Automotive Human Centred Design Methods 9783110677515, 9783110677362

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Voula Gkatzidou, Joseph Giacomin & Lee Skrypchuk Automotive Human Centred Design Methods

Voula Gkatzidou, Joseph Giacomin & Lee Skrypchuk

Automotive Human Centred Design Methods

Enquiries to: [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-067736-2 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-067751-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2020931693 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover image: marcoventuriniautieri/E+/Getty Images Illustrations: Makayla Lewis Typesetting: Meta Systems Publishing & Printservices GmbH, Wustermark Printing and binding: optimal media GmbH, Röbel www.degruyter.com

Contents Preface 1 Methods 1. AEIOU 2. Affinity Diagram 3. Bodystorming 4. Brainstorming 5. Buy a feature 6. Card Sorting 7. Co-Design 8. Cognitive Walkthrough 9. Cognitive Map 10. Competitive Analysis 11. Contextual Inquiry 12. Crazy 8s 13. Crowdsourcing 14. Cultural Probes 15. Customer Journey

24 26 28 30 32 36 38 40 42 46 48 50 52 54 56

60 16. Delphi Survey 17. Design Fiction 62 18. Desirability Testing 64 66 19. Diary Study 20. Empathy Map 68 72 21. Experience Prototyping 22. Extreme Users 74 23. Fly-on-The Wall 76 78 24. Focus Group 25. Harris Profile 80 84 26. Heuristic Evaluation 27. How Might We? 86 28. Interview 88 29. Laddering 90 30. Love/Break up Letter 92 96 31. Persona 32. Picture Cards 98 33. Repertory Grid Technique 100

34. Role Playing 35. Scenario 36. Scenario Mapping 37. Stakeholder Analysis 38. Storytelling 39. Storyboarding 40. Survey 41. Think-Aloud 42. Touchstone Tour 43. Tomorrow’s Headlines 44. Wizard of Oz 45. Word Concept Association 46. Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation 47. 5 Whys

102 104 108 110 112 114 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132

Appendix 1 135 Photo credits 136

Preface To achieve human acceptance in any field, the specific challenges of that field must be taken into account. Some fields offer more challenges than others and one such field, which is characterised by a number of specific challenges, is that of automotive design. Users of vehicles are wide and varied, experience different habitats and have many different motivations for use. The way in which users operate their vehicle is unique and unlike any other product domain. When designing a vehicle it is fundamental to consider the context and inherent constraints, so as to streamline the creative process such that focused, targeted design can evolve. It is because of this that Jaguar Land Rover supports the idea of Human Centred Design by using methods that are entirely appropriate for the context which is being explored. Human Centred Design should be at the heart of the creation of any product, system or service. This reduces the cost of development while producing more effective outcomes that are in tune with the nature of the automotive environment. Jaguar Land Rover believes that the methods contained within this handbook can be used to create innovative products which satisfy customer needs and emotions, while fitting seamlessly into the intended target environments.

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What is Automotive Design? Automotive design is a creative process used to define the properties of motor vehicles, encompassing interior and exterior design. Technological and sociological developments in the automotive sector are shifting the focus of design towards developing a better understanding of customers’ needs, desires and emotions. This book aims to equip you to better meet the desires and expectations of 21st century customers, by providing you with a toolbox of automotive appropriate Human Centred Design methods to answer any given automotive design question.

This book is for you if you ... • Want to understand your customer – how they think, feel and behave around your product, system or service. • Want to fuel your decisions about what really matters to your customers by meeting them in their world. • Want to place the human at the centre of your innovation process.

What you will learn ... • HOW to gain insight and understand and connect with your customers. • METHODS and techniques to empathise with your customer. • HOW to make sense of your customer data and achieve actionable insights.

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Why adopt a Human Centred Design (HCD) approach? Human Centred Design is an approach for designing products, systems and services which are physically, perceptually, cognitively and emotionally intuitive (Giacomin, 2014). Today’s Human Centred Design is based on the use of techniques which communicate, interact, empathise and stimulate the people involved, obtaining an understanding of their needs, desires and experiences which often transcends that which the people themselves actually realised. Human Centred Design can be thought of as a form of structured empathy. Practised in its most basic form, Human Centred Design leads to products, systems and services which are physically, perceptually, cognitively and emotionally intuitive. The toolbox of Human Centred Design techniques grows continuously, including methods that gather facts about people such as anthropometric, biomechanical, cognitive, emotional, psychological and sociological data. It also includes methods to interact with people in such a manner as to facilitate the detection of meanings, desires and needs. In order to address such a challenging task, the designer needs to be equipped with the skillset, knowledge and experience to select and apply the most appropriate method(s) to answer a given design question.

Giacomin, J. 2014, What is Human Centred Design?, The Design Journal, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 606–623.

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Sources of HCD Information Human Centred Information can be collected through various different methods and at different stages in the design process. Methods that collect information about human physical, perceptual, cognitive and emotional characteristics are usually applied BEFORE meeting the customer. Such information, often scientific, leads to minimal requirements and to variation envelopes. The collection and description of such methods are beyond the scope of this work and are not included in this book. This book focuses instead on methods that capture the visible and invisible information about dynamics, motivations and meanings, including data about interactions with the motor vehicle, behaviour towards certain components, and beliefs and values about the brand as a whole.”

facts visible invisible

Physical Perceptual Cognitive

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

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WHICH HCD METHODS ARE MOST APPROPRIATE TO AUTOMOTIVE DESIGN? Which Human Centred Design methods would be the most efficient towards answering a given automotive design question?

Selecting HCD Methods An extensive literature search was performed to review all currently available Human Centred Design methods. Search sources included both academic and non-academic databases.

• Methods that visualise the complex process of Human Centred Design • Methods that include more than one stand-alone method, such as co-design, prototyping etc.

The inclusion criteria applied to the search were the following: • Methods that capture information about customers with regard to their interactions, behaviours, emotions, beliefs, meanings and/or values • Methods that provide a framework to organise or structure the data collected

Over 600 methods were initially identified using the search terms, of which 327 were eligible, 270 were excluded because of duplication and 47 were collected and included in the handbook. A series of workshops with automotive designers was carried out to validate the method set collected.

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HOW IS THIS HANDBOOK ORGANISED? What is the most appropriate way to organise methods for automotive design?

Taxonomy & Ontology of HCD methods Organising methods by the specific phase(s) they are most appropriate for is problematic, as design phases are not always explicit and may be specific to the component, system or type of vehicle which is being designed. Organising methods by the specific design activity you wish to achieve (i.e. to gather concepts, to understand, to test etc.) might also be problematic given the integrated nature of automotive design which requires that all interactions contribute to the overall metaphors and meanings (Giacomin, 2017) which were chosen for the motor vehicle.

Similarly, organising methods according to which component or system they are most suitable for might be insufficient given that technology is constantly changing. In this handbook the HCD methods are categorised into three broad categories, based on the type of human information which they are trying to uncover: • Information about the customer that is ‘visible’, including how they interact with a product, system or service, how they behave and metrics to measure. • Information about the customer that is ‘invisible’, including the metaphors, meaning and values involved. • Information about the customer that involves both visible and invisible characteristics of their behaviour.

Giacomin, J. 2017, What is design for meaning? Journal of Business & Technology. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 167–190.

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Human Centred Design Methods A mapping workshop with automotive designers identified the type of information that each of the methods collected best. From the set of methods that are described in this book • 20 methods capture mostly visible information • 10 methods capture mostly invisible information • 17 methods capture both visible and invisible information The following table summarises the set of methods that are included in the book and the type of information each method captures.

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 1 AEIOU

20 Empathy Map

39 Storyboarding

 2 Affinity Diagram

21 Experience Prototyping

40 Survey

 3 Bodystorming

22 Extreme Users

41 Think-Aloud

 4 Brainstorming

23 Fly-on-The-Wall

42 Touchstone Tour

 5 Buy a Feature

24 Focus Group

43 Tomorrow’s Headlines

 6 Card Sorting

25 Harris Profile

44 Wizard of Oz

 7 Co-Design

26 Heuristic Evaluation

45 World Concept Association

 8 Cognitive Walkthrough

27 How Might We?

46 Zaltman Metaphor Elicita-

 9 Cognitive Map

28 Interview

10 Competitive Analysis

29 Laddering

11 Contextual Inquiry

30 Love/Break Up Letter

12 Crazy 8s

31 Persona

13 Crowdsourcing

32 Picture Cards

14 Cultural Probes

33 Repertory Grid Technique

15 Customer Journey

34 Role Playing

16 Delphi Survey

35 Scenario

17 Design Fiction

36 Scenario Mapping

18 Desirability Testing

37 Stakeholder Analysis

19 Diary Study

38 Storytelling

tion 47 5 Whys

visible invisible

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

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HOW IS EACH HCD METHOD DESCRIBED? What is the most ‘automotive appropriate’ way to describe Human Centred Design methods to facilitate their discovery, selection and application?

Selection of HCD methods characteristics A series of workshops with automotive designers was carried out to identify what are the most appropriate automotive criteria to describe Human Centred Design methods, i.e. what criteria do automotive designers use to choose which methods they will apply in their work? The most automotive-relevant criteria to describe methods that will be used in this handbook are summarised below: Method Characteristic

Definition

Values

 1

Time Taken

Estimated time of completion

1 day, 2–3 days, 3+ days

 2

Effort

Information time for preparation, processing and analysing results

Icon (easy, moderate, hard)

 3

Cost

Recruitment, participant reimbursement and staff times

Icon (one icon per cost)

 4

Staff

Number of staff members required to apply each method

Icon(one icon per staff member)

 5

Input

Description of artefacts required for method execution

Probe(s), Concept(s), Prototype(s)

 6

Participants

Participant information and size

Design team // Stakeholders // Experts // Users

 7

Purpose

Purpose of the method

Textual Description

 8

Output

Format and typology of the benefits of the methods to the design team.

Textual Description

 9

Setting

Details on the required setting of the method

Artificial (lab) // Natural (in-situ) // Setting independent

10

Related Methods

Methods that discover similar type of information or methods that can be triangulated with specific method

Textual Description

11

Resources

Additional resources about the method with focus on automotive design examples

Additional resources about the method with focus on automotive design examples

12

Time perspective

Time frame of the information collected

Present or past // Future // N/A

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HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK? The methods collected through the literature review, together with the automotive specific criteria that were identified through a series of design workshops are used throughout the handbook to present and describe the methods. The methods are presented in an alphabetical order and, for each method, the type of information it collects is illustrated by the use of the coloured circles (on the top right-hand side of the page).

Steps

Sample Page

t (i.e. when and where they happen)..

Before the diary study

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before the diary study

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

66

3 4

Description of material required for the method execution. Participant information (i.e. who to involve when you apply each method).

7 8

During & after the diary study

e

Plan: Define the focus of the study and the long term behaviours that you need to understand. Define a timeline, select tools for participants to report data, recruit particiEach method in this handbook is described in a two-page spread which includes the automotive specific criteria and Purpose pants, and prepare instructions or support materials. the bespoke classification model. To capture data and insights and collect longitudinal information of actual custom2 Recruit: Recruiting is particularly important with diary er behaviour in a natural context. 7 19. Diary Study studies since they rely on a large Steps 6 investment of participants’ A method that allows you to collect self-reported experiences in context (i.e. when and where they happen).. time. Due the longitudinal 1 Plan: Define to the focus of the study and the long term nature of this method, particiInput Description 8 behaviours that you need to understand. Define a timeline, 1 Diary studies can focus on: Customer diaries (logs) of daily pants would need todata,be monitored and supported throughselect tools for participants to report recruit particiDiary kit (how will capture their activities as people they occur give conPurpose pants, and prepare instructions or support materials. 2 Product – Understanding intertextual insights about real time To capture data and insights and collect out the process (for example, through text messages). (e.g. with the Heads Up behavioursfor and needs. Outcome experiences; example:actions physical diary, longitudinal information of actual custom2 Recruit: Recruiting is particularly important with diary 9 Display over a specific time frame). Self reported er behaviour in a natural context. studies since they rely on a large investment of participants’ diary studies, participants customer diary app,Inasked Whats app,arevoice notes etc.). Input time. Due to the longitudinal nature of this method, particiBehaviour – Gathering general to keep a diary of their day interactions 3 pants would need to be monitored and supported throughinformation about customer to day experiences of how they or events with Diary kit (how people will capture their out the process (for example, through text messages). behaviour (e.g. smartphone usage engage in a particular behaviour, a product or experiences; for example: physical diary, 3 Conduct: Give your participants the diary kit, and brief in the car). encounter a situation, or have system over diary app, Whats app, voice notes etc.). Participants specific types of interactions. time. 3 Conduct: Give your participants the diary kit, and brief General or specific activities – them about the specified periodRelated of Methods the study. Inform them Participants them about the specified period of the study. Inform them 4 Understanding how people Diary studies are exploratory Customers. Customers. of the aims of research, the key dates for contact and follow 10follow complete general activities (e.g. and longitudinal, made of beCultural Probes. of the aims of research, the key dates for contact and up. Give an example of a diary to explain your expectations havioural ‘snapshots’ captured over buying a new car, setting up the Method Info of them, e.g. requiring 2 entries per week etc. 5 extended periods that affect a cusin car navigation system). Resources Time ●●○ up. Give an example of a diary to explain your expectations tomer’s experience. Diary studies Zhao, C. & Popovic, Vesna & Ferreira, Luis & 11 Effort ●●○ Method Info are useful for collecting information Lu, Xiaobo. (2006). Vehicle design research 4 Debrief: A post-study interview is typically conducted, Staff ●●○ related to long term behaviours, for Chinese elderly drivers. Proceedings of the of them, e.g. requiring entries per week etc. in order to supplement, validate and otherwise2 explore the Cost ●●○ such as habits that cannot be International Conference on Computer-Aided information gathered by the participants. Repeat this proTime ●●○Time perspective Present/Past gathered in a lab setting. Industrial Design and Conceptual Design, cess, creating a map to compare interviews. (CAIDC). Setting Natural Effort ●●○ 4 Debrief: A post-study interview is typically conducted, Staff ●●○ in order to supplement, validate and otherwise explore the Cost ●●○ information by the participants. Repeat this pro1 Description of the method, i.e. its aim, when it 5 Infographic on method’s characteristics thatgathered are 9 Description of the type of outcome for the Time perspective Present/Past should be applied etc. most relevant to automotivecess, design.creating a map method. to compare interviews. Setting Natural 2 Main aim of the method. 6 Step-by-step breakdown on how the method can 10 Information on methods that might be similar, During & after the diary study

).

