Ayia Sotira: A Mycenaean Chamber Tomb Cemetery in the Nemea Valley, Greece (Prehistory Monographs) 9781623034207, 9781931534901, 193153490X

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Ayia Sotira A Mycenaean Chamber Tomb Cemetery in the Nemea Valley, Greece

Ayia Sotira A Mycenaean Chamber Tomb Cemetery in the Nemea Valley, Greece

PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 56

Ayia Sotira A Mycenaean Chamber Tomb Cemetery in the Nemea Valley, Greece

by

R. Angus K. Smith, Mary K. Dabney, Evangelia Pappi, Sevasti Triantaphyllou, and James C. Wright

with contributions by Panagiotis Karkanas, Georgia Kotzamani, Alexandra Livarda, Camilla MacKay, Maria Ntinou, Maria Roumpou, Alan M. Stahl, and Georgia Tsartsidou

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2017

Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia, PA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Smith, R. Angus K. (Robert Angus K.), 1968- author. | Dabney, Mary K., 1954- co-author. | Pappi, Evangelia, 1966- co-author. Title: Ayia Sotira : a Mycenaean chamber tomb cemetery in the Nemea Valley, Greece / by R. Angus K. Smith, Mary K. Dabney, Evangelia Pappi, Sevasti Triantaphyllou, and James C. Wright ; with contributions by Panagiotis Karkanas, Georgia Kotzamani, Alexandra Livarda, Camilla MacKay, Maria Ntinou, Maria Roumpou, Alan M. Stahl, and Georgia Tsartsidou. Description: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania : INSTAP Academic Press, 2017. | Series: Prehistory monographs ; 56 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017027394 (print) | LCCN 2017026828 (ebook) | ISBN 9781623034207 (ebook) | ISBN 9781931534901 (hardcover : alkaline paper) Subjects: LCSH: Cemeteries—Greece—Nemea Region. | Tombs—Greece—Nemea Region. | Nemea Valley Archaeological Project. | Civilization, Mycenaean. Excavations (Archaeology)—Greece—Nemea Region. | Nemea Region (Greece)—Antiquities. Classification: LCC DF261.N45 (print) | LCC DF261.N45 S65 2017 (ebook) | DDC 938/.8—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017027394

Copyright © 2017 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Table of Contents

List of Figures in the Text... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii List of Tables... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii List of Plates.................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Acknowledgments... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv List of Abbreviations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Chapter 1. Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 2. Tomb 1, Evangelia Pappi and Sevasti Triantaphyllou.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Chapter 3. Tombs 2–6, Mary K. Dabney, Panagiotis Karkanas, R. Angus K. Smith, Sevasti Triantaphyllou, and James C. Wright.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Chapter 4. Geoarchaeological Study, Panagiotis Karkanas.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Chapter 5. Human Remains, Sevasti Triantaphyllou... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Chapter 6. Archaeobotanical Remains, Georgia Kotzamani and Alexandra Livarda.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Chapter 7. Wood Charcoal Macroremains, Maria Ntinou... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Chapter 8. Phytolith Analysis, Georgia Tsartsidou.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Chapter 9. Organic Residue Analysis, Maria Roumpou.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

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Chapter 10. Conclusions... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Appendix. Medieval Pottery and Coins, Camilla MacKay and Alan M. Stahl... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 References.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Index.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Tables Plates

List of Figures in the Text

Figure 1.1. Map of Nemea Valley showing location of Ayia Sotira and nearby sites... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Figure 1.2. Plan of Ayia Sotira showing tombs and test trenches.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 1.3. Plan of Ayia Sotira showing tombs and excavation units.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 1.4. Map of Nemea Valley region... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 1.5. Map of GPR transects on Ayia Sotira.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Figure 1.6. Map of magnetic gradiometry grids on Ayia Sotira................................................. 6 Figure 1.7. Surface distribution of prehistoric pottery on Ayia Sotira prior to excavation.................... 7 Figure 1.8. Method of excavation by SUs and SMUs at Barnavos.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 2.1. Plan and section of Tomb 1 showing robbers’ entrance hole into the stomion (dashed lines) and layer of stones in dromos.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Figure 2.2. Plan (center) and sections (Section A, top; Section B, bottom) of Tomb 1 showing floor of chamber and dromos with all associated features and finds.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Figure 2.3. Elevation of Tomb 1 entrance to stomion showing robbers’ disturbance (dashed lines)........ 15 Figure 2.4. Elevation of Tomb 1 dromos showing niches............................................................15 Figure 2.5. Elevation and section of Tomb 1 niches at west wall of dromos... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Figure 2.6. Elevation and section of Tomb 1 niche at east wall of dromos.. . ................................. 16

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Figure 2.7. Tomb 1, Pit 1: (a) plans of covering slabs; (b) plan with burial; and (c) section.. . ..............16 Figure 2.8. Tomb 1: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 1.1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 2.9. Tomb 1, dromos: kylikes (1, 3, 8), shallow cup (2), and angular kylikes (4–7).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Figure 2.10. Tomb 1, dromos: open vessel (9) and angular kylikes (10–12).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 2.11. Elevation showing robbers’ disturbance of stomion (dashed line).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 2.12. Tomb 1, dromos and stomion: stemmed bowl 13.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 2.13. Tomb 1, Pit 2: (a) plan of covering slabs; (b) plan with burial; and (c) section... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 2.14: Tomb 1, Pit 2: small jug (14), high-handled spouted cup (15), and large jug (16)..............22 Figure 2.15. Tomb 1, Pit 2: beads (17–20)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Figure 2.16. Plan of Tomb 1 showing floor of chamber with all associated features and finds in object groups.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Figure 2.17. Tomb 1, Object Group 1: closed vessel (21), beaked jug (22), and small jug (23)..............24 Figure 2.18. Tomb 1, Object Group 2: feeding bottles (24, 25) and stirrup jar (26).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Figure 2.19. Tomb 1, Object Group 2: figurines (27, 28)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Figure 2.20. Tomb 1, Object Group 3: piriform jar (29), small jug (30), stirrup jar (31), probable stemmed krater (32), and large jug/amphora/hydria (33).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Figure 2.21. Tomb 1, Object Group 4: spouted cup (34), figurine (35), and bead (36).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 2.22. Tomb 1, Object Group 5: angular cup (37) and high-handled spouted cup (38); Object Group 6: hydria (39) and shallow cup (40).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Figure 2.23. Tomb 1, Object Group 7: angular kylix (41), figurine (42), and bronze leaf-shaped razor (43)............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Figure 3.1. Tomb 2: plan... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Figure 3.2. Tomb 2: view of east balk in dromos.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 3.3. Tomb 2, dromos: angular kylikes (44, 45); looters’ dump: kylix (47), angular kylix (48), and shallow angular bowl (49)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 3.4. Tomb 3: (a) plan; (b) cover slabs over burial pits before excavation; (c) scattered slabs on surface, above chamber.................................................................................... 39 Figure 3.5. Tomb 3: Section A (N–S), looking east.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 3.6. Tomb 3: Section B, chamber near stomion at N226.6, looking north.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 3.7. Tomb 3: Section C, dromos at N225.85, looking north............................................ 41 Figure 3.8. Tomb 3: Section D, dromos at N224.6, looking north.. . ........................................... 41 Figure 3.9. Tomb 3: Section E, eastern balk of dromos, looking east......................................... 42 Figure 3.10. Tomb 3, dromos: kylikes (51, 54), handmade handle (52), and shallow cup (53)... . . . . . . . . . . 43 Figure 3.11. Tomb 3, dromos: shallow cup (55), kylix (56), stemmed bowls (57, 60), amphoroid krater (58), and conical rhyton (59).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT

ix

Figure 3.12. Tomb 3, dromos: piriform jar (61), kraters (62, 63), stemmed bowl (64), bowl/cup/kylix (65), and kylix (66).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Figure 3.13. Tomb 3, dromos: krater/stemmed bowl (67), mug (68), kylix (69), closed vessel (73), and stirrup jar (74)............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 3.14. Tomb 3: Harris matrix. Bold rectangles indicate SUs that contained sherds joining jug fragment 75.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Figure 3.15. Tomb 3, chamber: jug (75) and amphora (76).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Figure 3.16. Tomb 3: Harris matrix. Bold rectangles indicate SUs that contained sherds joining amphoroid krater 58.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 3.17. Tomb 3: Harris matrix. Bold rectangles indicate SUs that contained sherds joining conical rhyton 59... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 3.18. Tomb 3: Harris matrix. Bold rectangles indicate SUs that contained sherds joining stemmed bowl 60... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Figure 3.19. Tomb 3: Harris matrix. Bold rectangles indicate SUs that contained sherds joining vessels in the catalog... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Figure 3.20. Tomb 4: plan... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 3.21. Tomb 4: Section C, view of stomion blocking wall at N239, looking north.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Figure 3.22. Tomb 4: top plan, north.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Figure 3.23. Tomb 4: top plan, south.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Figure 3.24. Tomb 4, chamber detail: upper floor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Figure 3.25. Tomb 4, chamber detail: burial pits below upper floor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 3.26. Tomb 4: Section A, looking east.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Figure 3.27. Tomb 4: Section B, through chamber at N241.1–N242, looking north.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Figure 3.28. Tomb 4: Section F, dromos and niche at N234.2–N234.3, looking north.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Figure 3.29. Tomb 4: Section D, view of north balk in dromos at N238, looking north... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Figure 3.30. Tomb 4: Section E, view of east balk in dromos, looking east... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Figure 3.31. Tomb 4, dromos side niche: feeding bottle (77) and bead (78); dromos: angular kylix (79) and krater (80).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Figure 3.32. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.7... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 3.33. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.8.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 3.34. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.6.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Figure 3.35. Tomb 4, chamber Pit 3: bead 86... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Figure 3.36. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.5.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Figure 3.37. Tomb 4, chamber, Pit 2: bead 88.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Figure 3.38. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Figure 3.39. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.2... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

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Figure 3.40. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.3.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 3.41. Tomb 4: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 4.4.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Figure 3.42. Tomb 4, chamber, Burials 4.3 and 4.4: alabastron (89), jug (90), and stirrup jar (91).. . . . . . . 69 Figure 3.43. Tomb 4, Burial 4.2: jug (92), stirrup jars (93, 94), rosette deep bowl (95), and bead (96)... 70 Figure 3.44. Tomb 4, Burial 4.1: jugs (97, 98), miniature jug (99), and hydria (100).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 3.45. Tomb 4, Burial 4.1: jug 101; chamber floor: kylix 102.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Figure 3.46. Tomb 5: plan.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 3.47. Tomb 5: top plan, north.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 3.48. Tomb 5: top plan, south.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 3.49. Tomb 5: chamber detail.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Figure 3.50. Tomb 5: Section A (N–S) section, looking west.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Figure 3.51. Tomb 5: Section B, view of stomion blocking wall from inside chamber, looking south.. . . 76 Figure 3.52. Tomb 5, views and section of stomion blocking wall: (a) Section E; (b) Section D; (c) Section C........................................................................................... 77 Figure 3.53. Tomb 5: Section G, view of east balk in dromos, looking ENE.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 . Figure 3.54. Tomb 5: Section F, north balk in dromos, looking NNW.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Figure 3.55. Tomb 5: Section H, transverse balk of dromos, looking NNW.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Figure 3.56. Map of 2006 test trenches..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Figure 3.57. Map of 2007 test trenches.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Figure 3.58. Map of 2006–2007 test trenches.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Figure 3.59. Tomb 5, dromos: angular kylix (106) and piriform jars (107, 108).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Figure 3.60. Tomb 5, dromos: kylix (109) and angular kylikes (110, 111).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Figure 3.61. Tomb 5, chamber, Burial 5.2: piriform jug (112) and bead (113).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Figure 3.62. Tomb 5, chamber, Object Group 3: linear jug (114) and small jug (115).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Figure 3.63. Tomb 5, chamber, Object Group 2: alabastron (116) and stirrup jar (117).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Figure 3.64. Tomb 5, chamber, Object Group 2: beads (118, 119)............................................ 88 Figure 3.65. Tomb 5, chamber, Burial 5.1: stirrup jar (120), amphora (121), and kylix (122).. . ........... 90 Figure 3.66. Tomb 5, side chamber burial: feeding bottle (123), deep bowl (124), and figurine (125)... . 91 Figure 3.67. Tomb 5, side chamber burial: beads (127–129, 131, 133, 134, 136, 138, 139).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Figure 3.68. Tomb 5, chamber collapse: angular kylikes (140, 141); jug (142) from Object Group 1.. . . . 93 Figure 3.69. Tomb 6: top plan, overview........................................................................ 96 Figure 3.70. Tomb 6: Section B, stomion, looking to south at N265.55.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT

xi

Figure 3.71. Tomb 6: Section C, section in stomion, looking north at N264.05... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Figure 3.72. Tomb 6: Section D, south face of stomion blocking wall at N263.47–N263.54... . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Figure 3.73. Tomb 6: top plan, north.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Figure 3.74. Tomb 6: top plan.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Figure 3.75. Tomb 6, chamber: plan............................................................................... 99 Figure 3.76. Tomb 6, Pit 1: detail.. . ................................................................................ 99 Figure 3.77. Tomb 6: Section A, looking east.................................................................. 100 Figure 3.78. Tomb 6: Section E, north balk of dromos at N263.1, looking north... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Figure 3.79. Tomb 6: Section G, profile of north wall of chamber, looking east.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Figure 3.80. Tomb 6: Section F, east balk of dromos, looking east... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Figure 3.81. Tomb 6, later activity above the collapsed tomb: globular jug (175) and bowl (176).. . . . . . . 102 Figure 3.82. Tomb 6, dromos: stirrup jar (143) from Layer 7; angular kylix (144) from Layers 2–6; dipper (145) from Layers 1–5; and deep conical bowl (147) from Layers 1–4.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Figure 3.83. Tomb 6, dromos: conical kylix (148) and cup (149) from Layers 1–4; angular kylix (150) from Layers 1–2; and cup (151) from Layer 1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Figure 3.84. Tomb 6, chamber, Pit 1: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 6.7.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Figure 3.85. Tomb 6: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 6.4.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Figure 3.86. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.4: alabastron 152.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Figure 3.87. Tomb 6: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 6.5.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Figure 3.88. Tomb 6, chamber, Object Group 2: narrow-necked jug 155.................................... 113 Figure 3.89. Tomb 6: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 6.1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Figure 3.90. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.1: stirrup jars (157, 158).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Figure 3.91. Tomb 6: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 6.3.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Figure 3.92. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.3: small jug (159), narrow-necked jug (160), and jug with cutaway neck (161).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Figure 3.93. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.3: stirrup jars (162, 163) and flask (164)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Figure 3.94. Tomb 6: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 6.2... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Figure 3.95. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.2: narrow-necked jugs (166, 167)... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Figure 3.96. Tomb 6 chamber: stirrup jar (168) from Burial 6.2; stirrup jar (171) from Object Group 1; and deep conical bowl (174) from Layer 3.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Figure 5.1. Mortality curve in the Ayia Sotira cemetery population... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Figure 5.2. Prevalence of dental conditions in the Ayia Sotira cemetery population... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

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AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Figure 8.1. Concentration of phytoliths per gram of sediment in all the samples analyzed.............. 154 Figure 8.2. Qualitative data: (a) frequencies of phytoliths produced by wood, dicot plants, and grasses; (b) frequencies of variable morphology phytoliths; (c) frequencies of phytoliths characteristic of grass subfamilies; (d) frequencies of phytoliths from grass parts (i.e., stem [straw] and husk glumes [inflorescense]); (e) frequencies of phytoliths from cereals and wild grasses.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Figure 9.1. Total ion chromatogram of sample NOR08.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Figure 9.2. Total ion chromatogram of sample NOR11.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Figure 9.3. Total ion chromatogram of sample NOR40... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Figure 9.4. Total ion chromatogram of sample NOR41.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Figure 9.5. Total ion chromatogram of sample NOR46... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 9.6. Total ion chromatogram of sample NOR83... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Figure 9.7. Total ion chromatogram of blank sample... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 10.1. Tsoungiza GIS viewshed.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

List of Tables

Table 1.

Detailed inventory of the skeletal remains from the individuals recovered in the chamber of Tomb 1, by locus.

Table 2.

Detailed inventory of the post-cranial skeleton from the individuals recovered in the chamber of Tomb 1, by age category.

Table 3.

Detailed inventory of the cranial skeleton from the individuals recovered in the chamber of Tomb 1, by age category.

Table 4.

Detailed inventory of the permanent and deciduous dentition from the individuals recovered in the chamber of Tomb 1, by age category.

Table 5.

Tomb 2, dromos: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 6.

Detailed skeletal inventory of Tomb 2.

Table 7.

Tomb 2: sided and unsided bone fragments.

Table 8.

Tomb 2: lots of human remains measuring less than 5 cm in length, according to their distribution in the SUs (number and weight).

Table 9.

Tomb 3, dromos pit: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 10.

Tomb 3: cataloged finds by layer, with listed cross-joins and chronological classifications.

Table 11.

Tomb 3, dromos: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

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AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Table 12.

Tomb 3: spatial distribution of clusters of cataloged objects (n=31) by north grid lines of dromos (southern end at right).

Table 13.

Tomb 4, dromos: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 14.

Tomb 4, dromos fill in front of side niche: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragment.

Table 15.

Tomb 4, chamber, Pit 2: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragment.

Table 16.

Tomb 4, chamber floor: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 17.

Tomb 4, chamber fill: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragment.

Table 18.

Tomb 4: burial and dromos refill episodes.

Table 19.

Tomb 5: list of SUs from the dromos (EU 38).

Table 20.

Tomb 5: concordance of layers and SUs across portions of dromos excavation.

Table 21.

Tomb 5, dromos: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 22.

Tomb 5: concordance of dromos layers and the stomion blocking walls and floors (with SUs).

