, Series B, 27. Sacco, P. Ferilli, G. and Blessi, G. (2013). Understanding culture-led local development: A critique of alternative theoretical explanations, Urban Studies, 0 pp. 1-16 Scott, A, J. (2000). The Cultural Economy of Cities: Essays on the Geography of Image-Producing Industries, London: Sage Publications

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Pratt, A. (2000). New media, the new economy and new spaces, Geoforum, 31, pp. 425-436.

Scott, A, J. and Storper, M. (2003). Regions, globalisation and development, Regional Studies, 33 (6/7)., pp. 579-593. Storper, M and Manville, M. (2006). Behaviour, preferences and cities: urban theory and urban resurgence, Urban Studies, 43 (8)., pp. 1247-1274. Storper, M. and Scott, A. (2009). Rethinking Human Capital, Creativity and Urban growth, Journal of Economic Geography, 9 pp. 147-167 Turok, I. (2005). Cities, competition and competitiveness, in Buck, N. et al (eds). Changing Cities, London: Palgrave. Weber, A. (1929). Alfred Weber’s theory of the location of industries; translated by Freidrich, C. J., from Uber den Standort der Industrien (1909)..Chicago: University of Chicago Press Wu, W. (2005). Dynamic cities and creative clusters, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3509, New York: World Bank. Zukin, S. (1988). Loft Living, Radius: London.

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Paris Galaxies in Perspective, an aesthetic audit critical report

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Abstract

‘Paris Galaxies, a vision for the Greater Paris in 2030’ is a research project developed by LIID (Idea Engineering Lab, an art-based think-tank), and hosted within academia by the ACTE (Art, Creation, Theory, Aesthetics) Institute at Paris 1 Sorbonne University, as a non-conventional research experiment, where artistic intuition and formats interact with academic knowledge. Awarded the Paris 2030 research grant from the City of Paris, the project aims at demonstrating that an experimental art-based research project can be a platform for mixing disciplines and stakeholders, and for generating multiple knowledge and values. The initial premise of Paris Galaxies has been to use the poetic metaphor of galaxies to address the multiple critical challenges raised by the transformation (urban planning, governance, program, immaterial capital, imaginary, digital life, etc.) of Paris, into the Greater Paris, including its vast periphery. This approach echoes various theories about global cities (Sassen), creative cities (Florida), urban constellations (Gandy), and hybrid imaginaries (Wunenburger). Based on the most recent research undertaken in 2013 (including workshops at Paris College of Art), the study includes 300 creative hotspots (venues, structures or projects) located in the Parisian periphery, highlighting the prospective weak signals i.e. enterprises potentially contributing to the emergence of a grassroots Greater Paris. From a new prototype of aesthetic audit (as part of LIID’s research methods), complemented by an online map, the LIID will design future visions and digital developments. The Greater Paris Creative Constellation

While confronting the agenda of global cities with sustainable development requirements, Saskia Sassen (2012) invites urban developers to consider new spatial formats for urban inclusion, stepping away from the clustering strategies (Rio, 2014). As opposed to Florida’s call for an international creative class (artificially including non-creative communities), while still searching to value the Greater Paris’s creativity (Eckert, 2012), the Paris Galaxies project aims at identifying its ascending mechanisms: creative and enterprising initiatives; urban atmosphere and re-qualification; social links, inclusiveness and conviviality; collaborative communities and sharing organizations; societal experimentation and innovation; knowledge, value and symbolic capital creation; collective imagination and future inspiration. Beyond the pragmatic construction (Derksen, 2010) of the Greater Paris metropolis, its new identity needs to be created. The Peripherique Boulevard circling Paris is a radical physical and psychological barrier between the ‘City of Light’ and the ‘shadowy suburb’, characterized by a pendulum rhythm of commuting, the zoning of activity, relegation and acculturation. How can it be transformed into an appealing horizon where all citizens and workers, visitors and investors can project themselves in the future? In this respect, contemporary artistic practices constantly experiment imaginary hybridization (Wunenburger, 2012) and strongly contribute to the re-invention of

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urban imaginaries. This goes to show that part of the city creative potential is intangible (historical, symbolic or digital, based on knowledge images and the imaginary). This equation remains unresolved by theories on the immaterial economy and knowledge cities (Carillo, 2005) and still raises methodological and representational issues (technical, visual or mental). In front of this ungraspable and partially invisible urban plasma, Bruno Latour (2007) recommends an oligoptic observation, consisting in recomposing the city from a multitude of ‘windows’ of observation, including an assumed creative interpretation, that he calls the art of compositionism. In terms of urban planning and representation, Mathew Gandy (2011) also suggests the assemblage of urban constellations composed of numerous and heterogeneous ‘vignettes’ (various forms of images and information). The oligoptic solution tested in the Paris Galaxies project consists in exploring the constellation of the Greater Paris creative hotspots, as pivots for its future development, and as privileged windows of expression and transformation of its immaterial dimensions.

Instead of following standard typologies of status (such as private versus public, for-profit versus not-for-profit) or the common notion of creative industries (art, design, cinema, etc.), the research team identified exemplary, innovative and promising practices as weak signals (Bidault-Waddington, 2012) . These are expected to offer a valuable contribution to the ‘metropolization’ process, and to become new standard (formats of) practice in the future. The audit report then organizes these weak signals into five key creative vectors showing the transformation process and its future potential.

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Aesthetic Audit, a Non-Conventional Method

As a non-conventional think-tank at the crossroads of art, economy, urban development and research, LIID (Laboratoire d’Ingénierie d’IDées) uses methods such as the aesthetic audit to reveal the creative potential of organizations (companies, cities, universities). This includes projective and speculative dimensions beyond what’s authorized in a strictly academic context, and mixes various sources: documentary research, online and field explorations, interviews, user experience (UX) reports, creative workshops (local and international classes), artistic material (film, fiction, artworks, image collections, etc.), intuition and creative conceptualization. The result is a rich database on the 300 creative hotspots encompassing artistic, cultural, creative and innovative places, structures, projects, collectives and websites, located in the Greater Paris area.

Hybrid platforms: from Cultural Centres to Creative Hubs

The suburbs of Paris are not lacking in cultural infrastructures, but limited programming, restricted operational hours and a focus on hyper-local audiences and school groups have seen many public and well-appointed cinemas, theatres and exhibition spaces remain peripheral. The emergence of the Greater Paris and of the creative society’s’ new expectations might force these venues to redefine their model. In contrast, some hotspots have managed to become dynamic and well recognized urban polarities by mixing creative disciplines and practices, filling their agendas with programs dedicated to varied audiences and age groups, hosting festivals and offering inventive educational formulas, conferences and events, etc.

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Based on the principle of a ‘shared experience’ (Rancierre, 2000), these hotspots gather spectators and creative professionals (at a time when everybody is potentially both) in a broad, live and inclusive creative community. The Ferme du Buisson in Noisiel (contemporary art, performance, cinema, circus, and restaurant) and the Maison des Arts in Créteil (art, music, performance, many festivals) are two good examples of this ‘shared experience’ model. Smaller creative hubs also exist, and manage to transform the Vanves Theater into a nationally recognized springboard for new talents, and places to be. The use of Arts and Nature as a thematic strategy, f.i. by the Domain of Chamarande (a castle and park), combines art exhibitions, concerts, brunches, environmental conferences, partnerships with expertise platforms and academic networks and has become an efficient lever for territorial and economic development. Another interesting format comes from the educational field (The Fonderie de l’Image campus in Bagnolet, dedicated to graphic design and multimedia).

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Trans-Metropolitan Inclusive Communities: Breaking Mental and Physical Barriers

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Gathering and creating social links, conviviality, and hybrid communities beyond regular social or territorial categories (Parisian vs. suburban; local audiences vs. abstract global tourists) are part of the core virtues of the creative scene. In reaction to an expensive and exclusive nightlife inside Paris, (more or less formal) collectives have successfully launched huge and affordable ‘free parties’, taking advantage of big and cheap spaces available beyond the Périphérique Boulevard. Sometimes very remote, but legal and often well organized (shuttles, security, etc.), these events select cutting edge DJs from France and abroad, and attract an impressive number of partygoers from different parts of the Greater Paris area. But one of the toughest challenges of the Greater Paris agenda concerns the cultural and social integration of its immigrant populations, which have been largely overlooked (Lagrange, 2010). The emblematic Africolor Festival that has been staging the best of African music over the past twenty-five years in various locations of the suburbs, failed in 2013 to reach its capacity opening goals, despite the fact that it is located in a part of the Greater Paris with a high percentage of African residents. Strategies based on the criteria of ethnic origins (for content and targeting audience) are no longer sufficient to create an appealing shared experience. A credible alternative is the strategy pursued by the Khiasma Art Centre in Les Lilas that successfully combines artistic and social engagements with its extensively hybrid programming choices: exhibitions, events, debates, workshops, artist residencies, film production and distribution, publications, and web magazines. The centre also organizes events in collaboration with other structures in the Greater Paris area, and abroad, and especially in North Africa. Shaping inclusive creative communities contributes to the co-creation of a collective imagination for the Greater Paris area and develops live social ecosystems based on affinities, fostering a collaborative spirit and inspiring creative enterprises in a broad sense (i.e. the undertaking of a creative project).

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Paris Galaxies in Perspective, an aesthetic audit critical report

Experimental Cultures and Creative Workshops: a Fertile Living Lab

Alternative spaces and collectives: other forms of collaborative societal innovation. Located in a desolate part of Saint-Denis, the 6B is a decaying 1960’s office building (about 5000 sqm), recently transformed into a self-sustained creative platform. Established as a rent-free temporary space, the local association manages this collective experiment without any public funding. In less than five years, the creative community has radically transformed the place, which has now become one of the most brilliant hotspots of the Greater Paris area with intense creative programming1. Le 6B creates jobs, contributes to strengthening social inclusion within the neighbourhood, and offers opportunities for its 300 residents. The long waiting list to obtain a workspace demonstrates how successful the formula is. The municipality has decided last year to change and adapt its urban planning for the surrounding area. Different converging initiatives point towards a potential new economy, articulated around creative collectives and associations that experiment and implement successful workshop methodologies. As opposed to the inner Paris creative hotspots, which have remained ‘visitor-based’, many creative collectives and associations, with or without a dedicated space, are offering creative workshop programs outside of Paris, sometime immediately contributing to the emergence of the Greater Paris.

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European policies unanimously recognize and support the development of creative communities, mostly around knowledge clusters, in order to facilitate creative experimentation, prototyping and its translation into various applications. However, these communities often show mitigated results (as uncertainty is a component of innovation), and are rarely sustainable. In contrast, some experimentations which stem from these creative practices and communities, form self-managed living labs, might be more sustainable than the innovation communities. In complement to the experience economy (Lorentzen, 2008), which focused on the sensory aspect of the creative experience (the spectator/consumer’s view point), the creative experiments combined with the principle of the shared experience, offer many different forms of inter-relational and collaborative prototypes and include great potential for innovation.

Public Space and Ephemeral Actions: Catalysing New Uses and Urban Appropriation

Whether it be through brief architectural structures or through direct action in the street, the creative use of public spaces has become an efficient handle for urban transformation. Beyond the creation of a convivial urban atmosphere or a feeling of security in some of the most challenged areas, creative action in public spaces is a method of experimentation for new uses and for mobility scenarios during leisure and work. These practices help break both mental and physical barriers. Revealing a remote part of the Greater Paris area via a creative performance automatically shrinks the mental distance. This phenomenon is confirmed by current studies on ‘walkability’ showing the pedestrian’s experience as the basis for the appropriation of a city. The public space thus becomes a ‘perfomative’ space now to be staged. Urban promenades and Besides the numerous working studios, the venue organizes festivals, parties, exhibitions, concerts, screenings, social events and citizen gathering, urban games, etc.

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creative perambulations during the day or at night, punctual events and flash-mobs, improvised concerts, staged and immersive theatre performances, sign-posted trails and urban games, eventually ‘augmented’ via smart phones - all these events actively participate in the ‘metropolization’ process. Some of these extremely diverse creative experiments implemented in the public space establish partnerships with technology and gaming companies, mobility operators or urban utilities, and are presented in innovation programs such as Futur(s)-en-Seine (an innovation festival organized by Cap Digital, the Greater Paris digital cluster). The business district La Défense has undertaken an important step in the re-qualification of public space and organizes since 2012, La Forme Publique, an urban furniture design biennale, complemented by a full program of experimental artistic actions.

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The Global Challenge: Searching for Excellence

Creative communities and practices contribute to the inner weaving and cross-fertilization of the Greater Paris area, and offer opportunities for the Greater Paris to cultivate its global dimension. Some creative hubs have succeeded in becoming global actors better than others. Targeting global excellence for many years, the dynamic digital cultures CDA in Enghien-les-Bains has allowed this tiny municipality of the Greater Paris to obtain the UNESCO Creative Cities label in 2013. This strategy requires innovative collaborations between the creative, educational and economic sectors, which is essential to innovation. Another format of elitist hotspots in the Greater Paris comes from international art galleries, such as Thaddeus Ropac (Vienna, Paris) and Larry Gagosian (New York, London, Rome, Athens, Hong-Kong, Paris). They both opened showrooms in 2012-13, in derelict urban areas in Pantin and Le Bourget (next to the Jet airport), to expose monumental art works (which were impossible to show inside of Paris). These slightly aboveground creative enterprises create social links and a form of exclusive conviviality. They support certain local handicraft skills, and participate in the re-invention of the (Greater) Parisian luxury etiquette, as does Hermes with its historical leather workshops and new creative lab located nearby, in Pantin. But they can also trigger off the rapid speculation and gentrification (i.e. as opposed to the slow, grass-root urban regeneration processes here envisioned) that are symptomatic of flashy top-down investments (public or private, as in the case of the future Vuitton Foundation). Conclusion

The audit has identified levers for future innovation and value creation. These bottom-up dynamics involve a projective dimension, specific to prospective studies and to the principle of an aesthetic audit. The interviews conducted during the research however, reveal the limits of the highlighted vectors and of the audit’s enthusiastic analysis. Many of the creative entrepreneurs aforementioned, have rarely been consulted by officials and experts involved in the planning of the Greater Paris area. Instead, some of them such as the 6B in Saint-Denis have been openly criticized by creative cities experts and academics involved in public debates on the metropolis development. Others, such as the Khiasma centre, are subject to political pressure from their public sponsors. A proper place to discuss in detail the interaction - between urban developers (political, economical, etc.) and the creative community’s pivotal actors, who operate both on the ground, for the Greater Paris project itself, as well as in academic and intellectual circles - is still missing.

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About the author Raphaële BidaultWaddington is a visual artist with a degree in Economics (Immaterial Economy Master, Paris Est University), and a passion for Cities. She created in 2000 LIID (Idea Engineering Lab – www.liid.fr), a future think-tank to experiment collaborations with organizations (companies, universities, cities), in France and abroad. She regularly intervenes as a creative research-head in academic and prospective context (Science-Po, HEC, Aalto University, Helsinki; Montevideo Architecture School; Institute For The Future, Palo Alto). — [email protected]

References Bidault-Waddington, R. (2012). Paris galaxy Inc: a conceptual model and a holistic strategy towards envisioning urban development. In: Parsons Journal for Information Mapping, Volume 4, Issue 1. Bidault-Waddington, R. (2013). Paris Galaxies, a vision for the Greater Paris, Scaling Up (Art, Design, Economie) symposium, communication coupled with a research-exhibition. Paris College of Art and Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne (abstract published Collection #5, PCA Publishing). Carrillo, J. (2005). Knowledge Cities: Approaches, Experiences and Perspectives, Rootledge Publishing.

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Creative experimentations produce artistic, social, organizational, urban, pedagogical, conceptual, symbolic, and many more prototypes. These could create greater value if they were better connected to innovation platforms and seen as part of a broader innovation-based economy. Organized ‘translational’ mechanisms from creativity to innovation still need to be designed, inside and around the creative field, to generate value while remaining true to the creative community agenda and its economic culture. Standard profitability goals (eventually mixed with public support, as it is the case for many innovation platforms) are mostly a challenge for the sustainability of (passion-based) creative practices, for the freedom of creation, and for individual and collective empowerment. Rather than opposing the values of creation and profit making, the identified vectors point towards a different approach. An approach, geared toward the research of value within the new creative, experimental and collaborative economies, along with the research for new business and organizational models in the economy at large. This is a potential future agenda for the ‘creative hubs’ aforementioned and, in the case of academic spheres, an opportunity for emerging research centres in creative disciplines, as pivots in the creative constellation of the city.

Derksen, J. (2010). How High Is the City, How Deep Is Our Love, In: Fillip review, Issue 12, Toronto. Eckert, D., Grossetti, M., Martin-Brelot, H. (2012), The Creative Class to the Rescue of Cities? La Vie des idées, retrieved from: www.booksandideas.net Gandy, M. (2011). Urban Constellation. University College London / Urban Lab and Jovis publishing. IAU-RIF (2010). Les Industries Créatives en Ile de France, un nouveau regard sur la métropole. Institut dAménagement et dUrbanisme dIle-de-France. Jannicot, D. & Landry, C. (2012). La Dimension Culturelle du Grand Paris. La Documentation Française. Kooyman, R. (Ed) (2010). The Entrepreneurial Dimension of the Cultural and Creative Industries. Utrecht University of the Arts (HKU), Utrecht. Lagrange, H. (2010), Le Déni des Cultures (the denial of cultures), Edition Seuil. Latour, B. (2010). Steps toward the writing of a Compositionist Manifesto. In: New Literary History, Vol. 41, 471-490.

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Lorentzen, A. & Hansen, C.J. (2009). The Role and Transformation of the City in the Experience Economy: Identifying and Exploring Research Challenges, In: European Planning Studies, Vol. 17, Iss. 6. Rancière, J. (2000). Le partage du sensible. La Fabrique Editions. Rio, N. (2014). Le mythe des clusters du Grand Paris. Retreived from: www. métropoliques.eu Sassen, S. (2012). Novel Spatial Formats For Urban Inclusion. Mega Regions and Global Cities. La Vie des idées. Retreived from: www.booksandideas.net

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Wunenburger J.J. (2003). The Urban Imaginary: an exploration of the possible or of the originary?, in: La ciutat que mai no existi, arcquitectures fantastiques en lart occidental, exhibition catalog, Centre de Cultura Contemporania de Barcelona.

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Daniel Barrera Fernández Kevin Meethan

Developing creative neighbourhoods in two European medium cities: Plymouth (UK) and Malaga (Spain) Abstract

In Plymouth the first signs of such moves can be found in the old historic hub of the city, known as the Barbican. New residents moved in restored buildings and the neighbourhood specialized in galleries, theatres, cafes and pubs .In recent years there have been proposals to introduce creative industries in other city neighbourhoods, but with limited results. In particular the West End of the city has received further attention. Possibly there is a need to adapt regeneration policies in the context of general lack of economic dynamism in the City Centre, due to an oversupply of commercial properties and the changing habits of consumers. In Malaga, the concentration of creative activities has relied on economic incentives to opening businesses in neighbourhoods subject to regeneration, and European funds are fundamental in stimulating creative activities in the city. The current star-project is the so-called Soho Malaga, an intervention where a new identity is being created disregarding the existing heritage and the neighbourhood’s history and character, which is a matter of some concern.

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Many cities have chosen to concentrate creative industries in specific neighbourhoods. They share common features, such as the mixture of lifestyles, an extensive programme of events and a varied range of cafes, bars and nightlife. Pedestrian areas prevail, they usually have an elegant design and serve as a framework for street art. Built and non-material heritage is used as a source of inspiration and as a way of rooting the business in the local culture. In this research, the initiatives to consolidate creative districts in two European medium sized cities, Plymouth and Malaga, have been analysed.

Concentration of creative activities in comparative neighbourhoods

Many cities have chosen to stimulate the creation of areas where innovative activities are concentrated and creators are mixed with visitors in a cosmopolitan atmosphere, it is what Landry (2008) calls the ‘creative milieu’. The author considers four categories of elements that these spaces must possess: material aspects, activities, attitudes and organizational aspects. Material aspects include the location, history, heritage and infrastructure of the neighbourhood. Activities include cleaning, waste management, social services, traditions, educational level and the range of existing activities. Important attitudes are openness, tolerance, a shared vision and entrepreneurial spirit. Finally, the organization must be based on strengthening individuals and companies, public-private partnerships and moving from words to deeds. In creative districts, built and non-material heritage take on a new role as a source of inspiration and as an anchor for new activities in the local history and culture. Culture is seen as the sum of the past and present creativities, it offers a wide range Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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of resources to keep innovating (Landry, 2008). This statement has been recognized by the Hangzhou Declaration of 2013 (UNESCO, 2013), which considers that urban regeneration based on heritage is a powerful economic subsector to create green jobs, stimulate local development and promote creativity.

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Creative neighbourhoods usually concentrate a wide range of cultural offerings, iconic architecture and different lifestyles (Kim & Short, 2008). Scenes of people meeting and chatting are also highly valued, especially if they occur in a multi-ethnic environment which is also tolerant to diverse sexual orientations (Richards & Palmer, 2010). These areas combine official and commercial art with more popular and transgressive proposals. Design of public spaces is another priority, as a result pedestrian squares and streets are created and benches, fountains, ornamental vegetation and urban art are installed (Bell & Jayne, 2004). Chapple, Jackson and Martin (2010) distinguish two types of creative neighbourhoods: those that are formally planned and those which are created by artists in an informal way. In the first case, it is usual to start by installing a major attraction, which requires a significant investment of public money, in such projects benefits do not usually get to artists. In the second type, the problem is the lack of long-term stability, due among other factors to the lack of functional integration and a formal organization (Hitters & Richards, 2002). In both cases a common process occurs. Artists come at first, they attract consumers looking for something different, bohemian and authentic. In a next step, creative entrepreneurs come and they attract new consumers and finally developers. As a result, artists end up migrating to another part of the city (Zukin & Braslow, 2011). Initiatives to develop creative districts

The concentration of creative activities in specific neighbourhoods has been analysed in two European medium cities: Plymouth and Malaga. According to the classification of the World Tourism Organization (World Tourism Organization & European Commission, 2005), both are middle-ranking cities seeking to offer more than heritage and art, but they do not reach to have a creative offer as wide as larger metropolises. The two cities have developed projects to establish creative neighbourhoods with very mixed results. Some initiatives have been carried out, others were abandoned before being developed, others have come to reality but have not achieved the expected results, and other interventions are ongoing and have not yet had time to consolidate. The British example: Plymouth

The growth of the creative sector is a priority both in the Southwest of England and Plymouth. However, the city has some limitations, especially the traditional dependence on large companies and agencies such as the Ministry of Defence, resulting in a lack of entrepreneurial spirit (Social Research & Regeneration Unit, 2006). Fostering the relationship between development of creative industries and regeneration of rundown neighbourhoods is repeated in several local policies, especially in The Vital Spark 2009-2020 (Plymouth Culture Board, 2009). Moreover, recent and forthcoming cultural events are designed to serve as a stimulus to industries related to art and culture, one example was the Cultural Olympiad 2012, and this idea was included in the (unsuccessful) bid to be nominated UK City of Culture 2017.

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Developing creative neighbourhoods in two European medium cities: Plymouth (UK) and Malaga (Spain)

The first example of creative neighbourhood is The Barbican (see figure 1). It is characterized by a concentration of artisans, art galleries, specialty shops and theatres. The consolidation of creative activities in this area is due to the impetus of creators themselves. When in the late 1950s the City Council intended to demolish the historic quarter, a group of people founded the Plymouth Barbican Association, now Plymouth Barbican Trust, and raised funds to purchase endangered buildings with heritage value. The buildings were restored and rented to artists and artisans. This community in turn attracted restaurants, pubs, nightclubs and galleries.

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In the 1990s the neighbourhood was promoted as ‘Plymouth’s historic artistic quarter’. Public art was introduced and facilities were given to artists and artisans to occupy vacant spaces. Moreover, several events were created to provide a festive atmosphere (Plymouth City Council, 1997).

1 South Yard Enclave, Devonport 5 University area 2 Mount Wise 6 The Barbican 3 Royal William Yard 7 Commercial Wharf 4 West End Fig. 1. Areas of Plymouth where creative activities have been concentrated or projects have been discussed. Barrera & Meethan 2014

Several municipal policies have attempted to establish other creative neighbourhoods. The Visitor Plan 2011 was committed to introduce creative uses in some of the historic buildings at Royal William Yard and increase the number of specialty shops, cafes and restaurants (Blue Sail, 2011). In Commercial Wharf it was also proposed to offer the eighteen boat stores to artists, independent shops and cafes, this initiative is currently under development and the first premises have already opened.

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In the University area, the creation of a neighbourhood dedicated to cultural institutions and creative industries has also been proposed, which would incorporate the University, the City Museum and Art Gallery and the Central Library. This proposal would include two new cultural buildings welcoming the city from the station (MBM Arquitectes & AZ Urban Studio, 2003), and a new Plymouth Architecture Centre (Plymouth City Council, 2007). It is also proposed to offer accommodation for artists and incubators for University start-ups. These initiatives have not been developed and are not currently on the agenda; however, the University has recently built a new performing arts centre on its city centre campus. Apart from the cited projects, the West End of ​​the City Centre has focused main attention recently. One of the main objectives is to create three subsectors with a distinct character, specialized in cuisine, nightlife and specialty stores, the so-called ‘Independent’ Quarter’. The currently degraded Colin Campbell Court would be the centre of the operation and would house contemporary architecture, cafes, restaurants and public art (Cushman & Wakefield, 2008). In the near future, this sector should be known for its vibrant character with unique shops, leisure, culture, housing and theatres, a ‘Covent Garden of the West’. To achieve it, twenty proposals were presented for the short, medium and long term, to be achieved between 2006 and 2026. Most of the short term priorities have already been implemented; however, the refurbishment of Colin Campbell Court and the creation of an outdoor theatre in Derry’s Cross are pending. For the medium term, it was proposed to rebuild car parks, erect new residential buildings, move the City Museum and Art Gallery to the area and renovate the Theatre Royal, which was carried out in 2013. For the long term, it was proposed to demolish a department store and eliminate pedestrian barriers between the neighbourhood and the rest of the city; however, none of them has been developed yet (Plymouth City Centre Company, 2006). Such plans also need to be seen in the context of wider changes in consumer habits with the UK. Since the economic downturn, Plymouth, like many other urban areas, has seen a notable decline in the number of viable city centre businesses, which has resulted in many empty properties in the City Centre. Such changes have been compounded by the rise of internet shopping which has further accelerated the decline of the City Centre’s retail base. It is clear that new uses for this urban space will have to be found. Malaga: Creative Districts as part of urban regeneration

In Malaga, the creation of a cosmopolitan atmosphere associated with creative activities was part of the bid to be selected European Capital of Culture 2016. Furthermore, the image of a creative city is directly related to the identification of Malaga with Picasso, the Picasso Museum opened in 2003 and since then the city has made considerable efforts to be promoted as an innovative and avant-garde city. Several initiatives have been launched to develop creative activities, ranging from citywide to those focused on specific buildings. They generally have in common their reliance on public investment, largely from European funds. Their main objectives have been supporting new creative businesses and improving urban spaces (see figure 2).

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A citywide proposal was to create a number of ‘innovation ecosystems’ linked by ‘eco-boulevards’. The city centre would become the ‘District of Creativity’ (Fundación Metrópoli, 2009). However, this initiative was never developed. Another citywide initiative is called Incubators for Cultural Enterprises, this initiative has been partially developed. It is part of the European programme Interreg III-A, funded by MED programme (Cuevas, 2010). The initiative seeks to develop creative industries, including crafts, arts, technology, media, architecture and advertising (Dos Santos-Duisenberg, 2010) through the creation of a network of incubators (Incubators for Cultural Enterprises, 2013).

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Lunar Project has several features in common with the previous initiative. It is managed by the Andalusian Ministry of Innovation. It includes an incubator, which offers advice and training to create business in the fields of crafts, music, museums, anthropology, cinema, IT sector, industrial design, fashion, cultural management, libraries, archaeology, book edition, performing arts, graphic design and visual arts, among others (Andalucía Emprende, 2013).

1 El Ejido Campus 5 Pozos Dulces - Nosquera 2 Tecnocasas 6 Provisional Market 3 Dos Aceras - Madre de Dios 7 Ensanche de Heredia 4 Beatas - Tomás de Cózar

Fig. 2. Areas of Malaga where creative activities have been concentrated or projects have been discussed. Source: the authors.

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Apart from the projects already mentioned, a number of initiatives are focused on promoting creative activities in the city centre. -

Tecnocasas and Calle de la Artesanía seek to attract not only activities but also creative residents, thus giving place to a 24h creative environment. The first one – Tecnocasas – consisted in 300 affordable homes in a severely deprived central neighbourhood. The apartments would have their own workspace, yet the project never came to reality, due to a lack of funding. The Calle de la Artesanía project is supported by the European programme URBAN. It consists of 46 homes and workshops where artisans can work and sell their products (Malaga City Council, 2013).

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- An additional project that never came to reality was to transform a provisional market made by containers in an Arts Market. The facilities would host a large souk where creators would show and sell their products (Moniche, 2010) -

In addition, it would comprise an area for meetings, workshops, spaces to work together and cafes (Cortés, 2010). After the demolition of the temporary market, there was a debate of creating an Arts Campus in the old University Campus of El Ejido, taking advantage of the presence of arts related institutions. No further decisions have been taken regarding this project (Revista El Observador, 2011).

As part of the regeneration strategies in the city centre, a programme of grants was established to encourage creative enterprises. This initiative is part of the European programme URBAN. Supported activities are related to performing arts, visual arts, cultural heritage, film, television, radio, video games, interactive arts, music, books, press, architecture, design, graphic design, fashion and advertising (Malaga City Council, 2011). Initially the URBAN programme was limited to the areas of Pozos Dulces - Mosquera, Beatas - Tomas de Cózar and Dos Aceras - Madre de Dios. Later it was expanded to Ensanche de Heredia, which took the leading role and was rebranded as Soho Malaga. Changing the Brand: Ensanche de Heredia becomes The Soho District

The Soho project is the most advanced one from those which have been developed so far to establish a creative neighbourhood. The main cultural attraction is the Centre of Contemporary Art, creating an artistic neighbourhood will extend the message of modernity associated with this museum into the surrounding urban environment. Renaming Ensanche de Heredia as Soho is part of a global trend. Sohos currently exist in cities like Birmingham, Buenos Aires, Hong Kong and Tampa, apart from the original ones in New York and London. Waitt (2004) has analysed the use of explicit references to New York in Sydney’s regenerated neighbourhoods as part of a message of sophistication and urbanite style, embodied in the typology of the loft. These neighbourhoods are promoted as centres of influence, power, style and fashion, where urban professionals are invited and the disadvantaged, poor and unemployed are excluded, thus contributing to social polarization. Podmore (1998) defines ‘the SoHo syndrome’ as a spatial and cultural process that involves more than simply copying the aesthetic of New York’s SoHo. It is a universal strategy of value allocation, that turns the city into a stage. 152

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The Soho project is accompanied by actions related to marketing, public realm improvements, development of creative industries and culture. Regarding the marketing programme, the promotion strategy coordinates the cultural and commercial offer, a new brand has been created and a number of campaigns and events are held, two recent ones have been ‘In Malaga’s heart beats Soho’ and ‘Soho’s tapas tour’ (Malaga City Council, 2013a). Improvements in the public realm consist of pedestrianisation, traffic calming, accessibility, sidewalks, landscaping, enhancement of façades and shop fronts, lighting, street furniture and signage (Malaga City Council, 2013a). Until now, the Soho project follows the same pattern of other neighbourhoods renovated with European funds in the city; carefully pedestrianized and enhanced, but not accompanied by functional and residential revitalization. Regarding measures to encourage creative industries, grants are given to companies that fit a specific profile, such as gourmet shops, video games stores, alternative and specialty book stores, gothic clothing stores, musical instrument stores, antique shops, boutique hotels, themed restaurants and pubs, among others (Malaga City Council, 2013b). The neighbourhood has been divided into three sectors, Zone 1 or the Unconventional Shops Zone is intended for art and culture related activities, Zone 2 or Supply and Rest Zone is dedicated to restaurants and local shops and Zone 3 or Multicultural Zone is specialized in crafts, international food and themed bars (Malaga City Council, 2013b). Since the first interventions and marketing campaigns have been developed, it is possible to observe that the neighbourhood is creating a new identity from nowhere, as if Ensanche de Heredia did not have its own name, heritage, history and character. As in other areas of Malaga’s city centre, regeneration is being carried out without giving ample attention to heritage conservation and rehabilitation. In this case built and non-material heritage is not being considered as inspiration and anchor for new activities. Demolition of listed buildings, façadism and neglect are widespread. The neighbourhood had developed itself in recent years towards a business district during the day, and a red light district at night. This local identity could have been recognized and promoted, making it attractive for tourists. A project of this type would certainly have been innovative, consistent with the message of tolerance and cosmopolitanism that is sought, and it would have attracted avant-garde culture outside from official planning and grants.

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For the moment, Malaga’s Soho neither has seen a significant increase in rent prices, nor new typologies for wealthy urbanites begun to be advertised. It remains to be seen whether the recovery of the housing market will invoke these phenomena.

Discussion

Plymouth and Malaga have launched projects to establish creative districts, although most of the initiatives have not fulfilled the expectations. In the case of Plymouth, the Barbican can be considered the first creative neighbourhood, where artists and artisans took the leading the role in reconverting rundown buildings to open galleries, antiques, theatres, cafes and pubs. In recent years the West End of the City Centre has received more attention, although none of the long term measures

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have been developed yet. Possibly, it is needed to adapt this project, in the context of the present general lack of economic activities in the area, due to oversupply of commercial ground and changing habits of consumers. In Malaga, the concentration of creative activities has relied on business incentives, mainly coming from European funds. Nowadays concentration has been focused on the so-called Soho Malaga. Having analysed what has been made so far in Soho, interventions follow the same pattern than other historic areas recently regenerated. In the future, it will be possible to observe if the neighbourhood becomes another gentrified district where art and culture are just an excuse to achieve other objectives, especially to raise housing prices. A matter of concern is that a new identity is being created disregarding the existing heritage and the neighbourhood’s history and character.

