Basics Project Control 9783035616941, 9783035616668

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Pecco Becker

Project Control

Pecco Becker - Sebastian El Khouli Bert Bielefeld

Entwurfsidee Project Control

Birkhäuser BIRKHÄUSER Basel BASEL

Contents INTRODUCTION _7 THE BUILDING PROJECT _8 Uniqueness _8 Deadlines _10 Costs _10 Quality _12 Magical triangle _13 Project objectives _14 Building project participants _16

BUILDING PROJECT MANAGEMENT _20 Why project management? _20 Project management _21 Project sponsor _23 Authority _24 Forms of organization _26 Selection of project manager _29 Project organization _30 Project entities _36 Risk management _37 Information flow _40 Meetings _45

PROJECT COMMUNICATION _49 Team set-up _49 Teamwork _50 Management rules _51 Stakeholders _52 Conflict situations _53 Motivation _54

CONTROL OF THE PLANNING AND BUILDING PROCESSES _56 Project phases in building projects _56 Instruments _58 Project management tasks in a building project _67

IN CONCLUSION _77 APPENDIX _78

Introduction Owing to the increasing complexity of the building process and user requirements, the task of creating buildings is also becoming ever more complex. New and increasingly complex technologies have to be employed in the planning and execution of building projects in order to achieve satisfactory results. All those involved in a project have to have a high level of technical and organizational skill in order to cope with the challenging task of keeping a project within the agreed-upon budget and schedule while providing the specified quality. In order to ensure that a project does not suffer from errors or misunderstandings, it has to be properly organized right from the beginning. The objectives of the project must be continually monitored and, if necessary, adapted to external factors and changes that may occur during the course of the project. The well-respected Project Management Institute (PMI, Pennsylvania, USA) has made the following definition as a basic tenet of project management: “Responding to change over following a plan.” To help with this process, this book introduces the planning and control techniques that the project sponsor can use to control the main elements such as costs, deadlines, and the specified quality.

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The Building Project All those working on a building project deal with the tasks involved in one or several parallel projects on a daily basis. In order to clarify this activity, it is first of all necessary to define and clarify the term “project.” UNIQUENESS

Adaptation to a new situation

●

Every building project is characterized by a certain uniqueness. The project is defined as a new or modified task that did not previously exist or for which the framework conditions have changed. This applies particularly to buildings where the project teams in different fields repeatedly plan, build, and operate “prototypes.” > Tab. 1 Even where projects are based on the same brief/specification, e.g. individual houses in the development of a row of houses that are designed by the same practice and built by the same contractors, it is possible that there are big differences in the external boundary conditions and in the user requirements. > Tab. 2 The most typical factor for the uniqueness of a building is the ground on which it stands. The fact that a building project is always tied to one particular plot is common to all property and is the most obvious indicator of the uniqueness of the building. The individual character of projects means that there is also a certain complexity, which results from the deviation from pre-existing standardized processes. This means that routine procedures, structures, and methods are only partially applicable and always have to be readapted to new situations.

● Example: For years, a developer has been building

detached and semi-detached houses. The management of the company wants to expand the business and also tackle larger building projects. The idea is that such ­building projects would distinguish the developer more clearly from the competition. The company buys a large piece of building land from a municipality on which there is still an old barracks building. The developer plans to build thirty-five identical detached houses of type A. This is the first time that the developer is undertaking such a large contiguous development, which also involves the prior demolition of existing buildings. This means he will have to involve more, and larger, subcontractors than before, and the development requires the design and construction of access routes to the site and the individual plots. This also means, for example, that new project participants have to be found for the design, other local authorities will have to be dealt with.

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Tab. 1: Examples of different types of building projects Residential

Detached houses, semi-detached houses, row houses, apartment houses, estate houses

Commercial buildings

Shopping centers, retail buildings, malls, superstores

Industrial buildings

Manufacturing facilities, filling stations, bottling plants, ­warehouses, logistics centers

Recreation and leisure

Golf courses, football stadiums, sports stadiums, hiking trails, parks

Health facilities

Medical centers, city hospitals, rehabilitation clinics, retirement homes, care homes

Transport

Railway tracks, road construction, port facilities, airports, tunnels

Public buildings

Universities, government buildings, fire stations, schools, g­ymnasiums, swimming pools

Utilities

Power stations, power lines, fiber optic cables, gas pipelines, ­potable water pipelines, wind power plants

Disposal

Wastewater sewers, treatment plants, waterworks, waste disposal sites, retention soil filters, rainwater interceptor basins

Tab. 2: Examples of differences in standardized row houses Based on user requirements —— —— —— —— —— —— ——

Color of facade Finish and color of roof covering Color of windows Type and quality of entrance door Floor coverings Type, size, and quality of sanitary fittings Type of electric wiring installation

Based on location —— —— —— —— —— ——

Connection to sewer system Road and pedestrian access Possibility of building a parking garage Slope of the terrain Flood defenses Subsoil and geology

Based on the neighborhood —— —— —— ——

Privacy devices (fence, hedge etc.) Sound attenuation devices Restrictions resulting from other building structures (e.g. power masts) Entries in the public obligations register

9

DEADLINES

●

Every project has a defined start and a defined end. These are the two most important points in the time schedule of each building project, but they are by no means the only ones. The period in which the entire project has to be completed also includes other, equally mandatory milestones that may result from the design and/or execution schedules. > Tab. 3 Compliance with the time schedule is particularly pertinent where modern processing methods are used, such as BIM (Building Information Modeling), and ensuring compliance is one of the key tasks of the project manager. When work is reflected in a model, the consequences of delays in the schedule are directly visible in the model to all project participants, and it is immediately transparent what the cause or the source of faults is. When it is not possible to keep to already defined project deadlines, this will almost always lead to an undesirable domino effect because other deadlines and target dates in the chain will also change. COSTS

Building life cycle

It is obvious that a building project is always subject to financial constraints in addition to the time constraint. Putting up a building always involves enormously high costs and that means the appropriate funds must be made available. A clearly defined budget is a prerequisite for any project; the function of project management is to ensure that the project costs do not exceed the funding provided. Generally speaking, the possibilities of influencing the costs of a project decrease as it progresses. > Fig. 1 The biggest influence over the amount of funding required for a project can be exerted at the briefing and outline design stages, when the building owner’s basic requirements are established. This possibility to exert control no longer exists shortly before a project is completed. The project-determining factor of the costs is all the more significant when we take into account not only the large amount of tied-up capital but also for how long it remains tied up in the life cycle of a property. In this context it is important to not only consider the initial investment for putting up a building but also subsequent costs over the entire life cycle period, i.e. use costs, costs of maintenance and servicing, of repair and modernization, through to demolition and waste treatment. > Fig. 2

● Example: When approval of a building application is delayed, this has a direct impact on the start date of the construction and therefore on the completion date. The same applies when important building components are delivered late, e.g. windows. Such delays can mean that the new building cannot be occupied on the planned date and the previous accommodation has to be rented for an extended period.

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Tab. 3: Examples of time-critical dates/periods of a building project —— Provision of funding for design work —— Expiry of the approval of a building application —— Expiry of the building control approval for construction elements —— New building rules and regulations coming into force —— Completion of the reinforcement plans and steel schedules for ordering —— Screed curing periods —— New rooms ready for occupation —— Time window for the delivery of heavy goods by trucks —— Completion of the work of certain trades prior to that of others —— Deadlines for the submission of grant aid applications

Degree of influence over cost

100

1. Project preparation 2. Design

95

3. Preparation of execution 35 4. Execution 10

5. Project completion 1/4

1/2

Project duration

Fig. 1: Degree of influence over cost in the course of a building project

Project development Demolition/ waste management

Operation

Design

Implementation !"#$%$&

Fig. 2: Life cycle of a property

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2

QUALITY

Quality criteria

All building owners hope that their building project is completed on time and within budget. In addition, they have an expectation regarding the end result of the project, how it has been built, and how it can be used and operated. The meaning of quality is defined by a number of quality criteria that are commonly applied in building projects. For example, the quality of a material describes the characteristics of that material or building element; the functional quality indicates whether the building has been designed particularly well and can actually fulfill its function. In public buildings in particular, the conceptual design quality is also an important factor. Organizing an architectural competition can help to achieve a high quality in terms of conceptual design. In addition to the quality of the materials and surface finishes, building owners may specify a high degree of sustainability of the construction process and the building. This impacts all phases of the property life cycle > Fig. 2, starting with the design, through to the final stage, i.e. demolition and waste management. > Tab. 4 Compliance with these quality criteria is an important task for the project team and project manager in all phases.

Tab. 4: Examples of the qualities of sustainability Ecological qualities

—— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— ——

Energy conservation Reduction in the use of gray/fossil fuel energy Use of non-hazardous materials Materials free from noxious substances Primary energy demand Freshwater consumption in the operation of a building Site footprint Reinstatement of natural land Extent of sealing of surface areas

Social qualities

—— —— —— —— —— ——

Safety/security of location and building Creation of areas for social communication Amenity value Public accessibility Bicycle-friendly Barrier freedom

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MAGICAL TRIANGLE

The three key indices of cost, time, and quality are mutually ­restrictive, a fact that cannot be avoided; together they form the so-called magical triangle > Figs. 3 and 4, also referred to as the project management triangle. This means that changes to one of them always also leads to changes to the other two. For example, changes to the time schedule almost always result in changes in costs and/or quality. Changes in the quality will always result in deviations from the time schedule, budget, and so on. Inside this magical triangle is the project objective; to ensure the success of the project, the project manager must align the management of the project with this objective. The surface of the triangle with the three parameters shown in Figure 4 is symbolic of the project objective; it is a fixed size, but shifts along the axes if the specifications change. This diagram can be used to illustrate the effects of changes in a very ­direct way: 1. If better quality than originally specified is desired or stipulated (that means that the point of the triangle moves to the right on the quality scale), this change results in higher costs (the top point of the triangle moves downwards) and more time is needed (the lefthand point of the triangle moves in the direction of the origin of the coordinates). 2. If, for a variety of reasons, a shorter construction period than ­originally planned is stipulated (this means that the left-hand point of the triangle moves downwards) the immediate result is that (a) lower quality has to be accepted and (b) more money must be made available.

Reduced cost Cost

Higher quality Project objective

Time

Fig. 3: Magical triangle

Quality

Shorter period Fig. 4: Three-dimensional illustration of the magical triangle

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PROJECT OBJECTIVES

SMART objectives

It is often the case that the overall aim of the project seems clear. However, the associated project objectives are defined and documented either not at all or in too diverse a manner. When looked at more closely, what has been specified are not really objectives but desires, dreams, or visions. However, it is mandatory for project objectives to be precise, measurable, and clear since otherwise it will be impossible for the project manager to control and guide all those involved in the project. For example, a building owner may demand “the best possible thermal insulation,” something a project team must respect and take into account. However, this is not an adequate definition of an objective, only the expression of subjective elements of the desire. Everyone involved in the project will interpret this desire differently. The so-called SMART method is a useful tool for defining achievable objectives. This method helps to bring together all necessary parameters and define an objective. The term SMART is an acronym of the following: S – Specific Objectives must be defined specifically and unequivocally, i.e. they must not be vague or nebulous. M – Measurable An objective can only be achieved when it contains measurable criteria. Such criteria are a mandatory requirement in order to be able to determine the progress of a project and the degree of such progress. A – Accepted The criteria used for defining the objective must be acceptable. Here again we see how projects are unique: what is acceptable in Project A does not have to be acceptable for Project B. R – Realistic Realistic objectives are the main influencing factors in determining a project. Building projects regularly fail or come unstuck because unrealistic objectives have been specified that cannot be achieved even by a highly qualified project management team. Most often this applies to ­unrealistic cost and deadline requirements. T – Time-related An objective that is not time-related can never be achieved, because the time constraint can be moved indefinitely. A fixed deadline must always be specified to make it possible to achieve an objective, because this is a mandatory requirement for the project manager to be able to manage the team.

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If building owners want to ensure that the SMART rules are rigorously complied with, they need to make many firm decisions at the beginning. > Tab. 5 At this point, the building owner needs the support and professional advice of the project manager and the other project team members. When building projects are processed with digital methods (e.g. BIM – Building Information Modeling), these decisions have to be made at an even earlier stage. From the very beginning, all necessary requirements are entered into the digital building model as the Employers Information Requirements (EIRs) and must be defined and stated by the ­ordering party (the employer). Below are examples of typical wishes and ideas of building owners for the design and implementation of a building project: —— Optimum usability of the completed building (rooms, spaces, ­functions, energy consumption, location) —— Project costs as low as possible, good commercial viability (­operating and consequential costs) —— Cost reliability from project start to project end —— Schedule reliability (availability of the building, milestones for ­financing and cost planning) —— Best possible quality while keeping within the agreed budget —— Good conceptual design/attractive architecture —— Smooth project process, free of conflict if possible, minimizing risk —— Legal certainty (planning law, building law, contract law, building operation) —— The project to impact on the building owner as little as possible, a­llowing time for the key tasks —— Being and remaining in charge of the process at all times

Tab. 5: Examples of SMART objectives Not SMART

SMART

I would like to have the best possible ­thermal insulation.