Table 23.

Tomb 5: concordance of chamber episodes (with SUs) and objects with stomion blocking walls (BW) and floors (SF), and dromos layers.

Table 24.

Tomb 5, side chamber: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 25.

Tomb 5, chamber: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 26.

Tomb 6: list of SUs from the dromos (EU 41).

Table 27.

Tomb 6: concordance of layers and SUs across portions of dromos excavation.

Table 28.

Tomb 6, dromos: uncataloged ceramic vessel fragments.

Table 29.

Tomb 6: concordance of dromos layers and the stomion blocking walls and floors (with SUs).

Table 30.

Tomb 6: concordance of chamber strata, episodes (with SUs), and objects.

Table 31.

Detailed inventory of the post-cranial skeleton of the adult individuals from Tomb 6, Pit 1.

Table 32.

Detailed inventory of the cranial skeleton of the adult individuals from Tomb 6, Pit 1.

Table 33.

Summary of the extant human skeletal remains recovered in the Ayia Sotira chamber tomb cemetery.

Table 34.

Distribution of the sexes by age group. Only individuals where sexing could be applied are included.

Table 35.

Distribution of the individuals by age group in each chamber tomb.

Table 36.

Prevalence of dental conditions in teeth affected, by chamber tomb.

Table 37.

Prevalence of dental conditions in LBA cemetery populations from the Greek mainland.

Table 38.

Prevalence of dental conditions in teeth affected, by sex group.

Table 39.

The archaeobotanical samples from the tombs at Ayia Sotira.

Table 40.

Tomb 2: plant species list.

Table 41.

Tomb 2: archaeobotanical sample information.

Table 42.

Tomb 3: plant species list.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 43.

Tomb 3: archaeobotanical sample information.

Table 44.

Tomb 4: plant species list.

Table 45.

Tomb 4: archaeobotanical sample information.

xv

Table 46A. Tomb 5: plant species list. Table 46B. Tomb 5: plant species list continued. Table 47.

Tomb 5: archaeobotanical sample information.

Table 48.

Tomb 6: plant species list.

Table 49.

Tomb 6: archaeobotanical sample information.

Table 50.

Tables 3–5: distribution and number of remains of the identified taxa in the wood charcoal samples from the Ayia Sotira LH III cemetery.

Table 51.

Tables 3–5: summary presentation of the distribution and number of wood charcoal remains of the identified taxa by tomb space, dromos, or chamber.

Table 52.

Tomb 5, dromos: distribution and number of wood charcoal remains of the identified taxa by stratum.

Table 53.

Quantitative data: components of the sediments (organics and carbonates) and phytolith concentrations per gram of sediment.

Table 54.

Tombs 3 and 4: samples selected for organic residue analysis.

Table 55.

Tomb 5: samples selected for organic residue analysis.

Table 56.

Tomb 6: samples selected for organic residue analysis.

Table 57.

Residue preservation in different vessel parts.

Table 58.

Number and percentage of burial types in tombs.

Table 59.

Number and percentage of dromos reopenings in tombs.

Table 60.

Number and percentage of artifactual types in tombs.

Table 61.

Number of artifactual types at Tsoungiza compared to Ayia Sotira.

Table 62.

Number of burials and artifacts at Barnavos compared to Ayia Sotira.

List of Plates

Plate 1A.

Tomb looters’ pit from the north.

Plate 1B.

Tomb looters’ trench from the west.

Plate 1C.

Tomb looters’ drill holes.

Plate 1D.

Tomb looters’ disturbance west of Tomb 2 (white arrow), from the south.

Plate 2A.

Tomb 4: stomion blocking wall disturbed by looters, from the south.

Plate 2B.

Tomb 4: stomion blocking wall after disturbance by looters, from the south.

Plate 2C.

Tomb 5: burial disturbed by looters.

Plate 2D.

Tomb 3: dromos at surface level, from the south.

Plate 3A.

Tomb 3: exterior surface plow marks, from the south.

Plate 3B.

Tomb 5: north and east dromos balks from the south.

Plate 3C.

Micromorphology sampling.

Plate 3D.

Tomb 4: protective roof from the northwest.

Plate 4A.

Tomb 3: protective water channeling from the east.

Plate 4B.

Tomb 5: protective lining before backfilling, from the north.

Plate 4C.

Tomb 5: gravel marking from the north.

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AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Plate 4D.

Tomb 6: backfilling from the south.

Plate 4E.

Tomb 6: backfilling from the southeast.

Plate 5A.

Tomb 1: dromos with Pit 1, from the south.

Plate 5B.

Tomb 1: dromos with Pit 1, from the southwest.

Plate 5C.

Tomb 1, Pit 1, infant: left (above) and right (below) tibias showing extremely poor preservation.

Plate 5D.

Tomb 1: stomion entrance from the south.

Plate 6A.

Tomb 1: upper surface of stomion from the east.

Plate 6B.

Tomb 1, dromos: layer of stones along eastern side of dromos.

Plate 6C.

Tomb 1: chamber floor with Pit 2 and pit at SW side.

Plate 6D.

Tomb 1: pit at SW side of chamber.

Plate 6E.

Tomb 1: western part of chamber.

Plate 6F.

Tomb 1, chamber: Pit 2 with covering slab.

Plate 7A.

Tomb 1, chamber: Pit 2.

Plate 7B.

Tomb 1, chamber, Pit 2: mandible of Skeleton 1.5 showing loss of teeth prior to death.

Plate 7C.

Tomb 1, chamber, Pit 2: left mandible fragment of Skeleton 1.6.

Plate 7D.

Tomb 1, chamber, Pit 2: left (top) and right (bottom) femurs of Skeleton 1.7.

Plate 7E.

Tomb 1, chamber: Object Groups 1, 2, and 4.

Plate 7F.

Tomb 1, Object Group 1: beaked jug 22.

Plate 8A.

Tomb 1, chamber, Object Group 2: feeding bottle 25 between two crania.

Plate 8B.

Tomb 1, chamber, Object Group 2: feeding bottle 24 and phi-type figurine 28.

Plate 8C.

Tomb 1, chamber: right mandible of 3–4 yr. old individual (Skeleton 1.8).

Plate 8D.

Tomb 1, chamber: neural arch of vertebra from the neonate.

Plate 8E.

Tomb 1, chamber: fragments of Skeleton 1.4 (female individual).

Plate 9A.

Tomb 2: looters’ dump from the south.

Plate 9B.

Tomb 2, dromos: east balk from the west.

Plate 9C.

Tomb 2, dromos, east balk: micromorphological sample 321.

Plate 9D.

Tomb 2, dromos: pit from the south.

Plate 9E.

Tomb 2, dromos: obsidian debris from core 46.

Plate 10A. Tomb 2, stomion: doorway from the south. Plate 10B. Tomb 2, stomion: blocking wall from the southwest. Plate 10C. Tomb 2, chamber: southeast pit from the southwest. Plate 10D. Tomb 2, chamber: west pit from the east. Plate 10E. Tomb 2: long bone with black patches on the surface.

LIST OF PLATES

xix

Plate 11A. Tomb 3: exposed dromos showing stones scattered over area of stomion in SU 20601, from the south. Plate 11B. Tomb 3: exposed chamber showing collapsed upper cavity in SU 20601, from the west. Plate 11C. Tomb 3, dromos: slab-covered burial pit from the east. Plate 11D. Tomb 3, dromos: polishing pebble 50. Plate 11E. Tomb 3: teeth recovered in the heavy residue of the dromos pit. Plate 11F.

Tomb 3, dromos: obsidian debris from core 72.

Plate 12A. Tomb 3: slabs in upper levels of dromos above stomion in SU 20629, from the east. Plate 12B. Tomb 3, dromos: burial pit in front of stomion, from the south. Plate 12C. Tomb 3: slab in front of stomion blocking wall, from the south. Plate 12D. Tomb 3: opening at surface into chamber, from the west. Plate 13A. Tomb 3, chamber: slab-covered burial pit showing amphora 76 at southeast corner in SU 20645, from the west. Plate 13B. Tomb 3, chamber: burial pit after removal of amphora and slabs in SU 20648, from the west. Plate 13C. Tomb 3, chamber: amphora 76. Plate 14A. Tomb 3: micromorphological sample 354b. Plate 14B. Tomb 3: micromorphological sample 353. Plate 14C. Tomb 4: dromos identified in Test Trench 21, from the east. Plate 14D. Tomb 4: plow marks on exterior surface, from the south. Plate 15A. Tomb 4: looters’ drill marks on exterior surface, from the south. Plate 15B. Tomb 4: collapsed upper chamber excavated in Test Trench 14 pit, from the south. Plate 15C. Tomb 4, dromos: micromorphological sample 20861004:364b. Plate 15D. Tomb 4, dromos: micromorphological sample 20861002:362a. Plate 16A. Tomb 4, dromos: micromorphological sample 20861004:364a. Plate 16B. Tomb 4, dromos: micromorphological sample 20861001:361d. Plate 16C. Tomb 4, dromos: side niche burial from the west. Plate 16D. Tomb 4, dromos: side niche stone cover slabs from the west. Plate 17A. Tomb 4, dromos, side niche: feeding bottle 77. Plate 17B. Tomb 4, dromos: obsidian debris 81. Plate 17C. Tomb 4, dromos: flint debris 82. Plate 17D. Tomb 4, stomion: blocking wall from the south. Plate 18A. Tomb 4: chamber from the north. Plate 18B. Tomb 4, chamber: lower floor burial pits from the south. Plate 18C. Tomb 4, chamber: micromorphological sample 20861005:365.

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AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Plate 19A. Tomb 4, chamber: Pits 2 and 3 stone cover slabs from the south. Plate 19B. Tomb 4, chamber: Pit 1 secondary burial from the west. Plate 19C. Tomb 4: skull of Skeleton 4.7. Plate 19D. Tomb 4: mandible of Skeleton 4.7 with impacted molars and teeth lost prior to death. Plate 19E. Tomb 4: right mandible of Skeleton 4.8 showing loss of first molar prior to death. Plate 19F.

Tomb 4, chamber: flint debris 83 from Pit 1.

Plate 20A. Tomb 4, chamber: primary burial in Pit 3 from the south. Plate 20B. Tomb 4: occipital bone of Skeleton 4.6. Plate 20C. Tomb 4: mandible of Skeleton 4.6. Plate 20D. Tomb 4: mandibular teeth of Skeleton 4.6 with large caries on right first molar. Plate 20E. Tomb 4, chamber: primary burial in Pit 2 from the east. Plate 20F.

Tomb 4: skull (superior aspect) of Skeleton 4.5.

Plate 21A. Tomb 4: mandible of Skeleton 4.5 with teeth lost prior to death. Plate 21B. Tomb 4: maxillary right first molar of Skeleton 4.5 with large caries. Plate 21C. Tomb 4: right temporal of Skeleton 4.5 with possible non-specific infection. Plate 21D. Tomb 4, chamber: Burials 4.1 and 4.2 from the west. Plate 21E. Tomb 4, chamber: Burials 4.3 and 4.4. Plate 22A. Tomb 4, chamber, Burial 4.1: (a) jug with cutaway neck 101; (b) narrow-necked jug 97; (c) miniature handmade jug 99; (d) hydria 100; (e) narrow-necked jug 98. Plate 22B. Tomb 4, chamber, Burial 4.2: (a) small globular stirrup jar 94; (b) deep bowl 95; (c) small globular stirrup jar 93; (d) jug with cutaway neck 92. Plate 22C. Tomb 4, chamber, Burials 4.3 and 4.4: (a) small globular stirrup jar 91; (b) straight-sided alabastron 89; (c) narrow-necked jug 90. Plate 23A. Tomb 4, chamber: wood object 103. Plate 23B. Tomb 4, chamber: wood object 104. Plate 23C. Tomb 4: occipital bone of Skeleton 4.1 with apical bone (non-metric trait). Plate 23D. Tomb 4: mandible of Skeleton 4.1 with teeth lost prior to death. Plate 23E. Tomb 4: right temporal of Skeleton 4.1 with possible non-specific infection. Plate 23F.

Tomb 4: skull fragments of Skeleton 4.2.

Plate 23G. Tomb 4: mandible of Skeleton 4.2. Plate 23H. Tomb 4: occipital bone of Skeleton 4.3. Plate 24A. Tomb 4: left mandible of Skeleton 4.4 with teeth lost prior to death. Plate 24B. Tomb 5 from the south. Plate 24C. Tomb 5, dromos: north and east balks from the south.

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 25A. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21141001:411b. Plate 25B. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21162001:621c. Plate 25C. Tomb 5, dromos, Stratum 5: angular kylix 106. Plate 26A. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21161005. Plate 26B. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21161003:613. Plate 26C. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21140001:401c. Plate 26D. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21142001B. Plate 27A. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21142001C. Plate 27B. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21161002:612a. Plate 27C. Tomb 5, dromos: micromorphological sample 21161001:611. Plate 27D. Tomb 5, dromos: south of Test Trench 32, from the north. Plate 28A. Tomb 5, dromos: niche stone cover slabs from the west. Plate 28B. Tomb 5: dromos niche from the northwest. Plate 28C. Tomb 5, dromos niche: beads 105. Plate 28D. Tomb 5, stomion: blocking wall from chamber, from the north. Plate 29A. Tomb 5, stomion: blocking wall from dromos, from the south. Plate 29B. Tomb 5: Stomion Floor 4 from above. Plate 29C. Tomb 5: stomion Blocking Wall 4 from above. Plate 29D. Tomb 5: Stomion Floor 3 from the north. Plate 30A. Tomb 5: Stomion Floor 2 from the south. Plate 30B. Tomb 5: Stomion Floor 1 from the east. Plate 30C. Tomb 5: stomion Blocking Wall 1 from above. Plate 30D. Tomb 5: chamber from the northeast. Plate 31A. Tomb 5, chamber: balk from the north. Plate 31B. Tomb 5: chamber from the east. Plate 31C. Tomb 5, chamber: Episode 1 from the south. Plate 31D. Tomb 5, chamber: Episode 2 from the south. Plate 32A. Tomb 5, chamber: Burial 5.2 from the northeast. Plate 32B. Tomb 5, chamber: Burial 5.2 before cleaning, from the northeast. Plate 32C. Tomb 5, chamber: Burial 5.2 after cleaning, from the south. Plate 32D. Tomb 5, chamber, Burial 5.2: piriform jug 112. Plate 32E. Tomb 5, chamber, Object Group 3: jug 114 (left) and small jug 115 (right). Plate 33A. Tomb 5: bone fragments of Skeleton 5.2 revealing the degree of poor preservation.

xxi

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AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Plate 33B. Tomb 5, chamber: Object Group 2 (116, bottom; 117, top). Plate 33C. Tomb 5, chamber, Object Group 2: rounded alabastron 116 (left) and globular stirrup jar 117 (right). Plate 33D. Tomb 5, chamber: collapse after Episode 3, from the south. Plate 34A. Tomb 5, chamber: micromorphological sample 21176:176b. Plate 34B. Tomb 5, chamber: Burial 5.1 from the south (120–122). Plate 34C. Tomb 5, chamber, Burial 5.1: (a) kylix 122; (b) squat globular biconical stirrup jar 120; (c) amphora 121. Plate 35A. Tomb 5: bone fragments of Skeleton 5.1 revealing the degree of poor preservation. Plate 35B. Tomb 5: side chamber from the northeast. Plate 35C. Tomb 5, chamber: micromorphological sample 21175:175. Plate 35D. Tomb 5, side chamber: stone cover slabs from the northeast. Plate 35E. Tomb 5, side chamber burial: (a) feeding bottle 123; (b) figurine 125; (c) deep bowl 124. Plate 36A. Tomb 5, side chamber burial: beads (top row: 134; rows 2, 3: 127, 129, 130, 132, 136–139; rows 4, 5: 126, 128, 131, 133, 135). Plate 36B. Tomb 5, chamber: collapse after Episode 5, first phase, from the south. Plate 36C. Tomb 5, chamber: collapse after Episode 5, second phase, from the south. Plate 36D. Tomb 5, chamber: Episode 6 from the north. Plate 36E. Tomb 5, chamber: Object Group 1 (jug 142) from the northwest. Plate 37A. Tomb 5, chamber, Object Group 1: jug 142. Plate 37B. Tomb 5, chamber: roof disturbed by modern agricultural activity, from the south. Plate 37C. Tomb 6: surrounding surface from the south. Plate 37D. Tomb 6: dromos from the south. Plate 38A. Tomb 6, dromos: micromorphological sample 21921003. Plate 38B. Tomb 6, dromos: micromorphological sample 21921002. Plate 38C. Tomb 6, dromos: micromorphological sample 21921001. Plate 39A. Tomb 6: stomion blocking wall from the south. Plate 39B. Tomb 6, stomion: micromorphological sample 21946002. Plate 39C. Tomb 6: Stomion Floor 3 from the south. Plate 39D. Tomb 6: stomion Blocking Wall 3 from above. Plate 40A. Tomb 6: Stomion Floor 2 from above. Plate 40B. Tomb 6: stomion Blocking Wall 2 from above. Plate 40C. Tomb 6: Stomion Floor 1 from above. Plate 40D. Tomb 6: stomion Blocking Wall 1 from the south.

LIST OF PLATES

xxiii

Plate 41A. Tomb 6, stomion: east side wall from the south. Plate 41B. Tomb 6, stomion: east side wall from the southwest. Plate 41C. Tomb 6, stomion: east side wall from the southwest. Plate 41D. Tomb 6, stomion: final entry from above. Plate 42A. Tomb 6, chamber: micromorphological sample 21831001. Plate 42B. Tomb 6, chamber: Pit 1 from the northeast. Plate 42C. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: left mandible of Skeleton 6.10 with large occlusal caries on first molar and loss of second premolar prior to death. Plate 42D. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: left tibia of Skeleton 6.8 with healed fracture on the distal third (medial aspect). Plate 42E. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: left tibia (medial aspect) of Skeleton 6.8—detail of the callus formation. Plate 43A. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: left tibia of Skeleton 6.8 with healed fracture on the distal third (lateral aspect). Plate 43B. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: left tibia (lateral aspect) of Skeleton 6.8—detail of the callus formation. Plate 43C. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: permanent dentition of Skeleton 6.7. Plate 43D. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: deciduous dentition of Skeleton 6.7. Plate 43E. Tomb 6, Burial 6.6: permanent and deciduous teeth of Skeleton 6.6. Plate 43F.

