Atlas of the European Reformations 1451499698, 9781451499698

Citation preview

ATLAS OF THE EUROPEAN REFORMATIONS

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 1

09/06/2015 15:37

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 2

09/06/2015 15:37

Atlas of the European Reformations by Tim Dowley Cartographer Nick Rowland FRGS

Fortress Press Minneapolis

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 3

09/06/2015 15:37

ATLAS OF THE EUROPEAN REFORMATIONS Copyright © 2015 Fortress Press. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical articles or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Visit http://www. augsburgfortress.org/copyrights/ or write to Permissions, Augsburg Fortress, Box 1209, Minneapolis, MN 55440. Cover design: Alisha Lofgren Cover image (clockwise from the top): © Jose Antonio Sánchez Reyes / Dreamstime.com; © Hai Huy Ton That / Dreamstime.com; © Bkaiser / Dreamstime. com; © Tonino Corso / Dreamstime.com; © Hans Klamm / Dreamstime.com; © Neil Harrison / Dreamstime.com; © Stbernardstudio / Dreamstime.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Print ISBN: 978-1-4514-9969-8 eBook ISBN: 978-1-5064-0291-8 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z329.48-1984. Manufactured in China

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 4

09/06/2015 15:37

A map does not just chart, it unlocks and formulates meaning; it forms bridges between here and there, between disparate ideas that we did not know were previously connected. Reif Larsen

History is a clock that people use to tell their political and cultural time of day. It is a compass they use to find themselves on the map of human geography. It tells them where they are... John Henrik Clarke

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 5

09/06/2015 15:37

Contents

Foreword 11 Timeline ad1300–1700 12 Introduction 20

Part 1: Before the Reformation The Rise of Learning

24

The Waldensians

26

The Devotio Modern

28

The Great Schism

30

Wyclif and the Lollards

32

Jan Hus and the Hussites

34

The Rise of Printing

36

The Italian Renaissance

38

The Northern Renaissance

40

The Catholic Church in 1500

42

Portuguese Voyages of Discovery

44

Spain Explores the West

46

The World Circumnavigated

48

Part 2: Reformation

6

Charles V

52

Martin Luther

54

The German Knights’ War

56

The Peasants’ War

58

The Radical Reformation

60

Jewish Oppression

62

Philipp Melanchthon

64

Protestantism in 1530

66

Lutheranism Consolidates

68

Huldrych Zwingli

70

Martin Bucer

72

John Calvin

74

The Swiss Reformation

76

Calvinism Spreads

78

Reform in France

80

Scandinavian Reform

82

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 6

09/06/2015 15:37

Dissolution 84 Pilgrimage of Grace

86

The English Reformation

88

Reform in Scotland

90

Reform in Poland

92

Part 3: Catholic Reform and Counter-Reformation Confessionalization 96 Papal Reform and Reaction

98

Ignatius Loyola

102

Rise of the Jesuits

104

Francis Xavier

106

Catholic Missions to America

108

Jesuit Reductions

111

French Religious Wars

112

Netherlands Reform

114

Dutch Reform

116

The Spanish Armada

118

Part 4: Early Modern Europe Ireland 122 The Great Migration

124

Christian Europe 1600

126

The Early Settlers

128

Christian Germany 1618

130

The Thirty Years’ War

132

After the War

134

Europe 1648

136

North American Colonies

138

Origins of the English Civil War

140

After the Civil War

142

Cromwell’s Foreign Wars

144

Mission to Japan

146

Further Reading

148

Gazetteer 150 Index 158 CO N T E N T S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 7

7

09/06/2015 15:37

List of maps 8

1

The First Universities of Europe: 1160–1600

25

2

Distribution of the Waldensians

27

3

Distribution of the Brethren of the Common Life

29

4

The Great Schism and the Avignon Papacy

31

5

Distribution of the Lollards

33

6

The Hussite Wars

35

7

The Earliest Printing Centres in Europe

37

8

Major Centres of the Italian Renaissance

39

9

Major Centres of the Northern Renaissance

41

10 Ecclesiastical Divisions of Western Europe c. 1500

43

11 Portuguese Voyages of Discovery to the East

45

12 European Voyages of Discovery to the West

47

13 The First Circumnavigation of the World

48–49

14 The Empire of Charles V

53

15 Martin Luther and the Beginnings of the Reformation

55

16 The German Knights’ War 1522–23

57

17 The Peasants’ War 1524–25

59

18 The Anabaptists and the Radical Reformation

61

19 Repression, Persecution, and Resettlement of the Jews

63

20 Philipp Melanchthon and Protestant Reform

65

21 The Progress of Reform by 1530

67

22 Lutheran Germany in 1555

69

23 Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation

71

24

73

Martin Bucer and the Reformation

25 John Calvin and Swiss Reform

75

26 The Reformation in Switzerland

76

27 The Spread of Calvinism and Reformed Protestantism

79

28 Francis I and the Reformation in France

81

29 The Reformation in Scandinavia

83

30 The Dissolution of the English Monasteries

85

31 The Pilgrimage of Grace

87

32 The English Reformation

89

33 The Scottish Reformation

91

34 Christian Churches in Late-Sixteenth Century Poland

93

35

97

Christian Europe following the Peace of Augsburg, 1560

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 8

09/06/2015 15:37

36 The Council of Trent 1545–47

99

37 The Council of Trent 1551–52

100

38 The Council of Trent 1562–63

101

39 Ignatius Loyola and the Formation of the Society of Jesus

103

40 The Rise and Distribution of the Jesuits

105

41 The Travels of Francis Xavier

107

42 Roman Catholic Missions to the Americas

109

43 Jesuit Reductions in Paraguay

111

44 The Wars of Religion in France

113

45 The Early Reformation in the Netherlands

115

46 Civil War and Independence in the Netherlands

117

47 Philip II and the Destruction of the Spanish Armada

119

48 Catholics and Protestants in Ireland

123

49 English Puritans Migrate to North America

125

50 Christian Confessions in Europe in 1600

127

51 English Migrants Settle in New England

129

52 Christian Confessions in Germany in 1618

131

53 The Thirty Years’ War: 1620–1648

133

54 The Peace of Westphalia, 1648

135

55 The Religious Settlement in Europe after 1648

137

56 European Colonies in North America

139

57 The English Civil War: 1640–43

141

58 The English Civil War: 1644–49

143

59 Oliver Cromwell’s Foreign Wars, 1649–58

145

60 Roman Catholic Missions to Japan

147

LIST OF MAPS

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 9

9

09/06/2015 15:37

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 10

09/06/2015 15:37

Foreword

This atlas has been designed to examine the origins, background, beginning and spread of the Protestant Reformation. It looks at the repercussions of that movement on Europe and the wider world. The Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation are covered in similar depth and breadth, as are the political and military conflicts arising in part from these theological and ecclesiastical changes. An exhaustive timeline has also been included to provide a useful chronology of events. We believe this atlas breaks new ground in being a digitally-designed and comprehensive historical atlas of the religious history of the early modern period in Europe and the wider world. All research and writing has been undertaken by Tim Dowley. The cartography is the work of Cambridge-based Nick Rowland. Page layout and design has been carried out by Trevor Bounford of Bounford.com, while the index and gazetteer have been compiled by Christopher Pipe of Watermark. The academic consultant is Dr Richard Snoddy, London School of Theology. March 2015

FOREWORD

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 11

11

09/06/2015 15:37

12

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 12

09/06/2015 15:37

14

00

00

13

13

20

30

13

10 14

Papal Palace, Avignon.

20 14

40

13

30 14

50

13

40 14

50 14

1346–53 Black Death in Europe

14

60

60

13

1337–1453 Hundred Years’ War between England and France

c. 1330–84 John Wyclif, English reformer

1309–77 Papacy moves to Avignon, beginning ‘Babylonian Captivity’

c.1308–21 Dante Alighieri writes The Divine Comedy

1304–74 Francesco Petrarch, Italian scholar and poet

1302 Pope Boniface VIII (r. 1294–1303) issues papal bull Unam sanctam

10

13

80 13

c. 1380–1471 Thomas à Kempis, author of The Imitation of Christ

80 14

90 14

1382–95 Wyclif’s Bible: Middle English vernacular translations

70 14

90 13

1378–1418 Great Papal Schism: between 2, then 3, simultaneous popes

c. 1369–1415 Jan Hus, Czech reformer

70

13

00 15

00 14

Timeline ad 1300–1700

TIMELINE AD 1300–1700

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 13

13

09/06/2015 15:37

00

10

14

20

14

30

14

Page from the Gutenberg Bible.

40

14

50

14

60

14

70

14

1454/5 Gutenberg Bible published

80 14

90 14

c. 1498–1526 Conrad Grebel, Swiss radical reformer

1498 Savonarola burned for heresy, Florence

1497–9 Vasco de Gama finds sea route to India

1497 John Cabot discovers Newfoundland

c. 1497–1543 Hans Holbein, German painter

1496–1561 Menno Simons, Anabaptist leader

c. 1495 da Vinci’s The Last Supper

1493 Pope divides New World between Spain and Portugal

r. 1492–1503 Pope Alexander VI

1492 Columbus lands in Bahamas

1492 Spain reconquers Granada

1491–1551 Martin Bucer, Protestant reformer in Strasbourg

1491–1556 Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Jesuits

1489–1556 Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury and reformer

1484–1531 Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss reformer

1483–1546 Martin Luther, German reformer

1482–1531 Johannes Oecolampadius, German reformer

1478 Spanish Inquisition established

1471–1528 Albrecht Dürer, German artist

1466–1536 Erasmus of Rotterdam, Christian humanist

1452–1519 Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter and inventor 1453 Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Empire

1414–18 Council of Constance ends papal schism, condemns Hus

c. 1380–1471 Thomas à Kempis, author of The Imitation of Christ

1378–1418 Great Papal Schism: between 2, then 3, simultaneous popes

c. 1369–1415 Jan Hus, Czech reformer

1337–1453 Hundred Years’ War between England and France

14

00 15

14

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 14

09/06/2015 15:37

15

10 15

20

15

00

10 15

30

15

40

15

15

20

30 15

1519 Zwingli starts reform in Zurich

1518 Cajetan examines Luther at Diet of Augsburg

1518 Luther defends himself at Heidelberg Disputation

1517 Luther issues 95 Theses

40 15

1517 Pope Leo X grants indulgences to finance rebuilding St Peter’s

1516 Erasmus’ Greek New Testament published

c. 1514–72 John Knox, Scots reformer

1512–17 Fifth Lateran Council, Rome

c. 1512 Copernicus suggests earth moves round the sun

1511 Luther visits Rome

1509–64 John Calvin, French-born reformer

1509 Henry VIII marries Catherine of Aragon

1508–12 Michelangelo paints ceiling, Sistine Chapel

1506 Rebuilding of St Peter’s, Rome, starts

1504–75 Heinrich Bullinger, Zwingli’s successor

1502 University of Wittenberg founded

c. 1498–1526 Conrad Grebel, Swiss radical reformer

c. 1497–1543 Hans Holbein, German painter

1496–1561 Menno Simons, Anabaptist leader

r. 1492–1503 Pope Alexander VI

1491–1551 Martin Bucer, Protestant reformer in Strasbourg

1491–1556 Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Jesuits

1489–1556 Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury and reformer

1484–1531 Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss reformer

1483–1546 Martin Luther, German reformer

1482–1531 Johannes Oecolampadius, German reformer

1471–1528 Albrecht Dürer, German artist

1466–1536 Erasmus of Rotterdam, Christian humanist

1452–1519 Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter and inventor

00

15

50 15

50

15

60 15

60

15

70 15

70

15

80 15

Erasmus of Rotterdam.

80 15

90 15

90 15

00 16

00 16

TIMELINE AD 1300–1700

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 15

15

09/06/2015 15:37

15

00

10

15

20

30

15

40

15

50

15

60

15

70

15

Luther and Zwingli debate at the Marburg Colloquy.

1530 Augsburg Confession, primary Lutheran statement of faith

1529–36 Reformation Parliament in England

1529 Ottomans besiege Vienna

1529 Reformation in Basel completed

1529 2nd Diet of Speyer ‘Protestation’: origin of term ‘Protestant’

1529 Luther and Zwingli differ on Eucharist at Marburg Colloquy

1528 Reformation in Bern

1527 Mutinous German and Spanish troops sack Rome

1527 Reformation begins in Sweden

1526 Diet of Speyer postpones enforcement of Edict of Worms

1526 Protestant League of Torgau formed

1526 First Lutheran preaching in Denmark

1526 Tyndale’s English New Testament published

1525 First Anabaptist in Zürich

1525 Luther replies to Erasmus in The Bondage of the Will

1525 Luther marries Katherina von Bora

1524–5 Peasants’ War in Germany

1524 Erasmus publishes On Free Will against Luther

1522 Luther’s German New Testament published

1521 Ottomans capture Belgrade

1521 Magellan claims Philippines for Spain

1521 Leo X names Henry VIII ‘Defender of the Faith’

1521 Luther in protective custody at Wartburg

1521 Luther refuses to recant at Diet of Worms

1520–66 Suleiman I (‘the Magnificent’) Sultan of Ottoman Empire

1520 Leo X censures Luther in bull Exsurge Domine

1519–21 Spain conquers Mexico

r. 1519–56 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

1519 Luther disputes with Eck at Leipzig Debate

15

1519 Zwingli starts reform in Zurich

80 15

90 15

00 16

16

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 16

09/06/2015 15:37

00

00

15

15

15

10

10

15

15

20

20

15

40

15

60

15

40 15

Huldrych Zwingli.

70

15

50 15

60 15

70 15

1541 Colloquy of Regensburg (Ratisbon) fails to reunite Protestants and Catholics

1540 Paul III approves Society of Jesus

1539 Larger English monasteries suppressed

1539 Six Articles restore Catholic doctrine in England

1538–41 Calvin banished from Geneva; flees to Strasbourg

1537 Schmalkald Articles summarize Lutheran faith

1537 Pope Paul III’s Reform Commission reports

1536–38 Calvin’s first period in Geneva

1536 Christian III makes Lutheranism state religion of Denmark-Norway

1536 Menno Simons breaks with Rome; leads Anabaptists in Netherlands

1536 Tyndale executed for heresy

1536 1st edition, Calvin’s Institutes

1536 Pilgrimage of Grace in northern England

1536 Smaller English monasteries dissolved

1535 Coverdale Bible published (included Apocrypha)

1535 Cardinal John Fisher and Sir Thomas More executed in London

1534–35 Anabaptist ‘kingdom’ in Münster

1534 Loyola and companions take vows in Paris

1534 Act of Supremacy: Henry VIII ‘Supreme Head of Church of England’

1534 Complete Luther Bible published

1533–55 Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury

1533 Francisco Pizarro conquers Peru

1533 Jakob Hutter unites Anabaptists in Moravia

1533 Calvin flees persecution in Paris

1533 Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine annulled

1531 Bullinger succeeds Zwingli

1531 Zwingli killed at Battle of Kappel

30 15

50

15

1531 Thomas Bilney (ca. 1495–1531) executed for heresy, Norwich

1530 Lutherans form defensive Schmalkaldic League

30

15

80 15

80 15

90 15

90 15

00 16

00 16

TIMELINE AD 1300–1700

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 17

17

09/06/2015 15:37

00

15

10

Protestant martyrs in Oxford.

Council of Trent.

15

15

20

30

15

40

15

80 15

1563 Heidelberg Catechism of Reformed churches

1562–98 Wars of Religion in France

1562 Teresa (1515–1582) founds reformed convent at Avila

1562–63 3rd Session of Council of Trent

1561 Belgic Confession of Reformed faith

1561 Colloquy of Poissy

1560 Geneva Bible published; first printed with verse divisions

1558 John Knox returns to Scotland

1558 Final edition of Calvin’s Institutes

1558 Act of Supremacy: Elizabeth ‘Supreme Governor of Church in England’

1558–1603 Elizabeth I reigns in England

1556 Thomas Cranmer executed

1555 Johann Sleidan publishes first history of Reformation

1555 Augsburg Settlement allows rulers to decide religion of their region

1555 Peace of Augsburg ends first religious war

1553-58 Mary Tudor reigns in England – Edwardian Reformation reversed

1553 Anti-trinitarian Michael Servetus executed, Geneva

1552 Bartolomé de Las Casas publishes A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies

1551–52 2nd session of Council of Trent

1549 Xavier arrives in Japan

1549 First English Prayer Book published

70

15

1549 Consensus Tigurinus document by Calvin and Bullinger

1548 Augsburg Interim

1547-53 Edward VI reigns in England

1546 George Wishart, Scots reformer, burnt at stake

60

15

1545–47 First session of Council of Trent

1543 Luther writes On the Jews and Their Lies

1542 Paul III establishes permanent Inquisition

1542 Francis Xavier (1506–52) arrives in Goa

50

15

1541 Colloquy of Regensburg (Ratisbon) fails to reunite Protestants and Catholics

90 15

00 16

18

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 18

09/06/2015 15:37

16

00

00

15

10 15

20

10 16

20 16

St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, Paris.

15

30 16

30

15

40 16

40

15

50 16

50

15

80 15

60 16

90 15

1583–1605 Jesuit Reductions established in S. America

1583 Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci enters China

1582 Gregorian calendar adopted

1581 Jesuit Edmund Campion executed, London

1580 Michel de Montaigne: Essays published

70

80 16

90 16

1598 Edict of Nantes grants French Huguenots limited toleration

1593 Henry IV of France renounces Protestantism

1590 First complete Hungarian Bible, translated by Gaspar Karoli

1588 Spanish Armada fails to invade England

1588 First ‘Martin Marprelate’ tract published, England

1586 Slovene reformer Primoz Trubar dies

00 17

1580 Formula of Concord unites most German Lutherans

1579 First Archbishop of Manila appointed

1576 ‘Spanish Fury’: sack of Antwerp

1584 William of Orange assassinated, Netherlands

16

00 16

1575 Confessio Bohemica, an agreement between Czech Protestants

1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre, France

1571 Battle of Lepanto: Catholic coalition beats Ottoman navy

1570 Consensus of Sandomierz reconciles Polish Protestants

1570 Pius V’s bull Regnans in Excelsis declares Elizabeth I a heretic

1568–1648 Dutch Wars of Religion, Eighty Years’ War

1567–68 Vestiarian controversy in Church of England

1566 Mary Stuart (‘Queen of Scots’) flees to England

1564–1616 William Shakespeare, English dramatist

1563 Foxe’s Actes and Monuments (‘Foxe’s Book of Martyrs’) published

1563 Thirty-Nine Articles issued by Church of England

70

15

1586 Colloquy of Montbeliard fails to unite Lutherans and Reformed

60

15

TIMELINE AD 1300–1700

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 19

19

09/06/2015 15:37

00

10

16

80 16

1678 John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress published

1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV

King James Version of the Bible.

1662 Great Ejection of dissenting clergy in England

1660 Restoration of Charles II (1660–85)

1658 Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, dies

1656 Pascal’s Provincial Letters ridicules Jesuits and defends Jansenists

1649 Charles I executed

1648 Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years’ War

1648 Westminster Confession

1646 John Eliot begins mission to Native Americans

1643 Scots adopt the Solemn League and Covenant

1643 Westminster Assembly begins meeting

1642–49 English Civil War

1641 Irish revolt breaks out

1640 Cornelius Jansen, French Catholic, publishes Augustinus

1637 René Descartes publishes Discourse on Method

1633 Galileo Galilei before Inquisition for advocating Copernican theory

1631 Gustavus Adolphus wins Battle of Breitenfeld, saving Protestant cause

1625–49 Charles I reigns in England and Scotland

1623–62 Blaise Pascal, French religious thinker

1621 Counter-Reformation leader Cardinal Robert Bellarmine dies

1620 English Pilgrims arrive in Massachusetts on Mayflower

1618–48 Thirty Years’ War in Germany

1618–19 Synod of Dort (Dordrecht) rejects Arminianism

1611 English and Scottish Protestants colonize Ulster

1611 King James Version of English Bible published

1609 Dutch Reformed theologian, Jacob Arminius, dies

1608–74 John Milton, English Puritan poet

90 16

1675 Philipp Jakob Spener’s Pia Desideria published

1667 John Milton publishes Paradise Lost

70

16

1682 Pennsylvania founded on basis of religious toleration

60

16

1688 ‘Glorious Revolution’: William III of Orange invited to England

50

16

1689 Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to dissenters in England

40

16

1605 Gunpowder Plot foiled, London

30

16

1605 Italian Jesuit missionary Robert de Nobili arrives in India

1604 Anti-trinitarian Italian Fausto Sozzini dies

1603–25 James I of England

1583–1605 Jesuit Reductions established in S. America

20

16

1568–1648 Dutch Wars of Religion, Eighty Years’ War

1564–1616 William Shakespeare, English dramatist

16

1598 Edict of Nantes grants French Huguenots limited toleration

00 17

Introduction 20

Between 1350 and 1650 the church in Western Europe experienced significant administrative, moral, and doctrinal reform that brought major changes to the church. These reforms were accompanied by conflict between those committed to the beliefs and practices of the medieval church and those persuaded that major doctrinal and moral reform was necessary. Conflict also arose between those committed to different approaches to reform and to different theologies. This Reformation resulted in a lasting schism in the church in Western Europe that had essentially remained unified for more than one thousand years. The existence of more than one Christian church was difficult to accept after a millennium of religious unity, and only reluctantly was it acknowledged when it became increasingly clear that neither dialogue nor suppression could restore the church’s unity. Religious divisions – together with political, social, and economic factors – led to military conflict that plagued Europe between 1550 and 1648. The first section of this atlas surveys the pre-Reformation period: the setting in which the events took place, late medieval society, the role of the church in that society, and the various reform movements of the late Middle Ages. Although the late medieval church met the religious needs of society more adequately than many historians have been willing to concede, people were sufficiently alienated from the church to support the Protestant Reformation. The second section of this book examines the outbreak of the sixteenthcentury Reformation. Martin Luther was of course the primary protagonist in the events that resulted in this lasting schism in the church, believing that the teachings of the church had been distorted during the Middle Ages and needed to be brought back into line with Scripture. There soon appeared a number of different reform movements and a great expansion of the Reformation churches. Lutheranism spread

through much of Germany and Scandinavia, and new urban movements appeared in Switzerland and Germany. Radical reform movements sprang up throughout Europe, led by people who rejected the ‘Magisterial Reformers’ who worked with the magistrates or rulers. In Geneva, John Calvin led a reform movement that was soon imitated in much of Europe. Henry VIII initiated a Reformation in England for reasons that had little to do with church reform, but the English church also experienced a Protestant Reformation which reached fruition in the reign of Henry’s daughter, Elizabeth. A Protestant Reformation was also firmly established in Scotland. The Roman Catholic Church was stimulated to reform itself – and also to respond to the rapid growth of Protestantism – movements which are covered in section three. When attempts to heal the breach between the Church of Rome and the growing Protestant movement failed, the papacy called the reforming Council of Trent, which defined the theology of the medieval church in opposition to Protestantism and encouraged moral and spiritual reform within the Roman Catholic Church. The discovery of the Americas led to a new interest in spreading the gospel abroad. The Society of Jesus – the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola – took the lead within the Catholic Church and sent missionaries to the Americas, India, China, and Japan. Protestants attempted to bring the gospel to Native Americans in the English colonies.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 20

09/06/2015 15:37

One result of the competing reform movements was theological and military conflict, dealt with in the final section of this atlas. In addition to theological conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, Lutherans, Zwinglians, and Calvinists engaged in ferocious debates, and there were also deep divisions within both Lutheranism and Calvinism, while all parties were critical of the Anabaptists and persecuted them. For their part, Anabaptists were divided among themselves and on occasion resorted to violence in pursuing their objectives. During the second century of the Reformation era, Germany, France,

the Netherlands, and England were all convulsed by religious wars. When neither side was able to overcome the other, they had eventually to agree to compromise settlements, dividing the respective areas between the competing confessions. Only the English Civil War, fought between Protestants, had a different result. The Peace of Westphalia of 1648, which ended the Thirty Years’ War, is a clear concluding point for the Reformation era on the European continent; in England it comes ten years later, as the Civil War was followed by the restoration of the Stuart dynasty in 1660.

INTRODUCTION

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 21

21

09/06/2015 15:37

Before the Reformation

Part 1

O quam cito transit gloria mundi. Oh how quickly the world’s glory passes away! Thomas à Kempis

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 22

09/06/2015 15:37

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 23

09/06/2015 15:37

The Rise of Learning 24

During the age of Charlemagne and the tenth and eleventh centuries, education in Christian Europe was based mainly in monasteries and cathedral schools – largely the former until the eleventh century. A learned monk would teach novices (new monks) and if he were well known adult monks from other houses would also come to study under him. Other young men from wealthy families would be sent to study under a monastic tutor. By the twelfth century, cathedral schools had overtaken the monastic establishments. The chancellor – chief cathedral dignitary after the bishop and dean – taught the seven liberal arts and theology to advanced students, while other teachers instructed younger scholars in Latin grammar. Most students were destined to become clerics. A licence to teach, given by the chancellor, was the predecessor of a university degree. During the eleventh century, the leading cathedral schools in northern Europe were at Laon, Paris, Chartres, and Cologne. Debates there reawakened intellectual life in Europe, drawing on the philosophy of ancient Greece, the Bible, and the teachings of the early Christian writers.

First universities The cathedral schools culminated in the founding of the first universities. The term universitas was used to describe a guild or corporation of teachers or scholars who banded together. A city with a wellknown cathedral might become the centre for a number of schools. At first scholars rented rooms and students would pay to come and listen to their lectures. Guilds of professors organized the universities of northern Europe, while in Italy the students themselves formed the guilds. The first universities obtained a charter from the pope; those established later applied to the secular ruler. The gradual development of universities makes it difficult to date them precisely, but among the first were Bologna, Paris, Salerno, Oxford, Cambridge, Montpellier, Padua,

Salamanca, and Toulouse. The universities taught the seven liberal arts – a late Roman curriculum that included grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. However logic, or philosophy, tended to dominate undergraduate education. Graduate faculties taught medicine, law, and theology. Medieval universities were relatively small by modern standards, the largest having between 3,000 and 4,000 students. At Paris, a boy could begin his studies at the age of twelve, but the privilege of lecturing on theology was not granted until a man (there were, of course, no female students) was thirty-five. Paris was the most important place of learning, adopted by both Franciscans and Dominicans as their main training centre. Major scholars of this period who studied or taught at Paris include William of Ockham (c. 1288–c. 1348), Anselm of Bec (1033–1109), Peter Abelard (1079–1142), Peter Lombard (1100–60), Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–80), Duns Scotus (c. 1265–1308), Thomas Aquinas (1225–74), and Lothar of Segni (later Pope Innocent III, r. 1198–1216). Their legacy, a systematic account known as ‘scholasticism’, attempted to harmonize the theology of Augustine with the philosophy of classical Greek thinkers, especially Aristotle. The synthesis of Catholic dogma and reasoning by logic was the achievement of Aquinas in his Summa Theologiae, a cornerstone of future Catholic theology – though some of his own teachings were listed in the Condemnations of 1277.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 24

09/06/2015 15:37

001 RISE OF UNIVERSITIES

05_nc

The First Universities of Europe: 1160–1600

University with date of foundation Political divisions as around 1500 Miles 0

map 1

SWEDEN

NORWAY

Uppsala 1477 100

300

200

Glasgow 1450/51

St Andrews 1413

SE

Aberdeen 1494

Edinburgh 1583

N ORTH SEA

DENMARK

I

Rostock 1419 Greifswald 1456 Elbe R.

ENGLAND Oxford 1167

BA

Copenhagen 1478

Königsberg (Albertina) 1544

IRELAND Dublin 1592

LT

C

SCOTLAND

A

0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers

Franeker 1585 Lüneberg 1471

Cambridge 1209

Helmstedt 1576

Leiden 1575 Leuven/ Louvain 1425

Marburg 1527

Cologne 1388

Erfurt 1379

Wittenberg 1502

POL AND Frankfurt/Viadrina 1506 Od er R

Leipzig 1409

.

Rh

Charles, Jagiellonian, Prague 1348 Jena 1558 Krakow 1364 Mainz 1477 Douai 1559 R Caen . HOLY Heidelberg 1386 Olomouc 1573 Rheims 1548 1432 Trier 1473 Sei Ingolstadt 1472 ROMAN ne R. Sorbonne, . Tübingen 1477 be R EMPIRE Paris 1160 Danu Orleans 1235 Bratislava 1467-90 Freiburg 1457 Vienna 1365 Angers 1356 ATLANTIC Graz 1585 Bourges 1463 Basel Zurich 1525 Dôle 1422 1460 Pavia (moved to Piacenza) 1361 Nantes 1460 OCEAN Lausanne 1537 Poitiers 1431 HUNGARY Vicenza Vercelli FR ANCE Geneva 1559 1204 Treviso 1318 1228 Grenoble 1339 Parma Padua 1222 Cahors 1117 Turin 1331-1751 Ferrara 1391 1404 Genoa Bordeaux 1441 Valence 1452 Bologna 1088 1481 Oviedo Florence 1321 Aix 1409 Toulouse 1229 Santiago de 1574 Urbino 1506 Compostela Pisa 1343 Montpellier Macerata 1290 1495 Siena 1240 NAVARRE 1220 Huesca Palencia Modena & Arezzo 1215 Camerino 1336 1354 1208 Perpignan Reggio Emilia Perugia 1308 PA PA L Eb ro 1175 A R AG O N 1349 Siguenza R. Valladolid 1241 Sapienza, S TAT E S 1489 Zaragoza Rome 1303 Naples “Federico II” 1224 P ORT UG A L Barcelona 1542 1450 Salerno ?1273 Salamanca 1218 Alcala Coimbra 1288 Valencia 1499 1293 Tagus R. Lisbon 1290 C ASTILE Palermo Messina Evora 1559 1548 1498 Granada D I T E R R A N Seville 1505 E 1531 S I C I LY Catania 1434 M E A G R A N A DA Osuna N 1548 in

SARDINIA

e

S

THE RISE OF LEARNING

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 25

E A

25

09/06/2015 15:37

Earliest Waldensians Waldensian concentration with earliest recorded date Waldensian ‘schola’ Political divisions as around 1360 Se ine R.

KINGDOM OF FRANCE

BUR

DUCHY OF AQUITAINE (PART OF ENGLAND)

Garo nn

Clermont 1182/83

Gourdon c1240

Montél

KINGDOM OF ARAGON Lerida

0 50 Kilometers

100 100

200

CATALONIA

M E D

Tarragona 1198

150

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 26

Lyons 1177

Montcuq Parisot Bagnols Agen Najac Ales St Antonin Moissac c1230 Uzes Nimes Corbarieu Albi c1204 Auch 1198 A Lavaur Montpellier before 1199 Toulouse c1225 Avignonet Hautpoul GASCONY Aigues-V Narbonne c1190 1204 Beziers 1194 Larnat

NAVARRE

Miles 0

26

Lo ire R.

. eR

Waldo’s followers, the ‘Waldensians’, fled Lyons and started to organize as a church, spreading into two regions noted for unorthodox beliefs – Lombardy and Provence. By the end of the thirteenth century, though hounded by the newly strengthened Inquisition, the Waldensians had spread to much of Europe except Britain. The greatest objection to the Waldensians, who began within the church, was that they ended up by rejecting that church. Unauthorized preaching from the Bible and the rejection of the mediating role of the clergy were major issues that gained them the reputation of heretics. In the decades around 1400, in the Waldensians’ main region, central and eastern Europe – particularly Bohemia, Moravia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, and Austria – they were widely persecuted by the Inquisition. During the fifteenth century Waldensians remained active in this region, exchanging ideas with the Hussites and helping create the charged atmosphere in which the great religious changes of the sixteenth century were to occur. In France the Waldensians continued to be harassed until the end of the Middle Ages, while in Italy they took refuge in the region of Piedmont, where they were attacked in 1488.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE WALDENSIANS

Rhône R.

The Waldensians

Around 1175 a merchant of Lyons, Peter Waldo (or Valdes, c. 1140–c. 1218), gave away his wealth to lead a life of poverty and preaching. He had vernacular translations made from the Latin New Testament and soon attracted many followers. But in little more than a decade what began as an enthusiastic popular movement had been branded as heresy.

09/06/2015 15:37

002 WALDENSIANS

09

R.

Mainz 1233

R. lle

. in R Ma

Mo se

map 2

Regensburg c1262

Rh

in e

Metz 1200

Dan ub eR

Toul

Nalb Lengenfeld Langenlois Pupping Stratzing St Oswald Anzbach Neuhofen St Christophen Ybbs Steyr Kammer St Peter Ollersbach .

Strasbourg 1212

Drosendorf

H O L Y

Jonvelle 1218

R O M A N

Besançon 1248

In n

R.

E M P I R E BURGUNDY Dongo

SWISS C O N F E D E R AT I O N

Lyons 1177 Rhône R.

mont /83

R. ône Rh

Legnano Milan before 1206

Vienne 1198

Pavia

Turin 1210 Valence c1235

Montélimar Embrun 1198

Beziers 1194

RE

Bagnols

Ales Nimes c1204 pellier 1199

PU

BL

OA F G E N Genoa IC O

Verona 1199

REPUBLIC OF VENICE

Gruaro

KI N GD O M OF H U N GARY

Cerea before 1203

Modena

Faenza 1206 SERBIAN PRINCIPALITIES

Florence 1206

REPUBLIC OF FLORENCE

Aigues-Vives 1204

A DRIATIC SEA

r

S E A

PAPAL STATES

e Tib

REPUBLIC OF GENOA

M E D I T E R R A N E A N

Ronco

Piacenza 1192/97 Po R.

Pinerolo

Bollène Orange Sisteron Carpentras Uzes Avignon PROVENCE Arles 1198 Aix 1198

Bergamo 1218

Rome 1179

KINGDOM OF NAPLES

T H E WA L D E N S I A N S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 27

27

09/06/2015 15:37

The Devotio Moderna 28

Important in preparing the way for the Reformation was the rise in northern Europe of a movement known as the Devotio Moderna (‘the modern way of serving God’), a spiritual revival that began within the Catholic Church in the late fourteenth century, strongly emphasizing personal devotion and social involvement, especially in education. Geert Groote (1340–84), from Deventer in the Netherlands, who had studied at Paris, had a religious experience in 1374 that led him to devote himself to practical piety. In his house at Deventer he gathered a community of poor women to live the common life together, without taking the vows of a convent. Jan van Ruysbroeck (1293–1381), a Flemish mystic, and Florens Radewijns (c. 1350–1400), an ordained priest with organizing ability who had studied at Prague, both associated with Groote, who now founded a semi-monastic community of men, both lay and clergy, which now became known as the Brethren of the Common Life (Latin, Fratres Vitae Communis). When Groote died of plague, Radewijns took over leadership of this movement. They observed the threefold rule of poverty, chastity, and obedience, but were not bound by a formal vow. Any member was free to leave the brotherhood and return to secular life if he wished. In 1387 Radewijns founded the group’s most influential house, at Windesheim, near Zwolle, and members became Augustinian canons, with constitutions approved by Pope Boniface IX in 1395. A few years later they combined with other

houses in the Low Countries to form the ‘Congregation of Windesheim’. The members dedicated themselves to education and to spiritual discipline, renouncing the world. To support their community, they busied themselves with book-production: writing, copying manuscripts, binding, and marketing, and – with the advent of printing – operating their own press. In time the movement spread and during the fifteenth century the Windesheim Canons set up communities in Germany and Switzerland. Many Brethren of the Common Life and those educated by them left their mark on the Christian world. Foremost of these were the philosopher and theologian Nicholas of Cusa (1401–64) and Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536). Gabriel Biel (c. 1420–95), the philosopher known as ‘the last German scholastic’, and the humanist Rodolphus Agricola (1444–85) were both members of the community; the best elements of scholasticism and humanism co-existed in the Devotio Moderna. Perhaps the figure who best sums up the Devotio Moderna is Thomas Haemerken (c. 1380–1471), better known as Thomas à Kempis, author of The Imitation of Christ, the most popular devotional handbook of the Middle Ages.

F Har (

Cassel

Cambra

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 28

09/06/2015 15:37

003 DEVOTIO MODERNA 06n DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE

map 3

Houses of Brethren of Common Life Houses of Windesheim Order Original Windesheim houses which united 1394/5

DENMARK Bordersholm Segeberg

N ORTH S EA

Rostock Lübeck

EsensMarienkamp

We

ser

R.

Chelmo Emden Berlikum E lb Anjum Bergum Groningen eR Ludingakerk . Haskerdijken Florentin Radewijns (1350-1400) Thabor leader of Augustinian Windesheims Windesheim Thomas à Kempis (c 1380-1471) Hoorn- Vollenhove Nieuwlicht KampenAgnietenberg Gabriel Biel (c 1420-95) Hoorn Hardenberg Brunnepe Zwolle Beverwijk Frenswegen Kampen Naarden Harlem Harderwijk Hulsbergen Albergen HildesheimOsnabrück Walbeck Founded by Amsterdam Sülte Dorstadt Amersfoort Arnhem- Diepenveen Almelo Harphius van Erp Herford Wittenberg Vredendaal Leiden Osterberg (c 1405-77) Hamersleben Marienborn Deventer Magdeburg Heiningen Möllenbeck Hildesheim Delft Gouda Utrecht Renkum Arnhem Doesburg Bredevoort Riechenberg Grauhof Halberstadt Brielle Münster Emmerich Blomberg Eernstein Dordrecht Nijmegen Böddeken Geert de Groote (1340-84) ‘s-Hertogenbosch Gaesdonck Uedem Wesel founder of Brethren Dalheim of Common Life Zaltbommel-Pieterswiel Eindhoven Straelen Jan Busch (1399-c 1480) Reimerswaal Kassel Oostmalle Merseburg Korsendonk Elizabethsdal Volkhardinghausen Neuss R Antwerp Merxhausen Grobbendonk Ewig Roermond Mechelen Bethlehem Ghent Melle Rooklooster Tirlemont Cologne Cassel Elsegem Brussels Marburg Bödingen Louvain/Leuven Tongeren Aachen Grammont Groenendaal Bonn Liège Zevenborren Bois-Seigneur-Isaac Butzbach R. Niederwerth . eR hin

Meus

L O W

Königstein

C O U N T R I E S

Hirzenhain

Wiesbaden Marienthal Wolf Eberhardsklausen Schwabenheim Ravengiersburg Trier Worms-Kirschgarten Höningen

Birklingen

ll e R

.

Cambrai

e

se

Frankenthal

Rh

in e

R.

Mo

Hesse Truttenhausen Ittenviller Marbach

G E R M A N Y

Sindelfingen St Peter in Einsiedel Tachenhausen Herrenburg Urach Tübingen Dettingen

D an

Rebdorf

u

R be

Miles 0 0 50 Kilometers

T H E D E V OT I O M O D E R N A

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 29

.