1

be applied. Type of information the method captures. Illustration of method’s application and context of use.

67

or can be used in conjunction with method. 11 Resources about the method with automotive design examples where possible.

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HOW TO SELECT THE ‘RIGHT’ METHOD?

The need for method triangulation Triangulation refers to the practice of using multiple sources of data or multiple approaches to analysing data to a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon of interest. No Right or Wrong Method! For each given design project, there is no right or wrong method. The selection of methods is based on YOUR context and frame of reference. Methodological Triangulation Improve the validity of your work by combining MORE THAN ONE method in one study. Aim to apply at least three methods which, between them, can capture … • What the customer SAYS • What the customer DOES • Contextual, physical, perceptual and cognitive information

What the customer SAYS

Contextual, physical, perceptual and cognitive information

Human Centred Design What the customer DOES 19

Legend Method Info Time: Estimated time of completion. Effort: Effort required for the preparation, processing and analysis of results when applying a particular method. Staff: Number of staff members required. Cost: Recruitment, participant reimbursement and staff times. Time perspective: Estimated time frame of use of the designed artefact. Setting: Details on the required setting of the method. For example, methods whose setting is recommended as ‘Artificial’ can be used in a driving simulator lab. Methods whose setting is ‘Natural’ should be used in the context in which the interaction would be taking place, i.e. on-road study, interview whilst sitting in the car etc. ‘Artificial’ suggests that the setting for the method will not affect the research outcomes.

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Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●○○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Time perspective Past/Present/Future Setting Natural/Independent

Legend Purpose Goal or aim of the method Input Description of the material required for the method execution. Example of this include: Design Probes, Design Concept, Design Prototype Outcome Expected deliverable of the method Participants Participant information, i.e. who will you need to involve when you apply each method. Examples include customers, other members of the design team, stakeholders, experts in a particular area of automotive design, automotive design. Where available and supported by research or best practice, information on the participant sample size will be given.

Steps Step-by-step practical breakdown on how each method can be applied. For the methods that act more as ‘frameworks’ to support other methods (for example, AEIOU, How Might We? etc.), the ‘Steps’ section provides additional information on how to apply them. Related Methods Similar methods, or methods that can or should be combined with a specific method as well as complementary methods. Resources Resources for further reading of examples of how each method was applied in an automotive context.

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METHODS

1. AEIOU A method that provides a framework for guiding and structuring information about your customers. Description AEIOU is not an information gathering method but a framework that guides and structures the data collected from other design methods. This is achieved by placing the emphasis on five types of data to observe, collect or document: Activities, Environment, Interactions, Objects and Users. The AEIOU method can be used: • Before a customer workshop to highlight what to observe during customer observation or to guide your interview. • After a customer workshop to organise the data you have collected. 24

Activities are goal directed actions, that customers do, before, during and after accomplishing their goals. Environment includes the physical space and function of the context that defines the customer experience. Interactions are between a person and other people or things in the environment. Objects are the individual elements of an environment, which might be put to simple or complex uses (intended or unintended). Users are the people who you are designing for.

Purpose To provide an organisational framework to define the type of data that needs to be collected. To visually map the relationships and interactions between the customer, the environment and the product, system or service of the car. Input Customer data collected from other methods. Participants Design Team. Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●○○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Time perspective Present/Past Natural/Independent Setting

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps Activities What are the customers engaged in prior to, during, and after the experience? Can these behaviours be influenced? Environment What environments define this experience? What is the physical condition of the environment? What does the design or structure of the environment communicate to the customer? Interactions What interactions happen in and with the vehicle? Objects What objects are relevant to this scenario? What tools do customers utilise to navigate their way through this environment? Are there different or more efficient objects which could be used?

Outcome Customer data that is organised into a framework. Related Methods AEIOU can be used to support Contextual Inquiry, Fly On The Wall Observation, Focus Groups etc. Resources Interviews using AEIOU about future automotive contexts: Kyungjoo Cha, Joseph Giacomin, Mark Lycett, Francis Mccullough, Dave Rumbold (2015). Identifying human desires relative to the integration of mobile devices into automobiles, Proceedings of the International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, Nottingham, United Kingdom. 25

2. Affinity Diagram A method to visually organise large amounts of data into groups with common themes or relationships that allow a design direction to be established based on the associations uncovered. Description This method allows you to organise qualitative data collected from customers and others stakeholders to understand themes, issues and concerns. This method may be used to: • Analyse findings from field studies (such as observations, interviews etc.) or usability evaluations. • Identify and group the various functions of a proposed design concept.

26

Purpose To collaboratively sort large amounts of customer data to identify and group the insights that will shape design directions. Input Customer data (obtained from interviews, focus groups or observations). Participants Customers & Stakeholders. Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●○○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Time perspective Present/Past Setting Independent

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before the workshop

1

Gather customer data (i.e. notes from interviews or observations, transcripts, videos etc.). Assign a ‘post-it’ note to each of the separate data items. Each ‘post-it’ should represent a separate data item (such as quotes from interviews, artefacts produced at co-design sessions, images from customer observations etc.).

2

Use a ‘post-it’ note for each separate data item (i.e. text, images, artefacts). Shuffle the ‘post-it’ notes to eliminate any pre-existing ordering and place them on an ‘affinity surface’ (a wall or large table).

During the workshop

3

Ask participants to individually organise the items into “affinity groups” , groups that “go together”, or that are similar in some way and label them. Larger affinity groups (i.e. more than 10 to 12 items) should be broken down.

4

Prioritise the affinity groups or individual items for further consideration by asking participants to vote on their preferred ideas.

Outcome Large customer data set organised into smaller sets, and clustered into design themes for further consideration by topic or prioritised by importance. Related Methods Card Sorting can identify common patterns in the way different individuals group information. Affinity Diagram can be used as part of a Brainstorming session to organise or prioritise participants’ ideas. Resources https://medium.com/@ruiminong/ux-case-studyfixir-a-startup-connecting-drivers-workshopsb2fb808d7fc2 27

3. Bodystorming A method of physically experiencing a situation to imagine new interactions and explore new ideas. Description Bodystorming is based on interaction and movement that allows the designer to observe customer interactions, and to generate ideas around an envisioned design scenario. This method is based on bodily engagement, to elicit the knowl-

edge that is not easily addressable by words. This method requires setting up an experience, including necessary artefacts and people and physically “testing” it. The focus of bodystorming is to observe your customers interacting with the environment and the choices they make while in it. For example, to envision new social situations in the car, the input for a bodystorming workshop would be a setup with an outline of a car served as a stage for enacting as well as other props and prototyping material.

28

Purpose To derive new ideas and unexpected ideas by witnessing participants who are physically experiencing a situation. Input A setup that serves as a stage for enacting, conceptualising an envisioning the future ideas you are exploring. Participants Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●● ●●● ●●○ ●●○ Future Natural

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps 1

Before the workshop

Identify the environment of the given interaction. For example, if you are designing for family commuting experiences in the car, you might identify several potential sites where this activity is taking place, such as outside the house, at school drop off, at the supermarket car park, etc.

2

Create the ‘enactment’ experience, as a setup with props. A ‘pretend’ car can be enacted by the use of four chairs arranged in a car cabin format, props could include personal possessions (to explore interactions with others), or car components (such as steering wheel etc.)

3

During the workshop

Prepare a number of scenarios that will be bodystormed by the participants. Create more than one scenario because the multiple scenarios will be your springboard for ideation.

4

Ask participants to work in groups to bodystorm your design scenario(s). Each group will enact each scenario and each group member needs to have a role. Ask participants to write down ideas to depict their solutions to the problem in a story format.

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Outcome Feedback (in the form of stories) for design concepts and an understanding of contextual factors that are important in designing novel interactions. Related Methods The difference between Bodystorming and other types of prototyping is that Bodystorming does not depend on the use of a specific product or system that could potentially constrain the directions of the interaction. Resources Living Room on the Move: Autonomous Vehicles and Social Experiences: Pettersson, Ingrid & Rydström, Annie & Strömberg, Helena & Hylving, Lena & Andersson, Jonas & Klingegård, Maria & Karlsson, Marianne. (2016). Living Room on the Move: Autonomous Vehicles and Social Experiences. 1–3.1 Designing for social experiences with and within autonomous vehicles: Strömberg, H., Pettersson, I., Andersson, J., Rydström, A., Dey, D., Klingegård, M., & Forlizzi, J. (2018). Designing for social experiences with and within autonomous vehicles – exploring methodological directions. Design Science, 4, E13. 29

4. Brainstorming An ideation method where efforts are made to find a solution for a specific challenge by gathering a list of ideas or concepts. Description Brainstorming is a way to generate multiple ideas by leveraging the collective thinking of a group. This method is used to spur group creativity with the intention of generating concepts and ideas regarding a specific design challenge. There are variations of brainstorming such as: • Brainwriting: where ideas are generated in a parallel, rather than a serial, fashion. For example, each person writes ideas down on paper and then passes the paper to a new person who reads the first set of ideas and adds new ones. This variation of brainstorming is useful when time is limited, 30

groups are hostile, or you are dealing with a culture or participants where coming up with and sharing divergent ideas might be difficult. • Braindrawing: a method of visual brainstorming that is used to generate ideas for visual elements, such as icons, other graphics, or user interface layouts. Each of these variations of brainstorming allows for the generation, presentation and evaluation of designs by customers.

Purpose To generate ideas or find solutions to design challenges. Input Design challenge. Participants Customers, Stakeholders, Design Team. Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●○○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Future Time perspective Setting Independent

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before the workshop

1

Define domain and plan: Define a challenge or opportunity to explore further. Establish the documentation of the brainstorming workshop (i.e. how will you record and document the participants’ ideas).

2

Recruit: Select a group of participants with different backgrounds and pose the question, challenge or opportunity to the group. Depending on your design goal, you can have a brainstorming workshop involving customers, or just your design team and stakeholders.

During the workshop

3

Generate solutions: Ask the group to generate solutions or ideas with no criticism or judgement. Do not set any limits to the type and number of ideas. This is the “divergent” phase in which you want as many ideas as possible without any censorship.

4

Discuss: Critique, and possibly prioritise the results for later action. This last step is called the “convergent” phase where the list of ideas are synthesised into themes that are most applicable to your design challenge.

Outcome Large number of ideas for your design opportunity or challenge. Related Methods How Might We? Questions can be used to frame a brainstorming session. Crazy 8s Can be used to structure the drawing/sketching part of the brainstorming session. Resources Brainstorming, Brainwalking, Brainwriting and Braindumping on https://www.interaction-design.org 31

5. Buy a feature A method that explores the features people are likely to find desirable in a given product, system or service and the reasons why. Description Buy a feature is a gamification method for obtaining customer perspectives and preferences for the features of a product or system. This includes preferences that currently exist, or preferences that they would like to be available in the future and are likely to find desirable in a product. Product features are identified and are given a price (based on development costs, customer values, etc.). 32

Participants are given fake cash with which to buy features. By only providing enough cash to buy a limited set of features, participants are forced to choose the features they most want.

Purpose To reveal customers’ preferences and values. Input Probes (feature cards with prices assigned, fake money). Participants Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●●○ ●●○ Present/Past/Future Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps

During the workshop

Before the workshop

1

Identify the list of features of your design concept. Include a combination of features that have been suggested by customers, features that have been implemented by rival products and features that have perhaps been identified as desirable by other departments in your organisation (i.e. marketing department).

2

Provide each of the features with a price. Make sure that some features cost more than others, so that customers will need to ‘pool’ their money and negotiate. Your prices can be based on development costs, customer value, etc.

3

Ask participants to work individually or in groups to buy the features they mostly like and ask them to explain the reasons behind their purchases.

4

Listen to your customers, especially when they are negotiating for a feature. Document the discussions and the reasons behind their decisions.

Outcome List of features on the product, system or service you are designing, prioritised by customer desirability and information on the reasons why. Related Methods Card Sorting is a similar method that can be used if the number of features for the product you are designing is too large (more than 10 to 15). Affinity Diagramming can be used to summarise the result of the Buy a feature method. Resources How to organise a Buy a feature workshop on: http://www.uxforthemasses.com/buy-the-feature/ 33

“”

When designing a vehicle, it is fundamental to consider the context and inherent constraints, so as to streamline the creative process such that focused, targeted design can evolve.

6. Card Sorting A method that explores how participants group items or concepts into categories and how they relate these to one another. Description Card Sorting allows you to understand how (and why) your customers break down a big concept, problem or relationship into component parts, revealing a mental pattern. In Card Sorting, participants group individual labels written on cards according to criteria that make sense to them. In Open Card Sorting, participants are free to assign the names they want to the groups they have created with the cards. This reveals patterns in how participants classify, which in turn helps generate ideas for organising information. In Closed Card Sorting, participants are given a predetermined 36

set of category names and categories. This evaluates whether a given set of category names provides an effective way to organise a given collection of content. Imagine that you’re designing the menu for the infotainment system and there is a considerable amount of features that the customers can control. With Card Sorting, your customers can organise the available features into groups that make sense to them. This way, you can organise those features into categories that people can browse to quickly find their preferred feature.

Purpose To uncover participants’ mental models with regard to complex concepts. Input Design Probes (cards and card deck). Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●○○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Present/Past Time perspective Setting Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before the workshop

Steps 1

Plan: Create a card deck for participants to sort using index cards. Aim for a card set of 30 to 40 max to avoid participant fatigue. Ensure that your cards can provide insight to your specific design question. Randomise the order of presentation of the cards to avoid bias. You can arrange the card sorting workshop to be a one to one or group session.