Tomb 6, chamber: Burial 6.4 from the southwest.

Plate 44A. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.4: alabastron 152. Plate 44B. Tomb 6: skull fragments of Skeleton 6.4 in extremely poor state of preservation. Plate 44C. Tomb 6: teeth of Skeleton 6.4. Plate 44D. Tomb 6: right upper limb of Skeleton 6.4 showing the poor condition of the bones. Plate 44E. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.4: chert debris 153. Plate 44F. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.4: chert cortical debris 154. Plate 45A. Tomb 6, chamber: Burial 6.5 from the south. Plate 45B. Tomb 6, chamber: Object Group 2 (jug 155) from the south. Plate 45C. Tomb 6: occipital bone and left temporal of Skeleton 6.5 in poor condition. Plate 45D. Tomb 6: mandible of Skeleton 6.5. Plate 45E. Tomb 6: teeth of Skeleton 6.5. Plate 45F.

Tomb 6: large occlusal caries on maxillary left first molar of Skeleton 6.5.

Plate 46A. Tomb 6, chamber, Object Group 2: narrow-necked jug 155. Plate 46B. Tomb 6, chamber, Object Group 2: chert/flint debris from core 156. Plate 46C. Tomb 6, chamber: Burial 6.1 from above. Plate 46D. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.1: stirrup jars 157 (right) and 158 (left).

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AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Plate 46E. Tomb 6: skull fragments of Skeleton 6.1. Plate 46F. Tomb 6: right mandible of Skeleton 6.1. Plate 47A. Tomb 6: teeth of Skeleton 6.1. Plate 47B. Tomb 6: occipital with apical bone of Skeleton 6.1. Plate 47C. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.3: (a) narrow-necked jug 160; (b) conical stirrup jar 163; (c) small jug 159; (d) flask 164; (e) conical piriform jar 162; (f) jug with cutaway neck 161. Plate 47D. Tomb 6: teeth of Skeleton 6.3. Plate 47E. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.3: serpentinite celt 165. Plate 48A. Tomb 6, chamber: Burial 6.2 from above (166, left; 168, right). Plate 48B. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.2: (a) narrow-necked jug 167; (b) small globular stirrup jar 168; (c) narrow-necked jug 166. Plate 49A. Tomb 6: teeth of Skeleton 6.2 showing poor preservation. Plate 49B. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.2: obsidian debris 169. Plate 49C. Tomb 6, chamber, Burial 6.2: chert debris 170. Plate 49D. Tomb 6, chamber: southeast wall repair from the northwest. Plate 49E. Tomb 6, chamber: southeast wall repair from the north. Plate 49F.

Tomb 6, chamber, Object Group 1: stirrup jar 171.

Plate 50A. Tomb 6, chamber, Object Group 1: chert flake 172. Plate 50B. Tomb 6, chamber, Layer 5: chert debris 173. Plate 50C. Tomb 6, chamber: collapse Layer 3 from the southwest. Plate 50D. Tomb 6, chamber: collapse Layer 2 from the west. Plate 51A. Tomb 6, chamber: micromorphological sample 21831002. Plate 51B. Tomb 6, chamber: micromorphological sample 21831003. Plate 51C.

Tomb 6, chamber: collapse Layer 1 from the east.

Plate 52A. View of Ayia Sotira from Tsoungiza (from the southeast). Plate 52B. View of Tsoungiza with Ayia Sotira in foreground, from the northwest. Plate 53.

Sgraffito bowl or plate (177); sgraffito bowls (178, 182); slip-painted bowl (179); jug or bowl (180); metallic ware(?) jug (181); Archaic maiolica jug (183); amphora(?) (184); stewpot (185).

Plate 54.

Coinage: (a, b) denier tournois (186, 187); petty coinage (188).

Acknowledgments

Our work would not have been possible without the dedication of our team members. Senior site supervisors were Stella Diakou, Angela Ziskowski, and Laura Surtees then of Bryn Mawr College; Eleni Milka then of the University of Groningen (The Netherlands); Jessica Miller then of Oxford University; Dr. Dimitri Nakassis then of Florida State University; and Cindy Lee Scott and Katherine Schleifer then of Brock University. Student assistants were Robbie Bhardwaj, Tarah Csaszar, Maggie Dick, Crystal Fulton, Andrew Gaiero, Kevin Kochan, Melody McIntyre, Lesley-Ann Morin, Alicia Smith, Christian Wilson, and Valerie Wolfkamp then of Brock University; Maggie Arnesen, Eliese Dow, Marina Gibbons, Kate Kemezis, Emre Kuruçayırlı, Jenny Lugo, and Allison Siegenthaler then of Bryn Mawr College; Cody Gertz then of Haverford College; Sabrina Higgins then of the University of British Columbia; Sarah Murray then of Stanford University; Ann-Sophie Schoess then of University College London; and Eleutheria Tsichli then of the University of Thessaloniki. Geoffrey Compton (then of the University of Michigan) and Johanna Best (then of Bryn Mawr College) were in charge of surveying and GIS data management. Donald Barber (Bryn Mawr College) conducted the ground penetrating radar survey and was assisted by Stephanie Olen (then of Bryn Mawr College). Panagiotis Karkanas (then of the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece) analyzed micromorphological samples. Jessica Miller and Eleni Milka excavated and processed human remains when Sevasti Triantaphyllou was not present in 2008. Anna Karabatsoli identified the chipped stone tool remains. Alexandra Livarda (University of Nottingham) and Georgia Kotzamani (Hellenic Ministry of Culture) organized the flotation operation and analyzed the botanical remains.

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AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Georgia Kotzamani and Alexandra Livarda would like to thank James C. Wright, Mary Dabney, and Angus K. Smith for inviting them to participate in the excavation project at Ayia Sotira, and for their excellent cooperation. Many thanks are also due to the many students who enthusiastically helped with flotation over the years. Maria Ntinou analyzed the wood charcoal macroremains. The Malcolm H. Wiener Laboratory for Archaeological Science at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens generously provided access to the necessary equipment, reference collection, and wood anatomy literature for the completion of wood charcoal analysis. Georgia Tsartsidou (Ephoreia of PalaeoanthropologySpeleology of Southern Greece) analyzed phytolith samples, while Maria Roumpou (then of the University of Bradford) analyzed organic residue samples. Rompou would like to thank Dr. Nick Kalogeropoulos and the Harokopio University of Athens (Department of Dietetics and Nutrition) for allowing access to their laboratory facilities. Camilla MacKay (Bryn Mawr College) and Alan M. Stahl (Princeton University) respectively identified the Medieval pottery and coins. Conservation was done by Penelope Taratori (4th Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities). Our architects were Daniel Lamp and Philip Sapirstein, and our technical artists were Birgit Konnemann, Tina Ross, Philip Sapirstein, Julia Pfaff, and Nicolaus Wright. Craig Mauzy was our object photographer. Dimitrios Niteros was foreman. The work has been sponsored by Brock University (Canada) and Bryn Mawr College (USA) and supported by those institutions (The Humanities Research Institute of Brock University, The Hetty Goldman Fund, and the Faculty Research Fund of Bryn Mawr College), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Institute for Aegean Prehistory, the Canadian Foundation for Innovation, James and Terri Miller, the Alwin Carus Land and Mineral Trust, and anonymous donors. The project would like to extend special thanks to David Rupp and Jonathan Tomlinson of the Canadian Institute in Greece and to Alexander Mantis and Konstantinos Kissas, successive directors of the 37th Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities. We are very grateful to the head guard of the Nemea Museum, Panagiotis Tselios, and his staff. We also wish to thank Michael Boyd, William Cavanagh, and Jeremy Rutter for reading the manuscript and sending us many helpful comments and suggestions, and Penelope Mountjoy, Thanasis Papadopoulos, Katie Demakopoulou, Nancy Bookidis, and Christian Cloke for providing dates and comparanda for selected objects. Last, we wish to express our appreciation for the enthusiastic interest and support given the project by the officials of the Dimarcheion of Nemea and the many residents and business persons in Ancient Nemea and New Nemea. Finally, we wish to state that this book would not be possible without the tireless efforts of Mary K. Dabney, who volunteered to pull together, organize, and edit the manuscripts of the many authors, and who persisted until the manuscript was submitted to the publisher. To her we all extend our heartfelt gratitude.

List of Abbreviations

AC AIF AS BSTFA

almost complete acid insoluble fraction Ayia Sotira N,O-bis (trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide BW Blocking Wall C complete cat. catalog cc cubic centimeter(s) cm centimeter(s) DAGs diacylglycerols diam. diameter dim. dimension E east EI electron ionization elev. elevation ENE east-northeast est. estimated EU excavation unit exc. excavation ext. exterior eV electron volt F fragmentary

fig. figure FM Furumark motif (Furumark 1941) fr(s). fragment(s) FS Furumark shape (Furumark 1941) FS# findspot number g gram(s) GC gas chromatography GC/MS gas chromatography/mass spectrometry GIS geographic information system GPR ground-penetrating radar h. height ID internal diameter int. interior KOH potassium hydroxide km kilometer L, l left L. length LBA Late Bronze Age LH Late Helladic lt. liter(s) m meter(s) m. mineralized M Molarity

xxviii

AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

MAGs monoacylglycerols m asl meters above sea level max. maximum ME methyl mm millimeters μm micrometers MN Nemea Museum number MNI minimum number of individuals m/z mass-to-charge ratio N north NE northeast NNW north-northwest NOR Nemea Organic Residue no(s). number(s) NVAP Nemea Valley Archaeological Project NW northwest OG Object Group OM ομάδα (group) number perf. perforation

PPL plane-polarized light pres. preserved R, r right S south SE southeast SF Stomion Floor SMU square meter unit SU stratigraphic unit SW southwest TCMS trimethylchlorosilane TMS trimethylsilyl th. thickness unc. uncertain v/v volume/volume W west w. width XPL cross-polarized light yr(s). year(s)

Skeletal Abbreviations AC C c I i L, l M

almost complete permanent canine or cervical vertebra or complete deciduous canine permanent incisor, mandibular or maxillary deciduous incisor, mandibular or maxillary left permanent molar, mandibular or maxillary

m mand max MC MT P R, r

deciduous molar, mandibular or maxillary mandibular maxillary metacarpal metatarsal permanent premolar, mandibular or maxillary right

1

Introduction

History of Investigation From 2006 to 2008 excavations were conducted at a Late Bronze Age (LBA) chamber tomb cemetery on the hillside at the church of Ayia Sotira, located northeast of the village of Koutsomodi and northwest of the Sanctuary of Zeus at Ancient Nemea in the Peloponnese (Fig. 1.1). This project operated under the auspices of the Canadian Institute in Greece with permission of the Greek Ministry of Culture and oversight by the 37th Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, and it was co-directed by R. Angus K. Smith of Brock University, James C. Wright of Bryn Mawr College, and Mary K. Dabney of Bryn Mawr College. In 2006, co-directors also included Evangelia Pappi of the 4th Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities and Sevasti Triantaphyllou of Aristotle University in Thessaloniki. The cemetery was discovered in 2002, when the guards of the Nemea Museum were notified of illegal digging in the olive grove of Panagiotis

Tombros, situated upslope from the small chapel of Ayia Sotira. As a result, Evangelia Pappi, on behalf of the 4th Ephoreia, salvaged Tomb 1 at Ayia Sotira, which was in the process of being looted (Figs. 1.2, 1.3). This tomb dates to the Late Helladic (LH) IIIA–IIIB period (Pappi 2001–2004). Another tomb in the area (Tomb 2), located to the west of Tomb 1, appeared to have already been completely robbed. Starting in 2006 our team explored the area around Tombs 1 and 2 using geophysical survey, surface pickup, test trenching, and systematic excavation. In addition to the olive grove of Mr. Tombros, for which the Greek state has filed for expropriation, arrangements were made to purchase and investigate two additional parcels of land upslope and to the north of this field; this land, owned by Vassilis and Anastasios Tombros, was uncultivated. During our three seasons of excavation (2006–2008), we excavated five more tombs (Tombs 2–6) with material dating from LH IIIA:1 to LH IIIB:2. A final season for study was held in 2009.

2

AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Phlious

Mt. Phoukas

Mt. Prophetes Elias

Ayia Sotira New Nemea

Koutsomodi Barnavos

Tsoungiza

Sanctuary of Zeus

N 0

1

2 km

Figure 1.1. Map of Nemea Valley showing location of Ayia Sotira and nearby sites. G. Compton and J. Wright.

Geographical Setting The cemetery at Ayia Sotira is located near the southern end of the Nemea Valley, an area best known for the Classical and Hellenistic Sanctuary of Zeus at Nemea, located southeast of the cemetery (Fig. 1.1). The valley is surrounded by low mountains and ridges at the east, south, and west, notably defined by Mt. Phoukas at the northeast, Daouli (Tembe) at the south, and Mt. Prophetes Elias to the west. The valley is widest at its southern end, forming a catchment area for the Nemea River that runs northward through the narrowing valley toward the Corinthian Gulf. The modern town of Archaia Nemea (Iraklion) is located in this southern end of the valley. The Bronze Age

settlement of Tsoungiza is located on a low hill roughly in the center of this southern area. The Nemea Valley is accessible from the north by following the course of the river up from the coastal plain, but the main passages are from the east, south, and west through small passes (Fig. 1.4). To the east lies the interior of the Corinthia and the larger valley drained by the Longopotamos River, with the settlements of Ancient Kleonai and Zygouries, both of which sit astride major routes from Corinth down into the Argolid. To the south the Argolid can be reached via the Tretos Pass, and the site of Mycenae is a three-hour walk away. To the west lies the larger valley of the Asopos River, in which the modern town of New Nemea is located, as well as the ancient settlement of Phlious

INTRODUCTION

3

Figure 1.2. Plan of Ayia Sotira showing tombs and test trenches. J. Best.

Tomb 1 EU 34

Figure 1.3. Plan of Ayia Sotira showing tombs and excavation units. J. Best.

and on the west side the Mycenaean settlement and cemetery at Aidonia. The cemetery at Ayia Sotira is located on the slopes of Mt. Prophetes Elias on the western side of the valley (Fig. 1.1). The hillside faces southeast toward the nearest LBA settlement at Tsoungiza, which is 1.2 km distant and at roughly the same elevation. To the south, the ravine at Barnavos is also visible, where a single, largely robbed

Mycenaean chamber tomb was excavated in 2002 (Wright et al. 2008). The geology of Ayia Sotira’s location comprises interbedded and faulted Tertiary marls and limestone conglomerates locally overlain by Quaternary alluvium. Marls and limestones are often capped by a calcareous palaeosol (caliche). This hard caliche, combined with the soft bedrock below, no doubt made the hillside an attractive location for

4

AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Figure 1.4. Map of Nemea Valley region. J. Luchin, courtesy of J. Marchand; T. Ross.

the digging of chamber tombs. Although most of the tombs’ chambers eventually collapsed, the caliche cap initially provided a more stable ceiling, while the marls made the bedrock relatively easy for the Mycenaeans to excavate.

History of Modern Looting Unfortunately, the modern setting is one in which the danger of illicit excavation is a constant threat. As mentioned above, the cemetery was discovered in 2002 when it was learned that the site was in the process of being looted, and the local government officials and archaeologists intervened. As noted, looters had disturbed Tomb 1 and had earlier ransacked Tomb 2, quite likely when

the area was graded by modern earth-moving equipment to plant an olive grove in the 1980s. At the start of our campaign in 2006, it was clear that further illicit activities had occurred since 2002. We documented the evidence of these disturbances, and more were discovered in 2007 and 2008. They included holes from systematic probing using a mechanical drill as well as excavated pits and trenches (Pls. 1A–1C). Looters also excavated what turned out to be a geological fault to the west of Tomb 2 (Pl. 1D). It appears that a section of the marl on the west bank of a steep ravine had detached itself, possibly during one of the earthquakes in recent times (Vita-Finzi and King 1985; Collier et al. 1992; Gaki-Papanastassiou, Papanastassiou, and Maroukian 2007). Sadly, our excavations did not entirely deter looters from continuing to disturb the area. Upon

INTRODUCTION

the conclusion of our first season in 2006, we made the decision to hire a night guard for the fall, winter, and spring months. When we returned for our 2007 season, however, further indications of illicit digging were visible. These included additional probing of the fields and the partial destruction of the intact stomion (doorway) of Tomb 4, the chamber and dromos (entrance corridor) of which had been excavated in 2006. Stones had been removed from the middle of the blocking wall of the stomion to create a passage from the dromos to the chamber (Pls. 2A, B). Because the chamber was already accessible from the top, and those who removed the stones did not bother to do so all the way to the floor of the tomb, the purpose of this vandalism remains unclear. Another serious incident occurred during our 2007 season of excavation. On this occasion, we had partially exposed a burial in Tomb 5, but time constraints forced us to leave it incompletely cleared but carefully covered overnight. Although we had posted a guard for most of the time, the burial was uncovered and disturbed during a lapse in coverage (Pl. 2C). The incident was immediately reported to the local government officials and police, and guarding continued until excavation of the tomb was finished.