Schamhaupten

50

100 100

150

29

09/06/2015 15:37

The Great Schism 30

Crisis of the Papacy The thirteenth century ended with the election and unheard-of abdication of Pope Celestine V in 1294. This threw the first pope of the fourteenth century, Boniface VIII (1294–1303), under a cloud of uncertainty. Papal and royal policies soon came into conflict; undignified squabbles recurred till the end of the Middle Ages. Boniface’s bull Clericis laicos (1296) limited the power of kings to tax their clergy while Unam sanctam (1302) epitomized extreme papal claims. Philip the Fair of France (r. 1285–1314) attacked the pope, who escaped from Anagni, Italy, to Rome, but died there shortly after. Political instability in Italy and the Papal States now rendered the papal seat in Rome untenable. Under continued French pressure, the Archbishop of Bordeaux was elected Pope Clement V (1305–14). Clement, from Gascony, south-west France, never went to Rome, and chose Avignon, southern France, as his residence, thus becoming the first pope to live under the ‘Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy’ (1309–78). For most of the fourteenth century, no pope lived in Rome: a divorce between the head of Western Christendom and the Holy City that caused great scandal and unrest. Clement’s successor John XXII (1316–34) saw the papacy more in administrative than spiritual terms, while Benedict XII (1334–42) and Clement VI (1342–52) supported France against the English during the Hundred Years’ War, the latter spending lavishly on pomp and ceremony and openly promoting members of his own family. By the time of Innocent VI (1352–62), pressure was growing on the popes to return to Rome. Innocent’s successor, Urban V (1362–70) did return to Rome in 1367, but then appointed several French cardinals and in 1370 returned to Avignon. Gregory XI (1370–78) left Avignon finally in 1376, entering Rome in 1377. The papacy had at last returned to the Eternal City.

Great Schism Following the death of Gregory XI, angry crowds demanded an Italian pope. The cardinals elected Urban VI (1378–89), who proved too much a dictator. Citing disorderly behaviour at his election as an excuse, some cardinals elected another pope, Clement VII (1378–94). After armed battles between forces of the rival popes, Clement VII retired to Avignon in 1381, beginning the ‘Great Schism’, a split of the government of the church that had both political and religious repercussions. Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, Scandinavia, Hungary, and England supported Urban VI of Rome; France, Spain, and Scotland supported Clement VII in Avignon. The problem continued after Clement’s death, with parallel elections in Rome and Avignon continuing into the next century. At length, rival colleges of cardinals in Rome and Avignon began to discuss ways of ending the Schism. Since neither pope would give way, some cardinals called a council at Pisa in 1409. Both popes refused to attend, so the cardinals deposed them and elected instead Alexander V (1409–10). Neither the Avignon nor the Roman pope recognized him, resulting in three popes where there had been two. Not until the Council of Constance (1414–17) was the split finally healed, when Martin V was acknowledged by nearly all as the sole and rightful pope.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 30

09/06/2015 15:37

004 GREAT SCHISM 09 nc THE GREAT SCHISM AND THE AVIGNON PAPACY

map 4

NO RWAY

Allegiance to Rome Allegiance to Avignon Neutral Changed allegiance Greek Orthodox Muslim Holy Roman Empire boundary

DENMARK

SCOTL AND

B

C A LT I

SE

A TS

N ORTH S EA

N T E U TO N I C K

RS

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

ne

Aachen

R hi

CALAIS

London

POL AND Od e

. rR

R.

PONTHIEU

Prague

Mainz Da

Paris

ATLANTIC OCEAN

nu

be

R.

FR ANCE Bordeaux Avignon

AR AGON

CASTILE Toledo

M

1378: French cardinals elect antipope Clement VII, causing the Great Schism Popes: Clement V (1305-14) John XXII (1316-34) Benedict XII (1334-42) Clement VI (1342-52) Innocent VI (1352-62) Urban V (1362-70) - in Rome 1367-1370; returned to Avignon 1370 Gregory XI (1370-78); left Avignon for Rome September 1376 Antipopes: Clement VII (1378-94) Benedict XIII (1394-1423); expelled from Avignon on 1403

PAPAL STATES Rome

N E A N T E R R A E D I

D

A

NAVARRE

G R A N A DA

HUNGARY

SARDINIA

ENGLISH GASCONY

PORTUGAL

H

ENGL AND FLANDE

WA L E S

IREL AND

IG

NA

1378: Pope Urban VI is elected under Italian pressure, ending the ‘Babylonian Captivity’ Popes: Boniface VIII (1294-1303) Benedict XI (1303-4) Urban VI (1378-89) Boniface IX (1389-1404)

S E A

R

SICIL

IA TI C

PL

S

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

EA

ES

Y Miles 0 100 0 100 200 Kilometers

T H E G R E AT S C H I S M

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 31

(MUSLIM MINORITY)

200

300

400

31

09/06/2015 15:37

Ashbou

Wigginton 1454

Birmingham 1511

Worcester 1422,1448

Cove 142

W ye

R.

. on R Av

Staunton 1464

Micheldean 1511 Lydney 1470

Gloucester 1448 Lechlade 1521

Portishead 1457

Bristol 1420 Bath 1418

Wells 1476

Devizes 1434, 1437

Burford 1521 Witn 152

Farin 14

Hunger 150

W I LT S H I R E Salisbury 1479

Taunton 1441

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 32

L

R.

Wyclif and the Lollards

DERBY

ern

A group of followers arose around Wyclif at Oxford, attracted by his energetic preaching. He was gradually deserted by his friends in high places, and the church authorities were able to force Wyclif and his followers out of Oxford. In 1382, a sick man, he went to live at Lutterworth, in the English Midlands, initiating a vernacular Bible translation by Nicholas Hereford (d. 1420): the Wyclif Bible. His followers spread to Leicestershire and became known as ‘Lollards’ – possibly meaning ‘mumbler’. By 1395 the Lollards had developed into an organized group, with their own ministers and popular support. The Lollards stood for many of the ideas set out by Wyclif, believing the main task of a priest was to preach, and that the Bible should be available to all in their own language. However it is unclear how far Wyclif ’s views constituted a ‘premature Reformation’. From the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Lollards were suppressed, particularly when their protest became linked to political unrest.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE LOLLARDS

S ev

32

John Wyclif (c. 1320–84), a leading philosopher at Oxford University, offended the church by supporting the government’s right to seize the property of corrupt clergymen. His views were condemned by the pope in 1377, but influential friends protected him. Wyclif began to extend his anti-clerical views and to attack central doctrines of the medieval church, in particular transubstantiation. He wrote: ‘no man is so rude a scholar but that he may learn the words of the Gospel ….’

09/06/2015 15:37

Winches

map 5

Heretics prosecuted, with date Lollards and other heretics active

DERBYSHIRE R.

Ashbourne 1488

N ORTH SEA

nt

e Tr

Derby

Creake 1428

Aston Loughborough

ton 1454

King’s Lynn 1428

Leicester 1511

Wymondham 1428

Market Harborough

11

Coventry 1424-25

Thorpe 1428

Norwich 1428, 1510

Corby 1417

EAST ANGLIA

Somersham 1457

Ou

se R .

Daventry . on R Av

Eye 1428

Mildenhall

Chesterton 1457 Cambridge 1457

Framlingham 1428

Bury St Edmunds 1428

Banbury

Leiston 1428

Ipswich 1428, 1521

Burford O X F O R D S H I R E Hitchin 1521 Colchester 1428 Dunstable Witney Kidlington 1416 Ware 1477, 1521 St Albans 1521 Chelmsford 1427 Thame 1464 1430, 1521 Oxford Barnet Faringdon ade 1521 1427 Maldon 1499 Amersham Waltham Abbey Wallingford 1430 1646 1439, 1513 1443

izes 1437

Henley 1462 Hungerford Reading 1416 1505

Windsor 1502

. Th a m es R

Newbury 1491

Strood 1436

Rochester 1425 West Malling 1425 Farnham 1440

RE

Tonbridge 1496

Canterbury 1469

Maidstone 1495

KENT

Ashford 1511 Dover

Winchester 1428

Rogate 1470

Tenterden 1422

SUSSEX

Romney 1425

C

N

G

L

H IS

EL NN A H

E

1479

London 1415

Miles 0 10 0 10 20 Kilometers

20

30 30

40

40

50

50

W YC L I F A N D T H E LO L L A R D S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 33

33

09/06/2015 15:37

Jan Hus and the Hussites

The marriage of Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia in 1382 resulted in links between both countries and in some of Wyclif ’s writings reaching Bohemia. Wyclif ’s attacks on the church resonated with the discontents of Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415), who taught at the Charles University in Prague, and with other Czech churchmen. Hus took up the theme of church reform in sermons at the Bethlehem Chapel, Prague, that soon became hugely popular in the city and with the Czech nobility. His views merged with an assertion of Czech identity against German-speakers in the Bohemian church and nation and found support throughout society. Under a safe-conduct from the Holy Roman Emperor, Hus was summoned to the church’s General Council at Constance in 1414 to explain his acts of rebellion, but the council tried him for heresy regardless. Hus was burned at the stake in 1415, condemned by the council and the Emperor. Bohemia exploded in anger; within five years Czech rebels had established a Hussite Church in Bohemia, independent of Rome, and soon more radical elements began to challenge the secular hierarchy as well as the church. Decades of vicious civil war followed, alongside unsuccessful attempts by surrounding states to destroy the revolution.

The pope invoked five failed crusades against the Hussites, and rebellion spread to Austria, Slovakia, Silesia, Bavaria, and even the Baltic. An independent Hussite church emerged, partially recognized by Rome. Unlike the Roman church, it used the Czech language in worship, and insisted that the people receive both bread and wine at the Eucharist. From this reception ‘in both kinds’ or ‘species’ (sub utraque specie), the Hussite movement derived its name ‘Utraquism’. In the absence of a native episcopate, the church was effectively in the hands of the aristocracy and of the leaders in major cities – a characteristic of the ‘official’ Reformations of the next century. More radical Hussites, the Union of Bohemian Brethren (Unitas Fratrum), separated from the Utraquists in 1457. Inspired by the south Bohemian writer Petr Chelcicky (c. 1390–c.1460), and invoking New Testament Christianity, they condemned all types of violence, including political repression, capital punishment, military service, and the swearing of oaths to earthly authorities, and rejected the idea of a separate priesthood and transubstantiation – all doctrines that re-emerged during the Reformation.

Magd

Nurem

R

Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415), Czech reformer and martyr.

34

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 34

09/06/2015 15:37

006 HUSSITE WARS

THE HUSSITE WARS

D EN MA R K

06

map 6

B A LT I C S E A

Gdansk

Bohemia Hungary Hussite region Holy Roman Empire boundary Hussite campaign Significant battle

TEU TO NI C KN I GH TS POMERANIA

E lb

BR A N D E NB UR G eR

Od er R.

.

Berlin

Poznan Var ta R.

Magdeburg

PO L AND a

st

Torgau

Wi

LU S AT I A

R.

Meissen

S AXO N Y

Dresden

SILESIA

Od er R.

Ústí nad Labem 1426 Vítkov Hill 1420

Hradec Králové

Prague Tachov 1427

Plzen

Nuremberg Domazlice (Taus) 1431

Olomouc

M O R AV I A

Tabor

Brno

Ceské Budejovice

Regensburg D an

Kutná Hora Lipany 1434

B OHE M IA

Kraków

Trencín

. ube R

B AVA R IA

Kremnica

Passau D a nu b e R .

AUS T R IA

Vienna

Kosice

Banská Stiavnica

Trnava

HU N GARY

Bratislava Esztergom

Miles 0

Buda

0 50 Kilometers

JAN HUS AND THE HUSSITES

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 35

50

100 100

150

35

09/06/2015 15:37

Until 1462 the new art remained a trade secret in Mainz, but that year the city was plundered and the printers dispersed. Within two decades printing presses were set up in Rome (1467), Paris (1470), Cracow (1474), and Westminster (1476). By the time Luther was born, in 1483, printing was well established throughout Europe. The printing press was very important in the early spread of the Reformation. The writings of the first German reformers – Luther and Melanchthon – reached a wide public in printed form within weeks, and were soon being read in Paris and Rome. But even before the Reformation, printing helped to create a wider and more critical reading-public. It also met the new demand for reading material, with works such as the religious satires of Erasmus proving a big commercial success. The invention of printing allowed the Bible to be circulated more widely than ever before. With this possibility came the desire of the Reformers to make what they regarded as the Word of God available to all people in their own language. This came at a time when it was unusual to write in the vernacular, and works such as the Luther Bible contributed greatly to the growth of the European languages.

THE EARLIEST PRINTING CENTRES IN EUROPE

N ORTH SEA

SCOTL AND Edinburgh 1507

H Bruges 1473-4

ENGL AND

IREL AND

Delft 1477

Westminster Oxford 1478 1476 London 1480 Ghent 1483 Se

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Paris

ine1470 R.

Lo i r

eR

.

F R ANC E

NAVARRE Segovia 1472 Madrid 1499

CASTILE

Lisbon 1489

AR AGON

Zaragoza Barcelona 1475 1473 Valencia 1473

Seville 1472 G R ANADA

Faro 1487

36

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 36

Brussel 1475-6

Lyons 1473

PORTUGAL

The Rise of Printing

The invention of printing – sometimes called Germany’s chief contribution to the Renaissance – released a new energy into the story of books, scholarship, and education. In about 1445 Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398–1468) started to experiment with movable metal type at Mainz, Germany. The first complete book known to have been printed in this way in the Christian world was the Bible (1456).

09/06/2015 15:37

M E

E

map 7

N O R WAY

Major fifteenth-century printing centre, with date of first known printed book Other fifteenth-century printing centres Political boundaries in 1490

Stockholm 1483

S WE DE N A

SE

ORTH SEA

Delft 1477

o i re

.

R.

400

Danzig 1499

Lübeck 1474 Hamburg 1488 E lbe R. Deventer 1477

300

300

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Od

er

R. Utrecht 1473 Gouda 1477 Antwerp 1481 Leipzig 1480 Cologne 1465 Wroclaw 1475 Brussels Louvain Frankfurt 1473-4 Bamberg 1457 1475-6 1478 Kuttenberg 1489 Mainz 1452-3 Nuremberg 1469 Pilsen1475 Brno 1486 Strasbourg Augsburg 1468 1460 Vienna 1482 Munich 1482 Da Basel nub Memmingen 1478 e R . Buda 1473 1462

POL AND

Krakow 1473

R.

eR

0 100 200 Kilometers

I

200

ine

Paris ein 1470

B

Copenhagen 1493

100

Rh

Ghent 1483

T AL

C

DENMARK

Harlem 1483

Odense 1482

Bruges 1473-4

r

Miles 0

Zurich 1479

R ANCE Lyons 1473

HUNGARY

VENICE

Geneva 1478 Milan 1470

Venice 1469 Bologna 1471

B LACK SEA

Florence 1471

ON

arcelona 1473

PAPAL STATES Rome 1467

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Subiaco 1465

Naples 1470

NA

PL

Constantinople 1488

ES

a 1473

1472

M E D I T E R R A N E A N

S

E

A

THE RISE OF PRINTING

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 37

37

09/06/2015 15:37

The Italian Renaissance 38

‘Renaissance’ (re-birth) describes the revival of the values of classical Greek and Roman civilization in the arts, politics, and thinking that originated in Italy and spread over most of Western Europe. The Renaissance began with the revival of classical learning by scholars known as ‘humanists’. A humanist was originally someone who taught Latin grammar, but later came to mean a student of Latin and Greek who not only read classical writings but shaped his life by what he read. Most of the early humanists professed Christianity, although Renaissance humanists also studied such non-Christian authors as Cicero and Plato. The home of humanism was Italy, and the first known humanist Lovato Lovati (1241–1309), who not only read the Latin classics but tried to imitate their spirit. He discovered manuscripts of forgotten classics in the library of the abbey of Pomposa, precipitating a search for hidden treasures of antiquity that became one of the features of humanism. Humanism came of age with the Italian Francesco Petrarca (or Petrarch, 1304–74), whose writings had a huge impact on European literature. Petrarch reacted against the Aristotelian form in which Christianity was presented by the medieval scholastics, polarizing Christian opinion between the old scholasticism and the new humanism. Petrarch bequeathed his successors the ideal of a world of classical values recaptured and displayed within the context of a restored Christianity. Italy of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries was divided into many minor – frequently warring – states. This period saw a great increase of Italian trade and the simultaneous growth of major banks and finance houses. During the Renaissance the

various Italian states and cities competed for the services and prestige of major artists. The funds needed to sponsor these Renaissance artists and to beautify the increasingly ornate cities came partly from great mercantile families such as the Medicis of Florence (an early centre of Renaissance activity), the Sforzas of Milan, and the Estes of Ferrara. Rome benefited hugely from the activities of Renaissance popes such as Julius II (r. 1503–13), Leo X (a Medici; r. 1513–21), and Clement VII (another Medici; r. 1523– 34), all great patrons of art, architecture, and letters. Venice, with its vibrant commercial activities, was another major focus of Renaissance art and architecture. The study of natural sciences also expanded during this period. Medicine flourished as the study of anatomy revealed some secrets of the body and the number of charitable hospitals multiplied. Astronomy also advanced, although astrology was still dominant. Italian mathematicians and scientists such as Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397–1482), Luca Pacioli (1445–1517), and Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) led in their respective disciplines.

FRANCE

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 38

09/06/2015 15:37

008 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE Major Centres of the Italian Renaissance

SWITZERL AND BISHOPRIC OF TRENT

Trent

Mantegna, painter (c 1431–1506)

DUCHY OF SAVOY Turin

OF MODENA

F GEN C O L I Genoa O A

Ferrara

Ravenna

Bologna

RE

RE

Pisa

REPUBLIC Arezzo OF FLORENCE

REPUBLIC OF SIENA

Brunelleschi – architect (1377–1446) Ghiberti – sculptor (1378–1455) Donatello – sculptor (1386–1466) Botticelli – painter (1445–1510) Leonardo da Vinci – painter (1452–1519) Machiavelli – writer (1469–1527) Bronzino – painter (1503–72) Striggio – composer (c 1536–92)

Cagliari

PU

Florence

CA

Siena

SARDINIA (ARAGON)

HUNGARY

SAN MARINO

UC FL

Correggio, painter (1489–1534)

CORSICA (GENOA)

Borders as around 1494

DUCHY OF FERRARA

IC O

FRANCE

AUSTRIA

Venice

Padua

U BL

UB

HOLY Mantua MARQUISATE ROMAN OF MANTUA Parma EMPIRE DUCHY REP

P

MARQUISATE OF SALUZZO

Giovanni Bellini – painter (c 1430–1516) Giorgione – painter (c 1477–1510) Titian – painter (1488–1576) Palladio – architect (1508–80) Veronese – painter (1528–88) Tintoretto – painter (1518–94) Giovanni Gabrielli – composer (c 1554/57– 1612)

map 8

REPUBLIC Verona OF VENICE

DUCHY OF Milan MILAN MARQUISATE OF MONTFERRAT COUNTY OF ASTI

05

Urbino

Vasari – writer (1511–74) Piero della Francesca, painter (c 1412–92)

Perugia

BL

OT TOMAN EMPIRE IC

OF

VEN

ICE

A D R I AT I C SEA

PAPAL STATES

REPUBLIC OF RAGUSA

Rome

Naples

TYRRHENIAN SEA

KINGDOM OF NAPLES

Bernini – sculptor (1598–1680) Michelangelo – painter, architect, sculptor (1475–1564) Raphael – painter (1483–1520) Bramante – architect (1444–1514) Palestrina – composer (1526–94)

M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A

Palermo KINGDOM OF SCICILY (ARAGON) Syracuse

Miles 0 0 50 Kilometers

T H E I TA L I A N R E N A I S S A N C E

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 39

50 100

100 150

39

09/06/2015 15:37

The Northern Renaissance 40

Before long the Renaissance spread from its country of origin and humanists began to appear widely in France, Germany, Holland, and England (c. 1500–1600) as well as in Spain and Portugal. The Renaissance came later to Northern Europe as it was further from the Mediterranean centres of trade and culture. The French invasion of Italy in 1494, and the ability of the newly invented printing press to spread ideas quickly and accurately, facilitated contact with the ideas of the Italian Renaissance. Moreover with the rise of towns and of national monarchies in France, England, Spain, and Portugal there was less resistance to the new ideas of the Renaissance. Among leading humanists in France were Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples (c. 1455–1536) and Guillaume Budé (1467–1540), whose precise, penetrating scholarship opened up the way for the Reformation in their country. In Germany Nicholas of Cusa (1401–64) was the leading speculative thinker, while Johann Reuchlin (1455– 1522), author of De Rudimentis Hebraicis (1506), established the study of Hebrew in the West. From the Netherlands came Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536), the greatest of the humanists, for whose services kings and princes across Europe competed. His Praise of Folly satirized the follies and vices of his times, particularly those of the church, while further popularizing humanism. Erasmus remained a pious Christian, but favoured the idea that it was an individual’s inner spirit, rather than outward shows of piety or empty rituals, which mattered. In England the new learning flowered in such Christian humanists as John Colet (1467–1519), Dean of St Paul’s, whose Oxford lectures on Paul’s letters broke new ground. Sir Thomas More (1478–1535), author of Utopia, defended the study of classical Greek and Roman culture, claiming their knowledge and the study of the natural world could serve as a stairway to the study of the supernatural.

Fine art The more religious nature of the Northern Renaissance is reflected in its art, where secular and mythological themes appear less frequently than in Italy. The German artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) was strongly influenced by the efforts of the Italians and the ancient writer Vitruvius to find mathematical proportions for portraying the perfect figure.

Music While the Renaissance saw the rebirth of classical learning and visual arts, musicians had no means of referring back to Greek and Roman music. Instead, Renaissance composers had creatively to innovate. Until this period most church music was solely vocal; however, during the Renaissance other instruments began to be employed alongside the choir – strings, brass, and small ensembles. The introduction of printed music ensured greater textual accuracy and uniformity and the rapid and widespread circulation of compositions, resulting in an increase in the early influence of composers upon one another. A number of outstanding composers appeared in Burgundy, including Guillaume Dufay (c. 1400–74), Johannes Ockeghem (c. 1410/30–97), and Josquin des Prés (c. 1445–1521) – often referred to simply as ‘Josquin’ – who was regarded as the greatest

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 40

09/06/2015 15:37

009 NORTHERN RENAISSANCE 07 nc Major Centres of the Northern Renaissance

N ORTH SEA Pieter Bruegel the Elder – painter (1525–69)

ENGLAND Cambridge

Hubert van Eyck – painter (c 1366–1426) Jan Van Eyck – painter (1395–1441)

John Taverner – composer (c 1490–1545)

Oxford

Amsterdam

Groningen D AN SL E I FR

Thomas à Kempis – writer (1328–1471)

Zwolle Utrecht ‘s-Hertogenbosch T

Antwerp N Bruges A AB Calais Ghent BR RS Brussels NDE Liège Tournai FLA

Rh ine

Josquin Despres – composer (c 1445–1521)

FRANCE

50

0 50 100 Kilometers

150

Loir e

150

100

Metz

Paris

Lefèvre d’Étaples – humanist scholar (c 1455–1536) Johannes Ockeghem – composer ( 1410/25–97)

200

composer of his age. English Renaissance composers include John Taverner (c. 1490– c. 1548), remembered for his Western Wind Mass, Thomas Tallis (c. 1505–85), who navigated the politically treacherous waters of Tudor England, and William Byrd (1542/3–1623), ‘father of British music’ according to his admiring peers.

Troyes R.

Nuremberg Albrecht Dürer – painter (1471–1528)

Verdun

LORRAINE

A L S A C E

R.

Mainz

Y D N Dijon U R G Besançon B U

Lyons

Strasbourg

Colmar

Matthias Grünewald – painter (c 1470–1528)

Basel

Erasmus – humanist (c 1465–1536)

ô n e R.

in e

Johannes Gutenberg – printer (c 1395–1468)

LUXEMBOURG Luxembourg

Rh

Se

Mons

Guillaume Dufay – composer (c 1400–74)

St Quentin

use R

Cambrai

Me

Amiens

H O LY R O MA N E M P I R E

R.

Rogier van der Weyden – painter (1399–1464) Nicolas Gombert – composer (c 1495– c 1560)

Miles 0

Wittenberg

Lucas Cranach the Elder – painter (1472–1553)

Hieronymus Bosch – painter (1450–1516)

London

John Colet – humanist (1466–1519) Thomas More – humanist (1478–1535) Thomas Tallis – composer (c 1505–85) William Byrd – composer (c 1540–1623)

.

378: Pope Urban VI elected under Italian essure, ending the abylonian Captivity’ Popes: iface VIII (1294-1303) enedict XI (1303-4) Urban VI (1378-89) niface IX (1389-1404)

WALES

Duchy of Burgundy c. 1470 Holy Roman Empire boundary

map 9

New universities The fifteenth century also saw the foundation of many new and significant universities in Europe, among them Alcalá, Bordeaux, Louvain, St Andrews, Tübingen, and Uppsala. The University of Wittenberg, where Luther taught, was opened in 1502.

THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 41

41

09/06/2015 15:37

map 10

Nidaros (Trondheim)

SWEDEN

09 nc

0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers

300 200 Miles 0 100

(to same scale as main map)

ICELAND

N ORTH S EA

N O R WAY

Archbishopric/cathedral city Bishopric Political divisions as around 1500 Ecclesiastical divisions as around 1500

Criticism of clerical abuses had been widespread in Europe for centuries. But as society became more urbanized, better educated, and richer, the literate laity – often better educated than many of the priests who claimed to ‘mediate the exclusive means of salvation’ – increased criticism of the church and its clergy. Yet in 1500 the Catholic Church stood outwardly undivided and virtually unchallenged. Its dioceses and archdioceses neatly divided up Western Europe; its bureaucracy was widely envied and its wealth was almost unmatched.

010 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH WESTERN EUROPE Ecclesiastical Divisions of Western Europe c. 1500

The Catholic Church in 1500 42

During the fifteenth century the papacy began to reap the results of centuries of compromise. The Great Schism saw two – even three – men claiming to be pope, and the Council of Constance staged a power struggle between bishops and pope, both events hindering papal government and harming the church’s reputation in the eyes of the laity. The church continued to sell offices and indulgences, and remained the political plaything of princes and a useful source of income for second sons and the unscrupulous.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 42

09/06/2015 15:37

T H E C AT H O L I C C H U R C H I N 1 5 0 0

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 43

43

09/06/2015 15:37

Lisbon

S PA I N

Toledo

Milan

Oristano

Torres

AFRICA

M E D I T E

Tarragona

Aquileia

Salzburg

A

C

N

E

A

N

S

E

A

WALLACHIA

MOLDAVIA

B LACK SEA

LITHUANIA

TEU TO NI C O R D ER

Lemberg (Lviv)

Riga

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Kalocsa

HUNGARY

Esztergom (Gran)

POLAND

Siponto Benevento Trani Capua Bari Naples Brindisi NAPLES Sorrento Taranto Amalfi Rossano Salerno Cagliari Cosenza Santa Severina Messina Palermo R R Monreale Reggio

PAPAL STATES

Zadar (Zara)

TI

Gniezno

L BA

Uppsala

Prague

Magdeburg

Lund

VENICE Venice

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

Besançon

Trier

Mainz

Genoa Avignon Embrun GENOA Toulouse Aix Pisa Narbonne

Valencia

Zaragoza

NAVARRE

Auch

Bordeaux

Bremen

DENMARK

RG B U DS B S AN H A THERL Cologne NE

Moutiers

Bourges

Rheims

FRANCE

Tours

Rouen

Canterbury

ENG L AND

York

St Andrews

Seville Granada

Braga

PORTUGAL

Santiago de Compostela

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Cashel

IRELAND Dublin

Tuam

Armagh

SCOTLAND

N O R WAY

A

SE

Portuguese Voyages of Discovery 44

China and India were vital to European trade in the Middle Ages. However the rise of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) brought to an end Mongol control of China and southern Asia, closing off access to much of Asia for European merchants. At around the same time, the growth of Muslim power in the Middle East following the collapse of the Crusader kingdoms made land travel to India increasingly uncertain and hazardous. These changes helped stimulate sustained attempts by Europeans to reach India by sea. In the fifteenth century, Portuguese and Spanish explorers made a series of exploratory voyages, later emulated by sailors from the maritime states of Genoa and Venice. In 1415, the Portuguese captured Ceuta, Morocco, and subsequently embarked on the progressive discovery of the West African coast. Iberian ships driven off these coasts discovered Atlantic islands such as Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands, which were then explored and colonized. As Governor of the Order of Christ, the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) funnelled much of this organization’s wealth into scientific, commercial, and religious expeditions, with the ultimate aim of circumnavigating Africa. In 1434 a ship dispatched by Prince Henry passed the much-feared Cape Bojador, at that time regarded as the boundary of the knowable world. Having rounded this cape after a decade of trying, Henry’s caravels reached the Senegal River in 1436 and Cape Blanc, at the southern limits of the Sahara Desert, in 1441. In 1444 one of his captains landed the first boatload of African slaves in Portugal, an ominous precedent. Progressing gradually further south, Portuguese sailors rounded Cape Verde in 1445, reaching Sierra Leone in 1457, the Gold Coast in 1471, and the Congo River in 1482. In 1490 Portuguese explorers worked their way up the river and converted to Christianity the king of the Kongo Empire.

The Church of our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, Goa, founded in 1540.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 44

09/06/2015 15:38

012 PORTUGAL VOYAGES EAST 07 Portuguese Voyages of Discovery to the East

N ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Azores. (1431)

PO RTU GAL

Lisbon

map 11

SPAI N

Valencia

Madeira (1419)

M ED

ITERRA

NEAN

Canary Is.

SEA

Cairo

Hormuz

Cape Bojador

SAHARA DESERT Cape Blanc

Arguin Sene g GU I N EA

R.

Malindi Mombasa

KO NG O

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Porto Seguro

Benguela

Major Portuguese voyages

Mosselbaai 500

1000

0 500 1000 1500 Kilometers

Dias and da Gama Meanwhile Portuguese sailors continued to press southward. The daring voyage of Bartolomeu Dias (c. 1451–1500), who in 1488 rounded the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa, disproved the long-held belief that India was inaccessible from the Atlantic Ocean. Finally in 1497 Vasco da Gama (c. 1460s–1524), having rounded the Cape, continued along the coast of East Africa and with the help of a pilot sailed across the Indian Ocean, reaching Calicut in 1498.

INDIAN OCEAN

Mozambique

Port Nolloth Miles 0

Calicut

AFRICA Con go

Elmina

SOUTH AMERICA

Goa

Aden

. al R

Cape Verde Is. (1455)

Cape of Good Hope

Nuño Tristão 1441, 1443 Diogo Cão (1484-6) Pêro da Covilhã (c. 1487-90) Bartolomeu Dias (1487-8) Vasco da Gama (1497) Pedro Cabral (1500)

The Portuguese capital, Lisbon, now became a major trading centre with the East. Another outstanding seaman, Afonso de Albuquerque (c. 1453–1515), laid the basis of empire, taking Goa in India in 1510, Malacca in 1511, and Hormuz on the Horn of Arabia in 1515. These conquests evolved into a network of strategic Portuguese trading ports rather than colonies, since the Portuguese had neither the men nor the resources required to establish a colonial empire.

P O R T U G U E S E V OYA G E S O F D I S CO V E R Y

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 45

INDIA

45

09/06/2015 15:38

Spain Explores the West 46

Jealous of Portugal’s discoveries, in 1492 Queen Isabella of Spain sponsored Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, to reach the East by sailing west. Having encountered indigenous brown-skinned people in what are now the Bahamas, Cuba, and Santo Domingo, he returned to report discovery of the ‘Indies’. This opened up the ‘new world’ to Spanish conquest. With Spain and Portugal both committed to exploration of the Americas, lines of demarcation were needed. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) was agreed with the complaisant Spanish Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492–1503), intended to divide off a Portuguese zone of influence in Africa and the East from the Spanish westerly explorations. The Portuguese managed to push the agreed line slightly west – on the grounds that their ships were often forced to sail far out into the Atlantic to catch favourable winds – which subsequently gave them rights to the as yet undiscovered territories of Brazil. The initial Spanish campaigns of conquest in the New World were swift and bloody, and the lengthy process of exploitation was equally destructive. War, ill treatment, and hard, unfamiliar work all took a toll on the indigenous people; but most deadly were European diseases, against which they had no immunity. The indigenous population of central Mexico, estimated at 25 million in 1521, fell to 16 million by 1532 and a mere 2.6 million in 1568. To work the mines and fields – especially in the Caribbean – the Iberian invaders introduced black slaves, who were also decimated by disease, starvation, and cruelty. From an early stage, missionaries accompanied the conquistadores, and a few priests, such as Bartolomé de Las Casas

(1474–1560), attempted to protect the slaves and native Indians from cruelty and early death. But such efforts were largely thwarted. Between 1529 and 1556 Charles V granted the Augsburg banking firm of Welser the rights to exploit the Chibcha Indian Empire – Venezuela and New Granada – while Francisco Pizarro (c. 1471–1541) conquered the Inca Empire and founded Lima, Peru. Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) conquered the Aztec Empire, founding Mexico City, after destroying the native capital, Tenochtitlan.

Tropic of Ca

Juan Rod Portu

Other explorations The French, British, Dutch, and Danish later made some incursions into the Caribbean and Central America, setting up their own colonies, while the Spanish pushed north into the areas now known as Florida, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and California. But France and the north European countries were slower to initiate voyages of discovery. In 1497 John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto, c. 1450 – c. 1499), a wealthy Italian merchant living in England, discovered Newfoundland while searching for Brazil. The following year he sailed along the coasts of Greenland, Labrador, Newfoundland, and New England before returning home. The first French explorations were made by Jacques Cartier up the St Lawrence River between 1534 and 1541.

Equator

Tropic of Ca

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 46

09/06/2015 15:38

011 EUROPE EXPLORES THE WEST European Voyages of Discovery to the West

NEW

F

OU

ND

LAN

06

map 12

John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) – Venice/England (1497)

D

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado – Spain (1540-42)

N ORTH A TLANTIC OCEAN

Hernando de Soto – Spain (1539-40)

Jacques Cartier – France (1534-36)

F LO R ID A

ME

XIC

Tropic of Capricorn

Hernán Cortés – Spain (1518-20)

O

Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo – Portugal (1542-43)

Sanlúcar de Barrameda

Giovanni da Verrazzano – Florence/France (1524)

CUBA HISPANIOLA

PUERTO RICO

Tenochtitlan (Mexico City)

Columbus – Genoa/Spain (1502-04)

AFRICA

Amerigo Vespucci – Florence/Portugal (1499-1500)

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca – Spain (1528-36) Francisco Pizarro – Spain (1532-3)

Vasco Núñez de Balboa – Spain (1510-13)

Ferdinand Magellan – Portugal/Spain (1519)

Equator

P ACIFIC OCEAN

CE

PORTUGAL SPAIN Lisbon

Amerigo Vespucci – Florence/Portugal (1501-1502)

Juan Ponce de Léon – Spain (1513-14)

AN

FR

R. ce en r aw St L

NORTH AMERICA

ENGLAND Bristol

SOUTH AMERICA Cuzco

Tropic of Cancer

Rio de Janeiro

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Buenos Aires

Miles 0

500

1000

0 500 1000 1500 Kilometers

S PA I N E X P LO R E S T H E W E S T

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 47

Portuguese French Spanish English

47

09/06/2015 15:38

The First Circumnavigation of the World

In 1519, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521) set off for what was to become the first circumnavigation of the globe. Having fallen from favour at the Portuguese court, he accepted a commission from Charles I of Spain to sail west to the spice islands of the Moluccas to discover if they were within Spanish territory. Magellan navigated around the southern tip of South America, discovering the straits that bear his name. He took the unprecedented decision to head home by sailing on westwards, but was killed in a battle with the natives of the Philippines. His voyage was completed by his deputy, Sebastián del Cano (c. 1476–1526).

E U R

NORTH AMERICA

PORTUGAL SPAIN Sanlúcar de Barrameda

N ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Tropic of Capricorn

Canary Islands – September 1519

Cape Verde Islands – July 1522

P ACIFIC OCEAN

A F R

Equator San Pablo Island – February 1521

SOUTH AMERIC A

Tropic of Cancer

Rio de Janeiro Bay – December 1519

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

PATA G O

NIA

Cape o May 1522

Miles 0 500 0 1000 Kilometers

48

1000

1500

Line of demarcation: Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494

All Saints Strait (Strait of Magellan)

2000

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 48

09/06/2015 15:38

map 13

Territory claimed by Spain c. 1550 Territory claimed by Portugal c. 1550 Route of Magellan

E U R O P E

AIN rrameda

A

S

I

A

PHILIPPINES

A F R I C A

Matacan – April 1521 – Magellan killed

P ACIFIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

Cape of Good Hope – May 1522 – led by Elcano

Line of demarcation: Treaty of Zaragoza, 1529

P O R T U G U E S E V OYA G E S O F D I S CO V E R Y

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 49

49

09/06/2015 15:38

Reformation

Part 2

I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Martin Luther

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 50

09/06/2015 15:38

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 51

09/06/2015 15:38

Charles V

Early sixteenth-century Western Europe was dominated by a trio of powerful and ambitious monarchs. Henry VIII (r. 1509–47), the first English king to be addressed as ‘majesty’, was courted by both the French king and the Holy Roman Emperor, and famously broke with the pope. Francis I (r. 1515–47) reinforced the absolutist claims of his immediate predecessors as King of France and unsuccessfully challenged Charles V for the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Meanwhile the Ottoman Turks under Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–66) were looking enviously at the Christian north. The Sultan’s armies took Belgrade in 1521 and defeated the Hungarian army at Mohács in 1526. However, Suleiman’s siege of Vienna in 1529 was eventually raised, while his foray into Austria in 1532 was successfully resisted at Güns. The third in this trio, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (r. 1519–56), attempted to maintain order, repel the Turks, heal the schism in the church caused by the Reformers, and defend and increase his hereditary holdings. As a descendant of Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1479–1516) and Isabella of Castile (r. 1474–1504), he inherited the Spanish crown in 1516, taking the title Charles I. With the fall of Granada in 1492, the last of the Muslim Moors had been driven from the Iberian peninsula. Through Ferdinand and Isabella, Charles also received Sardinia, Sicily, the Kingdom of Naples, and the Balearic Islands. In addition, the newly colonized Spanish territories in North, Central, and South America poured wealth from the New World into his treasury. Charles also inherited from his paternal grandmother, Mary of Burgundy (r. 1477– 82), much of the Netherlands, FrancheComté, and Luxembourg; and from his paternal grandfather, Maximilian I (r. 1508– 16), the Habsburg lands of Germany. Shortly afterwards the Habsburgs also claimed the eastern flank of the Empire: Hungary,

Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. In 1519 Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor becoming, at least in name, sovereign of the central lands of Europe too. However Charles’ extensive holdings and ambitions did not allow him an easy rule. Charles and Francis I both laid claim to the Kingdom of Naples, Milan, Burgundy, Flanders, and Artois. There was also rivalry between the Pope and Charles, and it was papal policy that no power should control both Naples and Milan. The pope often backed Francis rather than Charles: Pope Leo X supported Francis over Charles in the imperial elections, and Pope Clement VII allied himself with the French king at a time when concerted action with Charles might otherwise have crushed the Reformation. During the 1550s Charles gradually abdicated from parts of his empire. He gave Sicily, Naples, and Milan to his son Philip in 1554; he abdicated from the Netherlands in 1555; and from his Spanish Empire in 1556. Finally his brother Ferdinand succeeded as Holy Roman Emperor in 1558, shortly before Charles’ death.