The building envelope must achieve a thermal transmittance (thermal insulation value) of 0.7.

We must complete the design as quickly as possible.

The building application drawings must be ­signed off by the building owner and submitted to the building authority by February 4, 2019 at the latest.

We will only use the cheapest available floor tiles.

The floor tiles in the cellar area must be of slip resistance class R11 and must not cost more than EUR 8.00/m2 including VAT.

All internal walls should be white.

Internal brick partition walls are to be finished with dispersion paint in the color “pure white,” color number 1234.

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◯

The ideas of building owners go beyond the pure design and construction or the use of the property. It is the task of the project management to take charge of various obligations of the building owners in order to ensure that they can focus on other tasks or their day-to-day business. Not every ordering party or building owner is an accomplished project manager, they may only once or twice in his/her life be faced with a building project. BUILDING PROJECT PARTICIPANTS

Due to their complexity and demanding requirements in terms of cost, deadlines, and quality, building projects cannot be accomplished by one person alone. Many specialist disciplines and specialized experts have to work together simultaneously as a team. This will only work if the project team is properly controlled and managed. Examples of entities or persons typically involved in a building project include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Building owner, ordering party, client/customer Designer, architect Project manager Lawyers and notaries for the drafting of contracts Political entities (town parliaments, local representatives, mayor) Financiers, lending institutions, or investors Specialist engineers for utility services and/or structural design Specialized experts such as surveyors or geologists Public authorities (building control, fire service, environmental ­protection, building inspection authority) 10. Utility companies (electricity, water, telecommunications) 11. Utility companies (wastewater) 12. Site manager responsible for the building site 13. Specialist site manager for specialist trades such as fire safety and electric installations 14. General contractor or subcontractors 15. Expert witness 16. Purchaser, user, or tenant of the building 17. Facilities manager and maintenance organization, caretaker 18. Insurer ◯ Note: When considering objectives, the project

manager should also think about so-called non-object­ ives. Some building projects involve many changes in objectives during their execution. This does not always have to be a negative result from the magical triangle (see Chapter Magical triangle); such adjustments may also result from changed fundamentals and strategies. In order to prevent a certain randomness, it has proved to be helpful to determine, right from the beginning, what is expressly not to be an objective of a project.

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The number and type of project participants varies depending on the project constellation (size, volume, construction period, complexity). The point in time at which these participants become active also varies. The list of persons, institutions, authorities, and others involved in a building project must always be determined for each individual project. The most important participant in a building project is the ordering party, also referred to as customer/client or building owner. In a building project, the building owner is the person who is legally, financially, and commercially responsible, and makes the necessary decisions. This means that the ordering party is the key decision maker in a project and the only entity that decides whether a project continues, whether design steps should be repeated, and so on. The building owner does not always have to be a natural person – it is often another entity such as a corporation. In projects for a public client or corporation, there may be many representatives (at the same time) who, in most cases, also pursue different aspects in the definition of objectives. The reason for this may be the structure of the organization (management board, head of department, administrator, purchasing department) or the fact that different departments are involved (construction department, representatives of various functions, building maintenance, etc.). It is therefore quite possible that some client representatives request the use of particularly ecological, sustainable, and resource-­ efficient construction methods and materials whereas others prioritize cost-efficient or fast building processes. Yet others place their main emphasis on architectural and design values or the future flexibility of the building. > Chapter Project objectives The architect or building designer of a building has overall responsibility for planning and designing the building for the building owner. This involves not only technical/functional aspects but also conceptual elements and possibly the interior design of the property to be created. The architect’s design must comply with all regulatory and legal requirements and must be backed up by appropriate site supervision. In addition, the architect is the head of a design team that includes other specialist designers, engineers, experts, etc. > Fig. 5 The results of all these other specialists have to be integrated in the architectural design; here, the architect must ensure that everything fits together in the overall project, thereby creating a property that functions in the long term. Typically, the architect is involved at a very early stage in the building project; together with the building owner and/or project manager, he or she will be involved in performing background research. This is followed by the design process that leads to the outline and scheme ­designs and finally, progressing from more general statements to very detailed ones, to the detail design, specification and tender documents, as well as site supervision.

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Building owner

Architect

Design stage Architect/building designer

Specialist engineer

Specialist engineer

Specialist engineer

Specialist engineer

Electrical

Structural

Plumbing and heating

...

Fig. 5: Example of a design team organigram

Building supervisor

Project manager

Once the design for a building project has been completed and execution starts on site, building supervision is required. The main building supervisor may want to involve a team of supervisors, including specialist supervisors for specialist parts of the work; this is analogous to the architect’s design phase. > Fig. 6 It is common to involve specialist supervisors for fire safety, for electrical installations, and/or services installations (heating, air-conditioning, ventilation, sanitary). Even when there is a team of supervisors, the main supervisor will remain responsible for ensuring that the health and safety regulations are complied with on the building site. The supervisor is authorized to ­issue instructions to the contractors on site and is the person who will modify or optimize the building process in the event of interruptions or obstructions. In general, the supervisor will ensure that the building complies with the plans approved by the authorities, the details produced by the architect, and the applicable technical rules. The work of the building supervisor extends throughout the entire construction process and terminates with the handover to the building owner. In view of the number of people involved and their different priorities and objectives, it is necessary to bring together, manage, and control all project participants in a structured and coordinated fashion. Communication within the entire project team must be determined and agreed in order to ensure that all participants can fruitfully apply their respective specialist knowledge and that the process proceeds in a coordinated and purposeful manner. > Fig. 7 This and many other tasks are performed by the project manager.

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Execution stage Building supervisor with overall responsibility

Specialist supervisor

Specialist supervisor

Specialist supervisor

Specialist supervisor

Electrical

Services installations

Fire safety

...

Fig. 6: Example organigram of a building supervision team

Building owner Project developer

Neighbors

Provider of capital/ bank

Lawyers

Project manager

User/ tenant Building project

Specialist supervisor

Architect

Building supervisor

Specialist engineer

Expert witness

Authorities Construction companies

Fig. 7: Communication chaos in a building project

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Building Project Management WHY PROJECT MANAGEMENT?

As a rule, owing to their uniqueness, building projects cannot be managed with routine processes. > Chapter The building project, Uniqueness The special features of a project described above require a dedicated management concept that forms the basis of the building project management. The project manager must maintain an overall awareness of the entire task. Sometimes it is necessary to depart from common approaches to design or building processes and find completely new ways of tackling the project. Using a checklist > Tab. 6 and listing the boundary conditions is a useful tool for analyzing a project and establishing whether it requires project management or not. The more boundary conditions apply, the more likely it is that the project is one that requires the use of structured project management. Generally speaking, the management of a project is a task to be performed by the building owner, the main participant in the building project. The building owner’s task can be subdivided into two distinct parts, both of which together make up building project management. > Fig. 8 The two distinct parts are —— Tasks that can be delegated  project manager —— Tasks that cannot be delegated  project sponsor Building owners should delegate to experts these very complex tasks that carry great responsibility right at the start of the project. Tab. 6: Project management checklist Applicable? The boundary conditions of the project have been clarified and are transparent. The task is not comparable to previous tasks handled by the project team. The task is very complex or new for the project team members. The processing of the project requires a range of specialist disciplines, which hitherto have not regularly worked together. During the course of the project, regular meetings must be held with team members. The task requires intensive management and control. The task extends over a longer period of time. The task involves a large budget. The task involves financial risk.

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Yes

No

Project manager (delegatable tasks)

+

=

Project management

Project sponsor (non-delegatable tasks)

Fig. 8: Components of project management

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Tasks and duties that can be delegated are performed by the project manager. The project manager is employed by the building owner in a supporting/advising function > Chapter Forms of organization and is not in a position to make decisions or give instructions. > Fig. 9 This means that the project manager’s main task is the organization of the project on behalf of the building owner and in readiness for the building owner to make decisions. The tasks to be carried out by the project manager are diverse and complex and are required throughout the project, starting from preparation through to design, construction, and handover. In contrast to the architect, project managers should be involved at the very beginning of a project and should help the building owner to define the project objectives, to identify boundary conditions, and appoint a suitable design team. Examples of building owner tasks that can be delegated include the following: —— Definition and detailing of the brief —— Coordination and control of the building project from the beginning to completion of the project

Organigram showing position of project manager Project manager

Building owner

Architect/building designer

Structural design

Building supervision

Specialist engineers

Building contractors

Fig. 9: Position of project manager in relation to building owner

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Building owner tasks that can be delegated

—— Establishing and maintaining the organizational structure and ­information flow —— Input to contracts with design team and contractors —— Coordination, control, and management of project participants —— Cost and finance planning, devising payment plans —— Setting up and assessing budget, cost computation, cost estimate, cost analysis —— Cost tracking, cost control, cost statement —— Input to the definition and subsequent monitoring of quality ­criteria —— Producing and monitoring a time schedule —— Control and management of changes —— Comparison of specified objectives with what has actually been achieved (target/actual comparison) —— Making sure relevant decisions are made —— Project documentation Definition of terms

Many terms are in use relating to the activities of project management; these may sometimes sound similar or even identical, but they can also refer to quite different things. The most important and most frequently used project management terms are shown in > Tab. 7.

Tab. 7: Definition of activities in project management Activity

Definition

Providing input

—— Summarizing and assessing all input elements and submission to the building owner for decision

Producing, setting out

—— Setting out the steps of a work process in detail

Submitting for agreement

—— Submitting proposals to the building owner and obtaining agreement to proceed

Implementation

—— Introducing processes that have been agreed upon via the information and meeting system and monitoring compliance with them

Updating

—— Ongoing updating of previously produced documents

Examining

—— Comprehensive examination of the content to check for correctness and conformity with contract

Revision

—— Checking completed work/documents by looking at examples with the purpose of either releasing the respective item or rejecting it —— No detailed examination —— Sample checks of the results for completeness, plausibility, and compliance with project objectives —— Documentation of samples

Analyzing and evaluating

—— Checking project participant output in ongoing project processes —— Submitting recommendations for action to the building owner

Managing

—— Influencing the project participants to ensure the satisfactory implementation of the project

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PROJECT SPONSOR

The project sponsor represents the building owner and his/her interests to all external entities and is distinct from the project manager. As a rule, this person is an internal member of the staff of the building owner’s organization who can make decisions and has responsibility for the budget. This means that the project sponsor does not have a consulting function but is in a direct reporting relationship > Chapter Forms of organization with the building owner. > Fig. 10 The following tasks, which cannot be delegated, have to be performed by the project sponsor on behalf of the building owner:

Building owner tasks that cannot be delegated

—— Defining and determining project objectives —— Providing funds for the implementation of the project —— Making binding decisions, e.g. for the design, from project preparation through to project completion —— Concluding contracts with designers, experts, building contractors, and others —— Functioning as a central point of contact for all involved in the building project —— Conflict management during the entire project —— Representational tasks associated with the project, such as foundation stone ceremony, topping out ceremony, opening, and so on When comparing the positions of the project manager and the project sponsor, the difference in their functions becomes clear. These differences are reflected in the tasks, duties, and decision-making authority shown in the organigram below. > Fig. 11

Organigram showing position of project sponsor

Building owner

Project sponsor

Architect/building designer

Structural design

Building supervision

Specialist engineers

Building contractors

Fig. 10: Position of project sponsor in relation to building owner

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Main distinguishing characteristics

Building owner

Project sponsor • • • •

Organizational unit of building owner Line function Project implementation Making and enforcing decisions

Project manager • • • •

Advisory function Reporting function Monitoring Input to implementation

Project management

Building design

Building supervision

...

Fig. 11: Comparison of duties and positions in the building project

AUTHORITY

●

For the project sponsor to represent the building owner when dealing with external entities, express authorization from the building owner is required; this will bestow the authority on the project sponsor to make decisions, issue instructions, and enforce these. Such an authorization needs to state what decisions (also in terms of cost) the project sponsor can make without seeking confirmation. It must also set out which decisions must never be made by the project sponsor, or only after consultation with the building owner. An authorization is not a contract or an agreement between two parties, but instead it is a unilateral legal instrument. > Fig. 12 The donor of the authority (here: building owner) issues a unilateral authorization to the authority holder (here: project sponsor). In any external dealings, the project sponsor acts on behalf of the building owner and is authorized to conclude effective legal transactions with third parties (for example, with architects, experts, building companies). Furthermore, the project sponsor can issue instructions to other project participants (also called third parties) on behalf of the building owner. For example, the project sponsor is authorized to communicate and negotiate with the authorities and to define requirements for utility companies. However, these instructions will always only be legally binding for the relationship of the building owner with the respective project participant. The rights and obligations resulting from the legal transaction directly ­affect the represented entity and the third party.