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References Andalucía Emprende (2013, October 30). Proyecto Lunar. Retrieved from: http://www.andaluciaemprende.es/es/2006-06-28-20.22.28.188/2011-02-2410.27.53.498/2011-02-24-10.32.12.106 Bell, D. & Jayne, M. (2004).City of quarters. Urban villages in the contemporary city. Aldershot: Ashgate. Blue Sail.(2011). Plymouth Visitor Plan. Report for Destination Plymouth. Chapple, K., Jackson, S. & Martin, A. J. (2010).Concentrating creativity: the planning of formal and informal arts districts. City, Culture and Society, 1, 225-234. Cohendet, P., Grandadam, D., Simon, L. (2011). Rethinking urban creativity: lessons from Barcelona and Montreal. City, Culture and Society, 2, 151-158. Cortés, R. (2011, January 19). La hora de la cultura ciudadana. Diario Sur. Cuevas, P. (2010). Proyecto ICE – Incubators for Cultural Enterprises. Beneficios para Málaga. Public presentation of the project Incubators for Cultural Enterprises. 2010, Juny 11. Cushman & Wakefield.(2008). Plymouth City Centre future direction investment and development strategy. Prepared for Plymouth City Centre Company. Dos Santos-Duisenberg E. (2010). La Economía creativa. Estimulando la recuperación económica. Public presentation of the project Incubators for Cultural Enterprises. 2010, Juny 11. Fundación Metrópoli. (2009). Málaga. Hacia un ecosistema de innovación. Madrid: Fundación Metrópoli. Hitters, E. & Richards, G. (2002).The creation and management of cultural clusters. Creativity and innovation Management, 11(4), 234-247. Incubators for Cultural Enterprises (2013, October 30). Intervention area / Málaga municipality - Spain. Retrieved from: http://www.ice-med.eu/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=57&Itemid=16

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About the authors Daniel Barrera Fernández is Architect and Researcher at the Faculty of Tourism in the University of Malaga. He has recently finished his doctoral thesis, entitled ‘Schools of thoughts in the heritage and tourist management of the historic city’. His research interests focus on integration of built heritage, urban tourism, city marketing and gentrification. — [email protected]

Kevin Meethan is Associate Professor in Sociology at Plymouth University. His research interests and academic work has focussed on a number of aspects of tourism including globalisation, urban and cultural regeneration and the political economy of tourism. — [email protected]

Developing creative neighbourhoods in two European medium cities: Plymouth (UK) and Malaga (Spain)

Kim, Y. & Short, J. R. (2008). Cities and economies. Oxon and New York: Routledge. Landry, C. (2008). The creative city. A toolkit for urban innovators. London and New York: Routledge. Malaga City Council. (2011). Bases reguladoras de las ayudas a las pymes contempladas en el proyecto de Iniciativa Urbana de Málaga. Malaga City Council (2013, October 30). VPO Nosquera.Retrieved from: http://vivircentromalaga.com/nosquera/ Malaga City Council. (2013a). Síntesis del Plan Director del Barrio de las Artes - Soho Málaga. Malaga City Council. (2013b). Formulación del Plan Director del Soho Málaga Barrio de las Artes. Mezcla comercial propuesta para el Barrio de las Artes Soho - Málaga. MBM Arquitectes & AZ Urban Studio. (2003). A Vision for Plymouth.Final copy.

Observatorio de Medio Ambiente Urbano (2013, October 30). MAUS SOHO Málaga. Retrieved from: http://www.omau-malaga.com/cultura/ficha/item/ 1183/MAUS._SOHO_M%E1laga.html Plymouth City Centre Company. (2008). Awakening the West End. 20 projects in 20 years. Plymouth’s West End is waking up. Plymouth City Council.(1997). Regenerating Plymouth’s Barbican and Sutton Harbour. Bulletins 1, 2 and 3.Barbican exhibition. Plymouth City Council.(2007). Local Development Framework. Core Strategy. Plymouth Culture Board. (2009). The Vital Spark. A cultural strategy for the city of Plymouth 2009-2020.

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Moniche, M. (2010, May 30). El mercado de las artes. La Opinión.

Podmore, J. (1998). (Re)-reading the ‘loft-living’ habitus in Montreal’s inner city. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 22, 283-302. Revista El Observador. (2011, September 28). El Ayuntamiento de Málaga mantiene el proyecto del ‘Mercado de las Artes’ y negocia con la UMA su traslado al campus de El Ejido. Revista El Observador. Richards, G. & Palmer, R. (2010). Eventful cities. Cultural management and urban revitalization. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Santagata, W., Russo, A.P. & Segre, G. (2007). Tourism quality labels: an incentive for the sustainable development of creative clusters as tourist attractions? In Richards, G. & Wilson, J. (Eds.). Tourism, creativity and development. London: Routledge. Scott, A. (2000). The cultural economy of cities. London: SAGE Publications. Social Research & Regeneration Unit.(2006). Creative industries. Mapping & economic impact study for Plymouth. Plymouth: University.

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UNESCO. (2013). The Hangzhou Declaration. Placing culture at the heart of sustainable development policies. Van der Borg, J. & Russo, A. P. (2005).The impacts of culture on the economic development of cities. Rotterdam: Erasmus University. Waitt, G. (2004). Pyrmont-Ultimo: the newest chic quarter of Sydney. In: Bell, D. &, Jayne, M. City of quarters. Urban villages in the contemporary city. Aldershot: Ashgate. World Tourism Organization & European Commission.(2005). El turismo urbano y la cultura. La experiencia europea. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.

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Zukin, S. & Braslow, L. (2011). The life cycle of New York’s creative districts: reflections on the unanticipated consequences of unplanned cultural zones. City, Culture and Society, 2, 131-140.

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Kristina Karvelyte

All equal, but some more equal than others? Exploring the differentiation within cultural and creative industries in Chinese cities

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Abstract

Recent decades have seen an upsurge in policymakers’ interest in culture-led urban development (Cunningham, 2012; Oakley, 2012). The advancement of the cultural sector, in the form of cultural capital and cultural and creative industries, seems to be regarded as arguably one of the most effective and least disruptive remedies against economic and social challenges, embraced by large number of cities around the world. Herewith we explore the development of cultural and creative industries in three Chinese cities, in which the utilization of creative-economy strategies has recently become a very attractive and somewhat fashionable trend (Kong, 2009; O’Connor and Gu, 2006; Keane, 2011). More specifically, it attempts to trace the rationale behind the differentiation between ‘flagship’ and ‘non-flagship’ cultural and creative industries that is often overlooked in the existing literature. Three culturally related but politically distinct urban centres have been chosen for this study, including Shanghai, Hong Kong and Taipei. Their policy documents analysis suggests that - regardless of generic claims to develop the entire field of cultural and creative industries - in practice, only a selected group of cultural and creative industries tends to be prioritized by local policymakers. This paper asserts that a deliberate and premeditated selection is based on predominantly economic and political grounds. It also suggests that this results in an unbalanced and sporadic development of cultural and creative industries, and in a long-term run, may lead to the stagnation of urban cultural sector. Introduction

Urban cultural policy is a relatively new concept dating back only thirty years, whilst before culture was primarily subject to national laws (Grodach & Silver, 2012). The concept changed as a result of the increased pace of globalization and neoliberalism that have weakened the decision-making power of the nation-state and reinforced a rapid decline of manufacturing industries. In effect, enhancing the role of the cities in global arena and exacerbating inter-urban competition and urban entrepreneurialism (Castells, 1997; Comunian, 2011; Harvey, 1989). In an attempt to rejuvenate urban regions, curb the rising rates of unemployment and boost urban economies, policymakers around the globe have turned to the newly established concepts of ‘symbolic economy’ (Zukin, 1995), ‘cultural economy’ (du Gay, 1997; Scott, 1999) and ‘creative economy’ (Howkins, 2001), thereby firmly placing an economic value on cultural and creative sector. Consequently, the economic and cultural activities in cities are now closely integrated and revolve ‘around the production and consumption of the arts, architecture, fashion and design, media, food and entertainment’ (Yeoh, 2005, p. 946).

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Bennett (1998) argues that policymakers tend to view culture as ‘a set of resources for governing’ (p. 78). In urban arena, cultural policies are frequently employed to boost and sustain cultural production and consumption, to solve social problems, to enable community engagement, to attract and retain a talented and skilled workforce, and to enhance the brand of the city (Pratt, 2009; Oakley, 2009; Mommaas, 2009; Zukin, 1995; Florida, 2002). Some argue that in this sense, cultural policy appears to be used as a policy for everything but arts (Williams, 1984). In other words, it seems that as cultural realm becomes more concerned with taking part in public policy at large, the selection and deployment of certain forms of culture increasingly depends on public policy objectives, rather than their cultural value and artistic output. Flagship and non-flagship cultural industries

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Drawing upon the study of official discourse on cultural and creative industries1 in Shanghai, Hong Kong and Taipei, this article considers a path-dependency of urban cultural policies in Greater China. More specifically, it attempts to trace the rationale behind the division between ‘flagship’ and ‘non-flagship’ cultural industries that is often overlooked in the scholarly literature. Shanghai, Hong Kong and Taipei were selected for this study due to several reasons. These cities not only share (to a greater or lesser extent) the same aspiration of being recognized as global creative hubs of Asia, but each of them also seem to possess an adequate set of resources to pursue this vision (Hui, 2007; Kong, 2009; Keane, 2011). The cities are economically developed, diverse, cosmopolitan and culturally prolific. Furthermore, these three cases seem particularly interesting given the cultural and ethnic connections among the cities: as ethnically Chinese cities, they share similar cultural roots and social practices. As a contrast, the historical and political differences among the cities account for very distinct boundaries between them. This presents a unique layout for the research that allows to explore the official discourse on culture-led urban development in different political settings, firmly situated within analogous cultural contexts. Divisions of culture

It is important to acknowledge that cultural realm is full of external dichotomies (such as, for example, culture versus nature, culture versus technology), as well as internal dichotomies (‘high’ versus ‘low’, traditional versus modern, regional versus national culture)(Young, 1995). Bennett (1998) argues that such divisions result in the hierarchical relationship between different elements of the cultural field. In this relationship, one party is always ‘defined as a lack, an insufficiency, a problem, while the other is viewed as offering the means of overcoming that lack, meeting the insufficiency, resolving the problem’ (Bennett, 1998, p. 91). Such ‘ranking’ of culture corresponds to ‘aesthetical’ definition of culture (Dicks, 2003) and is well represented in the debates concerning the binary opposition between ‘high’ (elite) and ‘low’ (popular) culture (McGuigan, 2004; Gans, 1999[1974]). Note. In this paper, the terms ‘cultural and creative industries’, ‘cultural industries’ and ‘creative industries’ will be used interchangeably.

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Cultural inequality

Another important binary opposition in the cultural realm is the division between commercial and non-commercial forms of culture. McGuigan (2004) indicates that the shift from creator-oriented cultural strategy to user-oriented commercial strategy has now occurred even in ‘high’ culture, suggesting that this not only reflects on ‘an ostensible victory of commerce over culture’ (p. 124), but also manifests the triumph of capital over the public interest. Clearly, policymakers tend to attach more importance to the development of those cultural and creative industries that are perceived as having a competitive advantage in the marketplace, whilst overlooking their contribution to society. Drawing upon London’s experience in the late 2000s, Oakley (2012) seems to support this proposition, indicating that local policymakers focus on those creative industries that are perceived as having a competitive edge. It could be concluded that cultural realm accounts for deeply embedded divisions and oppositions, which seem to be imposed by historical legacies, social changes and political realities.

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In the age of global neo-liberalisation and consumerism, culture has become increasingly redirected to a mass audience (Dicks, 2003; McGuigan, 2004). This has not only shifted the hierarchical orderings between ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture, with ‘cultural populism’ frequently emerging as the prevailing social approach to cultural realm (McGuigan, 2004), but has also prompted the rise of the cultural industries. Hesmondhalgh and Pratt (2005) view the cultural and creative industries as culture’s ‘other’, arguing that when they ‘are placed alongside an idealised culture, they [tend] to ignite debates about culture versus economy, art versus commerce, and high versus low culture’ ‘ (p. 7). This somewhat explains their appeal to policymakers, who are keen on portraying cultural industries as ‘opposed to the supposed elitism of arts policy’ (Hesmondhalgh & Pratt, 2005, p. 5). On the other hand, it should be recognized that some cultural industries, such as for example, film, music or performing arts can be seen as ‘high-art’, and thereby may represent ‘elite’ forms of culture. The ongoing debate about the ‘low-art’ industries, including food, tourism, heritage or sport in relation to their cultural or symbolic value (Hesmondhalgh & Pratt, 2005) demonstrates clear divisions within the field of cultural and creative industries.

Culture-led urban development: defining the scope of CCIs

The definition of cultural and creative industries appears to be problematic, due to the ongoing debate over the different terms and concepts, particularly in relation to ‘cultural’ versus ‘creative’ industries, and different functions that these industries entail (Hesmondhalgh, 2007; Throsby, 2010; Pratt, 2005). In Shanghai, Taipei and Hong Kong the distinction between cultural industries and creative industries is also vaguely defined, with both terms either used interchangeably, or more recently, being replaced with seemingly broader notion of ‘cultural and creative industries’. Table 1 shows that in each city, the scope of cultural and creative industries also varies.

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Hong Kong Taipei Shanghai 1. Advertising 1. Advertising 1. Media industries (TV and broadcasting, publishing, and other) 2. Architecture 2. Arts and crafts and 2. Arts (visual and performing arts, antique markets films, crafts, and other) 3. Art, Antiques and Crafts 3. Design 3. Industrial design (machinery design, product design, and other) 4. Design 4. Digital recreation 4. Fashion and entertainment 5. Digital Entertainment 5. Film 5. Architectural design 6. Film and Video 6. Popular music 6. Digital content industry (online games, digital publishing, and other) 7. Music 7. Visual and performing arts 7. Software industry 8. Performing Arts 8. Publishing 8. Consulting service industry 9. Publishing 9. Gastronomy 9. Advertising and exhibition industry 10. Software and Computing 10. Entertainment 10. Leisure and entertainment industry 11. Television and Radio 11. Historical sites 12. TV and broadcasting Source: CCPR, 2003

Source: DCA, 2010

Source: SMPG, 2013

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Table 1 The classification of cultural and creative industries in Hong Kong, Taipei and Shanghai

The UK’s model has largely influenced the development of cultural industries in Hong Kong. The former British colony has not only adapted the UK’s definition of creative industries, but has also followed similar classification criteria2. In Taipei and Shanghai, the classification of the industries is somewhat less conventional. Taipei includes such ‘low-art’ industries as gastronomy, popular music or historical sites, whereas a vast majority of the cultural and creative industries in Shanghai are associated with high-tech or ‘ideas-driven’ industries, rather than arts and culture (O’Connor & Gu, 2012). Hesmondhalgh and Pratt (2005) accurately suggest that governments tend to define the scope of the cultural industries ‘in a number of ways according to their purposes’ (p. 6). A diverse interpretation of what constitutes the terrain of these industries in three Chinese cities reflects on policymakers attempt to manoeuvre around three dimensions of ‘culture’, ‘creativity’ and ‘industry’, in a pursuit for the most convenient definition of the cultural and creative industries. Flagship industries in Shanghai

Until the early 2000s, cultural industries (wenhua chuanye) in the communist China were regarded primarily as a tool for propaganda and ideological work. Consequently, in Shanghai’s policy documents, the most commonly featured cultural industries at that time were TV, broadcasting, press and publishing. Since the mid-2000s, due to the transition from industrial to service economy, the scope of featured cultural industries has started to expand with economic value gradually outweighing the ideological role of the cultural industries. In Government Work Report for 2004, for the first time the cultural industries are described as ‘profitoriented’ (SMPG, 2004), thus marking a shift from politico-ideological to market-driven 2 In contrast to the UK’s classification of creative industries, designer fashion industry was not included to Hong Kong’s list of cultural and creative industries.

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concerns in their development. Consequently, in addition to traditional media industries, a number of new, profit-oriented industries have been added to the list of featured industries, including leisure and entertainment, audio-visual, fashion, and more recently, performing arts industries. Moreover, with the rapid development of technology, the attention towards digital content industry, specifically that of online games industry, new media, online animation and comic industries has significantly increased.

Flagship industries in Hong Kong

Hong Kong policy document analysis suggests that the view towards the role and significance of the cultural and creative industries in Hong Kong has also been changing over the years. Since 2003, the cultural industries have been formally recognized as a tool that has a potential to inject some vitality into city’s economy. More recently, they have been also referred to as an important instrument for social development and urban branding (HKSARG, 2005). It should be noted, however, that during global financial crisis, the creative industries have received considerably less attention from the government. The main focus then was on economic measures that could save Hong Kong’s status as a global financial centre. This not only shows the dependency of urban cultural policies on broader issues of public policy, but also indicates somewhat of the government’s distrust of the actual economic value of the cultural industries. In the aftermath of the crisis, however, the creative industries were brought back to policy agenda and even named among six industries where Hong Kong enjoys a clear competitive advantage (HKSARG, 2010). With economic expansion to China’s market becoming Hong Kong’s primary concern (HKSARG, 2012), today only those cultural industries that are viewed as capable of tapping into the mainland’s market are receiving adequate attention and support.

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The 12th Five-Year Plan for Shanghai’s Economic and Social Development (2010) marks a flourishing era of cultural and creative industries. Here, cultural industries are identified not only as a source of competitive advantage, but also as major facilitators of Shanghai’s vision to become the International Socialist Cultural Metropolis (SMPG, 2011). This seems to reflect an attempt to combine and maintain both economic and politico-ideological functions of the cultural industries. Overall, drawing upon O’Connor and Gu’s (2012) study, ‘flagship’ industries in Shanghai could be divided into ‘safe’ and ‘sensitive’ (p. 297). The former group includes creative and primarily profit-oriented industries, such as animation, new media, performing arts, fashion and online games, whereas the latter comprises ‘sensitive content’ media industries that until now remain under strict government control.

Hong Kong’s film industry, and in more recent years, design industry seem to be ticking the right boxes in this regard. The film industry has a long history in Hong Kong. Policy documents refer to it as ‘a flagship of our creative industries’ (HKSARG, 2006, p. 27) and ‘our most successful creative product in the global market’ (HKSARG, 2008, p. 26). Although the design industry is not as deeply rooted in Hong Kong’s cultural realm as films, its value in the official discourse has been growing over the last few years. The major reason for this may lie not only in Hong Kong’s thirst for Mainland China’s market, but also in the increasingly strengthening competition among ‘creative cities’ (Florida, 2008; Landry, 2000) in the region. The design industry has been gaining momentum in Shanghai since 2010, after the city was nominated UNESCO City of Design. In Taipei, design has been recognized as one of the flagship cultural industries Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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since 2010 (TCG, 2010). This was followed by Taipei hosting World Design Expo 2011 and announcing its bid for World Design Capital 2016 (TCG, 2009). It came to no surprise then that in order to strengthen and ‘consolidate Hong Kong’s position as Asia’s creative hub’ (HKSARG, 2012, p. 48), Hong Kong promptly responded with a significantly enhanced financial support to Hong Kong Design Centre and the designation of 2012 as Hong Kong Design Year.

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Flagship industries in Taipei

Like in other Chinese cities, recent years have seen a dramatic upsurge in cultural and creative sector in Taipei. By 2020, the city is even pronounced to become the Capital of Cultural and Creative Industries (TCG, 2010). Nevertheless, it seems that like in Hong Kong or Shanghai, only a selected group of cultural industries receive a substantial support from the government. The Department of Cultural Affairs identifies three ‘flagship’ industries in Taipei, namely, film and TV, popular music and design industries. This choice is justified by indicating their largest growth in exports in last few years (TCG, 2010). In other words, it seems that as in Hong Kong, the main criterion for differentiating between ‘flagship’ and ‘non-flagship’ industries is their ability to compete in the international markets. In Taipei, ‘flagship’ industries are also employed for city promotion and urban renewal and regeneration. For instance, given the fact that Taiwan’s pop music scene is well known across Asia, particularly amongst Chinese-speaking population, Taipei government views popular music not only as competitive force, but also as an essential tool for city branding and promotion (DCA, 2010). Clearly, a number of different policy goals are driving the development of cultural and creative industries in Taipei. Consequently, it seems that only those industries that are perceived as beneficial for economic growth, urban management and planning or city branding can enjoy a guaranteed support from the government. Conclusion

This exploratory study presents us with some interesting patterns in culture-led urban development in Chinese cities. First, it seems to confirm the global trend of cultural policy being increasingly employed in the urban public policy at large. Second, this study reflects on the tendency of policymakers to evoke the division between ‘flagship’ and ‘non-flagship’ cultural and creative industries, whilst focusing on the selected group of industries. In three Chinese cities, this division is predominantly based upon the industry’s competitive position, which seems to determine its profitability, potential and reputation. This largely corresponds to the scholarly literature discussed at the beginning of this paper and clearly demonstrates how ‘ranking’ of culture occurs due to the marketization of culture. Additionally, this study also shows that different political settings have a considerable impact on the selection of ‘flagship’ cultural industries. Lastly, this study suggests that the selection of ‘flagship’ industries seems to be deeply rooted in regional inter-city rivalries. Today it is a matter of prestige for cities to ensure that they are not lagging behind other so-called ‘creative cities’. Evidently, this further contributes to the gentrification and homogenization of cities (Peck, 2005; Harvey, 1989).

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A larger long-term study is needed to evaluate social and cultural implications of the divisions in cultural and creative industries. At present, it could only be speculated that favouring a certain group of cultural industries over the others results in an unequal and unbalanced development of cultural and creative industries. In a long-term run, this may affect the development of the entire cultural sector, as cultural value is being gradually outweighed by economic and political considerations.

References Bennett, T. (1998). Culture: a reformer’s science. London: Sage. Castells, M. (1997). The Information age: economy, society and culture. Vol. II: the power of identity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Comunian, R. (2011). Rethinking the creative city: the role of complexity, networks and interaction in the urban creative economy. Urban Studies, 48(6), 1157-1179. Cunningham, S. (2012). The creative cities discourse: production and/or consumption? In H. K. Anheier and Y. R. Isar (Eds.), The cultures and globalization series, vol. 5 (pp. 111-121). London: Sage. Department of Cultural Affairs (DCA). (2010). Taibei shi 97 nian wenhua chuangyi chanye zhibiao diaocha chengguo baogao Taipei: Taipei City Government, Department of Cultural Affairs. Du Gay, P. (1997). Production of culture/cultures of production. London: Sage. Florida, R. (2002). The rise of the creative class: and how it’s transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. New York, NY: Basic Books. Gans, J. H. (1974). Popular culture and high culture: an analysis and evaluation of taste. New York, NY: Basic Books.

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About the author Kristina Karvelyte is a PhD Candidate in the Institute of Communications Studies (ICS) at the University of Leeds. Her research interests include global cities, urban cultural policy, city branding in Greater China, cultural industries and events, and their value in urban planning and development. Specifically, her work examines a path-dependency in culture-led urban development in Shanghai, Hong Kong and Taipei. — [email protected]

Grodach, C. and Silver, D. (2012). The politics of urban cultural policy: global perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge. Harvey, D. (1989). From manageralism to entrepreneurialism: the transformation in urban governance in late capitalism. Geografiska Annaler, 71B(1), 3-17. Hesmondhalgh, D. and Pratt, A. C. (2005). Cultural industries and cultural policy. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 11(1), 1-13. Hesmondhalgh, D. (2007). The cultural industries (2nd ed.). London: Sage. Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government (HKSARG). (2005). The 2005 Policy Address: Working Together for Economic Development and Social Harmony. Retrieved from http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2005/eng/ pdf/speech.pdf Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government (HKSARG). (2006). The 2005-06 Policy Address: Strong Governance for the People. Retrieved from http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/05-06/eng/pdf/speech.pdf

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Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government (HKSARG). (2008). The 2007-08 Policy Address: A New Direction for Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/07-08/eng/docs/policy.pdf Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government (HKSARG). (2010). The 2009-10 Policy Address: Breaking New Ground Together. Retrieved from http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/09-10/eng/docs/policy.pdf Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government (HKSARG). (2012). The 2011-12 Policy Address: From Strength to Strength. Retrieved from http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/11-12/eng/pdf/Policy11-12.pdf Howkins, J. (2001). The creative economy: how people make money from ideas. New York, NY: Penguin. Hui, D. (2007). The creative industries and entrepreneurship in East and Southeast Asia. In C. Henry (Ed.), Entrepreneurship in the creative industries: An international perspective (pp. 9-29). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

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Keane, M. (2011). China’s new creative clusters: governance, human capital and investment. Oxon: Routledge. Kong, L. (2009). Making sustainable creative/cultural space in Shanghai and Singapore. The Geographical Review, 91(1), 1-22. Landry, C. (2000). The creative city: A toolkit for urban innovators. London: Earthscan. McGuigan, J. (2004). Rethinking cultural policy. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Mommaas, H. (2009). Spaces of culture and economy: mapping the culturalcreative cluster landscape. In L. Kong and J. O’Connor (Eds.), Creative economies, creative cities: Asian-European perspectives (pp. 45-59). New York, NY: Springer. Oakley, K. (2009). Getting out of place: The mobile creative class takes on the local. A UK perspective on the creative class. In L. Kong and J. O’Connor (Eds.), Creative economies, creative cities: Asian-European perspectives (pp. 121-133). New York, NY: Springer. Oakley, K. (2012). Rich but divided… The politics of cultural policy in London. In K. H. K. Anheier and R. Y. Isar (Eds.), Cities, cultural policy and governance. The cultures and globalization series, vol. 5 (pp. 204-211). London: Sage. O’Connor, J. and Gu, X. (2006). A new modernity? The arrival of ‘creative industries’ in China. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 9(3), 271-283. O’Connor, J. and Gu, X. (2012). Shanghai: Images of modernity. In K. H. K. Anheier and R. Y. Isar (Eds.), Cities, cultural policy and governance. The cultures and globalization series, vol. 5 (pp. 153-159). London: Sage. Peck, J. (2005). Struggling with the creative class. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29(4), 740-770. Pratt, A. C. (2005). Cultural industries and public policy. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 11(1), 31-44.

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Pratt, A. C. (2009). Policy transfer and the field of the cultural and creative industries: what can be learned from Europe? In L. Kong and J. O’Connor (Eds.), Creative economies, creative cities: Asian-European perspectives (pp. 9-24). New York, NY: Springer. Scott, A. J. (1999). The cultural economy: geography and the creative field. Media, Culture and Society, 21(1), 807-817. Shanghai Municipal People’s Government (SMPG). (2004). Zhengfu gongzuo baogao [Government work report]. Retrieved from http://www.shanghai.gov. cn/shanghai/node2314/node8750/node8886/node14332/ Shanghai Municipal People’s Government (SMPG). (2011). Shanghai shi guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shi er ge wu nian guihua gangyao [Outline of the 12th five-year Plan for Shanghai’s Economic and Social Development]. Retrieved from http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node2314/node25307/ node25455/node25457/u21ai485258.html

Taipei City Government (TCG). (2009). Taipei Yearbook 2008. Retrieved from http://tcgwww.taipei.gov.tw/mp.asp?mp=100042 Taipei City Government (TCG). (2010). Taibei shi changqi fazhan gangling (2010-2020 nian) [Taipei City long-term development plan (2010-2020)]. Taipei: Taipei City Government. Taipei City Government (TCG). (2011). Taipei Yearbook 2010. Retrieved from http://tcgwww.taipei.gov.tw/mp.asp?mp=100089 Throsby, D. (2010). The economics of cultural policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Williams, R. (1984). State culture and beyond. In L. Apignanesi (Ed.), Culture and the state (pp. 3-5). London: Institute of Contemporary Art.

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Shanghai Municipal People’s Government (SMPG). (2013). Shi zhengfu xinwen fabuhui jieshao 2012 nian Shanghai wenhua chuangyi chanye tongji shuju, 2013 nian Shanghai shi wenhua chuangyi chanye fazhan baogao deng Retrieved from http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node2314/node9819/ node9822/u21ai761760.html

Yeoh, B. (2005). The global cultural city? Spatial imagineering and politics in the (multi)cultural marketplaces of South-east Asia. Urban Studies, 42(5/6), 945-958. Young, R. (1995). Colonial desire: hybridity in theory, culture, and race. London: Routledge. Zukin, S. (1995). The cultures of cities. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

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Jeannette Nijkamp Chris Kuiper Jack Burgers

The Afrikaander Cooperative: every resident’s cup of tea!? Stimulating creative entrepreneurship in Rotterdam

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Abstract

During the last decades the popularity of the creative city thesis resulted in a growing importance of creativity and culture in urban development policies, one of the policy rationales for stimulating creative entrepreneurs being urban regeneration. However, there is a lot of ongoing debate whether initiatives stimulating creative entrepreneurship contribute to regeneration, which of the actors involved benefit from these initiatives. This article focuses on the projects of the Freehouse foundation in the Rotterdam Afrikaanderwijk. In this deprived neighbourhood Freehouse has initiated several projects, aimed at stimulating creative entrepreneurship by tapping local creativity and bringing local skills together in collective production. This article addresses the question: what are the effects of the projects on the residents of the Afrikaanderwijk? The focus is on the economic and social development of the residents and the liveability of the neighbourhood. We found that for the residents involved in the projects, their involvement actually offers them economic as well as social advantages. Further, we found some contribution to the liveability of the neighbourhood. Although the number of residents involved is restricted, these projects appear to be good elaborations of the current government policy aiming at diminishing government involvement and using and strengthening the resilience of local communities. The recently founded Afrikaander Cooperative aims at a much broader group of residents. However, there are some major challenges to be addressed, before this Cooperative can have tangible influence on the quality of life of the wider community. Introduction

The creative city thesis, which was launched by urban theorists like Landry (2000) and made increasingly popular among urban policy-makers by Florida (2002) implies that creativity is one of the most important sources of economic growth. During the last decades the popularity of this thesis resulted in a growing importance of creativity and culture in urban development policies, in which the economic perspective soon became prevalent. Alongside or interwoven with economic development, various other policy rationales for stimulating creative entrepreneurs - often referred to as the creative industries - can be distinguished, one of which is urban regeneration (Foord, 2008). Besides contributing to economic and talent development, creative entrepreneurs are also assumed to improve the liveability of deprived neighbourhoods by bringing more ‘buzz’ to the neighbourhood, which has a positive effect on the establishment of new cafés, restaurants and shops (Landry, 2000). This is supposed to be important for the quality of life of inhabitants and for attracting visitors, enterprises and new inhabitants (Montgomery, 2007).

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However, there is a lot of ongoing debate if initiatives stimulating creative entrepreneurship contribute to regeneration. One of the issues addressed, involves the question which actors benefit from these initiatives. In elaborating this issue, we focus on the following question: what are the effects of the projects on the residents of the Afrikaanderwijk? The role of the creative industries in urban regeneration

While looking at the role of place-making strategies in Liberty Village, a creative hub in Toronto’s inner city, Catungal, Lesley and Hii (2009) argue that, by nature, place-making entails displacement – of particular images, peoples and behaviours from an area, in order to forge a unique identity for a space. They conclude that the creative city in actual practice is often limited to corporate firm-based creative industries. Creative city initiatives that are successful in facilitating inner-city renewal and the formation of business clusters, actually fail to address accompanying urban problems such as inequality, working poverty and gentrification. Gentrification refers to the issue that on the one hand the process of regeneration determines the improvement of a specific neighbourhood, but on the other hand it leads to the expulsion of the usual inhabitants in favour of new rich arrivals (Tremblay & Battaglia, 2012). Gentrification may be detrimental to neighbourhoods, including their creative entrepreneurs and artists (Zukin, 2010), as it evolves at the expense of both authentic symbolic values and affordable real estate.

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Many authors have criticised Florida’s (2002) creative city thesis for aiming primarily at creating favourable urban environments to attract a new urban elite, rather than improving problematic living conditions of the current residents of deprived neighbourhoods (e.g. Peck, 2005; Jarvis, Lambie & Berkeley, 2009). Based on research on Baltimore, Ponzini and Rossi (2010) conclude that the creative city policy generates an uneven distribution of power, in which ‘…cultural actors can either be losers or winners…; the political élites and their more closely associated institutional partners can opportunistically benefit from these strategies…; the less affluent communities of urban-dwellers are… not gaining any direct and immediate benefit…and are…affected by the rise in housing prices and living costs that spatial revitalisation brings on the local level’ (Ponzini & Rossi, 2010: 1053-1054).

Jarvis, Lambie and Berkeley (2009) argue that stimulating the creative industries can result in polarised and unstable economic development (Oakley, 2004). Another important issue is the sustainability of such policies. Concerning the supposed contribution to social inclusion, Jarvis et al. (2009) notify that the creative industries are promoting diversity concerning the cultural backgrounds of the people employed, while at the same time employing an almost exclusively graduate level workforce. In addition, particular cultures might become dominant within the creative industries (Landry, 2000). Jarvis et al. (2009) found that the creative industries can play an important role in improving the liveability of a neighbourhood, and plead for supporting initiatives fostering links between the creative industries and physical regeneration, either in terms of public art or physical developments. Although a trickledown effect enhancing the quality of life of the wider community is often assumed, such initiatives may be most successful when engaging with a pre-existing sense of local identity (Bailey, Miles & Stark, 2004).

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Our research is part of an ideographic multiple case study. Data collection took place in the period from June 2013 to March 2014. In order to acquire data from a range of perspectives, various methods were used; in-depth interviewing, informal conversations with actors involved and observations. In the next section, we will describe the projects and the actors involved. Freehouse: projects and actors

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Unlike many initiatives, the projects initiated by the Freehouse foundation, explicitly aim at stimulating the creativity of current residents in the Afrikaanderwijk in order to improve their living conditions and perspectives. In investigating the effects of these projects, we will pay attention to the different types of effects that can be distinguished and the number of residents involved. We will focus on the effects concerning the economic and social development of the residents as well as on the effects on the liveability of the neighbourhood. Since 2008 the Freehouse foundation is engaged in the Afrikaanderwijk, one of Rotterdam’s most deprived neighbourhoods with an ethnically very diverse population. In this neighbourhood households have a relatively low income, one in five living on state benefits. Further, there is a high rate of school drop-outs and the quality of the housing stock is poor. Relatively often people feel unsafe and there is little social cohesion (Team Deetman/Mans and Lysias Advies B.V., 2011). Freehouse aims at stimulating cultural entrepreneurship by setting up spaces where local entrepreneurs, young people and artists can exchange knowledge, experience and ideas in order to strengthen their economic position and stimulate their social-cultural self-consciousness. Freehouse initiated several projects in which artists are linked to local (latent) entrepreneurs. Freehouse uses a broad definition of cultural production, namely ‘everything with which people express their culture by producing various things’. As part of the projects, a number of assignments has been granted to artists and designers, several of which concern the production of fashion in cooperation with local seamstresses supplied by Freehouse. When in 2009 housing association Vestia offered Freehouse a small business premise, Freehouse founded the Neighbourhood Studio and brought the seamstresses together in this building where, besides the production of fashion, sewing lessons are offered for a small fee. Further, in order to stimulate women to turn cooking into their profession, in 2010 Freehouse set up the Neighbourhood Kitchen, where neighbourhood residents from various cultural backgrounds, prepare dishes with locally bought ingredients. From April to October, meals are served on the terrace on market days. The Kitchen also runs a catering service. The most recent project is the Neighbourhood Value Store, which opened in the beginning of 2013. This Store functioned as a showcase for everything that is for sale in the neighbourhood, besides providing a stage for a diverse range of activities, varying from talk shows to dancing lessons. During the closing symposium of the project in January 2014, the Afrikaander Cooperative was launched as a network organisation for individual residents, entrepreneurs and institutions. This Cooperative aims at stimulating local production, cultural development and knowledge exchange within the Afrikaanderwijk, in order to facilitate access to education, paid work or entrepreneurship. 168

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Motivations and interests

Until now, the residents involved are volunteers who get a monthly fee. However, the Kitchen as well as the Studio aim at employing these volunteers through the Afrikaander Cooperative for a short trial period, after which they find a paid job. For most of them it is not feasible to become an independent entrepreneur because of personnel circumstances, ‘Two years ago I was busy to take over the Studio…, but because of my health…this is not wise’ (volunteer of the Studio). For most volunteers social motives for their involvement in the Kitchen or the Studio are even more important than economic advantage. ‘I was also in need of social contacts with Dutch people, in order to improve my Dutch; therefore I told several neighbourhood centres that I can sew and design. In this way I passed on my knowledge and learned the language from other people’ (volunteer of the Studio). At the start of the Cooperative, the Neighbourhood Kitchen and the Studio joined, as well as individual volunteers and some individual entrepreneurs from the neighbourhood. Freehouse is still very much involved in its further development, but the idea is that Freehouse will step down and leave the initiative in the future. The Cooperative is intended to make a profit, fifty percent of which will be paid out to its members. The other fifty percent is intended for social-cultural projects, for improving the neighbourhood and for reinforcement of the Cooperative. Besides a direct interest concerning the possibility of being employed through the Cooperative, the volunteers have a broader interest in the Cooperative. When the Cooperative was launched, its meaning for the neighbourhood was discussed. What worries the volunteers most is the development of opportunities for youngsters. Consequently an urgent question for them is what the Cooperative can contribute to the development of this group.