During the workshop

2

Show participants your card deck and ask them to arrange the cards using an organisation “prompt” based on your preferred sorting technique. This could be to arrange the cards in ways that make sense to them, or based on what is important to them etc. Once the participants have grouped all the cards to their satisfaction, give them blank cards and ask them to write down a name for each group they created.

3

Debrief: Encourage participants to talk about their thought process out loud to understand their opinions, rationales, and stories. Make sure that you or another member of the team is available to take notes.

Outcome Insights on how your customers rank or arrange features of a concept based on a set of criteria they have. Related Methods ‘Buy a Feature’ is a similar method but can only be used if the number of features for the product you are designing is no bigger than 10–15. Resources Card Sorting to rank importance of features of a car dashboard. IBM Card sorting on https://medium.com/ 37

7. Co-Design A method that actively involves all stakeholders in generating ideas and collaboratively creating concepts. Description A Co-Design workshop is a form of participatory design that brings together a variety of creative design methods into an organised session for participants to work with the design team members. Co-Design can be used: • To ideate and establish design implications when exploring the design of new products. • To collectively review, offer feedback, and contribute insights for design iteration and refinement when evaluating existing design concepts. A Co-Design workshop can employ numerous design methods, such as picture cards (to get the participants engaged with the design brief), Role Playing 38

(to understand the challenge and empathise), Brainstorming and Crazy 8s (for ideation), and prototyping.

Purpose To convene a group of people you are designing for and actively bring them into the design process. Input Low-fidelity sketching supplies: post-its, markers, pens, timer, snacks. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●● Staff ●●○ Cost ●●○ Time perspective Present/Past/Future Independent Setting

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before the workshop

1

Plan: Define the exact scope of what to ask participants to design during the workshop and allow for sufficient time for the activity. According to your design goals, decide which method(s) to apply during your co-design workshop.

2

Recruit & Group: Recruit participants and group them into teams in advance, ensuring the groups are mixed (i.e. not all customers in one group, not all stakeholders in one group, not all design team members in one group).

During the workshop

3

Workshop: Brief participants on the scope and aim of the co-design session. The brief may include a specific product to improve, or a general challenge you want participants to address (the specific scenario or customer journey faced by your customers).

4

Collect & Analyse: Allow each group to present (pitch) their designs and for the entire group to discuss any common themes that emerged. Document the ideas and sketches and discuss these further with the design team.

Outcome New ideas based on direct input from your customers can help to clarify that your design(s) meet the needs of your customers. Related Methods Most of the methods in this book can be used as a part of a Co-Design workshop (apart from the Usability Evaluation Methods). Resources A Co-Design workshop to elicit what feels natural when interacting with an automobile’s secondary controls on: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/ 10.1080/14606925.2018.1395228 39

8. Cognitive Walkthrough An expert-based usability evaluation method in which one or more evaluators work through a series of tasks with a product, system or service. Description Cognitive Walkthroughs provide a systematic way to identify distinct points during an interaction sequence and evaluate whether each step in the interaction helps people make the next correct decision in the interaction. The method’s focus on how people solve problems.

Cognitive Walkthroughs are sometimes confused with heuristic evaluations, as both methods uncover usability problems. Cognitive Walkthrough is a taskspecific approach to usability, while heuristic evaluation is a more holistic usability inspection. As both usability evaluation methods uncover different classes of design issues and different usability problems, it is recommended that these methods should be used together, rather than in lieu of another.

40

Purpose To examine the usability of a product or system with respect to the tasks which the customer will be required to carry out within a given system. Input Design prototype. Participants Usability experts (3 to 5 in total). Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before the walkthrough

Steps 1

Identify the customer goal you want to examine.

2

Define the task or tasks that the customer would be expected to carry out. It is important to choose realistic tasks that are carried out often as well as tasks that are safety critical and carried out less often. Tasks are then divided up into a simple process to follow.

During the workshop

3

Ask the evaluators (experts) to attempt to complete these tasks and document their experience while completing them.

4

As the experts evaluate each step in a task, record success stories, failure stories, design suggestions, problems, comments about the tasks, and other information that may be useful in design. Brainstorm with the rest of the design team on potential solutions to any problem identified.

Outcome Specific feedback for each action in an interaction sequence that can be used to generate design recommendations. Related Methods Heuristic Evaluation Resources Cognitive Walkthrough to design in-car navigation systems: Curzon, P. & Blandford, Ann & Butterworth, R. & Bhogal, R. (2002). Interaction design issues for car navigation systems. In: Faulkner, X. and Finlay, J. and Detienne, F., (eds.) People and Computers XVI – Memorable yet Invisible: Proceedings of HCI 2002. Springer Verlag, London, UK. 41

9. Cognitive Map An information visualisation method that reveals people’s underlying decision-making rules. Description A method that provides a visualisation of how people make sense of a particular problem and identifies the relationships your customers assign between concepts. A Cognitive Map is a drawing of how customers make sense of a particular problem, issue or idea, how they think about the problem and how they structure ideas around it. Cognitive Mapping is not an information gathering method but a method that guides and structures other design methods. It can facilitate the notetaking process during interviews or focus groups, and when transcribing qualitative data. The format and structure of a Cognitive Map requires no central node (or concept) that works as 42

the focus of the visualisation. The nodes of a cognitive map are made up of the exact words and phrases spoken by participants.

Purpose To reveal how your customers think about a problem and visualise how they process and make sense of their experiences. Input Customer data obtained from Interviews, Focus Groups and/or Observations. Participants Design Team. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●● ●●○ ●●○ Future Independent

Before the workshop

Steps 1

Recruit participants and organise materials and a space for a workshop. Choose the focus of the Cognitive Mapping activity; it has to be related to a task or process that people usually develop a mental model for. For example, this might include a Cognitive Map of the infotainment system menu or of a vehicle navigation system.

During the workshop

2

Ask participants to create a Cognitive Map showing how they navigate in a real or virtual space. Keep in mind that maps can be created in collaboration by a group of people to incorporate different viewpoints.

3

Ask other participants to navigate through the map, and to explain how they perform a task or “read” some space.

4

Take notes of what participants describe, take special note of moments where the participants backtrack or change their primary goal. Analyse the different maps and flows.

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Outcome Graphical representation of your customers’ mental models, their decision-making rules, how they make sense of a problem and what they believe about a product. Related Methods Cognitive Maps be used to help the analysis of data collected from Contextual Inquiry, Interviews and/or Observations. There are different types of Cognitive Maps: Concept Maps illustrate how people visualise relationships between various concepts. Mind Maps explore associations between ideas. Resources Cognitive Mapping simulator study for the user interface design of in-car navigation systems: Burnett, Gary & Lee, Kate. (2005). The Effect of Vehicle Navigation Systems on the Formation of Cognitive Maps. Traffic and Transport Psychology: Theory and Application. 43

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Owing to the growing sophistication of digital technologies and the increasing complexity of modern social behaviours, the 21st century automobile can no longer be considered as an environment solely characterised by the performance of the driving task.

10. Competitive Analysis A method that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of competing products or services by surveying them and comparing them against customer requirements. Description A Competitive Analysis provides an opportunity to assess a competitor’s product from the customer’s point of view. It is a method to collect and compare data about products (and com­ panies) in the marketplace to make more informed decisions about your product strategy. Assessment criteria that can be used are: • Aesthetics: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, taste. • Ergonomics: safety, comfort, ease of use. • Identity: point in time, sense of place, personality. • Emotion: security, confidence, independence, emotion, sensuality, adventure. 46

• Impact: social, environmental. • Technology: reliable, enabling • Quality: craftsmanship, durability. A Competitive Analysis identifies ‘what exists’ but not the reason(s) why. For example, it might help you identify a long feature list for a specific product or system but you won’t know which features users value and use the most.

Purpose To inform the design process by enabling a deeper understanding of where your product or service stands in the market, and highlighting the strengths and weakness of your competition. Input Competitor’s products. Participants Design team, Stakeholders. Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●●○ Cost ●○○ Time perspective Present/Past Setting Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps

Before the workshop

1

Define your goals and decide the reasons for doing the competitive analysis. Your goals should ideally be specific and measurable.

2

Generate the assessment criteria you will be using for the competitive analysis. On a piece of paper or spreadsheet, list each criterion and its attributes in a column, and then add columns to either rate them (i.e. each on a scale of low, medium, and high), or simply mark the availability (i.e. yes or not).

During the workshop

3

In a group setting with your design team and stakeholders, rate each competitor’s product on a separate sheet. Use a different sheet to rate your own product.

4

Generate discussion about how your design compares to the competing products, and stimulate recommendations about design improvements and new features.

Outcome List of recommendations for new design directions. Related Methods Suggested methods to be applied after Competitive Analysis: Card Sorting, Buy-a Feature. Resources How to do a Competitive Analysis, step-by-step guide on: http://www.usabilitygeek.com 47

11. Contextual Inquiry An immersive method of observing and interviewing customers in context to understand their behaviour and interactions. Description Contextual Inquiry (also known as Ethnographic Interview) is a method by which the designer is embedded in the user’s environment, alternately observing and interviewing the customer. Contextual inquiry allows for a detailed, empathetic view of your customer and their behaviour and interactions in the car. This method provides a comprehensive understanding of the system in which the user plays a part, and a thorough exploration of their actual interactions (which might not match those which were intended by the designer). 48

Purpose To gather behavioural information and contextual insights on customer experience when using a particular product, system, service, or performing a particular activity in the car. Input N/A Participants Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●● ●●○ ●●○ Present/Past/Future Natural

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps

Before the workshop

1

Plan: Decide who you will be observing and interviewing. Use a framework such as the AEIOU to structure what you will be observing and what you will be asking in the interview.

2

Prepare: Decide your medium for documentation. This could include taking photographs, keeping notes, recording videos etc. Video recording the session would facilitate the inquiry as it will allow you to minimise the note taking during the session.

During the workshop

3

Capture your findings. Write down all that the customer is doing. If you have questions for the user, be sure to write them down. It is important to inquire about anything interesting that occurred, but only afterwards. Do not interrupt or disturb the user during their work.

4

Gather insight. Contextual inquiry is an important starting point for capturing information. Discuss your findings (i.e. what seemed intriguing) further with your team, and compare and compile data from multiple observations.

Outcome Rich insights into customer experience. Related Methods AEIOU can be used to structure and guide Observations and Interviews. Affinity Diagramming, Empathy Map and Customer Journey are methods that can be used to summarise the data collected by a Contextual Inquiry. Resources Contextual Inquiry of Future Commuting in Autonomous Cars: Krome, Sven & Walz, Steffen & Greuter, Stefan. (2016). Contextual Inquiry of Future Commuting in Autonomous Cars. Contextual Inquiry to gain a deeper understanding of how drivers interact with today’s entertainment, communication, navigation, and information systems in vehicles: Gellatly, Andrew & Hansen, Cody & Highstrom, Matthew & Weiss, John. (2010). Journey: General Motors’ Move to Incorporate Contextual Design into Its Next Generation of Automotive HMI Designs. 156–161. 49

12. Crazy 8s A method in which participants are required to generate a number of designs during a short timeframe. Description Crazy 8s is a method that allows the generation of a wide variety of concepts to your design challenge by following a quick sketching exercise that challenges people to sketch 8 ideas in 8 minutes. This could be specified to be 8 distinct design concepts. The goal is to push beyond the first idea. The imposing of a fixed time limit should help minimise emotional investment in specific concepts, thus favouring the achievement of a wider range of designs. This method can be applied to well defined issues and contexts, or to highly abstract design problems. If the design question is abstract, ensure that the participants focus 50

on practical, and actionable solutions to a specific problem. This method can be applied individually (for yourself) or in a group workshop format (either with your customers or with the design team).

Purpose To ideate and generate concepts quickly on a design challenge. Input Design challenge. Participants Customers, Design team, Stakeholders. Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●○○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Future Time perspective Setting Independent

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before the workshop

1

Take a piece of A4 paper and fold it into 8 sections. Set the timer for 8 minutes. Decide how you will be using this method (for example as part of a Co-Design workshop with customers, as part of a brainstorming session with your design team and stakeholders etc.). Ask each participant or member of your design team to sketch one idea in each rectangle on each piece of paper.

After the workshop

2

After everyone has finished the Crazy 8s exercise, ask each participant to share the ideas they have generated and discuss with the group. After the entire team has presented their sketches, hold a round of voting and ask participants to vote for their favourite ideas out of the whole group. The objective is to generate as many ideas as possible within a short timeframe, focusing on quantity of ideas not quality (divergent to convergent).

Outcome Large number of ideas for your design challenge. Related Methods Brainstorming, Co-Design, How Might We? Questions Resources Crazy 8s to sketch ideas for designing rituals for autonomous cars: Rolling Chairs, Wagging Cars, & Designing Ritual Interactions for Autonomous Cars article on: www.medium.com 51

13. Crowdsourcing Crowdsourcing is a method in which a function or design task is ‘outsourced’ to a large network of people in the form of an ‘open call’. Description Crowdsourcing is based on a decentralised model that brings together customers and ‘testers’ – members of the crowd to complete specific design ‘microtasks’. A microtask is defined as a

short task – either qualitative or quantitative – that is accessed via a common platform.

Purpose To harness the ‘power of a crowd’ and gather collaborative intelligence to support creativity and innovation. Input Design Prototype (if crowdsourcing is used for evaluation of a specific prototype) or abstract design brief (if used for crowdsourcing design competitions). Participants Large sample. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

52

●●○ ●●● ●●○ ●●○ Present/Past/Future Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps

After

Before the crowdsourcing study

1

Design task: Plan your crowdsourcing task(s). Design your tasks to be uncomplicated and easy so as to ensure wide participation.

2

Platform: Decide the crowdsourcing platform to host your design process. The platform selection depends on the nature of your task.