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The represented: donor of authority

ffec t

power of attorney

Gives authority of representation

Internal relationship

Le g al e

Rights and obligations resulting from the legal transaction directly affect the represented party and the third party

s

Third party

e ...

nte

to r in

a le

ga

ans l tr

c De

lar

io act

ati

on

n

s

Representative: authority holder

e Ext

rna

l at l re

p shi ion

Fig. 12: Diagram illustrating an authorization triangle

In every design and building project it is important to clarify, at the beginning, which person has what rights of instruction or representation and what the limits of any authorization are (e.g. orders can only be placed up to a certain amount). Neither the project manager nor the architect is authorized to represent the building owner unless such authorization has explicitly been given.

● Example: The authorized project sponsor for a buil-

ding project negotiates a contract with the demolition contractor and concludes this contract. During the demolition work, it becomes apparent that additional work needs to be carried out by the demolition company, which the building supervisor has confirmed with the project sponsor. Due to the authorization held by the project sponsor, this additional work must also be paid for by the building owner because the legal transaction has become effective between building owner and the demolition company.

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FORMS OF ORGANIZATION

Organigrams

For large or complex building projects, it is necessary to choose a practical and purposeful form of organization. Irrespective of the size of the project, the project manager should always produce an organigram to illustrate the form of organization, since this makes it possible to graphically display important “rules of the game.” > Figs. 5, 6, 9, 10, 13 This will show the different tasks and responsibilities, as well as paths of communication and decision-making in a project. The degree of detailing of the organigram and the way it is presented is determined by the project sponsor; there are no fixed rules. However, organigrams are always based on the reporting hierarchy. All vertical connections represent the relationship between an employee and a supervisor (management function). > Chapter Project sponsor Horizontal connections refer to a supporting function (consultants, etc.). > Chapter Project management Depending on the nature of the specified objectives of a building project, it is also possible to assign project management tasks to several

Building owner Mrs. Sewüster

Project sponsor BBP Consult GmbH Mr. Barenberg

Design

Execution

Architects Plan B Architecture Mrs. Kaiser

Building supervision BBP Consult GmbH Mr. Becker

Specialist engineers

Specialist consultants

Building execution

TGA Sender GmbH Mrs. Georgi

Soil experts TBR Geo GmbH Mrs. Weigl

Lot 1 - Groundworks NBR Nickel Construction AG

Electrical installation Office Bonkhoff + Partner Mrs. Richter

Fire safety IB Kessler + Visscher Mr. Zibell

Lot 2 – Shell construction works HD Harms Construction GmbH

Structural design Brendel Engineers Mr. Lübko

Building physics Lenfers Room acoustics Mr. Schulte

Lot 3 – Fitting-out work Krause & Co. Building Contractor

Landscape architects GaLaBau Struckmann Mrs. Müller

Fig. 13: Example organigram

26

persons or teams. This is commonly done and appropriate for very large projects. Such projects may include the new construction of an airport or a tunnel through a mountain, a new university campus, or the demolition and reconstruction of a factory. In order to provide a structure to the tasks involved in very large projects, it is possible to either divide the total into part projects or into certain task areas. When such a large project is subdivided into part projects, it is important to observe the following. > Fig. 14 It is important that such part projects are clearly defined in order to prevent duplication or gaps. Part projects are managed individually and the persons in charge of such part projects report to the person in charge of the overall project, who will retain responsibility for the overall project and coordinate the interfaces between the part projects. Where consultants are involved for the project management, they may either assist the person in charge of the overall project or be split up and act as consultants to the various part projects. Alternatively, it is also possible to divide the management of a building project into work or task areas. > Fig. 15 For example, it is possible to allocate the time and cost management separately from the other tasks and to appoint persons or teams with appropriate qualifications for this purpose. In any case, the overall responsibility will always rest with the project sponsor. It is also possible that project managers not only manage one single project but several at the same time. These so-called multi-project managers can often be found in large companies and industrial corporations, and also in public administration bodies.

Division into part projects

Division into task areas

Multi-project management

New construction of a hydrogen filling station in a chemical factory

Project sponsor

Part project 1

Part project 2

Part project 3

Part project 4

Ground preparation, demolition of existing, ground rehabilitation, explosive ordnance disposal

Services installation, infrastructure provision

Civil and structural engineering (foundations, concrete, steel etc.)

Plant technology, commissioning

Part project sponsor

Part project sponsor

Part project sponsor

Part project sponsor

Fig. 14: Division into part projects

27

New construction of a hydrogen filling station in a chemical factory

Project sponsor

Task area 1

Task area 2

Task area 3

Task area 4

Approval and authority management

Information and public relations work

Cost controlling Deadline controlling

Quality and risk controlling

Team with experts

Team with experts

Team with experts

Team with experts

Fig. 15: Division into task areas

The special challenge here is, for example, that internal resources have to be coordinated and managed to deal with several projects. > Fig. 16 Another challenge of multi-project management may be that strategic objectives and logistical criteria have to be satisfied in a number of different locations, possibly all over the globe, and all projects must be given equal standing. In view of the fact that industrial construction projects mostly involve existing buildings, it is always important to ensure that ongoing production does not suffer from several projects being carried out in parallel or that the building activities do not lead to quality problems in the products.

Organization/ department (1)

Organization/ department (2)

Project 3

Project 2

Project 1

Part project

Part project

Part project

Part project

Part project

Fig. 16: Example of multi-project management

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Urban development in a municipality is also a multi-project management task; an example is the parallel coordination of the creation of commercial facilities in several urban districts or neighborhoods. SELECTION OF PROJECT MANAGER

When building owners organize a new project, they have to make a decision about the project management. If there is insufficient capacity available internally, the roles involved in project management can be allocated to external service providers or consulting engineers. In the case of very complex or very time-critical building projects in particular, experience has shown that it is worth involving specialist project management consultants. This ensures that the most appropriate specialist project management tools are used, that one can count on a high degree of professional expertise, and that the tasks are tackled in a focused way. The same applies to building owners who only rarely, or perhaps only once, have to deal with a building project. In most of these cases the necessary professional competence and the necessary time are lacking. Where a project is initiated by an organization or authority that has to deal with very specialized building projects (for example, companies in the chemical industry, medical production facilities, the automotive industry, and often also cities and municipalities) it is common for these entities to have their own building departments that are capable of tackling the complete project management. However, at peak times (i.e. when a great number of building projects has to be dealt with at the same time), when there is a shortage of personnel or in the case of outstanding, complex, or very critical building projects, these building owners will also seek external support and employ an external “temporary building department.” In view of the fact that the project management (internal or external) has a duty to report to the building owner and is authorized to give instructions to the team, the project sponsor/manager carries a lot of responsibility. In order to cope with the multitude of tasks, the building owner should select the project management team carefully and in accordance with relevant criteria. > Tab. 8 This ensures that the project will be managed successfully as required by the building owner.

Tab. 8: Necessary skills of a project sponsor/manager —— —— —— —— —— —— —— ——

General knowledge of project management and general management Motivation and assertiveness, confidence in handling authorities Knowledge and experience in building-related issues Tenacity, strong work ethic, conflict resolution skills, adept at diplomacy Exemplary in terms of cooperation and avoiding competitiveness Ability to inspire Holistic approach, commitment to sustainability Problem-solving skills; not only recognizing and pointing out problems but also proposing alternative solutions —— Good communication skills; experience in building, strengthening, and motivating teams

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Internal or external project management

Project management requirements

Soft skills

Experience shows that if a project fails or its success is limited, the reasons for this are usually not professional difficulties in the project team. Instead, problems arise from difficulties in the social interactions, in misapprehension of the roles in the team, or in poorly functioning communication. For this reason, the soft skills of the project sponsor/manager are equally as important as the knowledge and capabilities relating to the subject matter and methods. > Chapter Project communication PROJECT ORGANIZATION

Types of interface

In order to ensure that both internal and external project participants can effectively contribute to the work of the project team, their roles must be clearly defined at an early stage of the building project. To provide an appropriate structure for the roles of the team, the project organization must be established at the beginning of a project. This organization must take into account factors such as competence, responsibility, and authorization. In building projects in particular it is mandatory to be clear about interfaces and the interaction between different entities in the project organization. A clear definition of the interfaces ensures that there is no duplication and there are no gaps in the teamwork. There are two types of interface that must be distinguished: —— Simultaneous work processes (parallel) > Fig. 18 —— Handing over results (serial) > Fig. 19

Simultaneous work processes

Handing over results

●

Examples of simultaneous work processes in building projects typically occur during the design phases. While the architect is working on the detail design at a scale of 1:50, the structural engineer will, at the same time, produce the structural calculations, determine the required thickness of floors, or the steel reinforcement required, and so on. Furthermore, the specialist engineers will work in parallel on the design of the services installations, determining required slots and cut-outs in the construction, and other tasks. In this situation the project sponsor/manager should, in cooperation with the architects, determine the interfaces in the design processes and establish what input is supplied by the parties involved. The interface that is typical in the execution of a building is the handing over of results, because work almost always follows on from previous work input. These interfaces can be illustrated in detail using, for example, section drawings > Fig. 17 or interface lists. > Tab. 9

● Example: The groundworking contractor hands over the prepared subbase to the shell construction company, which in turn continues to work with the blinding layer, insulation, and reinforced concrete deck. The company laying the screed hands over the completed screed surface to the tiler, who will lay the floor tiles on the finished screed.

30

Tab. 9: Example of interfaces between work items

Ventilation cut-outs in ­cavity/under raised floors

X

1.4

Supply/installation of ventilation outlets in cavity/under raised floors

1.5

Recesses for floorboxes in cavity/raised floors

1.6

Supply/installation of floor boxes in cavity/raised floors

1.7

Supply and installation of raised floors in electric plant rooms, including cut-outs

X

1.8

Supply and installation of raised floors in server rooms, including cut-outs

X

1.9

Frames for the installation of subdistribution panels and data cabinets in ELT/server rooms

X

1.10

Supply/installation of raised floors in medium-voltage, transformer, and low-voltage distribution rooms

X

1.11

Connection of raised floors in ELT plant rooms to the equipotential bonding conductor

X

1.12

Equipotential bonding of ­conductive floor finishes (where required)

X

X

X X

31

User

1.3

Outside

X

Other

Elevators

Cut-outs for radiator connections, pipes within the floor structure

BMS

1.2

Electrical

X

Ventilation

Inspection openings in­ cluding frames and covers, also in fireproof quality

Cooling

Fit-out – cavity/raised floors

1.1

Heating

Services installations

Sanitary

1

Facade

Building

Fit-out

Work section, trade Itemized work, interfaces, points of contact in building/ installations, coordination

Shell building

Item Ser. No.

Interfaces in floor construction Tiles: Tiler Impact sound insulation, sealing and screed: Screeding contractor Reinforced concrete: shell construction contractor

Insulation and sealing: shell construction contractor Blinding layer: shell construction contractor Subbase grade: groundworking contractor Fig. 17: Interface diagram using the example of floor construction

In the specification and tender phase of the building project the project sponsor/manager has to determine, in cooperation with the respective project participants, where the interfaces in the execution are, i.e. which parts of the work are to be included in which specification/tender document. Diagram of simultaneous work processes

Step 2a Step 2b Step 3

Step 1 Step 2c

Step 2d

Fig. 18: Simultaneous work processes

Diagram of handing over results Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Fig. 19: Handing over results

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The project organization has to be individually determined in every project and should be appropriate for the scope and volume of the project and the number of project participants. Should an ongoing project experience structural problems, the project organization must be revised. Project organization that is too detailed and too complex may stifle a project because team members’ activities are unduly restricted. If, however, the project and the project participants are left too much to their own devices, i.e. the project organization is too loose, it is possible that responsibilities overlap. This inevitably leads to conflict, both at a professional and an emotional level of those involved. > Chapter Project communication This may lead to situations that, in the worst case scenario, stifle the progress of a project completely. In order to determine the necessary intensity of the project organization, the project sponsor should consider issues of project organization beforehand and then take the necessary steps on the basis of the results. > Tab. 10

Tab. 10: Questions to be answered to identify the correct project organization How much organization is required? What is the size of the building project? What is the degree of complexity? What is the time frame of the project? Are there any existing structures that can make an operative input to the project? How many project participants will be involved in the project? What project-relevant experience do the project participants have? What experience do the participants have in terms of working together?; have they previously been involved in other shared projects? What will be the format for the design (architectural competition, assignment of one or several contracts, design and build contractor)? How will the construction work be contracted (functional specification, bills of quantities, ­general contractor, directly to subcontractors)? How is the project team organized internally? What information does the building owner require? What is the reporting and communication format? Does the building owner already have experience with similar projects? Are any project ­organization structures in existence? What is the building owner’s hierarchy of decision making?