AT O

Lisbon

Miles 0

1

0 100 Kilometer

52

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 52

09/06/2015 15:38

014 EMPIRE CHARLES V The Empire of Charles V

Edinburgh

06

map 14

DENMARK

N ORTH S EA

Copenhagen

Danzig

IREL AND

Francis I and Charles V both claim Artois and Flanders

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

ENGLAND

MORAVIA nu be

A AUSTRIA

Trent

G

Vienna 1529

CHAROLAIS

FRANCE

Y

R. Vienna

R

Da

COUNTY DUCHY OF OF BURGUNDY BURGUNDY

Nantes

.

BOHEMIA

Augsburg

Duchy of Burgundy claimed by Francis and Charles

ATLANTIC OCEAN

1530; Lutherans present Charles V with Augsburg Confession

R.

Paris

R.

rR

Mainz

in e

ine

de

SILESIA

Rh

Se

N

S DER

LUSATIA

R.

HU N

AR

A FL

Cologne

O

Ghent

IS

e

TO

El b

London

POLAND

Budapest

Mohacs 1526

VENICE

Milan

Venice 1516 Charles proclaimed King Charles I of Spain

Toulouse

Avignon

Ottoman Turks

Genoa Florence PAPAL STATES

NAVARRE CORSICA

S PA I N

Barcelona

Tagus R.

SARDINIA

Madrid

PORTUGAL

Lisbon

AR AGON

Toledo

M E

Algiers 100

1519: Charles V crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope

E R R A N E A N D I T

Granada

Miles 0

Rome

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

Oran

R

IA TI C

S

EA

NAPLES Naples

S

E A

SICIL

Y

Tunis Inherited by Charles V Gained by Charles V Holy Roman Empire boundary N.B. This does not include Charles V’s overseas empire.

CHARLES V

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 53

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

Francis I and Charles V both claim Naples

Balearic Is.

Seville

D

A

Francis I and Charles V both claim Milan

53

09/06/2015 15:38

Martin Luther 54

Martin Luther (1483–1546) was born in Eisleben, a small mining town in north-east Germany, grew up in Mansfeld, and was educated in Eisenach, Magdeburg, and the University of Erfurt, where he studied law. In 1505 he joined a closed Augustinian friary in Erfurt, after having made a dramatic vow during a thunderstorm. Ordained in 1507, he studied theology and rose through the academic ranks at the university. Transferring to the new University of Wittenberg in 1511, he was linked with that institution for the rest of his life. In 1510–11 Luther visited Rome for his order, and was profoundly shocked by the corruption and extravagance he encountered in the papal city. In 1512 he became a doctor of theology and professor of biblical studies at Wittenberg. After a long spiritual crisis, Luther rejected theology based on the inherited tradition, emphasizing instead the individual understanding and experience of Scripture, crucially believing justification not to be by works, but by faith alone. Luther’s views became more widely known when he sent a letter to the bishops, including Albrecht, Bishop of Mainz, on 31 October 1517 and later (probably mid-November) posted his 95 Theses – intended for academic debate about the sale of indulgences and the church’s material preoccupations – on the door of Wittenberg’s Castle Church. Their effect was to undermine the basis of contemporary practice. In December the Archbishop of Mainz complained to Rome about Luther. The latter refused to recant, travelled to Heidelberg in 1518 having prepared a set of theses for disputation before his Augustinian order, and was then examined by Cardinal Thomas Cajetan (1469– 1534) in Augsburg. When he heard he might be arrested, Luther fled. In July 1519, during a disputation at Leipzig with his sharpest opponent Johann Eck (1486–1543), Luther denied the supremacy of the pope and the infallibility of church councils. Two years later he was excommunicated. At the famous Diet of Worms in April 1521, standing before the

Holy Roman Emperor in person, and fearing for his life, Luther again refused to recant. He was declared an outlaw, but kidnapped for his own protection by the sympathetic Elector Frederick of Saxony and taken to the Wartburg Castle. There he devoted his energies to translating the New Testament into German. Since 1483 Saxony had been divided into two parts: Ernestine and Albertine, or Electoral and Ducal respectively. During his career as reformer, Luther was fortunate to live in Electoral Saxony, where the ruler, Elector Frederick the Wise (r. 1483–1525), despite remaining a Catholic, protected

1521 Edic Luther a

Martin Luther (1483–1546).

Miles 0 10

0 20 Kilomete

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 54

09/06/2015 15:38

015 MARTIN LUTHER _ BEGINNINGS OF REFORMATION Martin Luther and the Beginnings of the Reformation

06

map 15

B R A N D EN B U R G

BRU N S WI C K-WOL FE NBÜ T T EL MAGD EB U R G

HA RZ

Magdeburg M

O

Jüterborg

Wittenberg U

N

LU SAT I A

1517 Luther’s 95 Theses 1521 Luther excommunicated

IN

1501 Luther university student We 1505 Luther Augustinian monk se

lb

S

Eisleben 1483 Luther born 1546 Luther dies

rR .

eR

E

TA

1517 Tetzel preaches on indulgences

.

Halle Leipzig

Kassel .

le R

1519 Debate between Eck and Luther

TH

U

Marburg 1529 Luther discusses Lord’s Supper with Zwingli

Giessen

Wartburg

RI NG IA N

1521-2 Luther in hiding translates New Testament 1534 Translates Old Testament

Saa

Weimar Erfurt

Dresden Freiberg

Neustadt

FO RE ST

Zwickau

E

Z

R

E

G

B

I R

G

E SI L ES I A

Coburg WÜ RZBU R G

Frankfurt

B O H EMI A

B AYR EU T H Bayreuth

R. Main

IA

Worms

MO R AVI A

M HE BO

Mainz

PAL ATIN ATE

N

O

F

ne R. Rhi

1521 Edict condems Luther as heretic

Nuremberg

Heidelberg

RE

ST

1518 Disputation called by Staupitz

R.

Rome 1510 Luther disillusioned after visit

Miles 0 10

30

0 20 40 Kilometers

D anu

50 60

Neck

ar R

.

1530 Augsburg Confession presented

Augsburg

him when both Empire and Church turned against him. Ducal Saxony, on the other hand, was ruled by Duke George, a fierce opponent of Luther. The Leipzig debate took place in his territory. In 1529 Luther travelled to Marburg for a colloquy with Zwingli and other reformers from Switzerland and south Germany; but the majority of his days were spent within

be

Territory of Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony (Ernestine, 1485-1525) Luther’s protector Territory of the Albertine Dukes of Saxony

the narrower limits of Saxony. The ‘Luther Lands’ are bounded by the Erzgebirge (Bohemian Massif) on the south-east, Electoral Saxony to the north-east, the Harz Mountains in the north-west, and the Thuringian Forest around the Wartburg in the south-west. No city in this region is more than 75 miles from Wittenberg.

M A R T I N LU T H E R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 55

55

09/06/2015 15:38

The German Knights’ War 56

Given the revolutionary nature of Lutheranism and the economic and political tensions of the time, it is not surprising that the Reformation soon became marked by violence and extremism. The German Knights’ War of 1522–23, in which members of the lower nobility – some of them strong supporters of Luther – rebelled against the authorities in south-west Germany, was quickly crushed. As medieval society began to crumble, the lesser nobility of the German states found themselves squeezed between powerful forces they could neither control nor moderate. Many depended upon dwindling payments in kind from their lands, a shortage of income made more acute by the spiralling inflation that followed the discovery and plundering of the New World. The increased authority of kings, together with the power and wealth of some princes of the church, further jeopardized the status, and excited the envy, of the knightly class. Their selfimage had been flattered by the medieval code of chivalry and their role in the Crusades; now both their economic base and political power were declining rapidly.

Revolt The knights rose in revolt under Franz von Sickingen (1481–1523) and Ulrich von Hutten (1488–1523). Both became adherents of the Lutheran cause, seeing in it an opportunity to recover the declining influence of the Christian nobility in the German nation. Sickingen, who had previously fought for the emperors Maximilian and Charles V, was sometimes called ‘the last knight’. With Hutten, he proposed the unification of Germanspeaking lands and secularization of ecclesiastical principalities. Influenced by The Sickingen Heights, in the Palatinate, Germany, near von Sickingen’s town, Landstuhl.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 56

09/06/2015 15:38

016

GERMAN KNIGHTS WAR

04

The German Knights’ War 1522–23

map 16

Rh

Route of von Sickingen and Knights Retreat of von Sickingen Advance of forces of Hesse Advance of Archbishop of Trier and his forces Holy Roman Empire boundary Significant battle

ine

R.

HESSE

Cologne

1

von Sickingen and knights of Franconia, Swabia and Rhineland declare war on Archbishop of Trier

l R.

Frankfurt M

ose

Mainz

Waldstein R. ain M

Meu se R.

2

Sickingen’s attack repulsed

Ebernberg

Trier

Worms

FRANCONIA

St Wendel

Kaiserslauten

D

AN

EL

RH

Strasbourg

D a nub e R .

IN

Rh

in e

R.

Forces of Palatine, Hesse and Trier besiege Sickingen’s castle: he capitulates and dies

Nuremberg

Speyer

Landau

3 Landstuhl

Odenwald

Augsburg

SWA

4

BIA Miles 0 10

Hutton flees to Basel

Basel

30

0 20 40 Kilometers

Hutten, Sickingen made his Rhineland estate, the Ebernburg, into a refuge for Lutheran sympathizers and a centre for Lutheran propaganda. He gave shelter to the reformers Martin Bucer and Johannes Oecolampadius, and even offered refuge to Luther following the Diet of Worms. While Charles V was away in Spain, Sickingen summoned a gathering of knights and declared war on the Archbishop of Trier,

60

a prominent opponent of Luther. His assault failed and he retreated to his supposedly unassailable stronghold at Landstuhl, where he was defeated and killed by an alliance of three German princes. Following Sickingen’s defeat, Hutten fled to Basel, Switzerland. The common refusal to pay church tithes during the revolt spread to the peasants and inspired them to refuse to pay the tithe – one of the factors that led to the Peasants’ Revolt.

T H E G E R M A N K N I G H T S’ WA R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 57

50

57

09/06/2015 15:38

The Peasants’ War 58

While Martin Luther was in protective custody at the Wartburg Castle, back in Wittenberg his colleague Andreas Karlstadt started to attack clerical celibacy and the ritual of the Mass. Also outsiders (the ‘Zwickau prophets’) arrived, claiming direct inspiration by the Holy Spirit and that the eucharistic bread and wine were symbols and in no sense the body and blood of Christ. Baptizing babies was also called into question. Luther soon intervened to bring matters back under his control. But Luther’s ideas and protest – particularly his emphasis on Christian freedom – were helping rapidly to produce socio-religious ferment throughout Germany. Significant numbers of clergy led attacks on the Mass; various towns introduced reforms; many nobles imposed religious change in their estates; and monks and nuns abandoned their vows. Late in 1524 rural strikes and armed protests flared up across much of the country, escalating into the so-called Peasants’ (or better ‘Tenants’’) War, the biggest and most widespread popular uprising in Europe until the French Revolution of 1789. Similar protests had occurred previously, but this was far more extensive, representing the coming together of economic and social grievances with ideas derived from the Reformation. In Germanspeaking areas as widely scattered as Alsace, the fringes of the Alps, the borders of Bohemia, Hungary, and the kingdom of Poland there were strikes, disorder, and rebellions. Hostility was particularly aimed at clerical landlords. The first three of the Twelve Articles drawn up by the tenant farmers (Bauern) of Swabia called for the right to elect the parish priest, to use the tithe locally for the priest and poor, and for the end of serfdom. Initially the Emperor was preoccupied with Italian wars

against the French, but after gaining a decisive victory at the Battle of Pavia in February 1525 his forces, under Georg III, Truchsess von Waldburg-Zeil (also known as Bauernjorg, 1488–1531), turned north to Germany, where with the aid of local princes, such as Philip of Hesse and George of Saxony, they set about putting down the rebellion with bloody battles, torture, and mass killings. Luther’s room in the Wartburg Castle.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 58

09/06/2015 15:38

017 PEASANTS WAR 06 HOLSTEIN

The Peasants’ War 1524–25

Elb

Area of peasant rising Area of major conflict Holy Roman Empire

eR

P O ME R A N I A .

1525 Philip of Hesse and George of Saxony defeat peasants, Müntzer killed

BRANDENBURG

Wittenberg

1525 Luther repudiates peasant uprising

Allstedt Frankenhausen

THURINGIA

Rh

Cologne

S A XO N Y

Erfurt

in eR

Worms Speyer

W Ü RT T E M B E R G

Solothurn

Dresden

B O H E MI A Prague

Boblingen Ulm

1525 Major defeat of peasants

1625 Major defeat of peasant army

AU S T R I A

Augsburg

D an

B AVA R I A Memmingen

Salzburg

1525 25 villages rebel

SWISS CONFEDER ATION

Luther responded to the Peasants’ Revolt with an Admonition to Peace (April 1525) that laid the blame for the rebellion on princes, lords, and ‘blind bishops, mad priests, and monks’, but reminded the peasants that ‘the governing authorities are instituted by God’. However after a perilous journey to negotiate with the rebels, Luther became convinced anarchy was

ube R

Radstadt

Brixen

.

S T YR I A

CA R I N T H I A

Bolzano

Male Trent

MO R AV I A

1625 Peasants’ War spreads to Austria

1524 Peasant uprisings

Site of urban violence Important defeat of peasants S AVOYMarch-April 1525 Campaign against peasants, Campaign against peasants, May-July 1525

VENICE Venice

HUNGARY Miles 0 0 50 Kilometers

50 100

100 150

unleashed and wrote Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants. This was published just days before the rebellion collapsed and appeared to justify the ensuing reign of terror by the Emperor and princes in which the final death toll may have reached 100,000. Luther, the champion of lay Christians, seemed to have turned himself into an apologist for state butchery.

T H E P E A S A N T S’ WA R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 59

R.

SILESIA

Königshofen FR ANCONIA

Strasbourg LO RR AINE Freiburg FBOLRACE SKT Basel S WA BI A

B U R G U N DY

er

1525 Götz von Berlichingen defeats peasants: 8,000 killed

Frankfurt RHINELAND Würzburg

FRANCE

Od

Fulda

.

PA L AT I N AT E

POLAND

Berlin

Münster

F L ANDE RS

map 17

59

09/06/2015 15:38

The Radical Reformation

Waldshut and Zurich, and Jakob Hutter (c. 1500–36), who brought his followers from Tyrol, the ‘Hutterites’ developed a communal lifestyle and in the third quarter of the sixteenth century possibly numbered 30,000. But soon Moravia ceased to be a safe haven and over the next two centuries survivors of these groups were driven from place to place in Eastern Europe until they found eventual refuge in North America. The behaviour of a third stream – in north-west Europe – largely accounted for the paranoia concerning Anabaptists that came to dominate the sixteenth century. In the Low Countries the evangelist Melchior Hoffman (c. 1500–c. 1543) won many converts to a form of Anabaptist belief that expected the imminent arrival of God’s final triumph. This region was under the direct rule of the Habsburgs, who initiated a merciless persecution of such ‘heretics’. Their victims fled, finding refuge in the episcopal city of Münster, where reform was already in progress. By this time Hoffman was in prison in Strasbourg, but the ‘Melchiorites’ seized control of Münster and proclaimed the ‘New Jerusalem’. Thousands from Friesland and nearby flocked to the city to be baptized and await the end of the age.

Paris R.

ne

The Anabaptists soon won many converts, particularly in villages south and east of the city. When the Zurich Anabaptists were arrested most recanted, but in 1526 four were executed by drowning and the others expelled. Anabaptist membership was voluntary and groupings appeared, disappeared, and fluctuated. They were normally only a small minority, and three main strands can be detected. An influential group of ‘Swiss Brethren’ met in 1527 near Lake Constance and agreed upon the ‘Brotherly Union of a Number of Children of God Concerning Seven Articles’. They claimed adult baptism was mandatory, the Eucharist was a memorial ordinance, pastors were to be elected, and believers should separate themselves from society – taking no part in civic affairs and renouncing the use of force. They also refused to swear oaths. However although in Wittenberg Karlstadt had also questioned infant baptism, and Luther had ejected the enthusiastic Zwickau prophets, no links have been established between those radicals and the Swiss Anabaptists. A second strand of the radical movement was focused on southern Germany, with Augsburg an early centre, led by Hans Denck (1495–1527) and a bookseller named Hans Hut (c. 1490–1527). Eventually the Swiss and south German Anabaptists were driven to take refuge in the relative safety of Moravia. Led by Balthasar Hubmaier (c. 1485–1528), a refugee from

M

S ei

60

The Reformation progressed strongly in the Swiss city of Zurich. Following the logic of the prohibition in the Ten Commandments on ‘making graven images’, enthusiastic citizens began to destroy religious statues. Study of the New Testament led some to conclude that the apostles had baptized believing adults – not newborn babies. In accordance with this, in January 1525 a small group of Zurichers first baptized themselves and then others. Since all had been baptized as babies, opponents dubbed them ‘Anabaptists’, or re-baptizers. The Anabaptists did not regard this as re-baptism but as their first, since infant baptism was no baptism at all.

15

F

Münster In April 1534, the Bishop of Münster joined forces with Lutheran nobles and cities to besiege the city, inside which radical steps were being taken to inaugurate the new

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 60

09/06/2015 15:38

018 RADICAL REFORMATION 06 The Anabaptists and the Radical Reformation

Concentration of Anabaptists

Emden

Witmarsum

Menno Simons’ home town

Harlem Leiden

map 18

Amsterdam

1521-2 Karlstadt questions infant baptism 1522 Luther ejects Zwickau ‘fanatics’

NETHE RL ANDS

Wittenberg

Münster

POLAND

O d er R .

e Elb

1534-5 Anabaptists Jan Matthys and Jan Bockelson set up ‘New Jerusalem’

R.

1535 - Menno Simons nurtures Anabaptist congegations ‘Mennonites’

THURINGIA

HESSE

1521-2 ‘Prophets’ advocate believers’ baptism

R. ine Rh

Zwickau

H O LY ROMAN FRANCONIA EMPIRE

Worms

Nuremberg

RHINELAND Paris S ei

ne

R.

1528-32 Marpeck leads Anabaptists 1529-33 Schwenckfeld and Hofmann spread radical ideas

FRANCE

B AVA R I A

Basel

Geneva

Brno

Austerlitz (Slakov) Znojmo (Znaim)

Augsburg

Schleitheim

Zurich SWISS CONFEDERATION

MOR AVIA

Tabor

1545-56 Marpeck ministers to Anabaptists

Strasbourg

1526 Hubmaier forms Anabaptist congregations

Nikolsburg (Mikulov) Breclav (Lunderburg)

Vienna

1528 Hubmaier burned by Charles V

AUSTRIA

HUNGARY

Innsbruck

1536 Hutter burned to death

TYROL 1520s Hutter forms Anabaptist congregations

Lyons

society. Property was declared to be common and polygamy made mandatory. The leaders, headed by the tailor Jan Beukels – ‘John of Leiden’ – lost all connection with reality. He lived in luxury, took sixteen wives, and proclaimed himself king of the world. In 1535 the city was betrayed to the bishop and resistance collapsed in a bloodbath. The fall of Münster marked the end of militant Anabaptism – apart from the radical sect of Zwaardgeesten (‘sword-minded’) led by Jan van Batenburg (1495–1538) – as

Miles 0

50

0 100 Kilometers

100

150

200

a wave of persecution swept across Europe and thousands were slaughtered. Of the survivors, many turned to mysticism and inner enlightenment. The largest group was nurtured by the clandestine ministry of a former country priest, Menno Simons (1496– 1561). These Mennonite communities – quietist and pacifist – survived continual Habsburg persecution and when the Dutch Republic was set up later in the century eventually achieved toleration.

T H E R A D I C A L R E F O R M AT I O N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 61

Krakow

Prague

BOHEMIA

Dan ub eR .

S WA B I A 1527 Swiss Brethren draw up Confession of Faith

1528 Fugitive Anabaptists from Nikolsburg form community 1529 Hutterites fleeing persecution

61

09/06/2015 15:38

Jewish Oppression

The Ashkenazi Jews of northern Europe suffered frequent and widespread persecution during the Middle Ages. Jews were allowed by law to live only in restricted areas and work in prescribed businesses, such as money-lending to princes and merchants; hence the caricature of the Jew as extortionist and usurer. Although there had been major urban Jewish communities in German-speaking regions, many were expelled for allegedly poisoning wells or spreading plague – from Cologne in 1424, from Munich in 1442, and from Nuremberg in 1499. A Catholic priest in Regensburg (Ratisbon), Balthasar Hübmaier (c. 1485–1528) preached a series of diatribes against the Jews that led to the burning of their synagogue and expulsion of the large Jewish community. In his later years, Martin Luther looked in disappointment at what he regarded as the partial failure and corruption of the Reformation. He had anticipated that the conversion of the Jews would accompany the restoration of a purified gospel. When this didn’t happen, he turned against the Jews with some of his most scurrilous writing in the tract Of the Jews and Their Lies, where he argued that synagogues and Jewish schools should be burned, rabbis forbidden to teach, and Jewish religious books confiscated. In a period of economic inflation, and against the background of the Peasants’ War, the German Knights’ War, the threat of Turkish invasion, the wars of religion, and recurring epidemics in the expanding cities, the frustrations and resentments of the masses during the sixteenth century found easy release in attacks on the Jews.

Inquisition The Sephardic Jews of Spain were largely unaffected by the Christian reconquest of the Iberian peninsula and lived in established communities. However, growing political instability and condemnatory sermons by church leaders turned people against them.

62

In 1391 anti-Jewish violence in Seville spread to Castile and Aragon. Thousands of Jews chose to convert to Christianity and were labelled marranos (‘swine’). By the middle of the fifteenth century they faced renewed hostility when the Spanish Inquisition questioned the genuineness of their new Christian faith, often using barbaric methods to root out crypto-Jews. In 1492, after the capture of the Alhambra of Granada – the last bastion of Islam – Ferdinand and Isabella banished all Jews from Spain. Between 100,000 and 150,000 Jews departed, some across the border to Portugal, but most to North Africa or Ottoman Turkey. Some found refuge in the Papal States, where the Inquisition was less severe than in Spain, and where they were to influence the thinking of some north Italian Humanists and radical reformers, among whom Anti-Trinitarianism frequently appeared. The Counter-Reformation later brought renewed suffering to the Jews of Catholic Europe. The papal bull Vices eius nos (1577) required 100 male and 50 female Jews in the papal states to attend conversionist sermons every Saturday afternoon (the Jewish Sabbath) in a church near the ghetto, often delivered by renegade Jews such as the medical doctor Vitale de’ Medici (previously the rabbi Jehiel da Pesaro), a custom that continued in Italy and France until the French Revolution.

ATL OC

1

L

1

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 62

09/06/2015 15:38

Repression, Persecution, and Resettlement of the Jews

Route of expelled Jews with date Jewish ghetto and date established Jewish persecution with date Main place of resettlement Pope restricted Jewish rights,1555. Jews could own no property and had to wear yellow hat

N ORTH SEA MECKLENBURG 1493

Hamburg

ENGLAND

Amsterdam

Oxford

Cologne Frankfurt 1467

FRANCE Geneva

Lyons

Jews expelled1420

Lisbon 1497

Jews expelled 1497

CORSICA

Barcelona 1350 1492

1492

1492

Valencia 1390

Murcia 1412

HUNGARY

Vienna 1570

AUSTRIA 1421,1526

Buda

AUSTRIA

1421

Udine

Danub e

Venice 1516 Ferrara 1624

Livorno

1490

Madrid 1480

S PA I N Jews expelled 1492

Cremona

Verona 1605

Jews expelled 1597

Rhône R.

TOULOUSE 1420

1492

BAVARIA 1450,1551

SALZBURG 1499 TYROL 1476, 1520

Zurich Mantua 1612

MORAVIA 1454

BOHEMIA 1542

Munich

SARDINIA

AL PORTUG

1497

WÜRTTEMBERG 1521

Turin 1400 Genoa Tarascon 1378 Jews expelled 1550

Bayonne

1492

Prague 1473

R.

Bordeaux

SAXONY 1432,1450

Nuremberg

Rhine R .

Paris

POLAND

Wittenberg

GERMANY

ALSACE 1510

ATLANTIC OCEAN

BRANDENBURG 1573

HANOVER 1591 THURINGIA 1411

Antwerp DS NETHERLAN

London

1492

map 19

Spalato

Florence 1571

OT TOMAN EMPIRE Cattaro

K

Je I N G D ws O ex M O Rome 1555 pe F lle N A d 1 PL 54 E S 1 Naples

Corfu SICILY

1492

M

E D I T E R R A N E A N

1492

Algiers

1492

S

Jews expelled 1492

E A

SICILY 1474

Syracuse

Tunis MALTA

Tlemcen Fez 1450

NORTH AFRICA

Jews expelled 1492

Miles 0 100 0 100 200 Kilometers

JEWISH OPPRESSION

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 63

200

300

400

63

09/06/2015 15:38

Philipp Melanchthon 64

After Luther’s death Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560), born at Bretten, near Karlsruhe, took over theological leadership of the movement that Luther had instigated. Something of a prodigy – the University of Heidelberg turned him down for a master’s degree because he was only fifteen – Melanchthon began to publish at the age of seventeen and in 1518 was appointed Professor of Greek at the new University of Wittenberg. There he met Luther in a decisive encounter that transformed him from a humanist to a theologian and reformer. With his gift for logical consistency and wide knowledge of history, in some ways Melanchthon influenced Protestantism more strongly than Luther, whose work he consolidated and systematized. Melanchthon publicly supported Luther at the Leipzig Disputation in 1519, and when Luther was away from Wittenberg represented and defended him. In 1521, he wrote his Commonplaces (Loci communes), the first book to set out systematically the teachings of the Reformation. He also contributed to Luther’s German translation of the Bible. At the Marburg Colloquy of 1529 Melanchthon opposed Zwingli, claiming the service of holy communion was more than a memorial. Luther himself was little influenced by Humanism; even in his hymns and exegesis he remained a preacher. Melanchthon, by contrast, combined the irenical style of an intellectual debater with the devotion to education of a teacher. He wrote the Augsburg Confession (1530), which remains the chief statement of faith in the Lutheran churches, in part to emphasize the common ground between Catholics and Protestants, and he also participated in important attempts at Christian reunion in 1540 and 1541. Melanchthon often seemed prepared to concede some matters of doctrine to the Roman Catholics for the sake of peace, believing reunion to be essential.

Melanchthon’s influence was crucial in what ultimately became the Lutheran Church, although theological struggles with other Lutherans deeply troubled him. In 1548, two years after Luther’s death, he accepted an agreement called the Leipzig Interim Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560).

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 64

09/06/2015 15:38

020 PROGRESS OF REFORM 1530 Philipp Melanchthon and Protestant Reform DENMARK

Haderslev

N ORTH S EA

Hamburg

B A LT I C S E A

Königsberg Danzig Marienwerder

MECKLENBURG

Stettin

Emden Groningen Bremen BRUNSWICKLÜNEBERG

Amsterdam NETHERLANDS

map 20

Stralsund

HOLSTEIN

Leeuwarden

04

POLAND

BRANDENBURG

Magdeburg MAGDEBURG Goslar Wittenberg

Coburg Darmstadt

SILESIA

rR

.

BAYREUTH Prague

Nuremberg Heidelberg ANSBACH

BOHEMIA MORAVIA

Strasbourg WÜRTTEMBERG Augsburg LORRAINE

FR ANCE

BAVARIA

Da

nu be

Munich

Mülhausen Basel

Zurich SWISS CONFEDERATION Bern

TYROL

CARINTHIA

GRAUBUNDEN

0 100 Kilometers

VENICE 100 200

200

Vienna

STYRIA

Geneva Miles 0

R.

Milan

300

that re-established, among other things, the Latin Mass, the festival of Corpus Christi, and extreme unction. He claimed these were ‘things indifferent’ (adiaphora), but was denounced by Matthias Flacius (1520–75) and the Lutheran theological world divided. Years of doctrinal argument ended only when

Venice

GA

RY

HU

Paris

N

R hi

ne R

.

Mainz

de

O

Cologne

R.

e

Antwerp

El b

Nordhausen Leipzig Allstedt HESSE SAXONY Eisenach Marburg Zwickau

Lutheran Reformed / Zwinglian Roman Catholic Greek Orthodox Muslim minority Anabaptist Bohemian, Moravian Brethren Holy Roman Empire boundary

agreement was reached in the Formula of Concord (1577–80), which reaffirmed the sinner’s total spiritual inability and God’s unconditional predestination of the elect to faith, but also claimed that an external call to salvation reaches all people and that finally it is possible to fall from grace.

PHILIPP MELANCHTHON

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 65

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

65

09/06/2015 15:38

Protestantism in 1530

Luther had called upon German princes to carry through church reform if the pope and bishops failed to do so, but by 1529 the territories controlled by princes supporting Luther was still quite limited. Lutheranism had faced several potentially disastrous events in the mid-1520s. The problems with extremists in Wittenberg had led to open conflict and defections from the movement, as had a furious debate between Luther and Erasmus on the freedom of the will. In addition, the Peasants’ Revolt lost the Lutherans much of their lower-class support. Despite these reverses, the movement had expanded after the Edict of Worms (1521). Charles V had left Germany to deal with revolt in Spain and with threats from Francis I of France and Suleiman the Magnificent, and did not return until 1529. These nine years of imperial absence were of immeasurable benefit to the spread and strengthening of the Reformation in Germany. With Charles not present, the Diet of Speyer in 1526 made a vague ruling on religion: ‘Every estate should so live, rule, and believe as he may hope to answer to God and his imperial majesty.’ Rulers such as Philipp, Landgrave of Hesse (r. 1518-67), an early and staunch defender of the Protestant cause, used this to justify their action in establishing a Lutheran church in their lands. Yet reformed areas such as Saxony, Hesse, BrunswickLüneberg, Ansbach, and other small isolated scattered outposts of Lutheranism were surrounded by Catholic territories.

Marburg Colloquy In 1529 Philip of Hesse summoned a gathering of reforming theologians to his castle in Marburg for a colloquy, with the aim of achieving an evangelical alliance. Among those attending were Luther himself; Melanchthon; Johannes Bugenhagen (1485–1558), a Wittenberg ally of Luther who later led the reformation in Hamburg; Justus Jonas (1493–1555), who helped reorganize the university at Wittenberg and led the reformation in Halle; Andreas Osiander (1498–1552), an evangelical

66

preacher in Nuremberg; Johann Agricola (1494–1566), reformer at Frankfurtam-Main and Eisleben, and later church superintendent in Berlin; Johannes Brenz (1499–1570), reformer of Württemberg and reorganizer of the university in Tübingen; Martin Bucer; Huldrych Zwingli; and Johann Oecolampadius (1482–1531), who led reform in the Swiss cantons of Basel and Bern. The colloquy participants reached agreement on many points, but remained irreconcilably divided over their understanding of the Eucharist. At the Diet of Speyer (1529) a Catholic majority attempted to prohibit the further spread of Lutheranism and to ensure toleration for Catholics in Lutheran territories. The Lutheran princes ‘protested’ against this – thereby originating the term ‘Protestant’.

Diet of Augsburg At the ensuing Imperial Diet at Augsburg (1530), attended by Charles V, there were high hopes of re-uniting the opposing parties on the basis of points agreed at Marburg. The Lutherans submitted their beliefs in the form of the Augsburg Confession (or Augustana); Strasbourg, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau presented the Tetrapolitan Confession; and Zwingli sent his Fidei Ratio. But the Catholics refused all of these and the Emperor ordered a recess. The Protestant princes realized that the Emperor now intended to make war on Protestantism, so formed in response the Schmalkaldic League.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 66

09/06/2015 15:38

021 PHILIPP MELANCHTHON 04 The Progress of Reform by 1530

map 21

D ENMARK

Holy Roman Empire Holy Roman Empire boundary Schmalkadic League of Protestant rulers and towns, late 1530s

B A LT I C S E A

N ORTH S EA

POM

Lübeck

ERA

NIA

Hamburg Bremen

BRUNSWICKLÜNEBERG

c. 1518 Melanchthon joins Luther’s reform activities 1521 Publishes first Lutheran theological work Professor at University for 42 years

Amsterdam

Wittenberg

Schmalkalden

1537 Draws up Schmalkald Articles

S A XO

Elb

eR

.

.

ONY

Cologne

1519 Attends Leipzig disputation

er R

SAX

HESSE

Leipzig

Od

NY

ANHALT Kassel

POLAND

Berlin

Frankfurt Prague

LUXE M BOU R G

Nuremberg Regensburg

Rh

in e

R.

Mainz 1529 At 2nd Diet of Speyer PA L ATI N ATE Term ‘Protestant’ first used Heidelberg Speyer

Strasbourg

FRANCE

WÜRTTEMBERG Stuttgart Tübingen

BAVARIA Augsburg

Miles 0

50

0 50 100 Kilometers

100

150

Memmingen

Dan ube R.

1530 Leading Reformer at Diet Prepares Augsburg Confession

AUSTRIA

Vienna

200

P R OT E S TA N T I S M I N 1 5 3 0

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 67

67

09/06/2015 15:38

Lutheranism Consolidates 68

When the papal legate formed a league of German princes loyal to Rome, Philip of Hesse created in 1531 a defensive alliance of princes and cities friendly to reform and known as the Schmalkaldic League, consisting of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Mansfeld, Magdeburg, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Ulm, and Strasbourg. Prince Albert of Hohenzollern, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, also crossed over to the Lutherans, bringing East Prussia with him. This Protestant alliance was not tested immediately because a threatened Turkish invasion produced a truce between the Emperor and the Schmalkaldic League in 1532. Charles V was then away from Germany until 1541, fighting a series of wars with Francis I of France. Meanwhile Philip of Hesse intervened in Württemberg to restore the Protestant Duke Ulrich to his throne, thereby compelling Charles V’s brother to relinquish his claim to the duchy. By means of conferences at Hagenau, Worms, and Regensburg between 1540 and 1541, designed to find some form

of compromise between Catholics and Protestants, Charles V tried to persuade the papacy to participate in efforts at church reconciliation. But Rome was suspicious of these, as were hard-line Lutherans. In 1546 Charles V returned to Germany determined finally to suppress Protestantism. Things now looked propitious for him. Luther had died the same year, and Philip of Hesse had lost public esteem as a result of his bigamous marriage. The cathedral and Danube river, Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 68

09/06/2015 15:38

022 LUTHERAN GERMANY 08 Lutheran Germany in 1555

Protestant state with date of allegiance Catholic state Lutheran city with date of allegiance Holy Roman Empire boundary

B A LT I C S E A

D E N MA R K

HOLSTEIN 1542

N ORTH S EA

map 22

PRUSSIA 1525

Lübeck

POMERANIA 1534

R. der

Hamburg MECKLENBURG 1549 1525 El O Bremen 1525 BRUNSWICK be R. BRANDENBURG 1539 1545 Berlin Amsterdam Wittenberg 1517 Münster ANHALT 1534

Antwerp

HESSE 1534

Cologne

ERNESTINE SAXONY 1527 ALBERTINE SAXONY 1529

Dresden

Frankfurt 1530

Rh

in e

R.

PALATINATE 1546

Strasbourg 1524 Basel 1529

FRANCE

POLAND

UPPER PALATINATE 1546

SI LESI A

Prague B OHEMI A

Nuremberg 1524 MOR AVI A Ansbach 1528 WÜRTTEMBERG Da 1546 nub e R. Ulm AUSTRI A Vienna 1530 Munich

HUNGARY

Zurich 1530 Innsbruck

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Bern 1528

SWISS CONFEDERATION

Geneva Miles 0

100

0 100 Kilometers

200

200 300

Schmalkaldic War The Schmalkaldic War broke out in 1547. The Emperor defeated the Protestant forces and imprisoned their leaders Philip of Hesse and his brother-in-law, John of Saxony. But the Protestant Maurice of Saxony – who initially supported the Emperor – changed sides and fought back successfully. By the Treaty of Passau (1552) Protestantism was legally recognized, a settlement confirmed in the ‘Interim’ of 1555. This attempt to settle the religious issues without a church council resulted

Country boundary Major state boundary Minor state boundary

in a compromise acceptable neither to the Protestants nor the Catholics; only the presence of Spanish troops in northern Europe kept it in force. The so-called War of Liberation followed in which an alliance between Maurice, Elector of Saxony and Henry II of France led to the defeat of Charles V and his flight across the Alps. The ensuing Peace of Augsburg (1555) showed significant Protestant gains compared with 1529.

LU T H E R A N I S M CO N S O L I D AT E S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 69

69

09/06/2015 15:38

Huldrych Zwingli

The Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) was born in Wildhaus, northeast Switzerland. Educated in Basel, Berne, and Vienna, between 1506 and 1516 he was vicar at Glarus, where he learned Greek and possibly Hebrew, and studied the Church Fathers. He acted as chaplain to Swiss mercenary forces at the battle of Novara (1513) and at Marignano (1515), an experience that led him to oppose the use of mercenary soldiers. In 1515 Zwingli met Erasmus and was deeply influenced by his Humanist teaching. After his forced transfer to Einsiedeln, Zwingli began to develop evangelical beliefs as he reflected on abuses in the church. In 1518 he was made peoples’ priest at Zurich’s Grossmünster (cathedral), where he lectured on the New Testament and began to reform the city, working closely with the council. Luther’s writings and example helped convert Zwingli from criticism of corruption in the church to a passionate reformer who wanted to win Zurich to the evangelical cause. When Zwingli won a disputation at Bern in 1528, Basel, Gall, Schaffhausen, and Constance all joined the reform movement.

Zwingli was a close friend and confidant of Philip of Hesse, the most influential Protestant prince in Germany. Together they conceived a Protestant federation extending from Switzerland to Denmark, defending Reform against the pope, the emperor, Catholic princes, and the Ottoman Turks. This vision died at the Marburg Colloquy (1529), for Luther would not agree to an Grossmünster, Zurich.

Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531).

70

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 70

09/06/2015 15:38

023 ZWINGLI 05 Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation

map 23

At Marburg 1529 Zwingli inconclusively debates Lord’s Supper with Luther

FRANCE

Mühlhausen

R hin e

R.

B A V A R I A

1519 Lectures start Swiss reform 1525 Mass abolished

SCHAFFHAUSEN

Constance L. Constance Basel

Zollikon Kappel L. Zurich ST GALL

SOLOTHURN

Biel LUCERNE

Fribourg V A U D

Lausanne

FRIBOURG

Glarus

SCHWYZ

UNTERWALDEN

Wildhaus 1506-16 Zwingli pastor of church

G L ARUS

Bern B E R N

1531 Killed in battle against Roman Catholic forest cantons - ‘Christian Alliance’

Davos

URI 1516 Pastor: criticizes church

1528 Zwingli brings Bern, St Gall, and Schaffhausen into Reform grouping

G R I S O N S

.