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The central aim of Freehouse is to stimulate cultural entrepreneurship in the Afrikaanderwijk in order to strengthen the economic position of the residents involved and stimulate their social-cultural self-consciousness. The housing association Vestia and the borough, both sharing the aim to stimulate economic development, supported some of the projects finances. Vestia further offered both the Neighbourhood Kitchen and the Studio a small premise, free of charge. During the last years however, both Vestia and the borough had much less possibilities to contribute to such projects. Hence, Vestia started to charge the Kitchen a rent. For Freehouse it is important that the residents involved get paid: ‘I consider it important that they get paid for what they do, and that they realise that they deliver quality, that they can deliver a service for which has to be paid….I also think that it will give them a certain amount of independence…’ (co-worker of Freehouse).

A potential advantage of the Cooperative for the individual entrepreneurs is that in order to acquire orders, member entrepreneurs can participate in tenders: ‘Then…the canteen of the new municipal office for example could be run by the Neighbourhood Kitchen instead of by a catering enterprise from …’ (co-worker of Freehouse). However, the direct interest of the Cooperative for most of the individual entrepreneurs is not clear yet, as one of the members of the advisory board remarks: ‘I do not have the impression that the shop owners…by themselves think to be in enormous need of that Cooperative….I consider this an important issue that needs to be clarified by the executive board’ (member of the advisory board of the Cooperative). Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Effects of the projects

Our study assessed the effects of the projects in terms of the economic and social development of the residents and the liveability of the Afrikaanderwijk. Economic effects

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The Neighbourhood Kitchen functions without any subsidy and employs approximately ten regular volunteers and some women contributing on a more incidental basis. The regular volunteers receive a fee of 120 euros a month for their effort. The volunteers of the Studio also receive a fee when they contribute to the realisation of fashion for a designer; for these more occasional assignments the Studio can draw from around fifteen women. Two critical remarks can be made in relation to these economic effects. The first remark concerns the limited number of residents who take economic advantage of the Kitchen and the Studio, this advantage only consisting of a volunteer fee. Although this fee is a first step towards more economic independence, it does not diminish the dependence on possible benefits. The second remark relates to the fact that for its orders the Kitchen largely depends on several big organisations, like Rotterdam University and the borough. The number of people that visits the terrace on market days is limited, probably because the Afrikaanderwijk is a poor neighbourhood. An additional effect that has to be taken into account is, that some volunteers found a paid job thanks to the experience they built up in the Kitchen, as the coordinator explains: ‘…he told me: “I never had such a short interview.”….That manager said: “Just make a cappuccino….” He had practised that well here…. And then he was hired. The Neighbourhood Kitchen has a good reputation’ (coordinator of the Kitchen). Social effects

Both the Kitchen and the Studio offer opportunities for neighbourhood residents to develop and share their talents. Since the foundation of the Studio, approximately 100 people took sewing lessons. Further, about fifteen women contributed to the realisation of various assignments concerning the production of fashion, together with a designer. The volunteers have various cultural backgrounds. Because of this diversity they all speak Dutch, so the Kitchen and the Studio offer an opportunity to improve language capabilities. Further, volunteers have increased their sense of self-confidence, as the coordinator of the Kitchen remarks: ‘I really saw people changing, people who were very shy and didn’t dare to speak. Of one woman I thought that she didn’t speak Dutch.… when I got to know her better and she just got more self-confidence, it turned out that she did speak Dutch,…she can get along well’ (coordinator of the Kitchen). Effects concerning liveability

As the Studio is established in a premise where passers-by can see the sewing machines and the activities, people are attracted to come in. Part of the people who took sewing lessons actually learnt of the Studio this way. Further, several residents who - for example want to shorten their pants but do not own a sewing machine - as well as students from the Dutch fashion schools also come to the Studio, where they can use the sewing machines free of charge. The visibility of the activities contribute to the activation of neighbourhood residents and the Studio also functions as a place where residents can meet each other. In this way, the Studio contributes to the liveability of the street.1 The above mentioned effects especially relate to the Kitchen and the Studio; effects of the recently founded Afrikaander Cooperative are not visible yet.

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Conclusions and discussion

Concerning the projects initiated by Freehouse this article addressed the question: what are the effects of the projects on the residents of the Afrikaanderwijk? We focused on the effects concerning the economic and social development of the residents, and the liveability of the neighbourhood.

Unlike many projects, Freehouse explicitly aims at stimulating the creativity of the current residents of the Afrikaanderwijk in order to improve their living conditions and perspectives. We found that for the volunteers their involvement in the Kitchen or Studio actually offers them economic as well as social advantages. The regular volunteers receive a fee and some of them found a paid job thanks to the experience they built up in the Kitchen. Further, the Kitchen and Studio offer them opportunities to develop their talents, improve their language capabilities and increase their self-confidence. Finally we found that the Studio, because of the visibility of the activities from the street, contribute to the activation of neighbourhood residents and functions as a place where residents can meet each other. In this way the Studio contributes to the liveability of the street. Although only a limited number of people is involved in the Kitchen and Studio, these initiatives in themselves are interesting in several respects. In the first place, the Kitchen functions independently without any subsidy, which improves its chances to be sustainable. In the second place, both the Kitchen and the Studio make use of the capacities and talents of neighbourhood residents. As such they are good elaborations of the Dutch government policy introduced some years ago, that aims at diminishing government involvement, using and strengthening the resilience of local communities.

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It has become clear that the volunteers of the Neighbourhood Kitchen and the Neighbourhood Studio have economic as well as social motives for their involvement, the social motives often being most important. Their direct interest in the Afrikaander Cooperative concerns the possibility of being employed through the Cooperative in the future. Further, they also have a broader interest in the Cooperative, namely the development opportunities of the young generation. Finally, the entrepreneurs in the neighbourhood are also supposed to have an interest in the Cooperative, which is still unclear however.

In order to connect with the needs of a much broader group of residents, the Afrikaander Cooperative was founded recently, the elaboration of which will take place in the coming period. Besides providing added value for the local entrepreneurs, a major challenge concerns creating opportunities for the young generation. Another challenge consists of realising continuity of the Cooperative, as Freehouse will withdraw its commitment in the future. If and how the Cooperative will succeed in addressing these challenges are interesting questions for further research. If the Cooperative succeeds in providing adequate solutions, it can become every resident’s cup of tea and have real influence on the quality of life of the wider community.

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References Bailey, C., Miles, S. & Stark, P. (2004). Culture-led urban regeneration and the revitalisation of identities in Newcastle, Gateshead and the North East of England. In: International Journal of Cultural Policy, 10 (1), 47-65. Catungal, J.P., Leslie, D. & Hii, Y. (2009). Geographies of Displacement in the Creative City: The Case of Liberty Village, Toronto. In: Urban Studies, 46 (5&6), 1095-1114. Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books. Foord, J. (2008). Strategies for creative industries: an international review. In: Creative Industries Journal, 1 (2), 991-113. Jarvis, D., Lambie, H. & Berkeley, N. (2009). Creative industries and urban regeneration. Journal of Urban Regeneration and Renewal, 2 (4), 364-374.

About the authors Jeannette Nijkamp (MSc) studied sociology. She is a lecturer at the Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences, and currently working on her PhD on the effects of creative entrepreneurs on the Rotterdam Afrikaanderwijk. Her interests include urban regeneration, creative clusters and cultural diversity. — [email protected] (corresponding author)

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Landry, C. (2000). The creative city. A toolkit for urban innovators. London – Sterling, VA, Earthscan Publications. Montgomery, J. (2007). Creative Industry Business Incubators and Managed Workspaces: A Review of Best Practice. In: Planning, Practice & Research, 22 (4), 601-617. Oakley, K. (2004). Not so cool Brittannia: The role of the creative industries in economic development. In: International Journal of Cultural Studies, 7 (67), 67-77. Peck, J. (2005). Struggling with the Creative Class. In: International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29 (4), 740-770. Ponzini, D. & Rossi, U. (2010). Becoming a Creative City: The Entrepreneurial Mayor, Network Politics and the Promise of an Urban Renaissance. In: Urban Studies, 47(5), 1037-1057. Team Deetman/Mans & Lysias Advies B.V. (2011). Kwaliteitssprong Zuid: ontwikkeling vanuit kracht. Eindadvies van team Deetman/Mans over aanpak Rotterdam-Zuid. Werkendam: Avant GPC. Tremblay, D.G. & Battaglia, A. (2012). El Raval and Mile End: A Comparative Study of Two Cultural Quarters between Urban Regeneration and Creative Clusters, In: Journal of Geography and Geology. 4 (1), 56-74. Zukin, S. (2010). Naked city; the death and life of authentic urban places. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Chris Kuiper (PhD) is a member of the board of Horizon Institute for Youth Care and Special Needs Education. He holds a Clinical Chair at the Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences. His research interests are the humanization of healthcare: participation in society, managerialism, evidence-based practice, polyphony and qualitative research.

Jack Burgers (PhD) is a sociologist and professor of Urban Studies at the Erasmus University in Rotterdam. He has published on local consequences of economic restructuring, migration and integration, housing and urban renewal, urban culture and leisure, and the use and experience of public space.

Peter Staub Ruth Jochum-Gasser Vera Kaps Celina Martinez

Architecture as Mediator for the Creative Industries in Liechtenstein

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Abstract

This article elaborates on the first scientific findings of the ongoing research project PARK (The potential of architectural production as added value for the Creative Industries in Liechtenstein). PARK investigates the potential of architecture as a mediator for strengthening the Creative Industries within the Principality of Liechtenstein and its neighbouring regions. The projects’ aim is to develop strategies to achieve the goal set out by the government of Liechtenstein, that states that ‘Companies in the Creative Industries should be catalysts for culture and economy’ (Kulturleitbild1, 2011, p.6). It is structured in three phases, each one with its own research sub-question: What role does architecture play as a mediator within the Creative Industries ; how can a strong architectural production act as a catalyst for the Creative Industries; and how can the strengthened Creative Industries transform the international perception and image of Liechtenstein? The article focuses on the first phase of PARK. Mixed methods of research are applied: a quantitative analysis of the current state of the Creative Industries in the Principality of Liechtenstein is summarized in the first Creative Industries Report, while qualitative approaches are used to explore mediation strategies, that communicate the findings to the public through events such as panel discussions, exhibitions and lectures. This article provides insights into the dynamic relationship of architecture and other branches of the Creative and Cultural Industries, using a small, international region as a case study.

Figure 1: The geographical situation of the Principality of Liechtenstein Illustration: PARK

cultural policy guideline

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Peter Staub, Ruth Jochum-Gasser, Vera Kaps, Celina Martinez

The Principality of Liechtenstein in the Alpine Rhine Valley

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The Principality of Liechtenstein is one of the smallest countries in Europe and lies within the Alpine Rhine Valley, between Switzerland and Austria (Fig. 1).

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The economic situation of the country has changed rapidly, especially in the second half of the 20th century. From an economically weak agricultural state, the Principality of Liechtenstein has developed into a country with a modern and efficient industrial and service economy. The economic upturn has meant that the number of people employed in Liechtenstein has increased almost fivefold since 1950 (Ausländer- und Passamt [APA] , 2013). The shortage of labour led to immigration of foreign qualified employees to Liechtenstein, and is the reason for the high proportion of foreigners that amounts to roughly one-third of the resident population. According to the statistics, Liechtenstein had 35,253 employed workers at the end of 2011, which nearly corresponds to the total population of approximately 36,500 (Amt für Statistik Fürstentum Liechtenstein [AS FL], 2011). This development has only been possible thanks to the foreign workers who commute daily from the neighbouring countries of Switzerland and Austria or from Germany to their workplaces in Liechtenstein. Today, almost half of the working population are commuters. (AS FL, 2013). Creative Industries as an opportunity for the Principality of Liechtenstein

The Principality of Liechtenstein is generally perceived as a financial and industrial centre. Reflections about other development strategies for an alternative outward appearance have been increasingly discussed in recent years (Gantner, 2011, p. 134/135; Government FL, 2010). Thus the ‘financial services’ branch of the economy is to be augmented by a stronger cultural industry (Government FL, 2011). As a soft location factor, the Creative Industries would have the potential to alter Liechtenstein’s image and thus give it a new creative and innovative image that, as a stimulating force for culture and economy, can create new jobs and generate interest (Kulturleitbild, 2011). According to the vision laid out in Liechtenstein’s cultural policy guideline, businesses in the Creative Industries are a ‘stimulating force for culture and the economy’ (Kulturleitbild, 2011; PARK, Trans.). The Agenda 2020 (2010) envisions the country will be perceived and appreciated in 10 years’ time for its unmistakable culture. Taking the definition of culture endorsed by the Government of Liechtenstein as a presupposition – that culture is ‘the expression of human´s creative urge’ (Kulturleitbild, 2011; PARK, Trans.) – one wonders why architecture is not understood today as an integral component of culture. In Liechtenstein, architecture does not officially belong to any government department, even though over the past 10 years, together with the design industry it has constituted the largest sub-segment of the Creative Industries within the Principality of Liechtenstein (Fig. 2). It is in fact occasionally recognized and awarded as a built cultural asset (e.g. the ‘Konstruktiv’ architecture prize for sustainable construction and refurbishment, 2010), but other facets of architecture, above all in the context of culture, education, and economy, still need to be explored.

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Architecture as Mediator for the Creative Industries in Liechtenstein

The presence of architecture within the various sub-segments and the decisive advantage of its visual evidence offers the opportunity to establish it as an elementary cultural asset in the country, and to use it as a mediator between economy and culture. The role of architecture as a mediator for the Creative Industries

The University of Liechtenstein’s PARK research project2 begins with these presuppositions and seeks to support the goals established by the Government of the Principality of Liechtenstein. The first phase ascertains what contribution can be made by architectural production to implementing Liechtenstein’s cultural policy guideline. An elementary component of an implementation strategy is to make the existence and the work of the Creative Industries visible and to convey the potential of strong Creative Industries – and within them, the appeal of architectural production – to Liechtenstein society.

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Figure 2: The 13 sub-segments of the Creative Industries (FL) Source: Betriebszählung AS des Fürstentum Liechtensteins

To investigate the matter in question, two aspects have been examined and analysed: 1. initial data were analysed by taking an inventory of the Creative Industries in Liechtenstein and neighbouring regions, and 2. selected case studies of architectural mediation initiatives are included in the present study. PARK is an acronym for the potential of architectural production as added value for the Creative Industries in Liechtenstein (original: Potential des Architekturschaffens als Teil der Kreativwirtschaft in Liechtenstein) and was initiated by the Center for Architecture and Visual Culture at the Institute of Architecture and Planning at the University of Liechtenstein.

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The research question was investigated by employing ‘mixed methods’ (qualitative and quantitative surveys) that are especially preferred for subject areas in which ‘a dynamic interplay with creative practice in highly practical fields’ takes place (Greene, 2007, p. 8).

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In the case of the Principality of Liechtenstein and the Swiss cantons, the data collection is based on the censuses taken by their statistical offices (AS FL 2013; Bundesamt für Statistik Schweiz [BAFS], 2013). The evaluations of the present study were compiled for the Swiss cantons and the Principality of Liechtenstein in accordance with the NOGA 2008 general classification system (BAFS, 2013) for the years 2005, 2008 and 2011. The cultural and Creative Industries are thereby differentiated through a breakdown into thirteen sub-segments: music industry, book market, the art market, the film industry, the broadcasting industry, the performing arts market, the design industry, architectural market, advertising market, software and games industry, arts and crafts, press market, audio equipment market. In the case of the data collection for the state of Vorarlberg, the breakdown of markets is based on the Ö-NACE 2008 (Statistik Austria 2013). This is less extensive than the NOGA 2008 classification, but is nonetheless sufficient for the comparative studies. The Creative Industries in Liechtenstein and the Alpine Rhine Valley

According to the data obtained from the Office of Statistics (AS FL, personal communication, 2013), the Creative Industries in the Principality of Liechtenstein increased by 1,23% in the years 2005 to 2011, and grew the fastest in comparison to the neighbouring Swiss cantons (AI, AR, GR, SG)(Fig. 3). While a slight increase in employment can also be observed in the cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Graubünden, the Creative Industries fell back by about 0.8% in the cantons of Appenzell Ausserrhoden and St. Gallen. No conclusion can be made on the development of the Creative Industries in Vorarlberg between the years 2005-2011, because the necessary data from 2005 are not comparable (Statistikreferat Wirtschaftskammer Vorarlberg, personal communication, March 4, 2014).

Figure 3: Growth (%) of the Creative Industries in terms of employees from 2005-11. Source: Betriebszählung AS des Fürstentum Liechtensteins; BfS Schweiz

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Figure 4: The Creative Industries in comparison to the overall economy: number of workplaces. Source: Betriebszählung AS des Fürstentum Liechtensteins; BfS Schweiz; WKV Statistik

Furthermore, in comparison to the neighbouring regions (Ai, AR, GR, SG, and Vbg), the Principality of Liechtenstein had the highest density of workers and workplaces in the Creative Industries in 2011, despite its small size of 160 km²: With 14.01 creative professionals and almost 5 workplaces per square kilometer, the small state is also at the top in this evaluation (Fig. 5).

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As part of the overall economy, Liechtenstein’s Creative Industries are also clearly present: of the 35,253 people employed, 6.40% are creative professionals. Furthermore, 19.64% of the workplaces counted in 2011 belong to the Creative Industries. This is almost twice as much as in Vorarlberg with 11.80%, and two and a half times as much as in the Swiss cantons AI, AR, GR und SG (Fig. 4).

Figure 5: Density of the Creative Industries in the Alpine Rhine Valley Source: Betriebszählung AS des Fürstentum Liechtensteins; BfS Schweiz; WKV Statistik.

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Emerging regions that develop apart from traditional conurbations and are based on a network of small and medium-sized companies are described by Krätke (1995a) as a particular phenomenon of regionalization. The spatial orientation and proximity of various actors such as producers, suppliers, and service providers, have a positive impact on the business location development also in the Alpine Rhine Valley (Saurwein, 2009). The international research group GREMI3, founded by regional economists, determined in the 1980s that the mere existence of these participants in the economic process was not enough, but that it was, in fact, only their interaction that would have positive effects (Fromhold-Eisebith, 1999). Thus they defined the creative milieu as ‘the set, or the complex network of mainly informal social relationships on a limited geographical area, often determining a specific external image and a specific internal representation and sense of belonging, which enhance the local innovative capability through synergetic and collective learning processes’ (Camagni, 1991, p.3). Taken together, regions accordingly work as ‘collective actors’ (Krätke, 1995b, p. 79-80; Saurwein, 2009). The potential of networking different interest groups can be seen in the example of ‘vorarlberger holzbaukunst’, whose goal is to strengthen the regional value chain for ‘wood construction’. Wood contractors and saw mill operators, forest owners, and selected partners from the timber and building materials trade as well as a group of architects and planners specializing in wood construction form the successful core of this regional wood construction industry (vorarlberger holzbaukunst, 2013). This also supplies evidence that strong Creative Industries are usually to be found where cultural potential, such as manual skills, cultural knowledge, and a strong identification with a place and its image, has historical roots. For why should a creative sub-segment be promoted in a place where there are no local native approaches? The Vorarlberg Architecture Institute (vai), founded in 1997, capitalizes on this, having set itself the goal of sustainably strengthening building culture in Vorarlberg. As the most visible component of building culture, architecture can consequently take on the task of acting as a mediator between the other sub-segments. Architecture as Mediator

By virtue of its interdisciplinary and cross-divisional structure, architecture already functions as a mediator. That is because the process of constructing architecture in itself already represents a task of mediation among clients, planners and builders, without which it would not be possible to transform a design into reality. The architect strives to bring together the opposite poles of culture and economy. This balancing act can serve as a model for other sectors of Creative Industries. But even at the political level, architecture can function as a mediator for creative professionals who are dependent on the three communal policy fields of economic promotion, cultural policy, and urban and regional development. In Berlin’s Tempelhof district, the ‘Tempelhofer Freiheit’ is an integrated urban development (Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt Berlin, 2013). It is a good example of how cultural initiatives can be linked from the outset to long-range spatial development concepts and also be understood as an integral part of the overall process. Here, the planners integrated participatory processes and civic involvement into the planning process. They organize events, online participation, an ideas competition, and exhibitions. Pioneering programs become motors and mediators for urban design activity and are employed as instruments

Groupe de Recherche Européen sur les Milieux Innovateurs

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for developing the place. The emergence of space is therefore understood not only as a structured accumulation of building forms, but as a successive densification of cultural activities, programs, and networks that gradually also manifest themselves architecturally. Mediation

As an educational institution comprising spatial planning and economic institutes, the university assumes a central role in Liechtenstein as the country’s public mediation platform. Hence, the PARK research project, which operates within the fields of architecture and entrepreneurship, understands itself as a key player in the transfer of knowledge between culture and economy. The aim is to establish architectural mediation as a model of openness toward cooperation between the public, external experts, and the educational system – and to present these, along with the project partners, at public events such as exhibitions, symposiums, and public discussions. Two Examples of Applied Mediation

A local example of this is Liechtenstein’s 2013 Cultural Forum, which was conceived by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Education and Culture and the Institute of Architecture and Planning at the University of Liechtenstein as a public event addressing the topic of cultural space and spatial culture. The topic was examined from two sides – a publicspatial (space as culture) and a public-artistic (space for culture). Two panel discussions offered a glimpse of the viewpoints and working methods of the participating speakers, who are experts on the topic but, at the same time, also see their work in a larger cultural context and deal with Liechtenstein and the region.

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Mediation initiatives that use architecture to promote spatial perception generate not only economic benefit but also added value to society. Hence, they need good publicity and a willingness of the participants to work together. Various empirical studies demonstrate how fundamentally the perception, language, conceptual thinking, and aesthetic judgment of architects and laypeople differ and how this hinders communication (Nasar, 1998; Stamps, 2000; Rambow, 2000). In constant awareness of the complexity of the subject, the mediation must be reduced and made accessible. The use of discipline-specific language as a form of mediation can thus be increasingly replaced by images and experiences through architecture as mediator.

Since the panel discussion was held in the form of an informal salon dialogue, the audience was able to participate freely in the individual discussions. Those who expressed comments from among the 80-100 attendees were primarily people who also deal privately or professionally with issues of spatial culture and cultural space. During and after the two discussion blocks, an exhibition conceived by PARK offered attendees an opportunity to learn about the opinions of 15 creative professionals from Liechtenstein. Qualitative interviews had been previously conducted with creative professionals in the country, whose opinions were summarized as quotations presented in the exhibition. This was meant to open up an additional level of sensitization for the topic of spatial culture and cultural space in Liechtenstein, also among attendees from other fields. An example of an international mediation platform is the Architecture Biennale in Venice, which takes place every two years. This year, the Centre of Excellence for Architecture and Visual Culture at the University of Liechtenstein is conceiving Liechtenstein’s first official contribution to the Biennale. This is intended as a first Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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step in also establishing abroad the Principality of Lichtenstein’s external perception as a cultural state. The exhibition will subsequently travel to the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein in the capital city of Vaduz, where it will serve as an instrument for mediating regional building culture in the country.

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Findings and Outlook

The initial findings of the study reveal that, in relation to the land area and the overall economy, an above-average proportion of creative professionals work in the Principality of Liechtenstein. The qualitative interviews illustrate that the social network is highly developed among the creative professionals in the country. The contacts among creative professionals, that are provoked by spatial and social proximity and the proximity to political institutions such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Education and Culture, benefit by collective projects and facilitate their initiation and implementation. The principle that ‘everyone knows one another‘ and the ensuing frequent personal contact eases the exchange of information and accelerates the spread of innovative impulses. Moreover, a kindred cultural value orientation takes hold (Krätke, 1995a, p. 216). Architecture, as a space-defining cultural asset, seems to be able to function as a catalyst in the country and has the potential to stimulate and promote collective processes between different participants. As a mediator at the interface of culture, economy, and education, it has the potential to strengthen the region’s creative economy (Fig. 6).

Figure 6 Architecture as mediator

The University of Liechtenstein, together with its Centre for Architecture and Visual Culture as a platform for discussion, offers a potential focal point for the mediation of the creative industries in Liechtenstein and the surrounding region (Jochum-Gasser R., Kaps V., Martinez C., Staub P., 2013, p.23).

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This lays the foundation for a further phase of investigation within the PARK research project, in which interdisciplinary cooperation among actors from the fields of architecture, culture, economy and education is the focus. The aim is to identify local value chains and to formulate recommendations for action that support the Principality of Liechtenstein in broadening its external image as a financial services state to include, in the long term, the aspired image of a creative state.

Prof. Peter Staub is an architect and researcher in architecture and visual culture. He studied at the Accademia di Architettura di Mendrisio and graduated from the Architectural Association School of Architecture (AA Dipl 2003) and the Cities Programme at the London School of Economics (MSc 2008). He has been a Unit Master at the AA and has taught at the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne and the University of Liechtenstein, where he holds the professorship in Architecture and Visual Culture and is the Academic Director of the Master’s degree programme in architecture. His main focus in teaching and research is on the mediation of architecture and building cultures. — [email protected]

Dr. Ruth Jochum-Gasser is a researcher at the Institute of Entrepreneurship, University of Liechtenstein, and founding member of the German Research Group Cultural Entrepreneurship. She works as an expert to the Eurpean Commission in Education, Audiovisual and Culture.

References Amt für Statistik Fürstentum Liechtenstein [AS FL] (2011). Bevölkerungsstatistik Stand 31.Dezember 2011 (2011). Vaduz. Available from: http://www.llv.li/ pdf-llv-as-bevoelkerungsstatistik_31.12.2011 [Accessed 20/03/14]. Amt für Statistik Fürstentum Liechtenstein [AS FL] (2013), p. 124. Statistisches Jahrbuch Liechtenstein 2013, S. 124. Available: http://www.llv.li/pdf-llv-asstatistisches_jahrbuch_2013 [Accessed 13/03/14]. Ausländer- und Passamt [APA] (2013). Niederlassung. Skriptum. Vaduz. Available from: http://www.llv.li/pdf-llv-apa-skriptum-niederlassung.pdf [Accessed 20/03/14]. Camagni, Roberto (1991), p.3: Innovation networks. Spatial perspectives. London, New York: Belhaven Press. Fromhold-Eisebith, Martina (1999). Das ‘kreative Milieu’ - nur theoretisches Konzept oder Instrument der Regionalentwicklung? In: Raumforschung und Raumordnung : RuR 57 (2/3), p. 168–175. Gantner, M. (2011). Gedanken zur Rolle von Wettbewerbsfähigkeit, Souveränität, Identität und Wohlstand im Fürstentum Liechtenstein. In Liechtenstein Institut (Herausgeber), 25 Jahre Liechtenstein Institut (1986-2011), p.134/135. Verlag der Liechtensteinischen Akademischen Gesellschaft. Vaduz.

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About the authors

Greene, J.C. (2008), p.8: Is Mixed Methods Social Inquiry a Distinctive Methodology? In: Journal of Mixed Methods Research 2008; 2; 7. Available from: http://statistika21.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/4-mixed-method-socialinquiry-17.pdf [Accessed 25/03/14] Konrad, Verena (2013). 5min Statement. Kulturforum Liechtenstein 2013, 09.11.13. Universität Liechtenstein. Vaduz. Krätke, Stefan (1995a). Globalisierung und Regionalisierung [globalization and regionalisation]. In: Geographische Zeitschrift: GZ.- Stuttgart: Steiner, ISSN 0016-7479, ZDB-ID 58294. - Vol. 83.1995, 3, p. 207-221. Krätke, S. (1995b). Stadt - Raum - Ökonomie. Einführung in aktuelle Problemfelder der Stadtökonomie und Wirtschaftsgeographie. Basel: Birkhäuser (Stadtforschung aktuell, 53). Nasar, Jack L. (1998). The evaluative image of the city. Thousand Oaks, Calif. [u.a.]: SAGE Publ.

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Rambow, Riklef (2000). Experten-Laien-Kommunikation in der Architektur. Münster: Waxmann (Internationale Hochschulschriften, Bd. 344). Regierung des Fürstentums Liechtnstein. (2010). Agenda 2020. Vaduz. Available from: http://www.regierung.li/fileadmin/dateien/Downloads/ RA-2010-1845-Agenda-2020-05-10-2010.pdf [Accessed 20/03/14]. Regierung des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (2011). Ressort Wirtschaft. Vaduz. Available from: http://www.llv.li/pdf-llv-rk_vernehml._standortfoerderungsgesetz.pdf [Accessed 11/03/14]. Saurwein, Karin (2009). Wirtschaftsakteure im Alpenrheintal: Vernetzung und Orientierungen in einem von Grenzen durchgezogenen Wirtschaftsstandort. In: Saurwein, Karin (Hrsg.). Conference Series, DOKONARA 2008, 2. Int. DoktorandInnenkolleg, Nachhaltige Raumentwicklung. Innsbruck: Innsbruck University Press [iup], ISBN 978-3-902719-18-8 p.196-211.

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Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt Berlin (2013). Projekt ‚Tempelhofer Freiheit‘. Berlin Webpage. Available from: http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/planen/tempelhof/ [Accessed 21/03/14].

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Stamps, Arthur Earl (2000). Psychology and the aesthetics of the built environment. Boston: Kluwer Academic. Statistik Austria (2013). Statistik Austria Webpage. Available from: http://www.statistik.gv.at [Accessed 05/03/14]. Vorarlberger holzbau kunst, (2013). Vorarlberger holzbau kunst. Webpage. Available from: http://www.holzbau-k unst.at [Accessed 14/11/12]. Vera Kaps is an architect and researcher. Educated at the University of Stuttgart in Germany and at the PUC (Pontificia Universidad de Chile) in Santiago de Chile, she graduated in Architecture and Urban Planning. Vera worked in Stuttgart-, Frankfurt-, Vienna- and Zurich- based offices in the fields of architecture, urban planning and exhibition design. She also works as a writer for the Berlin-based architectural magazine Bauwelt. Currently she is working as a researcher at the Institute for Architecture and Planning at the University of Liechtenstein — [email protected]

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Ruth holds a Master degree in art history and another degree in languages. At the University of Liechtenstein she is responsible for i,,,,,,nternational accreditations and edits a scientific journal on Small and Medium Enterprises & Entrepreneurship (ZfKE) — [email protected]

Celina Martinez is an architect, urban planner and researcher. Educated at the Escuela Tecnica Superior de Arquitectura (ETSAM) in Madrid and at the Architectural Association (AA) in London, she graduated in Interior Design, Architecture and holds a MA in Environmental Design. Celina worked in Madrid-, London- and Zürich- based offices in the fields of urban design. She led projects at KCAP architects & planners and at the Future Cities Laboratory, a joint research project between the ETH (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule) in Zurich and the NRF (National Research Foundation) in Singapore. Currently she is working as a researcher and doctoral student at the Institute for Architecture and Planning at the University of Liechtenstein — [email protected]

Vanessa R Hünnemeyer

Planning the creative milieu: Analysing creativity-led regeneration with examples from Barcelona and Vienna

Without doubt the creative paradigm has advanced to one of the most soughtafter strategies for urban regeneration. Creativity is promoted worldwide as an indispensable asset for urban growth, prosperity and high-quality urban life. Notwithstanding assessments of creativity-led urban development, only few go beyond the scope of good practice examples. Thus, this research focuses on constituting an analytical framework to appraise planned milieus. The three central pillars of the milieu, place, people and partnership, constitute an open framework, which guide the analysis of two case studies in Vienna and Barcelona. As research shows, planning may have both a positive and negative impact on the development of milieus. Nevertheless the analysed milieus suffer serious deficits in regard to their capability to produce milieu-like structures which emphasizes the need to re-think and adjust current urban planning strategies. Introduction

Within the field of urban planning a reassessment of inner city urban space and its economic values has been evident in new urban models resulting in emerging recognition of the concept of creativity not only in Europe, but also in America and Asia (Kunzmann, 2005, Foord, 2008, Evans, 2004). Authorities increasingly rely on the creative industries and their anticipated positive impact on the economic, social, and spatial revaluation of central urban areas, although a systematic view on analysing the success of these strategies is missing. Discussing the milieu approach as a strategy for urban development, empirical research on case studies in Barcelona and Vienna unfolds possibilities and restrains of these merely top-down measures.

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Abstract

The milieu: a diverse concept

Despite the abundance of empirical research on the qualities of and dynamics in milieus, the milieu remains a diverse concept. Dating back to the emergence and pluralisation of lifestyles (Hradil, 1992a, 1992b), the milieu approach has also been applied to questions related to unequal spatial and economic development of regions, cities and neighbourhoods (Camagni, 1991a, 1991b, Andersson, 1985, Florida 2012). Based on an analysis of authors and theses in the fields of sociology, geography, economics and planning, seven qualities are determining the understanding of milieus for this article: 1

Milieus have a spatial dimension. Their scale can range from single buildings to blocks, streets or whole neighbourhoods. Due to their objective to establish and maintain personal networks, it is more likely that they occur in comparatively smaller units (cf. Landry, 2008, Camagni, 1991a, Montgomery, 2007, Florida, 2012, Frey, 2009).

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2

Milieus have a social dimension. Initially, processes of social differentiation caused the emergence of milieus and have remained important until today. Even though milieus claim to be open networks, participants are characterised by certain internal coherence based on personal traits, professions, interests, lifestyles and values which constitute peer groups, but may also lead to the exclusion of others (cf. Florida, 2012, Hradil, 1992b, Frey, 2009).

3 Milieus promote social exchange organised in strong and loose social networks. In virtue of proximity of peers, face-to-face interactions are of specific importance, as internal and external communication flows nurture the milieu and lead to its growth (cf. Andersson, 1985, Landry, 2012, Camagni, 1991a, Florida, 2012, Frey, 2009).