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Intensity of project organization

Hierarchical project organization

Matrix project organization

Pure project organization

◯

Generally, a distinction is made between three forms of organization for the completion of building projects. Hierarchical project organization > Fig. 20 is used in large companies for projects that do not take very long. In this case, no dedicated project organization team is established; instead, internal members of staff are delegated to deal with the project. These members of staff will continue to report to their normal supervisors. In such a form of organization, the person assigned to manage the project has no or only very little competence and usually no authority to issue instructions. This means that this person will act like an external consultant whose task is purely to ensure that the project proceeds in a coordinated manner. The matrix project organization > Fig. 21 is different than the hierarchical project organization in that a project sponsor is appointed who has the authority to issue instructions, whereas the internal project participants remain in their own line organization and report to their own supervisors. In this case, it is important to allocate various authorizations to project and line managers, which can sometimes lead to conflict. Furthermore, this can lead to additional conflict for each individual member of staff, especially if they have a dual reporting responsibility within the project, i.e. to their line supervisor and to the project sponsor. So-called pure project organization is commonly preferred for building projects that take a long time. > Fig. 22 In this form of organization, the project sponsor has been authorized by the building owner to issue instructions to project participants. Once the project has been completed, the organization is completely dissolved and individuals will focus on new projects and tasks.

◯ Note: Strictly speaking, the external project partici-

pants such as architect, structural engineer, specialist engineer, contractors, and others are organized in the form of a matrix organization. However, individual staff following the instructions of the project management will, in a disciplinary context, still report to their own employers of the architectural practice, consulting engineer, or contractor. From the point of view of the project management, it is nevertheless a pure project organization because the participants have been involved specifically for the respective project.

34

Line Project

Fig. 20: Hierarchical project organization

Line Project

Fig. 21: Matrix project organization

Line Project

Fig. 22: Pure project organization

35

PROJECT ENTITIES

When setting up a project organization, the project sponsor needs to consider the entities involved in the project. Project entities are all persons who contribute to a project as members of the project team and therefore receive instructions from the project sponsor/manager. Typically the following entities are involved in a building project: —— —— —— ——

Control committee

Expert committee

●

Ordering party/client/building owner Design team Execution team Operation team

In the case of large projects, large client organizations, and also often public authorities, the client side is represented by two additional, different entities: the control committee and the expert committee. > Fig. 23 Typically, a control committee is established as a link between the board of a company and the project management. Usually this control committee is only active in relation to a project, which means that it will only exist for the duration of the project. The project sponsor/manager reports to the control committee; the committee will then make decisions on behalf of the client organization and pass these on to the project management for implementation through the project team. As a rule, changes to objectives, budgetary decisions, and so on are also referred to the control committee. When there is a need for the temporary involvement of external or internal experts, the control committee may be of help to the project management. Likewise, the expert committee has also been set up specifically for the project; it is a temporary committee which provides support and advice to the project management, and also sometimes carries out revision functions. The members of an expert committee do not make decisions but are expected to provide effective support to the project management and function as a sounding board with respect to questions of technical expertise.

● Example: The council of a municipality decides to extend the fire station for the professional fire brigade, since additional fire officers have to be accommodated at the station. An experienced member of the municipal administration is asked to carry out the project management. Some members of the town council form a control committee that forms the linking element between the building project (person in charge of the project) and building owner (town council). In addition, the town council appoints an expert committee that consists of members of the fire brigade and rescue service and provides technical support to the project management from the point of view of the future user.

36

Building owner e.g. board of directors

Control committee of building owner

Project management, internal or external

Expert committee of building owner

Fig. 23: Project entities

RISK MANAGEMENT

Project risks generally relate to events that can cause real damage and impact on achieving the project objectives with respect to costs, deadlines, and quality. > Chapter The building project, Magical triangle In order to ­ensure that the project objectives are achieved, the project management has to take a proactive approach to risks and control these throughout the duration of the project. A risk analysis should be carried out for every building project by the project management in order to detect potentially disruptive factors and to minimize any likely damage; a “Plan B” should be in place for these situations. This means an alternative strategy of action is developed, which can be pursued should the disruptive factor actually occur. This means that, in the case of the disruptive factor/damage occurring, the project management is still able to act and can immediately switch to the previously agreedupon alternative strategy. Should a disruptive factor occur and no preparations have been made, new strategies have to be devised and agreed upon, which can lead to process-related delays and additional costs.

◯ Note: Sometimes the term “risk” is also used in the

sense of uncertainties, which can have not only negative but also positive effects on the project. Here, a distinction is made between negative “threats” and positive “opportunities.” In view of this non-intuitive use of the terms, the project management should ­clarify the terms used in the building project from the very beginning.

37

◯

Risk analysis

Risk groups External risks

Internal risks

Technical risks

A risk analysis does not prevent or reduce risks. But it forces the project management and participants to prepare themselves for the risks associated with the occurrence of disruptive factors that can be expected. Similar to the project itself, a risk analysis is never static. ­Certain risks disappear as the project progresses, unless of course the respective disruption has occurred. It is also possible that additional risks are detected due to new information. It is not possible to list all potential risks of a building project. However, a risk analysis will define some main risk groups. > Tab. 11 The potential of external risks impacts the project from outside. In building in particular, there can be enormous external risks since larger building projects affect many people. For example, an external risk may derive from a change in legislation or from stricter fire-safety regulations. Furthermore, building projects are subject to special environmental risks. Because work on the building site is exposed to weather and climate conditions, weather-related risks persist (e.g. sudden spells of frost, heavy rain events). Political decisions may also affect a project from the outside. The project management has no influence on external risks. In terms of external risks, stakeholders are a special case. > Chapter Project communication, Stakeholders Even though stakeholders are usually not directly involved in the project, they have a fundamental interest in upholding their rights and expectations. In contrast to external risks, internal risks can be influenced by the project management. Internal risks may arise from the wording of contracts, the selection or rejection of project participants, and also from infrastructure facilities, such as IT. This means that the failure of a data server for a project or a virus attack represents an internal risk (so-called cyber risk); this can be influenced by the project management and an alternative Plan B should be prepared for such an event. Technical risks are associated with the input provided by each individual project participant. An example of a technical risk is when the digger driver of a groundworks company fits the wrong digger bucket and, as a result, excavates a cable trench that is too wide. Such errors can be avoided with the help of comprehensive information, staff training, or supervision of the works.

Tab. 11: Main risk groups of a building project —— —— —— —— —— ——

38

External risks Internal risks Technical risks Commercial risks Planning risks Environmental risks

Consequences not serious serious

Commercial risks are, in the widest sense, market risks. It is important for any building project to assess beforehand whether the rental return achievable in the market covers the cost of construction and other financial outlay, and whether the operation of the building is financially viable taking into account the ongoing costs associated with the utility services. Planning risks relate to potential threats associated with the planning process. These can have many different causes and, in the case of building projects, can also overlap with technical risks. For example, the wrong assessment of the subsoil of the building constitutes a technical as well as a planning risk. Another planning risk is a wrong or inadequate stakeholder analysis > Chapter Project communication, Stakeholders or an error in the project structure plan. > Chapter Control of the planning and building processes, ­Instruments These risks can be avoided or mitigated through quality management, for example by applying the four-eyes principle, which means that the work output is checked for plausibility or even completely revised by another person. Environmental risks are mostly external risks, because nobody in the project team has any influence on special weather conditions during the construction period, be they unusual heatwaves or frost spells, heavy rain events, and so on. However, environmental risks also include those risks associated with other external factors, for example citizens’ protests against a planned building project. All risks have to be continually analyzed and assessed by the project sponsor. The relevant and important results of this assessment must be passed on to the project participants on an ongoing basis so that this information can be taken into account in all relevant decisions. This ensures that preventive measures and, if appropriate, alternative strategies are planned in good time. Let’s look at the example of a demolition project: where the existing plans and the history of the building indicate that there is a risk of soil contamination, appropriate soil investigations have to be carried out in order to evaluate and, if possible, limit the environmental risk.

Risk group D

Risk group A

Risk group C

Risk group B

low

Probability

high

Fig. 24: Risk evaluation matrix

39

Commercial risks

Planning risks

Environmental risks

A risk assessment can be carried out in the form of a table in which the likelihood of the occurrence (from 0% to 100%) and the severity (from minor to very serious) is evaluated. Based on this evaluation, risk clusters are often identified that contain information about the “severity” of the risks and therefore distinguish between importance and urgency. > Fig. 24 With the help of the risk clusters, the project sponsor can decide which participants should be involved at what point in time and with what briefing. INFORMATION FLOW Reporting

Passing on information to all project participants with the help of a defined reporting system is an important component in any project organization. The information paths must be methodically established by the project sponsor/manager to ensure that all participants receive the correct and relevant information in good time. This ensures that the entire project team buys into the defined objectives. The same applies also to other stakeholders, not only the members of the project team. > ­Chapter Project communication, Stakeholders In this context it is important for the project management to devise suitable means of passing on the information to the recipients and to select the right content and scope of the ­information. The project management should, if necessary in consultation with the building owner, carry out the following three basic evaluations in order to assess what information channels are appropriate for the respective participants: 1. Push principle: Who has to be informed? The stakeholder analysis provides the relevant information for this. > Chapter Project communication, Stakeholders

2. Pull principle: In what situations should project participants retrieve information under their own initiative, thereby assuming ­responsibility for selecting the technically and factually correct ­information? 3. Person responsible for project documentation: Who is fundamentally responsible for project documentation? Documentation of communication

The project management must decide what parts of the building project must be included in the documentation. Equally, it is important to determine who will generate and update what part of the documentation. Experience shows that building owners have different ideas and requirements; these must be established at an early stage by the project sponsor/manager. Where an electronic document management system is involved, where data are automatically grouped by version and category and are filed and distributed to participants, it is often not necessary to keep separate documents because all information is collected in a database by the system.

40

Tab. 12: Examples of documentation segments in a building project Plans received and issued, dispatch of plans, release of plans Cost tracking and cost prognosis for the end of the construction period Documentation of building progress, time schedule updates, milestone reports Change management with documentation of the associated decisions Project status documents relating to costs, deadlines, qualities Project accounting including building contracts, supplementary contracts, payments/payment plan

It is not possible to document every instance of communication relating to a building project owing to the many different communication channels. Examples of important documentation segments are shown in table 12. One of the most important types of documentation in project management is the recording of decisions. In preparing the information that leads to a decision, all important factors and the effects of that decision/ changes to the agreed-upon project objectives have to be stated and, if applicable, quantified. This includes an illustration of various options and a final recommendation from the project management. The decision will then be made by the building owner on the basis of the information provided. > Fig. 25 In addition, experience has shown that it is useful to list all individual decisions in a table in order to make it possible to quickly track everything that has been decided. > Tab. 13

Tab. 13: Example of a decision list Decision template

Subject/content

Created on

Decision by

Decided on

Decided by

Note

No. 01

Installation duct

03.05.18

15.05.18

13.05.18

Mr. Müller/building owner

–

No. 02

Fitted carpet

16.08.18

04.09.18

25.08.18

Mr. Müller/building owner

Fitted carpet is being ordered

No. 03

Glass system wall

16.08.18

28.08.18

28.08.18

Mr. Müller/building owner

–

No. 04

Metal surfaces for writing on

05.10.18

16.11.18

10.11.18

Mr. Müller/building owner

Material is being ordered

No. 05

Wall paint

16.08.18

28.08.18

24.08.18

Mr. Müller/building owner

–

No. 06

Sanitary fittings

05.10.18

20.10.18

18.10.18

Mr. Müller/building owner

Sanitary fittings will be delivered by 30.10.18

No. 07

Suspended ceiling

20.05.18

07.06.18

07.06.18

Mr. Müller/building owner

Work can start immediately

41

Decision template No. 01 Example: floor finishes

Date: YYYY/MM/DD Status

Example: In view of the fact that the project budget is likely to be exceeded, consideration should be given as to whether cost saving can be achieved by modifying the selected materials (surfaces), here fitted carpet, taking into account visual and room acoustic requirements.