3

Crowd: Depending on the design task, you will need to define the associated design tool required (i.e. is your crowdsourcing task part of a design competition where people would submit their concepts/ideas online? If so, you would need an online platform to gather that data)

4

Post crowdsourcing: Set a deadline for the execution of the design task and evaluate these according to predefined success criteria.

Outcome Large scale data from your customers. Related Methods Co-Design is a similar method as it harnesses the power and creativity of a group of people, but not in such a big scale as Crowdsourcing. Resources Using Crowdsourcing for Brand Recognition in Automotive Brand Styling: Burnap, A., Hartley, J., Pan, Y., Gonzalez, R., & Papalambros, P. (2016). Balancing design freedom and brand recognition in the evolution of automotive brand styling. Design Science, 2, E9 53

14. Cultural Probes Cultural probes are provocative instruments to inspire new forms of self-understanding and communication about your customers’ lives, environments, interactions and thoughts. Description Cultural Probes is a method that consist of designing a number of materials to inspire people to thoughtfully consider personal context and circumstance. A Cultural Probe is a ‘documentation mechanism’, such as a workbook, postcards, maps, disposable camera, audio or video recorder, that is given to a participant with instructions on how to use it. For example, the participant may be instructed to create a diary entry each day at a specific time, or to take photos of various situations or circumstances. The participant completes the cultural probe artefact on their 54

own and a follow up interview is conducted. Cultural Probes are appropriate when you need to gather information from users with minimal influence on their actions, or when the process or event you’re exploring takes place intermittently or over a long period of time.

Purpose To gather inspirational data about your customers’ lives, beliefs, values and thoughts. Input A Cultural probe kit (for example a diary, scrap­book, camera, a voice recorder, pens, post-it notes, anything that can help the participant gather and record information. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●●○ Cost ●●○ Time perspective Present/Past/Future Natural Setting

Beliefs

Steps

Values Meanings

Before the study

1

Design the cultural probe: List the types of data you want to gather from the audience (i.e. your participants’ daily activities in the car, or their feelings about certain components or features of the car). Think about the situational context in which a participant should describe the data you want (i.e. where, when, who with).

2

Recruitment: Recruiting is particularly important with cultural probes, since they rely on a large investment of participants’ time. Due to the longitudinal nature of this method, participants would need to be monitored and supported throughout the process (for example through text messages etc).

During the study

3

Conduct: Give your participants the cultural probe kit, and brief them about the study requirements and the specified time frame of the cultural probe.

4

Debrief: A post-study interview is typically conducted, in order to supplement, validate and further explore the information gathered by the participants.

Outcome Contexts, interactions, thoughts and moods which might suggest unanticipated customer needs, values and desires. Related Methods Card Sorting, Affinity Diagramming can be used to analyse the data gathered by Cultural Probes. Resources Cultural Probing to Inform the Design of the Rear Seat for Family Cars: Wilfinger, David & Meschtscherjakov, Alexander & Murer, Martin & Osswald, Sebastian & Tscheligi, Manfred. (2011). Are We There Yet? A Probing Study to Inform Design for the Rear Seat of Family Cars. 55

15. Customer Journey A method for describing and visualising an interaction experience including the different touchpoints that characterise the interaction. Description A Customer Journey map is a visual interpretation of the overall story from a customer’s perspective of their relationship with an organisation, brand, service or product over time and across channels. Customer Journey maps provide a bird’s eye view of the interactions that make up a customer’s experience including complexity, successes, pain points, and emotions. A Customer Journey map can be used for your own empathy work, or to communicate your findings to others. A Customer Journey map should include the following elements: 56

Personas: the main characters that illustrate the needs, goals, thoughts, feelings, opinions, expectations, and pain points. Timeline: a finite amount of time (e.g. 1 week or 1 year) or variable phases of the interaction. Emotion: peaks and valleys illustrating frustration, anxiety, happiness etc. Touchpoints: customer actions and interactions (the WHAT). Channels: where interaction takes place and the context of use (the WHERE).

Purpose To understand your customer’s interaction experiences with a product, system or service and to identify design opportunities. Input Customer data from other methods (Inter-​ views, Focus Groups, Observations etc.). Participants Representatives of as many as possible of the agreed stakeholder groups including Customers, Senior Managers, Market Researchers and Designers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●●○ Cost ●●○ Time perspective Present/Past Setting Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps

Before

1

Research: Collect any customer insights you might have and bring together everyone who has knowledge of the customer and their experience to ensure that you’ve got the complete picture.

During the workshop

2

Run: Ask participants to individually write down all the steps they take when interacting with your product/ system on a timeline. Encourage them to include information on how they interact with other technologies or other people during this experience. For each step of the experience, encourage participants to include their thoughts and expectations.

3

Collect & Analyse: Once the basis of the customer journey map is complete, question the customers about their emotional experiences throughout their interaction. Ask them to describe how the interaction with the car is making them feel, and to think about different factors that influence those feelings. Document these in the journey map as they will highlight weak points in the customer’s journey and help you identify design opportunities.

Outcome A better understanding of your customers’ needs in the form of design opportunities that address your customer’s ‘pain points’ in their interactions with your product. Related Methods Scenarios, Storyboards Resources How to create a customer journey map article on: https://uxmastery.com/how-to-create-a-customerjourney-map/ 57

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Technological and sociological developments in the automotive sector are shifting the focus of design towards developing a better understanding of driver needs, desires and emotions.

16. Delphi Survey A method that provides a systematic interactive forecasting process which relies on a panel of experts. Description A Delphi Survey involves a series of questionnaires to investigate potential developments around an issue by soliciting and sharing ideas between experts. This method relies on a panel of experts that answer questionnaires in two or more rounds. After each round of questions, the responses are summarised and incorporated into the next questionnaire. Through multiple rounds, ideas are clarified and strengths and weaknesses are identified. The method can be used to: • Forecast future automotive scenarios and identify a range of future trends from automotive experts in the field. 60

• Build consensus during the evaluation of your design concept to promote and encourage involvement from all stakeholders.

Purpose To forecast future scenarios, determine the range of experts’ opinions on a particular automotive trend and to explore (or achieve) consensus on disputed topics. Input Design trends. Participants Experts and Stakeholders (no less than 10 to 15 participants). Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●●○ Cost ●○○ Future Time perspective Setting Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before

Steps 1

Plan: Design the survey questions according to your design goal. The issues typically investigated are those of high uncertainty and speculation.

2

During the survey

Recruit: Select your expert panel according to your design goal. Your chosen experts should be knowledgeable to answer the questions accurately. Panel participants are anonymous to each other so they can express their views freely.

3

Outcome Expert opinions to support decisionmaking in relation to future needs or trends. Related Methods Survey, Interviews.

Launch second survey(s): Design another survey based on the responses to the first one and re-send it to the same participants, asking them to revise their original responses and/or answer other questions based on group feedback from the first survey.

Resources Connected Vehicle Technology Industry Delphi Study article on: https://www.cargroup.org/publication/ automotive-product-design-development-delphi/

4

The Delphi Method as a Research Tool: An Example, Design Considerations and Applications: Chitu Okoli, Suzanne D. Pawlowski, (2004). The Delphi method as a research tool: an example, design considerations and applications, Information & Management, Volume 42, Issue 1.

Collect & Analyse: Repeat this process until the experts/participants reach a satisfactory degree of consensus. If you need to explore your data further, you can carry out follow-up interviews with expert/participants after each survey.

61

17. Design Fiction A method that involves the construction of a narrative to immerse an audience in a future experience that provokes emotional responses. Purpose Description To discover the ‘unknown unknowns’ of a Design fiction is a way to create Design fiction is a speculative future automotive concept. compelling visions of the future method that allows you to without any constraints (such visualise and materialise future Input as money, current technological automotive scenarios and Design fiction narrative (whether in the capabilities etc) and to provoke concepts. Through this method, form of a video, animation, written story, a dialogue about what could or you can explore, prototype and presentation, interactive prototype) to imshould be possible. test these futures. merse the participants in the future experience you are designing for and suspend Design Fiction uses any potential disbelief. fictional narrative scenarios to envision Participants and immerse your Customers, Design team. customers in a future automotive concept, Method Info product or service. Time ●●● These scenarios can be Effort ●●● used to raise questions Staff ●●○ about possible automoCost ●●○ tive future concepts and Time perspective Future technologies. These can take the form of prototypes. Setting Independent 62

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before the workshop

1

Plan: Choose the nature of your design fiction prototype, according to what you are designing for. This will be a tangible design from the (near) future that the participants could interact with during your design fiction workshop. This is called a ‘diegetic prototype’ and could take the form of a short film or a product. For example, if you want to explore how people would interact with autonomous vehicles in the near future, your diegetic prototype could be a ‘Quick Start Guide’ manual for an autonomous vehicle that describes the things car owners might do first and do often with their first self-driving vehicle. You might need to run a co-design workshop with your design team to help you design the diegetic prototype.

After the workshop

2

Workshop: Organise a Co-Design workshop with participants (representatives of your customers). Allow them to interact with the design fiction prototype and then give them a design task to collaboratively work on.

3

Analyse: Collect the various design concepts from the groups and run a debrief session to further explore the design concepts created by the participants.

Outcome Customer feedback on future concepts or technology in a human context (rather than engineering-driven scenarios). Related Methods Cultural Probes, Co-Design and Prototyping (can be used for the construction of the design fiction narrative/prototype). Resources Design Fiction for the Interaction Design of a SelfDriving Car: http://www.liamwoodsdesign.com/ near-future-laboratory-research Design Fiction. A Short Essay on Design, Science and Fiction: https://drbfw5wfjlxon.cloudfront. net/writing/DesignFiction_WebEdition.pdf 63

18. Desirability Testing A method that allows people to articulate how a design makes them feel by employing a range of cards. Description Desirability Testing provides a way for your customers to identify and articulate how a design or stimulus makes them feel. A range of index cards with adjectives written on them (positive, neutral, and negative) is used to help them to tell the story of their experience. By selecting the words on the cards that have meaning to them, participants can express their feelings, negative or positive, about a specific product, system or service. The method can be conducted both with low fidelity prototypes, or with existing products already in the public domain (for a redesign). When applied on existing products, desirability testing can be used to explore the emotional 64

responses people have to competing products or systems. Purpose To explore the emotional responses your customers have to your or your competitors’ products, or technologies. Participants Customers. Input Design prototype. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●○○ ●○○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before the workshop

Steps 1

Plan: Write each adjective or descriptive phrase on its own index card, and place all of the cards on a table. You can use the full set of cards (as originally created by Microsoft) or you can create your own card deck with specific words to reflect the goals of your study. Full deck of cards can be found in Appendix 1.

After the workshop

2

Run: Show participants your product (prototype or a competitor’s product) and allow them to interact with it. Ask them which words best describe that product. Participants should be allowed to select the 5 or 6 adjectives that best describe how they feel about the product. Once finished, ask participants to tell you why they picked each adjective or descriptive phrase and what it means to them.

3

Collect & Analyse: Record the participants’ selections and use a word count software to calculate word frequency. Depending on the goals of your project, you can also cluster similar words to present themes emerging from the words the participants have chosen.

Outcome Self-reported emotional responses to a design concept or prototype. Related Methods Card Sorting. Desirability Testing should be used alongside usability or satisfaction evaluation methods to understand all aspects of the customer experience. Resources Barnum, Carol & Palmer, Laura. (2010). More than a feeling: understanding the desirability factor in user experience. CHI Proceedings the International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) 65

19. Diary Study A method that allows you to collect self-reported experiences in context (i.e. when and where they happen). Description Customer diaries (logs) of daily activities as they occur give contextual insights about real time behaviours and needs. In diary studies, participants are asked to keep a diary of their day to day experiences of how they engage in a particular behaviour, encounter a situation, or have specific types of interactions. Diary Studies are exploratory and longitudinal, made of behavioural ‘snapshots’ captured over extended periods that affect a customer’s experience. Diary Studies are useful for collecting information related to long term behaviours, such as habits that cannot be gathered in a lab setting. 66

Diary studies can focus on: Product – Understanding interactions (e.g. with the Heads-Up Display over a specific time frame). Behaviour – Gathering general information about customer behaviour (e.g. smartphone usage in the car). General or specific activities – Understanding how people complete activities (e.g. buying a new car, setting up the in-car navigation system).

Purpose To capture data and insights and collect longitudinal information of actual customer behaviour in a natural context. Input Diary kit (Understanding how people will capture their experiences; for example: physical diary, diary app, Whats app, voice notes etc.). Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●●○ Cost ●●○ Time perspective Present/Past Natural Setting

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before the diary study

1

Plan: Define the focus of the study and the long-term behaviours that you need to understand. Define a timeline, select tools for participants to report data, select appropriate stakeholder groups and prepare support materials.

2

Recruit: Recruiting is particularly important with diary studies since they rely on a large investment of participants’ time. Due to the longitudinal nature of this method, participants would need to be monitored and supported throughout the process (for example, through text messages).

During & after the diary study

3

Conduct: Give your participants the diary kit, and brief them about the specified period of the study. Inform them of the aims of research, the key dates for contact and follow up. Give an example of a diary to explain your expectations of them, e.g. requiring 2 entries per week etc.

4

Debrief: A post-study interview is typically conducted, in order to supplement, validate and otherwise explore the information gathered by the participants. Repeat this process, creating a map to compare interviews.

Outcome Self-reported customer interactions or events with a product or system over time. Related Methods Cultural Probes. Resources Zhao, C. & Popovic, Vesna & Ferreira, Luis & Lu, Xiaobo. (2006). Vehicle design research for Chinese elderly drivers. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer-Aided Industrial Design and Conceptual Design, (CAIDC). 67

20. Empathy Map A method for characterising your customer(s) to gain a deeper insight about them, by collecting and organising information about what they say, do, think and feel. Description Empathy mapping is a tool to help you reach a deeper understanding of the personas that epitomise the customer you are designing for.