L. Neuchâtel

APPENZELL

Einsiedeln

ZUG

Neuchâtel NEUCHATEL

St Gall

Zurich

nR

b

B ASEL

ZURICH

In

D ou

BI S HOPR I C OF B AS E L

. sR

THUR G AU re R. Aa A A R G A U

B O RM IO

L. Geneva CHABLAIS

Rhône R.

G EN E VA

TICINO

Locarno

Geneva SAVOY

CHIAVENNA VALTELLINA

V A L A I S L. Maggiore L. Como PIEDMONT LOMBARDY

Marignano

Forest cantons - ‘Christian Union’ Zwingli’s Christliche Burgrecht (Christian Alliance)

alliance with the Swiss and with Protestant Strasbourg, both of whom denied the real presence in terms of Christ’s corporal presence in the elements of the Lord’s Supper. Because of these differences over the Eucharist, the Swiss reform movement forfeited the support of the German princes.

1515 Chaplain of Swiss army in battle

0 20 Kilometers

20

30 40

Zwingli now turned to force to establish evangelical preaching in the mountain cantons. The Second Kappel War broke out in 1531 when a blockade led to five Catholic forest cantons sending an army against Zurich. Zwingli was killed at the Battle of Kappel (1531).

H U L D R YC H Z W I N G L I

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 71

Miles 0 10

71

09/06/2015 15:38

Martin Bucer

Martin Bucer (or Butzer, 1491–1551) was born at Sélestat, Alsace, thirty miles south of Strasbourg. He joined the Dominican order as a novice aged fifteen, and later became interested in Humanism and met Luther. In 1521 he was released from the Dominicans, began to preach reform, and in 1522 married a former nun, Elisabeth Silbereisen (c. 1495–1541). The following year he had to take refuge in the tolerant city of Strasbourg, where he led the reform and in 1540 became superintendent of the churches. At Strasbourg he held discussions and public debates with radical reformers and started house-meetings to improve Christian living among preachers and laypeople. In a vitriolic age, Bucer was notable for his compassion, dedicating himself to church unity. He became one of the Reformers’ chief statesmen, attending most of their important conferences and colloquies. In an effort to unite the German and Swiss Reformed churches, Bucer strove to mediate between Zwingli and Luther. He also took part in ultimately unsuccessful conferences with Roman Catholics at Hagenau, Worms, and Ratisbon.

attempt to reform the church in Cologne. Bucer developed an evangelical rite of confirmation, which spread from Strasbourg to Swiss and German Protestants, and later to Anglicanism.

1

Cambridge After Bucer resisted the Emperor’s religious settlement, the Augsburg Interim, he was forced to leave Strasbourg in 1549, fleeing to Cambridge, England. Around this time Martin Bucer (1491–1551).

Hesse Bucer worked as advisor to the Landgrave Philip I in the reformation of Hesse. After Bucer held a series of sympathetic debates, hundreds of Anabaptists in Hesse rejoined the official Protestant church in 1538, a conversion unique in the sixteenth century, when rulers usually dealt with Anabaptists by expulsion, persecution, or execution. Bucer also assisted the Archbishop-Elector Hermann von Wied (1477–1552) in his vain

72

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 72

09/06/2015 15:38

024 MARTIN BUCER 02 Martin Bucer and the Reformation

Lutheran Calvinist/Zwinglian Catholic Anglican Holy Roman Empire boundary

map 24

D ENMARK B A LT IC S E A

N ORTH S EA

ENGLAND

BRANDENBURG

Elb

e R.

1549 Made Regius Professor of Divinity 1551 Critique of 1549 Prayer Book: influences 1552 Prayer Book

Cambridge

NETHERLANDS Od

London Cologne

1539-47 Helps archbishop reform church

in Rh

Marburg

e

R.

E NGL ISH C H ANNE L

R. er

1549 Refugee Meets Cranmer & Edward VI

1538 Advises Philipp of Hesse Regains Anabaptists

SAXONY

1506 Joins Dominicans Studies at university 1518 Corresponds with Luther 1521 Leaves Dominicans and marries

PA L AT I N AT E Worms Heidelberg

BOHEMIA

1540 Joins Catholic-Protestant conference

Hagenau

1540 Joins Catholic-Protestant conference

Se

in

eR

.

FRANCE

Miles 0 50 0 100 Kilometers

150 200

Speyer

1523 Preaches reform Excommunicated

Strasbourg

1543 Flees to Strasbourg Helps reform church

FRANCHE COMTÉ

1541 Joins Catholic-Protestant conference

MORAVIA

Regensburg

BAVARIA Augsburg

1548 Opposes Augsburg Interim

Da

n u b e R.

AUSTRIA

SWISS CONFEDERATION

200 300

Archbishop Cranmer welcomed many prominent overseas Reformers displaced by Catholic victories in central Europe, particularly non-Lutherans such as Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499–1562), Jan Łaski (John a Lasco 1499–1560), and Martin Bucer, with whom he had been quietly corresponding for several years. With the

advice and support of Vermigli and Bucer, Cranmer produced his second Prayer Book in 1552, far more radical than the stopgap version of 1549. Martin Bucer died in Cambridge in 1551, but his body was exhumed and burned during the Catholic reaction under Mary Tudor.

MARTIN BUCER

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 73

73

09/06/2015 15:38

John Calvin

The Genevan Reformer Jean (John) Calvin (1509–64) was an important shaper of the Reformed tradition in Protestantism, a position already defined by such Reformers as Zwingli, Bullinger, Bucer, Oecolampadius, and Vermigli. Born at Noyon, Picardy, northern France, in contrast to Luther, Calvin was a quiet, sensitive man with an immovable will. Calvin studied Latin and philosophy in Paris, followed by civil law at the universities of Orléans and Bourges, where he also learned Greek. He soon took up the methods of Humanism. In Paris, the young Calvin encountered the teachings of Luther, and around 1533 experienced conversion: ‘God subdued and brought my heart to docility.’ He broke with Roman Catholicism, fled persecution in Paris in 1533, and found refuge in Angoulême, Noyon, and Orleans. Calvin finally left France and lived as an exile in Basel, where he began to formulate his theology, and in 1536 published the first edition of Christianae Religionis Institutio (The Institution of the Christian Religion, better known as the Institutes), a brief, clear statement of Reformation beliefs. In 1536 Calvin visited Ferrara briefly and, en route to Strasbourg, was prevailed upon by Guillaume Farel (1489–1565), the Reformer of Geneva, to help consolidate the Reformation there. But Genevans opposed Calvin’s efforts, and disputes in the town and a quarrel with the city of Bern resulted in the expulsion of both Calvin and Farel in 1538. Calvin now fled to Strasbourg, where he was encouraged and influenced by Martin Bucer. The years in this city, where he ministered to the French Protestant refugees and taught theology, were among his happiest. In March 1540 Calvin published his commentary on Paul’s Letter to the Romans, followed by other commentaries and a new, enlarged version of the Institutes. Calvin continued to rewrite and expand the Institutes, which became a classic statement of Reformation theology; by the final 1559 edition, the original six chapters had become eighty. Calvin was a great systematizer, taking up and reapplying the ideas of the first generation of Reformers.

74

Return to Geneva In September 1541 Calvin was invited back to Geneva, where he now tried to bring the citizens under the moral discipline of the John Calvin (1509–64).

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 74

09/06/2015 15:38

025 JOHN CALVIN John Calvin and Swiss Reform

06

map 25

Catholic canton Zwinglian or Calvinist canton Mixed religious allegiance Forest cantons Noyon

1509 Calvin born

ne R

.

1541 Becomes friend of Melanchthon at Diet

1533-34 Breaks with Rome Flees to Basel

Sein

Orléans

e R.

FRANCE

D a nu b e R

Strasbourg

.

1538-41 Exiled from Geneva, guest of Bucer 1540-41 Represents Strasbourg at Hagenau and Worms conferences 1536 Publishes 1st ed. Institutes

L. Constance

eR

.

Regensburg

R hi

Paris

ir Lo

Basel

Zurich

H O LY R O MA N E M P I R E

Bourges

L. Geneva 1536-8 Farel persuades Calvin to stay Starts to reform church and city 1541-55 Consolidates reformed regime 1553 Servetus burnt as heretic 1555-64 Makes Geneva centre of European Reform

Miles 0

50

0 50 100 Kilometers

100

Bern SWISS CO N F E D E R AT I O N

Geneva

MILAN

150

church, aiming to create a ‘mature’ church by preaching daily to the people. Many resented his strictures, especially as they were imposed by a foreigner. Calvin also devoted energy to settling differences within Protestantism. The Consensus Tigurinus on the Lord’s Supper (1549) resulted in the German- and Frenchspeaking churches of Switzerland moving closer together. In 1553 the Spaniard Michael Servetus (1509/11–53), a notorious critic of Calvin and of the doctrine of the Trinity, was arrested and burnt in Geneva. Already

on the run from the Inquisition, Servetus was regarded by all as a heretic; Protestant reformers felt they could not afford to be seen as soft on heresy. Calvin wanted to build a visible ‘City of God’ in Europe – with Geneva as a startingpoint. He founded the Geneva Academy, to which students of theology came from all parts of western and central Europe, and particularly France. Calvin remained in Geneva the rest of his life, training missionaries to export reform, especially back to France.

J O H N C A LV I N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 75

75

09/06/2015 15:39

R.

After Zwingli’s untimely death at the Battle Reformation came to Zurich at the same of Kappel (1531), the leadership in Zurich time as Germany, but independently. Its passed to Heinrich Bullinger (1504–75), who theology was similar to Luther’s, except in the produced the Consensus Tigurinus (1549), a understanding of the Eucharist. By 1528 Bern, lengthy essay on the Lord’s Supper co-authored Basel (led by Johann Oecolampadius), St Gall, with John Calvin, and the Second Helvetic and Schaffhausen had also embraced Reform; Confession (1566), which brought together shortly after this Guillaume Farel (1489–1565) the German-speaking and French-speaking introduced Reform in Neuchâtel and Geneva. Reformation parties and was adopted by nonIn 1524 the four traditionally Lutheran churches in Switzerland, Scotland, conservative mountain cantons formed a France, Poland, and Hungary. Bullinger’s Christian Union to resist Reform; in response importance in the Reformation has been the Zwinglians of Zurich and Constance widely underestimated: in England he was to formed their own Christian Alliance (1527), 026 THE SWISSbecome REFORMATION more influential04 than Calvin. joined later by others. R hin e

The Reformation in Switzerland H O L Y R O M A N E M P I R E map 26 SCHAFFHAUSEN

Catholic canton Zwinglian or Calvinist canton Mixed religious allegiance Forest cantons bs

R.

1528-9 Oecolampadius reforms church

Solothurn Neuchâtel

NEUCHATEL L. Neuchâtel

1526 Vadianus (1484-1551) reforms church

Zurich

1522-25 Zwingli reforms church

L. Zurich

LUCERNE

APPENZELL 1529, Forest cantons form a Christian Union, allied with Hapsburg Austria

ST GALL

SCHWYZ Glarus G L ARUS

Bern

1528 Haller reforms church

St Gall

ZURICH

L. Zug ZUG

Fribourg

UNTERWALDEN

Chur URI

FRIBOURG

.

V A U D

THUR G AU

B ASEL Aarau AARGAU SOLOTHURN

B E R N

1530 Farel reforms church

B A V A R I A L. Constance

G R I S O N S

Lausanne

nR

D ou

Constance

Basel

In

The Swiss Reformation

By 1513 Switzerland consisted of thirteen cantons – six rural and seven urban – along with a number of allied states. During the fifteenth century the Swiss had won military victories against Burgundy, Milan, and finally in 1499 the Emperor, and were de facto independent. In politics and religion each canton had a high degree of autonomy.

1536 Viret reforms church

BO RMI O

L. Geneva CHABLAIS GE NE VA

Geneva

1536-8 Farel and Calvin reform church

Miles 0 10 0 20 Kilometers

76

R hô ne R.

VALTELLINA

V A L A I S L. Maggiore L. Como

30 40

CHIAVENNA

Sion

SAVOY 20

TICINO

PIEDMONT

VENICE

LOMBARDY

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 76

09/06/2015 15:39

A

By 1555 Calvinism was spreading, but had not gained official acceptance apart from in Geneva and the tiny kingdom of Navarre, on the French side of the Pyrenees. Calvinism took early root in many places where Waldensian churches had previously been active. The most promising area for the growth of Calvinism was France, Calvin’s homeland. Many French Protestants came to Geneva to train before carrying Calvin’s theology home. In 1559 the Geneva Academy had 162 students; by 1564 more than 1500, mostly foreign. The first Huguenot (Reformed) ministers arrived in France in 1553; by the time of Calvin’s death it is estimated some two million French people professed the Reformed faith.

Calvinism also spread early to the Netherlands. Reform ministers first arrived in the 1550s and were supported by Protestant Huguenot preachers fleeing France. They made slow progress at first because they were fiercely opposed by the authorities. Calvinism was initially strongest in Antwerp, Ghent, and areas near Germany, from which it gradually spread northwards. Calvinism was not even recognized as an option by the German princes in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), and was generally regarded with suspicion by the ruling elite. It first entered Germany via the Netherlands in the 1560s, developing into a popular movement

Calvinism Spreads

John Calvin set about establishing Geneva as a model Reformed city, which it duly became as a result of his activities and the Academy that he established in 1559 to train reformers for Western Europe, which became the University of Geneva. Geneva also became the print capital of Protestant Europe, with more than thirty presses publishing literature in a number of languages. Calvin’s systematized Protestantism, set out in his Institutes, quickly became the vehicle of Reformed Protestantism. John Knox, the Scots Protestant leader, called Geneva ‘the most perfect school of Christ’.

The Reformation Wall, Geneva: (left to right) Guillaume Farel, Jean Calvin, Theodore Beza, John Knox.

a

O

C A LV I N I S M S P R E A D S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 77

77

09/06/2015 15:39

78

SCOTLAND

NO

Edinburgh

IRELAND

ENGLAND WALES London

B

Se i

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Rennes Nantes

e R. Loir

Orleans

FRANC La Rochelle

Bordeaux

Toulouse

S PA I N

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

Atlas Of The Euro Reformation INSIDES Fortress.indd 78

Pari

R. ne

in nearby North-West Rhineland and Westphalia. Some Lutherans were influenced by Calvin, notably Philipp Melanchthon; after Luther’s death a number of Melanchthon’s followers joined the Reformed Church. In 1562, the Elector Palatine, Frederick III (r. 1559–76) made Calvinism the official religion in his domain, and under his tutelage the Reformed Heidelberg Catechism (1563) was drawn up. However most of Germany remained Lutheran. Early in the seventeenth century John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg (r. 1608–19), converted to Calvinism and after a bitter internal struggle his state permitted both Lutheranism and Calvinism. By the mid-sixteenth century there was a considerable Protestant movement in Hungary, mainly in the east, where it enjoyed the protection of the princes of Transylvania. Reform came under Calvinist influence and the church became Presbyterian, governed by a pyramid of elected representative courts, or presbyteries. Calvinism first reached Poland in 1550, when the nobles opportunistically bribed the civilian population with some religious rights in order to increase their own power. The Lithuanian noble Mikołaj ‘The Black’ Radziwiłł (1515–65) and Polish reformer Jan Łaski (John a Lasco, 1499–1560) helped the spread of Calvinism. The Reformation spread to Scotland largely due to the activities of John Knox (1513–72), who served as a galley slave before arriving in Calvin’s Geneva. Knox exported Calvinist principles from Geneva to Scotland, where he became its most notable spokesman. When Elizabeth I succeeded to the English throne, her cautious, moderate religious reform disappointed a minority who reacted with a more rigorous form of Calvinism that became known disparagingly as ‘Puritanism’.

30/06/2015 14:24

The Spread of Calvinism and Reformed Protestantism

map 27

Calvinist/Reformed Huguenot centres Spread of Calvinism Holy Roman Empire boundary

NORWAY

SWEDEN

N ORTH S EA

B ALTIC S EA Copenhagen

DENMARK

PRUSSIA

LITHUANIA

Hamburg

Amsterdam

don

RL

AN

Wittenberg

Warsaw

DS eR

POLAND de

.

O

Leipzig

Cologne

El b

HE NET

GERMANY

Vistu la R .

Marburg

Brussels

rR

.

Prague

BOHEMIA

Worms Speyer Rhin eR

Paris

R. ne

Se i

e R. Loir

Orleans

Dijon

Munich

AUSTRIA

Zurich SWISS CONFEDERATION

Avignon

Buda

Pest

T R A N S Y LVA N I A

Trent

Geneva SAVOY

MILAN Milan

eaux

Toulouse

Dan ub eR .

Basel

FRANCE Lyons

.

GE

NO

A

VENICE

H U N GARY

Venice

Genoa

Marseilles

M EDITERR ANEAN S EA

PA PA L S T AT E S

A DRIATIC S EA

Danube R . Miles 0

100

0 100 200 Kilometers

C A LV I N I S M S P R E A D S

Atlas Of The Euro Reformation INSIDES Fortress.indd 79

200

300 400

79

30/06/2015 14:24

Reform in France

For most of the fourteenth century French kings dominated the papacy and Paris theologians could claim intellectual leadership of the Western church. With the reduction of English power in France, French nationalism surged. From this time, the French king was known as Rex Christianissimus (‘most Christian king’). Under the able leadership of Louis XI (r. 1461–83), France broke the dominant power of Burgundy. Inheriting a strong, centralized monarchy, Francis I (r. 1515–47) concluded a treaty of perpetual peace with Switzerland, and signed a concordat with the papacy that brought the French church under his control. In return for guaranteed annates, the pope granted the king the appointment of bishops and abbots. Francis also reached a settlement with Henry VIII of England that freed him to wage war on the Emperor Charles V. This military threat distracted the Emperor, thus helping the spread of Protestantism.

French humanists

Francis was released and Lefèvre returned – but the reform experiment at Meaux was never restarted.

Affair of the placards A crisis of reform in France came on 18 October 1534, when Parisians awoke to find ‘placards’ (broadsheets) displayed in public places attacking ‘the horrible, great, and insufferable abuses of the papal Mass’. Those responsible were executed, and burnings and persecution followed. The placard was the work of a French pastor exiled at Neuchâtel; a network of reform influenced by Swiss

The road to reform in France was prepared by two learned humanists: Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples (c. 1455–1536) – whose writings anticipated much of Luther’s teaching – and Guillaume Budé (1467–1540). In 1523 Lefèvre was invited by the Bishop of Meaux, Guillaume Briçonnet, to encourage religious revival in his diocese by distributing free copies of Lefèvre’s own vernacular New Testament and by militant preaching. Lefèvre worked for reform within existing church structures and did not repudiate papal authority. This reforming group received support from the king’s sister, Marguerite d’Angoulême, herself a writer influenced by humanist thinking. In February 1525 Francis I was captured by Charles V. His mother Louise became regent and her hostility to reform led Lefèvre and others flee into exile. A year later

ATLA OC

Miles 0

0 100 Kilomete

The Cathedral of Saint Etienne, Meaux, France.

80

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 80

09/06/2015 15:39

028 FRANCIS I FRENCH REFORMATION Francis I and the Reformation in France

French Protestants Spanish Habsburgs Austrian Habsburgs Greek Orthodox Muslim minority Holy Roman Empire boundary

1535 Francis I briefly joins the Protestant Schmalkaldic League against the Habsburgs

Orléans

0 100 200 Kilometers

.

Krakow Brno

e R. Danub

Rhine R.

Meaux

Salzburg

Vienna 1529 Ottoman army advances on Vienna

e R. Loir

F R A N C E Lyons

Bordeaux

Geneva

1532 Waldensian Church joins Protestant Reformation

Venice Angrogna

Avignon

100

O

Paris

rR

Prague

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

1523-5 Lefèvre d’Étaples attempts reform

R. ine Se

1520s Reformers active 1534 Francis I represses reform after Affair of the Placards 1540s Royal courts hear heresy trials

Miles 0

de

R.

Schmalkalden

EL

Rouen

ATLANTIC OCEAN

be

El

Leipzig

Marburg

Nantes

POLAND

Berlin

London

E NGLISH

map 28

B A LT I C S E A

DENMARK

N ORTH SEA

ENGLAND

C HANN

07n

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Genoa Florence PA PA L S T AT E S

200 300

S PA I N

Protestants existed in France. In 1533 John Calvin fled Paris as he was a known associate of Nicolas Cop, Rector of the university and an advocate of Reform. The king’s attitude to Reform now hardened and in 1540 the royal courts took over heresy trials from the more lenient church tribunals. Meanwhile many Reformers continued to work under the cover of conformity, a pattern pioneered by

Lefèvre. Many priests and friars preached Reforming sermons – sometimes to large crowds – and held private sessions for prayer or Bible study. They evaded prosecution by minimal conformity, continuing to hear confessions and celebrate Mass. Calvin fiercely opposed such occasional conformity, comparing it to the biblical Jewish leader Nicodemus, who met Christ under cover of darkness.

REFORM IN FRANCE

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 81

81

09/06/2015 15:39

Scandinavian Reform 82

Between 1397 and 1523 the Union of Kalmar brought together the Scandinavian nations under a single monarch who ruled the three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden (including Finland), and Norway (including Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands). In 1520 Gustav Vasa organized a successful revolt and became king of an independent Sweden, which under his dynasty became the strongest Baltic power. Two brothers, Olaus and Laurentius Petri (Olof, 1493–1552 and Lars Persson, 1499– 1573), both disciples of Luther, inaugurated religious reform in Sweden. Aided by Laurentius Andreae (Lars Andersson, c. 1470–1552), they brought the evangelical theology of Luther to the Swedish church. In 1527 the Reformation was established by law; church lands were secularized and bishops of the old church were incorporated into the new. Reform was completed at the Synod of Uppsala in 1593, when the Lutheran Augsburg Confession was adopted as the sole basis of faith.

Denmark In 1500, the church owned roughly one-third of the land of Denmark. The new university of Copenhagen, founded in 1478, became an early centre of Reforming protest. In 1524 the exiled King Christian II commissioned a (much criticized) Danish version of the New Testament. Meanwhile Frederick I (r. 1524– 33) pressed for church reform, appointing Reforming bishops and preachers. Danes such as Hans Tausen (1494–1561) and Jørgen Sadolin (c. 1490–1559), who had studied under Luther at Wittenberg, started to preach Lutheranism. There was a rapid defection of Catholics and in some places there was no preaching, or services were held only two or three times a year. When Christian III (r. 1534–59) succeeded to the Danish throne, the transition to Protestantism was completed. At the Diet of Copenhagen (1536) he stripped the bishops of their property, transferring the church’s wealth

to the state. He then turned for help to Luther, who in 1537 sent Johannes Bugenhagen (1485–1558) to crown the king and appoint seven church superintendents. At the synods that followed, church ordinances were published and the Reformation recognized in Danish law. The University of Copenhagen was enlarged and revitalized, a new Protestant liturgy drawn up, a new translation of the Bible completed, and a modified version of the Augsburg Confession eventually adopted.

Norway In 1537 Christian attempted to extend the Reformation to Norway – which remained under Danish rule – though with little popular support. Most bishops fled, and as the older clergy died they were replaced with Reforming ministers. In 1571 Jorgen Eriksson, the ‘Norwegian Luther’, was appointed Bishop of Stavanger; but not till three years after he died, in 1604, was a Lutheran church order formally established.

Iceland Christian III also expelled the Roman Catholic bishops in Iceland and confiscated their property. His initial attempt to impose the new Danish ecclesiastical system there provoked a revolt but he eventually succeeded in establishing Reform. Through an Icelandic hymnal (1589) and first complete Icelandic Bible translation (1584), both created by Bishop Gudbrandur Thorlaksson (1541– 1627), the Old Norse tongue was saved and the Reformation became popular.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 82

09/06/2015 15:39

The Reformation in Scandinavia

map 29

Kingdom of Sweden Kingdom of Denmark-Norway Bishopric Archbishopric City

Holar

ICELAND

1533 German Lutherans establish a church 1539-41 Christian III of Denmark enforces reform

KINGDOM OF SWEDEN

N ORTH SEA

Trondheim

KINGDOM OF D E N M A R K- N O R WAY Hamar Bergen

1529 - Mikael Agricola spreads Lutheran ideas

1527 - Lutheran Olaus Petri influences king 1531 - Gustav I encourages Lutheran reform 1548 Agricola’s Finnish New Testament printed

Oslo Vasteras Strängnas

Stavanger

Linköping

1540 Icelandic New Testament published

Uppsala

Turku Helsinki

1531 Laurentius Petri first Lutheran archbishop

Stockholm

B A LT I C SEA

Växjo Viburg 1542-62 Hans Tausen bishop, the ‘Danish Luther’

Aarhus

Ribe Roskilde Copenhagen

Lund

Schleswig 1527-33 Frederick I encourages Lutheran reform 1536 Lutheran Augsburg Confession adopted 1537 Bugenhagen, ‘Apostle of the North’, introduces Lutheran church order

GERMANY

Miles 0

0 100 200 Kilometers

S C A N D I N AV I A N R E F O R M

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 83

100

200

300 400

83

09/06/2015 15:39

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 84

Rievaulx Mount Grace Jervaulx

CARLISLE

DURHAM Holmcultram

S COTL AND

Tynemouth

Whitby

0 10 20 Kilometers

N ORTH SEA

30 40 50

50 40 30 20 Miles 0 10

map 30

Boundaries of bishoprics pre-1540 Greater monasteries dissolved 1538-40 (not comprehensive). Numbers following name = number of monastic houses in town

Henry was convinced the church had become wealthy at the crown’s expense. In 1536, legislation was passed listing smaller, less viable, monasteries for closure and around half were dissolved. Monks from these houses were either given pensions or moved to larger houses. Stories of roaming hordes of homeless religious are a myth as are tales of hundreds of abbey servants thrown out of work: they continued as farm labourers when church estates passed to the crown. There was however considerable looting and the nobility and gentry competed to lease or buy monastic property. The Pilgrimage of Grace transformed Henry VIII’s attitude towards monasticism; after it he became completely hostile. From late 1537 the government began to pressurize religious houses to surrender – both those reprieved earlier and the larger abbeys. Waltham Abbey, Essex, the last to surrender, went down in April 1540. With no houses left to move to, the religious were pensioned off. The four orders of friars were also suppressed, along with the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Just six abbeys were salvaged to be subsequently refounded as cathedrals: Westminster Abbey, Gloucester, Peterborough, Oxford, Bristol, and Chester.

The Dissolution of the English Monasteries

Dissolution 84

The greatest material change effected by Henry VIII’s Reformation was the destruction of England’s religious houses. In 1532 about 800 corporate religious foundations were standing England and Wales; by 1540 all had gone. Monasteries had represented half the church’s assets and were deeply rooted in local communities. The revolution in landownership resulting from their dissolution was ‘second only to that which followed the Norman Conquest’ (Youings).

09/06/2015 15:39

ST ASAPH

EX E T E R

D I S S O LU T I O N Bodmin Buckland

Torre Plympton

Tavistock

LICHFIELD R.

Welbeck Newstead

LONDON

Kirkstead

Thornton

Boston (4)

Monk Bretton Roche Lincoln (7)

Wragby

Selby Humber R. Pontefract

York (10) Meaux

N ORTH SEA

Cerne Abbotsbury

Sherborne

am

es R.

Romsey

Christchurch

Beaulieu

Canterbury (7)

Robertsbridge Lewes

CY.

ENGLISH CHANNEL

Arundel

CHICHESTER CY.

ROCHESTER

CY.

CAN T E RB U RY

Barking ROCHESTER

London (18) Reading Merton W I N C H E S T E R Aldbury Winchester (7)

SALISBURY

Abingdon

Glastonbury Shaftesbury

BATH & WELLS

Bath

Bristol (6)

Kingswood

Missenden

1538 Becket’s shrine destroyed

Shrewsbury Burton nt Tre on Trent (4) Spalding Walsingham Haughmond Launde Crowland Norwich (6) Lynn (5) Leicester Lichfield Halesowen Stamford (5) Thorney Wymondham Coventry (5) Thetford (5) Ramsey E LY Bordesley Bungay Kenilworth L I N C O L N Cambridge NORWICH (6) Pershore Northampton Bury St Edmunds o HEREFORD Av (6) WORCESTER Elstow Woburn Hailes Oxford Notley Coggeshall Gloucester (5) (12) St Osyth

Buckland Ford

Y O R K

Kirkstall

Bolton

Chester (5)

Whitby Mount Grace Rievaulx Jervaulx Fountains Byland Bridlington

Whalley

CARLISLE

LL ANDAFF

ST DAVIDS

B ANGOR

Hartland

I RISH SEA

Furness

Exe R.

.

nR

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 85

rn R. Seve

Th

85

09/06/2015 15:39

Pilgrimage of Grace

The Pilgrimage of Grace was the largest and most menacing of a succession of Tudor rebellions, although those taking part regarded it as protest not rebellion. During the summer of 1536 a series of radical alterations in religion occurred in England: clergy were required to know and do new things, treasures in parish churches appeared to be under threat, and smaller monasteries were being dissolved. The coincidental presence in Lincolnshire of three sets of commissioners – one overseeing the dissolution of lesser monasteries, another a visitation to the clergy, and a third gathering gentry to deal with taxation – encouraged a riot in the town of Louth to grow rapidly into insurrection in much of the county and occupation of the city of Lincoln. Soon about 20,000 men were up in arms, although the movement quickly fizzled out.

Yorkshire As things quietened in Lincolnshire, the movement crossed into Yorkshire, prompted by similar fears about the supposed threat to traditional religion. The lawyer Robert Aske (1500–37) invented the name ‘Pilgrimage of Grace’, declaring himself ‘chief captain’, Ruins of Rievaulx Abbey, Yorkshire.

and defining it as a movement for the defence of the church and the removal of the king’s ‘heretical’ councillors, especially the Chancellor Thomas Cromwell and Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. The protesters marched with a badge displaying the five wounds of Christ. The Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace amounted to a huge northern demonstration opposing Henry’s policies. Despite significant involvement of the gentry and some nobles, the main support came from the lower clergy, yeomen, and craftsmen – all commoners. As the disturbances spread north-westwards, resentment against landlords and their renting and leasing policies also grew. Soon the pilgrims had nine regional armies – perhaps 50,000 armed men – and held the whole of England north of the River Trent. The Duke of Norfolk managed to negotiate a truce, the Pilgrims began to disperse, and the gentry deposed Aske, regained control, and allowed individuals to make terms with the government.

Revenge But Henry VIII was not interested in conciliation. He strung out discussions until he was in a position to launch his revenge. Abortive secondary episodes in 1537, led by the maverick Sir Francis Bigod, gave the king the excuse he needed to take reprisals. While the rank and file melted back into obscurity, Henry proceeded to execute the leaders of the Pilgrimage. Henry VIII was now able to continue as head of the church without let or hindrance.

86

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 86

09/06/2015 15:39

031 THE PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE 07 The Pilgrimage of Grace

Monasteries involved in Pilgrimage of Grace Monasteries whose abbot was executed by Henry VIII Area affected by Pilgrimage of Grace 1536-7 Route of Lincolnshire rebels Routes of Yorkshire rebels Route of Kirkby Stephen & Cumberland rebels Route of Westmorland rebels Boundaries of bishoprics pre-1540

S COT L A ND Newcastle

Lanercost Carlisle

Durham Bishop Auckland

Penrith

Cockermouth

Kendal Cartmel

Kirkby Stephen

Lancaster Sawley

Barnard Castle Richmond Jervaulx

Sedbergh

Masham Ripon Fountains

Miles 0 10

Whitby Scarborough

0 10 20 Kilometers

Nunburnholme Hull Humber R.

50

30 40 50

N ORTH S EA

Caister Louth

Doncaster Sheffield

Barlings

Lincoln Chester R.

nt

Tre

Legbourne

Horncastle

Bardney Derby

40

York

Pontefract

Manchester

30

20

Bridlington

Skipton

Whalley

map 31

Kirkstead

Lenton

E N G L A N D rn R. Seve

WA L E S

Avon

R.

Woburn Colchester

Oxford London

Bristol

T h a m es R

.

Glastonbury 1525-6: William Tyndale publishes English New Testament 1525

Canterbury 1531: Henry VIII ‘Supreme Head of Church of England’ 1530

1534: Act of Supremacy: Church of England breaks with Rome

1533: Pope excommunicates Henry VIII

1535

1539: Henry VIII issues Catholic ‘Six Articles’; repealed 1547 1536: Dissolution of monasteries begins

P I LG R I M A G E O F G R A C E

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 87

1540

87

09/06/2015 15:39

The English Reformation 88

The struggle between the old and the new lasted longer in England than elsewhere in Europe. As early as the thirteenth century an anti-papal, anti-clerical movement had developed, when Wyclif had fathered an evangelical protest movement. Early in the sixteenth century Luther’s writings and English Bibles were smuggled into England. At first the Reform movement was Lutheran, but Reform soon became entangled with politics. In 1534 King Henry VIII proclaimed himself the Head of the Church of England, though his quarrel with the pope was not on religious grounds, but because the pope would not sanction Henry’s desired divorce of Catherine of Aragon. Henry himself remained a Catholic: the pope entitled him ‘Defender of the Faith’ for a book he wrote opposing Luther in 1521, and in 1539 Henry issued the Six Articles, probably aiming to limit the progress of Reform. Henry now removed the authority of the pope and ended monasticism in England, while among some of his people a religious movement towards Reform was also occurring. The University of Cambridge was one centre of Reformation thinking and the appearance of Tyndale’s English New Testament (1525) also aided the cause of Reform. Under Edward VI (r. 1547–53) the Reformation moved sharply forwards, led by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, supported by Bishops Nicholas Ridley (c. 1500–55) and Hugh Latimer (c. 1487–1555). Several European Calvinist Reformers also contributed, notably Martin Bucer from Strasbourg, Peter Martyr Vermigli from Italy, who became professors at Oxford and Cambridge, and John a Lasco from Poland.

Mary Tudor Following Edward’s premature death, Henry’s daughter Mary Tudor (r. 1553–58) attempted to restore Roman Catholicism and the authority of the pope to England, with the help of Cardinal Reginald Pole (1500–58). But her inability to understand Protestantism actually did much to strengthen the movement by creating many martyrs. About 290 bishops and scholars – including Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley – and other men and women were burnt at the stake, many others fleeing to Europe.

Elizabeth I Mary’s sister Elizabeth restored and permanently established Protestantism in England during her long reign (r. 1558– 1603). She faced considerable difficulties, including the threat of civil war, the theological and political opposition of the Catholic powers, the hostility of France and Spain, and doubts about her claim to the throne. Elizabeth replaced Catholic church leaders with Protestants, restored the church Articles and the Prayer Book of Edward VI, and took the title of ‘supreme governor’ – rather than head – of the Church of England, successfully locating a via media that has marked Anglicanism since that time. As re-established by Elizabeth, the Anglican Church retained episcopal government and a set liturgy, offending many Calvinists, particularly refugees returning from Switzerland. Meanwhile Roman Catholics plotted and intrigued; every Catholic appeared a potential traitor since the pope had ordered them to overthrow Elizabeth.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 88

09/06/2015 15:39

The English Reformation 032 ENGLISH REFORMATION

06

map 32

Predominantly Protestant Predominantly Catholic Mixed religious allegiance Boundaries of bishoprics as re-formed by Henry VIII

S COT L A ND DURHAM

Y

Carlisle

Miles 0 10 20 30 40 50

K OR

0 10 20 30 40 50 Kilometers

Durham

CARLISLE

N ORTH SEA

York Humber R.

I RISH SEA

Y O R K

CHESTER

Lincoln

Chester BANGOR

R.

B ANGOR

ST ASAPH

Lichfield

Av o

LINCOLN

BRISTOL

Salisbury Avon R.

Cambridge

1556 Mary burns Archbishop Cranmer

LO N D O N London

SALISBURY

BRISTOL

1547 Martin Bucer professor 1552 Bucer helps create radical 1552 Prayer Book

OXFORD 1555 Mary Tudor burns Oxford Bishops Ridley & Latimer

Wells

EXETER

E LY

n

GLOUCESTER

BATH & WELLS

Norwich NORWICH

PETERBOROUGH

ST DAVIDS

LL ANDAFF

LINCOLN

R.

WORCESTER HEREFORD

nt

E N G L A N D

. rn R Seve

BANGOR

WA L E S

Tre

LICHFIELD

Th

a m es R

. ROCHESTER CY.

ROCHESTER

WINCHESTER CHICHESTER

Becket’s shrine destroyed by Protestants in 1538

Canterbury CANTERBURY

CY.

1549 Edward VI passes1st Act of Uniformity: moderate Prayer Book 1552 Edward VI passes 2nd Act of Uniformity: radical Prayer Book, with 39 Articles 1554 Mary Tudor restores Roman Catholicism 1559 Elizabeth I makes moderate Protestant religious settlement

ENGLISH C

HANNEL

T H E E N G L I S H R E F O R M AT I O N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 89

89

09/06/2015 15:39

Reform in Scotland

Scotland was first awakened to Lutheranism by Patrick Hamilton (c. 1504–28), who had been attracted to Luther’s writings as a student in Paris and later attended lectures at Wittenberg and the new university of Marburg. Charged in Scotland with heresy, Hamilton was burned at the stake. Many Protestant intellectuals now fled abroad, never to return. George Wishart (c. 1513–46) was martyred by the Scottish Catholic leader, Cardinal Beaton, who was later assassinated for his oppression of young reformers. Wishart’s major contribution was his influence upon John Knox (c. 1514– 72), who was to become leader of the Scottish Reformation. Knox was taken prisoner by the French in 1547 and forced to serve as a galley slave. Upon his release, he played a part in English Reform as chaplain to Edward VI. During Mary Tudor’s reign he fled to Geneva, where he was greatly influenced by Calvin. In 1557 Scottish Protestants covenanted to bring about reform. Few of the population were Protestant, but this minority included important nobles such as the head of the Hamilton clan, and the Earls of Argyll, Glencairn, and Morton. These ‘Lords of the Congregation’ now summoned Knox from exile. After he preached against idolatry in Perth, iconoclasm swept across the nation. Knox continued to attack the papacy and the Mass in fiery sermons at St Giles’ Cathedral, Edinburgh.

John Knox Urged on by Knox, the dissident nobles seized churches and forced the French Regent, Mary of Guise, to take refuge in Edinburgh Castle. Backed by English forces, the rebels succeeded in enforcing Reform. At the request of the Scottish Parliament, Knox drew up a Confession of Faith and Doctrine (1560, replaced in 1647 by the Westminster Confession), emphasizing evangelical doctrine and urging the necessity

90

of discipline. The Book of Discipline (1561) was followed by a new liturgy, the Book of Common Order (1564), and a translation of Calvin’s Catechism. Knox had consolidated the Reformation in Scotland.