Variant 1 - fitted carpet Interface Quality - Description of the quality of the variant - Photos if appropriate Cost addition/reduction Floor covering

Installation of floor covering: Interface. Employ Total cost Current budget status Effect on budget New budget status

10,000.00 EUR 10,000.00 EUR 300,000.00 EUR ± 0.00 EUR 300,000.00 EUR

Deadlines Floor covering

Installation of floor covering: Interface. Employ Total duration Effect on completion date

Decision template No. 01 Example: floor finishes

10.0 days 10.0 days 10.0 days

Date: YYYY/MM/DD Variant 2 - fitted carpet Desso

Quality - Description of quality of variant 2 - Photos if appropriate - Description of deviation from variant 1 Cost addition/reduction Floor covering

Installation of floor covering: Desso, Stratos

7,000.00 EUR

Total cost

7,000.00 EUR

Less cost of variant 1

10,000.00 EUR

Total cost differences

-3,000.00 EUR

Current budget status

300,000.00 EUR

Effect on budget New budget status

-3,000.00 EUR 297,000.00 EUR

Deadlines Floor covering

Installation of floor covering: Desso, Stratos Total duration

10.0 Day(s) 10.0 Day(s) 10.0 Day(s)

Effect on completion date

Recommendation Recommendation to the building owner taking into account all boundary conditions and the budget overspend

Decision

We ask for the following variant to be carried out: Variant 1 - fitted carpet Interface Variant 2 - fitted carpet Desso

Signature, date, place

Fig. 25: Example of decision template No. 01

42

0.0 Day(s)

It is then necessary to decide where and how the documents are filed. A tried-and-tested solution is a shared project data server, for example in specifically created cloud-based project rooms. However, the project management should specify a filing structure (folder structure) and insist that the team uses this structure. If this is not observed, it can easily happen that so many files and folders are created that items cannot be found and the system is virtually useless. Figure 26 shows an example of a directory for a building project (the illustration only covers up to the second folder level). It is equally important to determine the way files are named so that all participants can find it easy to navigate. A proven method is to have file names starting with the calendar date in the year/month/day format. This makes it possible to see straight away which file is the latest and which one the earliest. This is an issue where the project manager may have to face objections from other project participants, because everybody would like to use their own system that they are used to as this requires the least effort. The project manager should try to motivate all those involved and explain the advantages. > Chapter Project communication, Motivation With this method it is much easier for project participants who join the team at a later date to navigate through the project and therefore work more efficiently. A checklist is used to help determine items to be included in reporting. > Tab. 14

●Example: The following mandatory file coding is s­ tipulated for all types of building project files: YYYY-MM-DD_Author_File recipient_Short description of content, possibly with versioning or indexing Examples of file coding:

– 2018-11-23_Becker_Control committee_Risk analysis subsoil v1.xlsx – 2018-12-01_Becker_Control committee_Risk analysis subsoil v2.xlsx – 2018-12-20_GeoConsult_Becker_Soil exploration and recommendation.pdf – 2019-01-10_Architect_Becker_Layout plan 3rd floor index d.dwg – 2019-04-02_Becker_Mayer Abbruch_Contract for demolition work with enclosures, signed.pdf – 2019-03-15_Becker_Control committee_Framework schedule v4.mpx

43

Filing structure

Coding of file names

●

0_Office

1_Project management

2_Background

1_Quotation

A_Organization

Background plans

2_Contract

B_Qualities + quantities

2_Photos

3_Invoices

C_Costs

3_Information

4_Timesheets

D_Deadline

5_Subcontractor

E_Contracts

4_Building owner communication

6_Expense accounts

F_Project development

3_Preliminary design

4_Main/scheme design

5_Design for building approval

1_Input parameters

1_Input parameters

1_Authorities

2_Drawings

2_Drawings

2_Drawings

3_Calculations

3_Calculations

3_Calculations + forms

4_Reports

4_Reports

4_Building applications

5_Presentations

5_Presentations

5_Building approval

6_Detail design

7_Tender procedure and accounts

8_Building execution

1_Input parameters

Lot 1– Demolition work

1_Day reports

2_Drawings

Lot 2 – Groundwork

2_Memos + comments

3_Calculations

Lot 3- ...

3_Photos

4_Reports

4_Contractors

5_Presentations

5_Site supervision

9_Specialist engineering input

10_Expert reports

Utility services

Infrastructure

1_Background documents

Health & safety

Structural calculations review

2_Site visits

Soil report

Sound insulation

3_Result

Fire protection

Structural calculations

Measurement and control technology Conveyor engineering

Land survey Thermal insulation

HVAC Fig. 26: Example of a filing directory to the second level

44

Tab. 14: Reporting procedures Reporting checklist What reports, minutes, and information presentations are to be produced? Who is the recipient of the reports? What are the contents to be submitted to the respective recipients? What is the format of the respective reports (for example, detailed written minutes of planning/ design meetings but heavily abbreviated form for presentation to the project sponsor)? Who produces the reports? Who distributes the reports, and how are the recipients notified (for example, separate dispatch of reports via email to the company management (push principle) or filing on the project server with the recipients obliged to view and download the reports from there themselves (pull principle)? How often do the reports have to be produced? What are the deadlines for the respective reports? Where and in which folders are the reports filed?

MEETINGS

Meetings with the relevant project participants or project entities are necessary to ensure that information relating to a building project is exchanged in an orderly manner. > Fig. 27 The project management should determine the format of meetings at the very start. Owing to the specific requirements of any building project and the process-related changes in a project, it is not possible to devise a meeting structure that is universally applicable; however, the number and type of entities involved in a building project will provide a rough indication as to the meeting structure required. Where many project entities are involved in a project, it is mostly necessary to carry out many meetings with the different groups of participants. The first meeting, also called the project kick-off meeting, is of particular importance. The main function of this meeting is to introduce participants to each other. The project management introduces the nature of the project and provides initial information on the established project objectives. All persons involved in a project should be invited to this meeting, which should be conducted in a relaxed and motivating atmosphere. All participants should have the opportunity to introduce themselves and their respective task in the context of the project. This meeting should not be used to discuss specific requirements or to assign specific work packages; instead, it should be used to introduce and explain the rules of play and to give all project participants the opportunity to catch up on the latest information. The meeting also provides the opportunity to introduce competences, responsibilities, or communication processes for the overall project and to discuss the project organization.

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Project kick-off meeting

Project meeting Design meeting Building owner

Site meeting

Project manager

Project sponsor

Architect

Specialist engineer

Structural engineer

Site supervisor

Contractor

Contractor

Contractor

Fig. 27: Meeting organization

Project meeting

Design meetings

Site meetings

The project management has to regularly inform the client or the control committee in a project meeting about the progress of the project, hold-ups, the occurrence of an event identified as a risk, and improvements. The frequency of meetings must be jointly determined beforehand. Some clients prefer very frequent exchanges of information, whereas others only want to be informed about the most important issues where decisions are needed. During the design phase of a project, design meetings are held at fairly short intervals. These can be used to address outstanding issues and discuss open points, as well as to report on progress and present results at the various design stages. Discussions can be held to address problems on which the project sponsor/manager can make a decision or has to request a decision from the control committee/building owner. The project sponsor/manager may also want to report the results of a meeting with the control committee in a design meeting and assign new tasks to the team. During the execution phase, the appointed site supervisor may also take part in design meetings in order to be able to discuss/pass on information on changes in the execution directly to the design entities. Site meetings take place once the execution phase has started. The first meeting will often be about site mobilization or about site kick-off. All executing companies are invited to this meeting, which also provides the opportunity to pass on information on health and safety at work and

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building site rules. Generally speaking, the project management does not have to take part in site meetings. In order to pass on information from the building site to the project sponsor/manager, the site supervisor may also take part in project meetings. However, with a view to enhancing the motivation of the team and acknowledging the performance of all those involved, it can be helpful for the project sponsor/manager to take part in site meetings at regular intervals. > Chapter Project communication, Motivation Unplanned meetings may become necessary in any phase of a building project. For these meetings the project management will determine the necessary participants on an ad hoc basis in order to be able to address and resolve specific issues or problems. Examples include the following:

Unplanned meetings

—— Meetings with the authorities or the fire service to discuss, for ­example, unexpected stipulations —— Meetings with the health and safety institutions, the safety coordinator, and Employers’ Liability Insurance associations, for example in the case of an accident on the building site —— Meetings with contractors and site supervisor(s) at which, for ­example, disputed demands for supplementary payments are ­discussed and negotiated —— Information meetings with political representatives and citizens ­affected by the project in order to, for example, minimize external risks or environmental risks The following basic rules should be adhered to in order to ensure that meetings proceed efficiently and satisfactorily for all participants: 1. Agenda: For every meeting, an agenda should be drawn up and distributed. For the purpose of repeating meetings, such as site meetings during the execution phase, it is practical to always use the same structure of agenda items. All agenda items should be arranged in accordance with the so-called IDD rules, involving the following three key elements: —— Information (certain points of information are disseminated) —— Discussion (based on previously distributed information, a discussion is sought) —— Decision (arriving at decisions based on the previous information and discussion; this could be a resolution passed by the meeting or a decision by the project management) 2. Punctual attendance: All meeting participants will be frustrated and demotivated if they have to wait for other participants. Furthermore, a late participant consciously or unconsciously dominates the scene, which is contrary to the idea of teamwork. The project sponsor/manager must guard against this right from the beginning. > Chapter Project communication, Conflict situations

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Rules for meetings

3. Active participation: All meeting participants should take part, ask questions, and table their own ideas. The project management should involve inactive participants and encourage them to participate more actively. 4. Tackling problems rather than blaming: Constructive criticism as feedback is a very good motivator for all involved. When individuals are attacked, problems become emotional issues and solutions are harder to find. 5. Letting people speak: All participants must have the opportunity to say their bit and finish what they want to say. This is a basic rule for respectful cooperation in a team. > Chapter Project communication, Teamwork

◯

6. A balanced approach: The project sponsor/manager should always ensure that individual participants do not dominate the meeting by doing the lion’s share of the talking. This also applies to the project sponsor/manager. 7. No mobile phones, tablets, or notebooks: In order to ensure that all participants focus on the item being discussed, an agreement should be made to forbid all communication devices. This ensures that the meeting remains effective and all participants focus on the issue. It is now common practice to omit tables at meetings in order to make the use of notebooks and other devices more difficult. 8. Keeping meetings as short as possible: There are always some subjects that necessitate long meetings because the issues are important or very complex. The shorter a meeting is, the higher the probability that the participants pay attention and the meeting is effective.

◯ Note: Besides the group meetings, the project spon-

sor/manager should never forget individual face-toface conversations. These may help to identify conflicts faster and more effectively, to assess the mood in the team, and to “draw out” individual project participants from time to time. One-to-one conversations are particularly suitable for addressing conflicts at an emotional level and motivating individuals (see page 50).

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Project Communication The job of a project manager requires not only specialist professional capabilities but also skills and methods for working in a team. Such skills and methods may not be subject-related but involve personal qualifications, straddling professional disciplines. The composition, management, and control of a good team relies on these qualities.

◯

TEAM SET-UP

Working successfully on a building project requires a good team that functions well and consists of internal and external team members. Ideally, at the initial stages of a project, the team will consist of participants who are used to working with each other. During the construction phase the project team will include internal and external team members. All have to bring their specific knowledge to the table and together must ensure that the project objectives are actually achieved. One of the first tasks of the project management is to list all specialist disciplines required for the project and to appoint the respective personnel in consultation with the client or control committee. If a function or project participant has not been taken into account during the start phase, the project management is unwittingly heading for a deficit. When this becomes apparent the project may already have progressed and an immediate intervention is necessary, which often leads to a hold-up in the project. Sometimes it is necessary to repeat previous project steps because some information or knowledge is missing.

◯ Note: In this chapter the terms ‘project manager’

and ‘project sponsor’ are used synonymously, because the requirements and tasks described can apply to all members and roles of the project management.

Gaps in the team

●

● Example: The project sponsor/manager of a large new building project has not included a specialist engineer for explosives detection in the team. This deficit does not become apparent until after the first design phases have been completed and an expert has to be appointed in a hurry. The survey reveals areas with ­suspected explosives, which have to be investigated by the respective authorities before work can proceed. The departments responsible for the site require a period of six weeks to carry out the investigations. During this time it is not clear whether it is actually possible to excavate the ground for the new building as planned.