Methodology of Excavation In order to recover as much information as possible from the tombs at Ayia Sotira, some of which had already been looted, our methodology followed those used for the tomb at Barnavos in 2002. At Barnavos, Wright and colleagues (2008) developed methodological protocols for excavation, documentation, and recovery of remains. The goals were to identify, excavate, and protect the remains and to understand them as components of the history of the local LBA, known primarily from excavations of the nearby settlement of Tsoungiza, the residents of which were undoubtedly the occupants of these tombs.

5

Geophysical and Surface Survey In 2006, work at Ayia Sotira began with comprehensive survey of the olive grove of Panagiotis Tombros, and this included systematic surface pick up and a geophysical survey of the area with ground-penetrating radar (GPR), with transects taken across areas we deemed likely to reveal anomalies; this work was carried out by Donald Barber (Department of Geology, Bryn Mawr College) and assisted by students involved with the project. The GPR survey was done with 200 and 100 MHz antennae with a 1,000V Pulse Ekko system. Owing to time limitations, we were unable to conduct an intensive gridded survey and, therefore, opted for transects across the fields. A total of 14 transects were taken with a view to testing as much of the area as possible (Fig. 1.5). In addition, a transect was taken just north of the previously robbed tomb (Tomb 2) in order to get a typical signature for comparison with anomalies registered in the transects. Ambiguity and uncertainty were introduced by air-wave and subsurface returns from olive trees and their roots as well as by geological faults and underlying conglomerate beds. While later analysis suggests that transects taken just north of Tomb 5 had, in fact, revealed anomalies created by Tomb 5, the results at the time were considered inconclusive. Additional geophysical survey was conducted in 2008 by Barber, again assisted by students involved with the project. Survey was done in the fields to the north using a 200 MHz GPR as well as a dual magnetic field gradiometer system (Figs. 1.5, 1.6). Despite attempts to remove small metal debris from the area, the magnetometer survey was hampered by the abundant presence of objects including shotgun shells, wires, bolts, roof tiles, and Byzantine pottery. None of the 2008 geophysical work covered a tomb that was subsequently excavated, but a large anomaly north of Tomb 2, and another northeast of Tomb 1 and north of Tomb 4, might be related to these tombs dug in previous years. A Byzantine settlement uphill from the Mycenaean cemetery had previously been identified during the Nemea Valley Archaeological Project

6

AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

385

6 EU 41 EU

380

chamber tomb GPR lines 2008 GPR lines 2006 2 EU 33

1 EU 34

5

EU 32

EU 39

field road

4 375

EU 36

5 m contours

EU 38 EU 37

Tombros’ field boundary 3 EU 35

N

Figure 1.5. Map of GPR transects at Ayia Sotira. J. Best.

370

00

55

10 10

15 15

20 m

EU chamber tomb magnetic gradiometry survey grids field road 5 m contours Tombros’ field boundary

N

0

(NVAP) Archaeological Survey (Dabney 1999; Athanassopoulos 2016, 107–114, nos. 602, 603). As the geophysical work was being conducted in 2006, our team carried out an intensive surface survey of the field, which was gridded into 2 x 2 m squares oriented to the Greek Grid (Hellenic Geodetic Reference System HGRS87/EGSA87). Surface remains were picked up as a separate unit for each square. The purpose of this work was to learn

5

10

15

20 m

Figure 1.6. Map of magnetic gradiometry grids on Ayia Sotira. J. Best.

what the distribution of artifacts was on the surface, to assess the range of material available, and to try to relate LBA material to the location of tombs in the field. Most of the remains belong to the Middle Byzantine Period (largely 13th c. c.e.), although some LBA pottery was identifiable (Fig. 1.7). The very few Mycenaean sherds found on the surface were probably from the upper layers of the dromoi that had been disturbed by modern plowing.

INTRODUCTION

385

7

6

380

1 2

4 5

3

375

370

chamber tombs

N

Figure 1.7. Surface distribution of prehistoric pottery on Ayia Sotira prior to excavation. J. Best.

5 m contours field road 365

Tombros’ field boundary Surface distribution of prehistoric pottery: 1 fragment per m 2

0

5

10

20

30 m

Test Trenches During our 2006 season, a total of 22 trenches that were 0.5 m wide and spaced 4 m apart were excavated by hand following the E–W grid (Fig. 1.2). These trenches were excavated primarily in the northern and central portions of the olive grove. Because of the topography and the presence of Tombs 1 and 2, these areas were deemed the most likely to contain tombs. Because the dromoi of Mycenaean tombs were typically constructed perpendicular to the fall line of the hillsides into which they were excavated and the fall line of our area runs roughly north–south, our trenches were designed to crosscut these linear features. Each test trench was excavated to bedrock or sterile marl, which was then scraped with trowels in an attempt to identify the dromoi of chamber tombs. When a test trench successfully crosscut a dromos, the trench revealed a rectangular patch of sediment at its base. A primary difficulty with this method lay in the fact that sediment in the dromoi at Ayia Sotira very closely resembled—in both color and consistency—the surrounding bedrock. Nevertheless, after several weeks two dromoi were identified in this manner, at which time test trenching was suspended in order to concentrate on the excavation of the two tombs—Tombs 3 and 4.

2 fragments per m 2

Because the test trenches from 2006 were concentrated in the northern and central areas of the olive grove, and test trenching ceased for the season once the tombs had been found, a substantial portion of the olive grove remained to be explored in 2007. Concerns about time during our second season led to a different and more efficient approach to test trenching. A backhoe was hired and used in combination with hand-dug test trenches in areas that the backhoe could not access. In 2007, a total of 30 test trenches were excavated with a backhoe, with an additional two dug by hand. Again, these trenches were spaced roughly 4 m apart, but the backhoe-excavated test trenches were much less regular in width and directionality; in general, they measured roughly 1–2 m in width. In addition, use of the backhoe, unsurprisingly, was less precise. While the hand-dug test trenches excavated the surface soil and stopped when bedrock was reached, the backhoe was not always so delicate. On occasion the backhoe excavated into the bedrock. Backhoe-excavated test trenches were scraped and cleaned by hand in order to expose changes in the sediment created by dromoi. Our approach in 2007 allowed us to quickly trench those areas we had not explored in 2006 and to explore more thoroughly areas in which

8

AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

trenches had been dug by hand. The most significant result of this method was the quick discovery of Tomb 5, which the hand-dug trenches of 2006 had failed to reveal. In 2008, we were able to expand our investigations into the northern fields, and we continued the process of using a combination of backhoe and hand-dug test trenches spaced at roughly 4 m intervals. Test trenching in these areas was complicated by the irregular spacing of trees and the topography, which resulted in the necessity of using more hand-dug test trenches in certain areas. In particular, the area upslope to the northwest was more heavily forested, and a relatively steep drop off into a ravine marked the western boundary. Both of these situations made access with the backhoe difficult. In all, a total of 20 trenches were excavated with a backhoe and five by hand. In this case, handexcavated test trenches resulted in the discovery of Tomb 6, located near the western boundary of the northwestern field. In the test trenches, as in the surface survey, some LBA pottery was found, but the vast majority of finds were Byzantine pottery of the 13th century c.e. These were found in surface levels disturbed by modern plowing, and they included a representative range of glazed ware, coarse cooking and storage jar fragments, roof tile fragments, and Frankish coins.

Excavation Following the discovery of each tomb through the process of test trenching, the first problem that needed to be solved was the extent and orientation of the tomb. In other words, how long was the dromos, where did it end, and where exactly were the stomion and chamber of the tomb? In the case of certain tombs (such as Tomb 4), test trenching revealed both an outline of the dromos and a portion of the collapsed chamber of the tomb. For Tomb 3, on the other hand, we began with only an outline of the dromos. Beginning with only a small portion of the dromos, its width and direction could be anticipated, and it could therefore be traced both to its shallow entrance downslope and to its connection with the stomion of the tomb upslope. This was done by laying out and excavating a long,

SU9 21 SMUs N6421, E734 N6422, E734

SMU N6420, E735 SU 922

368.00 367.00

pit

366.00 365.00 m asl E7 34 9

5

42

N6

E7

4

38

42

N6

E7

23

37

4 N6

E7

2

42

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36

E7

21

35

4 N6

0 E7

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N6

34

Figure 1.8. Method of excavation by SUs and SMUs at Barnavos. After Wright et al. 1990, fig. 14.

rectangular trench in the anticipated area of the dromos. The sediment in this trench was cleared down to the level of the bedrock so that the lines of the sediment-filled dromos could be clearly distinguished. In this manner it became obvious where the dromos began at ground level and where it met the stomion (Pl. 2D). In 2006, this excavated area around the tombs was expanded to encompass 2 m on either side of each tomb. Excavation units (EUs) were also opened at the southerly extent of the dromoi of Tombs 1 and 2. This was done with the hopes of finding evidence for mortuary activities that occurred outside the tomb itself. Unfortunately, the olive grove in which the tombs were located had been extensively cultivated, and this cultivation included use of a deep plow. This plowing had eradicated the LBA surface and left characteristic scars in the bedrock itself (Pl. 3A). During our excavations we utilized a number of methods in order to recover the maximum amount of information from the tomb contexts. Most fundamentally, our recording system relied on the use of EUs, stratigraphic units (SUs), and square meter units (SMUs). This system was developed first for use by the Nemea Valley Archaeological Project (NVAP), and it was also used for the excavation of the tomb at Barnavos (Fig. 1.8; Wright et al. 1990, 621–623, fig. 14). The use of EU designates the area, or trench, being excavated, while SU refers to a “discrete unit of excavation determined either arbitrarily or on the basis of observable

INTRODUCTION

stratigraphy,” or what might often be called a locus (Wright et al. 1990, 621, fig. 14). Square meter units are used to divide an EU into 1 m squares on the map grid. At Ayia Sotira, mapping was done with the use of a total station and followed the Greek Grid (Hellenic Geodetic Reference System HGRS87/EGSA87). The SMUs were preserved for the duration of the excavation; tagged nails were hammered into the sediment at each corner, and they provided a greater measure of horizontal control for each SU. All materials recovered from the excavation were therefore labeled by EU, SU, and SMU as well as by the date of excavation and the initials of the EU supervisor. In addition to our approach for the recording of stratigraphy in the tombs, we also employed the use of vertical earth sections, or balks, within the areas of the dromoi and chambers of the tombs. For the chamber, one or two small sections of balk were left extending from the chamber walls. This was done once a sufficient depth was reached to ensure that cultural levels would be preserved in the resulting sections. For the dromoi, balks normally consisted of a long, thin section of sediment that was left against the eastern wall of the dromos and ran along its length, and another transverse balk left up against the stomion of the tomb (Pl. 3B). In some instances a second transverse balk was left closer to the entrance, or shallow, end of the dromos. These balks caused practical difficulties with the excavation of the dromoi, because the dromoi were already quite narrow and the balks made them even more so. Nevertheless, the balks allowed for close macroscopic examination and recording of the stratigraphy of the chambers and dromoi. They also allowed for the stratigraphical excavation of the remaining sediment once analysis of the section was complete, and for the collection of micromorphological samples.

Specialized Studies The results of the specialized studies described below are incorporated into the tomb descriptions (Ch. 3) and conclusions (Ch. 10) presented in this volume, and more detailed reports for several of these studies can be found in Chapters 4–9.

9

Sediment Micromorphology The use of micromorphological samples proved to be one of the most revealing methods employed in our excavation of the tombs at Ayia Sotira. While macroscopic examination of the stratigraphy visible in the balks proved fruitful, it was nevertheless challenging due to the limited viewing angles, the complicated stratigraphy, and the homogenous composition of the sediment, in particular within the dromoi. Viewing angles in the dromoi were limited because of the narrowness of the space, so that a section that might measure up to 2 m high by 5 m wide needed to be viewed from a distance of less than 1 m (although oblique views from above were possible). The complicated stratigraphy of the dromoi was the result of both repeated use and the process of backfilling in antiquity, in which the same sediment that was excavated from the dromos was used to refill it—with a variety of methods that probably included pushing, shoveling, and basket dumping—when the burial process was complete (Karkanas et al. 2012). Micromophological analysis of sediment samples from balks left in the chambers and dromoi, therefore, helped both to confirm and to supplement stratigraphic observations made through macroscopic analysis. Panagiotis Karkanas (of the Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece) developed the protocol for collecting and conducted the analysis of the micromorphological samples from Ayia Sotira. The collection of the samples began with the macroscopic examination of the balks in order to identify linear features that could be interpreted as stratigraphic interfaces. Rectangular outlines were drawn around these features in order to create blocks of sediment ranging from 10 to 35 cm in height with a width of 15 cm. These blocks were first photographed and drawn in situ, then the sediment was consolidated by repeated spraying with a solution of dilute sodium silicate as the blocks were carved back on all four sides to a depth of 10 cm. The resulting, hardened block of sediment was wrapped with gypsum cloth to further consolidate it and carefully cut from the balk with a sharp tool. These blocks were subsequently impregnated with resin and then cut into thin sections for macroscopic and microscopic examination, and they were delivered to Karkanas

10

AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

for further processing and analysis (Pl. 3C; Karkanas et al. 2012; see also Karkanas, Ch. 4). Archaeobotany, Shells, Lithics, and Phytoliths In addition to sediment micromorphology, the excavations at Ayia Sotira prioritized the systematic collection of samples for archaeobotanical analysis, in order to form a better picture of the interactions between people and plants in the context of Mycenaean mortuary rituals. Environmental samples for both macrobotanical and phytolith analysis were collected. Protocols for the collection of samples for the recovery of macrobotanical remains were developed by Georgia Kotzamani (Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece) and Alexandra Livarda (Department of Archaeology, University of Nottingham), who also carried out the analyses. Samples were taken from every SU that showed no significant signs of disturbance; this included samples from the dromos, stomion, and chamber of each tomb, as well as more extensive samples from around burials and inside ceramic vessels. Samples were processed with a flotation machine. The light, floatable fraction was collected in a stack of 1 mm- and 0.3 mm-gauge brass sieves, dried, and then sorted for macroremains with the aid of a stereo microscope. Heavy residues were retained in the flotation machine by a 1 mm mesh and later sorted with the naked eye for archaeobotanical and other organic remains and small artifacts (Kotzamani and Livarda, Ch. 6). Maria Ntinou (Ch. 7) analyzed the wood charcoal macroremains. The shell material from these samples was examined by Tatiana Theodoropoulou (American School of Classical Studies at Athens Wiener Lab Post-Doctoral Fellow). Only the remains of land snails were found, however, and they are most likely to be intrusive. Anna Karabatsoli identified the chipped stone tool remains, all of which were recovered with the flotation machine. Georgia Tsartsidou (Ephoreia of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece) developed protocols for the collection of samples for phytolith analysis and carried out the analysis itself. Samples were collected from the dromos, from within the tombs’ chambers, and in

particular from around the burials and inside ceramic vessels. In addition, control samples were taken from the surface of the tombs prior to excavation. Sample sizes were approximately 200 cc and were collected by trowels cleaned with distilled water. The samples were secured in ziplock plastic bags and then double bagged to prevent contamination. They were analyzed at the Wiener Lab of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (see Tsartsidou, Ch. 8). Organic Residue Analysis In order better to understand the contents of the vessels included with the burials, a systematic program of organic residue analysis was also undertaken. Forty-nine samples of pottery sherds and sediment from the chambers and dromoi of the tombs along with 13 control samples were taken for organic residue analysis. Maria Roumpou (University of Bradford) developed the protocols for collection and also carried out the analyses. In order to reduce the potential for contamination, samples were only handled with nitrile gloves or trowels. Pottery samples were not washed, and they were stored by wrapping in acid-free paper before being stored in ziplock plastic bags (see Roumpou, Ch. 9). Roumpou then removed samples for residue testing in a laboratory at Harokopeio University. Bioarchaeology Last, but certainly not least, was our focus on the recovery of skeletal remains for bioarchaeological analysis. Our co-director in 2006, Sevasti Triantaphyllou (Aristotle University of Thessalonki), developed the protocols for the recovery of these remains and carried out the analyses. Our hopes for these analyses were to move beyond the standard determinations of minimum number of individuals (MNI), age, and sex. We aimed to provide insight into family and kin groups, health, diet, and pathologies. Unfortunately, the very poor preservation of the skeletal remains at Ayia Sotira did not allow all of these goals to be realized (see Triantaphyllou, Ch. 5).

INTRODUCTION

11

Site Conservation

Organization of Volume

The Ayia Sotira excavations took a number of approaches toward site conservation and the preservation of the excavated chamber tombs. During excavation of the test trenches and tombs, efforts were made to preserve as many trees as possible; this was the case both for the olive trees in the southern field as well as the trees in the uncultivated northern fields. After excavation, all test trenches were backfilled, and the excavation dumps were leveled in order to return the fields as much as possible to their original state. A variety of approaches were taken for the preservation of the excavated tombs. The chamber of Tomb 1, excavated in 2002, was in danger of collapse and therefore was backfilled at the beginning of the 2006 season; the dromos of this tomb was left exposed and a fence was placed around it. The chamber of Tomb 2, investigated in 2006, was reinforced by steel screw tension bases supporting wooden cross beams. Around Tombs 3 and 4, also excavated in 2006, we erected low, welded steel frames that were anchored into the marl. Onto these frames was bolted corrugated metal roofing that rises 0.3–0.4 m above the ground surface and completely covers the excavation areas (Pl. 3D). Additionally, a berm was heaped up around the sides of each tomb in order to drain water away from the tombs (Pl. 4A). The conservation of Tomb 5 in 2007 was conducted differently because of the topography in the area. A steep scarp exists just to its north and we could not be confident that any system of roofing and drainage channels would prevent collapse during the winter months. A layer of heavy agricultural plastic sheeting (geoífasma; γεωύφασμα), therefore, was placed along the surfaces of the tomb before it was backfilled with the sediment originally excavated from the tomb (Pl. 4B). After backfilling was complete, the stones from the stomion of the tomb and a layer of gravel were placed over the area of the dromos and chamber (Pl. 4C). A similar method was used to conserve Tomb 6 in 2008 (Pls. 4D, 4E).