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4 Milieus are driver for creativity and innovation. Social density generates flows of ideas which trigger creativity and innovation (cf. Landry, 2008, Camagni, 1991a, Florida, 2012, Frey, 2009). 5 Milieus are sites for production of both material commodities and immaterial products resulting from social encounters and anticipated creativity (cf. Landry, 2008, Camagni, 1991b, Montgomery, 2007, Florida, 2012, Frey, 2009). 6 Milieus follow the market rules of supply and demand and urban entities are usually only able to sustain one milieu of a kind. The type and amount of milieus depends, among other factors, on the size and scale of the city, local structures, population dynamics, policies and economic performance (cf. Montgomery, 2007). 7 Milieus develop under specific preconditions. Besides the built environment and urban landscapes, also lifestyle amenities, diversity of people, leisure facilities and (street level) culture play an important role in the emergence of milieus. A liberal environment encourages artistic, social and creative activities and finally triggers network activities (cf. Florida, 2012, Landry, 2008) Starting from the foci of presented research, innovative milieus – in general terms support technology-driven innovation, whereas cultural milieus focus on the production of cultural goods and social cohesion in the first place (Santagata, 2002, Porter & Barber, 2007, Camagni, 1992b). Within this strata, the primary purpose of creative milieus is neither to produce public or semi-public cultural goods nor innovation in a purely technological sense, but rather to support the economic growth and place value of creative industries through culture and personal networks. According to the European Commission (KEA, 2006) culture serves as an input factor in the production chain of non-cultural goods. Despite attempts to set out compulsory guidelines on the creative sector, the variety of definitions, currently being applied, remains high, emphasizing the importance of the local context for analysing creative milieus. Creativity and the milieu

In psychological research creativity is understood as a context-driven process, i.e. individual creativity is facilitated by its socio-cultural and socio-spatial environment resulting in the generation of novel ideas (Glăvenau, 2010, Simonton, 2000, Sternberg & Lubart 1996, Amabile 1983, Stokols, Clitheroe & Zmuidzinas, 2010). Since it is

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considered as ‘(…) a complex social-cultural-psychological process that, through working with ‘culturally-impregnated’ materials within an intersubjective space, leads to the generation of artifacts that are evaluated as new and significant by one or more persons or communities at a given time’ (Glåvenau, 2010, p. 87), individual abilities as well as cognitive aspects are disregarded. Following a context-driven approach towards creativity, the milieu has to serve and facilitate social encounters enabling dynamics and processes related to the Big C (a process based on convergent and divergent thinking, cf. Guilford 1967, Khandawalla 1993, Runco 1991, in Lubart, 2001; Florida 2012, Landry 2008). In other words, the milieu needs to offer an environment conducive for economic prosperity and entrepreneurial success through the production of goods with major cultural, symbolic and economic impact (Foord, 2008). Considering research findings of Landry (2008) and Florida (2012), creative behaviour may be nurtured in multiple ways: - - - -

by the place where creative individuals work by the place where creative individuals live by the company they work for and by the people they interact with

In short, place, people and partnerships determine the internal dynamics of the creative milieu which is visualised in the figure below. According to these three pillars of creative milieus possibilities for urban authorities to intervene in their development as well as the demands of creative individuals are expressed in the following. PLACE

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MILIEU

PARTNERSHIP

PEOPLE

Figure 1 The creative triangular

Planning the setting of a milieu

In virtue of the importance of space as organising unit, ‘The built environment – the stage, the setting, the container – is crucial for establishing such a milieu. It provides the physical preconditions or platform upon which the activities or atmosphere of a city can develop.’ (Landry, 2008, p. xxvii). However, considering statements given in literature (cf. Kunzmann, 2005), the effectiveness of planning in its traditional sense may need to be considered carefully. Planning the material and immaterial setting of a milieu is a complex process: On the one hand the target group demands spaces that are

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largely authentic in regard to urban amenities, socio-economic composition of inhabitants and local industries. On the other hand, decision makers aim to accomplish those features top-down in order to control, guide and monitor urban and economic development.

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Nonetheless, a variety of examples proof the feasibility of planning spatial assets beneficial for milieus to emerge (cf. Montgomery, 2007, Creative Metropoles, 2010). For Albrechts (2005) bottom-up and top-down approaches are inevitable interlinked with each other. Whereas bottom-up approaches strengthen the already existing potential of an area, policies guide structural changes and conditions on city scale. Besides physical prerequisites, soft urban infrastructure is equally important, since creativity is often unleashed in times of a ’spirit’ moving a city’ (Kunzmann, 2005, p. 7) when new images of the city are being created (Kunzmann, 2005). Therefore, festivalisation strategies (cf. Häußermann & Siebel, 1993) play a central role. Besides measures affecting the city as a whole in a more general sense, such as European Capital of Culture, festivals specifically for the creative industries function both as a platform of stakeholders, but also increases the reputation of a city on (inter)national level. Besides macro-scale events, festivalisation strategies on the local level can create an impact on the creative scene, too. As Florida (2012) and Montgomery (2007) suggests creative industries are driven locally by street-level culture through public art, café and evening economy in order to create interest and enthusiasm in and for the area. Partnership

The second ‘P’, partnership, is concerned with the role of local economic agents as part of internal dynamics of the creative milieu. Besides ensuring a critical mass, efforts aim to generate network structures on the meso- and micro-level by providing platforms and opportunities, organising joint projects and tailor-made activities. According to Florida (2012), Montgomery (2007) and Fleming (2004) small and micro companies are dominating corporate structures in creative milieus, due to their specific spatial demands. This economic structure shall be supplemented by one or two larger ‘anchor-firms’ ensuring high volume of orders that supply smaller companies and as a consequence function as key network actor. Achieving a critical mass of profitable businesses is important to enable autonomous dynamics and processes within an area. The creative industries, however, are often excluded from traditional financing through bank loans making market entries and business survival difficult. Other funding opportunities, therefore, play a significant role in establishing the creative industries locally. Throughout European cities various grant programmes are currently at work stimulating entrepreneurial activities of already established businesses as well as the formation of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in order to maintain, develop or establish a critical mass of local creative businesses (Montgomery, 2007, Creative Metropoles, 2010). On micro-scale the research team of the project Creative Metropoles (2010) highlights that ‘collaboration practices are encouraged in working environments through weekly meetings, an ‘open door’ culture and a supportive community of creative workers. Interdisciplinary and international networks can be developed by linking with co-working spaces abroad and by other mobility measures.’ (Creative Metropoles, 2010, p. 87). Last but not least, the social composition of peer groups and residents is essential to local dynamics and capability to generate fresh ideas. Florida (2012, p. 109) highlights that ‘ideal interactions occur among people whose roles are different enough to give them BEYOND FRAMES

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different perspectives, but who have enough common knowledge and common interest to know what would be mutually useful’. While it is important to acknowledge that creative people do share some personal traits and values, they also need stimulations from outside their peer groups. Planning in the field of demographic mixture and living conditions may appear in various forms and include equally hard- and soft measures, such as housing regulations, campaigns targeting a multicultural society or governmental programmes in education facilities (cf. Creative Metropoles, 2010). Related activities foster creative and social diversity in an area.

Having argued that milieus incorporate very distinctive spatial, social and economic patterns, these three dimensions shall guide the empirical analysis. Indicators may be selected on the availability of data and local context. In order to illustrate the advantages of a relatively open analytical framework, place-specific characteristics of the BMP and MQM are examined by focusing on the geographic location, concept of each of the urban development projects, the role and use of local heritage and built environment, cultural stimulation and networking places. The BMP and the MQM have been chosen in compliance with the following criteria: - The existence of creative spaces dates back to political attempts to restructure and revitalise the respective areas in form of local development plans, private-public management, marketing activities and alike. - Reinforcing public efforts, creative intermediaries need to be present in the area with the aim to generate and facilitate personal networks among businesses and individuals (cf. Fleming, 2004, Ingstrup & Damgaard, 2013).

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Case studies: Barcelona Media Park (BMP) / Media Quarter Marx (MQM) Vienna

- The target group of policies are the creative industries. Due to the lack of transnational binding agreements on the definition of the creative industries, target groups may vary according to local policies. -

Newly designated creative areas are merely framed around localised development projects, such as factories or abandoned warehouse (cf. Creative Metropoles, 2010). Their embeddedness in local area regeneration, conservation of historic building stock, city marketing and image building, culture-led regeneration and related visitors economy is a distinctive feature of planned creative milieus and distinguishes them from industrial clusters (cf. Porter, 2000).

The Barcelona Media Park in Barcelona The BMP, located in the revitalising neighbourhood Poblenou and development project 22@ (22 ARROBA BCN, 2012, Cubeles, Muñoz & Pardo, 2011 & Pla Estratègic Metropolità de Barcelona, 2010), aims to intensify and support economic activities of the audio-visual sector by providing a designated space within Barcelona for media activities. Spatial proximity can be detected as leitmotif for this new space of creative production, especially for ‘(…) companies, universities, institutions, citizens, focusing Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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on excellence in research, technology transfer, innovation and training and culture.’ (Ajuntament de Barcelona (AdB), 2012, p. 14) (Barcelona Field Studies Centre, 2013). Indeed, the presence of globally and nationally influential actors attaches importance to the BMP as media centre. Contrary to the image created by marketing activities of the developing institution (AdB, 2012), the BMP appears to be closed in itself, since the inner courtyard is fenced off through office towers and entrance gates. Due to the disadvantageous urban design the inner courtyard functions as physical and mental barrier. In conclusion, the BMP suffers substantial deficits in regard to scale, functional mix and economic structure. The small scale gives rise to its surroundings as creative meeting places. A diverse range of local and commercial shops, restaurants, bars and cafés as well as non-consumerist places enrich the BMP as creative space. On the one hand it secures the integration of the creative sector in the already existing urban fabric, on the other hand it can be doubted whether the BMP constitutes an autonomous milieu given its spatial prerequisites. The Media Quarter Marx in Vienna With its status as ‘Gateway to Eastern Europe’ (Hatz, 2008, p. 312), Vienna is an appealing location for businesses. Despite its favourable assets on macro-scale, it is questionable to what extent industries are attracted by the MQM itself. Similar to the BMP, the MQM is part of a large-scale neighbourhood renewal project, called Neumarx (Magistrat der Stadt Wien (MA) 18, 2004, MA 18, 2005, MA 18, 2010, MA 21, n.d.a & n.d.b ). First and foremost the leitmotif has been to generate a themed business location for the creative industries and audio-visual sector (MQM, n.d.). Developing actors rely the project’s success on spatial proximity of economic actors. The MQM shall go ‘beyond the establishment of perfect infrastructure. Creative minds and service providers from various disciplines shall meet in this location and form lucrative networks.’ [translation by VR Hünnemeyer] (MQM, n.d.). The term ‘network’ however is strictly restrained to business and professional networks, since ‘networking means on the one hand to bring together science and education. On the other hand specialised media companies shall be located in spatial proximity with a wide spectrum of complementary service.’ [translation by VR Hünnemeyer] (MA 21, n.d.c). In light of limited access to the area and spatial separation of SMEs and anchor tenants - which results from the availability and layout of office spaces, as well as mono-functional uses missing housing, local supply and cultural actors - it is critical to what extent the expectations placed on the project are met. Activities by the developer to compensate this lack through urban interventions even strengthen the impression of being in an artificial environment. Given evidence by the layout of the area, the examined characteristics reveal disadvantageous features for the local milieu. This is accounted for by the fact that the whole area is still in a development stage. Until the last remaining vacancies are addressed, a continuous use and function is implemented in the event hall and housing possibilities are constructed and filled, the MQM only provides reasonable starting points for further actions in terms of the production of a local creative milieu. Implications for future development strategies

Although the case studies aim for both urban transformation and economic revitalisation, they pursue merely economic-driven approaches, i.e. focusing on dynamics and conditions beneficial for the formal creative economy. Based on the identified deficits, there is a need for applying more place-driven approaches when aiming for an economic revitalisation through milieus. The BMP and MQM illustrate 188

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the effects of inconvenient urban design and place making. Being closed off through physical and mental barriers, the liveliness and social mixture of both areas are limited. This induces a vicious circle leading to a lack of urbanity, unappealing to creative workers. This in turn hampers the establishment of a critical mass which inevitably leads to the absence of effective and productive networks. However, the application of traditional planning tools has proven to have significant impact on the general spatial framework for the milieu especially in situations where milieus are built from scratch. The applied analytical framework suggests that planning is capable of influencing the three pillars of creative milieus. To generate an understanding on the effectiveness of creativity-driven regeneration and the impact of current urban policies, analyses centred on these cornerstones may offer a new perspective on the impact of current urban policies.

Vanessa R Hünnemeyer holds a Bachelor in Applied Geography from the Universät Trier / Germany and a Master in Urban Studies from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Université Libre de Bruxelles / Belgium, Universität Wien / Austria, Københavns Universitet / Denmark, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid / Spain. Currently, she is researching the impact of urban development programmes on local economies at the Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography in Leipzig / Germany. — [email protected] or V_Huennemeyer @ifl-leipzig.de

References Ajuntament de Barcelona (AdB). (2012). The Media sector in Barcelona. Barcelona, Spain: Ajuntament de Barcelona Albrechts, L. (2005). Creativity in and for Planning. disP-The Planning Review, 41, 14-25. doi: 10.1080/02513625.2005.10556929 Amabile, T.M. (1983) The Social Psychology of Creativity: A Componential Conceptualization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 357-376. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.45.2.357 Andersson, Å. (1985). Creativity and Regional Development. In H. Kohno & D.F. Balten (Eds.), Articles of the Regional Science Association, 56, 5-20. Barcelona Field Studies Centre. (2013). Barcelona Media Park. Retrieved February 14, 2013, from http://geographyfieldwork.com/BarcelonaMediaPark. htm Creative Metropoles. (2010). How to support creative industries. Good practices from European Cities Retrieved from the Creative Metropoles website: http://creativemetropoles.eu/uploads/files/CMportfolioWEBversion.pdf

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About the author

Cubeles, X., Muñoz, P. & Pardo, J. (2011). El proyecto global e histórico de Distrito 22@ de Barcelona [The global and historical project of the district 22@ in Barcelona]. In: Ekonomiaz , 78, 219-235. Evans, G. (2004). Cultural Industry Quarters: From Pre-Industrial to PostIndustrial Production. In D. Bell & M. Jayne (Eds.), City of Quarters: Urban Villages in the Contemporary City (pp. 71-92), Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Fleming, T. (2004). Supporting the Cultural Quarter? The Role of the Creative Intermediary. In D. Bell & M. Jayne (Eds.), City of Quarters: Urban Villages in the Contemporary City (pp. 93-108). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Florida, R. (2012). The Rise of the Creative Class, Revisited. New York, NY: Basic Books. Foord, J. (2008). Strategies for creative industries: an international review. Creative Industries Journal, 1, 91-113. doi:10.1386/cij.1.2.91_1

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Frey, O. (2009). Die amalgame Stadt. Orte. Netze. Milieus [The amalgam city. Places. Networks. Milieus]. Wiesbaden, Germany: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. Glåvenau, V. P. (2010). Paradigms in the study of creativity: Introducing the perspective of cultural psychology. In: New Ideas in Psychology, 28, 79-93. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2009.07.007 Hatz, G. (2008). Vienna. Cities, 25, 310-322. doi: 10.1016/j.cities.2008.02.002 Häußermann, H. & Siebel, W. (1993). Die Politik der Festivalisierung und die Festivalisierung der Politik. Große Ereignisse in der Stadtpolitik [Policies of festivalisation and the festivalisation of politics. Large events in urban politics]. In H. Häußermann & W. Siebel (Eds.), Festivalisierung der Stadtpolitik. Stadtentwicklung durch große Projekte [Festivalisation of urban policies. Urban development through large projects] (pp. 7-31). Opladen, Germany: Westdeutscher Verlag.

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Hradil, S. (1992a). Einleitung [Introduction]. in S. Hradil (Ed.), Zwischen Bewußtsein und Sein. Die Vermittlung ‚objektiver’ Lebensbedingungen und ‚subjektiver’ Lebensweise [Between consciousness and being. The placement of ‘objective’ life conditions and ‘subjective’ way of life] (pp. 9-12), Opladen, Germany: Leske + Budrich. Hradil, S. (1992b). Alte Begriffe und neue Strukturen. Die Milieu-, Subkulturund Lebensstilforschung der 80er Jahre [Old terms and new structures. The research on milieus, subcultures and lifestyles of the 1980s]. In: S. Hradil (Ed.), Zwischen Bewußtsein und Sein. Die Vermittlung „objektiver’ Lebensbedingungen und „subjektiver’ Lebensweise (pp. 15-55), Opladen, Germany: Leske + Budrich. Ingstrup, M.B. & Damgaard, T. (2013). Cluster Facilitation from a Cluster Life Cycle Perspective. European Planning Studies, 21, 556-574. doi:10.1080/0965 4313.2012.722953 KEA European Affairs. (2006). The Economy of Culture in Europe. Retrieved from KEA European Affairs website: http://www.keanet.eu/ecoculture/ studynew.pdf Kunzmann, K.R. (2005). Creativity in Planning: a fuzzy Concept?. disP-In: The Planning Review, vol. 41, 5-13. doi:10.1080/02513625.2005.10556928 Landry, C. (2008). The creative city. A toolkit for urban innovators (2nd ed.). London, UK: Earthscan. Lubart, T.I. (2001). Models of the Creative Process: Past, Present and Future. In: Creativity Research Journal, 13, 295-308. doi:10.1207/S15326934CRJ1334_07 Magistrat der Stadt Wien, MA 18, Stadtentwicklung und Stadtplanung. (2010). STEP 05 Fortschrittsbericht 2010 [STEP 05 progress report 2010]. Retrieved from the City of Vienna: http://www.wien.gv.at/stadtentwicklung/studien/pdf/ b008220.pdf Magistrat der Stadt Wien, MA 21, Stadtteilplanung und Flächennutzung. (n.d.c). Projekt ‚Media Quarter Marx’ im Zielgebiet Hauptbahnhof Wien – Erdberger Mais [Project ‚Media Quarter Marx‘ in the target area central station – Erdberger Mais]. Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://www.wien. gv.at/stadtentwicklung/projekte/zielgebiete/erdbergermais/teilgebiete/stmarx/ mediaquartermarx.html

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Media Quarter Marx Errichtungs- und Verwertungsgesellschaft mbH. (MQM) (n.d.). Die Vision des MQM [The vision of the MQM]. Retrieved February 14, 2013, from http://www.mediaquarter.at/content/ueber-mqm/die-vision.html Montgomery, J. (2007). The new wealth of cities: city dynamics and the fifth wave. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Pla Estratègic Metropolità de Barcelona. (2010). Barcelona Visió 2020. A strategic proposal , Barcelona [Vision for Barcelona 2020. A strategic proposal]. Retrieved from the homepage of Pla Estratègic Metropolità de Barcelona: http://www.pemb.cat/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/PEMB-2020angles-WEB.pdf Porter, L. & Barber, A. (2007). Planning the Cultural Quarter in Birmingham’s Eastside. In: European Planning Studies, 15, 1327-1348. doi: 10.1080/09654310701550801

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Porter, M.E. (2000). Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy. In: Economic Development Quarterly, 14, 15-34. doi: 10.1177/089124240001400105

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III. KNOWLEDGE INSTITUTIONS Javier Castro-Spila Alfonso Unceta

The Relational University Social Innovation and Entrepreneurial Skills in Creative Industries Abstract

The article explores concept of the Relational University, which refers to a new model of University, that is connected to different local social and cultural problems and regional stakeholders. In the scope of TRANSCREATIVA Project (SUDOE- Interreg IV-B) this article presents the Expansive Creative Model (ECM), an integrated framework that develops skills to solve social problems with real stakeholders in the creative industries sector. The pilot experience in the Basque Country (Spain) consisted of the articulation of the Master in Social Innovation and Creative Industries – University of the Basque Country (formal education) with the Regional Creative Pole (informal education) in the scope of training skills of unemployed young people. The article presents the main results of the pilot experience and lessons learned are considered. Introduction

Cultural and Creative Industries (CCI) refer to those industries combining creation, production and commercialisation of intangible creative contents, which may be an asset or service (DCMS, 1998; Galloway & Dunlop, 2007; UNCTAD, 2010). They are based on creativity (individual and collective) with a potential of employment and wealth creation from a combination of talent, technology and clusterisation (Chapain, Cooke, De Propris, MacNeill, & Mateos-Garcia, 2010; de Bruin, 2005; Evans, 2009; Potts et al., 2008). Social innovation offers an action framework to explain and foster the development of new products, processes, methodologies and connections aimed at solving social problems (European Commission, 2011; Mulgan, Tucker, Rushanara, & Sanders, 2001). The solution of social problems in social innovation is connected to the social integration of social groups that are excluded or are at risk that that will happen (Gerometta, Haussermann, & Longo, 2005). ‘Relational university’ is an emerging notion which forms a serious criticism of classical training models in higher education (Haggis, 2003; Moore, 2005), the ivory tower of research (Etzkowitz, 2003, 2004) and social role of the university (Brennan, King, & Lebeau, 2004; Bringle & Hatcher, 1996). Relational university is a notion proposing that the university be considered a social enclave of innovation aimed towards the context of knowledge application (Gibbons, 2000; Gibbons et al., 1994). It is a university network permeable to the local needs of learning, knowledge and innovation. The European project TRANSCREATIVA1 explores these three dimensions (creative industries, social innovation and relational university) from the creation of social and technological clusterisation spaces. The Creative Poles carry out three types of activity: 1 TRANSCREATIVA (2012-2014) is a European project lead by Sinnergiak Social Innovation (University of the Basque Country), financed by the European Union’s Interreg IV B SUDOE Program (SOE3/P1/E529) in partnership with nine institutions (universities, technology centres and public sector) in Aquitania (France), Basque Country (Spain), and Coimbra (Portugal) (www.transcreativa.eu).

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a) mapping sectorial skills and technologies, b) prototyping technologies for innovation and transfer to the CCI sector, c) training skills to unemployed young people (human capital) in the CCI. This article presents the skill training programme and approach (basic, technical and entrepreneurial) aimed at improving the employability of unemployed young people (social innovation) within the creative industry sector in the framework of TRANSCREATIVA project.

The relational university, however, shares the need with the entrepreneurship university to orient research towards the application jointly and foster the innovation culture. Nevertheless, the relational university operates via social dispersion of skills and orients its knowledge transfer towards the heterogeneity of social actors, not just the entrepreneurial. It is a university-network within the society of knowledge. Table Nº 1 synthesises some key differences among the three university models.

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Relational University Framework

The vision of a university more involved in technological transfer for the creation of companies and innovations, i.e. the entrepreneurial university has acquired predominance in recent decades (Clark, 2001; Etzkowitz, 2003; Etzkowitz, Webster, Gebhardt, & Terra, 2000; Mazzolini, 2003). The entrepreneurial university model focuses its academic aims on knowledge transfer to the business sector and creation of scientific and technological based companies (spin-off). The entrepreneurial university implies a new academic ethos based on entrepreneurship and concern for the commercial value of knowledge (value for money). It is a university aimed at the market considering research groups as quasi-firms (Etzkowitz, 2003), albeit because they carry out projects with companies (co-operation alliances arranged according to business principles), or because they behave as such regarding the commercialisation of their products (patent registration). Nevertheless, the entrepreneurship university has limits, since it operates by enclave prioritising its relations with one agent type only (companies) and at a limited network level.

Traditional University Entrepreneurial University Relational University Learning Learning Learning (generalist and (model of entrepreneurship skills (model of entrepreneurial universal model) in the business environment) skills in the business, social and cultural environment) Non-oriented research Market oriented research Research-action oriented (companies) to the cultural, economic, regional and social application context University management University management (bureaucratic model) (bureaucratic + business models)

Governance management (bureaucratic + network models)

Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation (criteria endogenous (value for money (relational quality: to academic) oriented criteria) multilevel, multicriteria and multistakeholder) University Expansion

Fostering the university-company Fostering local innovation relationship networks

Table 1 University Models Source: based on Castro Spila, Barrenechea, & Ibarra, 2011

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Expansive Creative Model (ECM)

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1. Conceptual dynamics of Expansive Creative Model The Expansive Creative Model is based on the constructivist perspective of learning oriented by models supported by methodologies of learning by doing (Dolmans, De Grave, Wolfhagen, & Van Der Vleuten, 2005; Johnson, 2001; Moore, 2005; Savery & Duffy, 1995) and based on communities of practices (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Figure Nº 1 explains the dynamics of the Expansive Creative Model. The model suggests the solution of a real problem via communities of practices. A real agent of creative industries proposes the problem. During the problem solution process the communities exploit their knowledge about the problem (what they know about it) and explore the new knowledge (similar solutions to similar problems). The community of practices configures an articulate knowledge space (commensurability), common language and shared comprehension of the problem and its characteristics. The experimentation process is an important learning space structured over two articulated processes, i.e. solution prototype and solution testing. During this training stage the solution design (projects) is tackled. Different solutions are experimented and subjected to different tests to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the designed prototypes. Employability is understood as the development of skills (basic, technical and entrepreneurship), enabling young people to join and remain on the labour market. The training process for solving real problems facilitates acquisition of skills oriented towards application context. On the other hand, as a result of the experimentation processes not only are learning and employability externalities produced, but also entrepreneurship externalities which can materialise in projects for the creation of new organisations. Finally the process is evaluated as per relational quality criterion based on methodological triangulation, i.e. ex ante and ex post evaluation (quasi-experimental methods) and real agent evaluation, which values the quality of the solutions proposed by the community.

Figure 1 Dynamics of Expansive Creative Model (ECM)

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2. Creative Expansive Model: practical implementation Figure 2 describes the practical implementation of the EMC model carried out in eight sessions. First, the cultural/creative sector agents are selected who propose a real problem facing the organisation. The problems are selected by the programme thanks to its potential to enable design of innovations. Simultaneous to the selection of agents and problems, the participants chosen are selected as per the following criteria: (a) young unemployed, (b) first band: 18-24 years old; (c) second band: 25-29 years old, (c) gender (50% women), (d) young people with different training routes, (e) letter of expectations.

Figure 2 Expansive Creative Model: practical implementation

The process is subject to evaluation processes as according to a quasi-experimental model (ex ante and ex post evaluation) where four critical dimensions are considered: (a) Level of Social Capital, (b) Degree of skill development (basic, entrepreneurship and technical), (c) Personal experience and career, (d) future expectations. The community of practices is distributed in work teams (4-5 people) to solve problems, where they aim to work three skill types: (a) Basic: team work, solving problems, efficient communication, creativity, transformation of ideas into project, (b) Technical: Project design and management, social and cultural innovation design, knowledge of information technologies (social networks, videos, etc.), (c) Entrepreneurship: leadership, training in business models, creation of organisations.

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The problem solution process is presented in figure 2 as according to the following stages: (T1) Integration of knowledge: The community organised in groups analyses the problem as according to knowledge already acquired and new knowledge exploring solutions. (T2) Exploration of alternatives: Once the problem context is situated and relevant information integrated, methodologies are applied to generate ideas enabling solutions to the problem.

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(T3)

Prototyping solutions: To explore solutions, fast prototyped techniques are applied (2 or 3 solutions), and tested internally to identify the most appropriate solution according to criteria established for tackling challenges (technologies, governance, etc.)

(T4) The best solution: A test methodology is applied to the most appropriate solutionemergingfromtherapidprototypedprocess,bystakeholderstoformulate a solution project (innovation). (T5)

Socialisation among groups: Once the best alternative (solution) is chosen it is subjected to evaluation among peers. Thus, the different community work groups or teams present solutions to the other work teams to receive comments and contributions. The aim is to socialise solutions but also to learn how to evaluate the solutions contributed by others.

(T6)

Presentation of the solution before the agent: Once a solution has been formulated, tested and socialised among peers, the group presents the agent who put forward the challenge with a solution proposal (innovation project) and the agent evaluates it.

To complete the learning cycle a closure sessions is carried out. During said session certificates of skills are awarded to the community participants and young people are invited to repeat the training but this time oriented towards other types of challenge/ real problems Pilot experience

The project TRANSCREATIVA has motivated the creation of Creative Poles conceived as experimentation spaces (Falk & Heckman, 2009) to develop skills for young unemployed people (social innovation) to improve their employability and social capital (Brown, Hesketh, & Williams, 2003; McArdle, Waters, Briscoe, & Hall, 2007; McQuaid & Lindsay, 2005; Morley, 2001). The Project TRANSCREATIVE in the Basque Country (Spain) developed a pilot articulation experience between formal and informal education, applying the Expansive Creative Model (ECM) (November 2013 – March 2014). Said pilot experience consisted of two articulated steps: a) Initially a group of mentors was created within the University of the Basque Country (Spain) Social Innovation and Cultural and Creative Industries (SI-CCI) Master framework; (b) Secondly the mentors collaborated with training dynamics of a group of unemployed young people to develop entrepreneurship skills within the Regional Creative Pole (Basque Country) framework. 196

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Figure 3 Relational University

Master in Social Innovation and Creative Industries (University of the Basque Country): The students analysed a real problem proposed by a company of cultural services, which designs and develops strategic plans and operational programmes for art and cultural management in the Basque Country. Regional Creative Pole (Basque Country): The young people analysed a real problem proposed by a dance platform seeking to facilitate first employment in dance. This second group was motivated by young mentors trained within the master framework assisted by the technical team of the Transcreativa Project. Within this article we attempt to offer a general balance of the process, which evaluates the model. A number of topics are relevant. Work dynamics: Work dynamics in problem solving is complex. Three reasons are identified. The first refers to the young people’s lack of experience in learning by doing methodologies and the tendency to replicate the traditional learning modes. The second refers to the degree of complexity of the problems posed by the agents, plus the restrictions the solutions should offer complicate the prototyped process of ideas and projects even more. Finally, the process is arduous during the initial stages and more dynamic in the test stages of solutions and communication of solutions. Skills: The process of problem resolution has favoured the development of four key skills: efficient communication, information management, negotiation capacity and result orientation (project design). The process is less appropriate for developing technological and entrepreneurship skills (organization creation). Employability: As the model suggests, the solution of real problems impacts the development of skills, which users value as a qualification improvement with a view to the labour market. Evaluation by a real agent offers a good opportunity for testing the skills acquired. Entrepreneurship: Contrary to what the model suggests, the solution of real problems and collective dynamics of prototyping solutions does not provide an alternative to the development of business ideas. In particular, because the projects offered as a solution are adapted to the specific problems of the organisation proposing the problem. It is Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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not about a balance of general opportunities to explore new business models in market niches, a dimension which could benefit the development of entrepreneurship options. Scaling-up: Young students who help young unemployed people in learning skills which become a valued experience. First, the cultural and generational proximity of the young mentors with the young unemployed. Second, the externality of learning was the most important for the young people (mentors) teaching, as is logical, than for the young people learning (Creative Pole users). Third, the university affirms its role in skill transfer to social groups without university access. Agents: The agents who proposed their problem value the training model used as interesting and positive. The agents highlight the diversity and creativity of the solutions offered by the young people. Proposals were more creative and sustainable, when the work groups combined different educational routes and previous employment experience. In one of the cases it is highly probable the company will carry out one of the proposals generated within the Creative Pole.

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Conclusions: lessons from experience

The Relational University refers to a new model of a university, that is connected to different social and cultural local problems, collaborates with a variety of regional agents, uses real problems as learning and experimentation spaces and evaluates the academic quality and the social relevance of these network processes. In this framework we explained the Expansive Creative Model as a strategy for training skills in the creative industries. The pilot experience in the Basque Country consisted of the articulation of the Master in Social Innovation and Creative Industries (formal education) with the Creative Pole (informal education) in the scope developed by the Project TRANSCREATIVA (SUDOE- Interreg IV-B). The main results show the work dynamics based on the solution of real problems provided by real agents are complex and arduous in its early stages (problem comprehension, integration of knowledge and prototyping of ideas and solutions), although it is more dynamic in its second stage (solution testing and communication of solutions). Skills such as those of efficient communication, information management, the capacity to negotiate and result orientation (project design) were acquired by the participants. The model has weaknesses in the development of entrepreneurship skills (creation of new organisation and business models). Partly because the problems to be solved are subject to the demand of a particular agent, and do not allow a joint vision of the market and their entrepreneurship options. Nevertheless, both from the participants and the agents’ perspective, the model can improve the employability of young people in the sector. The main lesson learnt from this pilot experience is that young people should participate much more systematically in the Creative Pole when solving different kinds of problems proposed by different types of agents. In practice this means young people need to iterate in the process of solving real problems within the framework of different experiences.

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The Relational University Social Innovation and Entrepreneurial Skills in Creative Industries

Experience also leaves its mark in the discussion on relational university. To explore real cases and to face young people with real stakeholders to defend their solutions improves the employability making the methodology of problem solving and the use of study cases more realistic (in context). The university through its Master is being involved in the solution of local problems; and a collaborative space in a creative sector is being developed, fostering the social relevance of the University in the regional context.

Javier Castro-Spila (Sociologist), PhD, Research Coordinator at SINNERGIAK Social Innovation (University of the Basque Country). Research focus: social innovation indicators; social innovation and hybrid innovations; cultural and creative industries mapping; talent and skills in social innovation and creative industries. Javier Castro-Spila University of the Basque Country (Spain) — [email protected]

Alfonso Unceta (Sociologist), PhD, Director of SINNERGIAK Social Innovation and Professor at the University of the Basque Country. Research focus: academic change in education, social responsibility, participation and social innovation, talent and skills in social innovation and creative industries. Alfonso Unceta University of the Basque Country (Spain) — [email protected]

References Brennan, J., King, R., & Lebeau, Y. (2004). The role of universities in the transformation of societies. Synthesis report. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities/The Open University. Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), 221-239. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. Brown, P., Hesketh, A., & Williams, S. (2003). Employability in a knowledge-driven economy. Journal of education and work, 16(2), 107-126. Castro Spila, J., Barrenechea, J., & Ibarra, A. (2011). Entrepreneurial culture, innovation and competences in higher education: The GAZE program case. ARBOR Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, 187(3), 207-212. Clark, B. (2001). The entrepreneurial university: new foundations for collegiality, autonomy, and achievement. Higher Education Management, 13(2), 9-131. Chapain, C., Cooke, P., De Propris, L., MacNeill, S., & Mateos-Garcia, J. (2010). Creative Clusters and Innovation: Putting Creativity on the Map. NESTA Research Report. http://www.nesta.org.uk/library/documents/Creative-Clusters29Nov.pdf. DCMS. (1998). Creative Industries Mapping Document. London. De Bruin, A. (2005). Multi-level entrepreneurship in the creative industries: New Zealand’s screen production industry. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 6(3), 143-150.

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About the authors

Dolmans, D. H. J. M., De Grave, W., Wolfhagen, I. H. A. P., & Van Der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2005). Problem-based learning: Future challenges for educational practice and research. Medical education, 39(7), 732-741. Etzkowitz, H. (2003). Research groups as ‘quasi-firms’: the invention of the entrepreneurial university. Research Policy, 32, 109-121. Etzkowitz, H. (2004). The evolution of the entrepreneurial university. International Journal of Technology and Globalisation, 1, 64-77. Etzkowitz, H., Webster, A., Gebhardt, C., & Terra, B. R. C. (2000). The future of the university and the university of the future: evolution of ivory tower to entrepreneurial paradigm. Research Policy, 29(2), 313-330. European Commission. (2011). Empowering people, driving change Social Innovation in the European Union. Bureau of European Policy Advisers, Luxemburg, 1-176. Evans, G. (2009). Creative Cities, Creative Spaces and Urban Policy. Urban Studies, 46(5-6), 1003-1040.