An empathy map is a collaborative visualisation of what you know about a particular type of customer. An empathy map allows you to ‘humanise’ and gain a shared understanding of your customers’ needs, desires, emotions and problems. An empathy map is a template for organising observations and representing your user. It has four quadrants: • Say (quotes, words); • Do (actions, behaviours); • Think (possible thoughts); • Feel (possible feelings).

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Purpose To create a shared understanding of customer needs to aid in decision-making. Input Qualitative data from other methods such as interviews, observations, focus groups etc. Participants Customers, Design Team. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before the workshop

Steps 1

Research: Gather the research data you will be using for the empathy map. Qualitative data inputs could be data from interviews, contextual inquiry, diary study, survey, observation etc. Write them on separate sticky notes.

After the workshop

2

Populate: Allow the team to digest the data and ask them to fill out the empathy map. SAY: What are some quotes and defining words your customer said? DO: What actions and behaviours did you notice? THINK: What might your customer be thinking? FEEL: What emotions might your customer be feeling?

3

Identify needs: “Needs” are human, emotional or physical necessities. Needs are verbs (activities and desires with which your customer could use help with), and not nouns (solutions). Identify needs out of the customer traits you observe, or from contradictions between two traits such as a disconnect between what a customer says and what a customer does.

Outcome Physically, mentally and emotionally driven insights into customer needs and experiences. Related Methods Persona, Interviews, Focus Groups, Observations and other information gathering methods can be used as input for the Empathy Map. Resources Empathy for autonomous cars – an animation: https://prezi.com/hk-xhjvj8hhu/empathy-map-forautonomous-cars/ 69

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Where possible, aim to apply a method that captures what the customer says AND what the customer does. Synthesise the information collected to identify design opportunities.

21. Experience Prototyping A method that fosters active participation through subjective engagement with a prototype product, system or service. Description Prototyping in general is the tangible representation of design concepts at various levels of resolution, for the development and testing of ideas within design teams and with clients and users.

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Whereas many prototypes only demand passive viewing for concept communication and review, experience prototyping fosters active participation to encounter a ‘live experience’ with products, systems, services, or spaces.

Purpose To test a design through the active participation of your customers.

An experience prototype is a simulation of a system or experience that foresees some of its performance through the use of specific physical touchpoints.

Input Prototype.

Experience Prototyping is valuable to: • Understand existing customer experiences and context • Explore and evaluate design concepts • Communicate ideas to an audience

Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

Participants Customers, Design Team. ●●○ ●●○ ●●○ ●○○ Present/Future Independent

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps

During the workshop

Before the workshop

1

Define & Plan: Define the scope and goals. For example, you might explore an autonomous bus/shuttle journey and use experience prototyping to explore the activities and contextual situation of those journeys.

2

Prepare: Decide which ‘scenes’ in the experience you want to explore. Create a card for each scene describing it, explaining the goal and the roles of the players, and any other instructions. In the example of an autonomous bus journey, you might include cards with instructions such as ‘Buy a ticket’, ‘Bring your luggage onboard’ etc.

3

Run: Gather the participants and/or design team members. Introduce one card at a time and allow them time to ‘improvise’ and act out the scene.

4

Identify needs: Take breaks for discussion after each scene to discuss any issues or problems the acting out of the scene has uncovered.

Outcome Possible directions towards a more informed development of the customer experience and the components that create it. Related Methods Role Playing, Bodystorming Resources Buchenau, M., Fulton. J. (2000). Experience Prototyping. Proceedings of the Conference on Designing interactive systems: processes, practices, methods, and techniques 73

22. Extreme Users A method that focuses on the engagement of participants beyond the mainstream of your customer target audience, to spark creativity to explore design opportunities. Description Designing a product that works for everyone involves engaging and empathising with both extreme users and those in the middle of your target audience. Extreme users have the potential to influence the design of innovative solutions by allowing you to take your design and reframe it. By taking a design out of context and increasing the scope of exploration, you are increasing the opportunity for innovation. When you engage with extreme users, (either by interviewing or observing them) their needs are amplified. 74

As their interactions with your product, system or service are often more notable, they can highlight issues that are not often considered. Engaging with extreme users allows to discover surprising use cases and learn more about your product or service.

Purpose To identify meaningful needs and opportunities that might not be captured when engaging with your primary or ‘mainstream’ customers. Input N/A Participants Atypical Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●●○ Present/Past Time perspective Independent Setting

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps 1

During the workshop

Before the workshop

Define & Plan: Determine your ‘extreme’ users. Think of all the different people who might use the product you are designing. Extreme users can fall on a number of spectra and you want variety. Determining who is an extreme user starts with considering what aspect of your design challenge you want to explore to an extreme. List a number of facets to explore within your design space. Then think of the people who may be extreme in those facets. For example, if you are looking for fresh insights on the design of the car cabin, you can observe customers whose physical needs make interacting with the cabin difficult.

Outcome Use cases of your product or service applied in extreme circumstances. Related Methods Interview, Observation, Contextual Inquiry can be used to engage and interact with your extreme users.

2

Engage: Observe and interview your extreme user as you would your primary customers. Look out for ‘workarounds’, or other ‘extreme’ behaviours that can serve as inspiration and uncover insights. Then work to understand what resonates with the primary users you are designing for.

Resources Fast Company article on Designing for Extreme Users: https://www.fastcompany.com/90160000/ how-to-design-for-everyone-in-3-steps 75

23. Fly-on-The Wall A method to unobtrusively gather information by looking and listening without directly participating in the activities or interfering with the behaviours. Description Fly-on-The-Wall is different to other types of observation because it intentionally removes the researcher from direct in­volvement with the activities or people. This can minimise potential bias or behavioural influences that might result from engagement with customers. This method is generally conducted flexibly, without predetermined criteria to specifically categorise or code observations. Nevertheless, guiding frameworks such as AEIOU can be applied to inform the observation. There are two types of fly-on-the wall observations, according to the role of the observer: 76

• Secret outsiders are distant observers, with a vantage point that removes them from participants, minimising any influence the presence of the researcher or recording equipment may have on their behaviour. • Recognised outsiders who have been made known to the participants in their role as observers, who position themselves in natural and unobtrusive ways within the environment under study.

Purpose To observe and gather information about your customer as unobtrusively as possible. Input No prior artefacts required for method execution. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●●○ Present/Past Time perspective Natural Setting

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps

During the observation

Before the observation

1

Define: Determine the environment, participants, behaviours and interactions to observe. Gather any note taking tools, including cameras and observation frameworks.

2

Plan: Choose the type of observation according to your design goals. If you choose to observe them as a ‘recognised outsider’ make sure your participants are aware of the reason for your study and obtain their consent prior to recording them.

3

Observe: Try to be as unobtrusive as possible. Do not let yourself or your equipment get in the way.

4

Analyse: Analyse your observations and notes using frameworks, such as AEIOU or clustering. Further discuss these with your design team to formulate insights, questions, and theories.

Outcome Rich insights of customer experience capturing individual nuances of interaction. Related Methods Triangulate this method with other methods that collect self-reported qualitative data on your customers such as: Contextual Inquiry, Interviews, Focus Groups. Resources Currano, R. & Park, So Yeon & Domingo, Lawrence & Garcia-Mancilla, Jesus & Santana, Pedro & Gonzalez, Victor & Ju, Wendy. (2018). ¡Vamos!: Observations of Pedestrian Interactions with Driverless Cars in Mexico. 77

24. Focus Group A method in which a group of people interactively discuss their perceptions, opinions and attitudes towards a concept, product, system or service. Description Focus groups are interactive and discursive and provide a forum for understanding peoples’ experiences, feelings, thoughts and attitudes. The dynamic created by a small group of well-chosen people can provide deep insight into themes, patterns, trends and the underlying emotions people feel, to understand constructs and mental models. Focus groups should always be supplemented with other methods that investigate attitudes and behaviours, and allow you to observe people in the actual context for which your product or service will be used. Results from focus groups 78

should not be extrapolated for how the population in its entirety feels.

Purpose To understand customer needs and thoughts and their decision-making through interactions in a group setting Input Design idea or design concept. Participants Customers (group size should be kept to 4 to 8 people). Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●●○ Time perspective Present/Past/Future Independent Setting

Steps

Before the focus group

1

Plan: Choose a moderator and an assistant who will be responsible for recording what is being said during the session and taking notes. Prepare the questions and ensure they are open ended to facilitate group discussion and phrase them in a way to be unbiased.

2

Recruit: Recruit participants to representatively sample your target group. Gender, age, power, and personality will all influence how they will act around each other.

3 During and after the focus group

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Outcome A report to summarise the recurrent topics of the discussion in regard to participants’ perceptions, attitudes and opinions.

Run: Some participants may become invested in conversation and get carried away, however allow them to talk, because such moments can lead to interesting insights. As long as the discussion isn’t obviously irrelevant, you should let your participants talk.

Related Methods Focus Groups should be triangulated with other methods that explore customer needs in context, such as Contextual Inquiry and/or Fly on the Wall Observation.

4

Resources Politis, Ioannis & Langdon, Pat & Bradley, Michael & Skrypchuk, Lee & Mouzakitis, Alexandros & Clarkson, P. (2018). Designing Autonomy in Cars: A Survey and Two Focus Groups on Driving Habits of an Inclusive User Group, and Group Attitudes Towards Autonomous Cars.

Analyse: When analysing focus group data, you need to pay attention to the stories people tell, the metaphors and analogies they use, and how they describe their experiences and memories. By looking for recurring themes that produced strong responses, you can generate a hypothesis that will guide the design process.

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25. Harris Profile A method that identifies and prioritises the most promising opportunities in multiple design concepts. Description A Harris (or Product) Profile is a graphic representation of the strengths and weaknesses of design concepts with respect to predefined design requirements. Whenever a number of alternative product concepts need to be compared and evaluated, the Harris Profile can be used to make you and your team’s evaluation explicit. This method is useful to stimulate discussion with your project’s stakeholders when design requirements change as your design concept evolves. 80

Purpose To select between alternative design concepts and to make this selection explicit. Input Alternative design concepts. Participants Design Team, Stakeholders. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●○○ ●○○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Steps

Before the workshop

1

Research: Collect the design requirements for the product or service which you are designing. List them in a column in order of importance (the most important requirement being on the top of the list).

Outcome A short list of design concepts to develop and a clear overview on which concepts fit the requirements.

2

Plan: Create a four point scale matrix next to each requirement, coded −2, −1, +1, and +2. Interpret the meaning of the scale positions as: −2 = bad, −1 = moderate, +1 = good and +2 = very good. When attributing the −2 or +2 values to a criterion, colour all the blocks in the Harris Profile to create a visual overview of the overall score of a design alternative.

3 During the workshop

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Create Harris Profile: Create a Harris Profile for each of the design alternatives by evaluating the relative performance of each alternative concept with respect to the requirements. Draw the profile by marking the scores in the four-point scale matrix.

4

Discuss: Present the profiles next to each other to allow discussion with stakeholders and to determine which design concept has the best overall score.

Related Methods Repertory Grid Technique, Card Sorting or Buy a Feature can guide the selection between alternative design concepts, but they are usually conducted with customers, while Harris Profile should only be conducted internally (with your design team or internal stakeholders). Resources Harris Profile: How to? https://courses.edx.org/c4x/ DelftX/DDA691x/asset/DDG_HarrisProfile.pdf 81

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Successful interface design requires deep understanding of how humans perform tasks but the private, silent and often subconscious execution of driver-automobile interactions makes this very challenging.

Ramm, S., Giacomin, J., Malizia, A., Anyasodo, B. (2018) An Exploratory Design Workshop to Elicit what Feels Natural when Interacting with an Automobile’s Secondary Controls, The Design Journal, 21:1, 109–137

26. Heuristic Evaluation A method to assess a product or interface against a set of agreed-upon usability practices. Description A heuristic evaluation is a usability inspection method that asks evaluators to assess an interface against a set of predefined design principles, commonly ommonly referred to as “heuristics”.

In a heuristic evaluation, a set of evaluators assesses a designed interface for compliance against an agreed set of principles.

Purpose To identify interface features and characteristics which can create friction and reduce usability. Input Design prototype.

Although heuristic evaluations do not focus on identifying breakthrough opportunities in the design, they detect critical but missing features and interactions early in the design process.

Participants 3 to 5 expert evaluators can identify approximately 75% of usability issues.

Heuristic evaluations enlist usability experts to inspect an interface or product and detect the baseline usability problems that should be fixed before user testing begins.

Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

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5 to 8 evaluators can uncover over 80% of usability issues. ●●○ ●●○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

During the heuristic evaluation

Before the heuristic evaluation

1

Define: Start by scoping the heuristic analysis. For example, if you are looking to carry out a heuristic evaluation of the sat-nav system in the car, decide whether the focus will be on the usability of the system input (touchscreen, buttons, etc.) or the usability of the system output (audio, display, etc.).

2

Plan: Recruit the heuristic evaluation experts. Experts would typically come from the disciplines of Human Factors, Interaction Design, Human Computer Interaction and User Experience Design.

3

Run: Ask your expert evaluators to perform the assessment independently and to aggregate their findings into a single report. Each usability problem and its cause will be identified and discussed.

4 Collect & Analyse: Collect the findings from all the evaluators and aggregate them into a single overall report. Discuss with the team the degree of priority of each identified usability issue, and how each might be solved.

Outcome A report which identifies usability issues, and ranks them on a scale from mildly problematic to severe. Related Methods Heuristic Evaluation should always be triangulated with Cognitive Walkthrough to uncover issues from watching customers in a usability test. Resources Heuristics for User Interface Design by the Nielsen Norman Group: https://www.nngroup.com/articles/ ten-usability-heuristics/ 85

27. How Might We? A method that reframes insight statements into challenges and opportunities for design. Description Once you have defined your challenge, collected customer data, and analysed it, you can start ideating ways of meeting the customer needs or desires. You can start asking a specific question starting with: “How Might We?” or “In what ways might we?”.