The following chapters describe the excavated tombs in detail, beginning with Tomb 1 (Ch. 2) and followed by Tombs 2–6 (Ch. 3). Chapters 4–9 contain specialists’ reports on geoarchaeology (Ch. 4), human remains (Ch. 5), archaeobotanical remains (Ch. 6), wood charcoal (Ch. 7), phytoliths (Ch. 8), and organic residues (Ch. 9). Chapter 10 provides analysis and conclusions, and an appendix details our finds of medieval pottery and coins at the site. In Chapters 2 and 3, information about skeletal and artifactual material is included in each tomb context organized according to its material type. In Chapter 2, Tomb 1 is described in the order in which it was excavated, and the numbering of the skeletal material follows the same pattern, so that the lowest numbers represent the first skeletons excavated and the highest represent the last excavated skeletons. The numbering of the skeletal material follows the same pattern in Chapter 3 (Tombs 2–6), with the earliest excavated skeletons given the lowest numbers. In Chapter 3, however, the description of each tomb begins with the earliest levels and ends with the latest evidence from the tomb. For this reason, the numbering of the skeletal material in Tombs 2–6 follows a descending order. When appropriate, the descriptions of skeletal material begin with a summary of the evidence and its state of preservation. The skeletal material is listed by individual and divided into cranial, teeth, and post-cranial categories of evidence. Sex, age, and any indications of pathologies are detailed. When possible, musculoskeletal markers and non-metric traits are also listed. A specific designation has been adopted for the use of the terms “skeleton” and “burial,” with the former used to describe the biological information related to the bone material, and the latter used to represent a more holistic picture that involves the skeletal remains and the parameters of the treatment of the deceased (burial position, orientation, and so forth) alongside the associated artifacts. A summary of skeletal material contained in each tomb is provided in tabular form.

12

AYIA SOTIRA: A MYCENAEAN CHAMBER TOMB CEMETERY IN THE NEMEA VALLEY, GREECE

Artifactual material is also listed by tomb context and divided into categories of ceramic vessels (divided into painted and unpainted categories), figurines, jewelry, and stone and bronze tools. Catalog entries are organized as follows: 1. Catalog number. 2. Museum and/or Ayia Sotira excavation inventory number. 3. Contextual information, including findspot number (FS#), SMU or SU with north (N) and east (E) coordinates, and elevation (elev.). 4. Figure and/or plate numbers. 5. Object type, preservation, and description. Furumark shape (FS) given if possible. 6. Description of decoration, if any, including Furumark motif (FM).

7. Applicable dimensions, given in centimeters. 8. Description of material type. For ceramic vessels, Munsell color of fabric (Munsell Color Company 1975) and description of any inclusions. 9. Munsell color of slip and/or painted decoration, and description of surface treatment. 10. Chronological period to which the object belongs. 11. Comparanda. A summary of artifactual material contained in each tomb is provided in tabular form.

2

Tomb 1 by Evangelia Pappi and Sevasti Triantaphyllou

Tomb 1 was excavated in 2002 after severe looting occurred in the area during the summer of the same year. Tomb 1 is located about 12 m west of and parallel to Tomb 4 and about 5 m north of and in line with Tomb 3 (Fig. 1.3). The looting was the reason for the discovery of the previously unknown chamber tomb cemetery at Ayia Sotira. The robbers dug a tunnel from the northern end of the dromos toward the stomion. They destroyed the drywall masonry sealing the stomion at a depth of 1.80 m from the modern ground surface and entered the stomion by digging downward into it for a length of 2.50 m and to a depth of 1.30 m (Figs. 2.1–2.3). They did not reach as far as the chamber, as none of its content, burials, or floor deposits were disturbed. The guards of the Nemea Museum were notified about the disturbance of the tomb and they informed the 4th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, which was responsible for the area of Nemea at that time. A salvage excavation was conducted immediately in order to rescue Tomb 1 (Pappi 2001–2004). Excavation supervisors were Persephone Galani†

and Georgia Traka. The workmen were Nikolaos Makris, Dimitrios Teknos, and Georgios Kavouras. The drawings are by Maria Nioti† with inking by Garyfalia Kalkanakou and Fotini Taravira. The conservation was carried out by Fotis Dimakis and Penelope Taratori. The excavation lasted one month (from June 25 to July 26) and followed the standard protocols of the 4th Ephorate for excavation and documentation. These are that the uppermost point of the stomion entrance was established as a benchmark for measurements of elevation (elev. 0.00 [benchmark]; see Fig. 2.3) and a 1 m2 grid was established in the dromos, stomion, and chamber. In 2006, when systematic excavation of the Ayia Sotira cemetery began, the excavation grid of Tomb 1 was converted into the overall NVAP SMU grid (see above, pp. 8–9 [in Introduction]). All material that was recovered (artifacts and human remains) was given an OM, or ομάδα (group), number. Later, when artifacts and bioarchaeological remains were brought to the museum, the artifacts (ceramic vessels, small objects, and tools) were given an inventory number

14

EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU

N

B

B

00

11

22 m m

Figure 2.1. Plan and section of Tomb 1 showing robbers’ entrance hole into the stomion (dashed lines) and layer of stones in dromos. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

D

C N

A B

A B

D

C

00

11

22 mm

Figure 2.2. Plan (center) and sections (Section A, top; Section B, bottom) of Tomb 1 showing floor of chamber and dromos with all associated features and finds. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

TOMB 1

(Nemea Museum inventory number [MN]). Sediment was dry sieved from all levels and different segments of the tomb except for the uppermost levels of the chamber, which consisted of the debris of the collapsed ceiling without any cultural remains. Pottery in the tomb spans LH IIIA:2 to LH IIIB. It accommodated 14 individuals, which were accompanied by ceramic vessels, clay figurines, stone beads, and a bronze leaf-shaped razor. The discussion of Tomb 1 starts with the dromos and is followed by the stomion and chamber. Within each of these parts, special features (pits, niches) are discussed, followed by a catalog of recovered artifacts and a discussion of the human remains. The catalog of artifacts comprises a number of pottery fragments selected from the OM groups. These pottery fragments were assigned a number that consists of the OM group or one of the OM groups from which it came, followed by a serial number.

15

Section D–D

Figure 2.3. Elevation of Tomb 1 entrance to stomion showing robbers’ disturbance (dashed lines). M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

Dromos The dromos is oriented roughly N–S, sloping downward into the bedrock. Near the stomion at the north, the dromos is ca. 1.10 m wide at the bottom and 0.90 m wide at ground surface level, forming a trapezoid in vertical cross-section (Figs. 2.3, 2.4). The dromos is only 0.60 m wide where the lip meets ground level at its southern end. A pit, Pit 1, was cut into the dromos at its southern end. Three niches were cut into the walls of the dromos (Figs. 2.2, 2.4). Two of these niches were cut in the west wall: the northern one (SMUs 241/197, 242/196, 242/197, 243/197, elev. -0.73 to -1.4 m) is 0.48 m high, 1.52 m long, and cut 0.40 m deep into the dromos wall; and the southern one (SMUs 240/197, 241/197, elev. -1.36 to -1.86 m) is 0.50 m high, 0.90 m long, and cut 0.30 m deep into the dromos wall (Fig. 2.5). The final niche, roughly elliptical in shape, was cut in the east wall near the stomion (SMUs 241/198, 242– 243/198–199, elev. -0.5 to -1.4 m) and measures 0.68 m high and 2.30 m long. It was cut 0.60 m deep into the dromos wall (Fig. 2.6). No traces of artifacts or human bones were noticed in the niches, although it should be noted that the sediment from these contexts was not water sieved. Although the niches were cut at a relatively high level in the dromos walls and

Section C–C

Figure 2.4. Elevation of Tomb 1 dromos showing niches. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

northern niche

southern niche

Figure 2.5. Elevation and section of Tomb 1 niches at west wall of dromos. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

16

EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU

a

b

Figure 2.6. Elevation and section of Tomb 1 niche at east wall of dromos. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

no finds were found in association with them, the fact that there are niches in other tombs of the same cemetery (Tombs 4, 5) is an indication that the niches of Tomb 1 possibly are not natural. Furthermore, a layer of stones and limestone slabs was found in the fill of the dromos along its east wall (SMUs 240–242/197–198, elev. -1.45 to -1.80 m). This feature may be associated with the disturbance by the robbers of the covering of the niches and the dry-stone blocking wall of the stomion (see below for discussion of stomion).

Pit 1 The orientation of Pit 1 (SMUs 234–235/196, 234–235/197, elev. -2.20 to -2.80 m) is N–S, and it is roughly rectangular in plan and in section (N–S max. L. 1.50; E–W max. w. 0.50; max. depth 0.60 m; Fig. 2.7; Pls. 5A, 5B). Flat stone slabs, which covered the pit, had fallen inside it. The largest one was the northern slab, which was 0.70 m long, 0.42 m wide, and 0.08 m thick (elev. -2.20 to -2.70 m). Another slab measuring 0.30 x 0.20 m and 0.04 m thick had also fallen into the pit (elev. -2.36 to -2.65 m). Two further slabs (first: 0.30 x 0.16 x 0.06 m, elev. -2.20 m; second: 0.50 x 0.36 x 0.08 m, elev. -2.28 m) were found in a horizontal position on top of the pit. A protruding rectangular slab measuring 0.50 x 0.36 m and 0.02 m thick,

c 0

1

2m

Figure 2.7. Tomb 1, Pit 1: (a) plans of covering slabs; (b) plan with burial; and (c) section. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

which was placed upright diagonally in the northeastern corner, might have served as a grave marker (Pl. 5A). In the north side of the pit another slab (0.40 x 0.20 x 0.05 m, elev. -2.55 to -2.76 m) was found near the bottom. The pit contained the primary burial of one adult (Skeleton 1.1) and the secondary burials of two more individuals, one adult (Skeleton 1.2) and one subadult (Skeleton 1.3; human remains: OM 12, OM 13 [dry sieve], OM 26). The few skeletal remains of the two secondary burials (see skeletal inventory, below) were located underneath the lower limbs of the primary burial, and they probably represent the intentional placement in the pit of a selection of only long bones from earlier burials. The position of the primary burial as well as the flat stone located at the northern side of the pit would suggest that the head was placed to the north while the rest of the body was oriented to the south in a strongly flexed position on its right side. Also, the left arm and forearm were probably bent to the chin. It is possible that the skull was removed intentionally because there is no evidence of cranial remains. No grave goods were found with these individuals.

TOMB 1

17

Human Remains SKELETON 1.1 (primary burial; Fig. 2.8)

Post-cranial skeleton: fragmentary L humerus (exc. no. 9)/R humerus (F middle third), L radius (F middle third; exc. no. 8), L ulna (F middle third; exc. no. 8), L femur (C middle third, AC proximal third; exc. no. 2), R femur (F proximal/middle/distal third; exc. no. 1), L tibia (F proximal/middle third; exc. no. 3), R tibia (F middle third; exc. no. 7). Sex: indeterminate—bone morphology. Age: adult—bone morphology. SKELETON 1.2 (secondary burial)

Post-cranial skeleton: fragmentary R femur (F proximal/middle/distal third; exc. no. 4, underneath exc. no. 2). Sex: indeterminate—bone morphology. Age: adult—bone morphology. SKELETON 1.3 (secondary burial)

Post-cranial skeleton: fragmentary L tibia (C middle third, AC distal third; exc. no. 5: next to exc. no. 4), R tibia (C middle third, F distal third; exc. no. 6, next to exc. no. 5; Pl. 5C) Sex: indeterminate—bone morphology. Age: infant/child (3–6 yrs.)—bone morphology.

Dromos Fill The majority of the dromos was disturbed by modern agriculture and the activity of the robbers. This, together with the urgent character of the rescue excavation, was the reason why there is no stratigraphic evidence from the dromos. The distribution of artifacts found in the fill of the dromos is concentrated in the northern part near the stomion (SMUs 240–243/197, 240–243/198). Painted Ceramic Vessels 1 (24.1; OM 24, elev. -1.00 to -1.08 m, SMUs 241/197, 241/198; Fig. 2.9). Kylix (FS 256/257). Base fr. Linear painted. Arched base with broad bands. Max. pres. h. 3.2; diam. base 9.5 cm. Pink (7.5YR 7/4) clay with few reddish inclusions. Red (2.5YR 4/8) paint; pres. luster. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB:1.

Figure 2.8. Tomb 1: skeletal inventory of Skeleton 1.1. S. Triantaphyllou.

2 (43.1; OM 1, SMUs 234–241/197, 234–241/198; OM 31, elev. -2.33 to -2.44 m, SMU 238/197; OM 43, elev. -2.46 m, SMUs 242/197, 242/198; Fig. 2.9). Shallow cup (FS 219). Nine joining rim through base frs., one nonjoining rim fr. Flaring lip; central depression on base. Band on lip; stipple pattern (FM 77) on upper body; fine line group on lower body flanked by broad bands. H. 4.9; diam. base 3 cm. Pink (7.5YR 7/4) clay; interior reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6) to pink (7.5YR 8/4). Dark reddish-brown (2.5YR 3/4) to reddishyellow (5YR 6/6, 6/8) paint. Date: LH IIIA:1–2 early (Thomas 2011a, 194, fig. 9:60, 61). 3 (14.1; OM 14, elev. -1.10 to -1.83 m, SMU 241/198; Fig. 2.9). Kylix (FS 256/257). Single body fr. Mycenaean flower (FM 18) with fine line group below. Max. pres. h. 4.4 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 7/4, 7/3 toward ext. surface) clay, with one large dark brown and few small gray inclusions visible. Light gray (2.5Y 7/2) lustrous slip on ext., pale yellow (2.5Y 7/3) on int.; predominantly light yellowish-brown (10YR 6/4) and dark gray (5YR 4/1) paint. Date: LH IIIA:2.

18

EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU 43-1

1 1

22

5 5

33

66

44

7 7

8 8 Figure 2.9. Tomb 1, dromos: kylikes (1, 3, 8), shallow cup (2), and angular kylikes (4–7). Scale 1:3. B Konnemann, J. Pfaff, and N. Wright.

Unpainted Ceramic Vessels 4 (7.1; OM 7, elev. -1.96 to -2.10 m, SMU 238/197; Fig. 2.9). Angular kylix (FS 267). Seven joining rim through body frs. with handle. Slightly flaring above carination; everted rim. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. (bottom to handle top) 3.8, (bottom to rim) 3.3; diam. rim 10.5; h. lip to carination 1.5 cm. Pink (7.5YR 8/4) clay; int. pink (7.5YR 7/4); core reddish yellow (5YR 6/6); very few small gray inclusions visible on both surfaces; medium-sized brown inclusions at core. Pres. luster. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 5 (8.1; OM 3, elev. -0.69 to -0.80 m, SMUs 234– 241/197, 241/198; OM 8, elev. -1.86 to -1.89 m, SMUs 240/197, 240/198; OM 14, elev. -1.10 to -1.83 m, SMU 241/198; Fig. 2.9). Angular kylix (FS 267). Eight joining rim through body frs. with handle. Flaring and concave above carination. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 5.8; diam. rim 11.6; h. lip to carination 2.5 cm. Occasional traces of low luster at surface. Ext. pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) and light gray (2.5Y 7/2); fracture pale brown (10YR 6/3) at core; pink (7.5YR 8/4 and 7/4) near surfaces; int. light gray (2.5Y 7/2). Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 6 (41.1; OM 41, elev. -2.46 to -2.58 m, SMUs 240/197, 240/198; OM 59, elev. -2.68 to -2.85 m, SMUs 242/197, 242/198; Fig. 2.9). Angular kylix (FS 267). Three joining rim to body frs. Flaring above carination. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 5.9; diam. rim 11.2; h. lip to carination 2 cm. Pale yellow (2.5Y 8/2) clay on both surfaces,

with many airholes of varying size and few small gray inclusions; core very pale brown (10YR 7/3), light gray (2.5Y 7/2) near surfaces with medium reddish-brown and small gray inclusions. Pres. traces of lustrous slip. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 7 (41.3; OM 41, elev. -2.46 to -2.58 m, SMUs 240/197, 240/198; OM 71, elev. -3.08 m, SMUs 243/197, 243/198; Fig. 2.9). Angular kylix (FS 267). Four joining rim to body frs. Slightly concave above carination. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 4; diam. rim 11; h. lip to carination 2 cm. Ext. mottled pink (7.5YR 8/4) to reddish yellow (5YR 7/6); int. pink (7.5YR 8/4); both surfaces exhibit reddish, gray, and tiny glittering inclusions and air holes; core reddish yellow (5YR 7/6), very pale brown (10YR 8/4) near surfaces with airholes and few gray and brown inclusions. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 8 (2.1; OM 2, elev. -0.56 to -0.69 m, SMUs 234– 241/197, 241/198; OM 57, elev. -2.68 to -2.85 m, SMUs 242/197, 242/198; Fig. 2.9). Kylix. Two joining rim to body frs. Rim everted. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 4.5; diam. rim 21.4 cm. Pink (7.5YR 8/4) clay; pink (7.5YR 7/4–8/4) on int.; both surfaces exhibit few gray and brownish inclusions; core reddish yellow (5YR 6/6– 7/6), pink (7.5YR 8/4) near surfaces, gray inclusions visible. Pink (7.5YR 8/4) lightly lustrous slip on ext. Date: LH IIIA:2. 9 (15.1; OM 7, elev. -1.96 m, SMU 238/197; OM 15, elev. -1.10 to -1.83 m, SMU 241/198 [dry sieve];

TOMB 1

19

9 9

10 10

11

12

11 12 Figure 2.10. Tomb 1, dromos: open vessel (9) and angular kylikes (10–12). Scale 1:3. B. Konnemann and N. Wright. Fig. 2.10). Open shape (kylix/bowl/cup). Rim to upper body fr. Flaring, slightly everted lip. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 3; diam. rim 16.6 cm. Core reddish yellow (5YR 6/6), with few grayish inclusions and cracks of inclusions also partially visible on ext. Reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) lustrous slip on ext.; pink (7.5YR 7/4) lustrous slip on int. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 10 (48.1; OM 48, elev. -2.45 to -2.56 m, SMUs 243/197, 243/198; Fig. 2.10). Angular kylix (FS 267). Two joining rim to body frs. with handle. Straight/ slightly flaring rim above carination with everted lip. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 3.9; diam. rim 11.5; h. lip to carination 1.7 cm. Ext. reveals traces of luster, pale yellow (2.5Y 8/2) to light gray (2.5Y 7/2) surfaces with few small and one large grayish-brown inclusion visible. Core reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6), white (10YR 8/11) near surfaces, few small gray inclusions visible. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 11 (67.1; OM 53, elev. -2.57 to -2.68 m, SMUs 242/197, 242/198 [dry sieve]; OM 67, elev. -2.81 to -3.01 m, SMUs 243/197, 243/198; Fig. 2.10). Angular kylix (FS 267). Five joining rim to body frs. Slightly flaring above carination. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 4.3; diam. rim 12.6; h. lip to carination 2 cm. Core light brownish gray (10YR 6/2), very pale brown (10YR 8/4) near surfaces; very few small brownish and grayish inclusions visible on surfaces; few inclusions in cracks; few gray inclusions at core. Pale yellow (2.5Y 7/3) lustrous slip on ext. and at least down to carination on int. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 12 (64.1; OM 64, elev. -2.85 to -2.99 m, SMUs 242/197, 242/198; OM 67, elev. -2.81 to -3.01 m, SMUs 243/197, 243/198; OM 69, elev. -3.01 to -3.10 m, SMUs 243/197, 243/198 [dry sieve]; Fig. 2.10). Angular kylix (FS 267). Four joining rim to body frs. with handle. Flaring above carination; slightly concave profile with everted rim. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 4.8; diam. rim 10.2; h. lip to carination 1.9 cm. White (2.5Y 8/2) to reddish-yellow (7.5YR 7/6) clay; light gray (2.5Y 7/2) near surfaces, with small gray and brown inclusions

visible on ext.; core reveals gray and red small to medium-sized inclusions. Ext. shows very few traces of very low luster. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB.