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Falk, A., & Heckman, J. (2009). Lab experiments are a major source of knowledge in the social sciences. CESifo working paper, No. 2894, 1-18. Galloway, S., & Dunlop, S. (2007). A critique of definitions of the cultural and creative industries in Public Policy International Journal of Cultural Policy, 13(1), 17-31. Gerometta, J., Haussermann, H., & Longo, G. (2005). Social innovation and civil society in urban governance: strategies for an inclusive city. Urban Studies, 42(11), 2007-2021. Gibbons, M. (2000). Mode 2 society and the emergence of context-sensitive science. Science and Public Policy, 27(3), 159-163.

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Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., & Trow, M. (1994). The new production of knowledge: the dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Haggis, T. (2003). Constructing Images of Ourselves? A Critical Investigation into ‘Approaches to Learning’ Research in Higher Education. British Educational Research Journal, 29(1), 89-104. Johnson, C. M. (2001). A survey of current research on online communities of practice. The Internet and Higher Education, 4(1), 45-60. Jonassen, D. H., & Rohrer-Murphy, L. (1999). Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(1), 61-79. Mazzolini, E. (2003). Review of Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University. Workplace, 10(196- 198.). McArdle, S., Waters, L., Briscoe, J. P., & Hall, D. T. T. (2007). Employability during unemployment: Adaptability, career identity and human and social capital. Journal of vocational behavior, 71(2), 247-264. McQuaid, R. W., & Lindsay, C. (2005). The concept of employability. Urban Studies, 42(2), 197-219. Moore, J. (2005). Is higher education ready for transformative learning? A question explored in the study of sustainability. Journal of Transformative Education, 3(1), 76-91. Morley, L. (2001). Producing new workers: Quality, equality and employability in higher education. Quality in Higher Education, 7(2), 131-138. Mulgan, G., Tucker, S., Rushanara, A., & Sanders, B. (2001). Social innovation: what it is, why it matters and how it can be accelerated. Oxford: Oxford Said Business School. Potts, J., Banks, J., Burgess, J., Cobcroft, R., Cunningham, S., & Montgomery, L. (2008). Consumer co-creation and situated creativity. Industry and Innovation, 15(5), 459-474. Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational technology, 35(5), 31-38. UNCTAD, United Nations. (2010). The Creative Economy Report 2010. Geneva: United Nations.

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Marina Matetskaya Valery Gordin Anna Sashchenko

Education and Creative Industries: How to Overcome the Gap The Case of St. Petersburg Abstract

The theoretical background of the study is based on competence theory, comprising components of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience, motivation, and business capabilities as well as the educational forms of acquiring these. The empirical part consists of an expert survey and a survey of more than 100 art university students that was organised by the Laboratory of the Economics of Culture. The findings of the study enabled us to do the following: - determine the willingness of creative graduates to run their own businesses in creative industries (CI); - produce information about and understanding of the main features and difficulties of business activities in creative industries from students’ points of view; - analyse the entrepreneurial education provided at universities and other educational programs for creative start-ups;

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A new model of cultural policy is currently being developed in Russia, under which creative and cultural industries are becoming more involved in business. Traditional cultural institutions and new creative industries seek to gain stable income, which can only be provided by commercial activity. From this perspective, a study on art university students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship is highly topical.

- identify current innovations in educational institutions to reduce the gap between CI needs and the low level of business training of graduates and - discuss the main trends and objectives in designing educational models and other support measures for creative entrepreneurs in St. Petersburg. The system of personnel training within the creative industries in Russia.

Mastering the idea of creative industries (CI) and their development in relation to the conditions in Russia began recently (Zelentsova, Gladkeeh, 2010). It is worth noting that in general, the main points in the conception of creative industries in Russia are comprehended in the same sense as they are in the West. A crucial factor to minimising the gap between the low level of CI development in Russia and its desired state is the industry’s training system, which determines the quality of management in specific industry organisations.

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It is because of the diversity of creative industry organisations that it is difficult to discuss a typical management model, here considered to be a set of management and entrepreneurial competencies for creative arts graduates and graduates of other universities who are implementing projects in the field. The structure of the CI sector is characterised by a large number of small companies, start-ups, and creative projects that are often not formally institutionalised. Many sector workers act as freelancers or work under short-term contracts. The peculiarities of creative arts students’ management competencies were considered by

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The state of affairs

Bridgstock (2011), Carey and Naudin, (2006), HKU (2010), Heinsius and Lehikoinen, (2013). For business development in CI, a crucial role is played by personnel training conditions and the availability of appropriate institutional infrastructures for project development (European Commission (2013). The reforms in the Russian education system that have been implemented over the past decades have led to the establishment of the competence approach as the basis for specialist training at universities. The characteristic feature of the federal state educational standards, on which the Russian arts university curricula are based, is the extremely limited number of subjects and hours for training on both business activity and the economic activities of creative industry institutions. The main competencies required by the standards affect only the creative side of the graduates’ professional activity. Thus, the question of the extent to which it is advisable to include economic or business components in the education programmes for creative specialties remains open. The modern education system in Russia in general, especially in the field of creative industries, is not aimed at training specialists in entrepreneurship (Karhunen et al., 2008). As a general rule, the education provided by creative arts universities is characterised as narrow arts education, a type of ‘secret’ transfer of skills in specific creative fields. For example, an artist is taught to paint by demonstrating a variety of painting techniques that define his own style and uniqueness. In modern conditions, these competencies are not sufficient for building a career in CI. Moreover, although students of the creative disciplines are initially focused on creative tasks, their characters and main activities are not accompanied by business logic. Meanwhile, the labour market requires understanding the foundations of project management, promotion technologies for artistic projects, audience development, and cooperation with partners and sponsors. In this situation, it might be stated that at present, the normal, natural reproduction of young forces in the creative industries in Russia has not been established. Experts note that programs aimed at training students in writing grants, working with start-ups, and negotiating skills are fundamentally important for students in the creative disciplines. This content is not included in university educational programs, but students have the opportunity to participate in short-term training at private education centres. The development of entrepreneurship in the creative industries is characterised by the lack of professional education and the lack of additional educational services in the field of art management, considering the specifics of the industry and the market.

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The basic competencies for which there is a demand in the profession are the following: - resource management, which includes access to (1) physical capital (fixed and current assets), (2) financial capital, and (3) immaterial resources such as intellectual property or technologies; - the entrepreneurial skills necessary for obtaining resources, generating output, and selling it to consumers. In the context of business skills, these innovative features include comprehending creative processes and their demand on the market and - understanding market mechanisms.

Modernising the training system in the creative industries

The main principles of modernising the education system must be derived from modern training standards: high levels of teacher training, including inviting foreign experts; relating education to practical activities in the creative industries; infrastructure development in the education market and creative projects. The range of education programs for entrepreneurship in the creative industries, and the wide range of organisations working in this area are broad and are not limited to universities. The most successful countries have implemented programs to help develop the creative industries (Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Estonia), which demonstrates the effectiveness of consulting projects, art incubators, and small and medium-sized companies supporting entrepreneurs in the creative industries. Typical projects aimed at developing business competencies in artistic projects include organisations’ combining education centres, consulting organisations and business structures. Consider the following examples of such organisations in St. Petersburg. 1

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The future demand for specialists in the creative industries, as well as the current state of the system of training and retraining, allows us to conclude that today’s institutions are not providing a sufficient number of qualified professionals in the creative industries who possess professional competencies in both the arts and business education.

Zona deystviya/Zonaspace (‘Action zone’ http://zonaspace.ru/english) A co-working centre and educational club. Among the permanent educational programs are: The GRAPHENE School is popular in St. Petersburg for its courses for beginning entrepreneurs and specialists in a variety of fields. The schools’ key assets are the knowledge and contacts that students acquire in the process of learning. These courses, although they are not specifically designed for the creative industries, are very popular with beginning creative entrepreneurs. Because of its extensive network of contacts, its’ convenient daytime and offline training options and the opportunity to meet with practitioners and professionals, the school ensures success for everyone who begins a project there. Co-working ensures interaction between many different fields of activity and the creation of innovative interdisciplinary projects.

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2

GameChangers (http://gamechangers.ru/) GameChangers is a free educational and research program for students and serves as a platform for open innovation, the creation of business areas within its partner organisations, and communication among students, company representatives, academics, and organisations. The total program audience, including both project and activity members, is 500 people. Despite the technological basis of the educational programs, such as the IT industry and entrepreneurship, these programs are attended by students in the creative industries (design, organisation of events and so on). The program consists of sessions with experts who are working on projects and internships in leading IT companies, business incubators, and venture funders. We consider this company to be a typical example of a support system for entrepreneurial initiatives in the creative industries because the evident role that mediators play between businesses and start-ups in the world of creativity.

3

Smart Start (http://www.delaruk.com) This is a creative initiative company that organises activities aimed at developing modern, high-quality design and handmade products and at developing businesses in the creative industries. Since 2008, the organisers have held regular DeLaRuk festivals featuring exclusive handmade products and DeLaRuk markets in shopping malls, consolidating the community of artists and designers, seminars on creative business. The company’s purpose is to enable both professional and novice designers to share their experiences. The agency conducts workshops for aspiring entrepreneurs and is a regular information platform for creative people, providing an overview of current events and competitions.

It is important to note that training for creative industry development does not involve only creative universities and centres. Many graduates of technical and economic disciplines become entrepreneurs in the creative industries. It is difficult to estimate this percentage, but it is high. A number of large projects in the city are successful; there are cultural organisations and CIs run by professional managers, and there are companies that address cultural organisations’ professional development (e.g., consulting and IT solutions, strategy, marketing). However, this practise improves creative workers’ working conditions and self-development, but it does not solve the problem of adapting them to business. Identifying the entrepreneurial potential in St. Petersburg

Below are data from a study conducted by the Laboratory of Cultural Economics in 2011–2013. The goals and objectives of the survey were to identify potential entrepreneurship among students in the management and economics faculties of creative arts universities. The study was comparative, and the main questionnaire for the survey was drawn from the Aalto University study survey conducted in 2009 to 2011 in Finland, Estonia, and Latvia (Karhunen and Venesaar, 2011). The hypothesis of this study is that students at creative arts universities are prejudiced against entrepreneurial activity, because of their personal characteristics or because of the existing training systems. If the latter were modified to focus on developing students’ independent design skills and the foundations of business planning, the graduates of these institutions would be better adapted to working in creative industries.

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Survey results: Personal characteristics of respondents

The first section of the survey concentrated on the respondents’ background characteristics, including personal questions, educational profiles, and their relationships to entrepreneurship. Almost three quarters of the population were female (73 percent). More than 70 percent holds a Bachelors’ degree. The major field of study s mixed. Faculty, field N=100 (%)

Performing arts

25

Design

36

Advertisement and marketing

15

Table 1 Major field of study, % of respondents

The respondents’ relationship to entrepreneurship was measured by asking about their future career expectations. The results are summarised in the table below. Directly after studies/< 5 years N=100 (%) Table 2 Most likely future career expectations, % of respondents I will be employed by an enterprise

49

I will be employed in the public sector

33

I will be an entrepreneur

34

I will be a freelancer

22

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Architecture 24

Table 3 Most likely future career expectations, % of respondents

One should note that there is a clear distinction in career expectations depending on educational profile. For the majority of design students (87%), paid employment was the most likely career option; being an entrepreneur or a freelancer was viewed as more likely among most of these respondents. Performing arts students were more likely to be employed in the public sector (45%) or were planning to continue their studies (55%). Overall, these results reflect the current structure of CI in the city. The second section of the questionnaire focused on identifying current and potential entrepreneurial activities among the respondents. This included the respondents’ general interest in entrepreneurship and their assessments of their own entrepreneurial capabilities.

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Have you ever considered setting up your own business? N=100 (%) Never 10 Yes, sometimes 36 Yes, I have a serious intention to own my own business

35

I am in the process of starting my own enterprise

15

Yes, I already own my own business

3

I have already owned my own business (but I do not any longer)

1

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Table 4 Entrepreneurial intentions among respondents, % of respondents

As shown in the table, the most common answer among the respondents was that the students had considered this option or had serious intentions to be entrepreneurs but had not yet taken concrete steps. The proportions of these respondents — 36% and 35% — were nearly identical. Only 15% of the respondents had already started their own businesses. The next question was answered by those students who gave a positive answer to the previous question, slightly more than half of the sample (54 respondents). Stage of the business idea

N = 54 (%)

I am dreaming about my own business

19

I am developing my initial idea (i.e., developing my business idea, project)

41

I am working on product/service development

24

I have already developed my product or service

9

I am conducting market research, e.g., locating clients, developing relationships.

7

Financial status of entrepreneurial activity N = 54 (%) I do not need external financing at this stage

4

I have financing from public sources

9

I have financing from commercial sources

2

I have financing from private sources

40

I am currently looking for financing

33

No answer 12

Table 5 Business idea stages and need for financing, % of respondents

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Education and Creative Industries: How to Overcome the Gap The Case of St. Petersburg

As mentioned above, there are virtually no courses related to economics and management skills training and business projects, and the questionnaire confirmed these facts. First, the students were asked about their direct access to entrepreneurial education at their universities. The students reported not having any of these courses and not knowing about international programs or other programs in these fields at their universities. Thus, the students’ intentions to realise their own business projects within the creative industries remained essentially only intentions because they did not have sufficient competences to start real projects To learn about the opportunities to obtain the necessary skills for managing business projects, the students were asked about their interest in participating in any such programs, about the components that these programs should include, and about their willingness to pay for the additional education. The overwhelming majority is interested to participate (86%), yet the actual participation will depend on the costs (70%).

Business idea generation and/or development

3.4

Business opportunity recognition and evaluation

3.6

Business planning

3.7

Practical information about starting business in our country

4.1

Information about doing business in our country

3.7

Information on opportunities for financing the enterprise

3.5

Teamwork 3.4 Skills in accounting and the financial management of the enterprise

3.3

Skills in commercialising innovations

3.2

Knowledge on intellectual property right issues

3.8

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N=100

Leadership 3.7 Negotiation skills

3.8

Internationalisation of business

3.7

Table 6. – Importance of the different components of business training programs (5 – very important, 4 – rather important, 3 – does not matter, 2 – not very important, 1 – not important at all, 0 – I don’t know)

Interest in all of these components was high, but most important, the students had an obvious lack of practical information. They appeared to have only a faint notion about the organisational aspects related to opening and running a business. The students gave very vague answers to additional survey questions, such as whether it is difficult to register a company and the amount of starting capital that is necessary to open a creative industries project. The students could not name any open competition, foundation, or grant-making organisation that could be approached for help with Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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starting a project. Interestingly, some of the aspects the students considered valuable for additional programs were knowledge of intellectual property rights issues, negotiation skills, and business planning. Additional services related to the financial aspects of doing business were of less interest to them. This can be explained by the fact that these aspects are less specific in the creative industries and because of the availability of accounting services in the labour market. Conclusions

On the survey and theoretical considerations relating to the study a number of conclusions an be derived.

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a

Students in the creative industries are sub-optimal informed about the nature of the CI business. In many ways, this situation is justified by the existing approach to training, including the lack of any practice-oriented requirements to work while studying with the aim of developing business skills.

b Most students’ primary motive for choosing creative industries as a sphere of activity was the opportunity to engage in creative work. Skills related to the practical implementation of creative ideas were considered secondary. c

The problems for modernising educational programs in the CI are the following. First, the students must possess, at the recruitment stage, full and adequate information about future labour conditions. Second, support for initial business project initiatives provides the opportunity for students to demonstrate their professional abilities. Third, it is necessary to teach students to self-assess their abilities and compare them with their true achievements.

Prospective solutions might include the following: 1 Organising additional courses for students who wish to engage in business after graduation; 2 Developing project activities within both the basic and additional training programs; 3 Organising business education based on non-state educational institutions; 4 Engaging representatives of creative industries in studying business; 5 Using MOOCs to teach business; 6 Increasing business components within basic and additional programs; 7 Organising awareness activities for students; 8 Selecting business-oriented students who are involved in business projects; and 9 Forming teams that combine the education process with project work and consist of both creative and business-oriented students.

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Marina Matetskaya is Researcher and Associate Professor of National Research University - Higher School of Economics. Her research interests relate to economics and management in the creative industries, organizational development, event management and cultural tourism. Marina Matetskaya is author of several publications. — [email protected]

Valery Gordin is Vice Director and Professor at the National Research University Higher School of Economics in St. Petersburg and Head of the Laboratory of Economics of Culture. His areas of research are marketing in the service sphere and management in cultural and creative industries, event management and cultural tourism.

References Bridgestock, Ruth S. (2011). Skills for creative industries graduate success. In: Education and Training, 53, 1: 9-26. Carey, C. & Naudin, A. (2006). Enterprise curriculum for creative industries students: An exploration of current attitudes and issues. In: Education and Training, 48, 7: 518-531. European Commission (2013). Creative Europe: A new framework programme for the cultural and creative sectors (2014-2020). Approved Brussels/ Strasbourg 19 Nov 2013. Foord, J. (2008). Strategies for creative industries: an international review. In: Creative Industries Journal, 1, 2: 91-113. Heinsius, J., & Lehikoinen, K, (2013). Training Artists for Innovation: Competencies for New Contexts. Kokos Publications Series 2, 2013. Theatre Academy of the University of the Arts Helsinki Karhunen, P., & Venesaar, U. (2011). Creative entrepreneurs’ perceptions about entrepreneurial education: Creative Entrepreneurship Training Network -project. Karhunen, P., Ledyaeva, S., Gustafsson-Pesonen, A., Mochnikova, E. & Vasilenko, D. (2008) Russian students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship.development – project 2. HSE Mikkeli Business Campus Publications N-83, HSE Print. Kooyman, R. (Ed) (2010), The Entrepreneurial Dimension of the Cultural and Creative Industries, HKU University of the Arts, Utrecht. Zelentsova, E., Gladkeeh, N. (2010). Creative industries: in theory and in practice. Moscow, Klassika XXI

[email protected]

Anna Sashchenko is Research Assistant of the Laboratory of Economics of Culture at the National Research University – Higher School of Economics. Anna graduated from St. Petersburg State University with a degree in philology. Afterwards she obtained a master in Cultural Management at the University of Antwerp and majored in Creative Industries. — [email protected]

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About the authors

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Isjah Koppejan

From bullet proof to future-proof: how to connect with hybrid disciplines in a post-digital world

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Abstract

This article examines the transformation of the combination of art, technology and research in the context of art education against a background of various developments in the field. In the 21st century a new form of creativity seems to surface, that is driven by the rise of digital fabrication and the on-going developments in material technology. In our post-digital world artists and designers use these advanced means to create artistic expressions that were never before possible. With different case studies a changing landscape is described, where the ‘hybrid artist’ finds new forms of cooperation. This new area requires artists and designers to rethink their role and the value of their creativity and imagination. This role resembles that of a composer taking the creative lead in the project, while speaking different languages and conducting everyone’s imagination. These new ways of working find their way into arts and design academies where they try to make use of this interdisciplinary trend that renders the convergence of disciplines from within and outside the arts and design world. The interventions they make, stress the need of a new way of working and therefore emphasize skills like hands-on artistic research, collaboration, co-creation, craftsmanship and critical reflection. The article concludes that in this new era, arts and design academies will have to take a closer look at the implications of the new technologies, collaborations, self-directed learning, and attempt to develop new models to ensure the connection with this new practice. Introduction

If a skin that withholds a bullet sounds futuristic to you, think again. Because that’s what artist Jalila Essaïdi made. The Golden Orb Weaver is a tropical spider which weaves its web with a unique spider silk - stronger than steel, more elastic than nylon, and a better conductor than copper. Sparked off by a scientific article and her own imagination, artist Essaïdi discovered new applications for this spider silk. With the help of scientists and medical professionals she developed a piece of bulletproof tissue made of spider silk by transgenic goats and worms in combination with human skin cells. ‘Innovation takes place when you look at something from different angels. I want Bulletproof Skin to show that more is possible than you realise and to provoke discussion of how far we are prepared to go.’ She calls herself a hybrid artist: ‘I’m used to thinking beyond my own field’.1 In the research report ‘De hybride kunstenaar’ (The hybrid artist) 41,7% of the researched graduates of five arts academies in the Netherlands and Belgium answers positively to the question if they have a hybrid practice. But more importantly, 69,4% Chris Gruijters, Chris, and Koert van Mensvoort. Crossover works #2. Amsterdam: Federation of Dutch Creative Industries, 2014. Print.

1

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From bullet proof to future-proof: how to connect with hybrid disciplines in a post-digital world

New forms of creativity

In the 21st century a new form of creativity seems to surface. This is not only driven by the on-going developments in material technology but also by the rise of digital fabrication. In our post-digital world, artists and designers use these advanced means to create artistic expressions never before possible. Recently, the Museum of Arts and Design in New York examined trends in contemporary digital design and fabrication with the exhibition and accompanying book that carry the same title: Out of Hand: Materializing the Post-digital3. Although the book and exhibition have a highly sculptural approach, focussing on new forms and aesthetics, it also shows that digital technologies enable art and design to blur the boundaries of different disciplines. This is changing art and designs’ relationship to materiality and craftsmanship. The blurring of boundaries is in the exhibition demonstrated by the work Object Breast Cancer. This radical and disruptive work by the artists’ collaboration caraballo-farman has inspired a research project at Weill Cornell Medical College. This work uses 3d software to transform MRI’s of tumours into small sculptures and pieces of jewellery, which hint at the deep and often unnerving new ways that 3D technologies can explore the body. What normally would have remained a sliced MRI image on a screen now materialised into actual tangible objects. This inspired the radiologist to re-think the way we stage breast cancers, and has started a retrospective review to see if the traditionally staging of malignancies (tumours) resulted in over- or under-treatment, as compared to what would have been prescribed using volumetric, three-dimensional measurements. The desire of the artists to see the real form came out of an artistic place but triggered new scientific research.

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of the respondents report an increase of the hybrid character of their profession over time.2 This research uses a very strict definition of a hybrid artist, by mainly focussing on the combination of autonomous and applied arts. Another number by this report suggests that of the group of active art professionals who combine autonomous and applied arts activities, a staggering 77,5% answered that this combination has forced them to develop new skills and competences. While the former report takes a very specific approach on hybrid, this article is interested in what happens if you take a more radical approach to the definition of the hybrid artist. What if the hybrid artist is a professional who does not only works across artistic genres, but also initiates creative work that is embedded in other fields: such as the example of Essaïdi that draws on a scientific framework? Does the trend of hybridisation in the profession of arts and design require artist and designers to rethink their role and value of their creativity and imagination? If we look at arts and design through the lens of technological and social change: how do these practices develop with the evolving digital tools of creation? If they have to acquire new skills and competences, what does this mean for arts and design education?

Winkel, Camiel van, and Pascal Gielen. De hybride kunstenaar: de organisatie van de artistieke praktijk in het postindustriële tijdperk. Breda: Expertisecentrum Kunst en Vormgeving, AKV/St. Joost (Avans Hogeschool), 2012. Print.

2

Labaco, R. T., & York, N. (2013). Out of hand: materializing the postdigital. London: Black Dog Publishing London UK.

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Before, art and design aided by computers was more or less shown ‘on screen’ (computer, projections, etc). Nowadays the rise of digital production created the possibility to materialise the digital into physical, tangible forms. This is due to a range of digital modelling and fabrication technologies such as CAD software4, 3D modelling, CNC milling5, laser cutting and 3D printing. New creative tools lead to new creative practices, and in today’s accelerated culture of digital communication a rising number of artists are working in ways that cut across and reconfigure disciplinary boundaries while engaging with increasing technological structures.

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Critical making

The term post-digital in artistic discourse is often described as the period after the beginning of the age of digital design.6 It appears that the term post-digital goes a step further and introduces a way of thinking dealing with the consequences of the digital and the internet age, being more concerned with being human than being digital. It is a sign of our changing relationships with digital technologies and enforces us to look past the optimist or even utopian views of the digital enhancements. What is the impact of Facebook, or of the future use of 3d bio printing to create new organs, or the influence of nanotechnology? It seems that the post-digital generation of artists and designers are investigating, making use of and criticizing the implications of these ‘enhancements’. Frustrated by internet restrictions designer and programmer Shunya Hagiwara made the Whatever Button. The Whatever Button is an extended free online feature for the web browser Google Chrome, which enables you to click all the Facebook Like buttons on a page, from top to bottom. With one click you can automatically click every ‘Like’ button that appears on the screen regardless of the content - the good, the bad and the ugly. This work can in part be seen as a criticism of online conditions.’7 To make this type of creative work requires the understanding of underlying systems, technologies, methods and concepts. Partly because of the hands-on mentality combined with an awareness of the broader impact (whether this is environmental, ethical, or social) they act more as a critical maker than an observant visionary. They combine an experimental hands-on attitude with a critical participative view on the matter. The spider silk project of Essaïdi has led her to found BioArt Laboratories: a bio lab where artists can experiment with bio-based materials and technologies, such as DNA extraction or cultured meat. This initiative, driven by the dramatically increased advancements in biotechnology, aims to make this progress and its implications

CAD stands for computer-aided design.

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CNC stands for computer numerical control. CNC machines can mill 3d models into materials such as plywood, foam board, and metal.

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6 Alexenberg, Mel, (2011), The Future of Art in a Postdigital Age: From Hellenistic to Hebraic Consciousness. Bristol and Chicago: Intellect Books/University of Chicago Press

7 Ohno, S. (Director). (2013). Back Streets of the Internet [Documentary]. Japan: W+K Tokyo Lab.

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‘the collective responsibility of society’8. The rise of these ‘critical makers’ have a practice that requires a split identity; one foot planted in the craftsmanship of design and the other foot planted in the reflexive work of critique. One could argue that avant-gardist art and design always have been socially-critical, but the critical makers appear to bring something new to the table. Where the avant-garde designers tended to stay in the realm of arts and design, critical makers cross borders and intentionally create or spark meaningful conversations with other disciplines such as healthcare, technology or bioscience.

New approaches in art education

These new movements find their way into arts and design academies in the Netherlands. Art academies are taking a closer look at the global impact that new technologies have on art, science, architecture, fashion and other aspects of everyday life, and finding ways to navigate through that and implement these findings. In this period of economic decline, the arts, higher education and research institutions’ legitimacy is constantly under fire and institutions in the Netherlands are facing serious budget cuts. In two examples - the ArTechLab and the Open design minor - art academies realise that this interdisciplinary open practice is redefining notions of creative production and processes, and hence show that new approaches are necessary and needed.

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Co-creation melts crafts and technology into one

The above mentioned publication ‘Out of hand’ approaches the post-digital more or less as an instrumental view, as a new way of making, which creates a new kind of aesthetic. However, there exists a more holistic approach to the post-digital. Digital production tools or new materials are not merely the new paintbrush, the new musical instrument or the new way of making prototypes. But also is implicated a different way of working, crossing borders of disciplines like biotechnology. This is why Essaïdi has the urge to call herself a hybrid artist. She is redefining the notions of creative production and creative processes, which becomes more a blend of different disciplines. In her case she draws on a biotechnological framework and on the specialist knowledge of the scientists and medical professionals.

Some of the results of the artistic research done by the student-researchers of the ArTechLab are the development of new techniques for printing salt, new applications for carbon in a bicycle or the combination of analogue and digital properties of camera’s. In 2011 AKI ArtEZ started the ArTechLab for fine arts and design students, as an innovative interdisciplinary specialisation for artistic research into new materials and technologies. This research is becoming much more of a participatory process, as the technologies are becoming more complex and co-operation with specialists from the field are needed and provided during the process. Although the collaboration is optional, it ends up that during the research process a vast amount of the students experience the need for specialist expertise. A team of advisors on which students can rely on for their professional network and technological, engineering or artistic advice, coach the student researchers. http://bioartlab.com

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A specialization at another arts academy, the Willem de Kooning Academie in Rotterdam, under the name of Open Design Minor, deals with similar implications but specifically focuses on the use of open source technologies and methods. It deals with questions like: In what way can you share your work that suits your idea? How can you express authorship, your identity and position as a designer in a participatory and open process? What are the aesthetics and poetics of Open Design? These are questions that reflect our shifting attitude towards the role of changing technologies in the practice of arts and designers.

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Innovation by art

Recently, artist and designers are getting a more significant role in research and development projects (Bakhshi. 2008). This is also driven by the rising notion in recent studies that fine arts graduates contribute to innovation throughout their working lives. Artists and designers think and act flexible, try to keep it simple, follow their passion, do more with less and find possibilities in difficult circumstances. The study ‘The art of innovation’ (Oakley) shows that these artists have attitudes and skills that are conducive to innovation. The research shows that they work in a way that is organised around the flexibility of portfolio and project work and continually have ‘crossover’ and cross-fertilisation of people and ideas across the arts, and between the arts and non-arts worlds. These qualities are valued in innovative areas. The increase of the involvement of artists and designers in research and development projects indicates that a new field emerges where design, art and science persistently are searching for each other’s interfaces. This new area requires artists and designers to rethink their role and the value of their creativity and imagination. This role resembles that of a composer taking the creative lead in the project while speaking different languages and conducting everyone’s imagination. The examples of a new type of collaboration between arts and science of Essaidi and caraballo-farman demonstrate the added value, to combine the tacit with the explicit dimension of knowledge. In projects where designers and engineers, like in the case of caraballo-farman, come together to experiment the exchange of different languages motivates them to look beyond traditional approaches. Next to this, artists and designers working with fast developing and implemented technologies are looking past the optimist views and become critical makers. As graduates expressed their need for new skills and competences in an increasingly more hybrid practice the question rises if current arts and design education practice is enough to support future generations. Here two examples in arts and design education, ArTechLab at ArteZ and Open Design Minor at WdKA are emphasized, as their approach is similar. They do not approach these technological and social developments as a new art discipline or separate field. They try to make use of this interdisciplinary trend that renders the convergence of disciplines from within and outside the arts and design world. Rather these specializations stress the need of a new way of working and the organisation of work and production processes. They therefore emphasize skills like hands-on artistic research, collaboration, co-creation, craftsmanship and critical reflection.

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Students experience these approaches as refreshing and different from the rest of the curriculum, which poses new challenges. How do you connect these new approaches with the current curriculum? What kind of expertise do you ask of teachers? How do you support students in their search for their own authenticity while working with others? How do you facilitate the use of futures’ technologies? How can you create a support structure for students’ cooperation with companies and scientists? Is arts and design education future-proof for our post-digital world? The road to the answers of these questions these will help us to figure out how to strengthen the combination of art, technology and research in future art education practice.

References Gruijters, C., & Mensvoort, K. v. (2014). Crossover works #2. Amsterdam: Federation of Dutch Creative Industries. Abel, B. v. (2011). Open design now: why design cannot remain exclusive. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: BIS Publishers. Alexenberg, M. (2011). The Future of Art in a Post-digital Age From Hellenistic to Hebraic Consciousness.. Bristol: Intellect. Andel, W., & Vandenbempt, K. (2012). Creative jumpers: businessmodellen van groeiondernemingen in creatieve industrieën (1e dr. ed.). Leuven: Acco. Anderson, C. (2012). Makers: the new industrial revolution. New York: Crown Business. Anderson, J., Reckenrich, J., & Kupp, M. (2011). The fine art of success: how learning great art can create great business. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley. Bakhshi, H., McVittie, E., & Science, T. a. (2008). Creating innovation: do the creative industries support innovation in the wider economy?. London: NESTA.

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About the author Isjah Koppejan is program manager and lecturer at the Minor ArTechLab at the AKI ArtEZ Academy for Art and Design, Enschede. Isjah has been working for arts academies, media labs, heritage organisations, and research organisations. With a focus on translating social developments and trends into strategies she initiated and realised many innovative concepts and projects in the intersection of art, ICT and science. Recently, she initiated with the City of Hagen the European project Creative Urban Renewal in Europe (CURE), and managed different large research projects such as COMMIT and Creative Scientific Research Program (CRISP).

Boutellier, H. (2011). De improvisatiemaatschappij: over de sociale ordening van een onbegrensde wereld. Den Haag: Boom Lemma uitgevers. Daly, C. (2011). Paradigms of nature: post natural futures. Melbourne: Melbourne Books. Gerritzen, M. (2005). Next nature. Amsterdam: BIS. Gruijters, C., & Mensvoort, K. v. (2014). Crossover works #2. Amsterdam: Federation of Dutch Creative Industries. Hagoort, G., & Kooyman, R. (Ed) (2009). Creative Industries: colourful fabric in multiple dimensions. Delft: Eburon. Hofstede, B. (2006). Creatief vermogen: de economische potentie van cultuur en creativiteit. ‘s-Gravenhage: Elsevier Overheid. Kelly, K. (2010). What technology wants. New York: Viking. Labaco, R. T., & York, N. (2013). Out of hand: materializing the post-digital. London: Black Dog Publishing London UK .

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McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to cradle: remaking the way we make things. New York: North Point Press. Oakley, K., Sperry, B., Pratt, A. C., & Bakhshi, H. (2008). The art of innovation how fine arts graduates contribute to innovation. London: NESTA. Parrish, D. (2005). T-Shirts and suits: a guide to the business of creativity. Liverpool: Merseyside ACME. Pauli, G. A. (2010). The blue economy 10 years, 100 innovations, 100 million jobs. Taos, NM: Paradigm Publications. Radjou, N., & Prabhu, J. (2013). Jugaad innovatie: slim en flexibel innoveren naar spectaculaire groei (1e dr. ed.). Culemborg: Van Duuren Management. Robinson, K. (2001). Out of our minds: learning to be creative. Oxford: Capstone ;.

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Schaub, A., & Herst, D. (2012). Design & DIY, Five years of innovation Fablab Amsterdam. Amsterdam: Fablab Amsterdam.

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Seymour, S. (2008). Fashionable technology the intersection of design, fashion, science, and technology. Wien: Springer. Seymour, S. (2010). Functional aesthetics visions in fashionable technology. Wien: Springer. Wiegman, A. (2011, July 1). Bored dress. SecondSight, 26, 110-111. Winkel, C. v., & Gielen, P. (2012). De hybride kunstenaar: de organisatie van de artistieke praktijk in het postindustriële tijdperk. Breda: Expertisecentrum Kunst en Vormgeving, AKV/St. Joost (Avans Hogeschool).

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Roberta Comunian Abigail Gilmore

From knowledge sharing to co-creation: paths and spaces for engagement between higher education and the creative and cultural industries

Evolving relations between Higher Education and the creative and cultural industries in UK

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Abstract

The last decade has seen the emergence and growth of creative industries in policy frameworks and initiatives in many European and international countries. Since its initial definition by the UK’s Department for Culture Media and Sport (DCMS, 1998), more attention has been placed on including a broader range of cultural and creative organizations and activities within the definition of the creative economy, from publically funded museums to new digital media companies. Alongside these policy initiatives many countries have also experienced changes in their higher education systems, under the pressure of financial cuts and new patterns of educational and social mobility. The key objective of this article is to chart the changing dynamics of and define the drivers for the different relationships between universities, the creative and cultural industries (CCIs) and the communities they serve, and to explore the motivations and rationales emerging from policy making and from the sectors themselves which shape and influence these modes of engagement. The reflections and findings in this article have emerged during the discussions and events that took place in the UK and internationally in the last two years (2012-204) as part of the research network Beyond the Campus: Connecting Knowledge and Creative Practice Communities across Higher Education and the Creative Economy.