For example: How might we design a driverless car, which is environmentally friendly, cheap and easy for more people to share? By defining themes and insights, you can identify problem areas that pose challenges to the people you are designing for. By reframing your insight statements as ‘How Might We?’ questions you can turn those challenges into opportunities for design. The ‘How Might We?’ method doesn’t suggest a particular solution, but gives you the frame for innovative thinking.

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Purpose To use the insights gathered from customer research by framing them into design opportunities or design alternatives. Input Design challenge. Participants Customers, Design team. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●○○ ●○○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps 1

Start by looking at the insight statements that you have collected from customer workshops or created with the design team. Try rephrasing them as questions by adding “How Might We” at the beginning.

2

Now take a look at your ‘How Might We?’ question and ask yourself if it allows for a variety of solutions. If it doesn’t, broaden it. Your ‘How Might We?’ should generate a number of possible answers.

3

Finally, make sure that your ‘How Might We?’ questions aren’t too broad. A good ‘How Might We?’ question should give you both a narrow enough frame to let you know where to start your brainstorm, but also enough breadth to give you room to explore wild ideas.

Outcome Reframing of design insights. Related Methods ‘How Might We?’ can be used as a launchpad for your Brainstorming sessions. Resources Define and frame your design challenge by asking ‘How might we?’ by the Interaction Design Founda tion: https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/ article/define-and-frame-your-design-challenge-bycreating-your-point-of-view-and-ask-how-might-we 87

28. Interview A method that involves asking customers to provide information about their actions and motivations. Description Interviewing is a method that is based on one-to-one contact with participants, to collect first-hand personal accounts of perceptions, experiences, attitudes and opinions. Interviews are best conducted in person so that nuances of personal expression and body language are recognised in conversation, but they can also be conducted remotely by phone/video call. Interviews can be structured to follow a script of questions, or relatively unstructured (semi structured) allowing for flexible detours in the conversation. Interviews are often just one component of a research design 88

strategy and you will need to use complementary methods such as questionnaires or observations to verify the self-reported data. Depending on the nature of the design inquiry, the interview questions might be asked flexibly or read out exactly as scripted by each interviewer, to avoid the introduction of subtle bias or altered interpretations by the participant. Interviews can be made more productive when based around artefacts, the inspiration behind integrated methods such as Card Sorting, Buy a Feature and Picture Cards.

Purpose To gain deep insight and rich views into the behaviours and reasoning of your customers so you can formulate your research questions. Input Design Concept, Prototype. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●●○ Cost ●○○ Time perspective Present/Past/Future Independent Setting

Steps

Before the interview

1

Planning: Plan the questions you will be asking in advance. Decide the location of the interviews. Where possible consider in context interviews (i.e. in the car, in a car park, in a car dealership etc.). For example, if you are interviewing customers to explore their views about their own cars, consider conducting the interview in a car that is parked as opposed to conducting the interview in an office or online/remotely.

2

Prepare for documentation: Decide how you will document the interview (i.e. taking videos, notes, audio recording etc). Consider a separate note taker in the room so that you can focus on the interview/discussion.

During & After the interview

3

Interview: Introduce yourself, and explain the research you are conducting. Obtain consent for any recordings or quotes of the participants to be used.

4

Capture insights: When analysing interview data, look for recurring themes and topics in participants’ responses. You can summarise these in a report, including participants’ quotes verbatim. You can select a more formal qualitative data analysis technique, such as grounded theory analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis or discourse analysis.

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Outcome Rich insights of customer experience capturing individual nuances of interaction. Related Methods Fly on The Wall Observation, Card Sorting, Buy a Feature, Love/Break up Letter can be triangulated with Interviews. Resources Meschtscherjakov, Alexander & Wilfinger, & Gridling, & Neureiter, Katja & Tscheligi, (2011). Capture the Car! Qualitative In-situ Methods to Grasp the automotive Context. 89

29. Laddering A method that connects a product’s characteristics to a set of values revealed by repeatedly asking a series of directed questions. Description A method involving repeated questions about meaning and value which establishes the relationship between the design characteristics and the mental models and personal values of the customers. Laddering connects a product’s obvious physical characteristics to these values by asking the question “Why is that important to you?”. By repeatedly asking this, you can explore the links among product attributes, consequences, and values. • Attributes are the physical and obvious product characteristics. When you ask customers why they bought a product or like a particular application, 90

they will likely respond by describing the product’s attributes (for example: ‘I like this car because it is convertible’). • Consequences are the consequences of the attributes for the individual. For example, a convertible car may stimulate its driver to feel young and free. • Values expose how each consequence is linked to a core value of the person’s life, exposing why a product resonates profoundly with a person. For example, the sense of youth makes the driver feel attractive.

Purpose Identify the connection between a product’s attributes and the personal (and usually unspoken) motivations that shape and inform why people purchase or use a product, system or service. Input Design concept. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Present/Past Time perspective Setting Independent

Beliefs

Before

Steps 1

Plan: Prepare for the interview session and inform the participant about your use of the Laddering technique.

2

Attributes: Ask the participant which attributes can be used to distinguish between different products of the type which is being discussed.

3 During the interview

Values Meanings

Consequences: Based on their initial responses relating to attributes, turn to higher level questions such as: • Why is this important to you? • What does it mean to you? • What is the meaning of this product having this attribute? If necessary, ask such questions repeatedly, with the goal of understanding the consequences of the attributes you elicited during the first round of questioning.

4

Values: To uncover personal values employ the same type of ‘Why?’ questions. While participants may not be able to give you a value for every consequence, your goal is to ask questions at higher level of abstraction.

Outcome Customer’s mental models and personal values. Related Methods Repertory Grid Technique can be used to elicit information about the attributes participants value in a product before using Laddering. Resources Laddering: A Research Interview Technique for Uncovering Core Values by UX matters: https://www.uxmatters.com/mt/archives/2009/ 07/laddering-a-research-interview-technique-foruncovering-core-values.php 91

30. Love/Break up Letter A method that collects self-reported information from participants about their relationship with a product. Description The Love Letter/Break up letter is a method that allows customers to express their sentiments about a product or a service using a medium and a format that are immediately understood. Instead of writing to a person, participants are asked to ‘personify’ the product, system or service and to write a personal message to it. A personal letter written to a car or a specific feature of it, can reveal insights about what customers value and expect from their cars. The Love Letter gets at the heart of what people feel during special moments of connection with the car. Descriptions of what elicits delight, infatuation, and loyalty 92

are common themes in love letters. The Break up Letter provides instead insights about how, when, and where a relationship with a car has broken down. Such letters can allow insights into why people abandon a particular car brand or a particular car model. When writing a Break up Letter, people will usually share information about what new product they are now happy with, and what the characteristics and features the new product has that the abandoned product does not.

Purpose To reveal and describe the relationships people have with the cars in their lives. Input No prior artefacts required for method execution. Participants Customers Small groups (4 to 6 people). Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Present/Past Time perspective Independent Setting

Beliefs

Before

Steps 1

Plan: Recruit participants for a group Love/Break up letter in a one-to-one interview setting or as part of a workshop.

During the workshop

2

Run: Ask participants to spend no more than ten minutes writing a letter (usually, longer timeframes will make participants over-think its contents) and then ask for volunteers to read their letters out loud in front of the other participants.

3

Collect & Analyse: Analyse your observations and notes using frameworks such as AEIOU or clustering, to formulate insights, questions, and theories.

Values Meanings

Outcome Insights into the customers’ perceptions by eliciting feelings of admiration, appreciation, frustration or aversion based on real-life experiences and interactions. Related Methods A Love/Break up Letter can be used as a standalone method but can also be used as part of an Interview or a Focus Group. Resources Love/Break up Letter ‘How To’ by Atomic Object: https://spin.atomicobject.com/2017/06/29/ design-thinking-activity-love-breakup-letter/ 93

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The Human Centred Designer is a relatively transparent figure who does not impose preferences on a project but, instead, conveys and translates the will of the people.

31. Persona A method which summarises, models and communicates the research about the people that you are designing for. Description Personas are imaginary characters based on real people that represent user archetypes. Personas consolidate archetypal descriptions of customer behaviour patterns into representative profiles and answer the question: “Who are we designing for?” Personas are synthesised from a series of ethnographic activities with real people, then captured in descriptions that include behaviour patterns, goals, skills, attitudes, and environment. For the purposes of persona definition there are typically three dominant types of data which can be used: demographic, sociological and behavioural. 96

For example, in an automotive context, demographic information can include age and/or gender, sociological information can include occupation and behavioural information can include attitudes towards automobile usage.

Purpose To apply empathetic focus to the design process by judging options against the background of a complete person, characterised by numerous and complex characteristics. Input N/A Participants Design Team. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●○○ ●○○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Steps 1

Gather data: You can begin by compiling everything you know about your customers. Create an initial spectrum of customers by collecting information from all sources, including data from other departments (i.e. marketing) within the organisation. From here, you can form questions about your customers and work out what they have in common and also how they differ.

2

Ethnography: Meet the customer and apply ethnographic methods (contextual inquiry, ethnographic interview, observation) to gather data on what your customers actually do, as opposed to asking them to tell you what they do.

3

Synthesise with the team: Look at the data you collected and search for emerging themes or behavioural patterns. Are there certain frustrations that are common between your participants? Can you identify any design opportunities to help alleviate those frustrations?

4

Create: Create a template for the personas that includes information such as name, job title, demographics (e.g. age, education, family status, ethnicity), personal needs, desires and goals, expertise, physical, social, and/or technological environment, habits, motivations, feelings.

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Outcome A narrative that describes environment, feelings, attitudes and goals sufficiently to permit the imagining of a real and complex person, whose lifestyle and needs might be anticipated Related Methods Personas and Scenarios are interlinked and one cannot be without the other. An Affinity Diagram can be used to gather and synthesise data for the persona Cultural Probes can be used to gather data for the personas Resources Kim Goodwin: Perfecting your Personas: https://www.cooper.com/journal/2008/05/ perfecting_your_personas/ Tina Calabria: An Introduction to Personas and how to create them: https://www.steptwo.com.au/ papers/kmc_personas/ 97

32. Picture Cards A method that uses cards with images as participatory prompts for storytelling. Description Picture Cards is an artefacts-based interview method, to prompt participants to talk about their habits and aid in their recall of an experience.

This method can be applied in two variations: • Picture Cards can be selected a priori and given to participants to stimulate discussion. • As a ‘reflexive’ tool, where participants are asked to bring their own pictures or photographs to describe their experiences. Card sets can potentially illustrate both current and future product experiences.

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Purpose To leverage visual memory and visual thinking when describing expectations, metaphors, interactions and emotions. Input Picture Cards. Participants Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past/Future Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps Before the workshop

1

Prepare the picture card set you will be using. Create cards combining images and caption text relevant to your design inquiry. If you are using this method in a ‘reflexive’ manner, decide the scope. For example, you can ask participants to bring photographs or pictures of what they perceive as significant about their car.

During the workshop

2

In a picture card session, ask participants to recall a story about an experience, using the cards to support memories and evoke conversation. If using participants’ own pictures, ask them questions related to their interaction with the part of the vehicle depicted in the card, how they describe the interaction, how they would typically use the particular feature of the car, etc.

Outcome Insights into the habits, behavioural tendencies and experiences of the customers. Related Methods This method is commonly paired with other forms of research, such as Interviews, Focus Groups etc. Resources Gkouskos, Dimitrios & Pettersson, Ingrid & Karlsson, Marianne & Chen, Fang. (2015). Exploring User Experience in the Wild: Facets of the Modern Car. 99

33. Repertory Grid Technique An interviewing method that extracts internalised ‘personal constructs’, i.e. what people think about a given topic. Description The Repertory Grid Technique is a method that captures internalised expressions of needs and structures of meaning.

If you were to bluntly ask someone to explain what makes a good family car, they might struggle to respond

These needs can be extracted when you motivate people to make comparisons between two products and their properties, i.e. how one artefact is different from the other.

If you were instead to use prompts to help them answer, these will be based on your conception of what qualities or features a family car should possess and will apply bias to the interview.

For any given object each individual has a personal set of notions that is relevant. For example, when it comes to a car, someone may be very interested in aspects related to speed and sound of the engine, whereas someone else might be more interested in environmental aspects and energy efficiency.

Repertory Grid Technique is usually applied as part of a structured interview to elicit user experiences associated with technological artefacts.

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Purpose To collect unbiased information on the customer experience according to their own personal constructs. Input Design Concept or Design Prototype. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●● Effort ●●○ Staff ●●○ Cost ●●○ Time perspective Present/Past Setting Independent

Steps 1

Beliefs

Repertory Grid:

Element elicitation: Select a series of elements that are representative of the topic you are interested in. For example, if you want to explore customer perception of family cars, the elements would be different family car models. Construct elicitation: The next step is to elicit the personal constructs which the customer tends to use when comparing the elements. For example, when comparing family cars, you would ask the participants to compare model A with model B with model C, then ask them to state how those models differ. The customer’s explanations regarding what was compared are then used to define rating attributes such as cool vs. conservative or roomy vs. cramped. By repeating the process several times, a range of rating attributes can be identified for use in the repertory grid. Rating: The ensemble of collected constructs are placed into a repertory grid (rating matrix) for use in rating designs. The people who are asked to perform those ratings can enter a value for each construct using a simple five point scale.

Values Meanings

Outcome Qualitative and quantitative data to represent customers’ subjective views. Related Methods Survey (can be used prior to an RGT, to collect constructs related to the product to compare as an input). Interview (can be used post RGT to further explore the personal meanings captured by RGT). Resources Gkouskos, D. et al. (2014). What Drivers Really Want: Investigating Dimensions in Automobile User Needs. International Journal of Design, vol. 8, no. 1. 101

34. Role Playing A method which involves the acting out of the role of the customer in realistic scenarios so as to directly experience the challenges and opportunities which can be met by design. Description Role playing consists of exercises whereby members of the design team take on the role of the customer, assuming the routines and behaviours that the customer might ex­perience in actual scenarios of use. By role play, i.e. gesturing and expressing the actions of the human and the system, you can rapidly showcase and evaluate ideas. The method can be used when the boundaries of the artifacts are not yet fully defined, and provides flexibility for considering a wider range of actions, system responses and contingencies. During role play with simple, non technical materials (such as chairs 102

to represent car seats), the flow of contingent interactions can be followed and inquiries can move in unexpected directions. This is the difference between role play and interactive prototypes, where the specific technologies can constrain the directions of the interaction.