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Project sponsor’s/ manager’s scope of influence

Professional competence and methodical know-how

The project sponsor’s/manager’s scope of influence on appointing the external members of the team is limited. Everybody involved in the team is hoping to have the best possible team members since this causes the least friction and ensures efficiency. However, external consultants have to compete for the appointment in terms of price and/or content. Public clients must appoint consultants and/or contractors in a public process and appoint the bidder with the most cost-effective bid, which means that the professional and social competence of team members, or shared project experience, are not always the critical criteria. In the case of projects by private clients, an astute client will accept the recommendations and proposals of their own project management regarding the composition of the team to the extent that this is possible. It is obviously of paramount importance for the successful completion of a project that all project participants are competent in their respective discipline. This means that team members are able to apply their relevant knowledge and skills in specific cases. But methodical skills are also required. This involves the skills and abilities required for obtaining and using specialist knowledge. The competent use of methods is the key to solving problems and is needed to further expand a person’s professional competence. The result of the team set-up process is a functioning project team in which all necessary functions and roles have been assigned and the team is capable of tackling its task. TEAMWORK

Team rules

The ability to work in a team involves a shared understanding of the terminology used and uniform communication in the project team. If these are not in place, misunderstandings are preprogrammed and achievement of the project objectives is at risk. The following should be noted: Clarity in language Clarity in thinking Clarity in action! The ability to work in a team implies a willingness to cooperate. In turn, this involves the readiness to integrate in the team and to jointly bring the project to success. Every team member, whether project manager, architect, soil expert, scaffolding contractor, or paving contractor, must be willing to fulfill his or her role within the project team and to bring the project to a successful conclusion. In a functioning team, members are willing to take responsibility and have the correct understanding of their role within the team. In order to ensure that the team cooperates professionally and socially, the project sponsor/manager has to establish certain team rules. These are not at all rigid, but they always relate to the requirements of the respective project and can be adjusted dynamically. > Tab. 15

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Tab. 15: Proposal for team rules —— Every project participant takes responsibility for his or her specific task. —— Nobody in the project team withholds information. —— When anyone in the team detects that objectives may be at risk, they voice this immediately. —— Mistakes can and will happen, and are also allowed to happen. Blaming and accusations do not further the project. —— Setbacks do not, as such, mean that the entire project has failed; it is essential to establish the cause. —— Problems can only be resolved in an open and shared way. —— What are the further consequences of decisions that have been made? How to proceed from here? —— It is permitted to check/examine the results of work.

MANAGEMENT RULES

Generally speaking, the project management team must set an example; this means that they too must abide by the team rules. In ­addition, tasks must be clearly defined and work packages must be fairly assigned. All team members must be able to see themselves as fully accepted. The project sponsor/manager must try to exert professional and emotional authority but should, as far as possible, explain decisions and ways of reaching decisions in a transparent manner. This means that the project sponsor/manager should abide by, embody, and exhibit management principles. > Tab. 16

Tab. 16: Management principles Basic project management rules —— The project sponsor/manager should think positively and not destroy team motivation with negative statements (“This will never work!”). —— The project sponsor/manager should accommodate changes and react flexibly to them rather than pursuing a certain path “at all costs.” —— The persons in charge of project management must deal with all project participants in a respectful and fair way. —— The authority of a project sponsor/manager is not founded on his or her position but his or her action. —— The success of a project is always a team success. —— The project sponsor/manager fully identifies with the project task at hand.

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STAKEHOLDERS

◯

Stakeholder analysis

In every project there are persons who are indirectly involved, persons who play a role in the background and are not obviously associated with the project. They may be associated with the client or unrelated persons, such as neighbors, political entities, environmental protection organizations, or the department of a company that is not at all involved with the building project. These are referred to as stakeholders. Stakeholders can be found in every building project, but they do not always have the same importance. In order to distinguish which stakeholders could cause problems and in order to assess the risks associated with them, the project management must take account of these people. The questions to ask are which persons/entities are involved and what is their likely influence. Once this has been clarified it is possible to address any issues and eliminate or reduce any negative influences and/ or obstacles. In a stakeholder analysis > Tab. 17, the following types of questions should be asked: —— Are there any people or groups of people who have a negative ­attitude regarding the project? —— Who will be disadvantaged by the project? Who is particularly ­affected by the project? —— Are there people who benefit from the implementation of the ­project? Who has a particularly positive attitude towards it? —— Is there anybody who does not wish to influence the project but would like to be regularly informed? —— Is there somebody who would like to influence the project in a ­covert, not obvious way?

◯ Note: The term “stakeholder” is used for people who

have an interest in the success or failure of a project.

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Tab. 17: Example of a stakeholder analysis Stakeholder analysis Project name

Demolition and new development at barracks site in Dortmund-West

Description of the status quo situation/special issues —— —— —— —— —— ——

Purchase of a former barracks site by Wohn-Bau AG from the City of Dortmund Plan: demolition of existing buildings, access, new construction, and sale of residential property The founder of Wohn-Bau AG is active in the company as senior partner. The new access road runs directly next to the adjacent day-nursery. Wohn-Bau AG has its own in-house project manager, but the management has not assigned him or her to this project. The management has decided to appoint somebody externally for the project management.

Stakeholders

What is the stake­holder’s attitude towards the project?

What is the stake­ holder’s influence?

What action should be taken?

Senior partner

Positive

Strong, indirect, can make things happen

Ongoing information, informative ­conversation

Day-nursery management

Negative, resistance

Limited

Information event, working towards accep­tan­ce, explaining advantages, ­ongoing information

Project manager of Wohn-Bau AG not assigned to this task

At least reserved, ­possibly negative

Moderate, can try to undermine the project

Involve project manager in an expert ­function for certain issues and include in formative conversations

The management of Wohn-Bau AG

Positive, an attitude of expectation

Strong, direct

Closely monitor the project, reporting at short intervals

Neighboring ­residents

Reservations

Low

Work towards acceptance, constant flow of information

Retirement home in the vicinity

Positive

Low

Involve as positive backers of the ­project

CONFLICT SITUATIONS

Conflict situations are common in building projects and can result from differences relating to content/professional issues. Even more common are conflicts on the social/emotional level resulting from differences between team members or between project participants and the project management. The project manager must be alert to these situations, detect conflict quickly, address the issues, and find solutions. Conflicts rarely disappear of their own accord; it is generally necessary for the project manager to actively intervene. If the project manager does not recognize a conflict or remains inactive, this may lead to reduced acceptance and authority among the project team. In any case, the potential for conflict in building projects is enormous due to the great number of project participants and stakeholders. These conflicts can be the result of differences in age, position, or competence. It is possible to distinguish four basic conflict areas. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Unrealistic project requirements (deadlines, cost, quality) Differences regarding the project objectives and how to achieve them Flouting of team rules; team spirit missing or fading Interpersonal conflicts, “chemistry” between project participants not working, competitive jostling

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Tab. 18: Conflict situations associated with slack periods —— The project participants (feel that they) are faced with an unresolvable problem. —— Client decisions are outstanding. —— It is not clear how and whether the project will proceed. —— The building owner is not happy with an interim result, e.g. the finished design for the building. —— The motivation of the project participants is generally fading.

The project manager must keep an eye on these areas, detect problems, and energetically take remedial action. Once a conflict has been detected, however, blaming should be avoided. Conflicts should be resolved cooperatively with those involved, for example in shared meetings. In the case of conflicts with a strong emotional basis, the project manager should try to understand both sides and seek an even-handed solution. There is no standard procedure for resolving such conflicts; project managers have to draw on their own experience, their assessment of the actual situation, and the prevailing boundary conditions. Conflict is particularly common during so-called slack periods. These periods occur particularly in long-term projects, and the sources of conflict can be varied. > Tab. 18 In these cases, the project manager needs to ensure that motivation in the project team is maintained. MOTIVATION

Motivation lows

Feedback

At the beginning of a building project, everybody involved is highly motivated to tackle the new, complex task and to master it as best possible. This motivation may be based on the wish to make amends for the errors or failure of a previous project or to apply good methods used ­previously even more efficiently. There are a number of reasons why the motivation of the project participants may decrease, either during slack periods or caused by other circumstances/situations – so-called motivation killers. > Tab. 19 In order to counteract falling motivation, task packages have to be compiled and assigned in a way that precludes motivation killers right from the start. If a situation arises in which the motivation of the team needs to be addressed by the project manager, it is important to first analyze the underlying reasons. > Chapter Teamwork A simple but effective means of enhancing motivation is (positive) feedback given by the project manager to individuals in the team or project entities, for example the design team or the site supervision team. Often, clients follow the motto “Not told off is praise enough!” and only become active in the project when errors occur. The project manager must act differently, seek active communication, and give feedback. This

54

­ irectly conveys to the participants that their work is appreciated and vald ued and that the results or interim results are important to the project. This also includes negative feedback where this is given as professional criticism. Contrary to widespread belief, negative professional ­criticism that relates to a specific issue never leads to disharmony or a crisis. When the project manager follows and applies basic motivation tips, the project team will work more effectively and the potential for conflict is lessened from the start. > Tab. 20

Tab. 19: Reasons for declining motivation —— The respective project participant is not sufficiently experienced for the assigned task and therefore feels overburdened. —— The respective project participant is too highly qualified for the task and/or not sufficiently challenged. —— Some of the project participants are overburdened due to involvement in too many parallel projects. —— The scope for making decisions or taking action is too limited due to a project organization that is too narrow or restrictive. —— The project manager fails to acknowledge the performance and/or (intermediate) results. —— Slack periods are present in the project. —— Conflicts exist among the project participants; individuals are bypassed or ignored. —— There is a lack of understanding of the nature of teamwork; team rules are ignored. —— The work of participants is poorly appreciated/remunerated. —— Competitive jostling is taking place.

Tab. 20: Basic motivation tips —— Work packages should always be compiled such that they do not overburden or insufficiently challenge participants or entities. —— The roles of participants and their interfaces have to be clarified and communicated from the start. —— The project objectives must be communicated with equal clarity to all project participants; there should be no misunderstandings or open questions. —— It must be clear from the behavior of the project management that the project can only be mastered with a shared effort. —— No member of the project team should get preferential treatment or be disadvantaged. —— Any kind of feedback is important, both negative and positive. Feedback is most effective when it is given immediately and the respective issue is still current. —— Positive feedback, i.e. acknowledgment and praise, can really enhance the motivation of project participants. —— It is also possible for the project management to communicate decisions and resolutions by the control committee and thereby give an example of cooperation and the exchange of information.

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Control of the Planning and Building Processes PROJECT PHASES IN BUILDING PROJECTS Project processes

Project stages

●

Some project management processes have to be performed for all kinds of projects; these are called project processes. > Tab. 21 Project processes describe the basic, necessary actions to be performed in project management. Based on these basic processes in building projects, five project management stages have been identified that contain all process elements but take into account the special requirements associated with the design and construction of buildings. > Tab. 22 Project processes and project stages do not always follow in sequence. > Tab. 8, page 29 Instead, many processes run in parallel, a common feature in planning the building process. > Fig. 17, page 32

Tab. 21: Basic project processes Basic project processes 1. Preparatory tasks

Determining the form of organization, agreeing upon the project brief with the building owner (client specification), defining project objectives

2. Project planning

Detailed definition of project objectives, establishing time schedules and costs, determining milestones and other boundary conditions, risk and stakeholder analyses

3. Project management

Reporting, distribution of information, comparing actual with planned data throughout the project period

4. Project controlling

Taking corrective action throughout the project period, for example when an identified risk manifests, when objectives are changed, or there are difficulties (deadline problems, cost excesses)

5. Quality assurance

Compliance with validation processes, for example “four-eyes principle,” checking interim results against the requirements listed in the client specification

6. Project completion

Acceptance and handover to the client, if applicable defect elimination, induction of the operating organization, handover of the documentation

Tab. 22: Project stages in building project management 1

Project preparation

2

Design (preliminary design, main design, and design for building permission)

3

Preparation for execution (detail design, specification, and tender process)

4

Execution (site supervision)

5

Project completion (documentation and facilities management)

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When juxtaposing the project stages of a building project and the architects’ design stages, it is possible, after assessing the necessary time periods, to arrive at an initial idea of the respective project participants. > Fig. 28

Architects’ phases

Background research

Project stages

Project stage 1 Project preparation

Project participants

Client Project manager Architect/designer

Project duration

Preliminary design + variants Main or scheme design Detail design for execution

Project stage 2 Design

Architect/designer Project manager Specialist engineers Structural engineer Authorities

Design for building approval Specifications Tender procedure and contract Site supervision Supervision during liability period

Project stage 3 Preparation for execution

Architect/designer Project manager

Project stage 4 Execution

Project manager Contractors

Project stage 5 Project completion

Project manager Client

Fig. 28: Juxtaposition of architects’ project phases and building project stages

● Example: The design produced by the architect is still subject to changes even though work has already started on site. As the design process continues, materials and finishes are still being discussed with the ­building owner; this can lead to changes to previously specified work or even to work that has already been carried out. This is sometimes referred to as “in-process design.”

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INSTRUMENTS

In order to successfully complete a building project, the project manager needs management instruments over the duration of the project. A wide range of instruments is available, and these can be specially adjusted to the respective building project or for the respective client. Some basic instruments are introduced below. The project brief (client specification) In order to ensure that all participants in a project are equally well briefed and team members are fully aware of their tasks, structured and systematic documentation must be provided at the start of a project. In particular, this requires documentation of the client’s wishes and objectives. This may be in the form of a document that includes checklists for all relevant parameters. This document may be called the project brief or client specification. Client specifications may be produced in various forms and are often provided by the client. They should contain all important factors impacting the project to enable the project team to start working. > Tab. 23 In order to ensure that the project objectives are defined in a clear and unequivocal manner and that all participants follow the same instructions, the project manager should agree on the client specification with the client or control committee. The objectives agreed upon between project manager and client are then declared as binding by the signature on the project brief.