Historically, universities have long been key cultural players in cities and communities. Many universities have been beacons of cultural production and preservation through the establishment of art collections, museums and galleries. The UK higher education sector continues this relationship with arts and culture, for example by hosting performing arts spaces on campus and undertaking academic research on arts and cultural activities (Chatterton, 1999; Chatterton & Goddard, 2000; Comunian & Faggian, 2014; Powell, 2007). As well as performing art spaces, universities have been keen supporters of the development of a local music scene through student unions and their venues (Long, 2011). However, later, there has been a growing pressure from policy to understand the impact of higher education in relation to the arts sector and the CCIs, and to further facilitate these relationships and add to their potential value (Arts Council England (ACE), 2006; Dawson & Gilmore, 2009; Universities UK, 2010). As reported by Benneworth and Jongbloed (2010) from 2005/2006 an increased emphasis was placed on the impact by the UK Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC) to demonstrate the role of its activities and to create specific funding programmes to support knowledge transfer.

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Policy makers have become more interested in this agenda recently in relation to the potential for the development of sector skills and creative industries and knowledge transfer, whereby the value of academic research might be transferred into external environments to generate further value and impacts. These two dimensions are closely intertwined. Some universities have struggled to find meaningful ways to achieve this in another way than the established ‘injection’ of graduates into the CCI, often not all into creative employment (Comunian, Faggian, & Jewell, 2011). There is continuing speculation about whether this is supply side failure - creative graduates leaving without the appropriate skills, attributes or skills levels for creative occupations (Cunningham, Higgs, & Council, 2010) - or simply oversupply into a precarious, unregulated and vulnerable economic situation (Banks & Hesmondhalgh, 2009; Oakley, 2009). The concept of knowledge transfer (often labelled knowledge exchange or external engagement in this context) has become increasingly important in making the argument that arts and humanities departments have a positive impact on society and provide good value for money. Some authors have seen this new pressure for knowledge transfer and exchange as an imposition of a ‘techno-economic’ paradigm to arts and humanities in academia (Bullen, Robb, & Kenway, 2004) but most higher education institutions have embraced this new perspective, seeing it as an opportunity to add value to their work (Lindberg, 2008; Powell, 2007). The knowledge connections which universities develop with the CCIs are considered particularly important as measures of impact and engagement, increasingly embedded within research assessment exercises (Comunian, Smith, and Taylor 2013) and, although the evidence gathered is at the moment mostly anecdotal, there is an increasing pressure within policy circles to show the importance of these dynamics (Bakhshi, Schneider, & Walker, 2008; Hughes, Kitson, Probert, Bullock, & Milner, 2011). Initially, relationships between higher education and the CCIs have been characterized by the assumption that knowledge present within academia can benefit the work and practice of creative practitioners and organisations, with a strong emphasis on entrepreneurship (DCMS, 2006; Taylor, 2007). These values have been framed explicitly in relation to entrepreneurialism and the creative economy and more recently in wider arts and humanities, in relation to social responsibility, community engagement and development - where the injection of academic, specialist knowledge in history, classics, languages, literatures and cultures is seen to provide the basis for improvement and connection with those on the outside. However, other modes of engagement are emerging to take central stage in this landscape, which question and blur the boundaries and roles of academia, policy and the CCIs sector (Comunian, Taylor, & Smith, 2013, fig.1). They argue that the triple helix model (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000) has a role in promoting a better understanding of how arts and humanities-based disciplines are engaging in knowledge transfer and exploitation activities with the wider CCIs sector (Comunian et al., 2013, p.17).

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Fig. 1: A new Triple Helix? The creative economy, public policy and higher education

There has also been a long conversation between academics and arts policy bodies about their shared interests in the commissioning and production of research and evidence which concerns the CCIs, their management, value and impact. Although a potentially rich area for collaboration, in the UK this has never really moved from a general misunderstanding of the core reasons for knowledge production in either sector, confusion over disciplinary boundaries and epistemological characteristics and a sense of oblique frustration with the different timescales attached to these activities from both parties (Gilmore, 2014 ). So whilst there are many examples of the involvement of academics in consultancy and applied research which maps and defines the creative economy, or evaluates specific arts programmes and initiatives, there are few examples whereby academic outputs and policy outputs take the same form. Policy makers are not primary audiences for peer-reviewed publications, and the acknowledged difficulties of capturing the value applied and practice-based outputs under the terms of academic research quality assessment frameworks remain (Scullion & Garcia, 2005).

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From knowledge sharing to co-creation: paths and spaces for engagement between higher education and the creative and cultural industries

New models for research and other collaborations are however emerging, which attempt to demonstrate how academic research can be useful in other ways to the arts and CCIs, establish principles for the ways in which these sectors come together, the shared and separate outputs and outcomes and the potential for genuine co-production and collaboration. This is in part due to the increased pressure on research funding councils to demonstrate the social and economic returns on investment, levering new

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programmes of funding which are deliberately targeting opportunities for knowledge exchange and collaboration with creative practitioners and communities. However, it is also partially engaging with broader issues in higher education policy, responding to new financial barriers for access to knowledge and education with the increasing interest in the civic university and in achieving ways of taking down the walls of the institution, reconfiguring the ways knowledge and knowledge practices move in and out.

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Understanding new and old patterns of engagement: a research framework

This framework (Fig. 2) aims to clarify some of the key dynamics and concepts within the growing literature surrounding the creative economy to better understand the multiplicity and complexity of the interactions that connect the sector to the higher education. In the broader literature, the role played by universities in the local cultural development is clearly acknowledged (Chatterton, 1999). This corresponds to the general level of interactions between universities and the creative economy (I). Interactions can be broadly said to be linked to the impact of the presence of the university as such and with reference to the CCIs – also to the presence of venues, facilities and cultural spaces. Alongside this estate impact, there is a much richer knowledge impact, as ‘Creative Knowledge’ (II) is generated within and at the boundaries between academia and CCIs. Within ‘Creative knowledge’ two important elements can be identified: one is the (creative) human capital involved, the other is the role played by ‘third spaces’ in creating opportunities for shared research and innovation (III). In exploring these two of our framework we can note the following remarks.

Fig.2 : A framework to explore the relationship between Higher Education and the CCIs

Creative Human Capital. This comprises on the one hand a focus on graduates and creative workers, on the other hand, academics and researchers within universities. The research on human capital is well developed, specifically focusing on understanding the impact of skills and training on graduates entering the economy every year and their ability to find work (Faggian, 2005). Recent research has also explored the specific

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impact of ‘creative human capital’ in specific places (Comunian & Faggian, 2014), furthermore, the importance of the creative workforce (and its clustering) has been the centre of attention of much of the recent policy work (NESTA, 2008). Furthermore, students are often encouraged to take part in community cultural activities, which see their ‘local citizenship’ and ‘social responsibility’ in connection to the locale where they study and live. Alongside the role played by ‘creative graduates’ it is important to consider another side of human capital, focusing on the highly trained individuals that constitute the human resources of universities. There is a clear acknowledgement both within academia and the arts world that collaborations and exchanges are based on individuals and their networks and knowledge. Here the arts are a source of knowledge assets for academia, as theoretical knowledge requires the importing of practice-led expertise, for example professionals engaged in teaching as guests and sometimes even in tenured, permanent positions. They themselves often directly engage in start-up, patents and other economic activities, often blurring the lines between the teacher and practitioners, between academics and CCIs. This highlights how academics in the creative arts follow specific patterns of engagement connected to the practice-based nature of their research and the value of the networks across higher education and the creative economy that they establish and rely on (Haft, 2012). Creative research & innovation: ‘third spaces’. Shared spaces are another key form of engagement which instigates collaborative practice. Some shared spaces are physical infrastructures (for example incubation spaces, shared facilities), others are virtual platforms or ‘third spaces’, where academic knowledge mixes and negotiates with specialist knowledge from the art sector and its communities. Most of these spaces tend be informal and based on mutual collaborations and exchanges, however, sometimes they are results of larger investments and conscious commitments to developing longterm partnerships across the sectors (Dawson & Gilmore, 2009). The key issue for ‘third spaces’ is whether they need to develop organically or if they can be policy driven or engineered to produced research and innovation across academia and CCIs (to mutual and equal benefit).

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From knowledge sharing to co-creation: paths and spaces for engagement between higher education and the creative and cultural industries

While this framework helps researchers and practitioners to understand the practices and dimensions of collaboration, it does not account for the directionality of these connections. There is a long-term belief that knowledge within academia can be simply injected in the outside world and that universities can plan their collaborations at the directorship level. However, the growing role played by creative human capital and shared third spaces highlights the emergence of more organic and bilateral models of engagement, where new knowledge might be co-created and developed across and beyond academia. These findings have particular implications for policy practices to support these connections, not least the development of agreements, such as memoranda of understanding, and contractual arrangements which work to connect up the many different tiers, function areas and interest groups which come together within bilateral engagements.

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Conclusions: challenges and future scenarios

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This article offered an opportunity to reflect on the collaborative practices emerging between knowledge institutions and the CCIs. It highlighted the need to develop a better understanding of the practices as being at the crossroads between CCIs, academia and public policy as part of complex triple helix of relations and expectations (Comunian et al., 2013). Furthermore, it propose a new framework to understand these relations that goes beyond the simple cultural impact of the university presence in specific locations to engage with how their presence stimulates both creative human capital and the development of shares third spaces for research and innovation. This framework aims to be a useful tool to understand collaborations and explore challenges and future scenarios of creative engagement across and beyond academia. First, it is important to consider and acknowledge power relationships in these collaborations. While knowledge institutions are large structures, with access to space, knowledge and funding, CCIs are often small organisations with a lack of funding and infrastructure. The unilateral establishment of collaborations and the traditional ‘injection’ model - where knowledge more inside academia is fed to outside organisations in hope of broader impact - are a source of contention, where CCIs struggle to state their role and importance in cross-boundary collaborations. For knowledge to be relevant and have a real impact there is a need to establish common research goals and objectives rather than simply feed results outside the campus wishing for them to be relevant or meaningful. However, small CCIs often struggle to be able to set or contribute to the initial research agenda because of the impossibility to commit time or funding in long-term collaborations. Where these relationships are between HEIs and large public and third sector institutions – such as museums and galleries – the power relationships may be differently structured, as there is a greater ‘fit’ and recognition of the dynamics and missions of these knowledge institutions. With large commercial organisations the dynamics alter again, so that, for example, in the knowledge exchange and teaching activities, individual degree programmes and student cohorts function as small research and development spaces within the supply chain. However, since they are dependent on the relationships (and must fit with the commercial timescales) to provide relevant student employability and skills development, commercial mechanisms can cause friction with degree structures. Second, a better understanding of the value (economic and socio-cultural) of creative human capital is needed. While creative arts degrees are growing in numbers and popularity in UK, graduates face unstable working patterns and conditions and often low economic rewards after their training (Comunian, Faggian, & Li, 2010). Similarly, while universities encourage engaged academics and lecturers / practitioners in their courses, the traditional pathways for promotion and recognition can often prove difficult to this new breed of intellectuals across CCIs and academia (Haft, 2012). Furthermore, an increased investment of time in relationship and project management is required when working collaboratively outside the walls of the academy (and similarly for practitioners negotiating higher education institutions) and the competencies and skills required are not always casted into project and research funding sufficiently, or recognized through the established esteem frameworks of universities. This disjuncture is nowhere more apparent than in the financial systems of universities, which find it hard to accommodate the often temporary payment schedules and requirements of 222

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freelance practitioners, so that other informal economies sometimes evolve based on skills exchange and social transactions to avoid the issue of slow requisitioning and payment of services. The terms and conditions for working together require change on both parts, and a shift in the valuation, performance management and appraisal of the capital costs involved is needed, in order to build new pathways for progression for both creative graduates and practitioner-academics.

While this article has tried to provide a framework for future research and practice, it also aims to stimulate debate on the challenges ahead. It signposts a number of shared interests, that have arisen in the context of policy drivers for collaboration and engagement across universities and CCIs, but which are also driven by the passions, enthusiasms and specialist expertise of the individuals involved to develop new, more appropriate methods for knowledge exchange and cross-sector working.

About the authors

Roberta Comunian is Lecturer in Creative and Cultural Industries at the Department of Culture, Media and Creative Industries at King’s College London. Her work focuses on the relationship between arts, cultural regeneration projects and the cultural and creative industries. She is currently leading an AHRC research network exploring the connections between Higher Education and the Creative Economy and has published extensively on the career opportunities and patterns of creative graduates in UK. — Roberta.Comunian @kcl.ac.uk

References Arts Council England (ACE). (2006). Arts, enterprise and excellence: Strategy for higher education. London: Arts Council England. Bakhshi, H., Schneider, P., & Walker, C. (2008). Arts and humanities research and innovation. Bristol and London: AHRC & NESTA.

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Finally, as universities in UK face increased criticism over higher fees, there is a need for timely reflection on how culture and creativity could help universities engage with local communities and break barriers to access for segments of the community which left outside of the campus, and excluded through lack of economic means as well as social and psychological barriers. As the value of arts and creativity is increasingly understood and recognized, in terms of instrumental policy agendas, so the citizenship and social responsibility initiatives of universities are increasingly turning toward new modes of creative engagement which draw on the capacity of academics and CCIs to collaborate and operate in the same civic spaces.

Banks, M., & Hesmondhalgh, D. (2009). Looking for work in the creative industries policy. In: International Journal of Cultural Policy, 15(4), 415 - 430. Benneworth, P., & Jongbloed, B. (2010). Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation. In: Higher Education, 59(5), 567-588. doi: 10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 Bullen, E., Robb, S., & Kenway, J. (2004). ‘Creative destruction’: Knowledge economy policy and the future of the arts and humanities in the academy. In: Journal of Education Policy, 19(1), 3 - 22. Chatterton, P. (1999). The cultural role of universities in the community: Reivisiting the university - community debate. In: Environment & Planning A, 32, 165-181.

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Chatterton, P., & Goddard, J. (2000). The response of higher education institutions to regional needs. In: European Journal of Education, 35(4). Comunian, R., & Faggian, A. (2014). Creative graduates and creative cities: Exploring the geography of creative education in the uk. In: International Journal of Cultural and Creative Industries, 1(2), 19-34. Comunian, R., Faggian, A., & Jewell, S. (2011). Winning and losing in the creative industries: An analysis of creative graduates’ career opportunities across creative disciplines. In: Cultural Trends, 20(3/4), 291-308. Comunian, R., Faggian, A., & Li, Q. C. (2010). Unrewarded careers in the creative class: The strange case of bohemian graduates. In: Papers in Regional Science, 89(2), 389-410.

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Comunian, R., Taylor, C., & Smith, D. N. (2013). The role of universities in the regional creative economies of the uk: Hidden protagonists and the challenge of knowledge transfer. In: European Planning Studies, DOI:10.1080/0965431 3.2013.790589. Cunningham, S., Higgs, P., & Council, A. (2010). What’s your other job?: A census analysis of arts employment in australia. Australia Council for the Arts. Dawson, J., & Gilmore, A. (2009). Shared interest: Developing collaboration, partnerships and research relationships between higher education, museums, galleries and visual arts organisations in the north west. Arts Council England North West and the North West Universities Association. DCMS. (1998). Creative industries mapping document. London: Department for Culture, Media and Sport. DCMS. (2006). Making the case for public investment: Developing entrepreneuriship for the creative industries - the role of higher education. London: DCMS. Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L. (2000). The dynamics of innovation: From national systems and ‘mode 2’ to a triple helix of university-industry-government relations. In: Research Policy, 29(2), 109-123. Faggian, A. (2005). Human capital, migration and local labour markets: The role of the higher education system in great britain. University of Reading, Reading. Gilmore, A. (2014 ). Evaluating legacies: Research, evidence and the regional impact of the cultural olympiad. Cultural Trends, 23(1), 29-41. Haft, J. (2012). Publicly engaged scholarship in the humanities, arts, and design A Working Guide to the Landscape of Art & Change (retrieved from: http:// imaginingamerica.org/fg-item/publicly-engaged-scholarship-in-the-humanities-arts-and-design/?parent=442). Americans for the Arts: Imagining America. Hughes, A., Kitson, M., Probert, J., Bullock, A., & Milner, I. (2011). Hidden connections: Knowledge exchange between the arts and humanities and the private, public and third sectors. London: Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC) and Centre for Business Research (CBR) at the University of Cambridge.

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Abigail Gilmore is a Senior Lecturer in Arts Management and Cultural Policy at the Institute for Cultural Practices, University of Manchester. Her research concerns local cultural policy, management and participation and involves collaboration with cultural partners to inform teaching, knowledge exchange and public engagement. She is the Co-investigator on the AHRC Research Network Beyond the Campus: Higher Education and the Creative Economy, and the AHRC large-grant project ‘Understanding Everyday Participation’. — Abigail.Gilmore @manchester.ac.uk

From knowledge sharing to co-creation: paths and spaces for engagement between higher education and the creative and cultural industries

Lindberg, M. E. (2008). Higher education‐to‐work transitions in the knowledge society: The initial transition and positional competition point of view. In: Higher Education in Europe, 33(4), 375-385. doi: 10.1080/03797720802522577 Long, P. (2011). Student music.In: Arts Marketing: An International Journal, 1(2), 121-135. Oakley, K. (2009). From bohemian to britart - art students over 50 years. In: Cultural Trends, 18(4), 281 - 294. Powell, J. (2007). Creative universities and their creative city-regions. In: Industry and Higher Education, 21(6), 323-335. Scullion, A., & Garcia, B. (2005). What is cultural policy research? In: International Journal of Cultural Policy, 11(2), 113 - 127.

Universities UK. (2010). Creating prosperity: The role of higher education in driving the uk’s creative economy. London Universities UK.

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Taylor, C. (2007). Developing relationships between higher education, enterprise and innovation in the creative industries. In: C. Henry (Ed.), Entrepreneurship in the creative industries – an international perspective. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

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No Museum is an Island Abstract

Knowledge Institutions

In Europe, public museums occupy a central role in the development of the complex and rich creative system of institutions and organizations devoted to the preservation and promotion of local and national cultural heritage. Their peculiar features are resulting more and more fit to answer the requests for alternative economic growth coming from policy-makers operating in productively distressed urban clusters all around Europe. This article benefits from the analysis of two seminal cases of culturally-based regeneration projects that occurred in France, discussing the potentialities and threats related to the opening of new branches of existing museums. We tend particular reference to the long-term effects on local communities, and to the advantages and flaws of globalized rather than sustainable economic growth of culturally-intense urbanized European areas. Introduction

The modern museum constitutes the paradigm of a knowledge institution, Nowadays, in Europe, public museums represent the absolute majority, and they have taken a preeminent role in the creation of an integrated European cultural system. These organizations have also progressively demonstrated to combine educational and economic features (Huang, 2006), as they have shown to be excellent players in renovation and urban regeneration plans that occurred in different European regions. From the iconic Bilbao project (Gomez, 2010; McNeill, 2000) to the reconverted Tate Modern, museums have been selected to provide a renewed economic and productive as well as cultural and social impulse to relatively declining urban areas (Plaza, 2010). Now this process has initially seemed to constitute a fairly efficient choice to enrich and to empower communities through the opening of new cultural institutions and now it has become a more and more diffused solution among public policy makers, at the same time questions have arisen as for the nature of these interventions, their ex-novo nature and the long-term, ex post results in terms of knowledge creation, communities’ identity and institutional rooting (Bonet & Donato, 2011; Popoli, 2011). Through a comparative case study of two culturally-based regeneration projects developed in France, the article discusses opportunities and threats incidental to the opening of venues of existing public museums in new locations. The cases discussed here, offer the opportunity to identify cultural, social, policy issues woth discussing. This article offers some considerations and theoretical insights on the relationships between local versus international culture, globalization of tastes versus social identity, gentrification versus sustainable urbanization, educational versus economic effects, and she frames them within the study of the larger transformations happening in the European creative landscape.

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No Museum is an Island

The Context

In parallel, at the social level, the evolution of individuals into customers and the birth of a ‘society of consumption’, consequent upon the diffusion of the mass production system, changed people’s behaviour toward material goods and immaterial experiences (Ritzer, 2004): the diffused belief that anything could be purchased and enjoyed through the act of buying (Ritzer, 2010) progressively modified the social scale of values given to products and actions and, therefore, deeply affected those subjects which had always worked with symbolic-loaded objects and experiences – as in the case of museums (Griswold, 2008). Expectations toward cultural institutions became double: on one side, people started to rely more and more on Culture, Creativity and Knowledge in order to been offered a meaning to their lives and actions (Featherstone, 1995), assigning a new role to cultural actors, now asked to participate more actively to both the local and the global community (Hooper-Greenhill, 2000); on the other side, the progressive social gap reduction, the success of mass media communication and the diffusion of a ‘religion of consumption’ concurred to reduce cultural institutions’ high status as ‘temples of knowledge’ to that of regular service providers (Augé, 1992). On a whole, the combination of a social request for a new role to be played by cultural institutions (Renimel, 2006) and the internal need to rethink possible survival and growth strategies imposed by the financial cuts (Lindqvist, 2012), together determined the need for museums to redefine their identities and to reassess their roles within communities and, at the same time, to find new management solutions to increase visitors attendance, to secure positive social feedbacks and stakeholders’ acknowledgment and to guarantee adequate and uninterrupted incomes. These environmental conditions co-determined a series of actions on the part of European public museums that progressively, at a firm’s level, have affected both their strategic management and their organizational structure (Griffin, 1991). At a field’s level, they have induced a paradigmatic modification that has transformed the original, modernist image of museums (Dana, 1917; Paul, 2012) into that of a post-modernist, globalized, embedded Knowledge Institution with strong, conditioning ties with the environment and with intricate inter-organizational networks of competitors, costumers/visitors, legitimators and stakeholders.

Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

Knowledge Institutions

European Public Museums at the Turn of the XXI Century: New Requests and New Roles In late 1980s, after the emergence of new economic paradigms in public management advocating for cost-efficiency, private-like administrative routines and, in general, ‘less State’ in most European countries (López, 1993), the implicit social acceptance and political support provided to public museums since their creation and diffusion (Alexander & Alexander, 2008), started to be doubted. It was progressively challenged by a new wave of financially-concerned policy makers (Duffy, 1992). The financial contributions, usually guaranteed by many European governments, began to decrease in frequency and amount and the compensating participation of private funders demonstrated to be insufficient to secure total coverage to museums’ activities (Wittlin, 1970; Tobelem, 1997).

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Urban Regeneration Policies: the Role of New Public Museums Almost simultaneously with the changes occurring in the cultural sector, structural transformations of the global market, the rise of new countries as production leaders and different national-level economic policies determined the progressive decline of different European metropolitan areas, typically characterized by iron and steel or heavy manufacturing mono-industry economies (Rodriguez, Martinez, & Guenaga, 2001). In some cases, the crisis of one pivotal productive sector determined the economic depression of entire cities, upon the closing or the reorganization of preeminent district enterprises: that being so, local policy makers were faced with the pressing and urgent need to mend fractured economic and productive systems by focusing public investments toward fields and sectors that could represent more promising and self-preserving solutions for the long-term transformation of entire urban fabrics (Hutton, 2010; Judd, 2003). Projects designed to activate urban regeneration processes started to be implemented and carried out in some European cities and, in particular, the choice to centre them around Culture and Knowledge (Bianchini & Parkinson, 1993) as main assets driving Innovation, Creative Entrepreneurship and Tourism (Gonzalez, 2011; Pratt, 2009) became as privileged and as straightforward as the first examples of its perceived success started to spread among governments. In many of these projects, the pivotal actor around which the whole regeneration process could be built was a new cultural institution – most often, a museum (López, 1993; Tali & Pierantoni, 2011) – acting as core element providing both an implemented cultural offer to local communities and a source of attraction for visitors and tourists (Miles & Paddison, 2005). Beside the operational and strategic role of these new organizations in respect to implemented economic and cultural resources, two phenomena started to unravel with the progression of these projects: on one side, the very look and appearance of the new museums became more and more relevant. It seemed to provide an architectural restyling to relatively opaque or clearly degraded urban areas, making it almost a mandatory requirement to assign the building’s design to internationally-renowned firms. On the other side, once-thought accessory services (bookshop, restaurant, interactive education) started to gain importance in the eyes of policy makers, determining a progressive shift in the attention and, consequently, in the flow of investments and in the balancing of different museum activities (Balloffet, Courvoisier, & Lagier, 2014). Imposing the museum’s aspect as urban regenerator (and competitor for aesthetic recognition) and its role as edutainer over its function as economic booster and cultural promoter of the local community became increasingly common among practitioners. And, more importantly, among policy makers, reaching a point where appearance and collateral functions seemed to acquire increasing relevance to the detriment of long-term educational planning (Van Aalst & Boogaarts, 2002). This focus on immediate visibility and easy fruition leads some policy-makers to rely on existing organizations to define and to manage the new museum’s future activities and projects. By importing the brand awareness, the know-how, the strategic leadership and even the physical resources (collections) from other institutions – as it is described in the two cases presented in this article –, instead of projecting a community-rooted, original cultural institution, expression of the aspiration for regeneration and renewal of the territory in which it was meant to be settled.

BEYOND FRAMES

No Museum is an Island

Louvre-Lens (2012) Louvre-Lens has been inaugurated at the end of 2012 in the city of Lens, situated in the French region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais. As Pompidou-Metz, it is an EPCC, which members and founders are the Region, the Pas-de-Calais Départment, the Lens-Liévin Community (CALL), the Municipality of Lens, the Musée du Louvre and the State. It constitutes the final outcome of a project, proposed by the Ministry of Culture in 2003, aimed at opening a new branch of the world-famous Parisian museum: the NordPas-de-Calais region resulted to be the only one responding to the proposal, offering a choice of five different cities, among which, in late 2004, Lens was eventually selected to become the hosting town of the Louvre’s satellite institution.

Knowledge Institutions

Two Cases

Pompidou-Metz (2010) The Centre Pompidou-Metz is situated in the city of Metz, the administrative centre of the French region of Lorraine; it opened in May 2010. It is a not-for-profit institution (Etablissement Public de Coopération Culturelle – EPCC1); its members are MetzMétropole Community (CA2M), the Lorraine Region, the Municipality of Metz, the Centre Georges Pompidou and the State. From the project’s development history it follows that the original project idea came from the Paris’ Centre Pompidou itself2 that, since 2002, wanted to engage in a project of de-localization implying the opening a new satellite in France. Some candidates (Caen, Montpellier, Lyon, Nancy, Lille, Metz) were shortlisted, but it was Metz that, in January 2003, ended up being the final choice. The association was terminated with the constitution of the EPCC in november 2009 and, with that new juridic form, in march 2010, two agreements were signed: a 10-years one with CA2M for the loan of the building and a 5-years one which defined the ‘conditions regarding the disposal of works that are part of the permanent collection of Centre Pompidou, the artistic and cultural program of the EPCC, the use of the Centre Pompidou-Metz name and brand, the funding of the EPCC, its ticketing policy, its communication and the publications’3. Situated in the gentrified Quartier de l’Amphithéatre, of the total surface of the building (10 700 sqm), only half is devoted to exhibitions, the rest being occupied by an Auditorium (144 places), a Studio (196 places), a café and a restaurant, a bookshop and an info-point. The total costs mounted to 69.3 million Euros, of which the majority was paid by the CA2M; daily operations are funded every year by local governments by a total 9 million Euros (half from CA2M, 4 million Euros from the Lorraine Region and the remaining from the Municipality of Metz). To this day, the museum has hosted around 2 million visitors, 40% of which came from the surrounding region, and it has inaugurated 15 exhibitions (as the museum doesn’t have a permanent collection).

Instituted by loi n. 2002-6 of January, 4th 2002.

1

More precisely, the original push toward this project came from the then newly appointed Minister of Culture and Communication Jean-Jacques Aillagon. Centre Pompidou is a national museum, making it directly under the supervision of the ministry and susceptible to central government’s choices.

2

3 The Author’s translation from french, from the 2010 Pompidou-Metz Annual Report, the last one published to this day by the organization.

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Alike Pompidou-Metz, great emphasis was put on the architectural features: in september 2005, SANAA and IMREY CULBERT studios won in a field of 120 contestants and were appointed responsible of the physical appearance of the museum. Although it formally has an autonomous status, the museum has no permanent collections, as all works of art come from Louvre’s vaults and temporary exhibitions are supervised by Louvre’s cultural and scientific consultants. As for January 2014, the museum has welcomed a little over 1 million visitors in its 7 000 sqm dedicated to exhibitions and activities (they are only one-fourth of the total surface, the remaining of which hosts laboratories, an auditorium – 280 places, a mediacentre, archives, offices, a bookshop, a café, two fast-food and one gourmet restaurant).

Knowledge Institutions

Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of the article was to offer an informed analysis of initiatives that directly affect and influence the development of an integrated and long-lasting system of European knowledge institutions pairing local necessities and requests with internationalscope ambitions. The necessity to matter and to compete in a globalized cultural industry, in fact, has found one answer, in the policy-makers’ eyes, in the opening of new museums in economically stressed cities with the explicit expectation of mirroring the extensively praised (Plaza, 2010), but also more and more contested success of initiatives such as that of the Guggenheim Bilbao. Both Metz and Lens are peripheral urban agglomerations which original economic developments have been driven by mining and petrochemical industries, respectively. In this sense, they combine economic and productive features that are very similar to those of other European cities and urban areas: the described changes in global markets and productive systems (both national and international) progressively undermined the economic foundations of mono-industry towns all over Western Europe, making it necessary for policy makers to address the problem of converting and regenerating highly stressed and exploited territories. At the same time, this particular condition - paired with the development of few cultural organizations’ strategies, aimed at growing especially by diversifying activities.4 They even project the creation of new peripheral exhibition sites, in order to fulfil the double purpose of strengthening their national presence and of increasing brand awareness through the promotion of new contemporary iconic buildings. Pompidou-Metz, in fact, clearly constitutes a satellite of the main museum in Paris, hosting exhibitions projected and ideated by the Parisian HQ but funded by local governments. At the same time, Louvre-Lens has been variedly described as the ‘contemporary Louvre’, the ‘other Louvre’, a ‘Louvre’s antenna’ or the ‘Louvre itself, rather than an annex’ by both Louvre’s representatives and local policy makers. Popoli (2011) interprets the increase of touring international exhibitions by worldknown museums as a preliminary strategic action, opening up the way for more permanent, long-term initiatives, such as the building of new satellites, both nationally and abroad. 4

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No Museum is an Island

However, the risk of initiatives such as those reported in the article can easily be foreseen. If, as discussed before, the role of public museums in Europe has progressively changed with the transformations occurred in European social and economic productive systems, it is clear that the recently appointed function of Urban Regenerator, with all its related economic and productive fallouts, cannot shadow or dismiss the core role as Knowledge Institutions that constitutes the defining features of all European public museums. Managerial innovations introduced in these organizations (such as strategic planning, financial rationalization, marketing-oriented projecting, diversification and expansion – sometimes also in the form of internationalization5) cannot conflict with the necessity, f or local territories, to develop cultural projects based on their own social and cultural heritage and history. The mere acceptance and funding of projects coming from famous public institutions – with the expectation of achieving reflected notoriety and attention out of the museum’s brand and expertise – constitutes a biased and dangerous solution for local communities in a continent as rich and heterogeneous as Europe is. The potentialities of public museums (and, in general, of knowledge institutions) in terms of urban regeneration, economic growth, social innovation and creative entrepreneurship in Europe must be fully expressed by investment and cultural policies that cherish and protect the peculiarities of territories and communities, rather than to go along with globalized and yet progressively homologated and simplified cultural tastes and consumption practices. In the author’s opinion, in fact, only from a local-grounded – not meaning narrow-minded or sight-limited - development of new cultural players and from their activities aimed toward the preservation, exploitation and promotion of local social, cultural, artistic, historical, natural heritage, it could be possible to concur to a culturally coherent, economically and productively advantageous, creatively innovative, long-term urban regeneration of many European territories and cities, to the advantage of local communities’ identity and Europe’s cultural richness.

Knowledge Institutions

In both cases, the absence of permanent collections coming from the territory’s cultural, historical or natural heritage, the strong relevance given to the physical appearance of the new sites and, finally, the extensive space and investment devoted to collateral activities (auditoriums, bookshops and numerous and varied rest stops), together concur to draw an image as famous museum’s decentralized exhibition spaces, rather than as out-and-out cultural hubs for long-term urban and social regeneration. The explicit purpose for policy makers, in fact, has been that of an allure of world-known organizations. Hoping that their well-known brands and the striking appearance of new buildings, could be appealing enough to ignite - not only an increasing flow of international cultural tourists, therefore boosting the local economy- but also to promote new activities and businesses that could support the regeneration of their distressed economic systems - a new cultural and creative vocation for their territories.

Centre Pompidou and Musée du Louvre, in fact, beside their national projects, are also involved in an ambitious international venture concerning the opening of a new Louvre-Abu Dhabi in the corresponding Arab Emirate. The two museums, together with other preeminent Parisian cultural institutions, are reunited into the so-called Agence France-Muséums with the purpose of collaborating with local authorities in the development and completion of the project (see Popoli, 2011).

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References Alexander, E. P., & Alexander, M. (2008). Museums in Motion: An Introduction to the History and Functions of Museums. American Association for State and Local History book series (Vol. 67, p. 352). Lanham: Rowman Altamira. Augé, M. (1992). Non-lieux: introduction à une anthropologie de la surmodernité (p. 149). Paris: Seuil. Balloffet, P., Courvoisier, F. H., & Lagier, J. (2014). From Museum to Amusement Park: The Opportunities and Risks of Edutainment. In: International Journal of Arts Management, 16(2). Bianchini, F., & Parkinson, M. (1993). Cultural Policy and Urban Regeneration: The West European Experience (p. 220). Manchester: Manchester University Press. Bonet, L., & Donato, F. (2011). The Financial Crisis and its Impact on the Current Models of Governance and Management of the Cultural Sector in Europe. In: ENCATC Journal of Cultural Management and Policy, 1(1), 4–11.

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Dana, J. C. (1917). The New Museum (p. 58). Woodstock, VT: The Elm Tree Press. Duffy, C. T. (1992). The Rationale for Public Funding of a National Museum. In: Cultural Economics, 37–48. Featherstone, M. (1995). Undoing Culture: Globalization, Postmodernism and Identity (Vol. 1995, p. 192). Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Gonzalez, S. (2011). Bilbao and Barcelona ‘in Motion’. How Urban Regeneration ‘Models’ Travel and Mutate in the Global Flows of Policy Tourism. In: Urban Studies, 48(7), 1397–1418. Griffin, D. (1991). Museums - Governance, management and government. Or, why are so many of the apples on the ground so far from the tree? In: Museum Management and Curatorship, 10(3), 293–304. Griswold, W. (2008). Cultures and Societies in a Changing World (p. 224). Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press. Hooper-Greenhill, E. (2000). Museums and the Interpretation of Visual Culture (p. 195). London: Routledge. Huang, H. (2006). The embodiment of the social roles of modern museums A study on the space and body in the modern museums. Paris: INTERCOM. Hutton, T. A. (2010). The New Economy of the Inner City: Restructuring, Regeneration and Dislocation in the Twenty-First Century Metropolis (p. 130). London: Routledge. Judd, T. R. (2003). Globalization and the New Politics of Urban Development. American Behavioral Scientist, 8. Lindqvist, K. (2012). Museum finances: challenges beyond economic crises. In: Museum Management and Curatorship, 27(1), 1–15. López, S. (1993). The cultural policy of the European community and its influence on museums. In: Museum Management and Curatorship, 12(2), 143–157.