Purpose To imagine and explore new use cases or to communicate new design concepts. Input Design Concept. Participants Design Team. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Present/Past Time perspective Setting Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps

During the role play

Before

1

Plan: Define the main goal of your role play environment. This should involve making a concept tangible enough to elicit a response from your design team.

Outcome Feedback on a design concept through a quick and tangible manner.

2

Related Methods Experience Prototyping

Set the scene: Inform the group what the goal of your test is for the role play session. For example, are you looking to explore a type of interaction or how someone might respond to a type of product?

3

Observe: Observe the group enacting various scenarios, ask probing questions and discuss the new designs further.

Resources Pettersson, I and Karlsson, M. (2015). Setting the stage for autonomous cars: a pilot study of future autonomous driving experiences. IET Intelligent Transport Systems, vol. 9, no. 7. Davidoff, S. et al. (2007). Rapidly exploring application design through speed dating. Proceedings of the International Conference on Ubiquitous computing. 103

35. Scenario A method to capture a description of a sequence of events and activities that occur within a specific context and which can involve other agents such as intelligent technologies, people or animals. Description Scenarios consist of a setting or stage and one (or more) actors with personal motivations, knowledge and capabilities. Scenarios describe the actions and activities of each persona in context, including the customer’s goals, plans, and reactions. Envisioned scenarios can be used to brainstorm new ideas, refine and fine-tune design concepts and to raise questions about the assumptions behind the scenarios. The method of scenarios is very widely used in automotive design, but there has been a research shift of focus to the role of emotions in automotive scenarios. Drivers’ emotional states are likely to be 104

influenced by various items of information arriving from digital technologies, with possible impacts on behaviour and safety. Affective scenarios specifically describe situations where the greatest positive and greatest negative emotions are anticipated to occur.

Purpose To facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the human experiences which occur within a given environment in relation to a specific set of activities. Input Design Idea or Design Concept. Participants Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●●○ ●●○ Present/Past/Future Independent

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before the workshop

1

Setting boundary conditions: These will be determined by the specific nature of the design project you are working on. For example, are you targeting the general public or specific age ranges (i.e. Generation Y or Z)? Is the intended geographical coverage constrained to UK residents only or also specific overseas markets? These are all examples of boundary conditions.

2

Identifying key driving forces: Triangulate with other methods such as surveys, interviews or workshops to collect qualitative data which will help you identify a set of ‘key driving forces’ that capture complex situations for your scenarios.

During the workshop

3

Writing the scenarios: Present a summary of your qualitative data collected from interviews, workshops or surveys to your colleagues. Work with your colleagues to compile the scenarios. Each scenario is required to depict the viewpoints and emotional responses of the associated persona. Write a storyline activity for each scenario that can be performed by following the narrative criteria: ‘what is done’, ‘where’, ‘by whom and when’, ‘by what means’ and ‘in what way’. Aim to write the storyline in a neutral tone, avoid technical terminology and keep a similar length of narrative for each of the scenarios.

Outcome Detailed descriptions of important automotive contexts and activities, including insights into what people experience and into the emotions involved Related Methods Surveys, Interviews, Observations and Co-Design workshops can be used to collect data that will inform the creation of scenarios. Resources Kyungjoo Cha. Affective Design Scenarios in Automotive Contexts. PhD Thesis, Brunel University. 105

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As a sector which has evolved along mainly technological lines, the automotive industry has not usually deployed design tools which fully integrate the data and laws governing human perceptual, cognitive and emotional behaviour.

36. Scenario Mapping A method that allows the collaborative discussion and communication of scenarios. Description Scenario mapping is about describing the real-world contexts in which your designs are likely to be used. It captures tasks and activities in a contextual manner, grounding discussions, and facilitating decisions about the experiences which you wish to provide. Scenario mapping is used to describe the user experience very early in a project by noting individual action steps and their associated details, thus supporting decisions about the user journey, needed features and the likely user interfaces 108

During scenario mapping, you will be mapping out all the steps that your customer will take to complete a task, with an initial focus on what they will do, not necessarily how they will do it.

Purpose To formalise design concepts and to take creative approaches to those. Input Personas and Scenarios. Participants Design Team, Stakeholders. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●○○ ●○○ ●●● ●○○ Present/Past Independent

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before

1

Plan: Take one of your personas and one of the key tasks that they will be undertaking. What must someone be able to achieve? What are the really key tasks from a user and business perspective? For each scenario consider the: who, what, where, why and how often.

During the workshop

2

Start mapping: As a group, walk through all the steps that you envisage a customer taking to carry out their task. For each step you will want to capture the following on your different coloured post-it notes • What the user does. Focus on what happens, not necessarily how it happens. • Any comments or information that you feel is important at this step. • Any questions or assumptions that arise at this step that you’ll want to consider further. • Any ideas or good suggestions that people have.

3

Discuss: Map out the individual steps the customer has to take horizontally, from left to right. Map out the details (such as comments, ideas and suggestions) vertically below each associated step. Once your scenario map is complete, ask your design team and key stakeholders to walk through it.

Outcome Information about the intended user experience (i.e. what ideally should happen) Related Methods Scenarios are a prerequisite method for this. Resources A step by step guide to scenario mapping on UX for masses: http://www.uxforthemasses. com/scenario-mapping/ 109

37. Stakeholder Analysis A method that consolidates and communicates who the key players of a design project are. Description Stakeholder analysis is a method for identifying the people who are most important to the success of the product, system or service, whether they be inside the organisation or outside of the organisation Stakeholders are defined as any persons, groups or institutions with an interest in the project’s performance and in the outcome of proposed actions. Stakeholder maps are used in conflict resolution, project management, and business administration as one of the 110

many techniques in stakeholder management. The maps provide a visualisation of the parties and of their influence, thus assisting the juggling of individual specialist interests.

Purpose To identify stakeholders in order to effectively integrate them in the design process. Input Research data on potential stakeholders. Participants Design Team. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●●○ ●●○ Present/Past Independent

Steps

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Before

1

Identify stakeholders: Work with your design team to identify common stakeholders. Research information on the interests and positions of the stakeholders through news, reports and publications, speeches, annual reports, political platforms, and other sources.

During the workshop

2

Draw a stakeholder map: Draw an x and y axis. The x axis will be a measure of the stakeholders’ interest, while the y axis will measure their power over your project. Then split the area into four quadrants. Label the top left quadrant “Address their concerns”, the top right quadrant “Involve them exclusively”, the bottom left “Keep them informed”, and the last quadrant “Involve them as needed”.

3

Classify your stakeholders accordingly: Address their concerns: These people have high power, but lower interest (e.g. government, regulators etc.) Involve them exclusively: These people have high power and high interest (e.g. your customers). Keep them informed: These people have low power and low interest (e.g. media). Involve them as needed: These people have low power and high interest (e.g. suppliers, automotive hardware and software providers, 3rd party businesses etc.)

Outcome A map of the stakeholder landscape, including information on the internal (within the organisation) and external parties involved and a plan on how to include them in the Human Centred Design process. Related Methods Interviews: can be used to collect more information on stakeholders’ needs. Resources ‘Map the stakeholders’ by the Interaction Design Foundation: https://www.interaction-design.org/ literature/article/map-the-stakeholders 111

38. Storytelling A method that creates a narrative to explore the way people interpret the world and their place within it. Description Storytelling is a method to gather customer insights and build empathy. Storytelling can be used in two ways from the designer’s perspective: as an input or as an output.

As an input, storytelling can be used as part of interviews or co-design sessions to engage with customers when you design something that is abstract or difficult to describe or demonstrate. As an output, storytelling can be used to summarise the results of your customer research. For example, the results of your customer research on autonomous vehicles can be summarised into an immersive story in a video format to communicate your insights to your design team, stakeholders and other departments within the organisation.

112

Purpose To facilitate the communication of design concepts by leveraging the natural human propensity for holistic narrative and stories. Input Design concept. Participants Customers, Design Team, Stakeholders. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●●○ ●●○ Present/Past/Future Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps 1

The main elements of a story are: Plot – what your customers are trying to achieve or overcome. Characters – the person or persons involved in the story whose characteristics are based on customer insights. Theme – the metaphor or value which lies at the heart of the design, it is the differentiator which makes the current design activity different from past design activities from the offerings of your competitors Dialogue or diction – the choice of language (spoken or visual) and tone of the text will influence how your concept is perceived. Melody – the logical base that makes your concept recognisable for the user, which forms the foundation for the interaction with your concept. Decor – the visual and/or graphic design of the story. The decor helps the customer find their way through the story of your concept and communicates your message in an implicit way. Spectacle – details in the form of unique interactions to make your concept memorable.

Outcome Holistic and emotionally compelling experience of a design. Related Methods Can be used as part of a Design Fiction workshop to visualise future concepts. Can be used as part of a Co-Design workshop to engage participants in the design task. Resources Storytelling to explore life with driverless cars by IDEO: https://www.ideo.com/post/futureof-automobility 113

39. Storyboarding A method to visually plot the interactions between your customer and your concept from start to finish. Description Storyboarding can visually capture the social, environmental, and technical factors that shape the context of how, where, and why people engage with your product. Storyboards represent a design’s use cases through a series of drawings or pictures put together in a narrative sequence. They show every touchpoint the customer may have with the design product during the experience. Storyboards build empathy, reveal touch points and highlight design alternatives by bringing into sharp focus the setting, goals and possible sequence of action. Storyboarding helps you string together personas, user stories and 114

various constraints. It helps to walk through a scenario as a persona and see the triggers that occur, the channels that are used, the process that is followed and the decisions that have to be made along the way. Storyboards can be used: • As a part of brainstorming sessions • When participants need to tell their detailed experiences • As a co-design exercise to generate ideas • When the participants struggle to articulate emotions involved.

Purpose To provide a visual narrative that generates empathy and communicates the context in which a product, system or service will be used. Input Design Concept and Personas. Participants Design Team, Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Time perspective Present/Past Independent Setting

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps

Before the workshop

1

Define: Once you have decided which design concept to concentrate on and further refine, chose a specific story/interaction/experience you want to communicate.

2

Prepare: Write down or draw the global storyline. Think of the steps of the story of how your customers would interact with the design. Include all the information about the tasks and scenarios involving your persona.

During the workshop

3

Create: Include the following: Setting – every story has a setting or environment that it takes place in; an experience context. Sequence of actions – every story is made up of a sequence of activities or illustrated tasks. Goal – every story has a motivation, end result, and a need that is satisfied.

4

Use: Present the storyboard to the design team to be discussed and critiqued.

Outcome Visual summary of the interaction with your product, system or service which reveals who will use it, where it will be used and how it will be used. Related Methods Customer Journey Resources Knobel, Martin & Hassenzahl, Marc & Lamara, Melanie & Sattler, Tobias & Schumann, Josef & Eckoldt, Kai & Butz, Andreas. (2012). Clique Trip: Feeling related in different cars. Proceedings of the Designing Interactive Systems Conference, DIS ‘12. 115

“”

Practised in its most basic form, Human Centred Design leads to products, systems and services which are physically, perceptually, cognitively and emotionally intuitive.

40. Survey A method of collecting self-reported information from people about their characteristics, thoughts, feelings, perceptions, behaviours, or attitudes. Description A method of collecting self-reported information from people about their characteristics, perceptions, thoughts, feelings or behaviours Surveys can reveal broad characteristics and interesting patterns about the customers. There are various types of survey questions: • Closed: forced choice, structured with limited response options (i.e. multiple choice). • Open: broad with no set response to encourage discussion or longer answers • Hypothetical: asks participant to speculate about behaviours or actions. 118

• Comparative: asks for judgements between two or more alternatives. The form of questions adopted should be based on the inquiry, time constraints, and preferred response format. Like other self reported methods, surveys may not be an accurate reflection of true thoughts, feelings, perceptions, or behaviours. Surveys should be triangulated with other information gathering methods such as observations, contextual inquiries, or co-design sessions.

Purpose To achieve an aggregated overview of specific data items or specific design issues. Input Design Idea or Design Concept. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●○○ Effort ●○○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Time perspective Present/Past/Future Independent Setting

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps

Before launching the survey

1

Plan: Select questions, paying careful attention to semantics, possible linguistic or cultural biases, and to the implications of any rating systems which are adopted. Ensure that the survey has a clear flow relative to the application.

2

Prepare format: Choose between an online or paperbased survey. If you opt for online, decide an appropriate platform to host it (e.g. Google Forms, Surveymonkey etc.). Pilot and test it before sending it out.

During & after

3

Distribute: Distribute the surveys to all participants. Make sure you get a valid sample size (greater than 30 people) with variety in the demographics.

4

Collect & Analyse: Aggregated and possibly even statistical information regarding the design concept you are exploring.

Outcome Statistical information regarding the design concept you are exploring. Related Methods Interview, Contextual Inquiry or Observation should be used alongside a survey. Resources Justin M. Owens et al. (2015). Cross-generational acceptance of and interest in advanced vehicle technologies: A nationwide survey. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 119

41. Think-Aloud A method that involves asking users to think out loud as they are performing a task. Description Think-aloud is a direct observation method that involves asking users to articulate what they are thinking, doing, or feeling as they complete a set of tasks. There are two types of Think-Aloud, concurrent and retrospective. • Concurrent, where the participants work through tasks while articulating what they are doing, thinking, and feeling. The focus of the test is on WHAT is happening, as opposed to WHY. In this type, participants can speak about and complete a task at the same time without impacting the outcome of the given task. • Retrospective, where participants are asked to complete a task in silence 120

(while their activity is recorded with video or a screen capture device). Upon task completion, participants are invited to retrospectively comment on their processes as they watch a replay of their experience with a product or prototype. Retrospective think-alouds are used when it is not practical or safe for participants to speak as they complete a task.