Tab. 23: Example of project brief (client specification) Project brief/client specification Project title: Project number: Person with overall responsibility for project: Type of project: 1) Where are we now? (description of status quo and project context) Status quo situation/project context: “Customer” requirements: 2) Why? (what benefit, what effect, and what strategy is being pursued?) Benefit/effect/strategy:

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What is the benefit to be generated by the project? What are the medium- to long-term effects of the ­project? What is the project’s contribution to achieving ­strategic/higher-level objectives?

3) What? (defining the overall objective, milestones, and what is not included) Overall project objective: milestone

Description of the overall objective in short, succinct words.

Milestones: —— Milestone 1:

Definition of measurable results for milestone 1.

—— Milestone 2:

Definition of measurable results for milestone 2.

—— Milestone 3:

Definition of measurable results for milestone 3.

—— Milestone 4:

Definition of measurable results for milestone 4.

—— Milestone 5:

Definition of measurable results for milestone 5.

Things not included in the objective:

What is explicitly not included in the project?

4) Which? (definition of project risks and countermeasures) Project risks:

Definition of: —— Deadline risks —— Cost risks —— Quality risks —— Technical risks —— Utilization risks —— Acceptance risks

Countermeasures: 5) Who? (naming of all participants in the project) Project sponsor/ manager:

Name, department

Client of project:

Name, department

Project team members:

Names, departments

Project control committee: Yes:   No:  

Names, departments

“Customer”/client:

Company name and address Customer’s decision maker: Customer’s project manager:

Other participants:

Name Name

E.g. external and internal participants who do not directly belong to the project team

6) How? (definition of the main task and sub-tasks and work packages) Main task

Work package of main task

—— Sub-task 1

—— Work packages of sub-task 1

—— Sub-task 2

—— Work packages of sub-task 2

—— Sub-task 3

—— Work packages of sub-task 3

—— Sub-task 4

—— Work packages of sub-task 4

—— Sub-task 5

—— Work packages of sub-task 5

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7) When? (setting deadlines, defining milestones and important events) Start of project:

Date

End of project:

Date

Event at start of ­project:

E.g. foundation stone ceremony

Event at end of project:

E.g. first occupation

Milestones:

—— Milestone 1, including deadline —— Milestone 2, including deadline —— Milestone 3, including deadline —— Milestone 4, including deadline

8) How much? (determination of project budget and its commercial viability) Personnel input:

Number of participants x time input = total time input

Total personnel cost:

Number of participants x time input x payment rate = total cost

External expenditure:

Project management

Total cost

Architectural design

Total cost

Specialist engineering design

Total cost

Specialists

Total cost

Other resources:

Machines and equipment

Total cost

Materials

Total cost

Total cost/project ­budget:

Personnel costs + external costs + other resources = total

Project revenue/­ commercial viability:

Income expected during and after completion of project

Follow-up costs after completion of project:

Follow-up costs established or to be expected, if known

9) In what form? (documentation) What? (Content)

How? (Medium)

Who? (Responsibility)

To whom? (Target group/ recipient)

When and how often? (Time/interval)

Other relevant information: Project decision:

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  The project has the go-ahead.   The project brief is to be revised. Changes: ............................................... ...............................................   The project is rejected. Reason: ............................................... ............................................... Place, date: ............................................... (Client’s signature) Place, date: ............................................... (Signature of person with overall responsibility for project)

Control loop: Is the project still aligned with the objective? Determining the objectives in the project brief is only the first step to be undertaken by the building owner and project management. Throughout the course of the project, it is necessary to check whether the project is still aligned with the objectives. When deviations (hold-ups) occur, the project manager must initiate a control loop. > Fig. 29 This control loop consists of three components: 1. Measuring (cause) 2. Evaluating (consequences) 3. Assessing (effects)

Hold-up New target variables

No

Yes Implementation

No further action

Planning of corrective action

Deviation can be tolerated

Analysis of deviation

Comparison of actual with target

Actual data

Fig. 29: Control loop: Is the project still aligned with the objective?

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Caused by/ Risk sphere

Client

Cause

Site not yet available

Consequences

• Delay of building start • Extension of project duration • Interruption • Change in construction sequence

Effects

• Delay of building start • Extension of project duration • Interruption • Change in construction sequence

Fig. 30: Example of hold-up analysis

In the first step (measuring), the project manager collects actual data from the current process and compares these with the target data (evaluation). Any disparity between the actual and target data is quantified and the respective risk sphere and the person(s) responsible are identified. In the third step, an assessment is made as to whether deviations have occurred and how to deal with these. > Fig. 30 The project structure plan (PSP) The project structure plan is one of the project manager’s main instruments for planning, carrying out, and controlling the building project. > Fig. 31 It is used to more precisely define details of the project from the point of view of planning the project. The project objectives must be subdivided into partial objectives by the project manager. These then are the basis for defining work packages as the smallest elements of a project structure plan. They consist of many individual tasks to be completed by the respective project participants. Some basic prerequisites and questions have to be taken into account when planning work packages: 1. A work package should cover at least 15 and no more than 150 man-days. 2. Who is responsible for the results of the work packages? 3. Who should be involved in processing the respective work ­packages? 4. How much time will be needed to complete a work package? This means that the project manager must make an estimate of the time needed for completing the work packages and assign responsibilities. Where project participants are internal staff, the project manager may have to clarify with the respective supervisor which person can be assigned to deal with the work package or sub-task.

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Project brief

Sub-task 1

Sub-task 2

Sub-task 3

Work package 1.1

Work package 2.1

Work package 1.2

Work package 2.2

Work package 1.3

Work package 2.3

Work package activities

Work package 1.4

Work package 1.5

Fig. 31: Example of a project structure plan

Bar chart (Gantt chart) The project manager can use the project structure plan to determine dependencies and time periods. These data are then entered into a time schedule in the form of a bar chart/Gantt chart. > Fig. 32

◯ Note: The name Gantt chart is derived from the

­ merican mechanical engineer Henry Laurence Gantt A (1861–1919), who used this to illustrate when machines were used and subsequent activities. This name is still being used to refer to a bar chart.

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◯

#

Title

Expected start

Expected end

0

Tender procedure

29.11.17

05.10.18

Tender procedure

1

Administration

29.11.17

20.04.18

Administration

9

Start of work

20.04.18

20.04.18

10

Decision by entities

23.01.18

22.03.18

14

Project preparation

23.04.18

05.10.18

30

Contract placed

05.10.18

05.10.18

BBP Consulting Engineers

Months Start of work

Decision by entities

2,05 Months Project preparation

5,85 Months Contract placed

Fig. 32: Example of bar chart

●

Milestones

◯

In the bar chart, the work packages are entered in time sequence and continually updated, including any changes. During the course of the project the project manager will have to update and adjust the schedules/charts for the control of the building project; input for these updates and changes may come from the detailed bar charts of other project participants. > Fig. 33 If differences between these bar charts show up as differences between target and actual deadlines, the project manager is able to immediately detect any delays or accelerations in the project process. The project manager should integrate so-called milestones in the time schedule. These are special dates in the project when information is required or that are particularly critical to the project process. Examples are the submission of a building application or the completion of part of the project ready for occupation. Milestones never define a duration, but they determine the end of part of the building process for which a certain period has been allocated (bars); they are therefore also the starting points for subsequent activities.

● Example: The project manager produces a time schedule for the execution of the building as a rough time schedule and updates it regularly. The schedule takes into account mandatory deadlines and/or deadlines stipulated by the control committee, without detailing individual building activities. Based on this schedule, the site supervisor produces a detailed construction schedule that takes into account all boundary conditions of the control plan. The supervisor will document any hold-ups, changes, delays, or acceleration in the construction process in the construction schedule and take controlling action. Such changes are communicated to the project manager during site meetings. The project manager then has to adjust the control schedule and pass on this information to the control committee or the client.

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◯ Note: If the bar charts are very extensive and hence

lack clarity, the project manager can generate so-called milestone plans. These only show the dates of milestones, and time periods of processes are left out. This helps the project management and the project team gain a quick overview of the current status of a project.

PS 1 Time frame Projektvorbereitung

Planning Project duration

Time schedule

Plan preparation and tender procedure

Project preparation

Preparation of execution

Control schedule

Time frame – milestones Subdivision of preparation planning approvals execution phases acceptance handover occupation

Execution

Producing the plan

Planning sequence

Placing contracts for execution

Tender procedure

Construction sequence

Execution

Project completion

Fig. 33: Scheduling activities for a building project

Diagram of user functions At the beginning of each project it is necessary – together with the building owner – to create a diagram of user functions based on the functional concept and the defined objectives of the building project. Normally this is produced by the architect. If, however, at an early stage in the project, the project team does not yet include an architect, this diagram has to be created by the project management. The diagram of user functions forms the basis for the design and construction and describes the building owner’s project objectives in terms of functional requirements for the building. > Fig. 34 Any building project is strongly affected by the location of the site and other factors pertaining to the site. A diagram of user functions should take into account, for example, the following boundary conditions:

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—— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— Feasibility study

Topography and other local conditions Time-related boundary conditions Space requirements Environmental protection aspects Health and safety at work restrictions Provisions for wastewater disposal (rainwater, sewage, effluent) Electric power supply Public building code and building regulations

Further detail is added to the program by including secondary functions and the number and size of rooms. In order to check and ensure that the site available is suitable for the project, macro- and micro-analyses, as well as an appraisal of the location and the region, should be carried out. The project management should check the results of this feasibility study for plausibility and for compliance with the project objectives.

Entrance

Example of a diagram of user functions for a hotel

Underground parking garage Guest rooms

Health club

Reception

Elevator group

Foyer

Conference area

Restaurant Kitchen, larders Deliveries

Staff facilities, plant rooms

General storage

Fig. 34: Example of a diagram of user functions for a hotel

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PROJECT MANAGEMENT TASKS IN A BUILDING PROJECT

Generally speaking, project management involves cross-sectional tasks. These are activities in the project and the organization that extend across all project phases. These cross-sectional tasks are called “areas of activity” or “fields of activity.” In building projects, a distinction is made between five fields of activity. > Fig. 35 The content of these different fields of activity changes as the project proceeds. > Figs. 36–40 For example, during the preparation phase of a project the project management has to negotiate and conclude contracts with the design team (architects, specialist engineers, expert consultants, etc.). Later on (preparation of execution, execution), the project management – with the help of the architect – has to enter into contracts with building contractors and make decisions regarding changes to the contract (subsequent, additional, or changed work). At the end of the project, the contracted work has to be checked and accepted and final accounts have to be checked and released for payment.

Areas of activity in a building project

Project preparation

Planning/ design

Preparation for execution

Execution

Project completion

Area of activity A Organization, information, coordination and documentation

Area of activity B Quality and quantity

Area of activity C Cost and funding

Area of activity D Deadlines, capacities, logistics

Area of activity E Contracts and insurance policies

Fig. 35: Areas of project management activity in a building project

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Areas of activity

A

PS 1 Organization, information, coordination and documentation Projektvorbereitung

Project preparation

Obtaining approval for the project plan Obtaining approval for the information and reporting system Defining project objectives and appointing project participants Organization manual for building process

Project progress

Planning/design

Preparation of execution

Analyzing and evaluating design input factors Establishing the information and reporting systems Checking and updating project objectives and input parameters Managing decisions and amendments Risk management

Execution

Project completion

Fig. 36: Summary of activities in area A

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Organizing handover/first occupation of building Organization manual for the operation of the building Project documentation Winding up the decision, amendment and risk management

B

PS 1 Quality and quantity Projektvorbereitung

Project preparation

Checking the architects’ functional requirement plans Creating a diagram of user functions Analyzing the outcome of project preparation

Project progress

Planning/design

Preparation for execution

Analyzing and evaluating the functional requirement plan Checking the design results Updating the diagram of user functions Checking the tender results Inspection of material samples Documentation of results Checking changes in design and execution

Execution

Project completion

Winding up requirement planning Winding up documentation of results Quality checks

Fig. 37: Summary of activities in area B

69

C

PS 1 Cost and funding Projektvorbereitung

Project preparation

Project progress

Planning/design

Preparation of execution

Execution

Project completion

Fig. 38: Summary of activities in area C

70

Establishing a budget for investment and running costs Establishing a cost tracking process for the project Cash flow planning

Checking cost estimates and computations Cost control in the case of the project objective being at risk Checking the invoices of designers/engineers/architects Continuing cost tracking for the project

Checking contract values against target values Cost control Cash flow planning

Checking insurance cover Checking invoices of contractors Updating cost tracking for project Cost control

Checking cost statements Concluding invoice verification Checking running costs of building

D

PS 1 Deadlines and capacities Projektvorbereitung

Project preparation

Project progress

Planning/design

Preparation for execution

Execution

Project completion

Establishing a time schedule Producing a time schedule for the control of the entire project Determining contract deadlines for the design

Updating time schedules Updating time schedule for the control of the entire project Differentiating phases of the overall time schedule Checking progress of the design

Updating the time schedule Updating time schedule for the control of the entire project Differentiating phases of the overall time schedule Determining execution contract dates

Updating the time schedule Updating time schedule for the control of the entire project Differentiating phases of the overall time schedule Checking progress of execution

Control and conclusion of handover and first occupation

Fig. 39: Summary of activities in area D

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E

PS 1 Contracts and insurance policies Projektvorbereitung

Project preparation

Determining the tender process and contract structure Preparing contracts for architects/specialists/engineers Producing an insurance concept

Planning/design Detaling the tender process Ensuring contract compliance by architects/specialists/ engineers Preparation of execution

Project progress

Execution

Project completion

Fig. 40: Summary of activities in area E

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Setting up structure for variation order Ensuring contract compliance by contractors

Supporting acceptance/handover procedure Ensuring contract compliance by all parties involved

It is not always necessary for the project management to perform all the activities of the different activity fields. The client may provide support with the company’s own specialist departments or even undertake entire activity areas (e.g. time scheduling). It is important to determine beforehand who takes care of which part of the activities and the specific content of the project management contract. A detailed list should be produced that specifies the specific tasks to be included/not included in the project management contract. > Tab. 24

Tab. 24: Overview of building project management activities A Organization, information, coordination, and documentation

Project phase

Common activities in a building project

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Developing, agreeing upon, and documenting project-specific organizational input parameters including the planning and updating of the project structure

 

 

 

 

 

2.