Stomion The stomion was located at the northern end of the dromos (SMUs 243–245/197, 243–245/198). It is narrower than the dromos, measuring 0.62 m in width at floor level near the dromos opening to 0.83 m toward its entrance into the chamber. It measures 1.60 m along its western wall and 1.70 m along its eastern wall. A dry-stone wall blocked the southern opening of the stomion into the dromos, not extending more than 1.09 m north into the stomion. The dry-stone blocking wall of the stomion was disturbed by the robbers. The only part of the blocking wall that remained intact was its lower course (SMUs 243/197, 243/198, 244/197, 244/198, elev. -2.88 to -3.20 m). The area above the lower course was dismantled by the looters to a height of 1.48 m (elev. -1.40 to -2.88 m). The bedrock into which the stomion was dug was cracked (elev. 0.00 to -1.40 m), as is shown in Figures 2.2 and 2.3 and Plates 5D and 6A. Because of its destruction prior to excavation no construction phases could be discerned. The layer of stones found along the eastern side of the dromos must be associated with the destruction of the niches and dry-stone blocking wall, because the fragment of a LH IIIA:2–IIIB stemmed bowl (13) is made up of sherds coming from the stomion and from the dromos right

20

EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU

0

1

2m

Figure 2.11. Elevation showing robbers’ disturbance of stomion (dashed line). M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

Chamber

Figure 2.12. Tomb 1, dromos and stomion: stemmed bowl 13. Scale 1:3. B. Konnemann and J. Pfaff.

underneath the layer of stones, thereby demonstrating the association of this feature with an episode of opening the tomb, most likely the dismantling of the dry-stone blocking wall by the robbers. The latter is most probable because the level of this stone layer corresponds to the level at which the robbers entered the stomion (Figs. 2.1, 2.11; Pl. 6B). Painted Ceramic Vessel 13 (39.1; OM 24, elev. -2.03 m, SMUs 241/197– 198; OM 26, elev. -1.00 m, SMUs 241/197, 241/198; OM 33, elev. -2.25 to -2.46 m, SMUs 240/197, 240/198 [dry sieve]; OM 39, SMUs 244/197, 244/198, 245/197, 245/198 [dry sieve]; OM 41, elev. -2.46 to -2.58 m, SMUs 240/197, 240/198; Fig. 2.12). Stemmed bowl (FS 305). Five joining and another two joining lip to body frs. Line on rim, band below; running spiral (FM 46) below band. Max. pres. h. 5.7; diam. rim 18.2 cm. Core light gray (2.5Y 7/2); gray inclusions of varying size on ext., int., and core; large pink inclusions near rim (int. and core). Both fragments show paint on ext. of handle; pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) lustrous slip on ext. and int.; paint predominantly very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) and black (5YR 2.5/1). Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB.

The chamber of Tomb 1 was roughly oval in plan (SMUs 245–247/196–199, 248/197; Fig. 2.2; Pl. 6C). The roof of the chamber had collapsed so that it was necessary to excavate from the top down. Because of the collapse it is not possible to determine the height and exact form of the chamber. It measured a maximum of 3.22 m along its east–west axis and a maximum of 2.72 m along its north–south axis. At its bottommost level (elev. -3.11 m near the entrance and -2.88 m at its northern end), it reached a depth of -3.80 m from the modern surface. The upper part of the chamber was filled with debris from the collapsed roof. The first cultural remains came to light at a depth of approximately -2.68 m, which is about 40–60 cm above the floor. The sediment from that depth down to the floor was dry sieved. A pit, Pit 2, was dug at the east side of the chamber, and an unfinished pit was dug into sterile marl at the west side (Pls. 6D, 6E). The latter measured 0.80 by 0.50 m and had a depth of 0.10 m (elev. -3.08 to -3.18 m).

Pit 2 Pit 2 (SMU 245–247/198–199, elev. -3.23 to -3.70 m) was dug into sterile marl at the east side of the chamber on a northwest to southeast

TOMB 1

orientation (Fig. 2.13; Pls. 6F, 7A). It was roughly oval in shape. Its maximum length (roughly north to south) was 1.30 m, its maximum width (roughly east to west) was 0.48 m, and its maximum depth was 0.47 m. The pit was covered with stone slabs, which rested on a 0.10 m wide ledge (elev. -3.23 m; Pl. 6C). One slab lay over its northwestern end (elev. -3.07 to -3.17 m). It measured 0.48 by 0.30 m and was 0.08 m thick. The next slab, which measured 0.50 by 0.32 m and 0.08 m thick, had fallen into the pit. The covering slabs at the southwestern portion of the pit had broken into smaller parts. The human bones contained in Pit 2 were in a disarticulated state, suggesting secondary manipulation of the dead (OM 144, elev. -3.23 to -3.70 m, SMUs 245–247/198, 245–247/199; OM 145 [dry sieve]). Three painted ceramic vessels were found in the pit. A LH IIIA:2–IIIB:1 large jug (16) was found in the southern portion (Pl. 7A), with a LH IIIA:2–IIIB spouted cup (15) placed to its east. Two long bones (from OM 144) were found to have been placed in a wedge pattern and in close proximity to 16. In the center of the pit was found a LH IIIA:2–IIIB:1 small jug (14). Four conical beads (17–20) were found around the jug (14). Painted Ceramic Vessels 14 (MN 1036; OM 143, elev. -3.58 m, SMUs 246/198, 246/199; Fig. 2.14). Jug, small (FS 114). Intact. Horizontal band at int. and ext. rim and base of neck; two bands at max. pres. diam; back of handle monochrome with reserved triangle on handle top. H. 8.7; diam. rim 5.1; max. diam. belly 9.1; diam. base 3.9 cm. Very few gray inclusions visible on ext. Very pale brown (10YR 7/4, 7/3) lustrous slip ext.; dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) and reddish-brown (5YR 4/4) paint; pink (5YR 7/4) mottled spot on ext. wall. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB:1. 15 (MN 1038; OM 141, elev. -3.57 m, SMU 246/199; Fig. 2.14). High-handled spouted cup (FS 253). Complete, total of four pieces, partly restored in plaster. Band on rim and lower part of body and base; fine line group on body; ladder pattern on handle. H. 9.1; diam. rim 14.2; diam. base 3.7 cm. Exterior mottled low luster of very pale brown (10YR 8/4) to pink (7.5YR 8/4) and light red (2.5YR 6/6); int. very pale brown (10YR 7/4). Red (10R 5/8) to very dark gray (5Y 3/1) paint. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. 16 (MN 1051; OM 137, elev. -3.31 m, SMUs 245/199, 246/199; Fig. 2.14). Jug, large (FS 105). Fragmentary, broken around neck line, two neck frs. pres. Band around base of neck and base of handle; three bands

21

N

b

a

c 0

1

2m

Figure 2.13. Tomb 1, Pit 2: (a) plan of covering slabs; (b) plan with burial; and (c) section. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

at max. diam.; two bands on lower body. Max. pres. h. 22.3; max. diam. 21.9; diam. base 7.4 cm. Pink (5YR 7/4) core and very pale brown (10YR 7/3) near surfaces; gray inclusions visible on ext.; gray small inclusions and medium to large brownish and pink inclusions at core. Ext. burnished to very pale brown (10YR 8/4); luster mottled to reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6); dark gray (7.5YR 4/1) to red (2.5YR 5/8 and 4/8) paint. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB:1.

Jewelry 17 (MN 1044; OM 138, SMU 246/199; Fig. 2.15). Bead. Circular short truncated conical (Beck 1928, pl. II–III, type I.B.2.d), with single straight plain perforation (Beck 1928, pl. IV, type IV). Intact. H. (apex–apex) 1.4; max. diam. 2.1; diam. perf. 0.4 cm. Very dark red steatite(?). 18 (MN 1045; OM 139, elev. -3.50 m, SMU 246/199; Fig. 2.15). Bead. Circular short truncated conical (Beck 1928, pl. II–III, type I.B.2.d), with single straight plain perforation (Beck 1928, pl. IV, type IV). Intact. H.

22

EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU

14 14

16 16

1515

Figure 2.14. Tomb 1, Pit 2: small jug (14), high-handled spouted cup (15), and large jug (16). Scale 1:3. N. Wright and T. Ross.

(apex–apex) 1.7; max. diam. 2.7; diam. perf. 0.43 cm. Very dark red steatite(?). 19 (MN 1047; OM 140, elev. -3.53 m, SMUs 245/199, 246/199; Fig. 2.15). Bead. Circular short truncated conical (Beck 1928, pl. II–III, type I.B.2.d), with single straight plain perforation (Beck 1928, pl. IV, type IV). Intact. H. (apex–apex) 1.2; diam. 1.7; diam. perf. 0.3 cm. Red steatite(?). 20 (MN 1048; OM 142, elev. -3.50 m, SMU 247/198; Fig. 2.15). Bead. Circular short truncated conical (Beck 1928, pl. II–III, type I.B.2.d), with single straight plain perforation (Beck 1928, pl. IV, type IV). Intact. H. (apex–apex) 1.3; max. diam. 2.1; diam. perf. 0.4 cm. Very dark red steatite(?).

Human Remains The human remains recovered in Pit 2 were in a completely disarticulated state and exhibited different degrees of preservation. The latter can be categorized into: (1) bones with longitudinal cracking and severe damage to their texture suggesting their removal to Pit 2 after complete decomposition of the soft tissue and having rested on the chamber floor for a long period; and (2) bones with relatively good preservation suggesting perhaps their deposition in the pit shortly after decomposition of the soft tissue while the organic component of the bone was still in fresh condition (green). Also, the representation of the skeletal material recovered in the chamber floor and the pit

17 17

18

18

19 19

20

20

Figure 2.15. Tomb 1, Pit 2: beads (17–20). Scale 1:2. N. Wright and T. Ross.

supports the idea of partial removal to the pit of the skeletons originally lying on the chamber floor. It is interesting to note that anatomical units that are missing from the skeletal remains deposited in the pit have been located in the chamber floor excavation units. The 64 disarticulated scattered bones (43 post-cranial remains, 7 cranial remains, and 14 teeth) found in Pit 2 represent two adult (Skeletons 1.4, 1.5) and three subadult (Skeletons 1.6–1.8) individuals as described in detail below. Bones from all five individuals (Skeletons 1.4–1.8) also have been recognized in the chamber fill. SKELETON 1.4

Cranial skeleton: see Table 1. Post-cranial skeleton: almost complete R clavicle (C middle, AC proximal/distal third), L humerus (C proximal/middle third, AC distal third), R humerus (C proximal/middle/distal third); fragmentary, L/R

TOMB 1

scapula (acromion), three unsided scapular fragments, L ulna (C middle/distal third), R ulna (C proximal third, F distal third), one proximal hand phalanx, 12 unsided ribs (midshafts), eight unidentified vertebral neural arches, four pelvic fragments (ilium, sciatic notch), three unsided femoral fragments (midshafts), L tibia (C middle third, AC proximal/distal third). Sex: possible female—bone morphology. Age: adult—bone morphology. SKELETON 1.5

Cranial skeleton: complete mandible (Pl. 7B; see also Table 1). Teeth: permanent dentition: mandibular RP1, RC, RI2, RI1, LI1, LI2, LC, LM1, LM2 Sex: possible male—mandibular morphology: mental eminence, mandibular angle. Age: adult—bone morphology. Dental disease: (1) antemortem tooth loss: mandibular LM1, LM2 (active resorption of the alveolar process), mandibular RC (fully resorbed alveolar process).

23

Chamber Fill Because the excavation of Tomb 1 was conducted as a rescue project, micromorphological analysis was not possible. Episodes of use of the chamber were therefore discerned on the basis of locations of finds, pottery, and human bone analysis. Overall, careful investigation of the locations of finds and associated bioarchaeological remains revealed as many as seven groups of objects located inside the chamber as well as the human remains of 11 individuals, all of which were found in a disarticulated state (Fig. 2.16). The highest frequency of both human remains and artifacts occurs in the central and eastern parts of the chamber (Object Groups [OG] 2, 3, and 5 and Pit 2, consisting of 3–7 objects each). Object Group 5 consists of only two objects, but it must be associated with Pit 2 as it was located right above it. At the northern and western extremes of the chamber, where scantier human

SKELETON 1.6

Cranial skeleton: fragmentary L mandible (F body; Pl. 7C), two vault fragments. Post-cranial skeleton: fragmentary L radius (F middle third). Sex: indeterminate. Age: juvenile (12–18 yrs.)—bone morphology.

Pit 2

SKELETON 1.7

Post-cranial skeleton: almost complete R femur (C middle third, AC proximal/distal third; Pl. 7D); fragmentary R humerus (C middle third, F distal third), L femur (C middle third, AC proximal third; Pl. 7D), R tibia (C middle third, F proximal/distal third). Sex: indeterminate. Age: child—bone morphology. SKELETON 1.8

Cranial skeleton: fragmentary R mandible (F body, symphysis), occipital. Teeth: permanent dentition: mandibular LC, LM1. Post-cranial skeleton: almost complete R ulna (AC proximal/middle third), L femur (C middle third, F proximal/distal third); fragmentary unsided ulna (F middle third), unsided radius (F middle third), two unidentified long bone fragments. Sex: indeterminate. Age: infant (3–4 yrs.)—formation of permanent dentition.

Figure 2.16. Plan of Tomb 1 showing floor of chamber with all associated features and finds in object groups. OG = Object Group. M. Nioti, G. Kalkanakou, and F. Taravira.

24

EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU

remains consisting primarily of long bones were recorded, artifacts were neither so numerous nor as densely grouped together as in the central and eastern parts of the chamber (Object Groups 4, 6, and 7, consisting of 2–3 objects each). Apart from the human remains, which again were found in a disarticulated state, suggesting secondary manipulation of the dead, the grave goods also present a picture of intentional grouping, likely also secondary manipulation, especially those of Object Groups 1–3 as well as Object Group 5 and Pit 2. This is to say that vessels of various dates were grouped together in the different areas of the chamber after they had served their initial aim as grave goods of the deceased, or they were introduced to the tomb during secondary manipulation of the dead. No object group contains objects of uniform date, as they all contain vessels that range in date from LH IIIA:2 to LH IIIB. Object Group 1 Object Group 1 was found at the chamber entrance (SMU 245/197; Pl. 7E). It consisted of a LH IIIA:2 late beaked jug (22; Pl. 7F), a LH IIIA:2 early small jug (23), and a LH IIIA:2 late–IIIB

shoulder fragment (21). Human remains to be associated with this object group were recovered from: OM 27, SMUs 245/197, 245/198; OM 85, SMUs 245/197, 245/198; OM 88, SMUs 245/197, 245/198; OM 100, SMUs 245/197, 245/198. Painted Ceramic Vessels 21 (73.1; OM 73, elev. -2.65 m, SMUs 245/197, 245/198; Fig. 2.17). Closed vessel. Two joining shoulder frs. Fine line group on base of neck, quirk (FM 48:5) on shoulder. Max. pres. h. 3.5; max. pres. w. 4.3 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 7/4) lustrous slip on exterior, reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) paint, int. clay reddish yellow (5YR 7/6); core yellowish red (5YR 5/6); gray and brownish inclusions visible all over. Date: LH IIIA:2 late–IIIB. 22 (MN 1039; OM 109, elev. -2.94 m, SMU 245/197; Fig. 2.17; Pl. 7F). Beaked jug (FS 145). Complete, mended, partly restored in plaster. Rim band on spout with band below, outlined handle; two bands on midneck, one on base of neck; three broad bands at max. diam., one right above base, and another around base. On shoulder zone sequence of voluted Mycenaean flowers (FM 18); tassel (FM 18B) flanked by two Mycenaean flowers below handle base. H. 27.4; diam. base 8.6; max. diam. body 22 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 8/4) slip, predominantly red (2.5YR 5/6 and 4/6) and

73.1

2121

23 23

22 22

Figure 2.17. Tomb 1, Object Group 1: closed vessel (21), beaked jug (22), and small jug (23). Scale 1:3. N. Wright, J. Pfaff, and T. Ross.