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About the author Irene Popoli is a Ph.D. Candidate in Business Administration at the Department of Management and Organization at Stockholm School of Economics. She earned a B.A. in Economics of Arts at Università Cà Foscari and an M.Sc. in Management of Cultural Organizations at Università Cattolica. She has worked as a strategic consultant in museums and cultural firms in Italy. Her present research focuses on Organizational Change, Management Innovation and Strategy, studying the effects of institutional and environmental change on cultural organizations’ logics, structures and practices. — [email protected]

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McNeill, D. (2000). McGuggenisation? National identity and globalization in the Basque country. In: Political Geography, 19, 473–494. Mencarelli, R. (2008). Les Stratégies d’Internalisation des Musées: le Cas du Guggenheim. In: Décisions Marketing, (51), 69–72. doi:10.2307/20723326 Miles, S., & Paddison, R. (2005). Introduction: The rise and rise of culture-led urban regeneration. In: Urban Studies, 42(5), 833–839. Paul, C. (2012). The First Modern Museums of Art: The Birth of an Institution in 18th- and Early- 19th-Century Europe (p. 368). Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. Plaza, B. (2010). Valuing museums as economic engines: Willingness to pay or discounting of cash-flows? In: Journal of Cultural Heritage, (11), 155–162.

Pratt, A. C. (2009). Urban Regeneration: From the Arts ‘feel good’ Factor to the Cultural Economy: a Case Study of Hoxton, London. In: Urban Studies, 46(5&6), 1041–1061. Renimel, S. (2006). Museums face their future - The challenges of the global economy. Paris: INTERCOM. Ritzer, G. (2004). Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption (p. 280). Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press. Ritzer, G. (2010). The McDonaldization of Society 6 (p. 328). Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press. Rodriguez, A., Martinez, E., & Guenaga, G. (2001). Uneven Redevelopment: New Urban Policies and Socio-Spatial Fragmentation in Metropolitan Bilbao. In: European Urban and Regional Studies, 8(2), 161–178. Tali, M., & Pierantoni, L. (2011). New art museums in Central and Eastern Europe and the ideologies of urban space production. In: Cultural Trends, 20(2), 167–182.

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Popoli, I. (2011). L’internazionalizzazione dei Musei Globali: Rischi e opportunità. In: Rivista Di Economia Della Cultura, 22(1), 461–475.

Tobelem, J.-M. (1997). The Marketing Approach in Museums. In: Museum Management and Curatorship, 16(4), 337–354. Van Aalst, I., & Boogaarts, I. (2002). From Museum to Mass Entertainment: The Evolution of the Role of Museums in Cities. In: European Urban and Regional Studies, 9(3), 195–209. Wittlin, A. S. (1970). Museums: in search of a usable future (p. 299). Boston: MIT Press.

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Towards a learning environment for the creative industry

Knowledge Institutions

Abstract

The creative industry needs to be more innovative. Especially the capacity for social innovation is lacking. The school of Art and Economics (‘Kunst en Economie’) of the University of the Arts in Utrecht is preparing a new curriculum, in which a new type of professional has to be trained. For that purpose one has to look not only to the content of the programme. A learning environment has to be created, that takes into account the most important characteristics of the creative industry. In this article first the distinguished character of the creative industry is described. With that the necessity to work towards another, professional educational culture becomes clear. Five definitions about such a professional organisational culture are presented: the community of practice of Wenger, the Professional Learning Community and the concept Action Research of Hord, the Professional Learning Community of Verbiest and the Connectivism approach of Siemens. In the conclusion we look at the question which of these definitions can serve, when developing a learning environment that supports the student best in his development to a new professional. Introduction

From recent research concerning Dutch enterprises in the 9 most important sectors1 it appears, that innovation success depends in large measure on social innovation (Gibcus, et al., 2013). In the report the capacity for social innovation is determined by four factors: a dynamic management style, flexible organisation forms, work relations of high quality and cooperation with external parties (pp. 5-6). The conclusion is drawn, that firms from the creative industry in the Netherlands score on average lower on the capacity for social innovation than the other eight main sectors. The creative industry is usually described as a real industry that works according to principles that are conform the market of supply and demand (Caves, 2000). That definition has certain implications. In the first place the image emerges, that there is a real industry, in which large firms would play the most important role. This while in the Netherlands a stunning 75% of the firms in the creative industry is by one person (Gibcus, et al., 2013). Further the most important thing within the creative industry is not as such the marketing of scarcity, but much more the reaction to dynamics and transitions in society. In that way there are other forms of the development of values. Finally – and that appears in fact from the large amount of small firms in the sector – the creative industry does not start with competing markets, but the starting points are more directed towards mutual cooperation. The most important sectors are the sectors where the Netherland would like to excel the coming years. Besides the creative industry this is about agriculture and food, chemistry, energy, high tech, logistics, life sciences and health, horticulture and water.

1

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Towards a learning environment for the creative industry

The education in Art and Economics (AE) of the University of the Arts in Utrecht schools students, that want to model their career in this industry. A totally new curriculum is elaborated. By that they want to educate a ‘new professional’ that is able to function in a sector with the traits that were mentioned above. With the development of this new curriculum the question on which way the (social) innovative capacity of the creative industry can be enlarged is one of the starting points. With that there is not only attention for the content of the programme that has to be developed, also the vision on the establishment of the educational environment will play an important role.

Towards a professional educational culture

In the present discussion about the quality of our higher education it is said, that power should go back to the teacher, because this person knows best what good education is? But from no single study it has to be concluded that the individual professionalism of the teacher, his intrinsic and didactic luggage, leads by definition to a professional learning environment. In literature we find several definitions of a professional (educational) culture. The most important ones are mentioned here: 1. Community of Practice (Wenger) 2. Professional Learning Community (Hord) 3. Action research 4. Professional Learning Community (Dutch: Professionele Leergemeenschap) 5. Connectivism (Siemens)

Knowledge Institutions

The new professional can only be developed in an educational environment that mirrors what happens in practice as far as possible. And that implies that the educational environment not only should obtain a strongly at practice directed structure, but that within that structure also another, professional teacher culture has to develop. A number of questions arise. What are the characteristics of such a professional organisational culture? When is this applicable? Is that only a group of professional teachers that is didactically and concerning the content of the subject able?

1: Community of Practice (CoP)

Communities of Practice are a relatively new concept in higher education (McDonald & Star, 2006). The phrase ‘Community of Practice’ comes from research from anthropologist Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. The research subject is especially concentrating on artificial intelligence. Together they studied (1991) the way in which people learn and the started with that from a new perspective: till then people took as a starting point that learning is especially someone an individual could do. This assumption was open for discussion: maybe learning is something social and the result of learning is largely dependent of the way in which people can participate in the day to day life in society? This ‘situated learning’ model starts from the concept that learning takes place by social interactions, so: in groups. Wenger gives these groups the name ‘Communities of Practice’ (Eckert, 2006) and describes this on his website as ‘people who engage in a process of collective learning in a shared domain of human endeavour: a tribe learning

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to survive, a band of artists seeking new forms of expression, a group of engineers working on similar problems, a clique of pupils defining their identity in the school, a network of surgeons exploring novel techniques, a gathering of first time managers helping each other cope. In a nutshell: Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly’ (Wenger, 2006).

Knowledge Institutions

Every Community of Practice has three fundamental elements: the domain, the community and the practice of action. The domain takes care of the common identity, the motivation and the inspiration to participate in the community. In a well defined domain participants take responsibility. That is as such exactly the difference with a normal group friends. By cooperating social relationships emerges. People help each other and information is shared. People with the same function do not form a community. That only happens, when they exchange experiences, cooperate. In the course of time there emerges a feeling of a common history and a common identity. Every member develops further also his own speciality and a unique identity in relation to the community. A CoP is more than a community. What is important is a (research) practice. The practice is the specific knowledge that the group develops, shares and keeps. A shared action practice and with that a shared knowledge basis offers good opportunities for innovation. When the three elements function well together, they make of a CoP an ideal knowledge structure – a social structure that can obtain the responsibility for developing and sharing of knowledge (Stoas research, 2004). 2: Professional Learning Community (PLC)

The phrase ‘Community of Practice’ is largely comparable with the concept of ‘Professional Learning Community’. In her report Professional Learning Communities – Communities of Continuous Inquiry and Improvement (1997) Hord defines a PLC as a environment in which the teachers in a school in which the teachers in a school and it’s administrators continuously seek and share learning. The goal of their actions is to enhance their effectiveness as professionals for the students’ benefit; thus, this arrangement may also be termed communities of continuous inquiry and improvement (p. 6). A professional learning environment is a more concrete elaboration of the concept network organisation, about which Castelss (2010) says, that this is the organisational form of the future, because this approached the requests of a knowledge society. ‘The network enterprise makes material the culture of the informational , global economy: it transforms signals into commodities by processing knowledge.’ (pp. 187-188). Characteristic for the professional learning environment is that trait that in a connection of networks together with colleagues is learned in the frame of the daily labour and the change that is directed towards the future (Bitter-Rijpkema & Verjans, 2010). A PLC is characterised in the literature by a certain amount of characteristics (see among others Hord, 1997; Bolam et al., 2005; Kruse, Louis en Bryk, 1994; Reichstetter, 2006). In most publications the following things are taken for granted:

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Shared Values and Vision

Behaviour and other utterances of teachers show, that they form together a professional community. They confirm with that their common values regarding the most important educational issues that they have determined. Focus with that is on the optimisation of student learning. Shared personal practice

Teachers evaluate their acts in practice en do that with each other. They discuss their improvements that were possible. Of major importance is, that the teacher does not hide anymore in his teaching room, the so called ‘deprivatisation of practice’ (Stoll, Bolam, McMahon, Wallace, & Thomas, 2006).

Shared and Supportive Leadership

A good PLC has a leader that strives for more professionalism of the total organisation with the purpose to obtain a quality for the schooling that is as high as possible. Hord (1997) adds to this, that executives give authority out of their hands en transfer this. Supportive Conditions - Relationships

Especially the concept of safety is applicable to this: to be able to obtain renewal the organisational culture should be built on mutual respect. A safe culture is the basis for positivity and nice way of treating each other between all stakeholders.

Knowledge Institutions

Collective learning and application

A strong PLC stimulates cooperation. Not only at the area of shared insight concerning students, instruction or curriculum, but also with the development of new forms of instruction. Rosenholtz (1991) states in one sentence: ‘professional self renewal is a communal rather than solitary happening’ (p. 88). Literature emphasises that it has to be proven, that there is a structural cooperative culture that is embedded, in which the focus is on learning by all (Shellard, 2002). Fullan (2009, p. 13) states strikingly: ‘One of the highest yield strategies for educational change recently developed is assessment for learning. Not just assessment of learning.’

Supportive Conditions - Structures

The second type of conditions has to do with the structures that are present in an educational organisation yes or no and that determine whether a professional learning community can function in an organisation. Especially time is in this an important concept, but also budgets, accommodation, technical infrastructure, et cetera. 3. Action Research

Hord mentions in her report about PLCs also the important concept ‘action research’, but also sees this as a requirement for a professional learning community. This she links to this: ‘Action research, in essence, engages teachers in looking at what is happening in a school, determining if teachers can make it a better place by changing curriculum and instruction and the relationships of the staff with students, assessing the results, and continuing the cycle. To do this requires rearranging the ways that people in the school relate to one another, by acquiring new skills in order to change, and learning to be effective problem solvers for the school’ (p. 49).

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4. Professional Learning Community (Dutch: Professionele Leergemeenschap) I am treating the Dutch/Flemish approach to the PLC separately. A professional learning community is in this outlook a community of continual research and improvement. A school that functions as a professional learning community involves the whole staff of professionals in teaching processes in the context of a supportive, self creating community. A learning community is formed by a group of people that is developing an active, reflective approach that is cooperative, directed to teaching and stimulating for growth concerning the riddles, problems and unclarities of education and learning (Verbiest, 2004). Verbiest joins the characteristics that were quoted by Hord (Verbiest & Vandenberghe, 2003a). He discusses this by describing three fundamental capacities (2003b, page 9-11): the personal capacity, the interpersonal capacity and the organisational capacity. These concepts are derived from Mitchell and Sackney (2000, page 13). They state about this: ‘The development of a learning community comes about through the interplay among personal abilities, interpersonal relationships and organizational structures. Growth occurs as personal, interpersonal and organizational capacities increase; it is limited as they decrease’ (page 11). Verbiest operationalised these concepts and made them the basis for his research method to study the success of professional teaching environments (2004). Personal capacity

Verbiest explains personal capacity as follows (pages 69-70): the personal capacity is about the capacity to (re)construct knowledge and apply this knowledge in other situations. He emphasises that this involves not only the mastery of existing knowledge, but that it is as a further step is of major importance to have access to new knowledge and information. New knowledge does offer possibly insight in the way at which the educational practice can be improved. Reconstructing new insights, applying that new knowledge to improve the own practice of acting is the definitive objective (page 70). Interpersonal capacity

This is related to relationships with colleagues and the way in which people work together in a group. Developing knowledge is not only a matter for the individual, but is strongly dependent of the other individuals in het community. This involves the will to exchange information between individuals. All these individuals have another knowledge basis, another history, working style, aspirations, personality and other needs. The climate in which these professionals work together is determined, because here the standard has to be developed that sharing knowledge and exchange of knowledge is the most normal thing in the world (Mitchell & Sackney, 2001). Verbiest (2003b, p. 10) mentions trust and the invitation to participate here core concepts. Organisatory capacity

A professional learning community requests another setup of the organisation. This demands a specific structure and culture within the organisation. The culture has to be one that radiates openness and trust. The structure gives the support that makes it possible to learn as a collective.

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Both culture and structure are strongly dependent of the way in which people are leading. Verbiest argues concerning this for transformative, shared and educationally sound leadership and coins this ‘new didactic leadership’ (2010). In the years 90 transformational leadership in education emerged. The core of this is inspiring and motivating the teacher and creating a professional culture. Didactic leadership is directed toward changes that directly involve the content and the form of the curriculum. The concept of shared leadership is the most recent.

5. Connectivism

Earlier in this article there was already referred to the network economy of Castells (2010). A very recent contribution to the question of professionalization also takes Castell’s theory as a starting point. This does not involve in comparison with the previous definitions specifically the description of the characteristics of an instrument that can setup an organisational culture, but about a current that propagates a new educational thought, connectivism (Siemens, 2008). Siemens takes as a starting point the thought that a (bad) quality of schooling especially is caused by structural features of that education and not in fact content traits (page 8). The emergence of internet has led to all kinds of new forms of social interaction. Siemens takes as a starting point, that around those network the new organisational model of our education has to be formed (page 9). Knowledge is composed from links in those networks. Siemens defines this connectivism just like Stephen Downes (2006) the ‘fourth learning theory’ and places this besides behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.

Knowledge Institutions

From what is said above Verbiest reaches the following characteristics of a professional teaching society: - Shared and supportive leadership - Shared values and shared vision - Collective learning processes - Reflective dialogue - Competences for functioning in PLGs - Supportive structural conditions - Research of the educational practice

The basis of learning is according to connectivism not as such the way of learning, but the way learning content is found. In that way the individual does not learn individually, but he uses the knowledge of others and that way people learn in networks. Conclusion

Till this far the description of a number of possible learning environments that could enlarge the professional culture within a curriculum. Could there be indicated one that is the most apt to make the new professional within the creative industry a reality? The definition of the Community of Practice does not seem to be able to serve as a starting point for the desired professional culture. In the CoP central to all is the research attitude. Doing research is not an objective as such. The yields of that

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research for education are on the contrary central to this. Research takes place in a community that does research from a same passion and does cooperate in that way to the professionisation of the participants, but is not practiced in first instance to improve educational culture.

Knowledge Institutions

A very strong point of connectivism is that people with different knowledge can learn from each other. Just like in the creative industry cooperation with an open attitude toward each other is central. But this is possible also a weakness: learning in networks implies that learning is in large measure based on coincidence. That what is learned in a learning network, is strongly dependent on the knowledge that is present in that network. By that reason it is not certain, that connectivism would contribute to the development of both teacher and student. In this article Hord is the advocate of the Professional Learning Community. She linked to the standard characteristics of such a PLC an important additional research element, with which a more extensive meaning is obtained than with the previously mentioned Community of Practice. The PLC has cooperative learning as binding element. With the addition of action research a community emerges in which research forms a part of learning in communities. It is with this definition at which ‘action research’ was added, that also is used by Verbiest to formulate the concept of a professional learning community. The objective of research is especially optimising learning of students. The focus is not as such the common analysing of research results, but on determining the way in which results can give an addition to a higher student level of the student (Louis, 2006). It is with this just like in the creative industry a continual form of value creation: a learning environment in which students but also teachers can keep developing to the new professional where the creative industry asks for. References Bitter-Rijpkema, M., & Verjans, S. (2010). Hybrid professional learning networks for knowledge workers: educational theory inspiring new practices. In L. Creanor, D. Hawkridge, K. Ng, & F. Rennie (Red.), ALT-C 2010 - Conference Proceedings: ‘Into something rich and strange’ - making sense of the sea-change (pp. 166-174). Nottingham: University of Nottingham. Castells, M. (2010). The rise of the network society (2e ed.). Chichester, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. Caves, R. (2000). Contracts between art and commerce. Harvard: Harvard Press. Downes, S. (2006, Oktober 16). Learning networks and connective knowledge. Retrieved Februari 8, 2012, from Instructional Technology Forum: http:// it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/article92/article92.html Eckert, P. (2006). Communities of Practice. In K. Brown, Encyclopedia of language and linguistics. Elsevier Science and Technology. Fullan, M. (2009). The Challenge of Change - Start school improvement now! Thousand Oakes, VS: Corwin Press.

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About this author Arjan Moerbeek (MEd) is a specialist in research on issues surrounding the development of professional learning environments. In 2013 he completed an investigation into views on professionality within a teaching team that needs to work towards the creation of such an environment while functioning in a complex set of organizational and educational changes. — [email protected]

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Gibcus, P., Braaksma, R., Prince, Y., Volberda, H., Jansen, J., Tempelaar, M., et al. (2013). Technologische en sociale innovatie in een concurrerende markt. Innovatie- en concurrentiemonitor topsectoren 2012. Zoetermeer: Panteia. Hord, S. (1997). Professional Learning Communities - Communities of Continuous Inquiry and Improvement. Austin: SEDL. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, GB: Cambridge University Press. Louis, K. S. (2006). Changing the Culture of Schools: Professional Community, Organizational Learning and Trust. Journal of School Leadership., 16 (5), 477-487. McDonald, J., & Star, C. (2006). Designing the future of learning through a community of practice of teachers of first year courses at an Australian university. Sydney, Australia.

Mitchell, C., & Sackney, L. (2001, februari). Website Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy. Retrieved December 29, 2011, from Building capacity for a learing community: http://umanitoba.ca/publications/ cjeap/articles/mitchellandsackney.html Rosenholtz, S. (1991). Teacher’s workplace: The social organization of schools. New York, NY, VS: Teachers College Press. Shellard, E. (2002). High-achieving schools: What do they look like? The Informed Educator Series. Arlington: Educational Research Service. Siemens, G. (2008). Learning and Knowing in Networks: Changing roles for Educators and Designers. ITFORUM for Discussion. Stoas Onderzoek. (2004). Collectief leren in communities of practice. Wageningen: Stoas Onderzoek. Stoll, L., Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Wallace, M., & Thomas, S. (2006). Professional Learning Communities - A review of the literature. Journal of Educational Change (7), 221-258.

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Mitchell, C., & Sackney, L. (2000). Profound Improvement: Building Capacity for a Learning Community (Contexts of Learning). Lisse, NL: Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers.

Verbiest, E. (2010, december). Op weg naar Nieuw Onderwijskundig Leiderschap. School en begeleiding: Personeel en Organisatie, 25, 17-38. Verbiest, E. (2004). Samen wijs - Bouwstenen voor professionele leergemeenschappen in scholen. Antwerpen: Garant. Verbiest, E., & Vandenberghe, R. (2003a). Professionele leergemeenschappen – een nieuwe kijk op permanente ontwikkeling van leraar en school - Deel I. Basisschoolmanagement, 15 (5), 1-8. Verbiest, E., & Vandenberghe, R. (2003b). Professionele leergemeenschappen – een nieuwe kijk op permanente ontwikkeling van leraar en school - Deel II. Basisschoolmanagement, 16 (6), 1-7. Wenger, E. (2006, juni). Communities of Practice - a brief introduction. Retrieved December 24, 2011, from Website Etienne Wenger: http://www.ewenger.com/ theory/communities_of_practice_intro.htm

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Developing Cultural and Creative Industry (CCI) Competencies in North American Knowledge Institutions: Making the Case for a B.A. Program in Cultural Entrepreneurship

Knowledge Institutions

Abstract

This article addresses the critical global need to develop higher education programs at the bachelors level (or higher) to prepare a workforce for employment in the creative and cultural industries. Specifically, it makes the argument that this training should begin with - and deeply embed - foreign language instruction. Learning to think, speak, write and act in a second (or third, fourth etc.) language has demonstrable effects on individual creative skills and creative thinking. Creative skills training, in turn, must be a second pillar to CCI training programs, and divergent thinking prepares students for an understanding of entrepreneurship that is no longer influenced by traditional business school models. Entrepreneurship courses, as a third element, must incorporate both prediction and creation logic as well as for-profit and non-profit initiatives, and treat entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial thinking not only as a path to start-up businesses, but as a tool for a variety of individual and social change initiatives. Introduction

In its most recent 2013 UNCTAD Creative Economy Report, the United Nations working group tasked with measuring the economic impact of cultural and creative industries (CCIs) points out that culture is now ‘a driver [emphasis in the original document] of economic development, led by the growth of the creative economy in general and the cultural and creative industries in particular, recognized not only for their economic value but also increasingly for their role in producing new creative ideas or technologies, and their nonmonetized social benefits’ (Programme, 2013). For the past decade, since the publication of Richard Florida’s seminal work on the creative class (Florida, 2002), scholars have sought to define, delineate and measure the impact of cultural and creative industries on national economies and global trade (Bakhshi, Freeman, & Higgs, 2013; Howkins, 2002; Oakley, 2004; Reis et al., 2008). Collectively, this work has mapped a shift in our service industry-based economy (Florida, 2012). On the one hand, low-paying service industry jobs continue to expand (Project, 2012). On the other hand, the knowledge-based, highly-skilled creative workforce is rapidly growing, both in specific countries and globally (Calabrò & Wijngaarde, 2013; Restrepo & Marquez, 2013). As statistics have shown, this global trend continued even through the recent global recession and financial crisis of 2008 and 2009 (Dos Santos Duisenberg, 2008, 2010). In the United States, a similar trend has been documented, and a framework for categorizing the creative economy was developed (Harris, Collins, & Cheek, 2013). Global drivers of this growth are small and medium sized enterprises

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(SMEs), which points to the increasing significance of entrepreneurship and start-ups in driving the expansion of the creative economy (Connell, 2013; Hayter & Pierce, 2011; Kooyman, 2011). Simultaneously, in Europe, we have also seen a defunding of public arts institutions, forcing these to be more entrepreneurial in securing funding (Cronshaw & Tullin, 2012; Klamer, 1996). In the United States, this has been true as well, and public, non-profit institutions also have been looking for ways to increase revenue by exploring for-profit strategies (Brooks, 2001; Gómez-Peña, 2004; Himmelstein & Zaid, 1984).

In Europe, courses and full programs began to emerge in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and have generally been offered under the subject of arts management and cultural economics, highlighting the need to inject a more business-driven approach to the organization and operation of artistic endeavours and institutions, both large and small. In the United States, in contrast, there are fewer programs training students for the creative and cultural industries, and many colleges only offer selective course work rather than certificates or degrees. Despite their differences, a few patterns emerge when comparing this global offering of creative and cultural industry courses, and these programs have a number of things in common: a. One group approaches training for the CCIs from the perspective of traditional business and economics schools, and expands training to include the economics and business operation of cultural institutions or enterprises producing, selling, and/or trading cultural goods and services. b. A second group is housed in arts colleges and museum studies programs, and trains artists and curators to be entrepreneurial, along with being creative. The focus here is on start-ups, the creation of new businesses (financing), the operating and promotion of a business (marketing, human resource management) and turning a non-profit into a for-profit organization.

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As observers and analysts of societal trends that are tasked with preparing the next generation of the work force, universities and think tanks across the globe have increasingly offered courses and programs to prepare students for the creative economy of the future. New programs are combining traditional instruction in the arts, art history, cultural studies and other humanities disciplines with business school and economics training. This allows students that typically would have not chosen business careers to get additional professional skills that make them more marketable in the corporate world.

With a few exceptions, however, either of these specifically require training in foreign languages and the science and scholarship of creativity. Creativity and creative thinking are often fostered in the art school training listed above under b), and students in economics and business courses are exposed the diversity and value of cultures. Yet, when it comes to language instruction, it is generally missing or an elective option among those programs training future workforce for the CCIs. While many languages are spoken in both Europe and the United States, and bilingualism is common on both continents among immigrant populations and (to a lesser degree) among natives, foreign language instruction, at the college level, is either stagnant or in decline, in both European countries (especially the UK) and the United States (Ammon, Darquennes, & Wright, 2010; Geisler et al., 2007; Ovando, 2003). Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context

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Cultural Entrepreneurship Curriculum and the Development of CCI Competencies: From Language to Creativity to Entrepreneurship Skills This article makes the case that because of this lack in language instruction and proficiency, and because of the benefits of knowing at least a second language, the curriculum design, training and professional preparation for jobs in the cultural and creative industries should begin with, and be centred on, foreign and indigenous language instruction. The evidence presented here will show that foreign or indigenous language skills in turn will promote both creative and entrepreneurial traits among student populations and CCI industry professionals. Beginning in 2009, the College of Liberal Arts at UMD (University of Minnesota Duluth) started working on a B.A. Program in Cultural Entrepreneurship that has much in common with many of the abovementioned programs. It does include extensive training in business and entrepreneurship (40 per cent of the required courses of the program include economics, business and entrepreneurship courses). The program, like many in Europe and the United States, also includes training in cultural and creative competencies, much like arts and media schools. What is unique, though, and at the heart of the new program, is its focus on language instruction. The pedagogical and curriculum development approach of the new degree began with the centrality of language proficiency not just as a communication skill, but as cognitive skill – a way of thinking and problem solving that seamlessly promotes the other components of the program. The degree is housed in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, which is far from accidental, but purposeful and intended.1 Language Instruction: Its Centrality in Training for the CCIs

The UMD B.A. Program in Cultural Entrepreneurship requires students to study two foreign languages. Student choices are Ojibwe (the indigenous language spoken by American Indian Tribes in Minnesota and other Midwestern US states), Chinese, French, German, Russian and Spanish. Further languages are offered to students via the University of Minnesota campus in Minneapolis, another private college in Duluth, and through study-abroad options. The Cultural Entrepreneurship program requires students to complete language training in one language to the advanced level (two-three years of instruction, providing the skill level for conversations on professional topics), and in another language to the beginner level (one year of instruction, giving students proficiency to communicate in everyday situations). When deemed necessary, oral proficiency tests are administered to students admitted to the program, to ensure proper placement in language classes, and their progress throughout the coursework is closely monitored. The program is enforcing such extensive training, and highlights the centrality of language skills because research has provided ample evidence of the multiple impacts of bi- and multilingualism. The full Program is available upon request

1

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Collectively, these impacts make foreign language skills indispensable for training in the CCIs, since there is a proven impact of bilingualism on creative problem solving abilities – those skills that lead to new creative solutions, new artwork, design, or design thinking (Cummins, 1981; Landry, 1973; Marsh et al., 2009). Enhancing Creative Skills: A Core Competency for Cultural Entrepreneurship

In addition to highlighting languages, much of the recent literature on CCIs has emphasized the need to shift skills development among students from linear, analytical thinking to more divergent approaches, engaging learners in exercises that develop more ambidextrous capabilities. The United States has seen a significant decline in creativity over the past two decades, and future workforce training must again focus on increasing creative skills, and provide measurable results of such improvements (Gardner, 1982; Zhao, 2012). This requires collaborating with creative economy employers on identifying occupations and skill sets that are projected to become more significant in the future.

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a. First, foreign language skills significantly improve cognition and critical thinking skills. Learning, knowing and speaking two or more languages regularly forces the brain’s executive control system to sort through information constantly and to prioritize based on relevancy, which increases our efficiency of thinking (Luo, Craik, Moreno, & Bialystok, 2013; Morales, Calvo, & Bialystok, 2013). b. Second, there is conclusive data showing the individual economic impact of second language proficiency on income (Cortina, Garza, & Pinto, 2007; Henley & Jones, 2005), and the regional as well as national economic impact of multilingual populations (Jorge, Lipner, Moncarz, & Salazar-Carrillo, 1983). c. Third, there is extensive empirical evidence that not only highlights the impact of multilingualism on income, but links it to higher levels of creativity (Abreu, Cruz-Santos, Tourinho, Martin, & Bialystok, 2012). Knowing a second language increases convergent and divergent thinking, imaginative capacities, and visual ization skills (Kharkhurin, 2012).

A number of skills development strategies have been identified. Collectively they highlight design thinking, synthesizing, empathic action, meaning-making and intercultural understanding (Gardner, 2006a, 2006b; C. Henry & de Bruin, 2011; T. Henry, 2011; Pink, 2006), or trans- disciplinary thinking, sense making, social intelligence, New Media literacy, and virtual collaboration as key development areas of the future (Davies et al., 2011). The B.A. program curriculum in Cultural Entrepreneurship at UMD condensed this broad set of creative skills to six themes that are clustering coursework in the degree program: -

Creativity and Design: This skills area contains courses on design thinking, creative problem solving, fine arts, art history, civil engineering, gaming, geospatial thinking and qualitative research methods. The core focus is to prepare students for the entrepreneurship courses in the program. Entrepreneurship, as Zhao (2013, 9) points out, is ‘fundamentally about the desire to solve problems creatively. The foundation of entrepreneurship – creativity, curiosity, imagination, risk taking, and collaboration – is just like the ideas of engineering, in our bones and part of our human nature and experience’.

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-

Empathy, Ethics and Respect: Skills conveyed in these courses are based on the evidence that empathy has become an increasingly important business and entrepreneurial skill. Inquiring deeply about customer concerns, for example, is a key element in innovating business practices, and empathic skills have become a key business commodity (Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen, 2011; Pink, 2006; Rifkin, 2009).

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- Meaning: This skills area tackles a key dichotomy of cultural entrepreneurship – the balancing act of means versus meaning, the question of the intrinsic and monetary value of culture that needs to be balanced (Klamer, 1996). Coursework in this section addresses the monetization of culture from an environmental, societal, moral and religious perspective (Fogel, 2000). -

Picture and Story: This category of courses hones new media literacy and a design mindset by focusing on oral and written communication skills, in both word and picture, for multiple mass media (Davies et al., 2011). Students must show proficiency in photography, film, public speaking and writing for media to pass these courses.

-

Symphony and Synthesis: This category of courses focuses on systems thinking, and is meant to enhance students’ skills in understanding relationships and connections between disciplines and systems of thought, and to encourage them to cross the boundaries of traditional academic silos, in order to better work in collaborative team settings with people of different academic backgrounds (Derry, Schunn, & Gernsbacher, 2009).

-

Play and Discipline: Research has shown the continued economic and social significance of play in our contemporary world. Play allows people to challenge, experiment with, shape and reinforce social rules. It enhances group dynamics, stimulates creativity and has become, as Pat Kane points out, ‘our dominant way of knowing, doing and creating value’ (Kane, 2005, 12). Moreover, it is an important catalyst for innovation and entrepreneurship, thus creating a positive economic impact (Combs, 2000; Skogen & Sjovoll, 2010) Conclusion: Ambidextrous Entrepreneurship Training for the Liberal Arts

Many of the contemporary programs and courses training students for the CCIs require a certain set of economics and business courses. Some programs, as noted above, emerged out of the discipline of economics, whereas others came out of liberal or fine arts schools, adding business content to the creative curriculum. The entrepreneurship curriculum in the Cultural Entrepreneurship program at UMD emerges out of the humanities, particularly the centrality of foreign languages. Knowledge of languages builds cognitive, economic and creative capital that translates into increased aptitude for creative problem solving, and these creative capacities, in turn, are no longer so-called ‘soft skills’ in our contemporary economy, but are key skills for developing an entrepreneurial mindset.

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At UMD, the course work focused on business and entrepreneurship includes both training in prediction logic and creation logic. Students in the CUE courses, upon completion of the sequence, will have not only practiced both logical approaches, but also will have had the opportunity to develop and revise their own business plans; and presented these to a public jury of entrepreneurs, in a competition for start-up funds, thus experiencing either success or failure in their attempt to launch their own business while still enrolled at a university. As students move through their entrepreneurship curriculum, and develop their own business projects, they continue to improve and practice their language and creative skills, thus synergistically working towards entrepreneurship in the CCIs. The central argument of this article was to show that an entrepreneurial spirit can be cultivated in different ways, and that knowledge institutions can provide different paths towards preparation for the cultural and creative industries. Training for the CCIs can emerge out of the arts, from a business and economics curriculum outward, or, as demonstrated here, begin with and be tied to language training.

About the author Olaf Kuhlke is an Associate Professor of Geography at the University of Minnesota Duluth, where he currently also serves as the Associate Dean of the College of Liberal Arts. Trained as an economic and cultural geographer, his research is focused on various aspects of human mobility, including (but not limited to) walking, dancing, pilgrimage and international migration.

Knowledge Institutions

To further prepare students for the culture industry, and to give them opportunities to experiment with entrepreneurship and start-ups, the cultural entrepreneurship curriculum at UMD adds courses specifically targeted at entrepreneurship in the creative sector, encompassing in this training preparation for both the non-profit and for-profit organizations, and approaching entrepreneurship from a traditional, linear, and predictive approach, as well as from an inductive perspective that highlights creativity and experimentation. This is much in line with the new entrepreneurial approaches that include both prediction logic and creation logic in their pedagogy. As noted in a recent book on entrepreneurial leadership, compiled by faculty at Babson College, one of the leading business schools in the United States (Greenberg, McKone-Sweet, & Wilson, 2011, 12), ‘we have not paid enough attention to developing leaders who are reflective of themselves and of the world around them’. Key to cultivating entrepreneurship, according to these authors, is training in both prediction logic (creating an established analytical approach) and creation logic (an actionoriented approach) .

References Abreu, P. E. d., Cruz-Santos, A., Tourinho, C., Martin, R., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism enriches the poor: enhanced cognitive control in low-income minority children. Psychological Science, 23(11), 1364-1371. Ammon, U., Darquennes, J., & Wright, S. (Eds.). (2010). Foreign languages in the schools of the European Union. Berlin, New York: Walter De Gruyter. Bakhshi, H., Freeman, A., & Higgs, P. (2013). Mapping the UK’s Creative Industries. London, UK: Nesta Foundation. Brooks, A. C. (2001). Who opposes public arts funding? . Public Choice, 108(34), 355-367. Calabrò, A., & Wijngaarde, I. (2013). Creative Industries for Youth: Unleashing Potential and Growth. Vienna.