Mary Queen of Scots In 1561 the unexpected return of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, re-ignited the religious issue. Mary had hoped to practise her Catholic faith in private while allowing Scotland to remain Protestant. Knox attacked Mary over her celebration of Mass at court and her dissolute entourage and personal life. Forced to abdicate in 1567, the queen finally lost Scotland for Roman Catholicism. After the death of Knox, Protestant leadership passed to Andrew Melville (1545– 1622), who became Principal of the University of Glasgow in 1574. Twice Moderator of the General Assembly, he strove to remove all traces of episcopacy in Scotland. Although Scotland had now embraced Presbyterian principles, for more than a century the Stuart monarchs continued to attempt to enforce episcopacy. Under royal pressure, proepiscopal measures were adopted in 1584, but reversed in 1592. But James VI and his successors ultimately lost Scotland for the episcopal cause.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 90

09/06/2015 15:39

033 SCOTTISH REFORMATION 03 THE SCOTTISH REFORMATION

map 33

Area where Highland clans remained Catholic Area where Lutheranism spread rapidly 1525-55 Miles 0 10

20

30

40

50

0 10 20 30 40 50 Kilometers

1559 John Knox, after exile in Calvin’s Geneva, Frankfurt and England returns 1559-60 draws up Reformed ‘Scottish Confession’

Inverness R.

Lo ch Ne ss

DIngwall

Sp

ey

Aberdeen

S C O T L A N D R. Tay

Perth

ATLANTIC OCEAN

1559 Knox preaches Calvinism

Stirling 1567 Mary Stuart abdicates in favour of James VI

Glasgow Cl

yd

eR

St Andrews

Reformers Patrick Hamilton (1528) & George Wishart (1546) burnt at stake 1547 John Knox captured by French

h of Fort Firth

Edinburgh

1560-61 Scotland accepts Reformation

N ORTH SEA

.

Tweed R.

I R E L A N D E N G L A N D

R E F O R M I N S COT L A N D

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 91

91

09/06/2015 15:39

Reform in Poland

Poland had a strong tradition of anti-clericalism and of religious toleration. The Hussites had flourished in the west of the country in the fifteenth century and many Jews fled there from persecution in the west. In Lithuania there was even an Islamic Tatar population. But in 1500 the Roman Catholic Church remained dominant. Reform first reached Poland in the 1520s when students from Wittenberg brought the message to Danzig and Krakow. It quickly gained popularity, mainly among Germanspeaking inhabitants of such major cities as Toruń and Elbląg. A Polish edition of Luther’s Small Catechism was published in Königsberg in 1530. The Duchy of Prussia, a Polish fief, emerged as key centre of reform, with a number of publishers issuing Bibles and catechisms in German, Polish, and Lithuanian. Lutheranism gained popularity particularly in the north. Polish kings were either indifferent to Reform or believed religious disputes not to be royal business. Poland had a weak monarchy and the king lost further power as the nobility converted to Lutheranism. The king could do little without the cooperation of the Polish diet (Sjem), which was now dominated by reformist princes. In 1555 a diet suspended the jurisdiction of church courts, thereby giving legal recognition to Protestantism.

Calvinism Calvinism proved particularly attractive to the nobility, mainly in Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Sigismund II Augustus (r. 1548–72) was a friend of the Reformation and corresponded with Calvin. In 1563, the Brest Bible, the first complete Bible in Polish, was published. The most distinguished Polish theologian was the Calvinist John a Lasco (1499–1560), who later moved to England and helped shape the Reformation during the reign of Edward VI.

92

Poland also attracted other Protestant groupings, such as the Mennonites and Czech Brethren, the latter settling mainly in Greater Poland, around Leszno. A further reform group, the Polish Brethren, appeared in 1565, led among others by Fausto Sozzini (Faustus Socinus, 1539–1604), who denied the Trinity and the pre-existence of Christ. (In the seventeenth century ‘Socinianism’ was used as a pejorative term for Unitarians and other dissenters.) Other leading Polish Protestants included Mikołaj Rej (1505–69), ‘father of Polish literature’; Marcin Czechowic (c. 1532–1613), a Socinian theologian; Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (Andreas Fricius Modrevius, c. 1503–72), ‘Father of Polish democracy’; and Symon Budny (c. 1530–93), a leader of the Polish Brethren.

DEN

B R AND

Concord of Sandomir

Prag

In 1570 a general understanding was reached between Lutherans and Calvinists, expressed in the Concord of Sandomir, but this was marred by dissension over Socinianism. The Compact of Warsaw (1573) granted religious liberty to all, but this brief period of toleration ended under Sigismund III Vasa (r. 1587–1632). Meanwhile neither the peasantry nor the poor had ever abandoned Catholicism. With the nobility becoming Protestant, the peasants and lesser nobility – who opposed the greater nobility and viewed the king as their ally – took the opposite religious viewpoint. Even where Protestantism was strong, a significant portion of the population remained Catholic.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 92

09/06/2015 15:39

034 REFORMATION IN POLAND 09 Christian Churches in Late-Sixteenth Century Poland

map 34

Catholicism dominant Lutheran Calvinist/Reformed Orthodox Arian/Polish Brethren Anabaptist/Mennonite Holy Roman Empire border

Riga

COURL AND

B ALTIC S EA

Miles 0

Daug av

DENMARK

0 100 Kilometers

100 200

200 300

. aR

Vilnius

PR USSIA

Danzig (Gdansk) Elblag

Smolensk

R.

Minsk

BR A N DENB URG

Num

s ana

LITHUANIA r epe Dni

Wroclaw

Prague

Od

la tu Vis

Glogow

R.

Warsaw R.

er

R.

Lublin

P O L A N D

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Krakow

Kiev

L’viv

Danube R.

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

REFORM IN POLAND

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 93

93

09/06/2015 15:39

Catholic Reform and Counter-Reformation

Part 3

Go forth and set the world on fire. Ignatius of Loyola

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 94

09/06/2015 15:39

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 95

09/06/2015 15:39

Confessionalization

The situation within Western Europe had changed markedly by the time of the signing of the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which showed no real loss of land by the Lutherans, but a significant gain when compared with 1529. In 1546 Charles V finally had the opportunity to move against the Lutherans, as had been his intention as far back as the Diet of Worms (1521). His long absence from Germany, caused by the revolt in Spain in the early 1520s and the threat from Francis I of France and Suleiman the Magnificent, was of huge advantage to the Reformation. The ensuing Schmalkaldic War (1546–47) led to an attempt to settle the religious issues without a church council. This compromise – called an Interim – was acceptable to neither Protestants nor Catholics, and only the presence of Spanish occupation troops in northern Europe kept it in effect. Revolt, or the so-called War of Liberation, followed in which Maurice, Elector of Saxony, changed

sides, Henry II of France assisted against the Emperor, and Charles himself, having briefly enjoyed peace and almost universal victory, was forced to flee for safety through the snowswept Alps. Once Martin Luther had passed from the scene, a period of bitter theological warfare occurred within Protestantism. There was controversy over such matters as the difference between justification and sanctification; which doctrine was essential or non-essential; faith and works; and the nature of the ‘real presence’ at the Eucharist. This is the period of ‘confessionalization’, when Lutheranism developed a set system of beliefs and categories, defining it as a distinctive denomination or dogma – a development Luther had both foreseen and lamented. The Book of Concord, which sets out what we now understand as Lutheranism, was published in 1580. It included Melanchthon’s Augsburg Confession and Augsburg Apology, Luther’s two catechisms, the Schmalkaldic Articles drawn up in 1537, and the Formula of Concord. The dogmatism of some of the extreme Lutheran theologians now drove many people over to the Reformed or Calvinist church. Meanwhile the Reformed Christians in Germany adopted the Heidelberg Confession (1563) as their statement of faith.

ATL OC

Lisbon

Emperor Charles V.

96

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 96

09/06/2015 15:39

Christian Europe following the Peace of Augsburg, 1560

Catholic Lutheran Anglican Calvinist/Reformed

Calvinist influenced Lutheran influenced Orthodox Muslim

map 35

Anabaptist minorities Holy Roman Empire boundary Ottoman Empire boundary

SWEDEN

Oslo

N O R WAY

Stockholm

N ORTH SEA

SCOTLAND Edinburgh

L I VO NI A

DENMARK Copenhagen

CO U R L AND

B A LT I C SEA

PRUSSIA

IRELAND

Elbe R.

ENGLAND WALES

Marburg

i ne Rh

Antwerp

Wittenberg

R.

Strasbourg

Paris Orleans

FRANCE

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Rhône R.

Bordeaux Toulouse

Lisbon

PORTUGAL

Eb ro R.

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

rR

POLAND

.

SILESIA Krakow

HUNGARY

Vienna

Basel

AUSTRIA

Geneva

Trent

D ne

VENICE

GENOA

Genoa Florence

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

PAPAL STATES

(MUSLIM MINORITY)

Rome

NAPLES Naples

Barcelona SARDINIA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Palermo SICILY Miles 0 100 0 100 200 Kilometers

200

300

400

CO N F E S S I O N A L I Z AT I O N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 97

ister R.

Venice

Madrid

S PA I N

Warsaw

BOHEMIA Regensburg MORAVIA

SWISS CONFEDERATION

Lyons

de

O

London

LITHUANIA

BRANDENBURG

SPANISH NETHERLANDS

Danube R.

Dublin

97

09/06/2015 15:39

Papal Reform and Reaction 98

It has often been implied that the divide between the reforming Lutherans and Calvinists and the Church of Rome quickly became so wide and deep as to be unbridgeable. In fact there remained strong reforming pressures and groups within the Roman Catholic Church, often influenced by Humanist learning and a search for spirituality and renewal. A number of leaders in the Roman church were exploring ideas not dissimilar to those of Luther and the Protestant reformers, and many conferences and debates were held attempting to resolve differences and re-unite the church. Italy itself came much closer to turning Protestant than has usually been imagined. After the excesses and corruption of some of the Renaissance popes, Pope Paul III (r. 1534–49) began to take steps to correct abuses and bring about renewal in the Roman Catholic Church. He appointed reformers to the College of Cardinals, set up a papal reform commission, and in 1545 convened the Council of Trent. Among the new cardinals created were Gasparo Contarini (1483–1542), Gian Pietro Carafa (later Paul IV, 1476–1559), Reginald Pole (1500–58), Jacopo Sadoleto (1477–1547), Pietro Bembo (1470–1547), and Jean du Bellay (c. 1493–1567). The papal reform commission that Paul appointed issued a formal report in 1537, and on its recommendation he reformed the papal bureaucracy, ordered an end to taking money for spiritual favours, and forbade the buying and selling of church appointments.

The Council of Trent Paul III’s most significant action was to call an ecumenical church council to deal with reform and the growing threat of Protestantism. As its venue he named the city of Trent (Trentino), just inside the area of the Italian peninsula ruled by the Emperor. His choice offended the French, who sent only a handful of church leaders to the council. Delayed by the continuing conflict between Charles V and Francis I, the council came too late to re-unite Christian Europe; it could only reform, shore up, and define the polarization on the Roman Catholic side. For part of the period of the council’s gestation and deliberations, the

pope was formally at war with the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, or with his son, Philip II of Spain. By the time it convened, Lutheranism was already an organized body of doctrine, Strasbourg and Hesse were decided on their religious path, and Calvin well into his second period in Geneva.

Trent I The council met in three main sessions: 1545–47, 1551–52, and 1562–63. It was not a continuous meeting, but in effect three separate gatherings attended by three different, but overlapping, groups of representatives of the Roman Church. Attendance was scanty and irregular for such a significant project, and on occasion feelings ran so high that physical fights broke out between delegates. The first session opened with only four archbishops, twenty bishops, four generals of monastic orders, and a few theologians present – and without the lay princes to whom the Reformers looked for leadership. Some Catholic Humanist reformers attended – such as Reginald Pole – some of whom Protestants such as Bucer and Melanchthon had worked with previously at re-union meetings in 1540–41. The Council’s method of voting gave the pro-papal Italian bloc control. There was agreement that the Bible and tradition are equally valid sources of truth; the church alone can interpret the Bible authoritatively; and that Jerome’s translation, the Vulgate, was normative. This made reconciliation

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 98

09/06/2015 15:39

036 A COUNCIL TRENT 1545-47

03

The Council of Trent 1545–47

map 36

Holy Roman Empire boundary

N ORT H S E A

Elb e

ENGL AND Reginald Pole

Aachen

. eR Rhin

London

Paris

A T L AN TI C O C E AN

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

R.

Berlin

POLAND

Few Germans Cardinal Madruzzo represents Emperor

Ferdinand Vienna of Austria sends legates as consultants

Augsburg

Trent

Geneva

Danube

FRANCE

VENICE

Bologna PAPAL STATES

Lisbon

PORTUGA

L

Rome Spanish bishops supported by Charles V

Madrid

M

Trent II The largest number of delegates to attend the second session of the Council was fifty-nine. The Emperor held back the German bishops from this session until the pope agreed to allow Protestants to attend. Even then, the pope did not agree to the Emperor’s demand that the Protestants be allowed to vote. As a result, no leading Lutheran theologians,

NAPLES Naples

Pope Paul III (1534-49) moves council to Bologna Cardinals Pole, Delmonte & Cervini represent Pope

S PA I N

with Protestants impossible, since the Reformers asserted the primacy of the Bible, and the preacher’s responsibility to interpret Scripture from the original texts. Decrees on justification, original sin, and the sacraments all strengthened the barrier between the churches.

Italian legates form majority

ED ITERR A NEA N

S

EA

100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

Reformed, or Calvinists came. However three delegations of Protestants arrived in late 1551, from Brandenburg, Württemberg, and Strasbourg, joined by representatives of Maurice of Saxony in 1552. These Protestants called unsuccessfully for the re-opening of discussion on earlier council decisions. They also attempted to get the council to re-affirm the supremacy of a church General Council over the pope, as had been agreed at the Council of Basel (1431–49). Reckoning nothing would be gained by staying, the Protestants departed in March 1552. The inability or unwillingness of the two sides to reach any understanding illustrates the gulf between them.

PA PA L R E F O R M A N D R E A C T I O N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 99

Miles 0

99

09/06/2015 15:39

036 B COUNCIL TRENT

1551-2

04

The Council of Trent 1551–52 Holy Roman Empire boundary

map 37

N O RT H S E A

Elb e

ENGL AND Aachen

. eR Rhin

London

Paris

A T L ANT IC O C E AN

R.

Berlin

POLAND

Protestant delegates attend Jan-March 1552 Few German Catholics attend

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE Vienna

Augsburg

FRANCE

Trent

Geneva

Danube

Few French attend

VENICE

Bologna PAPAL STATES

Lisbon

PORTUGA

L

Rome Delmonte made Pope Julius III: persuades some Lutherans to attend

Few Spanish attend

Madrid

S PA I N M

ED ITERR A NEA N

With little participation from France or Spain, and dominated by the Italian faction, the council condemned Calvinist, Zwinglian, and Lutheran views and reaffirmed the doctrine of transubstantiation.

Trent III The Council did not meet at all during the papacy of the virulently anti-Protestant Paul IV (r. 1555–59), and the Jesuits dominated its third and final session. Present were two influential members of the Society of Jesus, Diego Laynez and Alfonso Salmerón. This session was the best attended, with as many as 255 at one of its meetings, and the most productive. Substantial delegations

100

S

EA

NAPLES Naples Miles 0

100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

from Spain and France appeared, the latter sometimes at cross-purposes with the Italians. The Spanish were doctrinal hardliners, sensitive to the wishes of Charles V, who was also King Charles I of Spain. A number of issues debated in earlier sessions were resolved. Medieval orthodoxy was reaffirmed for most of the doctrines under dispute in the Reformation. Transubstantiation, and established medieval practices connected with the Mass were all upheld. The seven sacraments were insisted upon, and celibacy of the clergy, the existence of purgatory, and indulgences all reaffirmed. However, the post of indulgenceseller was abolished and abuses linked to the

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 100

09/06/2015 15:39

036 C COUNCIL TRENT 1562-3

03

The Council of Trent 1562–63 Holy Roman Empire boundary

map 38

N ORT H S E A

Elb e

ENGL AND Aachen

. eR Rhin

London

Paris

A T L AN TI C O C EAN

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

R.

Berlin

POLAND

Few German Protestants or Catholics attend

Vienna

Augsburg

FRANCE

Trent

Geneva

Danube

Cardinal of Lorraine leads a large French delegation

VENICE

Bologna

PAPAL STATES

Lisbon

PORTUGA

L

Rome Philip II supports large Spanish delegation

1564 Bull Benedictus Deus: Pope claims sole right to interpret canons and decrees

Madrid

S PA I N M

distribution of indulgences were condemned. The Council also increased papal authority by giving the pope the power to enforce the decrees of the council, and requiring church officials to promise him obedience. Important reforming measures were also passed on education, providing for the improved training of priests and for control of their conduct. After the Council adjourned, its actions were confirmed and issued by Pope Pius IV in January 1564, along with his decisions on several issues that the Council had left unsettled. Scholastic-style theological definitions – with curses on anyone who did not agree with them – killed any

Cardinal Morone presides: leads Italian overall majority

ED ITERR A NEA N

S

NAPLES Naples

EA

100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

lingering Protestant hopes that church unity might be restored. Trent ruled out any possibility of Christian reconciliation in the immediate future. But by re-elevating the papacy, by improving church organization, by dealing with the most glaring abuses pointed out by Protestant Reformers, and by clarifying doctrine and dogma, the Council of Trent gave the Church of Rome a clear position to uphold over the following centuries. The work of Trent stood the church in good stead during the wars of religion and the period of missionary expansion that lay ahead, providing a sense of renewed purpose and recovered morale.

PA PA L R E F O R M A N D R E A C T I O N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 101

Miles 0

101

09/06/2015 15:39

Ignatius Loyola

Ignatius Loyola (c. 1491–1556), founder and leader of the Society of Jesus, is one of the most dramatic and influential figures in Christian history. He combined the spirituality of monasticism with the Crusaders’ tradition of heroism in a disciplined programme for nurturing the individual soul and mind, and possessed a genius for charismatic and clear-headed leadership. A Spanish nobleman, Ignatius was born in 1491 at the castle of Loyola, near the Pyrenees. He became a professional soldier, but in 1521a leg wound cut short his military career. While recovering, he resolved to become a devoted follower of Jesus. Whereas Luther found peace by rejecting the traditions of the medieval church in favour of the basics of primitive Christianity, Loyola found peace by rededicating himself to the conventions of the medieval church.

Spiritual Exercises

cornerstone for the new ascetic order that Loyola founded.

Society of Jesus Between 1524 and 1534 Loyola studied at Barcelona, Alcalá, Salamanca, and Paris, as he prepared to serve God. On 15 August 1534 he and six friends vowed to practise poverty, chastity, and celibacy, and to devote the rest of their lives to mission, initiating the ‘Society of Jesus’, popularly known as the Jesuits. They Ignatius Loyola (c. 1491–1556).

Loyola travelled to the Montserrat Monastery, where he took monastic vows and hung up his arms in the chapel of the ‘Black Madonna’. After temptations and agonies of soul that parallel Luther’s – he spent a whole year (1522–23) in prayer and meditation – he was given Christian assurance in visions and trances. He worked on the first edition of his manual of self-discipline, Spiritual Exercises, and then made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. His book, with its powerful appeal to the imagination and emphasis on obedience to Christ and to the Church of Rome, provided the

102

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 102

09/06/2015 15:39

Ignatius Loyola and the Formation of the Society of Jesus

N ORT H S E A

map 39

Hamburg Elb e

ENGL AND

R.

Oxford London R. ne Rhi

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Se ine R.

Paris

be

R.

Vienna

1528-35 Studies at University With companions, including Francis Xavier, takes vows

FRANCE

1

Milan

1491 Born 1521-2 Spiritual conversion whilst convalescent 1552-3 Formulates Spiritual Exercises

Loyola

PAPAL STATES

GUIPUZCOA

Pamplona

PORTUGAL

S PA I N

Xavier Manresa

Salamanca Alcalá Madrid

Rome

Barcelona

2

Montserrat 1522 Claims vision of Mary

NAPLES Naples 7

5

1539 forms Society of Jesus (Jesuits) Loyola Superior-General 1540 Pope Paul III approves Jesuits 1556 dies

4

1524-6 Studies at university Suspected of belonging to heretical alumbrados

1523-4 Sails to Holy Land Sent back by Franciscans

M 200

VENICE Venice Ferrara

3

0 100 200 Kilometers

nu

6

A T L A NTI C O CEAN

Miles 0 100

Da

ED ITERR A NEA N

S

EA

300

400

wanted to secure papal blessing to travel to the Holy Land, but this proved impossible as the Emperor, the pope, and Venice were all involved in attempting to break up an alliance between Francis I and Suleiman I. In 1540 the new order received written authorization from Paul III and set out to

accomplish its mission to carry the gospel to the peoples of newly discovered continents. The Jesuits regarded themselves as a new spiritual élite, at the pope’s disposal to use however he thought appropriate for spreading the ‘true church’. Absolute, unquestioning, military-style, obedience became its hallmark.

I G N AT I U S LOYO L A

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 103

103

09/06/2015 15:39

Rise of the Jesuits

When war between Venice and the Turks prevented their passage to Palestine, Ignatius Loyola and his six disciples began to work in north Italian cities. They gathered new recruits, sought direction from Pope Paul III, and elected Loyola as their general. In addition to the traditional vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, the Jesuits insisted on an oath of absolute obedience to the pope. Every member of the Society was to obey the pope and the general of the order as unquestioningly ‘as a corpse’. The purpose of the society was to propagate the faith by every means at their disposal. Recruits had to be healthy, intelligent, and eloquent; no one of bad character or with unorthodox beliefs was admitted. The new order was highly centralized: its leaders were all appointed by the general, who was himself elected for life. It had no religious uniform, no bodily penances or fasts, and no choral recitation of the daily liturgy, which gave its members great flexibility compared with other orders, allowing them to become men of action. The Jesuit was expected to cultivate an inner life based on meditation and Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises. Although Loyola valued quality over quantity, the order grew rapidly, especially attracting the younger sons of noble families. When the founder died in 1556, there were already more than 1,500 Jesuits, mainly in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, but also in France, Germany, the Low Countries, India, Brazil, Japan, Africa, and almost every other country in Europe.

Three tasks The Jesuits’ work focussed on three main tasks: education, counteracting Protestantism, and missionary expansion into new areas. Education quickly became a major emphasis; within a decade the Jesuits had established a dozen colleges. Their schools soon became celebrated for their high standards and attainments, and many of the élite were won to Roman Catholicism by this means. A familiar Jesuit saying ran: ‘Give me a child until he is

104

seven and he will remain a Catholic the rest of his life.’ Education was based on the Plan of Studies of 1599, which purified and simplified Renaissance Humanism. Philosophy in Jesuit schools generally followed Aristotle, while theology was adapted from Thomas Aquinas, for example in the system drawn up by Francisco Suarez (1548–1617), who taught at Alcalá and Coimbra. Loyola did not found the Jesuits in order to combat Protestantism, but during the second half of the sixteenth century and throughout the seventeenth this increasingly became a Jesuit goal. In France, the Low Countries, southern Germany, and particularly in eastern Europe, the Jesuits led the counter-attack against Protestants. Using a variety of means, they recaptured large areas for the Church of Rome, earning a reputation as ‘the feared and formidable storm-troops of the Counter Reformation’ (Hillerbrand). Only in England did their campaign fail. Several Jesuits served as papal representatives, or legates, in negotiations to tie countries such as Ireland, Sweden, and Russia more firmly to Rome. Other Jesuits served as court preacher or confessor to the Emperor, the kings of France and Poland, and the dukes of Bavaria. Peter Canisius (1521–97) from Nijmegen, in the Low Countries, an able preacher, apologist, and diplomat, became the most successful adversary of the Reformation in Germany and Poland. Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621) from Montepulciano, Tuscany, wrote catechisms and anti-Protestant works of theology that remained influential for centuries.

ATL OC

Lisbon

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 104

09/06/2015 15:39

038 of RISE THE JESUITS 04n The Rise and Distribution theOF Jesuits

Major Jesuit centre Major Jesuit centre with seminary Jesuit seminary Jesuit school or other institution

map 40

Area Catholic in 1560 Catholic area lost to Protestantism after 1560 Area regained by Catholicism by 1648 Protestant Orthodox Muslim

N ORTH SEA

SCOTLAND

B A LT I C SEA Vilnius Braunsberg

IRELAND

PRUSSIA

ENGLAND

UNITED PROVINCES

London

Liège

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Glatz Prague Krakow Olmutz Mainz Rouen Kuttenberg Rheims Pont-à-Mousson Krumlau Brno Dillingen Paris 1534 Jesuit Ingolstadt Nancy Trnava movement starts Molsheim Founded1549 Centre of Vienna Jesuits in Germany La Flèche 1562-3 Jesuits dominate Graz Dôle SWISS 3rd session of Council Bourges CONFEDERATION HUNGARY Neuhaus Trent F R A N C E Lyons Padua Bordeaux Parma Avignon Genoa Toulouse St Omer

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Fulda

Trier

1542 First Jesuit college founded by Andrea Lippomano

Santiago de Compostela

PORTUGAL

Valladolid

Lisbon

POLAND

Rome

1540 Jesuits recognized by Pope

Salamanca Madrid Toledo

S PA I N

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

ITALY Naples

Valencia

Seville

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Palermo Messina 1548 First Jesuit school

Miles 0 100 0 100 200 Kilometers

200

300

400

RISE OF THE JESUITS

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 105

105

09/06/2015 15:39

Francis Xavier

The courageous Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier (1506–52) towered above his peers as the ‘apostle to the Indies and to Japan’. Xavier was born into the Spanish nobility in Navarre, Spain. In 1525, he went to study at the University of Paris, where he became one of the founding members of the Society of Jesus. When John III of Portugal asked the Jesuits for missionaries for his empire, Xavier responded, arriving in Goa, India, in May 1542. Admired for his ability to live and work alongside the poor, Francis soon moved on to Sri Lanka, the Molucca Islands, the Banda Islands, and the Malay Peninsula, preaching and baptizing wherever he went.

The Travels of Francis Xavier

E

ATLANTIC OCEAN

U

R

O

F R ANC E

S PAI N

PO RTUG AL 1541 Departs Lisbon on Santiago

In August 1549, Xavier landed at Kagoshima, Japan, and – as in his previous missions – adapted to local mores to attract converts to establish a Christian community. He then sailed to Shangchuan (‘St John’s’) Island, near Canton, but was unable to reach the mainland as it was closed to foreigners. Before Xavier could gain entry into China, fever incapacitated him, and in 1552 he died, aged only forty-six.

A

F

R

I

C

A

Melinde

Z

Statue of Francis Xavier and St Paul’s Church, Malacca.

Mozam

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Miles 0 0 500 Kilometers

106

500 1000

1541-42 Stays 6 months

1000 1500

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 106

P

09/06/2015 15:39

map 41

O

P

E A

S

I

A 1550-51

JAPAN

Yamaguchi

C H I N A December 1552 Dies of fever

I N D I A

1549

Kagoshima

1549

Canton Shangchuan

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Bombay Goa

A

SOCOTRA

May 1542,1548, 1552 leaves for China on Santa Cruz Cape Comorin

St Thomas

SRI LANKA

MA TR

Melinde

A

ZANZIBAR

1546 Maluku Islands: Amboin, Ternate, Baranura, Morotai

Malacca

SU

Oct 1542-1545 Remains in South India & Sri Lanka

1544,1546-7, 1549,1551

B O R NE O MO LU CCAS

INDIAN OCEAN

Mozambique

1541-42 Stays 6 months

A U S T R A L I A

F R A N C I S X AV I E R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 107

107

09/06/2015 15:39

CUBA La Paz

09/06/2015 15:40

PUERTO RICO

Mexico City

MEXI CO

1589

1514

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 108

Santo Domingo

HISPANIOLA

San Juan A

Tropic of Capricorn

NI

Los Angeles

San Francisco

OR

Tucson

ad lor Co LIF

de

El Paso

an Gr Rio

1533

Baton Rouge San New Orleans Antonio

e R. sse ne n Te

Santa Fe

INDIAN T ER R I TO R I ES CA

ID A

La Tampico

St Augustine

1566

1566

Arlington Richmond

L. Michigan

M

. uri R isso

NORTH AMERICA

L. Superior

L. Erie

R. ence Quebec awr St L N E WN C E FRA N OVA L. Ontario SCOT I A

1640

N ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

1611

map 42 ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS TO THE AMERICAS

Catholic Missions to America

F LO R

oR .

Columbus landed in the West Indies in the same year that the Spanish drove the Moors out of their last stronghold in Spain, and his companions brought the same crusading zeal to the New World. Combining a desire for wealth and military success with dedication to Christian mission, they created a huge Spanish empire in the Americas. Although the men who led Spain’s conquest of Latin America were often cruel and used questionable means to achieve their objectives, they saw themselves as fulfilling a mission to liberate the natives from superstitious practices. Hernán Cortes (1485–1547), who led the conquest of Mexico, attended Mass daily, carried a statue of the Virgin Mary with him wherever he went, and displayed the cross on the flag he carried. Using brutal methods, the Spanish conquered the Aztec kingdom in Mexico and the Incas of Peru. Cortes slaughtered more than 3,000 Cholula in Mexico, and in 1532 Francisco Pizarro (c. 1471/76–1541), the conqueror of Peru, massacred thousands of Incas. The Inca leader was sentenced to death by burning at the stake; but when he agreed to be baptized, his sentence was commuted to death by strangling. The conquest of Mexico and Peru provided Spain with a rich source of precious metals and vast tracts of land which were granted to Spanish settlers. In return for providing protection and instruction in the Christian faith, the landowners were allowed to use the natives as virtual slaves. Although Queen Isabella of Spain forbade enslavement of the

Mississipp i R.

108

Following Pope Alexander VI’s line of demarcation, the Portuguese colonized Brazil while the remainder of Latin America fell within the Spanish sphere of influence.

P ACIFIC OCEAN

La Paz

Carmelite mission Capuchin mission Jesuit mission Franciscan mission Augustinian mission Dominican mission Sulpician mission Mercedarian mission Jesuit ‘reductions’ from 1610

Tropic of Cancer

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

C AT H O L I C M I S S I O N S TO A M E R I C A 1500

1000

Quito

Santiago

La Paz

Cuzco

PERU

1500

R.

Santa Cruz

SOUTH AMERICA

Espiritu Santo

mazon Manaus A

Bahia

Montevideo

Line of demarcation: Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494

ATLANTIC OCEAN

SOUTH

1549

1580

Recife

Fortaleza

1500

Rio de Janeiro

Sao Luís

1639

Sao Paolo

B R A ZIL

Belem

Santa Maria

Buenos Aires

Córdoba

R.

1000

500

Caracas

ANTILLES

o Salad

0 500 Kilometers

Miles 0

1566 1511 Darien

1483

San Juan

PUERTO RICO

HISPANIOLA

Santo Domingo

CUBA

Panama NEW GRANADA Medellin Santa Fé de Bogotá Cali

NEW SPAIN

1535

1551

1568

Guatemala

1533

1589

La Tampico

Oaxaca

Mexico City

MEXI CO

Paran aR .

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 109

Paraguay R.

109

09/06/2015 15:40

Statue of Francisco Pizarro, Trujillo, Caceres, Spain.

native population and Emperor Charles V attempted to protect their rights, the colonists ignored the rules laid down by the distant government. In view of the appalling way in which they were treated, it is surprising many Native Americans did convert to Christianity: it was claimed more than one million were baptized between 1524 and 1531. However, clearly enthusiastic missionaries overestimated their success. Moreover conversion was often superficial; many ‘converts’ had minimal understanding of their new faith. Frequently the result was syncretism, with pre-Christian practices and beliefs surviving and mingling with Christian tradition. Generally the Spanish treated the natives as inferior, and although in 1536 one bishop founded a college to train native priests near Mexico City, the Spanish laity repudiated the concept of native clergy. A few Spanish priests protested, best known of whom was Bartolomé de Las Casas (1484–1566), whose father had sailed with Columbus on his second voyage. De Las Casas became convinced the current treatment of Native Americans was evil and

110

contrary to Christian teaching, and from 1514 he spent his life campaigning for their rights. He worked tirelessly in Spain and the Spanish colonies to improve conditions for Native Americans, often encountering fierce opposition. A few other priests and laymen also came to the natives’ defence.

Jesuit missions As they went to America, Africa, and Asia in search of converts, Jesuit priests often travelled in Spanish and Portuguese ships in search of new colonies and new riches. They endowed their converts with their own enthusiastic brand of Catholicism. The Jesuits played a leading role in the conversion of Brazil and Paraguay, and, with the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Augustinians, led the Church of Rome in a period of rapid overseas expansion between 1550 and 1650. Almost all of Mexico, Central and South America, along with a large part of the population of the Philippines, became adherents of the Roman Catholic Church by these means at this time.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 110

09/06/2015 15:40

on a square pattern with the church at the centre. Residents led a rather regimented life, separated from the ‘corruption’ of the wider society, in a system that has been criticized for its paternalism and regimentation.

The Jesuits set up around thirty of these reservations, known as ‘Reductions’, which included hospitals, schools, and provision for entertainment and work. Sites for these Reductions were chosen for their healthy climate and proximity to water, and planned

041 JESUIT REDUCTIONS 04 Jesuit Reductions in Paraguay

map 43

Asunción

A G

U A Y

a R.

R

Pa

P A

ra n

Jesuit ‘Reduction’

Jesuit Reductions

The Jesuits introduced a controversial method of protecting Native Americans from exploitation. Between 1583 and 1605 they created a system of self-sufficient native reservations that offered a settlement and refuge for the Guarani Indians of Paraguay and Brazil who had been enslaved by the Spanish colonists. Although colonists opposed this policy, Philip III of Spain aided the Jesuits by means of subsidies and legal measures. This venture later became so successful that the Spanish government no longer needed to subsidize it.

Santa María de Fe Santa Rosa Jésus Santiago Trinidad Itapua Santa Cosmé y Damian

Santa Ignacio Guazú Pa ra n a R .

Corpus San Ignacio Mini Loreto . yR Santa Ana ua g Candelaria u Ur San José Mártires San Carlos Apóstoles San Javier Concepción Santa María

ra g u ay R.

Corrientes

Pa

Rio

P AC IFIC OCEAN

Rio de Janeiro Sao Paolo

Ij San Nicolás San Luis u i

Santo Tomé

San Lorenzo San Borja

San Juan San Miguel

R.

Santiago

San Angel

A TL AN TI C O CEAN

Yapeyú

gu

La Cruz

ru

S O U TH

ay

Buenos Aires

U

Miles 0

50

100

0 50 100 Kilometers

JESUIT REDUCTIONS

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 111

111

09/06/2015 15:40

French Religious Wars 112

By 1555 there was a Reformed church in Paris, and five years later more than seventy Protestant congregations in France. From the late 1550s the French Protestants, who included many from the rich nobility and merchant and manufacturing middle classes, became known as ‘Huguenots’. In 1559 a Protestant General Synod met and adopted a strongly Calvinistic confession of faith. In an attempt to reconcile French Protestants and Roman Catholics, a Colloquy was held in 1561 at Poissy, near Paris, led on the Catholic side by Cardinal François de Tournon (1489–1562), and on the Huguenot side by Theodore Beza and Peter Martyr Vermigli; but it failed in its aims. Between 1562 and 1598 a series of eight civil wars raged intermittently in a struggle for power between the Huguenots and Roman Catholics. A brief lull followed the Peace of St Germain (1570), which granted the nobility freedom of worship, allowed Huguenots two places of worship in each district of France, and put four cities – Cognac, La Charité, Montauban, and La Rochelle – under Huguenot control.

St Bartholomew’s Day massacre But on St Bartholomew’s Day 1572, Huguenots in Paris and elsewhere were massacred in cold blood, a blow that shattered – but did not destroy – Protestantism in France. When the Protestant Henry IV succeeded to the French throne in 1589, Protestant hopes ran high; but French Catholics formed an alliance with the King of Spain and

threatened to plunge the country in blood if he remained a Protestant. Henry yielded for the sake of peace and to preserve his throne: he is falsely supposed to have claimed, ‘Paris is well worth a Mass.’ After further devastation, and with all parties exhausted, a compromise was reached in the Edict of Nantes of 1598. This gave Huguenots the right to public office and public worship except in Paris, Rheims, Toulouse, Lyons, and Dijon; and a number of cities were listed as Protestant ‘places of refuge’. Meanwhile Roman Catholicism remained the official religion of the realm, now followed by a majority of the population.

Edict of Nantes The Edict of Nantes compromise endured precariously until revoked by King Louis XIV (1643–1715) in 1685, for which action the Jesuits were partly responsible. This caused hundreds of Protestants to reconvert to Catholicism and thousands more to flee the country. Many Huguenots made their way to Geneva, the Netherlands, Prussia, England, and North America; others remained and suffered persecution or fled to the mountains of central France in an attempt to avoid it.

ATL OC

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 112

09/06/2015 15:40

042 inFRENCH The Wars of Religion France WARS OF RELIGION

map 44

N ORTH SEA

ENGLAND

WALES

09

Major Huguenot church c.1580 Huguenot church c. 1580 Huguenot stronghold Concentration of Huguenot refugees St Bartholomew’s Day and subsequent massacres Controlled by Huguenots in 1598 Part controlled by Huguenots in 1598

London Canterbury Southampton

Winchelsea

Rye

NETHERLANDS

ENGLISH CHANNEL PICARDY

Sedan

Rouen Se

ne

i

Jersey

NORMANDY

1561 Colloquy fails to reconcile Catholics and Protestants

R.

Meaux Paris

Poissy

1572 Massacre of Protestants on St Bartholomew’s Day 1594 Henry IV reverts to Catholicism

B R I T TA N Y

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Troyes

Loir eR .

1598 Edict temporarily ends religious conflict

Angers Nantes

BUR GUNDY La Charité

Bourges

Saumur

Neuchâtel SWISS CONFEDERATION

POITOU

ATLANTIC OCEAN

1627-8 After siege La Rochelle Huguenots subjugated

Geneva

Cognac

Lyons

AUVER GNE

GASCONY Pau San Sebastian NAVARRE

Grenoble

.

Bordeaux

SAVOY

Rh ô n e R

FRANCE

Montauban Toulouse

Orange

Albi Gaillac

Avignon Montpellier

LANGUEDOC

1562, 1569 Catholics massacre Protestants after attempt to seize city

Turin

DAUPHINÉ

PR OVENCE Marseille

MEDITERRANEAN SEA Miles 0

S PA I N

50

0 50 100 Kilometers

F R E N C H R E L I G I O U S WA R S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 113

100 150

113

09/06/2015 15:40

Netherlands Reform

For 600 years the Low Countries had belonged to a middle kingdom between the Frankish and Germanic powers – most recently Burgundy. The region was divided into seventeen autonomous provinces: those in the northern provinces spoke Flemish or Dutch, while the Walloons, in the southern provinces, spoke a dialect of French. United under the Duke of Burgundy, the people possessed a strong sense of independence. The earliest Protestants in the Netherlands were Lutherans, soon followed by Anabaptists. After the fall of the radical outpost of Münster, the peaceable Mennonites became the dominant Anabaptist group in the Low Countries. In 1509, Charles V, himself born in the Low Countries, became Duke of Burgundy. Initially he reacted to religious diversity with suppression: between 1518 and 1528 around 400 people were sentenced for religious dissent. The first to be burned were two Lutherans in 1523, but such persecution was unpopular even among Catholics. Local authorities were reluctant to enforce the laws against heresy and people sometimes rose locally in protest against executions.