TOMB 1

24 24

25 25

25

26 26

Figure 2.18. Tomb 1, Object Group 2: feeding bottles (24, 25) and stirrup jar (26). Scale 1:3. N. Wright and T. Ross.

black (2.5YR 2.5/0) paint. Surface cracked by inclusions, some grayish. Date: LH IIIA:2 late. 23 (MN 1052; OM 108, elev. -3.09 m, SMU 245/197; Fig. 2.17). Jug, small, depressed ovoid-conical (FS 112). Complete, mended, partly restored in plaster. Band on rim, base of neck, and back of handle; two broad bands at max. diam. H. 12.3; diam. rim 7.7; max. diam. body 11.3; diam. base 4.8 cm. Light gray (10YR 7/2) lustrous slip, very pale brown (10YR 7/3) at base; predominantly reddish-brown (5YR 4/4) paint. Date: LH IIIA:2 early.

Object Group 2 Object Group 2 was found at the central/ southeastern portion of the chamber (SMU 246/198; Pl. 7E). It consisted of a LH IIIA:2 feeding bottle (25), which was found between two crania (OM 77, elev. -2.86 m; OM 78, elev. -2.90 m; OM 79, elev. -2.86 m [dry sieve]; OM 81 [dry sieve]; Pl. 8A). Next to and under the LH IIIA:2 feeding bottle (25) was a second LH IIIB feeding bottle (24) sitting on its base (Pl. 8B). Around the feeding bottle (24) were the sherds of a LH IIIA:2 small stirrup jar (26). One of the sherds from this stirrup jar comes from the stomion (OM 83). Two LH IIIA:2 phi-type female figurines (27, 28) were found, one next to feeding bottle 24 and the other a little farther northwest. Apart from the two crania, the following disarticulated human remains were recovered: OM 87, SMUs 246/196–198; OM

90, SMUs 246/197, 246/198; OM 93, 94, SMU 246/197, elev. -2.95 m; OM 133, elev. -3.03 to -3.23 m, SMUs 245–247/198, 245–247/199. Painted Ceramic Vessels 24 (MN 1035; OM 107, elev. -2.95 m, SMU 246/198; Fig. 2.18; Pl. 8B). Feeding bottle (FS 161). Intact. Solidly painted rim and neck; back of handle painted with circle on top and monochrome band on either side; band around base and rim of spout; fine line group on upper part of shoulder; triglyphs filled with wavy lines (FM 53, 75) flanked by broad bands on lower part of shoulder; lower body unpainted. H. 11.9; diam. rim 4.2; diam. spout 1.3; max. diam. body 10.3; diam. base 5.4 cm. Gray inclusions visible on ext., more on upper body, and few on lower body. Very pale brown (10YR 8/3) slightly lustrous ext. slip; paint predominantly dark red (2.5YR 3/6) Date: LH IIIB. 25 (MN 1043; OM 80, elev. -3.00 m, SMU 246/198; Fig. 2.18; Pl. 8A). Feeding bottle (FS 161). Complete, mended, part of neck restored in plaster. Ovoid basket handle; raised concave base. Solidly painted rim and neck; band around spout base and rim; two broad bands at max. diam.; one band on lower body. Running quirk (FM 48) with band above and fine line group on shoulder; circle on handle top flanked by thick wavy line (FM 53). H. 18.4; diam. rim 7.7; diam. spout 1.2; max. diam. body 12.2; diam. base 5.4 cm. Pink (7.5YR 8/4) clay int.; base very pale brown (10YR 7/4); few large mica inclusions visible on upper body. Clay burnished to low luster, mottled pink (7.5YR 8/4) to reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6); paint predominantly red (2.5YR 4/8). Date: LH IIIA:2.

26

EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU

27

28

26 (MN 1053; OM 83, elev. -2.90 m, SMUs 244/197, 244/198, 245/197, 245/198; OM 119, elev. -3.00 m, SMU 246/198; OM 124, elev. -3.02 m, SMU 246/198; Fig. 2.18). Stirrup jar, small, globular (FS 171). Spout, false neck, handle and body fr.; false neck disk. Incomplete; 19 joining frs. Unvoluted flowers (FM 18c) on shoulder; fine line groups below shoulder and on lower body flanked by broad bands; spiral on false neck disk; handles solidly painted with reserved triangle at tops; bands on base of spout and false neck. Max. pres. h. 9.6; diam. rim spout 2.4; diam. false neck disk 3.2; max. diam. body 10.8 cm. Ext. clay reddish yellow (5YR 7/6); int. very pale brown (10YR 8/3); core very pale brown (10YR 7/3) toward int., reddish yellow (5YR 7/6) toward ext. lustrous pink (5YR 8/3) slip; lustrous paint, predominantly red (2.5YR 5/8) and reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4). Date: LH IIIA:2.

Figurines 27 (MN 1033; OM 115, elev. -3.03 m, SMU 246/198; Fig. 2.19). Figurine. Female, phi type, group B. Complete. Top of head and upper part of applied plait solidly painted; painted eyes at different levels; wavy lines on body; neck and low waist bands; four vertical bands on stem. H. 9.1; h. neck to waist 3.3; diam. base 2.5; max. diam. (torso) 3.5 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 8/4) clay with few medium mica and very few small gray inclusions. Predominantly red (2.5YR 5/8) and dusky red (2.5YR 3/2) paint; pres. luster. Date: LH IIIA:2. 28 (MN 1034; OM 117, elev. -3.03 m, SMU 246/198; Fig. 2.19). Figurine. Female, phi type, group B. Complete, mended below waistline. Top of head solidly painted continuing to follow nose line; painted eyes; applied plait from top to waist with horizontal bars; neckline only indicated on front; vertical wavy lines on body; waistline a continuous band, connects with neck line through arm line on either side; three vertical bands on stem. H. 11; h. neck to waist 4.2; diam. base 2.8; max. diam. (torso) 4.6 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 8/4) clay, paint predominantly yellowish red (5YR 5/6) and dark reddish brown (5YR 3/3). Date: LH IIIA:2.

Figure 2.19. Tomb 1, Object Group 2: figurines (27, 28). Scale 1:3. N. Wright and J. Pfaff.

Object Group 3 Object Group 3 was found in the central portion of the chamber (SMU 246/197). It consisted of a LH IIIA:2 small piriform jar (29, elev. -2.93 m), a LH IIIB painted body fragment, possibly of a stemmed krater (32), a LH IIIA:2 late small jug (30), and a LH IIIB:1 conical stirrup jar (31). Next to the stirrup jar (31) was a LH IIIA:2–IIIB unpainted large jug/amphora/hydria (33, elev. -2.93 m), some of the sherds of which were found in the dromos. Human remains found in association with Object Group 3 were in a disarticulated state: OM 84, SMU 246/197; OM 86, SMU 246/197; OM 87, SMUs 246/196–198; OM 90, SMUs 246/197, 246/198; OM 93, elev. -2.95 m, SMU 246/197; OM 94, elev. -2.95 m, SMU 246/197; OM 101, SMUs 246/196–198; OM 105, elev. -3.00 m, SMU 246/197; OM 125, elev. -3.00 m, SMU 246/197; OM 126, elev. -3.10 m, SMU 246/197. Painted Ceramic Vessels 29 (MN 1073; OM 110, elev. -2.93 m, SMU 246/197; Fig. 2.20). Jar, small piriform (FS 45). Complete, mended, partly restored in plaster. Solidly painted neck, lip, handles, and base; fine line groups on upper shoulder and above and below max. diam. and base, above and below broad bands; foliate band on shoulder (FM 64). H. 15.5; diam. rim 9.2; max. diam. belly 13.7; diam. base 4.5 cm. Reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) clay. Pink (5YR 8/3) slip; red (2.5YR 4/6) to brown/ dark brown (7.5YR 4/2) paint. Date: LH IIIA:2. 30 (MN 1049; OM 111, elev. -3.01 m, SMU 246/197; Fig. 2.20). Jug, small (FS 114). Complete, mended, partly restored in plaster. Broad band on lower neck; two bands on max. diam.; rim and back of handle solidly painted. H. 10.6; rim diam. 7.15; max. diam. body 11.8; diam. base 4.7 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 8/2)

TOMB 1

73.2

29 29

27

30 30

max. diam. max. dia. 31 cm

3232

31 31

33 33

Figure 2.20. Tomb 1, Object Group 3: piriform jar (29), small jug (30), stirrup jar (31), probable stemmed krater (32), and large jug/amphora/hydria (33). Scale 1:3. N. Wright and T. Ross.

to reddish yellow (5YR 7/6) clay with white (10YR 8/1) base and few gray inclusions. Dark reddish-brown (5YR 3/2) paint; pres. luster. Date: LH IIIA:2 late. 31 (MN 1042; OM 121, elev. -3.03 m, SMU 246/197; Fig. 2.20). Stirrup jar, conical (FS 182). Flat false neck disk, raised concave base, partly restored in plaster. Sea anemone (FM 27) on shoulder; horizontal fine line groups above and below broad bands on shoulder and below max. diam. alternating with two fine lines on shoulder and lower part of body; lower part of body and base solidly painted; concentric circles on false neck disk; backs of handles solidly painted with reserved triangle at tops; bands around base of false neck, rim, and base of spout. H. 9.7; diam. rim spout 1.9; diam.

false neck disk 2.6; max. diam. body 12.4; diam. base 6.8 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 8/4) clay; very pale brown (10YR 7/4) slip, with very few small gray and gold mica inclusions; red (2.5YR 4/6) to reddish-brown (2.5YR 4/4) paint; pres. luster. Date: LH IIIB:1. 32 (73.2; OM 73, elev. -3.40 m, SMUs 245/197, 245/198; Fig. 2.20). Body fragment, possible stemmed krater (FS 9). Palm II (FM 15). Max. pres. h. 5 cm. Pale yellow (2.5Y 7–8/4) clay with small gray and brown inclusions; pale yellow (5Y 7/3) slip; reddish-yellow (5YR 7/8) and reddish-brown (5YR 4/4) paint traces. Date: LH IIIB.

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34 34

35 35

36 36

Figure 2.21. Tomb 1, Object Group 4: spouted cup (34), figurine (35), and bead (36). Scale 1:2. N. Wright, J. Pfaff, and T. Ross.

Unpainted Ceramic Vessel 33 (MN 1060; OM 23, elev. -1.08 m, SMU 239/197; OM 75, elev. -2.68 to -2.71 m; OM 82, SMUs 245– 247/196–198; OM 106, SMUs 245–247/196–198; OM 114, elev. -2.97 m; OM 120, elev. -2.9 m; OM 122, elev. -2.93 to -3.04 m, SMU 246/197; Fig. 2.20). Large jug/ amphora/hydria (FS 69/105/128). Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 16.4; max. diam. body 20.2; diam. base 7 cm. Very pale brown (10YR 8/3) to pink (7.5YR 8/4) clay; light gray (5Y 7/1) at core; pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) toward surfaces; reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6) near surfaces, with few large and medium gray and brown inclusions, mostly small gray inclusions, few show on surfaces; ext. burnished to low luster mottled from pale yellow (2.5Y 8/2). Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB.

Object Group 4 Object Group 4 was found at the northern part of the chamber (SMU 247/197). It consisted of a LH IIIA:2 spouted cup (34), a LH IIIB psi-type female figurine (35), a conical steatite(?) bead (36), and human remains that were found in a disarticulated state (OM 103, SMUs 247/196–198; OM 127, elev. -3.05 m, SMU 247/197). Painted Ceramic Vessel 34 (MN 1041; OM 116, elev. -2.90 m, SMU 247/197; Fig. 2.21). Spouted cup, bell-shaped (FS 249). Intact, plastering at rim. Narrow band on int. rim and spout; broad band on neck; outlined handle; running quirk (FM 48) on shoulder, two horizontal bands below; two bands on lower body. H. 6.2; diam. rim 8.3; diam. spout 0.9; max. diam. body 8.6; diam. base 3 cm. Light reddish-brown (2.5YR 7/4) to very pale brown (10YR 7/3) clay with few dark inclusions. Lustrous int. slip(?); dark grayish-brown (10YR 4/2) to very dark gray (10YR 3/1) paint; pres. luster. Date: LH IIIA:2 late.

Figurine 35 (MN 1040; OM 97, elev. -2.98 m, SMU 247/198; stem excavated June 6, 2006 in EU 31, SU 20101; Fig. 2.21). Figurine, female, psi type. Complete, stem mended. Polos head; applied plait; pellet breasts; columnar stem; hollow base. Festooned polos with cross on top; horizontal bars on plait; vertical lines on body; four vertical bands on stem. H. 7.6; diam. polos 1.3; diam. base 1.8; max. width of arms 4.1 cm. Very pale brown, low-luster (10YR 8/4) clay. Predominantly very dark grayish-brown (10YR 3/2) and strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) paint. Date: LH IIIΒ. Jewelry 36 (MN 1046; OM 118, elev. -2.93, SMU 247/198; Fig. 2.21). Bead. Circular short truncated conical (Beck 1928, pl. II–III, type I.B.2.d), with single straight plain perforation (Beck 1928, pl. IV, type IV). Intact. H. (apex–apex) 1.7; diam. 2.6; diam. perf. 0.4 cm. Green steatite(?).

Object Group 5 Object Group 5 was found at the eastern/ northeastern side of the chamber (SMUs 246/198, 246/199, 247/198), above the cover slabs over Pit 2 (Fig. 2.13; Pl. 6F). It consisted of a LH IIIA:2 angular cup (37), which was found upside-down above Pit 2. A fragment of a LH IIIA:2/IIIB unpainted high-handled spouted cup (38) was found to join with sherds from above Pit 2 and from the filling of the dromos. The human remains were in a disarticulated state: OM 99, SMU 247/198; OM 103, SMUs 247/196–198; OM 133, elev. -3.03 to -3.23 m, SMUs 245–247/198, 245–247/199.

TOMB 1

29

38

37

39

40

Figure 2.22. Tomb 1: Object Group 5: angular cup (37) and high-handled spouted cup (38); Object Group 6: hydria (39) and shallow cup (40). Scale 1:3. N. Wright, J. Pfaff, and T. Ross.

Painted Ceramic Vessel 37 (MN 1037; OM 132, elev. -3.13 m, SMU 247/199; Fig. 2.22). Angular cup (FS 230). Intact. Rim and back of handle solidly painted; reserved triangle on handle top; running quirk (FM 48) on upper body; two fine line groups alternating with bands on lower body; monochrome base. H. 5.5–5.8; diam. rim 10.3; diam. base 3.9 cm. Int. mottled from reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) to pink (7.5YR 7/4) clay with gray inclusions of varied sizes visible on ext. and int.; few cracks from inclusions visible. Pink (7.5YR 7/4) to reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) slip; red (2.5YR 4/8, 5/8) paint. Date: LH IIIA2. Unpainted Ceramic Vessel 38 (MN 1050; OM 54, elev. -2.56 to -2.64 m, SMU 243/197; OM 68, elev. -2.01 m, SMU 243/197; OM 134 [dry sieve]; Fig. 2.22). High-handled spouted cup (FS 253). Partially preserved, fully restorable. Handle; rim fragments; base and body walls; spout opening on one side of rim. Unpainted. H. 12.4; diam. rim 15.2; max. diam. body 14.4; diam. base 4.1 cm. Pink (5YR 7/4) clay with few large red and brown and small light brown and reddish inclusions. Very pale brown (10YR 8/4) slip; pres. luster. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB.

Object Group 6 Object Group 6 was found at the northwestern portion of the chamber (SMU 247/196). It consists of a LH IIIA:2 small jug or hydria (39) and a LH IIIB unpainted shallow cup (40). Human remains are comprised of: OM 96, SMU 247/196; OM 103, SMU 247/196–198. Painted Ceramic Vessel 39 (MN 1056; OM 112, elev. -2.83 m, SMU 247/196; Fig. 2.22). Hydria, small depressed ovoid (FS 129). Slightly arched round handle, incomplete. Five joining frs., including rim. Bands at int. and ext. rim, base of neck, and around handle base; wavy band on mid-neck; fine line group flanked by broad bands below max. diam.; multiple splashed handle; in handle zone Mycenaean flower (FM 18), trefoil rock work (FM 29.10) or air bubbles, hatched almond-shaped object amid octopus tentacles reduced to fringes; multiple stem, angular comb motifs variants of FM 19 under handle and to the left of Mycenaean flower. Max. pres. h. 11.7; diam. rim 6.4 cm. Reddish-yellow (7.5YR 6/6) clay; reddishyellow (5YR 7/6) core, with dark gray and brownish

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inclusions on all surfaces and core. Ext. burnished to high luster of reddish-yellow color (5YR 6/6); paint predominantly red (2.5YR 4/8, 5/8); neck interior burnished luster of reddish-yellow color (5YR 6/6). Parallels: Kaza-Papageorgiou 1985, 8–9, fig. 9 (splashed handle); Mountjoy 1986, figs. 89.2 (comb motif), 93.2 (angular version); 1999, 119, Argolid nos. 168–170 (shape, fine line group flanked by broad bands), 171 (shape, splashed handle, use of fringes); AndreadakiVlazaki and Papadopoulou 2005, 383, fig. 47 top right (almond-shaped motif). Date: LH IIIA:2.