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Combs, J. F. (2000). Play World: The Emrgence of the New Ludenic Age. Westport: Prager Publishers. Connell, S. (2013). Korea’s Creative Economy Agenda. Honolulu: EastWest Center. Cortina, J., Garza, R. d. l., & Pinto, P. M. (2007). No Entiendo: The Effects of Bilingualism on Hispanic Earnings (Vol. 3). New York: Institute for Social and Economic Research and Policy.

At UMD, he also initiated the creation of the Bachelor of Arts degree in Cultural Entrepreneurship, and has worked closely with several colleagues on the curriculum development for this innovative program. [email protected]

Cronshaw, S., & Tullin, P. (2012). Intelligent Naivety: Commercial Opportunities for Museums and Culture Institutions Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/culturelabel/culturelabel-intelligent-naivety

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Cummins, J. (1981). The Role of Primary Language Development in Promoting Educational Success for Language Minority Students. In: Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework. Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, California State University. Derry, S. J., Schunn, C. D., & Gernsbacher, M. A. (Eds.). (2009). Interdisciplinary Collaboration: An Emerging Cognitive Science. Mahwah/New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dos Santos Duisenberg, E. D. S. (Ed.). (2008). Creative Economy Report 2008: the challenge of assessing the creative economy: towards informed policymaking. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Dos Santos Duisenberg, E. D. S. (Ed.). (2010). Creative Economy Report 2010: Creative Economy: A Feasible Development Option. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Dyer, J., Gregersen, H., & Christensen, C. M. (2011). The Innovator’s DNA: Mastering the five skills of disruptive innovators. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press. Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class: and how it’s transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. New York: Basic Books Florida, R. (2012). The Rise of the Creative Class Revisited. New York: Basic Books Fogel, R. W. (2000). The Fourth Great Awakening and Future of Egalitarianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gardner, H. (1982). Art, mind, and brain: A cognitive approach to creativity. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (2006a). Five minds for the future: Harvard Business Press. Gardner, H. (2006b). Multiple intelligences: New horizons: Basic Books. Geisler, M., Kramsch, C., McGinnins, S., Patrikis, P., Pratt, M. L., Ryding, K., & Saussy, H. (2007). Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World: MLA Ad Hoc Committee on Foreign Languages. Profession, 234-245. Gómez-Peña, G. (2004). An open letter to the national arts community. Contemporary Theatre Review, 14(2), 88-93.

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Greenberg, D., McKone-Sweet, K., & Wilson, H. J. (2011). The new entrepreneurial leader: Developing leaders who shape social and economic opportunity: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Harris, C., Collins, M., & Cheek, D. (2013). America’s Creative Economy: A Study of Recent Conceptions, Definitions, and Approaches to Measurements across the USA. Oklahoma City: National Creativity Network. Hayter, C., & Pierce, S. C. (2011). Arts and the Economy: Using Arts and Culture to Stimulate State Economic Development. Washington, D.C. Henley, A., & Jones, R. E. (2005). Earnings and Linguistic Proficiency in a Bilingual Economy. Manchester School, 73(3), 300-320. Henry, C., & de Bruin, A. (2011). Entrepreneurship and the Creative Economy: Process, Practice and Policy. Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

Himmelstein, J. L., & Zaid, M. (1984). American Conservatism and Government Funding of the Social Sciences and Arts. In: Sociological Inquiry, 54(2), 171-187. Howkins, J. (2002). The creative economy: How people make money from ideas: Penguin UK. Jorge, A., Lipner, J. K., Moncarz, R., & Salazar-Carrillo, J. (1983). The Economic Impact of Bilingualism. In: Discussion Papers in Economics and Banking (Vol. 9). Miami: Florida International University Department of Economics. Kane, P. (2005). The Play Ethic: A Manifesto for a Different Way of Living. London: Macmillan UK. Kharkhurin, A. (2012). Multilingualism and Creativity. Bristol, Buffalo and Toronto: Multilingual Matters. Klamer, A. (1996). The value of culture: On the relationship between economics and arts. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

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Henry, T. (2011). The Accidental Creative: How to be brilliant at a moment’s notice. New York: Penguin.

Kooyman, R. (Ed.). (2011). The entrepreneurial dimension of the cultural and creative industries. HKU University of the Arts HKU, Utrecht. Landry, R. G. (1973). The Enhancement of Figural Creativity through Second Language Learning at the Elementary School Level. Foreign Language Annals, 7(1), 111-115. Luo, L., Craik, F. I. M., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualisms interacts with domain in a working memory task: Evidence from aging. Psychology and Aging, 28(1), 28-34. Marsh, D., Beardsmore, H. B., Bot, K. d., Mehisto, P., Wolff, D., Langé, G., . . . Knapp, K. (2009). Multilingualism and Creativity: Towards an Evidence-base Study on the Contribution of Multilingualism to Creativity. Brussels. Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children. In: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114(2), 187-202.

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Oakley, K. (2004). Not So Cool Britannia The Role of the Creative Industries in Economic Development. In: International journal of cultural studies, 7(1), 67-77. Ovando, C. J. (2003). Bilingual Education in the United States: Historical Development and Current Issues. In: Bilingual Research Journal: The Journal of the National Association for Bilingual Education, 27(1), 1-24. Pink, D. H. (2006). A whole new mind: Why right-brainers will rule the future: Penguin. Programme, U. N. D. (2013). Creative Economy Report 2013: Special Report Widening Local Development Pathways. New York: UNESCO. Project, N. E. L. (2012). The Low-Wage Recovery and Growing Inequality. New York.

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Restrepo, F. B., & Marquez, I. D. (2013). The Orange Economy: An Infinite Opportunity Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.

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Rifkin, J. (2009). The Empathic Civilization: The Race to Global Consciousness in a World in Crisis. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. Skogen, K., & Sjovoll, J. (2010). Creativity and Innovation: Preconditions for Entrepreneurial Education. Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press. Zhao, Y. (2012). World Class Learners: Educating Creative and Entrepreneurial Students. Thousand Oaks: Corwin/SAGE Publications.

BEYOND FRAMES

Sylwia Bakowska

The Incubator of Culture as development centre of entrepreneurial skills for creative and cultural industries – A Case Study

According to the needs of the knowledge-based economy, local government authorities and creative class representatives seek ways of enforcing the cultural and creative industry activities. In 2011, in Szczecin (Poland) an Incubator of Culture was founded to stimulate the entrepreneurial spirit of the local cultural and creative industries (CCIs). The task of the Incubator of Culture is to create conditions to build relationships and knowledge exchange amongst representatives of different CCI areas. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the Incubator of Culture, as a local centre, supports the development of entrepreneurship and knowledge exchange in the local CCI. Preliminary in-depth structured interviews, conducted on CCI representatives working in the Incubator of Culture, have shown the existence of partnership relations in the process of knowledge sharing, mutual exchange of services, and organizing exhibitions, performances and festivals. Introduction

In developed economies, the value of knowledge and information in any form is gaining importance. Science, technology and innovation have become the key elements contributing to economic growth in both advanced economies and in the developing world. In addition to human capital and education, which constitute the core of knowledge-based economies, a relatively new look at the economy is mainly based on the ideas and creativity of societies. In other words, a more holistic approach, which reaches beyond a conventional economic view is the creative economy. The main idea of ​​the creative economy is the diffusion of issues in the fields of humanism, culture, science and technology (Howkins, 2013; Venturelli, 2000). For executing the creative economy, we develop creative cities, functioning as a platform to cultural and creative industrial development. In the creative cities, soft infrastructure such as imagination, motivation and talent outweigh the hard infrastructure as location and access to urban resources (Landry, 2008).

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Abstract

Currently, cultural factors and image determine growth and competitive advantage of the city. The potential of these soft factors contribute to the aesthetic value of the city and strengthen the contribution of the urban environment to a higher quality of life. In the process of the relationship between local government and residents, culture plays an integral part and is particularly important for the development of the city. Therefore, the role of the representatives of local authorities is to look for methods of activating cultural and creative industries through the development of infrastructure in cultural and artistic dimension (UN/UNDP/UNESCO, 2013; Hesmondhalgh, 2013).

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In response to the creation of an infrastructure for mobilizing the cultural and creative industries business, representatives of local authorities - in collaboration with the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage and the Ministry of Higher Education - established the Academy of Arts in Szczecin in 2010. In addition, to stimulate the entrepreneurial spirit of the creative workers, the local government of the city of Szczecin founded the Incubator of Culture1 (IoC) in 2011. The purpose of the IoC is to create conditions to build relationships (Grönroos, 2002) and the exchange of knowledge (Ulaga & Eggert, 2006; Payne et al., 2008) amongst the representatives of different areas of the cultural and creative industries. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the IoC is a local centre, supporting business development and exchange of knowledge in the local cultural and creative industries. The objective of the study determines the need to take into account the factors affecting the relationship that occurs in the process of knowledge exchange. Based on the analysis of literature, qualitative research was conducted on a sample of ten artists from the Incubator of Culture. In the study, qualitative categories of satisfaction, trust and commitment are used that affect the value of mutual relationships. We studied the ​​subjective evaluation, created by the creative workers (respondents) operating in the Incubator of Culture. The results indicate the existence of partner relationships in the process of knowledge sharing, mutual services and organizing exhibitions, performances and festivals. Theory and Concepts

The concept of the Creative Economy implies creative people, culture, and economics. Regarding contact with technology, a significant percentage of products and services - in which creativity is an added value - are located in the centre of the creative economy (UNDP/UNCTAD, 2008, 2013). Notwithstanding of the manner in which the creative economy is defined and classified, we identify two separate approaches. The first approach describes the economic and social function of the urban environment, in which processes and services are created to ensure local prosperity. As a result, a strong cultural infrastructure of a modern city reinforces the high concentration of employment and social cohesion (Landry, 2008). Recognition of the second approach, i.c. the cultural and creative industries, is wider in its sense and includes all activities - from arts to business - generating commercial value, with the primary use of production factors in the form of creativity, technology and intellectual capital (Howkins, 2013; Hesmondhalgh, 2013). The most important resource of the cultural creative industries is the creative worker, who is the base of human capital. Other material resources such as assets and capital are less important in the creation of value-added products of the cultural creative industries. As a result of the globalization of market relations, the digitization of business, the development of new technologies, and the mobility of the population has increased, irreversibly changing the exchange of knowledge and consumption of goods. According to Lessing (2008) and Anderson (2010) there is a gradual shift away from The full name of the incubator is Szczecin’s Incubator of Culture (IoC).

1

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the traditional economy in terms of transaction for shared access to product data and talent. In its pure form, the transactional approach is focused on the exchange principle, and the added value is delivered, through the acquisition of products and services in exchange for money, in the form of individual sequences. In turn, the relational approach focuses on the essence of the value that is created for the participants in the process of long-term relationships (Grönroos, 2002). As a result, the relational approach necessitates a much greater commitment of the participants, in order to provide them with a higher value than in the case of a single act of exchange. To transform knowledge and experience on the profile of perceived value by either party, creative workers should build a platform for dialogue, which would strengthen their mutual relationships (Grönroos, 2004).

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Relationship building

The main idea of ​​any relationship is to increase profits while reducing costs for the parties involved in the creation of close cooperation (Anderson, 1995). The result of interaction between the participants is individually perceived by the size of the final value generated for each party. In addition, the benefit of the two cooperating parties is to obtain better results after the occurrence of the relationship than before its occurrence (Storbacka et al., 1994). Following this perspective, the benefits expected by the participants consists of the perceived value, by improving the quality of relationships and reducing costs in a broad sense. As a result, the quality of the relationship is assessed on the basis of expectations of the parties involved at every level of the process in the course of the relationship, the so called ‘Start, Implementation, Effect’ sequens (Parasuraman et al., 1985). These expectations are perceived as a probability to meet the promise on the basis of positive or negative events that are the result of the effects of exchange. Quality assessment of the relationship differs from the satisfaction of the relationship depending on the expectations of the parties involved. On one hand, for some parties involved to engage in the relationship it is of little importance, and therefore the level of satisfaction is indifferent to them. On the other hand, the involvement of a relationship is important for other parties involved, and satisfaction is consistently treated as a very important factor in the overall relationship (Zeithaml et al., 1993). Relationship strength is closely linked to communication and loyalty, which are complementary to trust. Better communication facilitates confidence and vice versa - the accumulation of trust leads to better communication (Storbacka et al., 1994; Palmatier et al . 2006; Anderson & Narus, 1990; Morgan & Hunt, 1994). For example, Ulaga and Eggert (2006) demonstrated in their study that the value of the relationship always precedes the quality of the relationship. These authors concluded that value has the greatest impact on satisfaction, followed by commitment and then trust. The state of current and future relationships derives from the received satisfaction by establishing trust and distributing commitment. Based on literature, it should be noted that the value creation process requires time to develop a positive interaction to achieve mutual benefits emerging from cooperation (Hogan, 2001).

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The Szczecin IoC – functions and duties

The Incubator of Culture, founded by the Local Government of Szczecin in 2011, focuses on non-profit partners - organizations working in the field of culture, arts, national heritage and individuals operating in the same area. The aim is to help these associated partners to become self-empowerment non-profit organizations operating in the cultural and creative industries in a period no longer than 30 months.

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The activity of IoC is experiment-based, as no model to follow has existed before. Members of IoC can be organizations, informal groups and individuals operating in the market less than 3 years, or those that have low management competences and require the support of the incubator. Within the framework of IoC there are three groups of creative workers: associations and foundations, informal groups, and individual artists. Cooperation of creative workers with IoC involves a process of education, exchange of knowledge and experience through free participation in workshops, seminars and consultations. The educational aim of creative workers is to prepare them during the incubation period to manage autonomous non-profit organization2. Accordingly, IoC employees create networking activities to present best practices in the field of cultural and creative industries and cross-industrial cooperation. In 2014 the main focus is on cultural animations. The intention of cultural animation is to find a leader - a person who - with his knowledge and social competences - is able to achieve cooperation based on long-term and partner relations in a particular environment. For this purpose, study tours to three cities in Poland will be organized, in order to enable organizations affiliated in IoC to exchange knowledge, establishing cooperation with other organizations in the country. Methodology and concepts

Based on theoretical assumptions and the stated objective, a qualitative research conducted aimed to verify the assumption that IoC is a centre supporting the development and attainment of knowledge in the local cultural and creative industry. A qualitative study is executed in the form of a structured face to face in-depth interview with ten respondents operating in the Incubator of Culture. The research was conducted in July 2013 and March 2014. Respondents who participated in the study represent associations, foundations and individual artists from the fields of music, film, photography, visual arts, literature, heritage, and design associated in the Incubator of Culture. The majority of respondents were people involved in professional creative activity, which is their only source of income. In addition, some of the respondents were amateurs, treating cultural activity as a passion but performing other professions as a source of income. The collected responses from the interviews enabled to compose an indication of the opinion of creative workers (respondents), regarding the relationship value in the course of cooperation in the IoC and the creation of new knowledge. Nine respondents claimed to cooperate with each other on the field projects, events, exhibitions, speeches in West Pomeranian region. In contrast, four of the respondents pointed to cooperation with artistic communities in Poland and abroad. 2 General and detailed information on IoC in Szczecin was gathered during the personal interview with vice-president of Media Dizajn Association, Ms. Kinga Rabiska. http://inkubatorkultury.szczecin.pl/

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Each of the respondents stated their own expectations that led to joining the cooperation of Incubator of Culture. Based on the responses, the encountered expectations were grouped in three categories:

3.

Accomplishment of own work – the integration of creative workers in the incubator helped to establish mutual relations based on trust and commitment to create new relationships in the environment of the incubator’s community. The established relationships lead to new creative inspirations. These new relationships resulted in new projects for a variety of institutional customers (local government, schools) and for residents of the city and the region. The intention of the creative workers is to actively involve audience in the course of project implementation.

Estimation of relationship value among the creative workers was conducted with three categories that define the concept of relationship: a. Satisfaction from affiliation to IoC. 0. Confidence from mutual cooperation in IoC. 1. Commitment to creative activities for IoC and its environment. Results

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1. Access to infrastructure – the creative workers can use office space, rehearsal hall and cinema. As a result, access to infrastructure has created a sense of stability and mutual trust among creative workers and incubator’s employees. 2. Opportunities to broaden knowledge – the creative workers participate in trainings and workshops targeted at operating their own NGOs. They receive support in the form of individual consultations related to their career path. Together with incubator’s employees, they submit applications for projects. Respondents stressed that thanks to the project, they can pursue their work in the closer and more distant environment. Several respondents stressed that the obtained knowledge motivates them to establish relationships with other creative workers and audience, which reinforces their commitment to their own work.

In the context of the relationship aspect, the creation of new knowledge is incorporated, which is essential in the development of each creative worker. Respondents - according to their own experience from working in the incubator - referred to the assessment of satisfaction in professional and emotional context. Respondents receive continuous satisfaction from a broad spectrum of cross-sectional activities taking place between creative workers of different professions in the incubator. Respondents are also satisfied with the recipients who are awaiting their next cultural events. In terms of confidence, respondents emphasized the stability of terms and conditions under which they worked with IoC and among themselves. In addition, the trust is expressed in the assurance of cooperation with other creative workers in the field (projects, exhibitions, performances) to achieve success without financial gain. Each interviewed respondent expressed a desire to continue cooperation with the IoC after the 30-month incubation period.

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According to respondents, their work involves commitment to the various age groups of the local community. Respondents stressed the importance of the audience and the dialogue with them. Thanks to the involvement of creative workers, audience and institutions in relation to exchange views, respondents receive new inspiration to pursue their own vision of the creative process.

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Conclusion

Previous studies on the relationship showed that the benefit for two cooperating parties is loyalty, communication and trust. Ulaga & Eggert (2006), for example, report that the relationship value has the greatest impact on satisfaction, followed by commitment and then trust. However, these studies have focused on the business-to-business relationships. In this study, we executed a survey, in order to investigate the relationship in non-profit organizations. We found that the survey, assessing satisfaction, trust and commitment, indicates an increase in the value of the relationship among creative workers operating in the Incubator of Culture. These findings extend those of Grönroos (2004), confirming that the value of the relationship among creative workers in the exchange of knowledge and experience is based on the platform of dialogue. In addition, knowledge obtained during the incubation period enables the creative workers and organizations an entrepreneurial activity in market realities. This study therefore indicates that IoC has enriched infrastructure of the city, thus stimulating the development of cultural and creative industries in the city of Szczecin. References Anderson, Ch. (2010). Free – how today’s smartest businesses profit by giving something for nothing. Random House Business Books, London. Anderson, J.C. (1995). Relationships in business markets: exchange episodes. Value creation and their empirical assessment. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 23(4), 346-350. Anderson, J.C., & Narus, J.A. (1990). A model of distribution firm and manufacturer firm working partnerships, Journal of Marketing, 54, 42-58. Grönroos, Ch. (2002). Relationship marketing: the Nordic School Perspective. In J.N. Sheth, A. Parvatiyar (Eds.), Handbook of Relationship Marketing (pp. 95-118). Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks. Grönroos, Ch. (2004). The relationship marketing process: communication, interaction, dialogue, value. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 19(2), 93-113. Hesmondhalgh, D. (2013). The cultural industries (3rd ed.). London: SAGE Publications Inc. Hogan, J.E. (2001). Expected relationship value. A construct, a methodology for measurement, and a modeling technique, Industrial Marketing Management, 30, 339-351. Howkins, J. (2013). The creative economy – how people make money from creative ideas (2nd ed.). Allen Lane, London.

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About the author Sylwia Bakowska obtained in 2012 her Ph.D. in economic sciences on relationships between creative class and representatives of local government. Her research interest focuses on relationships in the creative industries. She lectures market research and marketing related subjects in English at West Pomeranian Business School in Szczecin, Poland. She is a member of Media Dizajn Association which operates IoC in Szczecin. — [email protected]

The Incubator of Culture as development centre of entrepreneurial skills for creative and cultural industries – A Case Study

Landry, Ch. (2008). The creative city: a toolkit for urban innovators (2nd ed.). Earthscan, London. Lessing, L. (2008). Remix – making art and commerce thrive in the hybrid economy. Penguin Books, London. Morgan, R.M., & Hunt, S.D. (1994). The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing, Journal of Marketing, 58, 20-38. Palmatier, R.W., Rajiv, P.D., Grewal, D., & Evans, K.R. (2006). Factors influencing the effectiveness of relationship marketing: a meta-analysis, Journal of Marketing, 70(4), 136-153. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A., & Berry, L.L. (1985). A conceptual model of service quality and its implications for future research, Journal of Marketing, 49, 41-50.

Storbacka, K., Strandvik, T., & Grönroos, Ch. (1994). Managing customer relationship for profit: the dynamics of relationship quality, International Journal of Service Industry Management, 5(5), 21-38. Venturelli, S. (2000).From the information economy to the creative economy: moving culture to the centre of international public policy, Centre for Culture and Arts, Issue Paper, 1-39. Ulaga, W., & Eggert, A. (2006). Relationship value and relationship quality – broadening the nomological network of business-to-business relationships, European Journal of Marketing, 40(3/4), 311-327. United Nations/UNDP/UNESCO (2013). Creative economy report. Widening local development pathways. Special edition. UNCTAD, New York. Zeithaml, V.A., Berry, L.L, & Parasuraman, A. (1993). The nature and the determinants of customer expectations of service, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21(1), 1-12.

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Payne A.F, Storbacka K., & Frow P. (2008). Managing the co-creation of value, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 36,83-96.

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Giep Hagoort

Beyond Frames: Sketching the grand picture A Strategic Research Agenda For the Cultural and Creative Sectors and Industries 2020 (CCSI2020)

XTRADUCTION

Looking back: the economics were coming

The meaning of the cultural and creative industries has been evaluated from different angles: from the economic oriented mapping studies, to interdisciplinary approaches on the way artistic and cultural creativity contribute to a vital and sustainable quality of life in a global perspective. The importance of economic studies from the early eighties of the last century cannot be underestimated. Under the intellectual leadership of David Throsby these studies formed a significant contribution to the academic debate on the position of art and culture within the western society (Throsby, 1982). It was strengthening the economic outcomes of art and culture within the society. With the help of the so called impact studies, research got an evidence based argument that art and culture cannot be missed on strategic policy agenda’s. With these kinds of economics, the existing Western oriented cultural policies got its promising cousin, so to say. With the results of our two research publications on board – Pioneering Minds Woldwide (2012). and Beyond Frames (2014) one can say that thirty years later a hybridisation of research has taken place. Although the western position in the academic debates still kept a dominant position, new studies from the south entered the research arena (Dos Santos-Duisenberg, 2008, 2010; Hagoort, Thomassen, Kooyman, 2012). The authors of Pioneering Minds Worldwide did inform the reader about a postcolonial approach of the Western cultural economy and its tension with developing countries; the need for an alternative way of seeing prosperity, like the Bhutan approach on national happiness; the non-formal approach of creative city planning in India; and about cultural authenticity in Chinese product design. Was the contribution of economic researchers the first academic tsunami that brought multidisciplinary research within the art and culture sector? For sure there were earlier researchers who combined their non-cultural expertise with cultural issues, consider the pioneering publications on city development (Jacobs, 1961). But after the economic studies a more concrete interdisciplinary approach, integrating more disciplines, emerged. Two important studies have to be mentioned here: Landry (2000) on creative cities and Florida on creative class (2002). After these documents, researchers could do a step ahead in further conceptualizing and testing the issues of quality of urban life in connection with cultural creativity as a dominant cultural driving force. But other dimensions can also be mentioned as an interdisciplinary contribution. Art management, originally initiated in the USA (Dimaggio, 1986) and UK (Pick, 1980) within the not for profit sector, and cultural entrepreneurship from the Netherlands (Hagoort, 2007).

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More recently new areas as community art, creative innovation and sustainability enrich the cultural sector, that has definitely been reframed as the cultural and creative industries, being a collective of disciplines with autonomous art expressions on the one side, and instrumental design on the other (Kooyman, 2009).

Looking around: experience the cultural hybridity

The 2013-edition of the Creative Economy, published by UNDP/UNESCO, illustrated the impact of the cultural and creative industries specific in developing countries. It revealed the variety, dynamics and existing strengths from the local South creative economy, with its informal, and social hidden infrastructures.

XTRADUCTION

Moving to a global perspective

In this new research landscape of artistic imagination the reports of the UN on the creative economy (2008, 2010). composed by Dos Santos-Duisenberg, can be seen as a bridge to creating new roads. They positioned the creative industries as the heart of a new creative economy, based on the connectivity of culture, economics, technology and social components to contribute to the human factor, on all continents of the world. These publications stimulated a more global attitude within the world of researchers on the creative industries and strengthened the importance of a sustainable development with the help of a creative economy. These documents also shown that research got a more global perspective beyond the dominance of the Western approaches and platforms, supported by a full range of statistic materials. But also within the western approach of the creative industries there is an academic curiosity for distinction between different values. Not only for the differences between the cultural and economic values but also a curiosity for the specific symbolic value components: aesthetic, historical - as intrinsic values, related to the object); and experience, educational, spiritual, identity, emotional, cognitive, social – as extrinsic values (Guiette, Jacobs, Loots, Schramme, Vandenbempt, 2012).

It mentioned new research themes which can be seen as a reflection on the more western approaches which its strong economic and statistics oriented cultural policies. Considering the own, unique character of culture in the South-countries with its societal needs (food, education, knowledge) more human dimensions needed attention. The social and informal bottom up developments can hardly be found in the official statistics but are given meaning to the creative economy of those countries. But not only for the Global South, also for the Global North this information is crucial. If we as (Western) researchers want to understand the whole picture of the cultural and creative economy we have to take these kinds of signals very seriously. And as mentioned in this 2013-edition very large city regions in the Global North with millions of inhabitants have in some specific quarters and districts the same problems as the large cities have in the Global South: poverty, unemployment, weak social and spacial infrastructures. Twenty years ago a colleague from Los Angeles indicated this situation as follows to me: ‘We (in Los Angeles) have our own third world.’ Several contributions from Beyond Frames already give some first steps of coming together with new approaches to understand the more complete picture of the cultural and creative industries. We will integrate these issues in the strategic research agenda later on.

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And finally: does the Western economic crisis (started from 2008) had its repercussions on the current creative economy? If we look at the financial crisis –as the initial source of the economic crisis – then we see a lot of consequences within that vertical structured sector. Par example within the Euro-zone (18 EU-countries with the Euro as their mutual currency) a new banking control system and a stronger governance try to create a more sustainable financial sector. Thus far, in contrast, the horizontally structured cultural and creative network industries (HKU, 2010) did not experience a system crisis, and kept their strong position in the unfolding world with its increasing unemployment, rising governmental debts and less social protection. Yet, the creative economy was and is not an island. There were and there are effects from the economic crisis as the situation in the Netherlands has shown. Less assignments for architects within the construction sector, less sponsoring from the corporate world, a weaker position for the self-employed creative professionals, and reductions of art subsidies with more than 20%. But despite these facts and numbers, the vital and innovative characteristics of the creative economy, will continue its contribution to the society as a whole. This remark is important to remember if policy makers are asking for the specific position of the CCIs, and why they should support these sectors and industries.

XTRADUCTION

Looking ahead: search for creative network economy 2020

If we, as researchers, have the ambition to understand the multi-layered and hybrid nature of the CCIs, we have to develop the whole picture. In other words: what are the strategic research priorities en challenges that translate this ambition into actions on our road to 2020? Before composing an answer on this content oriented question, we have to look at the way we organize our research platforms. These platforms consist of different (social) media, conferences, book presentations, periodicals and specific websites. As mentioned, the UN with its reports on the creative economy have had a great impact on the different, more decentralized research activities. I think it is important to strengthen this global platform. But there is one condition for further success: we need to create a high level of adaptability of all kind of research. For a start by sending in reports, papers and other publications from grass roots level to existing academic levels. An important step for the UN to improve the mobilisation of research results, is to install an online platform to put all the relevant research results together under the supervision of a broad editorial committee. By doing so we are creating our own Wikipedia on the creative economy. On the content of a strategic research agenda five strategic priorities can be formulated with the possible input of several authors from Beyond Frames: 1. Developing a Creative Transition

An important element in a lot of contributions in Beyond Frames is the transition of the societies. irrelevant if they are located in North of South. It is not only the growing globalisation and the post neo-liberal economic thinking, but also the digitation of the society with the help of internet and social media. Another element – and connected with the growing importance of available internet information about all kinds of sectors and situations - is the increasing conscience of the local public. It is not needed

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to have a ‘spring revolution’ to experience the influence of people to develop an own neighbourhood based on Do It Yourself (DIY)- principles. It is reported here that a combination of cultural and social entrepreneurship can produce a relevant ‘change agent’ effect. Rethinking of traditional urban cultural strategies on the one side, and research on a new concept of ‘Creative Return’ and ‘Cooperatives’ on the other, are illustrations in Beyond Frames to find the road to this Creative Transition.

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2. Connecting Engagement

For sure the economic approach of the creative industries brought new perspectives in de areas of innovation, job growth and regional development. But as the UN stated in 2013: ‘the wider human factor is more promising to express the quality of live on the bottom of a sustainable society.’ This orientation asks for a full engagement within all the sectors, arts included. Research can manifest the values, methods and outcomes of this connected engagement, initiated from artists, designers, cultural institutes and creative firms. There are still questions about this Connected Engagement, as formulated in Beyond Frames: does the municipality develop ‘Flagship-strategies’ with some economic strong disciplines to compete with other main cities, or do we develop a more broader strategy with the possibility to participate for non-prominent disciplines? For sure, for universities and their researchers there are several challenges to strengthen the local creative economy communities. But there is one central condition to open the academic doors for the own creative economy: take the small scaled CCIs into account; they are often completely separated from the existing research paths and funds of the often large scaled universities. Maybe ‘Small is Beautiful’ for a so called ‘Relational University’ is a conditio sine qua non? And for the future, some authors notice, it is important that students of art schools, consider their new competences of the creative economy: more interdisciplinarity, more business orientation, more foreign languages and more projects based on crossovers. 3. Upcycling creative crafts

A clear signal comes from Africa: the western approach on art, media and design within an economic frame denies the importance of the traditional creative crafts within the regional society. More practice led research has to tackle the need for innovation of material, products and management. In addition, researchers can stimulate the attention for this ‘hidden heart of the creative industries’, by looking for new possibilities to bring the local knowledge at the table and to connect different stakeholders in the cultural value chain of creation, production, distribution and experiencing. In several contributions from Beyond Frames there is connection of local art firms with the social and economic development. It also brings a cultural identity to the local creative economy. In this context, researchers ask for more attention to support this development on the level of entrepreneurship, finance, marketing and capacity building. A critical local oriented analysis on the ‘experience economy’ can bring specific hypotheses on intrinsic values on the research agenda. And related to that, also a question of ‘entrepreneurship’ has been formulated. If a traditional approach is taken for granted, the new urban entrepreneurial (music) crafts will not be noticed.

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4. Creating Cross Overs Policies

An essential condition for further developments of research within the cultural and creative industries is the relationship with other sectors. The creative economy is a real network economy and building walls around will hinder the use of its potential. Particular on this area of crossovers there can be a special responsibility for the government, on local, regional, national and transnational level. With the help of finance, fiscal facilities and cultural policy regulation, they can create a supportive infrastructure with a priority on the regional level (HKU, 2010). Indeed, more research is needed. In Beyond Frames we can learn from the fact that the more specific world of spillovers effects is complicated. At least five spillovers effects have been indicated, to suppliers, customers, academia, business world, and society. Knowing more about innovation processes through these spillovers is essential, when communicating successfully to the outside world. In which way can the CCSI contribute to an innovative corporate world for instance? Initial research shows that ‘idea generation’ and ‘product design’ are on the top of the priority list. Knowing more about the relation between artistic creativity and innovation is important for a future proof CCIs.

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5. Monitoring Cultural Glocalism

Even if art and culture are strongly oriented on local communities, there is a strong international dimension. Talented musicians from local communities will receive an invitation to perform on international festivals, theatre groups can use playwrights from the world repertoire, local cultural diversity expressed by immigrants causes a fusion of styles and genres. Social media have no borders even if governments try to limits their use. Researchers can develop a special quality in monitoring this cultural glocalism (as a contraction of the pure local and/or global perspective). In general a lot of authors from Beyond Frames are looking for new frameworks and indicators to create robust research. But one theme is missing: the overall monitoring of the cultural and human developments from the perspectives of entrepreneurial spirit, urbanization of art, culture and creativity, and from co-creation of new knowledge. Maybe this can be a task of the UN-editorial committee as mentioned earlier. The perspectives

The Strategic Research Agenda for the CCIs as formulated here, can put our glocal research field on a higher level to design a more complete picture. It is strongly connected with the appreciated contributions of the authors of Beyond Frames. Are we prepared for the future, by Developing Creative Transition, Connecting Engagement, Upcycling Creative Crafts, Creating Crossovers Policies, and Monitoring Cultural Glocalism? We have to be modest. The world in 2014 is on several local and national levels full of political turbulences, social instability and military conflicts. With the help of artists, cultural entrepreneurs and researchers we can imagine a better, creative and sustainable world for 2020. But we cannot create this world on our own. We need the others. The author thanks Annick Schramme and Rene Kooyman for their comments on a draft version of this contribution.

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Refrences Dimaggio, P. (1986). Nonprofit Enterprise in the Arts: Studies in Mission and Constraint, Oxford University Press. Dos Santos-Duisenberg, E. (2008, 2010). Creative Economy Report. Unctad, Geneva. Florida, R. (2002). The rise of the creative class, and how it ‘s transforming woirk, leisure, community & every day life, Basic Books. Guiette, A, Jacobs, S., Loots, E., Schramme, A., Vandenbempt, K. (2012). in: Pioneering Minds Worldwide. On the Entrepreneurial Principles of the Cultural and Creative Industries, Eburon. Hagoort, G. (2007). Cultural Entrepreneurship. On the freedom to create art and the freedom of enterprise (Inaugural Lecture). Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Hagoort, G., Kooyman, R, Thomassen, A. (2012). Pioneering Minds Worldwide. On the Entrepreneurial Principles of the Cultural and Creative Industries. Eburon.

Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Random House. Kooyman, R. (2009). Minimize Me! The Creative Industries: Setting the research agenda, in: Creative Industries. Colour Fabric in multiple Dimension, Eburon. Landry, C. (2000). The Creative City, A toolkit for urban innovation. Earthscan. Pick, J. (1980). Arts Administration, E. & F.N. Spon.

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HKU (2010). The Entrepreneurial Dimension of the Cultural and Creative Industries, Hogeschool voor de Kunsten Utrecht.

Schramme, A., Kooyman, R. (Ed), Hagoort, G. (2014). Beyond Frames. Dynamics between the creative industries, knowledge institutions and the urban context, Eburon. Throsby, C.D. (1982). Social and Economics Benefits from Regional Investment, in: Arts Facilities: theory and application, in: Journal of Cultural Economics, volume 6, no 1. UNDP/UNESCO (2013). Creative Economy Report 2013 Special edition. Widening local developments pathways. New York/Paris.



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