Developing and agreeing upon the basics for establishing the project plan

 

 

 

 

 

3.

Assisting with the definition of project objectives and documenting and updating the project input parameters

 

 

 

 

 

4.

Making proposals for a communication structure, including an information flow and reporting system, and agreeing upon this with the client; checking and implementing the communication structure, including regular reporting to and consultation with the client

 

 

 

 

 

5.

Making proposals for and agreeing upon a decision management ­procedure, and its implementation and winding up

 

 

 

 

 

6.

Making proposals for and agreeing upon a change management procedure, and its implementation and winding up

 

 

 

 

 

7.

Assisting with risk management

 

 

 

 

 

8.

Assisting with the selection of a project communication system and ­analyzing and evaluating the proper use of the project communication ­system by project participants; organizing the winding up of the project communication system

 

 

 

 

 

9.

Analyzing and evaluating the planning/design processes for conformity with established project objectives

 

 

 

 

 

10.

Analyzing and evaluating the coordination input from the architects/­ building designers and building supervisors

 

 

 

 

 

11.

Assisting with obtaining approvals from the authorities

 

 

 

 

 

12.

Supporting the client in setting up independent proceedings for the taking of evidence

 

 

 

 

 

13.

Assisting with the organizational and administrative concept and with the handover and/or first occupation/operation

 

 

 

 

 

14.

Initiating the systematic compilation and archiving of project documents

 

 

 

 

 

15.

Checking the compilation of documents by project participants

 

 

 

 

 

16.

Coordinating the client’s special organizational entities

 

 

 

 

 

17.

Setting up and operating a dedicated project communication system, and winding up of the system

 

 

 

 

 

73

A Organization, information, coordination, and documentation

Project phase

Common activities in a building project

1

2

3

4

5

18.

Establishing the parameters of the structure and process required for ­planning the project; higher-level monitoring and control of several ­connected projects

 

 

 

 

 

19.

Devising, preparing, obtaining agreement to, and implementation of risk management systems with special requirements

 

 

 

 

 

20.

Cooperating in the preparation of special official approval procedures

 

 

 

 

 

21.

Producing a concept for listing all third parties affected by the project, as well as relevant public bodies, and their participation in the project process

 

 

 

 

 

22.

Presenting the design concept to the public, taking into account special requirements and objectives and involving more than five meetings for ­discussion and explanation

 

 

 

 

 

23.

Assisting in involving third-party participants and the public in the ­implementation of the project

 

 

 

 

 

24.

Coordinating special requirements with operating/user organizations

 

 

 

 

 

25.

Providing organizational and expert building support in court proceedings

 

 

 

 

 

26.

Checking the project documentation of professional participants

 

 

 

 

 

B Quality and quantity

Project phase

Common activities in a building project

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Checking the existing background information for functional requirement plans for completeness and plausibility

 

 

 

 

 

2.

Assisting with the clarification of location issues, with the procurement of documents relating to the location, and with the assessment of the site regarding its use in terms of private and public law

 

 

 

 

 

3.

Checking the results of the background research by project participants

 

 

 

 

 

4.

Analyzing and evaluating the output produced by the project participants for conformity with the defined project objectives

 

 

 

 

 

5.

Contributing to planning the inspection of materials and assisting with the inspection

 

 

 

 

 

6.

Checking the documentation of the results of project participants for the individual project phases

 

 

 

 

 

7.

Checking the tender evaluations and proposed winning bidders from ­project participants

 

 

 

 

 

8.

Checking the indirect and direct effects of supplementary quotations for conformity with the specified project objectives

 

 

 

 

 

9.

Analyzing and evaluating the work of the site supervision staff and ­proposing and obtaining an agreement to adjustment measures when the project objectives are at risk

 

 

 

 

 

10.

Checking the work of the site supervision staff on site as needed

 

 

 

 

 

11.

Analyzing and evaluating the list of limitation periods relating to defect claims

 

 

 

 

 

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C Cost and funding

Project phases

Common activities in a building project

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Assisting with producing a budget framework for investment and running costs

 

 

 

 

 

2.

Assisting with computing and applying for investment funds and grants

 

 

 

 

 

3.

Checking the cost estimate and computation provided by the architects/ specialist engineers and initiating any necessary adjustments

 

 

 

 

 

4.

Monitoring and controlling costs in order to comply with budgets

 

 

 

 

 

5.

Cash flow planning

 

 

 

 

 

6.

Checking the invoices of project participants and proposing release of ­payment

 

 

 

 

 

7.

Establishing, obtaining agreement to, and updating project-specific cost tracking

 

 

 

 

 

8.

Checking the cost computations produced by project participants on the basis of costed bills of quantities

 

 

 

 

 

9.

Checking the evaluation of bids regarding the appropriateness of prices

 

 

 

 

 

10.

Specifying the amount of insurance cover for variation orders

 

 

 

 

 

11.

Ongoing cost control taking into account the checked bids and cost ­comparisons provided by project participants

 

 

 

 

 

12.

Checking the invoice verification by site supervision staff and proposing release for payment to executing companies

 

 

 

 

 

13.

Checking the cost statements provided by architects and specialist ­engineers

 

 

 

 

 

D Deadlines, capacities, and logistics

Project phase

Common activities in a building project

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Setting up and agreeing to an overall time schedule, including making ­updates

 

 

 

 

 

2.

Setting up and agreeing to a time schedule for the control of the entire ­project (design and construction); establishing manpower capacity; ­incorporating detail design schedules for design and construction ­produced by project participants

 

 

 

 

 

3.

Defining logistics input parameters, taking into account relevant location and boundary conditions; assisting with updating

 

 

 

 

 

4.

Checking the time schedules of project participants for the design and ­construction, with special focus on the overall time schedule

 

 

 

 

 

5.

Controlling design deadlines, including analysis and evaluation of deadlines provided by project participants

 

 

 

 

 

6.

Establishing and agreeing upon the overall time schedule, including the integration of strategic facilities management

 

 

 

 

 

7.

Checking the tender schedules of project participants

 

 

 

 

 

8.

Checking bids received for compliance with the time schedule

 

 

 

 

 

9.

Managing the project plan deadline (target/actual comparison), including tender procedure and placing of contracts

 

 

 

 

 

10.

Assisting with checking and updating the development of logistical input parameters

 

 

 

 

 

75

D Deadlines, capacities, and logistics

Project phase

Common activities in a building project

1

2

3

4

5

11.

Management of execution deadlines, taking into account site supervision reports

 

 

 

 

 

12.

Organizing acceptance, handover, and first occupation

 

 

 

 

 

E Contracts and insurance policies

Project phases

Common activities in a building project

1

2

3

4

5

1.

Assisting with producing a structure for tendering and for contracts for the entire project

 

 

 

 

 

2.

Preparing the content of contracts with architects/specialist engineers/ expert consultants and obtaining agreement

 

 

 

 

 

3.

Assisting with the selection of project participants, including negotiations and preparation of contracts

 

 

 

 

 

4.

Proposing contract deadlines for the contracts with architects/specialist engineers/expert consultants

 

 

 

 

 

5.

Assisting with producing an insurance concept for the entire project, ­including its implementation

 

 

 

 

 

6.

Helping ensure that all contract participants comply with their contractual duties

 

 

 

 

 

7.

Assisting with structuring the tender procedure

 

 

 

 

 

8.

Checking tender contract documents for completeness and plausibility and confirming readiness for dispatch

 

 

 

 

 

9.

Assisting with tender negotiations through to readiness for signature

 

 

 

 

 

10.

Assisting with scheduling contract deadlines and periods, taking into ­account special contract conditions and execution and delivery parameters

 

 

 

 

 

11.

Supporting the client in dealing with third-party claims (neighbors, citizens’ campaign, etc.)

 

 

 

 

 

12.

Checking variation order verification by the project supervisors and ­assisting with placing variation orders

 

 

 

 

 

13.

Assisting with the preparation of acceptance/handover and organizing handover and first occupation

 

 

 

 

 

14.

Assisting with the legally binding acceptance of the project input from ­architects, specialist engineers, expert consultants

 

 

 

 

 

 

Initial/main activity

 

Update/subsequent activity

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In Conclusion The necessity for and the scope of project management in building projects is often underestimated. In many building projects the management tasks are assigned to the architect or, later, to the site supervision team, because these project participants together support all phases of the building project. However, the activity fields only overlap to a small degree and only relate to partial processes of an entire project. In order to maintain an overall view of a building project, it is therefore essential to appoint a building project manager; this will ensure that the project objectives, including cost, deadline, and quality objectives, are achieved. New digital technologies such as BIM (Building Information Modeling) not only change the actual design and construction process but also the way project management is carried out. By linking quality, costs, and deadlines in the model, the effects of changes are documented and indicated immediately. The tender procedure involves handing over the model; the digital building model becomes the basis for the contracts. The tools are changing, but the key task of project management in building remains the same: managing all project participants in order to reliably achieve the project objectives.

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Appendix LITERATURE

Bielefeld, B.: Basics Construction Scheduling, Birkhäuser, Basel 2018 Bielefeld, B. (ed.): Basics Project Management Architecture, ­Birkhäuser, Basel 2013 Bielefeld, B., Schneider, R.: Basics Budgeting, Birkhäuser, Basel 2017 Cartlidge, D.: Construction Project Manager’s Pocket Book, 1st Edition, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, Abingdon-on-Thames 2015 Cooke, B.: Management of Construction Projects, 1st edition, WileyBlackwell, Hoboken, New Jersey 2014 DeMarco, T.: The Deadline: A Novel About Project Management, Dorset House Publishing, New York 2011 Hardin, B.: BIM and Construction Management: Proven Tools, Methods, and Workflows, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New ­Jersey, 2015 Netscher, P.: Successful Construction Project Management: The ­Practical Guide, 1st edition, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, Scotts Valley, California 2014 Oberlender, G.: Project Management for Engineering and Construction, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill Education, New York 2014 PMI Project Management Institute (ed.): A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), 6th edition, Newtown Square, Pennsylvania 2017

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PICTURE CREDITS

Figs: 16 and 65: AHO e. V. (ed.): Projektmanagementleis­tungen in der Bau- und Immobilienwirtschaft – Leistungsbild und ­Honorierung, 4th edition, Bundesanzeiger Verlag, Cologne 2014 Fig. 19: Barta, H.: Zivilrecht: Grundriss und Einführung in das Rechts­ denken, https://www.uibk.ac.at/zivilrecht/buch/kap13_0. xml?section=1;section-view=true (31.01.2019) THE AUTHOR

Dipl.-Ing. Pecco Becker is Consulting Civil Engineer and Managing Partner of BBP Ingenieure (Dortmund and Hamburg).

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Series editor: Bert Bielefeld Concept: Bert Bielefeld, Annette Gref Translation from German into English: Hartwin Busch English copy editing: Patricia Kot Project management: Silke Martini Production: Bettina Chang Layout, cover design, and typography: Andreas Hidber Typesetting: Sven Schrape Papier: MultiOffset, 120 g/m² Druck: Druckhaus Nomos, Sinzheim

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019933088 Bibliographic information published by the ­German National Library

The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; ­detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the ­material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained. ISBN 978-3-0356-1666-8 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-0356-1694-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-0356-1697-2 German Print-ISBN 978-3-0356-1695-8 © 2019 Birkhäuser Verlag GmbH, Basel P.O. Box 44, 4009 Basel, Switzerland Part of Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

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