Calvinism In the 1550s Calvinism began to appear. Guido de Bres (or Guy de Bray, 1522–67), a French-speaking minister trained in Geneva, drafted the Belgic Confession in 1561; this was accepted by a Synod in Antwerp in 1566, and at Dort in 1619. In 1574 the University of Leiden was founded to promote Reformed theology. The Belgic Confession was presented to the new ruler of the Netherlands, Philip II of Spain, with an affirmation of loyalty. However he was fiercely committed to Roman Catholicism and unwilling to make concessions to heretics. Philip persisted in persecution even when it was clear he was alienating his subjects. Determined as

114

he was to stamp out heresy and curb the independent spirit of the Low Countries, war inevitably resulted.

Revolt against Spain The religious war that ensued was largely a revolt against Spain, led by the Counts of Egmont and Horn and William of Orange (‘William the Silent’, 1533–84). In 1566 iconoclastic riots broke out across the Low Countries, as zealous Protestants attacked churches and monasteries and destroyed images. Philip had withdrawn to Spain, and after his sister, the regent, Margaret of Parma, made some religious concessions, the Protestants and Orange, Egmont, and Horn helped restore order. From April 1566 to April 1567 there was a brief respite in persecution – the ‘wonder year’ – during which Protestantism prospered and grew significantly. But in 1567 Philip II took his revenge, sending the brutal Duke of Alba (or Alva) with 10,000 troops to commence a reign of terror. Egmont and Horn, who had earlier helped suppress the riots and declared their loyalty to Philip, were publicly executed and soon celebrated as martyrs. Between 6,000 and 8,000 people suspected of heresy were brought before the ‘Council of Troubles’ – known by the rebels as the ‘Council of Blood’ – and many of them executed. Penal taxation was imposed and local autonomy suppressed. Many Protestants fled to neighbouring countries.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 114

09/06/2015 15:40

043 PROSTESTANTISM IN THE NETHERLANDS 05 The Early Reformation in the Netherlands

map 45

Spread of Protestantism 1545-65 Outbreaks of iconoclasm 1566 ‘the wonder-year’

Leeuwarden

FRIESLAND

GRONINGEN Groningen

Ems R.

N ORTH S EA The Hague

Amsterdam HOLLAND Leiden UTRECHT Delft

GERMANY

‘s-Hertogenbosch Breda

Ghent

FLA ND ERS Oudenarde

S ch e l d t R

.

Brussels

Tournai

Antwerp

Me

u

R.

Hulst

R.

Bruges

Venlo Turnhout

Rhi n e

BRABANT

se

Middelburg

Mechelen Louvain

BISHOPRIC OF LIÈGE

LUXEMBOURG

H A I NAUT Valenciennes BISHOPRIC OF CAMBRAI

FRANCE Miles 0 0 Kilometers

50 50

NETHERLANDS REFORM

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 115

115

09/06/2015 15:40

Dutch Reform 116

William the Silent emerged as the hero of the struggle with Spain, finding his strongest support in the northern provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht, where Calvinism had made significant gains. In 1572 his ‘sea beggars’ captured a number of ports and defeated the Spanish fleet in the Zuider Zee. The rebels even opened the dikes to hinder the invading Spanish army. Philip II was never able to regain the northern provinces and by 1577 had lost most of the Low Countries. The ‘Spanish Fury’ – when the unpaid Spanish troops in the southern provinces sacked Antwerp and murdered up to 8,000 of its inhabitants – enraged the people of the southern provinces and in November 1576 they joined the northern provinces in a treaty known as the Pacification of Ghent. The following year all the provinces joined in the Union of Brussels; people of both confessions combined to resist the Spanish tyranny. The Spanish cause was rescued by a new commander, the Duke of Parma, who arrived with 20,000 troops in 1578. Victorious on the battlefield, he regained the loyalty of the southern provinces in 1579 by the Union of Arras. In response, the northern provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Friesland, Overijssel, and Groningen joined in the Union of Utrecht, by which they committed themselves to freedom of conscience for all citizens. In 1581 the States-General of the northern provinces proclaimed the independence of the United Provinces of the Dutch Republic. William the Silent was assassinated in 1584, at a time when Parma was successfully regaining much territory, putting the Protestant cause in jeopardy. However the Dutch Protestants now produced two able new leaders: Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Maurice of Nassau. The latter recovered many of the towns Parma had captured, and by 1600 had effectively

blocked any further advance from the southern provinces.

Low Countries divided In 1609 the new ruler of Spain, Philip III, signed a Twelve Years’ Truce that recognized the division of the Low Countries into the Catholic southern provinces and the Protestant north. War recommenced in 1621, but now the Dutch held all the advantages. Their armies pushed the Spanish forces south and their fleet enjoyed great success. By the Peace of Westphalia (1648), Spain finally recognized the independence of the United Provinces.

Reformed Church Although the Calvinists played a major role in gaining independence from Spain, their ministers did not manage to turn the Netherlands into a new Geneva. The Reformed Church became the ‘public’ church in the sense that it was the only church the secular authorities recognized, but Remonstrants (followers of the theology of Arminius), Mennonites, and Lutherans were all allowed to hold services in their homes, and even Roman Catholic housechurches were not harassed. However in the southern provinces, Catholicism was restored and the remnants of Protestantism suppressed, in what now became known as the Spanish Netherlands.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 116

09/06/2015 15:40

044 CIVIL WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS 07 Civil War and Independence in the Netherlands

United Provinces Spanish Netherlands Disputed areas Church lands Approximate linguistic boundary Town with early Lutheran concentration Town with early Calvinist/Reformed concentration Town with early Anabaptist concentration

map 46

1550s Dutch and English exiles publish many Protestant titles 1571 Synod agrees Reformed Presbyterian order for Dutch Protestants

Emden

GRONINGEN

Leeuwarden

Groningen

FRIESLAND

DRENTHE

Z U ID E RZ E E

1584 William of Orange assassinated

The Hague

HOLLAND Woerden

UTRECHT Utrecht

OVERIJSSEL

GELDERLAND

Brill

ZEELAND

GERMANY UPPER GELDERLAND

Breda

. tR

Ypres

S ch

el d

1585 Spain reconquers Southern Netherlands after revolt

FLEMISH

HA I NAUT

Douai

R. se

Cologne Maastricht

Valenciennes

NAMUR Namur

LUXE M BOURG

le

BISHOPRIC OF CAMBRAI

R.

Cambrai

s

el

Arras

1579 Catholic provinces form Union of Arras loyal to Philip II of Spain

BISHOPRIC OF LIÈGE

u

WA L LO O N

Tournai

ARTOIS

Brussels

Me

R.

Ghent

Rhi n e

Calais

BRABANT

Antwerp

FLA ND ERS

Zutphen

Dort

1568 Protestants flee persecution to Emden and the Palatinate

Bruges

Deventer

ZUTPHEN

Delft

1572 Protestant ‘Sea Beggars’ set off rebellion against Alva

R.

N ORTH S EA

Zwolle

Amsterdam

Harlem

Ems

Egmont

1579 Seven northern provinces in Union of Utrecht declare independence of Spain

Mo

Luxembourg

1567 Philip II of Spain sends Duke of Alva to suppress Protestants

FRANCE Miles 0 0 Kilometers

50 50

D U TC H R E F O R M

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 117

117

09/06/2015 15:40

The Spanish Armada

Philip II formed his Grande y Felicísima Armada (‘Great and Most Happy Navy’) to respond to challenges to his Roman Catholic faith and his pride as King of Spain and Naples (from 1556) and Portugal (from 1580), and ruler of half the Habsburg lands plus the rich Spanish Empire in the New World. Convinced of his crusade to re-establish Catholic Christendom, he had ruthlessly put down the final revolt of the Moriscos – secret Moorish Muslims who had outwardly conformed to Catholicism (1569–71) – and won the critical Battle of Lepanto (7 October 1571), sinking 80 Turkish galleys and capturing 130 others. Philip had been vacillating about an attack on England, which was proving a constant irritant. The English were assisting the Dutch rebels, raiding Philip’s convoys from New Spain, defying the pope, and obedient to an excommunicated queen – Elizabeth. Finally, in 1587, England executed the Catholic Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, who had been forced into exile by John Knox and other Protestant leaders. In July 1588 Philip despatched the mighty Armada to conquer England and restore it to Roman Catholicism. The military force he assembled was among the largest ever gathered for a sea attack, consisting of 132 ships, 18,000 soldiers, 7,000 sailors, and 3,165 cannon. In addition Philip planned to pick up in Calais 17,000 battle-hardened troops under the command of the Duke of Parma, creating what seemed like an invincible force for the invasion of England. Once his troops had landed, Philip also expected Roman Catholics in England to rise up against their heretical queen.

Armada. Its ruin was completed by wild storms that drove the unwieldy Spanish galleons ashore as they sailed on around the British Isles. This famous victory continued to be celebrated long after Elizabeth’s death, and in the following century provided material for Protestant preachers to demonstrate that the English were a ‘chosen people’. Although English Roman Catholics remained loyal throughout the crisis, they nevertheless became identified with the threat from Spain. Philip II of Spain.

ATL OC

May Arma i

Disaster Facing a threat that might have brought an end to Protestantism, England waited in fear. But everything went wrong for the Spanish. Bad planning, poor communications, excellent English seamanship under Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and Lord Howard of Effingham, and a ‘Protestant wind’ that blew the Spanish ships away from the English coast brought disaster to the

118

1587 Fran M

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 118

09/06/2015 15:40

Philip II and the Destruction of the Spanish Armada

map 47 Route of Armada Battle Ships sunk Realms of Philip II

Shetland Is.

August - December 1588 19 ships destroyed by storms

N O R WAY

Orkney Is.

Hebrides

N ORTH SEA

Aberdeen

SWEDEN

SCOTLAND Admiral Howard calls off chase

Edinburgh

B A LT I C SEA

DENMARK

Some Spanish reach land

IRELAND

ENGLAND Blockaded by Dutch

ATLANTIC OCEAN

19 July Medina-Sidonia sees land

E NGLISH 21 July English attack

Brest

C

Le Havre

Gravelines

8 August English beat Spanish fleet Plan to join with Parma defeated

Calais roads 27 July Spanish anchor to meet Parma’s land force 28 July English fireships scatter Spanish fleet

R.

de

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE Da

n ub

rR

.

e R.

FRANCE Rhône R.

Winter 1588 67 Spanish ships return 12 July 1588 Armada sails again

Corunna

Santander Eb ro R.

PORTUGAL

May-July 1588 Armada dispersed in storm

DS

R.

Lizard

EL HANN

LAN

Antwerp E T H E R N Bruges S P A N I S HParma’s army of 30,000 Dunkirk waits to invade England

O

Bristol Solent Plymouth Portland

Amsterdam

e Elb

21 July English attack: 2 Spanish ships abandoned

London

ine

WALES

Rh

English prevent Spanish anchoring

S PA I N Madrid

Barcelona

NAPLES SARDINIA

Lisbon

MEDITERRANEAN SEA Cadiz 1587 Francis Drake destroys Spanish ships May 1588 Armada sets sail

SICILY Miles 0

100

0 100 200 Kilometers

T H E S PA N I S H A R M A D A

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 119

300

200 400

119

09/06/2015 15:40

Early Modern Europe

Part 4

The towers stand in flames, the church is violated. The strong are massacred … fire, pestilence and death my heart have dominated. Andreas Gryphius, 1636

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 120

09/06/2015 15:40

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 121

09/06/2015 15:40

Ireland

During the 1540s and early 1550s, English-style religious changes were cautiously introduced in Ireland, guided by the experienced Lord Deputy, Sir Anthony St Leger, who was personally no enthusiast for Protestantism. Most Irish bishops accepted the oath of royal supremacy to Henry VIII, and under Edward VI the government secured widespread use of the 1549 Book of Common Prayer. Only in the far north – in the remote and predominantly Gaelic parts of the Archdiocese of Armagh – was there no religious innovation. Mary Tudor’s restoration of traditional religion was enthusiastically welcomed in Ireland. She began to plant immigrant ‘New English’ settlers in the midland areas of King’s County and Queen’s County (Offaly and Leix), and Queen Elizabeth promoted further plantation schemes.

Plantation This New English plantation strategy made it easy for the Irish to regard all incoming Englishmen as enemies and provoked serious warfare in the 1570s and 1590s. The Gaelic aristocracy allied with agents of the Counter-Reformation and with England’s Catholic enemies – principally Spain, which made repeated but unsuccessful efforts to aid Irish Catholics. The Catholics now began to reshape Irish traditionalist religion and by the 1580s younger Irish clergy were increasingly choosing allegiance to the Pope rather than to the Queen. Thousands of Irish left for Catholic Spain or France, either permanently or to get a non-Protestant education. Between 1590 and 1649, six colleges were set up in Spain and Portugal with the main purpose of training Irish clergy. These clergy returned to share the popularity of the mendicant Orders, whose communal life had continued unbroken in many parts of western Ireland, often still in their original buildings. Only a handful of major

122

Irish towns established anything like a ‘well-regulated’ English Protestant parish, although the foundation of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1594 offered an education for the new Protestant governing class.

Scots settlers Previously the strongest Gaelic region of Ireland, the most extensive plantation scheme was implemented in Ulster. From 1609 James I backed projects to import settlers, mostly from the lawless border areas of Scotland. These new arrivals were not always convinced Protestants, but characteristically professed Protestantism when a land-grabbing scheme backed by Protestant money from the city of London was implemented. Throughout Ireland, New English settlers, often holding a Calvinist theology that portrayed them as God’s chosen people living among barbarous papists, came to dominate the established Church of Ireland. In 1597 the Jesuits arrived permanently in Ireland, and by the 1620s Roman Catholics had about the same number of clergy working in the island as the Protestants. The Counter-Reformation achieved one of its greatest victories in Ireland: official Protestantism became an elite sect and Roman Catholicism the popular religion, a result unique in the Reformation.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 122

09/06/2015 15:40

046 ENGLISH SETTLEMENT OF IRELAND 05 Catholics and Protestants in Ireland

map 48

(London) Derry

ATLANTIC OCEAN

UL ST E R

L. Neagh

Omagh

Belfast

Bangor

M ONAHAN CO NNAUGHT

Drogheda

Kells Bo

yn

eR

.

WICKLOW Dublin

Galway

IRISH SEA

G ALWAY B AY

L E INS T E R

Limerick

Kilkenny

Wexford Waterford

Dingle

MUNSTER

Miles 0 10 0 20 Kilometers

20

30 40

Cork

ST GEORGE’S CHANNEL The English Pale c. 1515 Expansion of Pale during C16 and early C17 Mary I’s plantations (i.e. confiscated and settled) Elizabeth I’s Plantations James I’s Plantations Unplanted areas Scots immigrants 1550-1605 Exceptional Native settlements Land confiscated in 1635 but not made into plantations

IRELAND

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 123

123

09/06/2015 15:40

The Great Migration

Early in the seventeenth century, Protestants began to colonize North America, starting with settlements on the Atlantic coast. One of the powerful side-effects of the Reformation was to give oppressed people a spiritual motive for emigration. The first colonists combined missionary zeal with a desire for freedom of worship, while they also often had commercial motives. Following early colonization attempts by explorers such as Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Richard Grenville, in 1607 a community was set up at Jamestown, Virginia, with Robert Hunt acting as Anglican chaplain. However Anglicanism was never popular in Virginia or the other colonies. The church authorities failed to provide a bishop for New England, which tended to weaken the Episcopalian church during the colonial period. Some of the migration originated in expatriate English nonconformist and Separatist communities in the Netherlands that had set up churches there since the 1590s. The Pilgrim Fathers who disembarked at Plymouth, New England, in 1620, were Independents who had already left the English national church to seek ecclesiastical asylum in Holland.

In 1629, Charles dissolved Parliament, in an attempt to neutralize his enemies there, who included many Puritan laymen. With such a hostile religious and political climate, many Puritans decided to leave the country. The ‘Great Migration’ of 1629–40 saw 80,000 people leave England,

James I King James I made some attempt to reconcile Puritan clergy, who had been alienated by the blocking of further reform in the Church of England. But after Charles I succeeded him in 1625, religious conflict worsened and Parliament increasingly questioned the king’s authority. Replica of the Pilgrim Fathers’ vessel Mayflower off Massachusetts, New England.

124

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 124

09/06/2015 15:40

047 ENGLISH EMIGRATION 08 English Puritans Migrate to North America

map 49

York

IRISH SEA

N ORTH S EA

ENGL AND Lincoln

IR EL A ND

Derby

Boston Nottingham King’s Lynn Northampton

WALE S

Gloucester

Ipswich

Colchester

Southampton Exeter

Cambridge

London

Portsmouth

Weymouth

Plymouth ENGLISH CHANNEL

Miles 0 0 50 25 Kilometers

Yarmouth

Oxford

Bristol

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Norwich

50 75

with some 20,000 migrating to each of Ireland, New England, the West Indies, and the Netherlands. The ‘Winthrop fleet’ of eleven ships, led by the flagship Arbella (or Arabella), took around 800 passengers to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. Immigrants to New England came from every English county except Westmoreland, with almost half from Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex. By 1641, 200 ships had arrived with around 21,000 immigrants, among them 129 clergymen and theologians with links to Cambridge University, especially Emmanuel

Pilgrims’ migration, 1620 Puritan migration, 1630s Main region of emigration during Civil War Secondary region of emigration during Civil War Main port of emigrant embarkation

College, and to East Anglia, where many had held parishes or had family connections. The movement of colonists to New England was mainly of families with some education leading quite prosperous lives. Migration continued until Parliament was finally recalled in 1640, when it dropped off. When the English Civil War began in 1641, some colonists returned to England to fight on the Puritan side. Possibly 7 to 11 percent of colonists returned to England after 1640, including about one-third of the clergymen.

T H E G R E AT M I G R AT I O N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 125

FRANCE

1 25

09/06/2015 15:40

Christian Europe 1600 126

In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, wars of religion shook every country in Europe. These conflicts also involved other volatile forces: the rise of nationalism, competition between aristocratic families, conflicts between monarchs and ambitious nobles, and the decay of imperial authority. In Germany all these forces were present, and the situation was complicated by the large number of small states and principalities that survived from the feudal age. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) merely provided a breathing space. The territorial expansion of Protestantism reached its widest extent in central Europe around 1566, and then began to recede before the militant forces of the CounterReformation. A Protestant ‘Union’ of 1608 was countered by a Catholic ‘League’ in 1609. The reforms, divisions, and revolutions of the sixteenth century led to a redefining, tightening, and redrawing of geographical, ecclesiastical, and theological boundaries. At the Council of Trent the leaders of the Latin church tightened discipline and doctrine, and re-invigorated the church; a leaner, more focussed Roman Catholic Church emerged. Excluded were Lutherans, Calvinists, and Anglicans – all heirs to Catholic traditions and teachings of earlier centuries. The Lutherans, led by Jacob Andreae (1528–90) and Martin Chemnitz (1522–86), drew up in the Formula of Concord (1577) a precise, definitive statement of belief that was signed by representatives of many German state-churches and thousands of pastors. At the Synod of Dort (1618–19), Calvinists from the Netherlands, England, Switzerland, Scotland, the Palatinate, and other German states drew up a similar definition of their doctrine. As was the case with both the Latin church and the Lutherans, hard-line Calvinists were concerned to protect their version of Reform against dissenting voices within their own movement, such as Jakob Arminius (1560–1609) and Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), as well as against Lutherans and Roman Catholics. Leading in the formulation of Calvinist orthodoxy was Francis Gomar (1563–1641),

who helped codify Reformed doctrines. These new and rigorous versions of the three main positions were used to suppress those holding more moderate views: Catholic moderates were suppressed after Trent; Lutheran moderates after the Formula of Concord; and Arminians after Dort. But the formulae from Trent were never published in France, the Formula of Concord was not accepted by Lutherans of Hesse, Zweibrücken, Anhalt, Pomerania, Holstein, Denmark, Sweden, Nuremberg, Strasbourg, or Magdeburg; and in the Church of England Protestant doctrine was combined with traditional structures of church government such as episcopacy. During the Middle Ages, the Latin church had adapted flexibly to varied customs and practices across Europe. Trent, the Formula of Concord, and Dort attempted to bring uniformity to large areas of the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed or Calvinist churches respectively. To this end, lay training was provided; institutions educating the clergy were strengthened and increased in number; and the missions of all three confessions were hugely boosted. Yet all three confessions affirmed continuity with the Church Fathers and early creeds, and with teachings and practices of the Middle Ages. The major divide remained Roman Catholic insistence upon the finality of papal authority and Protestant insistence upon the finality of Biblical rule. The Anabaptists, who repudiated all three confessions as belonging to a ‘fallen’ period of church history, were rejected as heretics by all three.

ATL OC

Lisbon

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 126

09/06/2015 15:40

048 CHRISTIAN EUROPE c1600 09 n Christian Confessions in Europe in 1600

Holy Roman Empire boundary Major Protestant university Major Catholic university

Roman Catholic Lutheran Anglican Calvinist/Reformed Calvinist influenced Moravian Orthodox Muslim

N O R WAY SWEDEN Stockholm

N ORTH SEA

SCOTLAND

map 50

L I VO NI A

B A LT I C SEA

DENMARK Copenhagen

Edinburgh

CO U R L AND

PRUSSIA

ENGLAND

Rhône R.

PORTUGAL

Lisbon

Madrid

S PA I N

B AVA R I A

HUNGARY

Vienna

SWISS CONFEDERATION

VENICE

ister R.

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

PAPAL STATES

(MUSLIM MINORITY)

Barcelona

NAPLES SARDINIA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

SICILY Miles 0 100 0 100 200 Kilometers

200

300

400

CHRISTIAN EUROPE 1600

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 127

D ne

GENOA

NAVARRE Salamanca

.

Prague Ingolstadt

Heidelberg

Geneva

Eb ro R.

rR

PA L AT I N AT E

Munich Zurich

FRANCE

ATLANTIC OCEAN

POLAND de

O

.

Mainz Paris

Warsaw

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

eR

Louvain Cologne

LITHUANIA

Wittenberg

Rhin

WALES Cambridge Oxford London

Elbe R.

UNITED PROVINCES Amsterdam Leiden

Danube R.

Dublin

IRELAND

127

09/06/2015 15:40

Pilgrim Fathers In the 1620s and 1630s, English settlements motivated mainly by religious concerns were founded. The first was established in 1620 by the group of English Separatists known as the Pilgrim Fathers, who had originally left England for the Netherlands because of religious persecution. They subsequently left Europe on board the Mayflower to find somewhere they could freely practise their faith and set up an ideal Christian commonwealth. They arrived at Cape Cod, a little south of the territory they had actually been granted. The Pilgrims proceeded to draw up the Mayflower Compact, translating into political terms their understanding of the voluntary base of human associations that made them radical Puritans in church matters. Plymouth Colony remained relatively democratic and its congregational covenant spread to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Massachusetts Bay Company Further settlements were set up in what became New Hampshire and Maine, and in 1629 and 1630 major expeditions of around 22 ships and 1,400 settlers arrived, under the auspices of the Massachusetts Bay Company. Between 1630 and 1643 some 20,000 Puritans left England, opposed to changes in the Anglican Church which they regarded as a reversion to Roman Catholic practices. Settlers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony were committed to remaining in the

128

Church of England and working for reform from within. Both the Pilgrims and the Massachusetts Bay Colony believed in the ideal of a Christian commonwealth governed by Christian principles, seeking to achieve the earthly prototype of the heavenly city. The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, John Winthrop (1588–1649), famously stated, ‘We must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us.’ In order to become a member of the church or a citizen in the colony, an individual had to testify to having experienced true Christian conversion; all others were considered mere ‘attendees’ of the church and ‘inhabitants’ of the colony. The leaders considered themselves in a covenant with God and carried out their secular duties as a religious calling. Massachusetts, with its early villages at Salem, Boston, Dorchester, Watertown, established a state church and a representative assembly, or ‘General Court’, that replaced an earlier open assembly of free citizens. By 1636 Harvard College had been established. Conflicts arose early between establishment orthodoxy and dissenters like Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams, who moved to frontier settlements such as Providence and Hartford, where they could better explore religious freedom, political democracy, and economic opportunity. In 1636 Roger Williams (c. 1603–83) founded

De

la

The Early Settlers

In the late sixteenth century, English fishing and trading posts operated for several years along the east coast of North America before permanent colonies were founded. English colonization began with the establishment of the Jamestown Colony in Virginia in 1607, mainly for commercial reasons. The rule of this colony was aristocratic and authoritarian, and the Church of England was soon established. Conflict arose between the independent farmers and artisans and the government, which wished to develop a plantation economy. In 1612 the cultivation of tobacco began and in 1619 the first African slaves arrived on a Dutch ship.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 128

09/06/2015 15:40

DE

C RA

L. Champlain

CO IRO

QU

OIS

MAINE Pemaquid

Conn R.

re

R.

Danbury wa

la

1,500

14,000

Plymouth

PLYMOUTH

300 2,000

Southampton

New York

NEW JERSEY

Providence RHODE ISLAND

New Haven

Fairfield

Portsmouth Newbury

Marblehead Dunstable Salem Lancaster Concord Boston Worcester Scituate T h am e s R .

Hudson

CONNECTICUT T Hartford

Elizabeth

ac R.

MASSACHUSET TS Springfield

NE W YO R K

Dover

rrim

Deerfield Northampton

Wells

Me

ecticut R.

NE W H AMP S HIRE

Albany

De

map 51

Early English migrants Internal migrations Early population concentrations

Y

NF

E

049 PURITANS SETTLE IN NEW ENGLAND 02 English Migrants Settle in New England

Hempstead

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Shrewsbury

Miles 0

0 Kilometers

Providence Plantation on Rhode Island, a colony characterized by religious diversity. The Baptists who settled there committed to

50 50

100

150

another characteristic of future American politics: the separation of church and state.

T H E E A R LY S E T T L E R S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 129

100

129

09/06/2015 15:40

Germany 1618

Charles V had always held precarious control over the Holy Roman Empire, a patchwork of more than 300 principalities, church states, and free cities, all jealously guarding their liberties against any attempts by the Emperor to increase his authority. He had not been able even to raise effective support from Catholic states to help suppress the Lutherans, since Catholic princes feared success might give him increased power over them too. The size of his empire presented Charles with many problems, principally military threats from France and the Ottoman Turks. As a result, Charles had been forced to ignore the Protestants while he dealt with urgent matters on his borders. Not until 1546 was he able to attack the defensive alliance of Lutheran princes known as the Schmalkaldic League. Although he won a decisive military victory, the factors summarized above prevented him from imposing firm imperial control and his Catholic faith in Germany; Lutheranism and the political privileges of the German princes were both too deeply entrenched.

Cuius regio, eius religio In 1555 Charles reluctantly agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, a compromise that gave each German prince the right to choose his realm’s religion – provided it was either Catholic or Lutheran. The prince could decide the faith of his subjects on the basis ‘cuius regio, eius religio’ (‘whose the rule, his the religion’; a phrase coined in the late sixteenth century, but the operating principle of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648), although Calvinists, Anabaptists, Socinians, and other non-Lutheran Protestants were still not to be tolerated. Instead of settling Germany’s religious problems, the Peace of Augsburg actually exacerbated them, leading to thousands of refugees – especially the Reformed and Anabaptists – fleeing Germany and spreading their religious beliefs to the Netherlands, France, and England. Charles V, worn out by

130

more than thirty years’ struggle to maintain his empire and religious unity, gave up his throne. The family lands in Austria and the Imperial title now went to his brother Ferdinand.

Religious tensions Despite the Peace of Augsburg, Calvinism and Reformed Protestantism continued to spread across Germany, further raising religious tensions. Calvinists gained from the Lutherans major states such as the Palatinate, Ansbach, and Hesse, while states such as Brandenburg became a mix of Lutheran and Reformed, instead of solely Lutheran as before. Strong bodies of Reform also existed in Hungary; the Magyars preferred Calvinism to the early Lutheranism, which they associated with German domination of Hungary. Powered by the Counter-Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church had reclaimed lands lost earlier to Protestantism. Some territories had always remained loyal to Rome, but the concentrated efforts of the Jesuits in particular now succeeded in bringing others back to the Latin Church. Nevertheless the largest Reformation group in Germany continued to be Lutheran. Having emerged from the Schmalkaldic War, the Interims, and the War of Liberation, Lutheranism was now stabilized in its northern strongholds.

(CALVI

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 130

09/06/2015 15:40

CATHOLICS/PROTESTANTS GERMANY c1618 08 Christian 050 Confessions in Germany in 1618

Miles 0 0 100 Kilometers

100

200

200

B A LT I C S E A

D E NMA R K

300

map 52

Königsberg PRUSSIA

N ORTH S EA

HOLSTEIN OL

DE

POMERANIA MECKLENBURG

BREMEN

NB

UR

Hamburg Elb e R.

G

O Berlin

BRANDENBURG

R. der

BRUNSWICK UNITED PROVINCES

Münster

Amsterdam

Rhine R .

MAGDEBURG

MÜNSTER

GERMANY

Cologne

HESSE

SPANISH NETHERLANDS

POLAND

Wittenberg Leipzig

SAXONY

Dresden

SILESIA

HANAU NASSAU

Mainz

LUXEMBOURG

Trier

Prague

Frankfurt UPPER PALATINATE

PALATINATE

BOHEMIA

Nuremberg LO

RR AIN

Strasbourg

WÜRTTEMBERG

Augsburg

E

Zurich SWISS CONFEDERATION

HUNGARY

AUSTRIA

BAVARIA

Vienna

Munich Salzburg

an

D

Basel

FRANCE

MORAVIA

STYRIA

SALZBURG

ube R

.

TYROL

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

(MUSLIM MINORITY)

CARINTHIA

(CALVINIST/HUGUENOT MINORITY)

Geneva SA

Milan

V E NI C E

CARNIOLA

VO

Venice

Y

Genoa

A D RIAT IC SEA

Holy Roman Empire boundary Catholic Lutheran Anglican Calvinist/Reformed Zwinglian Moravian minority Recovered by Catholics Orthodox Muslim

GERMANY 1618

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 131

131

09/06/2015 15:40

The Thirty Years’ War 132

In central Europe, hostilities bubbling beneath the surface broke out again in 1618. The war started in Bohemia, long destabilized by the forces of Muslim invaders, the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the Hungarian, Bohemian, and Transylvanian aristocracies, and Habsburg territorial claims. In 1617, the Habsburg heir, Ferdinand of Styria (1578–1637), was elected king of Protestant Bohemia. Ferdinand, a Jesuit-educated Catholic, was already notorious for his persecution of Lutherans in Austria. He sent two Catholic deputies to Bohemia, to which the Protestants reacted with fury, throwing them out of a palace window (the ‘defenestration of Prague’). When the Bohemian Protestants called for military support, the Protestant Union responded and initially defeated the imperial forces. The Thirty Years’ War consisted of a series of wars – Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and Swedish-French – named for the place of major conflict or leading powers involved, but considered as a single unit because of the final comprehensive peace settlement – the Treaties of Westphalia (1648). The first phase of the war (1618–29) was primarily religious; the second (1630–48) largely a struggle over the power of the Habsburg dynasty and the influence of Sweden and France within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1620 the Bohemian army, led by Frederick V, Elector Palatine from the Rhineland, who had been offered the crown of Bohemia by the rebellious Estates, was routed by a Catholic coalition led by Baron Tilly at the Battle of the White Mountain. Over the next two years, Bavarian and Spanish armies conquered the Palatinate and reclaimed it for Catholicism. The widespread use of mercenary armies helped make this war particularly devastating for inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire, as the armies lived off the land and pillaged the countryside. Mercenary leaders such as Ernst von Mansfeld (1580–1626) and Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634) were happy to fight for either side if sufficiently rewarded. Although labelled a religious war, political factors and the naked desire for personal gain also played a major role. In 1625 the Lutheran Christian IV of Denmark (1588–1648) entered the war in

an attempt to prevent total Catholic victory. But, unable to find German allies, Christian was defeated by the Bavarians under Tilly at Lutter (1626). Wallenstein now occupied much of Denmark as well as Brandenburg for the Emperor, while his troops also took Magdeburg and the major Lutheran city of Augsburg, forcing both cities to reconvert to Catholicism. At this point the Emperor was in a position to rescind the Peace of Augsburg and reimpose Catholicism in the Empire. The Edict of Restitution (1629) outlawed Reform and Calvinism and forced the Lutherans to restore church properties they had secularized. However the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus (1594–1632), now arrived with an army in Pomerania, committed to relieving his fellow Lutherans. Although he met difficulties winning the support of the German Lutheran princes, he received a subsidy from Cardinal Richelieu, the French king’s chief minister, who had a predatory eye on imperial territory in the Rhineland. Adolphus, an outstanding military leader, won the most decisive military victory of the war at Breitenfeld (1631), thereby saving the Protestant cause. The following year he met Wallenstein at the Battle of Lutzen: the imperial forces were defeated but Gustavus Adolphus himself was killed. Wallenstein was assassinated in 1634.

ATLA OCE

Lisbon

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 132

09/06/2015 15:40

051 War: THE 1620–1648 THIRTY YEARS WAR 1620-48 The Thirty Years’

IRELAND

SWEDEN

N ORTH SEA

1625-29 Christian IV of Denmark intervenes and is defeated

B A LT I C SEA

DENMARK

1630-32 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden intervenes

1645-8 Sweden campaigns in Germany BRANDENBURG

ENGLAND WALES

map 53

N O R WAY

Protestant majority Spanish Habsburgs Austrian Habsburgs Holy Roman Empire boundary Site of conflict

SCOTLAND

03n

Amsterdam Münster 1648

London

Dessau 1628

Peace of Westphalia

Prague

Rocroi 1642 1643 French win Battle of Rocroi

PALATINATE 1620-23 Ferdinand II defeats Palatinate

Jankau 1645

1620-23 Ferdinand II defeats Czechs

MORAVIA

Vienna

AUSTRIA

Munich 1645-8 Turenne campaigns in Germany

White Mountain 1620

BOHEMIA

Strasbourg

ATLANTIC OCEAN

POLAND

Breitenfeld 1631 Lützen 1632

SWISS CONFEDERATION

FRANCE

VENICE

Venice

1635 France intervenes against Spain

PAPAL STATES

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

ADRIATIC SEA

Lisbon

PORTUGAL

Rome NAPLES

Madrid

S PA I N MEDITERRANEAN SEA Miles 0

100

0 100 200 Kilometers

T H E T H I R T Y Y E A R S’ WA R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 133

200

300 400

1 33

09/06/2015 15:40

After the War

Although the most successful generals had now died, the Thirty Years’ War dragged on, the tide of battle ebbing and flowing inconclusively. It became clear after the Battle of Nordlingen (1634) that the Catholics could not hold northern Germany, nor the Protestants southern. With French forces now involved on the Protestant side with the Swedes, the war continued for thirteen more years. After lengthy negotiations, compromise prevailed and finally the Peace of Westphalia was signed (October 1648). By the settlements of Westphalia, France received Metz, Verdun, Toul, and lands in Alsace and Lorraine, while Sweden gained a beachhead in western Pomerania. Brandenburg acquired eastern Pomerania, Magdeburg, and several bishoprics; Saxony acquired Lusatia; Bavaria gained territory in the Palatinate and became one of the imperial electors, supplanting the Elector Palatine. Switzerland and the United Provinces in the Low Countries were both accorded independence.

Territorial adjustments Although ostensibly a war of religion, the bloodletting did not significantly alter the confessional picture of central Europe. The Peace of Westphalia reaffirmed the Peace of Augsburg, except that the Reformed Churches were now awarded the same legal recognition as Roman Catholics and Lutherans, the choice of permitted faith depending upon the government of the respective territory. With the exception of lands of the Austrian Habsburgs, where Counter Reformation gains were allowed to stand, areas that were Protestant or Catholic in January 1624 (i.e. before most of the reCatholicization of ecclesiastical territory in

134

northern Germany but after the conquest of the Palatinate) would remain so.

NO

Catastrophe The biggest losers in the war were the German people. For thirty years armies had lived off the land, looting, raping, and destroying. Plague and famine followed the mercenary armies, and cannibalism was reported in several starvation areas. The Thirty Years’ War reduced Germany to crude barbarism and brought to an end numerous smaller political units. The Empire suffered severe population loss. It has been estimated there were eight million fewer inhabitants in Germany at the end of the war than at the beginning; the conflict reduced the population by at least 25 per cent and possibly by 35 or 40 per cent.

An

Quietism Religious developments reflected the misery of the people who had suffered so much from the armies, pestilence, and starvation. There was an upsurge of personal mysticism, of which Jakob Boehme (1575–1624) is representative. He repudiated the material world, and accentuated the hope of heaven; his writings reflect ecstasy in the divine presence in the soul.

FRA

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 134

09/06/2015 15:40

052 DEPOPULATION DURING 30 YEARS WAR 06n The Peace of Westphalia, 1648

Population loss 0 - 33% 34 - 66% more than 66%

map 54

Significant battle Holy Roman Empire boundary

DE N MA R K

B A LT I C S E A

N ORTH S EA HOLSTEIN

Wolfgast 1628

Goldberg 1635 Wittstock 1636 Dömitz 1635

Bremen

UNITED PROVINCES

POMERANIA

MECKLENBURG

BREMEN

Elbe R.

O R. der

BRANDENBURG Berlin

Lutter 1626

Amsterdam

POLAND Dessau 1626

Aschersleben 1645

Kempen 1642

WESTPHALIA

Antwerp

Glogau 1642

Breitenfeld 1631

se rR .

e W

SPANISH NETHERLANDS

MAGDEBURG

Lützen 1632

LUSATIA

R ine Rh

SILESIA Kosel 1627

.

Frankfurt Mainz PALATINATE

Weisloch 1622

White Mountain 1620

Main R .

Prague

Mergentheim 1645

BOHEMIA

Krakow

Jankau 1645

Nuremberg 1632 Wimpfen 1622

MORAVIA

Netolitz 1619 Nördlingen 1634,35

I

NE Strasbourg

RA

LO R

FRANCE

Steinau 1633

SAXONY

Zumarshausen 1648

Wittenweier 1638 Wattweiler 1639

Tuttlingen 1643

Rain 1632

BAVARIA

HUNGARY

Vienna Eferding 1626

Rheinfelden 1638

AUSTRIA D

an

Sennheim 1638

u b e R.

SWISS CONFEDERATION

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

VENICE

SAVOY

Milan

Venice

A D RIAT IC SEA

Miles 0

0 100 Kilometers

A F T E R T H E WA R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 135

50

100

150 200

1 35

09/06/2015 15:40

300

200

0 100 200 Kilometers

400

N ORTH SEA

SCOTLAND

IRELAND

UNITED PROVINCES

ENGLAND WALES

Amsterdam

London Antwerp

SPANISH NETHERLANDS Se

ATLANTIC OCEAN

in e

Paris

R.

Str

R. Loire

FRANCE

(CALVINIST MINORITY)

Gen Bordeaux

Eb ro R.

Rhône R.