Unpainted Ceramic Vessel 40 (MN 1059; OM 46, elev. -2.55 to -2.57 m, SMUs 242/197, 242/198; OM 72, elev. -3.40 m, SMU 247/197; OM 91, SMUs 246/196–198; Fig. 2.22). Cup, shallow (FS 222). Unpainted. H. (base to rim) 5.1–5.6, (base to handle top) 5.7; diam. rim 12.1; diam. base 4.6 cm. Reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) clay; reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) core, with large reddish-yellow, small grayish, and gold mica inclusions. Pres. luster, esp. on int. Date: LH IIIB.

Object Group 7 Object Group 7 was found at the southwestern sector of the chamber (SMU 245/196). It consists of a LH IIIA:2–IIIB angular kylix fragment (41), a LH IIIB tau-type female figurine (42), and a LH IIIA bronze razor (43). Human remains are comprised of: OM 128, elev. -3.04 m, SU 245/196; OM 129, SU 245/196, elev. -3.04 m (dry sieve); and OM 131, elev. -3.04 m (dry sieve). The “pit” that was found at the same locus, but at a lower level, must represent an earlier episode than the deposition of Object Group 7 some 0.05–0.30 m above it. Unpainted Ceramic Vessel 41 (128.1; OM 36, elev. -2.14 to -2.27 m, SMUs 242/197, 242/198; OM 128, elev. -3.04 m, SMU 245/196 [dry sieve]; Fig. 2.23). Angular kylix (FS 267). Two joining rim to body frs., one nonjoining body fr. Slightly flaring above carination. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 4.4; diam. rim 9.8; h. lip to carination 2.2 cm. Light gray clay (5Y 7/2) with many small, mostly pinkish gray inclusions; very few medium-sized gray inclusions visible on both surfaces and at core. Traces of lustrous slip on ext. Date: LH IIIA:2–IIIB. Figurine 42 (MN 1054; OM 89, SMUs 245/196, 245/197; OM 130 [dry sieve]; Fig. 2.23). Figurine, female, tau type. Incomplete, lower part of body and stem missing. Mended at center of head, around arm area, and right below waistline. Festooned polos with an X on top;

41 41

42

43

Figure 2.23. Tomb kylix (41), fig421, Object Group 7: angular 43 urine (42), and bronze leaf-shaped razor (43). Scale 1:3. N. Wright and J. Pfaff.

fringe of hair below edge of polos; plait applied over the top of polos; vertical lines on folded arms; waistline visible on one side at point of breakage. Max. pres. h. 5.4; diam. polos 2.2; max. pres. width torso 3 cm. Reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) clay; light yellowish brown at core (10YR 6/4); reddish yellow near surfaces (5YR 6/6). Low-luster red (2.5YR 4/8) paint. Date: LH IIIB.

Tool 43 (MN 1055; OM 74, elev. -2.68 to -2.71 m, SMU 245/196; Fig. 2.23). Bronze leaf-shaped razor. Incomplete; nearly the whole hilt is broken and lost; tip of blade is missing; large chips from edges of blade lost. Restored from three joining pieces (two breaks in the blade). Badly corroded and oxidized. Three rivets in triangular formation, two in line across the shoulder, and one at the preserved base of the hilt survive. Possibly round shoulder although the edges are chipped. Thick, U-shaped, fattish blade without midrib; elliptical section. L. 16.3; max. w. 4.3; th. 0.4 cm. Comments: Weber type III, variant IIId (Papadopoulos 1978–1979, 147–148, no. PBX.35c, fig. 294:c; Weber 1996, 77–81;). Date: LH IIIA.

Human Remains The human remains excavated from the chamber of Tomb 1 show the same poor preservation observed with all skeletal remains recovered from the cemetery. That is, the external surfaces (periostea) and texture of the bones are heavily damaged. Also, severe longitudinal cracking and marks made by insects and plant roots due to the exposure of the remains to the chamber environment have badly affected the human bones. The poor condition of

TOMB 1

the skeletal remains and the type of bone degradation are consistent with the overall picture of those human skeletal remains at Ayia Sotira that were not immediately covered with sediment after their original placement in the chamber. Besides, the spatial distribution of the skeletal remains in several areas of the chamber without any clear order and strict consistency (Table 1) would suggest that they were severely disturbed by both natural processes and anthropogenic intervention. The latter took place probably during several episodes involving the partial cleaning of the chamber floor and selective, incomplete removal of the dry bones from earlier burials within Pit 2 of the chamber. This can be confirmed by the recovery from the pit of skeletal remains whose age category, sex, and skeletal inventory fit well with the partial remains of one adult female, one adult male, one juvenile, one child, and one infant that were recovered scattered in various areas of the chamber floor (see Table 1). Natural disturbance of the bone material was caused by the collapse of the roof and the severe smashing and irregular scatter of the extant bones all over the chamber floor. In particular, the human remains found among the stones that had fallen in the central and eastern part of the chamber, probably from the ceiling, cannot be interpreted as a later burial episode that happened after this collapse. The reasons for this are: (1) they are in the same disarticulated state; (2) they come from the same individuals as the ones from the other areas of the chamber; and (3) they are not associated with any grave goods. The picture therefore of the burials interred in the chamber is consistent with a layer of 247 disarticulated remains (169 post cranial, 41 cranial, and 37 teeth), which correspond to a total of 11 individuals: seven adults, one juvenile (12–18 yrs.), one child (7.5–8 yrs.), one infant (3–4 yrs.; Pl. 8C), and one neonate (0–1 yr.; Tables 2–4; Pl. 8D). Here, it should be pointed out that bones from five individuals (Skeletons 1.4–1.8) were also recognized in Pit 2, as will be explained in detail below. Due to the disarticulated state of the remains, the bones could not be attributed accurately to individuals. Skeletal elements belonging to the commingled remains of the chamber fill are represented in Tables 1–4. With regard to the spatial distribution of the human remains (Table 1), the highest frequency of all bone categories—that is long, small, and flat bones,

31

a few cranial bones, and teeth—occur in the center of the chamber (SMU 246/197, under the stones and SMU 246/198) and the area that extends over Pit 2 (SMUs 245–247/198, 245–247/199). The location of all bone categories in the center and east of the chamber (over Pit 2) in association with the recovery of human remains belonging to both adult and subadult individuals in the same areas of the chamber floor would indicate that these two areas of the tomb originally accommodated primary burials, which then were pushed aside to the north (SMU 247/197) and southwest (SMU 245/196) of the chamber where primarily long bones were deposited. It is worth pointing out also that parts of the skeletons deposited on the chamber floor were intentionally removed and redeposited in Pit 2 (see skeletal inventory of human remains recovered in Pit 2, above, Skeletons 1.4–1.8). Furthermore, the area west of Pit 2 (SMU 245/198) held two almost complete adult skulls— one male and one female (Skeletons 1.5 and 1.4, respectively; Pl. 8E). The mandibles of these skulls were detached and associated with only a few long bones, which did not necessarily belong to the same individuals as the skulls. This suggests the occurrence of secondary burials. Interestingly, one mandible with female anatomical features was found in the area over Pit 2 (Object Group 5), while one mandible with male anatomical features was located in a secondary deposition within Pit 2. In sum, the overall picture of human remains from the chamber floor is consistent with a wide scatter of human bones corresponding to 11 adult and subadult individuals. Spatial distribution of the various anatomical units suggests that the central as well as the eastern areas of the chamber (over Pit 2) were probably the focus for the original placement of the primary burials.

Interpretation Activity in Tomb 1 spanned the LH IIIA:1–2 early through LH IIIB periods. The majority of pottery recovered in the tomb dates to LH IIIA:2–IIIB. Two ceramic vessels from the chamber and one fragment from the dromos can be dated to LH IIIA:2– IIIB:1 and 15 ceramic vessels or fragments can be dated to LH IIIA:2–IIIB, six of which were found

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EVANGELIA PAPPI AND SEVASTI TRIANTAPHYLLOU

in the chamber, one in the stomion, and the rest in the dromos. Eight ceramic vessels from the chamber and two fragments from the dromos date to LH IIIA:2 and one fragment dates to LH IIIA:1–2 early, while only four ceramic vessels from the chamber date to LH IIIB, one of which is LH IIIB:1. Apart from the pottery, two phi-type figurines date to LH IIIA:2, while one psi type and one tau type date to LH IIIB. The number of artifacts that date to LH IIIA:2 shows that during that period the tomb was extensively used, although its use extended to LH IIIB based on the presence of later pottery and other artifacts. Pit 1, dug at the end of the dromos, was used for the disposal of three individuals: one primary (Skeleton 1.1) and two secondary burials. The secondary burials are represented by an extremely small number of skeletal remains: an adult’s right femur (Skeleton 1.2) and one left tibia and the paired right tibia of an infant (Skeleton 1.3). These permit the suggestion that these bones may have been removed purposely from somewhere else (from the chamber, perhaps?) in order to be deposited in the dromos pit as relics (heirlooms?) associated with the primary adult burial. Selective removal of human remains can be supported also for the primary burial, which is missing its skull. Again, removal of the head, which represents the very personal identity of the individual (Talalay 2004), is consistent with practices exhibited by a large number of the Ayia Sotira burials. These seem to involve the retention by some member(s) of the community of a valuable body part, which may recall the memory of the particular deceased or of the ancestors and ancestral line. Concurrently this practice may represent a shift in the notion of the self and the transformation of a particular deceased individual into an “anonymous” dividual personality who is now shared by the community (e.g., Fowler 2004; Rebay-Salisbury 2010). Although Pit 1 cannot be dated due to the absence of grave goods, it seems that it was dug in a late phase of the use of the tomb. This sequence is supported by observing that Pit 1 was not cut into the existing dromos but instead placed at or just beyond the end of the dromos. It can therefore be considered a southern extension of the dromos. This may be the reason that the dromos is only 60 cm wide at that point. This last episode of interment constitutes the primary burial of one adult and the deposition of selective bones of

two more individuals whose bones may have been regarded as relics. These actions may have served to stress the importance and continued vitality of the tomb. Fragments of ancestral bones were possibly considered appropriate for inclusion with the primary burial in order to negotiate the claim of the newly deceased to group membership. Similar actions took place in Tombs 3–6, where there is clear evidence for ritual activities by the living community at the end of the use life of the tombs. As far as the niches are concerned, there is no evidence to indicate either their relative date or their association with newborn babies or early infants. The use of the niches for the burial of infants or children can be assumed only on the basis of negative and comparative evidence—that is, the absence of bones or the presence of specific artifacts such as the miniature beads recovered through the water sieving of similar deposits from other tombs in this cemetery. Unfortunately, the lack of water sieving of the sediment from the fill of the three niches in Tomb 1 leaves the presence of such miniature artifacts an open question (see, however, discussion of this phenomenon in Ch. 10). The presence of infant burials in the chamber of Tomb 1, however, shows that they were not restricted to niches. The niches were undoubtedly added subsequent to the primary opening of the tomb and the initial deposition of primary burials, but it is not possible without stratigraphic evidence to determine to which opening they would have belonged. It is worth noting that the niches were cut at a relatively high level, well above the original floor of the dromos. Apart from Pit 1, no other burials or disarticulated human remains were found in the dromos. Identifiable shapes of the pottery recovered in the dromos consisted mainly of stemmed bowls and angular kylikes. Their fragmented nature and concentration at the northern part of the dromos near the stomion suggest their association with some kind of ritual actions involving a drinking ceremony, which may have accompanied the closing(s) of the tomb after each burial episode (see below in Ch. 10). The chamber was used for the interments of 11 individuals, both adults and children. All age categories were represented in the chamber, thereby demonstrating that there was no spatial segregation of the dead by age. Unlike Tombs 4–6, no primary

TOMB 1

burials were found, as all the human remains deposited in the chamber of Tomb 1 were in a disarticulated state. The most common artifacts placed in the chamber were ceramic vessels. The most frequent shape is the jug, which is represented by two small and four large containers. The pottery repertoire also included three cups, two feeding bottles, two high-handled spouted cups functioning as dippers, two stirrup jars, one hydria, and one piriform jar. Apart from the pottery there were also four figurines (two phi type, one psi type, and one tau type), five stone beads, and a bronze razor. The razor is the only metal artifact found in the excavated tombs of Ayia Sotira, and it may suggest a differentiated social position for one or several of the persons interred in Tomb 1. It is difficult to reconstruct a specific sequence of episodes in Tomb 1 because of: (1) the lack of micromorphological analysis; (2) the destruction of the stomion blocking wall by the robbers; and (3) the secondary nature of the deposition of both human remains and artifact groupings inside the chamber. The center of the chamber and its eastern part (SMUs 245/198, 246/197–199, 247/198) seem to have been the main locus for primary burials. This is suggested by the high concentration of human remains, all of which were found in a disarticulated state, and of artifacts, which were clumped together in small groups regardless of their chronological affinity. At the far edges of the chamber, mainly in the northern and western areas, the artifacts and the human remains, consisting primarily of long bones, were fewer. Together with their scattered deposition, this picture indicates manipulation during secondary treatment of the remains and associated grave goods. As noted, this treatment can be also claimed for the deposition of human remains and artifacts from Pit 2. The sequence of events as can be tentatively reconstructed from the available evidence would therefore have involved: (1) primary deposition of bodies and associated grave goods in the center of the chamber; (2) multiple visits to the chamber for

33

the purpose of secondary manipulation after the bodies of each primary burial had decomposed (an activity that resulted in fragmentation of the articulated bodies and relocation of their skeletonized parts either in the northern or western areas of the chamber or in Pit 2, but that nevertheless left some fragments in their original positions); and, finally, (3) repositioning of some burial goods. These actions may have been followed by the placement of a new primary burial in the center of the chamber. The fact that no primary burials were found in the chamber indicates that the tomb was revisited even after the last interment took place. In this activity there occurred a final manipulation of the decomposed articulated bodies and also the rearrangement of the grave goods that had accompanied the primary burials. This continuous and intense revisiting of the tomb, which includes the gathering in different parts of the chamber and placing in the pit of fragmented bodies and groups of objects of different dates, reflects a series of actions that may be seen as very important stages in the process of transforming the dead into ancestors. These transformations are central cultural metaphors through which the living community conceptualized the passage of time. In addition, they provide us with meaningful insights into the way the body was perceived not as a complete, welldefined, demarcated entity but as a partible dividual with permeable boundaries (Rebay-Salisbury 2010; Budja 2011). Overall, Tomb 1 demonstrates a complex mortuary program concerning the original disposal of the dead and post-depositional notions about the integrity of the individual. The practices of secondary treatment of the dead and their associated objects offer insight into how bodies were encountered in their fragmented nature as skeletal parts and, together with their associated grave goods, were regrouped as part of a process of transformation of their individual personhood into communal ancestors constituted of dividuals.

3

Tombs 2–6 by Mary K. Dabney, Panagiotis Karkanas, R. Angus K. Smith, Sevasti Triantaphyllou, and James C. Wright

Tomb 2 (EUs 32 and 33)

Dromos

Tomb 2, excavated in EU 32 (N235–N238.32 E163–E169.05) in 2006, is located about 11 m west of and parallel to Tomb 5 (Figs. 1.3, 3.1, 3.2). The tomb had been thoroughly looted prior to the beginning of excavation. The looters’ dump was excavated in EUs 32 and 33 in 2006 (Pl. 9A). The EU 32 supervisors were Jessica Miller, Dimitri Nakassis, and Emre Kuruçayırlı; student assistants were Crystal Fulton, Leslie Ann Morin, and Valerie Wolfkamp. The EU 33 supervisor was Dimitri Nakassis, with student assistants Eliese Dow, Cindy Lee Scott, and Allison Siegenthaler. The foreman was Dimitri Niteros. Evidence of looting found in the looters’ dump in the dromos included plastic cups and chicken bones. Evidence of looting found in the chamber included cigarettes and bags of cement used to prevent the collapse of the chamber.

The mechanical earth-moving equipment that had exposed the tomb before it was looted had also removed most of the dromos. The cutting for the dromos immediately south of the stomion tapered toward the top (h. 2.72; w. at top 0.26; w. at bottom 1.08 m), although its original form may have been altered by the looters on the lower west side. An undisturbed remnant of the dromos fill and stomion blocking wall was preserved along the east side of the dromos near the stomion (Table 5; Figs. 3.1, 3.2; Pl. 9B). Three ancient use openings of the dromos were confirmed by micromorphological analysis: The surface identified as a probable prepared floor (possibly with burned lime or slaked marl) above the sandstone bedrock before the first filling of the dromos in micromorphological sample 323c is slightly above the interface between the

36 241 N

M. DABNEY, P. KARKANAS, R. SMITH, S. TRIANTAPHYLLOU, AND J. WRIGHT

3 (excavated in SU 20335) and the lower reddish Layer 4 (excavated in SU 20336) in Figure 3.2. The southernmost cluster of five stones from the stomion blocking wall rested on this surface. The interface (in the middle of the upper third of the dromos) between the upper and lower parts of Layer 3 was recognized by the excavators as a surface (excavated in SU 20334). This change at the bottom of the pebble layer in Layer 3 is seen as part of the filling process at the bottom of micromorphological sample 323a (but it is not illustrated in the plates). The interface of upper Layer 2 and lower Layer 3 (Fig. 3.2) is identified as the definite cut-andfill feature in micromorphological sample 323aa. Layer 1 may be modern fill. A pit in the floor of the dromos just south of the stomion (Pl. 9D) appeared to be created by the looters, although it is possible that it was a burial pit like the one found in the dromos floor of Tomb 3.

EU 32

240 N

239 N

238 N

237 N stomion blocking wall

Unpainted Ceramic Vessels 236 N

Section A 235 N

234 N

N 0

0.2

1

2m

44 (20333001; SU 20333; Fig. 3.3). Angular kylix (FS 267). Rim fr. Flaring above carination to thickened rim. Unpainted. Max. pres. h. 3.5; est. diam. rim 12 (10% pres.); h. lip to carination 2.2 cm. Fine reddish-yellow (5YR 7/6) clay with some subrounded black, white, and sparkling stone inclusions (