Purpose To evaluate the usability of a product, system or service. Input Design Prototype (with enough fidelity to allow for the completion of certain tasks) or, Design Product (competitor’s or own) currently available on the market. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Present/Past/Future Time perspective Setting Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps

During & after the think aloud

Before the think aloud

1

Plan: When planning a think-aloud session, rather than setting out to evaluate the usability of an entire product, focus efforts on evaluating aspects that can be tested independently. For instance, these could include car mobile integration or infotainment customisation.

2

Decide how to capture the data collected: Video and audio recordings can then be referred back to as testimony of how tasks are actually completed.

3

Set expectations: Present your participant with their first task. Ask them to think out loud whenever they pause to figure something out or when they make an assumption about what to click. Take notes of customers’ thoughts and expectations.

4

Collect & Analyse: Collect the results of all tests and note common issues. Present your findings to the product team.

Outcome A report that identifies usability issues, their severity and recommendations on how these can be overcome. Related Methods Cognitive Walkthrough Resources Paredes P, at al. (2017). Evaluating In-Car Movements in the Design of Mindful Commute Interventions: Exploratory Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 121

42. Touchstone Tour An in-situ observation interview hybrid method where your customer is showing you around a ‘meaningful space’ so you can observe their experiences and explore their feelings and thoughts. Description The Touchstone Tour (or Guided Tour) is a contextual, empathic method that is employed in the field. The purpose of this method is to observe the ways in which participants engage with objects and the experiences that hold personal significance.

122

The method captures comments, facial expressions, body movements and embodied responses during a customer-selected tour in order to explore thoughts and feelings.

Purpose To reveal in conversation and movement the details of customer routines, habits, interactions, experiences, thoughts and feelings.

Through the immersion in the customer’s world, you can reveal their habits and values far better than talking to them on the street or in a lab.

Input N/A

Touchstone tours can be of large environmental spaces, (e.g. car dealership) or micro environments (e.g. car or a car’s specific component such as the car’s boot, trunk or glove compartment etc.).

Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

Participants Customers. ●●○ ●●○ ●●● ●○○ Present/Past Natural

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Steps

During the tour

Before the tour

1

Plan: Decide on the environment that you will be immersing yourself in, such as the driver’s position, rear cabin, engine bay, boot/trunk or at the door entering. Come to the tour with two team members, one to ask questions and the other to take notes. Pay close attention to the space, to what’s visible, to the rituals which you see occurring and to who is involved.

2

Ask participants to give you a tour of the physical space or show you how they interact with a product. Ask questions about the person’s habits and space. Why do they do the things they do? Who uses the space and where are things kept or why are things organised the way that they are?

Outcome Deep understanding of customers’ needs through observation of their engagement with objects, and the experiences that hold personal significance to them. Related Methods Think-Aloud and Cognitive Mapping can be used alongside touchstone tours. The difference between Touchstone Tours and Interviews/Observations is that they allow the customer (as opposed to the researcher) to ‘lead’ the conversation. Resources Thomson. L. (2015). The Guided Tour Technique in Information Science: explained and illustrated. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting: Information Science with Impact: Research in and for the Community. 123

43. Tomorrow’s Headlines A method in which fictional articles are written and presented as though they are published in future magazines and journals. Description Tomorrow’s headlines are fictional articles published in magazines or journals that the designers imagine by projecting themselves into the future and trying to

understand what kind of impact the design will have. This method provides a way to imagine the social and societal impacts of your design so as to render the design more tangible and easily perceived. There are two ways of applying this method: 1) With your design team to define together which product features should be focused on the new or further development. 2) With the customers to identify the aspects of your product which will have effect on their purchasing decisions going forward.

124

Purpose To imagine what the future may hold for the design and to help clarify how that future might be communicated to the customers. Input Design Idea or Design Concept. Participants Design Team, Stakeholders, Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●○ ●●○ ●○○ ●○○ Future Independent

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps

Before the workshop

1

Start writing: Write news stories, articles, and headlines. Encourage the team to imagine the future of the product, system or service you are designing. • What would the headline of a newspaper say about the service? • What would the article describe and what would some people using the service be quoted as saying?

Outcome Feedback on an idea that is not currently in a tangible format.

Be creative with their newspaper front cover.

Can also be used as a way to wrap-up a Brainstorming session.

During

2

Present & Discuss: Once you have a series of headlines & narratives, run them by the other members of the team and key stakeholders. Use them to initiate discussions to check whether the vision is shared among all the stakeholders, particularly the key customers.

Related Methods Can be used to support Design Fiction to create a prototype.

Resources Design your next step with fictional headlines of the future: https://www.skillshare.com/projects/ Designing-My-Next-Step-with-Fictional-Headlines-ofthe-Future/40713 125

44. Wizard of Oz A method in which participants interact with a technological system that they believe to be responding to their input, but which is being operated by an unseen person. Description The Wizard of Oz (WOz) is a method in which participants are led to believe they are interacting with a working prototype of a system, but in reality, a designer (the “wizard”) is acting as a “proxy” for the system from behind the scenes. Unseen by the participant, the “wizard” is able to intercept and shape the interaction between the participant and the “system”, without having an actual technical system up and running. The incorporation of the human-in-theloop allows for improvisation and spontaneous selection of different alternatives. The WOz method can be used anytime you need to gauge how 126

your customers will think and feel about a proposed solution, before investing time and money in building a high-fidelity prototype. Wizard of Oz can be used to find out how people feel about the operation of a car or different features of a car in real-time. The method facilitates the exploration of a wide range of features and a wide range of different interaction dynamics with only a modest investment in the building and programming of the technical systems.

Purpose To allow the customer to experience a proposed new product or interface before a prototype is built, and to explore their reactions to it. Input Design prototype. Participants Customers. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●●● Cost ●●○ Future Time perspective Artificial/Natural Setting

Interactions Behaviours Metrics

During & after the Wizard of Oz

Before the Wizard of Oz

Steps 1

Outcome A test case for future prototypes and a list of what works and what doesn’t work.

2

Related Methods Post- Wizard of Oz interviews should be run to gather additional insights.

Define & Plan: Select an idea/concept to test and create images, videos, animations or other items that are deemed necessary. Setup preparation: Prepare the setup. Usually this requires the participant being in one location, and the “wizard” in another. WOz sessions can be run in a parked car, driving simulator or on the road with the choice depending on the product, system or service which is being designed.

3

Ask the participants: Allow the participant to interact freely with the “system” while the “wizard” responds with appropriate actuations and communications. Observe and record everything that can prove helpful towards later analysis and understanding.

4

Collect & Analyse: With the design team review the material and discuss what works and what does not work. Attempt to identify patterns or general issues which seem to emerge.

Resources Alpern, M. & Minardo, K. (2003). Developing a car gesture interface for use as a secondary task. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems 127

45. Word Concept Association A method that uses words or images to elicit the metaphors and mental models of customers. Description In this method, disconnected concepts or ideas are shown to participants either in the form of words or visuals, using flash cards or expressed through words spoken out loud. Reviewing, clustering and/or thematic coding the words can help to reveal the underlying constructs of the metaphors and mental models involved This method identifies how customers perceive and value the relationship between two stimulus words. By asking customers to associate descriptive words with different design concepts or features, you can explore how they perceive and value the issues. 128

Word Concept Association can be of four types: 1) Free association: participant categorises associations as they wish. 2) Controlled association: participant categorises associations based on predefined categories set by the designers. 3) Discrete association: participant is presented with stimulus word only once. 4) Continuous association: participant is presented the stimulus word a number of times.

Purpose To identify the key constructs of the metaphors and mental models which customers are using to think about the individual features of the design, or about the design as a whole. Input Design Concept. Participants Customer. Method Info Time ●●○ Effort ●●○ Staff ●○○ Cost ●○○ Present/Past Time perspective Setting Independent

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Steps 1

Plan: Recruit participants and decide what word concept association you will use: Free association or controlled association. Free association allows participants to associate freely (free association) or responses may be limited to specific categories, to particular synonyms, to terms within a certain context, or to choose among alternatives (controlled association). Participants can be shown the stimulus words just once (discrete) or multiple times (continuous), depending on the scope of your project.

2

Run: Ask people to associate descriptive words with different design concepts or features in order to show how they perceive and value the individual design characteristics. For example, you can ask participants for words that they associate with autonomous vehicle in general or to a specific component that you are designing.

Outcome A list of keywords and constructs which can be used for discussing the design, considering tradeoffs and in some cases for ranking different options Related Methods Repertory Grid Technique, Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation. Resources Word Concept Association ‘How to?’ by ThinkDesign: https://think.design/ user-design-research/word-concept-association/ 129

46. Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation A method to elicit the metaphors, constructs and mental models that drive customers’ thinking and behaviour. Description A method to elicit the constructs, metaphors and mental models that drive customers’ thinking and behaviour The method involves semi-structured, in-depth interviews centered around visual images that the participant brings to the interview. While language is the most typical expression of conscious thought, images can often capture 130

subconscious patterns and emotions. Working with both words and images, ZMET can be used to better understand psychological factors that underlie behaviour. The main concept of ZMET includes metaphor construction and storytelling as a method for exploration.

Purpose To understand hidden desires and goals that users want to achieve from a product. Input Design Prototype or Product. Participants Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●●● ●●● ●○○ ●●● Future Independent

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before

Steps 1

Brief: Ask participants to collect or take between eight and twelve pictures that convey their thoughts and feelings about the topic under investigation.

2

During the workshop

Storytelling: Ask participants to describe the content of their photos, and if there is an image they did not get but would have liked to include (missed image). Ask them to describe this image.

3

Sorting task: Ask participants to sort pictures into groups that are in some way meaningful to them and describe them (to establish constructs or themes that are relevant).

4

Construct elicitation: Collect all photos and ask participants to describe how two of these pictures are the same and how they are different from the third picture (Repertory Grid Technique method). Use the Laddering method to ask why.

5

Create mental map: Ask participants to create either a cognitive mental map or vignette to synthesise the constructs elicited.

Outcome A map of customer-relevant constructs about your product, system or service and detailed information about associated thoughts, values and emotions. Related Methods Repertory Grid Technique, Laddering and Cognitive Mapping are methods that are usually applied during the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique. Resources Khoo-Lattimore, C. & Prideaux, B. (2013). ZMET: A psychological approach to understanding unsustainable tourism mobility. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 131

47. 5 Whys A method based on repeated application of the question “why?” to extract deep explanations of customer beliefs, values and motivations. Description The “5 Why’s” method is an interview method that creates opportunities to delve deep into causes, beliefs, values and motivations. As a challenge arises it is easy to focus on the symptoms rather than the root causes that created those symptoms, thereby missing the opportunity to reveal the opinions motivations and needs of your customer.

132

Purpose To get to the emotional and subconscious roots of an issue, and to extract evidence of the underlying beliefs, values and motivations. Input Design Idea or Design Concept. Participants Customers. Method Info Time Effort Staff Cost Time perspective Setting

●○○ ●○○ ●○○ ●○○ Present/Past/Future Independent

Beliefs

Values Meanings

Before

Steps 1

Define: Discuss with the team the challenge, concern or issue you will be investigating. Write a brief, clear statement that you all agree on.

During the workshop

2

Utilising the statement, ask “Why” or “Why is that?” (Why #1). For example: 1. Why did your car stop? (Why #1) – Because the wheel broke. 2. Why did the wheel break? (Why #2) – Because I didn’t go to the mechanic this morning. 3. Why didn’t you go to the mechanic this morning? (Why #3) – Because I forgot. 4. Why did you forget? (Why #4) – Because my phone reminder didn’t show up. Repeat for Whys #3, #4 and #5, as well as any more that are needed. Repeat the whole process as many times as necessary to determine potential root causes (especially if the root cause is something you may not control).

3

Collect & analyse: Analyse the information you have gathered to identify common themes and patterns.

Outcome The root cause of a challenge, concern or issues your customer is facing. Related Methods Laddering Resources 5 Whys: Getting Quickly to the Root of the problem on MindTools https://www. mindtools.com/pages/ article/newTMC_5w.htm 133

Appendix 1 Desirability Testing Original set:

Accessible Advanced Annoying Appealing Approachable Attractive Boring Business-like Busy Calm Clean Clear Collaborative Comfortable Compatible Compelling Complex Comprehensive Confident Confusing Connected Consistent Controllable Convenient

Creative Customizable Cutting edge Dated Desirable Difficult Disconnected Disruptive Distracting Dull Easy to use Effective Efficient Effortless Empowering Energetic Engaging Entertaining Enthusiastic Essential Exceptional Exciting Expected Familiar

Fast Flexible Fragile Fresh Friendly Frustrating Fun Gets in the way Hard to Use Helpful High quality Impersonal Impressive Incomprehensible Inconsistent Ineffective Innovative Inspiring Integrated Intimidating Intuitive Inviting Irrelevant Low Maintenance

Meaningful Motivating Not Secure Not Valuable Novel Old Optimistic Ordinary Organized Overbearing Overwhelming Patronizing Personal Poor quality Powerful Predictable Professional Relevant Reliable Responsive Rigid Satisfying Secure Simplistic

Slow Sophisticated Stable Sterile Stimulating Straight Forward Stressful Time-consuming Time-Saving Too Technical Trustworthy Unapproachable Unattractive Uncontrollable Unconventional Understandable Undesirable Unpredictable Unrefined Usable Useful

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Photo credits page vi: Max Mumby/Indigo/gettyimages page 2: Far_Away/123rf.com page 4: ferli/123rf.com page 8: Antonio Diaz/123rf.com page 14: Cathy Yeulet/123rf.com page 18: Henrik Sorensen/gettyimages page 58: View Stock/gettyimages page 70: Cavan Images/gettyimages page 94: Antonio Diaz/123rf.com page 106: Igor Daniel/123rf.com page 116: langstrup/123rf.com The copyright for the remaining photos is held by Jaguar Land Rover Limited.

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