Europe would never be the same. Cardinal Richelieu had made Louis XIV supreme in France, and France the leader of Europe. As a victor in the war, France acquired AlsaceLorraine and other smaller territories. Sweden, like France, emerged victorious, controlling the Baltic Sea, and becoming the most powerful nation in northern Europe. Spain and the Holy Roman Empire now recognized the independence of Switzerland. By the Treaty of Münster (1648), Spain also recognized the independence of the United Provinces as the Dutch Republic, ending eighty years of conflict between the Dutch and the Spanish. Meanwhile Spain and the Spanish Habsburgs lost colonies and territorial possession. The German princes had won sovereignty, with each state gaining the power to make its own laws instead of obeying the Emperor. Each prince could also now choose the Reformed Church or Calvinism as well as Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the confession of his realm. But Germany remained divided into hundreds of individual, sovereign states, governed by their respective princes. 1648 effectively marked an end to the influence of the Holy Roman Empire, since the princes were now sovereign in their territories. For Catholicism, Westphalia marked the end of the enforced Counter-Reformation. Whereas up to 1648 religion was a significant determining factor of internal and external politics, this was much less so after the Thirty Years’ War.

Miles 0 100

PORTUGAL

Europe 1648 136

The Treaty of Westphalia marked the end of the last major religious war in Europe. This settlement, the first time a diplomatic congress brought together all the interested parties to address and determine a dispute, served as a model for resolving conflict among warring European nations.

Barcelona

Madrid Tagus R.

S PA I N MEDITERRA

A F R I C A

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

Atlas Of The Euro Reformation INSIDES Fortress.indd 136

30/06/2015 14:24

The Religious Settlement in Europe after 1648

Catholic Catholic influenced Lutheran Anglican Calvinist/Reformed Calvinist influenced Moravian minority Orthodox Muslim Holy Roman Empire boundary Extent of Ottoman Empire

Christiania (Oslo)

N O R WAY

Stockholm

L I VO NI A

SWEDEN

H

CO U R L AND

B A LT I C SEA

Copenhagen

DENMARK

map 55

PR U S S I A Elbe R.

Hanover

Antwerp

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

R.

SPANISH THERLANDS

i ne Rh

msterdam

BR A N D E NBU R G S A XON Y Dresden

PAL ATINATE Nuremberg

Paris

WÜRTTEMBERG Strasbourg

Vis tul aR .

Berlin

Od

Kiev MORAVIA

AU S T RI A Vienna

Basel

E

SWISS CONFEDERATION

ITY)

VENICE

Rhône R.

Geneva

POLAND

e S I L E S I A r R.

Prague BOH E M I A

B AVA RI A

R U S S I A

LITHUANIA

Warsaw

HUNGARY Danube R.

UNITED PROVINCES

Dn eis ter R.

T R ANS Y LVANI A

Dn iep er R .

M O L DAV I A

Venice Genoa

Florence

TUSCANY

CORSICA

SARDINIA

WAL L AC H I A

B OSN IA SE R B I A

PAPAL STATES

Rome

OT TOMAN EMPIRE

(MUSLIM MINORITY)

NAPLES Naples GREECE

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

SICILY

I C A

CRETE

CYPRUS

EUROPE 1648

Atlas Of The Euro Reformation INSIDES Fortress.indd 137

137

30/06/2015 14:24

North American Colonies 138

Several European nations undertook settlements in North America. The Spanish made extensive settlements as they pushed north from the empire of New Spain into what are now Florida and Louisiana; and on the south-west coast, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. While the Catholic Reformation was inspiring worldwide missionary effort, Protestant countries such as England and the Netherlands were also exploring and colonizing, though not so active in evangelizing the peoples they contacted. Dutch traders founded New Amsterdam in 1626, after more than ten years’ profitable fur trading along the Hudson River. In 1664 this town was captured by English forces, who renamed it New York. From 1638, the Swedes made settlements along the Delaware River, but the Dutch captured Fort Christiana and controlled New Sweden from 1655, until the English captured it.

Maryland In 1634 English Roman Catholics, including two Jesuit priests, arrived in Maryland to settle an area granted to Lord Calvert by Charles I. In 1649 the Maryland legislature passed an act of religious toleration that was in advance of the times. However, during the English Civil War, Protestants seized the Maryland colony and repealed the Toleration Act. After the Restoration, the Church of England was made the established church here. Later in the seventeenth century, William Penn founded the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania, which also attracted Mennonites and Lutherans.

To the south of Virginia, in the Carolinas and Georgia, a mixed religious tradition prevailed. These colonies, run by gentlemen plantation-owners who worked slaves, were officially Anglican. Mainly Puritan smallholders and artisans moved west into the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains.

Protestant missions Protestant colonists had limited success sharing their faith with Native Americans. One of the earliest efforts was by John Eliot (1604–90), an Anglican clergyman who went to New England in 1631 and started evangelizing Native Americans in 1646. When it seemed converts could not live as Christians within their tribe, Eliot established ‘Praying Towns’, quite similar to the Jesuit Reductions of South America. By 1671 Eliot had established fourteen such self-governing communities, composed of around 3,600 members. He also started to train Native American clergy and translated the Bible into their language. Another missionary to the Native Americans, Thomas Mayhew Jr. (1618–57), began work in Martha’s Vineyard in 1647. It’s estimated that by 1675, when King Philip’s War disrupted these activities, approximately 20 per cent of the Native American population of New England was at least nominally Christian.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 138

09/06/2015 15:40

054 in SEVENTEENTH CENTURY AMERICAN COLONIES 04 European Colonies North America

map 56

Georgian Bay L. Champlain

Conne cticu t R.

MAINE 1623

L. Ontario

NEW HAMPSHIRE 1623

NEW AMSTERDAM 1626

Salem 1692 Witch trials Boston 1636 Harvard College

MASSACHUSETTS 1629

PENNSYLVANIA 1681 Swedish colony, taken over by Dutch, then English

Hudson R.

Delawa re R

L. Erie

.

New Haven

New York

Philadelphia

NEW JERSEY 1638

founded

Plymouth 1620

CONNECTICUT 1635

1654 Jews arrive from Curacao

Pilgrim Fathers land

RHODE ISLAND 1636

1664 English take over ‘New Amsterdam’ from Dutch

m to Po

MARYLAND 1634

ac R.

DELAWARE 1638

ATLANTIC OCEAN VIRGINIA 1607 Jamestown 1619 First African slaves imported

Roa no ke R.

MAINE 1663 CAROLINA 1663

Charleston

Miles 0

100

0 100 Kilometers

Name of State / Founding date Extent of English settlements c. 1689 British colonies c. 1650 Dutch colonies c. 1650 Swedish colonies c. 1650 Anglican/Episcopalian Baptist Roman Catholic Congregationalist Dutch Reformed Lutheran Presbyterian Quaker

N O R T H A M E R I C A N CO LO N I E S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 139

139

09/06/2015 15:40

Origins of the English Civil War 140

When Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603, it seemed she had achieved her objective of avoiding religious war in England. She had prevented the Puritans from altering her religious settlement, while keeping most of them within the Church of England. James Stuart, King of Scotland 1567–1625, who succeeded to the English throne in 1603 as James I, also managed to avoid agreeing to the Puritans’ demands without alienating them. He accepted moderate Puritans’ demand at the Hampton Court Conference for one agreed English translation of the Bible, which resulted in the King James Version – often now referred to as the Authorized Version – published in 1611. During James’s reign, the Elizabethan Settlement remained intact and the Church of England broad enough to contain all but radical Separatists or committed Roman Catholics.

Charles tried to stop Parliament dealing with matters he considered royal business, they protested strongly. When Laud attempted to impose ecclesiastical uniformity on Scotland, the Scots drew up a National Covenant denouncing the new prayer book, and in 1638 abolished the episcopacy. A Scottish army invaded England, forcing the king to call Parliament to raise money to wage war. The first Parliament failed to comply, so in 1640 he called the ‘Long Parliament’, King Charles I.

Charles I This stability ended during the reign of his son, Charles I, who antagonized those who wished to be loyal subjects but were disturbed by his religious policy. The Puritans became particularly concerned when he promoted as church leaders those they considered ‘Arminians’, associated with High Church practice. Charles was completely unsympathetic to Calvinism and appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury the Arminian William Laud (r. 1633–45), who began stringently to enforce rules of worship and to coerce and dismiss ministers who refused to conform. Many Puritans departed for North America, while others remained and opposed Charles. The Puritans enjoyed strong support among the gentry in Parliament; when

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 140

09/06/2015 15:40

055 ENGLISH CIVIL WAR 164-43 02 THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR: 1640–43

map 57

Area held by Parliament in 1643 Area held by Charles I in 1643 Royalist victory Parliament victory Indecisive

S COT L AND

N ORTH SEA

York Humber R.

1643 Adwalton Moor

IRISH SEA

To Amsterdam 1609 John Smyth founds first English Baptist church

E N G L A N D

IRELAND

n Tre

tR

.

Norwich . rn R Seve

Av o n

WALES

R.

Oxford

1643 Newbury

WE Miles 0 10

30

0 10 30 Kilometers

ST

U CO

NTR

1612 Thomas Helwys founds first Baptist church in England

London

Bristol

ATLANTIC OCEAN

EAST ANGLIA

1642 Edgehill, ‘Kineton Fight’

Thames R.

1642 Turnham Green

Y

Exeter

ENGLISH CHANNEL

50

FRANCE

50

with whom he struggled constantly. The Catholic-led Irish Rebellion broke out in 1641, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Protestant settlers in Ulster.

War begins In August 1642, Charles I left London to raise his standard at Nottingham. The ensuing English Civil War was a struggle between

king and Parliament over constitutional issues, but also a war about religion. Neither side wanted this conflict and both suffered severely. The Puritans eventually succeeded in defeating the king, but then faced new problems, including divisions among themselves and the difficulty of achieving their goal of a godly commonwealth.

O R I G I N S O F T H E E N G L I S H C I V I L WA R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 141

141

09/06/2015 15:40

After the Civil War

Charles I lost the Civil War. Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), a gifted general, became political leader of the Parliamentary army, and his force of committed Puritans, the ‘New Model Army’, beat a much more experienced army led by battle-hardened generals. The decisive battle occurred at Naseby (1645), where Cromwell’s disciplined soldiers defeated the king’s forces. The Parliamentary party was prepared for a settlement that provided for greater religious liberty, parliamentary reform, and the return to power of Charles I. However the king escaped, made an alliance with the Scots, and re-started the war. After Charles had been defeated a second time, Cromwell decided he had to pay with his life. Charles I was executed in January 1649. The defeat of the monarchy revealed religious divisions among the victorious Puritans, but as Lord Protector Cromwell held his divided country together while he lived. Cromwell faced a proliferation of sects such as the millenarian Fifth Monarchists, who were prepared to use violence to achieve their ends. Others, such as the Levellers and Diggers, had radical political and socio-economic agendas.

Westminster Confession

Restoration Settlement restored the Church of England as the Established Church and imposed stringent regulations on Puritans in the so-called Clarendon Code (1661–65), which eventually drove most of them out of the Anglican Church. Many Puritans became Separatists, and the Church of England lost numerous gifted and zealous ministers. The Civil War – one of the bloodiest conflicts in English history – was a disaster during which one in fourteen adult males was killed. It heralded the way for the modern age, in which religion was relegated to a private matter. Within three decades of the Restoration Settlement, England adopted a form of religious toleration that embraced all but Roman Catholics and anti-trinitarians. Engraving of King Charles II.

The Westminster Assembly (1643–53), called to implement an agreed religious settlement, comprised Calvinists from England and Scotland, who divided over questions of church government. The majority were committed to a Presbyterian system, but some argued for a modified episcopacy, while the ‘Independents’ rejected both forms of church government. Out of their deliberations came one of the great Reformed creeds, the Westminster Confession.

Restoration When Cromwell died, his son Richard succeeded as Lord Protector, but lasted less than a year. Charles I’s son, Charles II (r. 1660–85), returned to rule a kingdom whose religious divisions were obvious. His

142

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 142

09/06/2015 15:41

056 ENGLISH CIVIL WAR 1644-49 03 THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR: 1644-49

map 58

Scottish Royalist area of influence Scottish Presbyterian area of influence Area held by Parliament November 1644 Territory taken from Royalists by November 1645 Area held by Royalists November 1645 Royalist victory Parliament victory

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Aberdeen September 1644

S C O T L A N D

N ORTH SEA

Edinburgh

York Preston August 1648

I R E L A N D IRISH SEA

Marston Moor September 1644

E N G L A N D n Tre

. rn R Seve

c. 1647 George Fox founds Friends, ‘Quakers’

W A L E S

Langport July 1645

Miles 0 10

30

50

WE

CO ST

UN

.

Norwich

Naseby June 1645

Stow-on-the-Wold March 1646 Oxford

Bristol

tR

EAST ANGLIA

1649 Charles I beheaded

London

Newbury October 1644

Thames R.

Cheriton March 1644

T R Y Exeter

Plymouth

ENGLISH CHANNEL FRANCE

0 10 30 50 Kilometers

A F T E R T H E C I V I L WA R

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 143

1 43

09/06/2015 15:41

Cromwell’s Foreign Wars 144

As Lord Protector, Cromwell hoped to construct a Protestant League in Northern Europe. He settled disputes between Denmark and Sweden, concluded an alliance with Sweden, formed strong links with Holland, negotiated peace between the Protestant nations, cleared the English Channel of pirates, and expanded foreign trade. Between 1649 and 1652, Cromwell subdued a Royalist-backed revolt in Ireland, where his forces committed brutal massacres at the towns of Drogheda and Wexford. A key feature of Cromwell’s foreign policy was his use of sea power: in 1653 he had 180 ships at his disposal, more than France, Spain, or the Netherlands. In 1654 Cromwell secretly promoted a ‘Western Design’, to attack Spanish colonies in the West Indies. He demanded that English subjects in Spanish territories should have freedom of worship and that English traders should not be molested. To enforce this, in 1655 he sent a poorly equipped force to San Domingo and Jamaica, and succeeded in taking the latter territory. Cromwell had hoped Puritans from New England might settle there; instead, it became a place to which the English shipped criminals and rebels. Cromwell also regained for England Virginia and the Barbados Islands. In April 1655, Cromwell’s navy attacked a pirate stronghold in Tunis, North Africa, and

forced the sultan to release English prisoners and slaves. In May 1655, the Catholic Duke of Savoy started viciously to persecute the Protestant Waldensians in his territory. Cromwell sent an agent to investigate, headed a subscription list raising funds for the relief of the victims, and demanded the duke cease his oppression.

Jewish return The Jews had been expelled from England in 1290. Cromwell favoured freedom of religion and wished to see the fulfilment of a prophecy that the Jews would find salvation in Christ, ushering in the Last Days. Hence he informally invited the Jews to return, provided they did not take their worship into the public square, and hosted their leader, Menasseh Ben Israel (1604–57), at a reception in Whitehall. In June 1658, an English force defeated the Spanish at Mardyk, Gravelines, and Dunkirk. As payment for fighting alongside the French, Cromwell gained for England the port of Dunkirk, which Charles II later promptly sold back to France. Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658).

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 144

09/06/2015 15:41

057 1649–58 CROMWELLS WARS 02 Oliver Cromwell’s Foreign Wars, Miles 0

100

300

200

0 100 200 Kilometers

map 59

400

SWEDEN

N O R WAY

N ORTH SEA SCOTLAND

1650 Subdues and garrisons Scotland

D E N MA R K

Edinburgh

1649-50 Re-conquers Ireland

Dublin

1653 Defeats Dutch navy

ENGLAND

IRELAND WALES

1654 Takes Jamaica from Spain

R.

E NGLISH C H

R.

i ne Rh

Dunkirk

1658 Takes Dunkirk from Spain

L ANNE

e Elb

London

. ube R Dan

Paris

FRANCE

1657 Destroys Spanish fleet off Tenerife

Cromwell protests Duke of Savoy’s persecution of Waldensians

Y

Rhône R.

VO

Bordeaux

SA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

S W IS S CO NF EDER ATIO N

Lisbon

PORTUGAL

Eb ro R.

Madrid Tagus R.

S PA I N MEDITERRANEAN SEA Cartagena

1656 Plunders silver and gold from Spanish fleet

Cadiz

1652 Destroys Prince Rupert’s fleet

1655 Defeats Algerian pirates

Algiers

1660 English fleet bombards Tunis

Tunis

C R O M W E L L’ S F O R E I G N WA R S

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 145

1 45

09/06/2015 15:41

Mission to Japan

The Jesuit Francis Xavier arrived in Japan in 1549, just six years after the first Portuguese traders. In Goa he had met a Japanese called Yajiro, who told him of his native country. Xavier arrived in Japan accompanied by two fellow Jesuits and Yajiro, who had now converted to Christianity. At first Xavier achieved little; yet he admired the Japanese, claiming ‘these Japanese are more ready to be implanted with our holy faith than all the nations of the world’. He stayed more than two years and left behind the earliest Japanese converts. After Xavier’s death, other Jesuits carried on his work, achieving considerable success. By 1600, the Japanese church numbered more than 300,000 members. Initially the situation favoured the missionaries: political power rested with some 250 daimyos (local feudal chiefs) and Buddhism was in decline. The Jesuits gained the support of some local daimyos, and established a seminary to train Japanese priests. When central authority was re-established, the monarch became suspicious of Christians, who he thought were subversive and allied with local chiefs. In 1593, Spanish Franciscans arrived in Japan, and rivalry between the Christian powers led the ruler, Toyotomi Hideyoski, to turn against believers. In 1597 he crucified twenty Japanese priests and six Spaniards in Nagasaki, and expelled both the Jesuits and Franciscans. His successor, Tokugawa Ieyasu, initially allied with several Christian daimyos and tolerated Christians. But when the Dutch replaced the Portuguese as Japan’s chief trading partner, they and the English warned the Japanese ruler against Spanish imperialism.

Persecution Finally the Japanese Shogun lost patience and in 1614 issued an edict: ‘The Kirishitan

146

[Christian] band have come to Japan . . . to disseminate an evil law, to overthrow true doctrine, so that they may change the government of the country and obtain possession of the land. This is the germ of great disaster, and must be crushed.’ This resulted in the brutal persecution of Christians, especially after a peasant uprising in which Christians played a leading role was suppressed in 1637–38. Christians were cruelly treated to persuade them to apostatize. Tortured to the point of death, punishment was halted until they recovered sufficiently, when they were tortured again. This cycle was repeated until they relinquished their faith. Many Christians were also executed – Japanese Christians crucified and Europeans burned at the stake. It has been estimated as many as 6,000 Christians died as a result of this persecution. In 1640 the Japanese government set up an Office of Inquisition for Christian Affairs to root out Christians. In an attempt to reveal secret Christians, they introduced the ceremony of ‘picture-stamping’, when people were ordered to trample on pictures of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. The Japanese church was all but eradicated; only a tiny remnant survived.

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 146

09/06/2015 15:41

058 SPREAD OF CATHOLICISM IN JAPAN 1550-1650 Roman Catholic Missions to Japan

CHINA

03

map 60

HOKKAIDO

RUSSIA

CHINA

AU STR ALI A

SEA OF J A PA N Wakamatsu

Christian mission fails

SOUTH KOREA

H O N S H U Tokyo

1597 26 Christians crucified by Hideyoshi

Azuchi

Kyoto

Shizuoka

Osaka

Hiroshima

Yamaguchi SH IKO KU Takushima Funay Nagasaki

KYUSH U

1586 Jesuit Gaspar Coelho meets Hideyoshi

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Kagoshima Shimbara Peninsula 1637-38: 35,000 Christians killed in peasant uprising: end of early Christian mission

1549: Francis Xavier lands

Miles 0

50

0 50 100 Kilometers

100 150

Areas with some Christians Areas with many Christians Jesuit institution

M I S S I O N TO J A PA N

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 147

147

09/06/2015 15:41

Further reading

The Late Middle Ages Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes, 3rd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006).  Alister E. McGrath, The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 2003). Heiko A. Oberman, The Reformation: Roots and Ramifications (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994). Matthew Spinka, John Hus at the Council of Constance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965). Cornelius Augustijn, Erasmus: His Life, Works, and Influence, trans. G. C. Grayson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996).  William J. Bouwsma, The Waning of the Renaissance, 1550–1640 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002).

The Reformation Euan Cameron, The European Reformation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).  Carter Lindberg, The European Reformations, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).  Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History (New York: Viking Press, 2004).  Owen Chadwick, The Early Reformation on the Continent, Oxford History of the Christian Church (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). Felicity Heal, Reformation in Britain and Ireland, Oxford History of the Christian Church (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). Hans J. Hillerbrand, The Division of Christendom: Christianity in the Sixteenth Century (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2007). Nicholas Hope, German and Scandinavian Protestantism 1700–1918, Oxford History of the Christian Church (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). R. Po-Chia Hsia, ed., Reform and Expansion, 1500–1600, The Cambridge History of Christianity, Vol. 6 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). R.W. Scribner & C. Scott Dixon, The German Reformation, 2nd ed. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). George H. Williams, Radical Reformation, 3rd ed. (Truman State University Press, 2000). Steven Ozment, The Reformation in the Cities: The Appeal of Protestantism to Sixteenth-Century Germany and Switzerland (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975).  

Reformation theology Alister E. McGrath, Reformation Thought: An Introduction, 4th ed. (Oxford: WileyBlackwell, 2012).  David Bagchi & David Steinmetz, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

Martin Luther Martin Brecht, Martin Luther: His Road to Reformation, 1483–1521; Martin Luther: Shaping and Defining the Reformation, 1521–1532; and Martin Luther: the Preservation of the Church, 1532–1546 (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990–1994).  

148

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 148

09/06/2015 15:41

Hans-Martin Barth, The Theology of Martin Luther: A Critical Assessment (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2012). Eric W. Gritsch, A History of Lutheranism, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2010). James M. Kittelson, Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and His Career (reprint: Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993). David C. Steinmetz, Reformers in the Wings: From Geiler von Kaysersberg to Theodore Beza, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). 

John Calvin Alister McGrath, A Life of John Calvin: A Study in the Shaping of Western Culture (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1990).  Irene Backus and Philip Benedict, eds., Calvin and His Influence, 1509–2009 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). Bernard Cottret, Calvin: A Biography, trans. M. Wallace MacDonald (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000). Andrew Pettegree, Alastair Duke, & Gillian Lewis, ed., Calvinism in Europe, 1540–1620 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits John O’Malley, The First Jesuits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).  Thomas Worcester, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).  John Patrick Donnelly, Ignatius of Loyola: Founder of the Jesuits, Library of World Biography Series (London: Longman, 2004). George Schurhammer, Francis Xavier, His Life, His Times, 3 vol. (Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1973).  Robert Bireley, The Jesuits and the Thirty Years War: Kings, Courts, and Confessors (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Liam Matthew Brockey, Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1529–1724 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press / Harvard University Press, 2008). 

Council of Trent John O’Malley, Trent: What Happened at the Council (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 2013).  Robert Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450–1700: A Reassessment of the Counter Reformation (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1999). R. Po-Chia Hsia, World of Catholic Renewal, 1540–1770, New Approaches to European History 30, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). Thomas F. Mayer, Reforming Reformation, Catholic Christendom, 1300–1700 (Ashgate, 2012). Anthony D. Wright, The Counter-Reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-Christian World, 2nd ed., series: Catholic Christendom, 1300–1700 (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005).

FURTHER READING

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 149

1 49

09/06/2015 15:41

Gazetteer Note: Locators show map numbers, not page numbers Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) Council of Trent 36, 37 Devotio Moderna 3 Great Schism 4 Aarau Swiss Reformation 26 Aarhus Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Abbotsbury monasteries 30 Aberdeen English Civil War 58 Scottish Reformation 33 Spanish Armada 47 university 25 Abingdon monasteries 30 Aden voyages of discovery 11 Adwalton Moor English Civil War 57 Agen Waldensians 2 Agnietenberg Devotio Moderna 3 Aigues-Vives Waldensians 2 Aix archbishopric 10 university 25 Albany N. American settlers 51 Albergen Devotio Moderna 3 Albertina university 25 Albi French religious wars 44 Waldensians 2 Alcalá Loyola 39 university 25 Aldbury monasteries 30 Ales Waldensians 2 Algie Europe after 1648 55 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 Algiers empire of Charles V 14 Jewish persecution 19 All Saints Strait Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 Allstedt Melanchthon and reform 20 peasants’ war 17 Almelo Devotio Moderna 3 Alsace Jewish persecution 19 Amalfi archbishopric 10 Amazon River Catholic missions 42

150

Amersfoort Devotio Moderna 3 Amersham Lollards 5 Amiens Northern Renaissance 9 Amsterdam Anabaptists 18 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Netherlands reform 45 Northern Renaissance 9 Peace of Westphalia 54 progress of reform 21 Spanish Armada 47 Thirty Years’ War 53 Angers French religious wars 44 university 25 Angrogna Reformation in France 28 Anjum Devotio Moderna 3 Ansbach Lutheran Germany 22 Antwerp after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Jewish persecution 19 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Netherlands reform 45 Northern Renaissance 9 Peace of Westphalia 54 printing 7 Spanish Armada 47 Anzbach Waldensians 2 Apóstoles Jesus Reductions 43 Aquileia archbishopric 10 Arezzo Italian Renaissance 8 university 1 Arguin voyages of discovery 11 Arles Waldensians 2 Arlington Catholic missions 42 Armagh archbishopric 10 Arnhem Devotio Moderna 3 Arnhem-Marienborn Devotio Moderna 3

Arras Dutch Reform 46 Arundel monasteries 30 Aschersleben Peace of Westphalia 54 Ashbourne Lollards 5 Ashford Lollards 5 Aston Lollards 5 Asunción Jesus Reductions 43 Auch archbishopric 10 Waldensians 2 Augsburg Anabaptists 18 Bucer 24 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 empire of Charles V 14 Germany in 1618 52 knights’ war 16 Luther 15 Melanchthon and reform 20 peasants’ war 17 printing 7 progress of reform 21 Austerlitz Anabaptists 18 Austria Jewish persecution 19 Avignon archbishopric 10 Calvinism 27 empire of Charles V 14 French religious wars 44 Great Schism 4 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 Waldensians 2 Avignonet Waldensians 2 Azores voyages of discovery 11 Azuchi mission to Japan 60 Bagnols Waldensians 2 Bahia Catholic missions 42 Bamberg printing 7 Banbury Lollards 5 Bangor Ireland 48 Banská Stiavnica Hussites 6 Barcelona after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Christian Europe in 1600 50 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55

Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 printing 7 Spanish Armada 47 university 1 Bardney Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Bari archbishopric 10 Barking monasteries 30 Barlings Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Barnard Castle Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Barnet Lollards 5 Basel (Basle) after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Anabaptists 18 Calvin 25 Calvinism 27 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 knights’ war 16 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Northern Renaissance 9 peasants’ war 17 printing 7 Swiss Reformation 23, 26 university 1 Bath Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Baton Rouge Catholic missions 42 Bavaria Jewish persecution 19 Bayonne Jewish persecution 19 Bayreuth Luther 15 Beaulieu monasteries 30 Belém Catholic missions 42 Belfast Ireland 48 Benevento archbishopric 10 Benguela voyages of discovery 11 Bergamo Waldensians 2 Bergen Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Bergum Devotio Moderna 3 Berlikum Devotio Moderna 3 Berlin Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 Hussites 6 Lutheran Germany 22

Peace of Westphalia 54 peasants’ war 17 progress of reform 21 Reformation in France 28 Bern (Berne) Calvin 25 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Swiss Reformation 23, 26 Besançon archbishopric 10 Northern Renaissance 9 Waldensians 2 Bethlehem (Low Countries) Devotio Moderna 3 Beverwijk Devotio Moderna 3 Béziers Waldensians 2 Biel Swiss Reformation 23 Birmingham Lollards 5 Bishop Auckland Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Blomberg Devotio Moderna 3 Boblingen peasants’ war 17 Böddeken Devotio Moderna 3 Bödingen Devotio Moderna 3 Bodmin monasteries 30 Bohemia Jewish persecution 19 Bois-Seigneur-Isaac Devotio Moderna 3 Bojador, Cape voyages of discovery 11 Bollène Waldensians 2 Bologna Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 printing 7 university 1 Bolton monasteries 30 Bolzano peasants’ war 17 Bombay (Mumbai) Francis Xavier 41 Bonn Devotio Moderna 3 Bordeaux after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 Calvinism 27 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 Europe after 1648 55 French religious wars 44 Great Schism 4 Jewish persecution 19 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 150

09/06/2015 15:41

Bordersholm Devotio Moderna 3 Bordesley monasteries 30 Boston (England) monasteries 30 Puritan migration 49 Boston (Massachusetts) N. American colonies 56 N. American settlers 51 Bourges archbishopric 10 French religious wars 44 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Braga archbishopric 10 Brandenburg Jewish persecution 19 Bratislava (Pressburg) Hussites 6 university 1 Braunsberg rise of the Jesuits 30 Breclav Anabaptists 18 Breda Dutch Reform 46 Netherlands reform 45 Bredevoort Devotio Moderna 3 Breitenfeld Peace of Westphalia 54 Thirty Years’ War 53 Bremen archbishopric 10 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Peace of Westphalia 54 progress of reform 21 Brest Spanish Armada 47 Bridlington monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Brielle Devotio Moderna 3 Brill Dutch Reform 46 Brindisi archbishopric 10 Bristol English Civil War 57, 58 Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Puritan migration 49 Spanish Armada 47 voyages of discovery 12 Brixen peasants’ war 17 Brno (Brünn) Anabaptists 18 Hussites 6 printing 7 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 Bruges Dutch Reform 46 Netherlands reform 45 Northern Renaissance 9 printing 7 Spanish Armada 47

Brussels Calvinism 27 Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Netherlands reform 45 Northern Renaissance 9 printing 7 Buckland monasteries 30 Buda Calvinism 27 Hussites 6 Jewish persecution 19 printing 7 Budapest empire of Charles V 14 Buenos Aires Catholic missions 42 voyages of discovery 12 Bungay monasteries 30 Burford Lollards 5 Burton on Trent monasteries 30 Bury St Edmunds Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Butzbach Devotio Moderna 3 Byland monasteries 30 Cadiz Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 Spanish Armada 47 Caen university 1 Cagliari archbishopric 10 Italian Renaissance 8 Cahors university 1 Cairo voyages of discovery 11 Caister Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Calais Dutch Reform 46 Northern Renaissance 9 Cali Catholic missions 42 Calicut voyages of discovery 11 Cambrai Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Northern Renaissance 9 Cambridge Bucer 24 Christian Europe in 1600 50 English Reformation 32 Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Northern Renaissance 9 Puritan migration 49 university 1 Camerino university 1 Canary Islands Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 voyages of discovery 11

Canterbury archbishopric 10 English Reformation 32 French religious wars 44 Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Canton Francis Xavier 41 Cape Blanc voyages of discovery 11 Cape Bojador voyages of discovery 11 Cape Comorin Francis Xavier 41 Cape of Good Hope Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 voyages of discovery 11 Cape Verde Islands Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 voyages of discovery 11 Capua archbishopric 10 Caracas Catholic missions 42 Carlisle English Reformation 32 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Carolina N. American colonies 56 Cartagena Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 Cartmel Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Cassel Devotio Moderna 3 Catania university 1 Cattaro Jewish persecution 19 Cerea Waldensians 2 Cerne monasteries 30 Ceské Budejovice (Budweis) Hussites 6 Charleston N. American colonies 56 Chelmo Devotio Moderna 3 Chelmsford Lollards 5 Cheriton English Civil War 58 Chester English Reformation 32 monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Chesterton Lollards 5 Christchurch monasteries 30 Christiania Europe after 1648 55 Chur Swiss Reformation 26 Clermont Waldensians 2 Coburg Luther 15 Melanchthon and reform 20

Cockermouth Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Coggeshall monasteries 30 Cognac French religious wars 44 Coimbra university 1 Colchester Lollards 5 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Puritan migration 49 Colmar Northern Renaissance 9 Cologne (Köln) archbishopric 10 Bucer 24 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 empire of Charles V 14 Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 knights’ war 16 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 peasants’ war 17 printing 7 progress of reform 21 university 1 Concepción Jesus Reductions 43 Concord N. American settlers 51 Connecticut N. American colonies 56 Constance (Konstanz) Swiss Reformation 23, 26 Constantinople (Istanbul) printing 7 Copenhagen after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 printing 7 Reformation in Scandinavia 29 university 1 Corbarieu Waldensians 2 Corby Lollards 5 Córdoba Catholic missions 42 Corfu Jewish persecution 19 Cork Ireland 48 Corpus Jesus Reductions 43 Corrientes Jesus Reductions 43 Corunna Spanish Armada 47 Cosenza archbishopric 10 Coventry Lollards 5 monasteries 30

Creake Lollards 5 Cremona Jewish persecution 19 Crowland monasteries 30 Cuzco Catholic missions 42 voyages of discovery 12 Dalheim Devotio Moderna 3 Danbury N. American settlers 51 Danzig (Gdansk) empire of Charles V 14 Melanchthon and reform 20 Poland 34 printing 7 Darien Catholic missions 42 Darmstadt Melanchthon and reform 20 Daventry Lollards 5 Deerfield N. American settlers 51 Delaware N. American colonies 56 Delft Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Netherlands reform 45 printing 7 Derby Lollards 5 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Puritan migration 49 Derry (Londonderry) Ireland 48 Dessau Peace of Westphalia 54 Thirty Years’ War 53 Dettingen Devotio Moderna 3 Deventer Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 printing 7 Devizes Lollards 5 Diepenveen Devotio Moderna 3 Dijon Calvinism 27 Northern Renaissance 9 Dillingen rise of the Jesuits 30 Dingle Ireland 48 Dingwall Scottish Reformation 33 Doesburg Devotio Moderna 3 Dôle rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Domazlice Hussites 6 Dömitz Peace of Westphalia 54 Doncaster Pilgrimage of Grace 31

GAZET TEER

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 151

151

09/06/2015 15:41

Dongo Waldensians 2 Dordrecht Devotio Moderna 3 Dorstadt Devotio Moderna 3 Dort Dutch Reform 46 Douai Dutch Reform 46 university 1 Dover (England) Lollards 5 Dover (New Hampshire) N. American settlers 51 Dresden Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 Hussites 6 Luther 15 Lutheran Germany 22 peasants’ war 17 Drogheda Ireland 48 Drosendorf Waldensians 2 Dublin after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 Ireland 48 university 1 Dunkirk Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 Spanish Armada 47 Dunstable (England) Lollards 5 Dunstable (Massachusetts) N. American settlers 51 Durham English Reformation 32 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Eberhardsklausen Devotio Moderna 3 Ebernberg knights’ war 16 Edgehill English Civil War 57 Edinburgh after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 empire of Charles V 14 English Civil War 58 printing 7 Scottish Reformation 33 Spanish Armada 47 university 1 Eernstein Devotio Moderna 3 Eferding Peace of Westphalia 54 Egmont Dutch Reform 46 Eindhoven Devotio Moderna 3 Einsiedeln Swiss Reformation 23

152

Eisenach Melanchthon and reform 20 Eisleben Luther 15 El Paso Catholic missions 42 Elblag Poland 34 Elizabeth N. American settlers 51 Elizabethsdal Devotio Moderna 3 Elmina voyages of discovery 11 Elsegem Devotio Moderna 3 Elstow monasteries 30 Embrun archbishopric 10 Waldensians 2 Emden Anabaptists 18 Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Melanchthon and reform 20 Emmerich Devotio Moderna 3 Erfurt Luther 15 peasants’ war 17 university 1 Esens-Marienkamp Devotio Moderna 3 Espiritu Santo Catholic missions 42 Esztergom archbishopric 10 Hussites 6 Evora university 1 Ewig Devotio Moderna 3 Exeter English Civil War 57, 58 Puritan migration 49 Eye Lollards 5 Faenza Waldensians 2 Fairfield N. American settlers 51 Faringdon Lollards 5 Farnham Lollards 5 Faro printing 7 Ferrara Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 university 1 Fez Jewish persecution 19 Florence (Firenze) after the Peace of Augsburg 35 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19

printing 7 Reformation in France 28 university 1 Waldensians 2 Ford monasteries 30 Fortaleza Catholic missions 42 Fountains monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Framlingham Lollards 5 Franeker university 1 Frankenhausen peasants’ war 17 Frankenthal Devotio Moderna 3 Frankfurt Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 knights’ war 16 Luther 15 Lutheran Germany 22 Peace of Westphalia 54 peasants’ war 17 printing 7 university 1 Freiberg Luther 15 Freiburg peasants’ war 17 university 1 Frenswegen Devotio Moderna 3 Fribourg Swiss Reformation 26 Fulda peasants’ war 17 rise of the Jesuits 30 Funay mission to Japan 60 Furness monasteries 30 Gaesdonck Devotio Moderna 3 Gaillac French religious wars 44 Galway Ireland 48 Gdansk (Danzig) Hussites 6 Poland 34 Geneva after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Anabaptists 18 Calvin 25 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 Europe after 1648 55 French religious wars 44 Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 Lutheran Germany 22 printing 7 Reformation in France 28 Swiss Reformation 23, 25, 26 university 1

Genoa after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 Calvinism 27 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Waldensians 2 Ghent Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 empire of Charles V 14 Netherlands reform 45 Northern Renaissance 9 printing 7 Giessen Luther 15 Glarus Swiss Reformation 23, 26 Glasgow Scottish Reformation 33 university 1 Glastonbury monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Glatz rise of the Jesuits 30 Glogau Peace of Westphalia 54 Glogow Poland 34 Gloucester Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Puritan migration 49 Gniezno (Gnesen) archbishopric 10 Goa Francis Xavier 41 voyages of discovery 11 Goldberg Peace of Westphalia 54 Goslar Melanchthon and reform 20 Gouda Devotio Moderna 3 printing 7 Gourdon Waldensians 2, 26 Grammont Devotio Moderna 3 Gran archbishopric 10 Granada empire of Charles V 14 university 1 Grauhof Devotio Moderna 3 Gravelines Spanish Armada 47 Graz rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Greifswald university 1 Grenoble French religious wars 44 university 1

Grobbendonk Devotio Moderna 3 Groenendaal Devotio Moderna 3 Groningen Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Melanchthon and reform 20 Netherlands reform 45 Gruaro Waldensians 2 Guatemala Catholic missions 42 Haderslev Melanchthon and reform 20 Hagenau Bucer 24 Hailes monasteries 30 Halberstadt Devotio Moderna 3 Halesowen monasteries 30 Halle Luther 15 Hamar Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Hamburg Calvinism 27 Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 printing 7 progress of reform 21 Hamersleben Devotio Moderna 3 Hanover Europe after 1648 55 Jewish persecution 19 Hardenberg Devotio Moderna 3 Harderwijk Devotio Moderna 3 Harlem Anabaptists 18 Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 printing 7 Hartford N. American settlers 51 Haskerdijken Devotio Moderna 3 Haughmond monasteries 30 Hautpoul Waldensians 2 Heidelberg Bucer 24 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Luther 15 Melanchthon and reform 20 progress of reform 21 university 1 Heiningen Devotio Moderna 3

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 152

09/06/2015 15:41

Helmstedt university 1 Helsinki Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Hempstead N. American settlers 51 Henley Lollards 5 Herford Devotio Moderna 3 Herrenburg Devotio Moderna 3 Hesse Devotio Moderna 3 Hildesheim-Sülte Devotio Moderna 3 Hiroshima mission to Japan 60 Hirzenhain Devotio Moderna 3 Hispaniola Catholic missions 42 Hitchin Lollards 5 Holar Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Holmcultram monasteries 30 Höningen Devotio Moderna 3 Hoorn Devotio Moderna 3 Hoorn-Nieuwlicht Devotio Moderna 3 Hormuz voyages of discovery 11 Horncastle Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Hradec Králové (Königgratz) Hussites 6 Huesca university 1 Hull Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Hulsbergen Devotio Moderna 3 Hulst Netherlands reform 45 Hungerford Lollards 5 Ingolstadt Christian Europe in 1600 50 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Innsbruck Anabaptists 18 Lutheran Germany 22 Inverness Scottish Reformation 33 Ipswich Lollards 5 Puritan migration 49 Itapua Jesus Reductions 43 Ittenviller Devotio Moderna 3 Jamestown N. American colonies 56 Jankau Peace of Westphalia 54 Thirty Years’ War 53

Jena university 1 Jersey French religious wars 44 Jervaulx monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Jésus Jesus Reductions 43 Jonvelle Waldensians 2 Jüteborg Luther 15 Kagoshima Francis Xavier 41 Kaiserslauten knights’ war 16 Kalocsa archbishopric 10 Kammer Waldensians 2 Kampen Devotio Moderna 3 Kampen-Brunhepe Devotio Moderna 3 Kappel Swiss Reformation 23 Kassel Devotio Moderna 3 Luther 15 progress of reform 21 Kells Ireland 48 Kempen Peace of Westphalia 54 Kendal Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Kenilworth monasteries 30 Kidlington Lollards 5 Kiev Europe after 1648 55 Kilkenny Ireland 48 King’s Lynn Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Puritan migration 49 Kingswood monasteries 30 Kirkby Stephen Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Kirkstall monasteries 30 Kirkstead monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Königsberg Germany in 1618 52 Melanchthon and reform 20 university 1 Königshofen peasants’ war 17 Königstein Devotio Moderna 3 Korsendonk Devotio Moderna 3 Kosel Peace of Westphalia 54 Kosice Hussites 6

Kraków (Cracow) after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Anabaptists 18 Hussites 6 Peace of Westphalia 54 Poland 34 printing 7 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Kremnica Hussites 6 Krumlau rise of the Jesuits 30 Kutná Hora (Kuttenberg) Hussites 6 Kuttenberg (Kutná Hora) printing 7 rise of the Jesuits 30 Kyoto mission to Japan 60 La Charité French religious wars 44 La Cruz Jesus Reductions 43 La Paz Catholic missions 42 La Rochelle French religious wars 44 La Tampico Catholic missions 42 La Flèche rise of the Jesuits 30 Lancaster (England) Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Lancaster (Massachusetts) N. American settlers 51 Landau knights’ war 16 Landstuhl knights’ war 16 Lanercost Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Langenlois Waldensians 2 Langport English Civil War 58 Larnat Waldensians 2 La Rochelle Calvinism 27 Launde monasteries 30 Lausanne Swiss Reformation 23, 26 university 1 Lavaur Waldensians 2 Le Havre Spanish Armada 47 Lechlade Lollards 5 Leeuwarden Dutch Reform 46 Melanchthon and reform 20 Netherlands reform 45 Legbourne Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Legnano Waldensians 2 Leicester Lollards 5 monasteries 30

Leiden (Leyden) Anabaptists 18 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Devotio Moderna 3 Netherlands reform 45 university 1 Leipzig Calvinism 27 Germany in 1618 52 Luther 15 Melanchthon and reform 20 printing 7 progress of reform 21 Reformation in France 28 university 1 Leiston Lollards 5 Lemberg archbishopric 10 Lengenfeld Waldensians 2 Lenton Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Lerida Waldensians 2 Leuven (Louvain) Devotio Moderna 3 university 1 Lewes monasteries 30 Lichfield English Reformation 32 monasteries 30 Liège (Luik) Devotio Moderna 3 Northern Renaissance 9 rise of the Jesuits 30 Limerick Ireland 48 Lincoln English Reformation 32 monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Puritan migration 49 Linköping Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Lipany (Siebenlinden) Hussites 6 Lisbon after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 empire of Charles V 14 Francis Xavier 41 Jewish persecution 19 printing 7 Thirty Years’ War 53 university 1 voyages of discovery 11, 12 Livorno (Leghorn) Jewish persecution 19 Lizard Spanish Armada 47 Locarno Swiss Reformation 23 London after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Bucer 24

Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 empire of Charles V 14 English Civil War 57, 58 English Reformation 32 Europe after 1648 55 French religious wars 44 Great Schism 4 Jewish persecution 19 Lollards 5 Loyola 39 monasteries 30 Northern Renaissance 9 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 printing 7 Puritan migration 49 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 Spanish Armada 47 Thirty Years’ War 53 Londonderry (Derry) Ireland 48 Loreto Jesus Reductions 43 Los Angeles Catholic missions 42 Loughborough Lollards 5 Louvain (Leuven) Christian Europe in 1600 50 Devotio Moderna 3 Netherlands reform 45 printing 7 university 1 Loyola Loyola 39 Lübeck Devotio Moderna 3 Lutheran Germany 22 printing 7 progress of reform 21 Lublin Poland 34 Ludingerkerk Devotio Moderna 3 Lund archbishopric 10 Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Lunderburg Anabaptists 18 Lüneberg university 1 Lutter (am Barenberge) Peace of Westphalia 54 Lützen Peace of Westphalia 54 Thirty Years’ War 53 Luxembourg Dutch Reform 46 Northern Renaissance 9 Lviv (Lemberg) archbishopric 10 Poland 34 Lydney Lollards 5 Lynn monasteries 30 Lyons after the Peace of Augsburg 35

GAZET TEER

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 153

153

09/06/2015 15:41



Anabaptists 18 Calvinism 27 French religious wars 44 Jewish persecution 19 Northern Renaissance 9 printing 7 Reformation in France 28 Waldensians 2

Marston Moor English Civil War 58 Europe after 1648 55 Maastricht Dutch Reform 46 Macerata university 1 Madeira voyages of discovery 11 Madrid after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 Lutheran Germany 22 printing 7 rise of the Jesuits 30 Thirty Years’ War 53 Magdeburg archbishopric 10 Devotio Moderna 3 Hussites 6 Luther 15 Melanchthon and reform 20 Maidstone Lollards 5 Maine N. American colonies 56 Mainz archbishopric 10 Christian Europe in 1600 50 empire of Charles V 14 Germany in 1618 52 Great Schism 4 knights’ war 16 Luther 15 Northern Renaissance 9 Peace of Westphalia 54 printing 7 progress of reform 21 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Waldensians 2 Malacca Francis Xavier 41 Maldon Lollards 5 Malta Jewish persecution 19 Maluka Islands Francis Xavier 41 Manaus (Manaós) Catholic missions 42 Manchester Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Manresa Loyola 39

154

Mantua Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 Marbach Devotio Moderna 3 Marblehead N. American settlers 51 Marburg after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Bucer 24 Calvinism 27 Devotio Moderna 3 Luther 15 Melanchthon and reform 20 Reformation in France 28 university 1 Marienthal Devotio Moderna 3 Marienwerder Melanchthon and reform 20 Marignano Swiss Reformation 23 Market Harborough Lollards 5 Marseilles Calvinism 27 French religious wars 44 Mártires Jesus Reductions 43 Masham Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Massachusetts N. American colonies 56 Matacan Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 Meaux French religious wars 44 Reformation in France 28 Meaux (Yorkshire) monasteries 30 Mechelen (Malines) Devotio Moderna 3 Netherlands reform 45 Mecklenburg Jewish persecution 19 Medellín Catholic missions 42 Meissen Hussites 6 Melinde Francis Xavier 41 Melle Devotio Moderna 3 Memmingen peasants’ war 17 printing 7 progress of reform 21 Mergentheim Peace of Westphalia 54 Merseburg Devotio Moderna 3 Merton monasteries 30 Merxhausen Devotio Moderna 3 Messina archbishopric 10 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Metz Northern Renaissance 9 Waldensians 2

Mexico City Catholic missions 42 voyages of discovery 12 Micheldean Lollards 5 Middelburg Netherlands reform 45 Mikulov Anabaptists 18 Milan archbishopric 10 Calvinism 27 empire of Charles V 14 Germany in 1618 52 Italian Renaissance 8 Loyola 39 Peace of Westphalia 54 printing 7 Waldensians 2 Mildenhall Lollards 5 Minsk Poland 34 Missenden monasteries 30 Modena university 1 Waldensians 2 Mohacs empire of Charles V 14 Moissac Waldensians 2 Möllenbeck Devotio Moderna 3 Molsheim rise of the Jesuits 30 Mombasa voyages of discovery 11 Monk Bretton monasteries 30 Monreale archbishopric 10 Mons Northern Renaissance 9 Montauban French religious wars 44 Montcuq Waldensians 2 Montélimar Waldensians 2 Montevideo Catholic missions 42 Montpellier French religious wars 44 university 1 Waldensians 2 Moravia Jewish persecution 19 Mosselbaai voyages of discovery 11 Mount Grace monasteries 30 Moutiers archbishopric 10 Mozambique Francis Xavier 41 voyages of discovery 11 Mühlhausen Melanchthon and reform 20 Swiss Reformation 23 Munich (München) Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50

Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 printing 7 Thirty Years’ War 53 Münster Anabaptists 18 Devotio Moderna 3 Germany in 1619 52 Lutheran Germany 22 peasants’ war 17 Thirty Years’ War 53 Naarden Devotio Moderna 3 Nagasaki mission to Japan 60 Najac Waldensians 2 Nalb Waldensians 2 Namur Dutch Reform 46 Nancy rise of the Jesuits 30 Nantes Calvinism 27 empire of Charles V 14 French religious wars 44 Reformation in France 28 university 1 Naples after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 printing 7 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Narbonne archbishopric 10 Waldensians 2 Naseby English Civil War 58 Netolitz Peace of Westphalia 54 Neuchâtel French religious wars 44 Swiss Reformation 23, 26 Neuhaus rise of the Jesuits 30 Neuhofen Waldensians 2 Neuss Devotio Moderna 3 Neustadt Luther 15 New Amsterdam N. American colonies 56 New Hampshire N. American colonies 56 New Haven N. American colonies 56 N. American settlers 51 New Jersey N. American colonies 56 Europe after 1648 55 New Orleans Catholic missions 42

New York N. American colonies 56 N. American settlers 51 Newbury English Civil War 57, 58 Lollards 5 N. American settlers 51 Newcastle Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Newfoundland voyages of discovery 12 Newstead monasteries 30 Nidaros archbishopric 10 Niederwerth Devotio Moderna 3 Nijmegen Devotio Moderna 3 Nikolsburg Anabaptists 18 Nîmes Waldensians 2 Nördlingen Peace of Westphalia 54 Northampton (England) monasteries 30 Puritan migration 49 Northampton (Massachusetts) N. American settlers 51 Norwich English Civil War 57, 58 English Reformation 32 Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Puritan migration 49 Notley monasteries 30 Nottingham Puritan migration 49 Nova Scotia Catholic missions 42 Noyon Calvin 25 Nunburnholme Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Nuremberg Anabaptists 18 Europe after 1648 55 Hussites 6 knights’ war 16 Jewish persecution 19 Luther 15 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Northern Renaissance 9 Peace of Westphalia 54 printing 7 progress of reform 21 Oaxaca Catholic missions 42 Odense printing 7 Odenwald knights’ war 16 Ollersbach Waldensians 2 Olmütz (Olomouc) rise of the Jesuits 30 Olomouc (Olmütz) Hussites 6 university 1 Omagh Ireland 48

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 154

09/06/2015 15:41

Oostmalle Devotio Moderna 3 Oran empire of Charles V 14 Orange French religious wars 44 Waldensians 2 Oristano archbishopric 10 Orléans after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Calvin 25 Calvinism 27 Reformation in France 28 university 1 Osaka mission to Japan 60 Oslo after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Europe after 1648 55 Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Osnabrück Devotio Moderna 3 Osterberg Devotio Moderna 3 Osuna university 1 Oudenarde Netherlands reform 45 Oviedo university 1 Oxford Christian Europe in 1600 50 English Civil War 57, 58 English Reformation 32 Jewish persecution 19 Lollards 5 Loyola 39 monasteries 30 Northern Renaissance 9 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 printing 7 Puritan migration 49 university 1 Padua Italian Renaissance 8 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Palencia university 1 Palermo after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 Italian Renaissance 8 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Pamplona Loyola 39 Panama Catholic missions 42 Paris after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Anabaptists 18 Calvin 25 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 Cromwell’s foreign wars 59



empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 French religious wars 44 Great Schism 4 Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 Melanchthon and reform 20 Northern Renaissance 9 printing 7 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Parisot Waldensians 2 Parma Italian Renaissance 8 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Passau Hussites 6 Pau French religious wars 44 Pavia university 1 Waldensians 2 Pennsylvania N. American colonies 56 Penrith Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Permaquid N. American settlers 51 Perpignan university 1 Pershore monasteries 30 Perth Scottish Reformation 33 Perugia Italian Renaissance 8 university 1 Pest Calvinism 27 Philadelphia N. American colonies 56 Piacenza university 1 Waldensians 2 Pilsen (Plzen) Hussites 6 printing 7 Pinerolo Waldensians 2 Pisa archbishopric 10 Italian Renaissance 8 university 1 Plymouth (England) English Civil War 58 Puritan migration 49 Spanish Armada 47 Plymouth (N. America) N. American colonies 56 N. American settlers 51 Plympton monasteries 30 Plzen see Pilsen Poissy French religious wars 44 Poitiers university 1 Pont-à-Mousson rise of the Jesuits 30 Pontefract monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31

Port Nolloth voyages of discovery 11 Portishead Lollards 5 Portland Spanish Armada 47 Porto Seguro voyages of discovery 11 Portsmouth (England) Puritan migration 49 Portsmouth (New Hampshire) N. American settlers 51 Poznan Hussites 6 Prague Anabaptists 18 archbishopric 10 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 Great Schism 4 Hussites 6 Jewish persecution 19 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Peace of Westphalia 54 peasants’ war 17 Poland 34 progress of reform 21 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 Thirty Years’ War 53 university 1 Preston English Civil War 58 Providence N. American settlers 51 Puerto Rico Catholic missions 42 Pupping Waldensians 2 Quebec Catholic missions 42 Quito Catholic missions 42 Radstadt peasants’ war 17 Rain Peace of Westphalia 54 Ramsey monasteries 30 Ravengiersburg Devotio Moderna 3 Ravenna Italian Renaissance 8 Reading Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Rebdorf Devotio Moderna 3 Recife Catholic missions 42 Regensburg (Ratisbon) after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Bucer 24 Calvin 25 Hussites 6 Waldensians 2

Reggio archbishopric 10 university 1 Reimerswaal Devotio Moderna 3 Renkum Devotio Moderna 3 Rennes Calvinism 27 Rheims archbishopric 10 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Rheinfelden Peace of Westphalia 54 Rhode Island N. American colonies 56 Ribe Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Richmond (N. America) Catholic missions 42 Richmond (Yorkshire) Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Riechenberg Devotio Moderna 3 Rievaulx monasteries 30 Riga archbishopric 10 Poland 34 Rio de Janeiro Catholic missions 42 Jesus Reductions 43 Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 voyages of discovery 12 Ripon Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Robertsbridge monasteries 30 Roche monasteries 30 Rochester Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Rocrol Thirty Years’ War 53 Roemond Devotio Moderna 3 Rogate Lollards 5 Rome after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 Great Schism 4 Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 printing 7 rise of the Jesuits 30 Thirty Years’ War 53 university 1 Waldensians 2 Romney Lollards 5 Romsey monasteries 30 Ronco Waldensians 2 Rooklooster Devotio Moderna 3

Roskilde Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Rossano archbishopric 10 Rostock Devotio Moderna 3 university 1 Rouen archbishopric 10 French religious wars 44 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 Rye French religious wars 44 St Albans Lollards 5 St Andrews archbishopric 10 Scottish Reformation 33 university 1 St Antonin Waldensians 2 St Augustine Catholic missions 42 St Christophen Waldensians 2 St Gall Swiss Reformation 23, 26 St Lawrence River Catholic missions 42 voyages of discovery 12 St Omer rise of the Jesuits 30 St Oswald Waldensians 2 St Osyth monasteries 30 St Peter Waldensians 2 St Peter in Einsiedel Devotio Moderna 3 St Quentin Northern Renaissance 9 St Thomas Francis Xavier 41 St Wendel knights’ war 16 Salamanca Christian Europe in 1600 50 Loyola 39 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Salem N. American colonies 56 N. American settlers 51 Salerno archbishopric 10 university 1 Salisbury English Reformation 32 Lollards 5 Salzburg archbishopric 10 Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 peasants’ war 17 Reformation in France 28 San Angel Jesus Reductions 43 San Antonio Catholic missions 42 San Borja Jesus Reductions 43

GAZET TEER

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 155

155

09/06/2015 15:41

San Carlos Jesus Reductions 43 San Francisco Catholic missions 42 San Ignacio Mini Jesus Reductions 43 San Javier Jesus Reductions 43 San José Jesus Reductions 43 San Juan Catholic missions 42 Jesus Reductions 43 San Lorenzo Jesus Reductions 43 San Luis Jesus Reductions 43 San Marino Italian Renaissance 8 San Miguel Jesus Reductions 43 San Nicolás Jesus Reductions 43 San Pablo Island Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 San Sebastian French religious wars 44 Sanlúcar de Barrameda Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 voyages of discovery 12 Santa Ana Jesus Reductions 43 Santa Cosmé y Damian Jesus Reductions 43 Santa Cruz Catholic missions 42 Santa Fé de Bogotá Catholic missions 42 Santa Ignacio Guazú Jesus Reductions 43 Santa María Catholic missions 42 Jesus Reductions 43 Santa María de Fe Jesus Reductions 43 Santa Rosa Jesus Reductions 43 Santa Severina archbishopric 10 Santander Spanish Armada 47 Santiago Catholic missions 42 Jesus Reductions 43 Santiago de Compostela archbishopric 10 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Santo Domingo Catholic missions 42 Santo Tomé Jesus Reductions 43 Sao Luís Catholic missions 42 Sao Paolo Catholic missions 42 Jesus Reductions 43 Saumur French religious wars 44 Sawley Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Saxony Jewish persecution 19

156

Scarborough Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Schamhaupten Devotio Moderna 3 Schleitheim Anabaptists 18 Schleswig Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Schmalkalden progress of reform 21 Reformation in France 28 Schwabenheim Devotio Moderna 3 Scituate N. American settlers 51 Sedan French religious wars 44 Sedbergh Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Segeberg Devotio Moderna 3 Segovia printing 7 Selby monasteries 30 Sennheim Peace of Westphalia 54 Seville empire of Charles V 14 printing 7 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Shaftesbury monasteries 30 Shangchuan Francis Xavier 41 Sheffield Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Sherborne monasteries 30 ’s-Hertogenbosch Devotio Moderna 3 Netherlands reform 45 Northern Renaissance 9 Shimbara peninsula mission to Japan 60 Shizuoka mission to Japan 60 Shrewsbury monasteries 30 Shrewsbury (N. America) N. American settlers 51 Sicily Jewish persecution 19 Siena university 1 Siguenza university 1 Sindelfingen Devotio Moderna 3 Sion Swiss Reformation 26 Siponto archbishopric 10 Skipton Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Slakov Anabaptists 18 Smolensk Poland 34 Socotra Francis Xavier 41 Solent Spanish Armada 47

Solothurn peasants’ war 17 Swiss Reformation 26 Somersham Lollards 5 Sorrento archbishopric 10 Southampton (England) French religious wars 44 Puritan migration 49 Southampton (N. America) N. American settlers 51 Spalato Jewish persecution 19 Spalding monasteries 30 Speyer Calvinism 27 knights’ war 16 peasants’ war 17 progress of reform 21 Springfield N. American settlers 51 Stamford monasteries 30 Staunton Lollards 5 Stavanger Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Steinau Peace of Westphalia 54 Stettin (Szczecin) Melanchthon and reform 20 Steyr Waldensians 2 Stirling Scottish Reformation 33 Stockholm after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Europe after 1648 55 printing 7 Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Stow-on-the-Wold English Civil War 58 Straelen Devotio Moderna 3 Strait of Magellan Magellan’s circumnavigation 13 Stralsund Melanchthon and reform 20 Strangnas Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Strasbourg (Strassburg) after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Anabaptists 18 Bucer 24 Calvin 25 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 knights’ war 16 Melanchthon and reform 20 Northern Renaissance 9 Peace of Westphalia 54 peasants’ war 17

printing 7 progress of reform 21 Thirty Years’ War 53 Waldensians 2 Stratzing Waldensians 2 Strood Lollards 5 Subiaco printing 7 Syracuse Jewish persecution 19 Italian Renaissance 8 Tabor Anabaptists 18 Hussites 6 Tachenhausen Devotio Moderna 3 Tachov Hussites 6 Takushima mission to Japan 60 Taranto archbishopric 10 Tarascon Jewish persecution 19 Tarragona archbishopric 10 Waldensians 2 Taunton Lollards 5 Taus Hussites 6 Tavistock monasteries 30 Tenochtitlan voyages of discovery 12 Tenterden Lollards 5 Thabor Devotio Moderna 3 Thame Lollards 5 The Hague (Den Haag) Dutch Reform 46 Netherlands reform 45 Thetford monasteries 30 Thorney monasteries 30 Thornton monasteries 30 Thorpe Lollards 5 Thuringia Jewish persecution 19 Tirlemont Devotio Moderna 3 Tlemcen Jewish persecution 19 Tokyo mission to Japan 60 Toledo archbishopric 10 empire of Charles V 14 Great Schism 4 rise of the Jesuits 30 Tonbridge Lollards 5 Tongeren Devotio Moderna 3 Torgau Hussites 6 Torre monasteries 30

Torres archbishopric 10 Toul Waldensians 2 Toulouse after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 empire of Charles V 14 French religious wars 44 Jewish persecution 19 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Waldensians 2 Tournai Dutch Reform 46 Netherlands reform 45 Northern Renaissance 9 Trani archbishopric 10 Trencin Hussites 6 Trent Calvinism 27 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 Italian Renaissance 8 peasants’ war 17 rise of the Jesuits 30 Treviso university 1 Trier (Trèves) archbishopric 10 Devotio Moderna 3 Germany in 1618 52 knights’ war 16 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Trinidad (Paraguay) Jesus Reductions 43 Trnava Hussites 6 rise of the Jesuits 30 Trondheim archbishopric 10 Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Troyes French religious wars 44 Northern Renaissance 9 Truttenhausen Devotio Moderna 3 Tuam archbishopric 10 Tübingen Devotio Moderna 3 progress of reform 21 university 1 Tucson Catholic missions 42 Tunis Cromwell’s foreign wars 59 empire of Charles V 14 Jewish persecution 19 Turin French religious wars 44 Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 university 1 Waldensians 2 Turku Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Turnham Green English Civil War 57 Turnhout Netherlands reform 45

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 156

09/06/2015 15:41

Tuttlingen Peace of Westphalia 54 Tynemouth monasteries 30 Tyrol Jewish persecution 19 Udine Jewish persecution 19 Uedem Devotio Moderna 3 Ulm Lutheran Germany 22 peasants’ war 17 Uppsala archbishopric 10 Reformation in Scandinavia 29 university 1 Urach Devotio Moderna 3 Urbino Italian Renaissance 8 university 1 Ústí nad Labem Hussites 6 Utrecht Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46 Northern Renaissance 9 printing 7 Uzes Waldensians 2 Valence university 1 Waldensians 2 Valencia archbishopric 10 Jewish persecution 19 printing 7 rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 voyages of discovery 11 Valenciennes Dutch Reform 46 Netherlands reform 45 Valladolid rise of the Jesuits 30 university 1 Vasteras Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Venice after the Peace of Augsburg 35 archbishopric 10 Calvinism 27 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 Loyola 39 peasants’ war 17 printing 7 Reformation in France 28 Thirty Years’ War 53 Venlo Netherlands reform 45 Vercelli university 1 Verdun Northern Renaissance 9

Verona Italian Renaissance 8 Jewish persecution 19 Waldensians 2 Viburg Reformation in Scandinavia 29 Vicenza university 1 Vienna after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Anabaptists 18 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Council of Trent 36, 37, 38 empire of Charles V 14 Europe after 1648 55 Germany in 1618 52 Hussites 6 Jewish persecution 19 Lutheran Germany 22 Peace of Westphalia 54 printing 7 progress of reform 21 Reformation in France 28 rise of the Jesuits 30 Thirty Years’ War 53 university 1 Vienne Waldensians 2 Vilnius Poland 34 rise of the Jesuits 30 Virginia N. American colonies 56 Vitkov Hill Hussites 6 Vladrina university 1 Volkhardinghausen Devotio Moderna 3 Vollenhove Devotio Moderna 3 Vredendaal Devotio Moderna 3 Wakamatsu mission to Japan 60 Walbeck Devotio Moderna 3 Waldstein knights’ war 16 Wallingford Lollards 5 Walsingham monasteries 30 Waltham Abbey Lollards 5 Ware Lollards 5 Warsaw Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Poland 34 Wartburg Luther 15 Waterford Ireland 48 Wattweiler Peace of Westphalia 54 Weimar Luther 15 Weisloch

Peace of Westphalia 54 Welbeck monasteries 30 Wells (Maine) N. American settlers 51 Wells (Somerset England), Lollards 5 English Reformation 32 Wesel Devotio Moderna 3 West Malling Lollards 5 Westminster printing 7 Wexford Ireland 48 Weymouth Puritan migration 49 Whalley monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Whitby monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 White Mountain Peace of Westphalia 54 Thirty Years’ War 53 Wiesbaden Devotio Moderna 3 Wigginton Lollards 5 Wildhaus Swiss Reformation 23 Wimpfen Peace of Westphalia 54 Winchelsea French religious wars 44 Winchester Lollards 5 monasteries 30 Windesheim Devotio Moderna 3 Windsor Lollards 5 Witmarsum Anabaptists 18 Witney Lollards 5 Wittenberg after the Peace of Augsburg 35 Anabaptists 18 Calvinism 27 Christian Europe in 1600 50 Devotio Moderna 3 Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 Luther 15 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 Northern Renaissance 9 peasants’ war 17 progress of reform 21 university 1 Wittenweiler Peace of Westphalia 54 Wittstock Peace of Westphalia 54 Woburn monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Wolf Devotio Moderna 3

Wolfgast Peace of Westphalia 54 Worcester (England) Lollards 5 Worcester (Massachusetts) N. American settlers 51 Worden Dutch Reform 46 Worms Anabaptists 18 Bucer 24 Calvinism 27 knights’ war 16 Luther 15 Worms-Kirschegarten Devotio Moderna 3 Wragby monasteries 30 Wroclaw (Breslau) Poland 34 printing 7 Württemberg Jewish persecution 19 Würzburg peasants’ war 17 Wymondham Lollards 5 monasteries 30



Germany in 1618 52 Jewish persecution 19 Lutheran Germany 22 Melanchthon and reform 20 printing 7 Swiss Reformation 23, 26 Zutphen Dutch Reform 46 Zwickau Anabaptists 18 Luther 15 Melanchthon and reform 20 Zwolle Devotio Moderna 3 Dutch Reform 46

Xavier Loyola 39 Yamaguchi Francis Xavier 41 mission to Japan 60 Yapeyú Jesus Reductions 43 Yarmouth Puritan migration 49 Ybbs Waldensians 2 York archbishopric 10 English Civil War 57, 58 English Reformation 32 monasteries 30 Pilgrimage of Grace 31 Puritan migration 49 Ypres Dutch Reform 46 Zadar archbishopric 10 Zaltbommel-Pieterswiel Devotio Moderna 3 Zara archbishopric 10 Zaradoza university 1 Zaragoza (Saragossa) archbishopric 10 printing 7 Zevenborren Devotio Moderna 3 Znojmo (Znaim) Anabaptists 18 Zollikon Swiss Reformation 23 Zumarshau sen Peace of Westphalia 54 Zurich Anabaptists 18 Calvin 25 Christian Europe in 1600 50

GAZET TEER

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 157

157

09/06/2015 15:41

Index

Note: Locators are page numbers, not map numbers. Numbers in italics indicate illustrations. Afonso de Albuquerque 45 Agricola, Johann 66 Agricola, Rodolphus 28 Alba, Duke of 114 Alexander V (pope) 30 Alexander VI (pope) 46 Anabaptists 60–61, 72, 126 Andreae, Jacob 126 Andreae, Laurentius (Lars Andersson) 82 Anglicanism 88, 124 Antwerp, Synod of 114 Arminius, Jakob 126 Arras, Union of 116 art, Renaissance 40 Aske, Robert 86 Augsburg 60 Confession 64, 66, 82, 96 Diet of 66 Interim 72 Peace of 69, 77, 96, 126, 130 Avignon 12 papacy at 30 Basel, Council of 99 Batenburg, Jan van 61 Beaton, Cardinal 90 Belgic Confession 114 Belgrade, seized by Turks 52 Bellarmine, Robert 104 Benedict XII (pope) 30 Beukels, Jan 61 Beza, Theodore 112 Bible interpretation 98–9 King James version 19 printing 36 translations 26, 32, 36, 54, 64, 80, 82, 92, 138, 140 Biel, Gabriel 28 Bigod, Francis 86 Blanc, Cape 44 Boehme, Jakob 134 Bohemia, and the Hussites 34 Bojador, Cape 44 Boniface VIII (pope) 30 Book of Concord 96 Bray, Guy de (Guido de Bres) 114 Brazil, Portuguese rights 46, 108 Breitenfeld, Battle of 132 Brenz, Johannes 66 Brethren of the Common Life 28 Briçonnet, Guillaume 80 Brussels, Union of 116 Bucer, Martin 72–3, 88 Budé, Guillaume 40, 80 Bugenhagen, Johannes 66, 82 Bullinger, Heinrich 76 Burgundy 114 Cabot, John 46 Cajetan, Thomas 54 Calvin, John 74–5 Calvinism 77–8, 92, 114, 116, 126, 130 Cambridge 72–3, 88

158

Canisius, Peter 104 Cartier, Jacques 46 cathedral schools 24 Celestine V (pope) 30 Charles I (king of England) 124, 140–41 Charles II (king of England) 142 Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) 52, 66, 68–9, 80, 96, 114, 130 Chelcicky, Petr 34 Chemnitz, Martin 126 Christian Alliance 76 Christian II (king of Denmark) 82 Christian III (king of Denmark) 82 Christian IV (king of Denmark) 132 Christian Union 76 Church of England 88 circumnavigation of the globe 48 Clarendon Code 142 Clement V (pope) 30 Clement VI (pope) 30 Clement VII (pope) 30, 52 Colet, John 40 Columbus, Christopher 46 confessionalization 96 conquistadores 46, 108 Consensus Tigurinus 75, 76 Constance, Council of 30, 34, 42 Cop, Nicolas 81 Copenhagen Diet of 82 University 82 Cortés, Hernan 46, 108 Counter-Reformation 62 Cranmer, Thomas 73, 88 Cromwell, Oliver 142, 144 foreign policy 144 Czech Brethren 92 da Gama, Vasco 45 defenestration of Prague 132 Denck, Hans 60 Denmark 82 Deventer 28 Devotio Moderna 28 Dias, Bartolomeu 45 Dort, Synod of 114, 126 Dublin, Trinity College 122 Dunkirk 144 Dürer, Albrecht 40 Eck, Johann 54 Edict of Nantes 112 Edict of Restitution 132 education 24 Edward VI (king of England) 88 Eliot, John 138 Elizabeth I (queen of England) 88 England 88 Civil War 140–42

Lollards in 32 monasteries dissolved 84 Pilgrimage of Grace 86 Puritans migrate from 124–5 sends settlers to Ireland 122 Erasmus of Rotterdam 14, 36, 40, 66, 70 Eriksson, Jorgen 82 Farel, Guillaume 74, 76 Ferdinand (Holy Roman Emperor) 130 Ferdinand of Styria (king of Bohemia) 132 Flacius, Matthias 65 Florence 38 Formula of Concord 65, 96, 126 France 77, 80–81 religious wars 112 Francis I (king of France) 52, 80 Frederick (elector of Saxony) 54–5 Frederick III (Elector Palatine) 78 Frederick V (Elector Palatine) 132 Geneva 74–5, 77 University 77 Germany in 1618 130 Knights’ War 56–7 Peasants’ War 58–9 Ghent, Pacification of 116 Goa 44, 45 Gomar, Francis 126 Good Hope, Cape of 45 Granada, Moors defeated at 52, 62 Great Migration 124–5 Great Schism 30, 42 Gregory XI (pope) 30 Groote, Geert 28 Grotius, Hugo 126 Gustavus Adolphus (king of Sweden) 132 Gutenberg Bible 13 Gutenberg, Johannes 36 Hamilton, Patrick 90 Harvard College 128 Heidelberg Catechism 78, 96 Helvetic Confession, Second 76 Henry IV (king of France) 112 Henry the Navigator 44 Henry VIII (king of England) 52, 84, 86, 88 Hereford, Nicholas 32 Hesse 72 Hoffman, Melchior 60 Holy Roman Empire 130 see also Charles V Hormuz 45 Hubmaier, Balthasar 60, 62

Hudson River 138 Huguenots 77, 112 Humanism 38, 40 Hungary 78, 130 Hunt, Robert 124 Hus, Jan 34 Hussites 34, 92 Hut, Hans 60 Hutchinson, Anne 128 Hutten, Ulrich von 56–7 Hutter, Jakob 60 Iceland 82 iconoclasm 114 India, reached by Portuguese sailors 45 indulgences 100–101 Innocent VI (pope) 30 Inquisition 62 Ireland 122 Isabella (queen of Spain) 46, 108 Italy, Renaissance 38 Jamaica 144 James I (king of England) 124, 140 Jamestown 128 Japan missions 106, 146 persecution of Christians 146 Jesuits 100, 102–4, 112 in Ireland 122 missions 106, 110, 111, 146 Jews 62, 92, 144 John III (king of Portugal) 106 John XXII (pope) 30 Jonas, Justus 66 Kappel 71 Karlstadt, Andreas 58 Knox, John 78, 90 Landstuhl 57 Las Casas, Bartolomé de 46, 110 Łaski, Jan (John a Lasco) 73, 78, 88, 92 Latimer, Hugh 88 Laud, William 140 Laynez, Diego 100 Lefèvre d’Étaples, Jacques 40, 80–81 Leiden, university 114 Leipzig, Luther at 54–5, 64 Leipzig Interim 64–5 Leo X (pope) 52 Lepanto, Battle of 118 Lincolnshire Rising 86 Lisbon 45 Lithuania 92 Lollards 32 Louis XI (king of France) 80 Louis XIV (king of France) 112 Lovati, Lovato 38 Low Countries 114, 116

Loyola, Ignatius 102–3 Luther, Martin 54–5, 66 at the Marburg Colloquy 55, 70–71 and the Jews 62 and the Peasants’ War 58–9 Lutheranism 64–6, 78, 82, 92, 96, 116, 130 Lutter, Battle of 132 Lutzen, Battle of 132 Magellan, Ferdinand 48 Mainz, printing centre 36 Malacca 45, 106 Mansfeld, Ernst von 132 Marburg Colloquy 15, 55, 64, 66, 70–71 Martha’s Vineyard 138 Martin V (pope) 30 martyrs 88 Mary I (queen of England) 88 Mary (queen of Scots) 90, 118 Maryland 138 Massachusetts Bay Colony 125, 128 Maurice of Nassau 116 Maurice of Saxony 69, 96 Mayhew, Thomas Jr. 138 Meaux 80 Melanchthon, Philipp 64–5 Melville, Andrew 90 Mennonites 61, 92, 114, 116 mercenaries 132 Mexico 46 conquered by Cortes 108 missions Central America 108, 110 Japan 106, 146 North America 138 Mohàcs, Turks defeat Hungarian army at 52 Moluccas 48 monasteries dissolution 84 and education 24 Montserrat Monastery 102 More, Thomas 40 Moriscos 118 Münster 60–61 Treaty of 136 music, Renaissance 40 Nantes, Edict of 112 Naseby, Battle of 142 Native Americans 138 Navarre 77 Netherlands 114, 116 New Amsterdam 138 New England 125, 128 New Spain 138 New York 138 Nicholas of Cusa 40 North America colonies 138 early settlers 128–9 Norway 82

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 158

09/06/2015 15:41

Oecolampadius, Johann 66 Oldenbarneveldt, Johan von 116 Osiander, Andreas 66 Oxford, Protestant martyrs 17 papacy 30, 42 in exile 30 Luther’s criticisms of 54–5 reform and reaction 98–101 Paraguay, Jesuit Reductions 109, 111 Paris medieval education 24 St Bartholomew’s Day massacre 112 Parma, Duke of 116, 118 Passau, Treaty of 69 Paul III (pope) 98, 103 Paul IV (pope) 100 Peasants’ War 58–9, 66 Pennsylvania 138 Peru, conquered by Pizarro 108 Petrarch 38 Petri (Persson) brothers 82 Philip the Fair 30 Philip of Hesse 66, 68, 70 Philip II (king of Spain) 114, 116, 118 Philip III (king of Spain) 111, 116 Philippines, Roman Catholic missions to 110 Piedmont, waldensians attacked 26 Pilgrim Fathers 124, 128 Pilgrimage of Grace 84, 86 Pisa, Council of 30 Pius IV (pope) 101 Pizarro, Francisco 46, 108, 110 placards 80 plantations (of English settlers in Ireland) 122 Poissy, Colloquy 112 Poland 78, 92 Pole, Reginald 88, 98 Polish Brethren 92 Portugal colonizes Brazil 108 voyages of discovery 44–5, 46 Prague defenestration of 132 and the Hussites 34 Praying Towns 138 Presbyterian churches 78, 90 printing 36, 77 Protestant League 144 Protestantism 66, 69 Providence Plantation 129–30 Puritanism 78, 124, 128, 140, 142 Quietism 134

Radewijns, Florens 28 Radical Reformation 60–61 Radziwiłł, Mikołaj 78 Reductions 109, 111 Reformed churches 64–5, 70–71, 116 see also Calvinism Remonstrants 116 Renaissance 38, 40 Reuchlin, Johann 40 Rhode Island 130 Ridley, Nicholas 88 Rievaulx Abbey 86 Roman Catholic Church, reform and reaction 98–101, 104 St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre 18, 112 St Germain, Peace of 112 Salmerón, Alfonso 100 Sandomir, Concord of 92 Saxony 54–5 Schmalkaldic Articles 96 Schmalkaldic League 66, 68 Schmalkaldic War 69, 96 scholasticism 24 Scotland 78, 90 National Covenant 140 Servetus, Michael 75 Sickingen, Franz von 56–7 Sigismund II Augustus 92 Sigismund, John 78 Simons, Menno 61 Six Articles 88 slavery 46, 108–110, 138 Society of Jesus 100, 102–4 Socinianism 92 Sozzini, Fausto 92 Spain conflict with the Netherlands 116 Jews in 62 Latin American conquests 108 voyages of discovery 46 Spanish Armada 118 Spanish Empire 52, 138 Spanish Netherlands 116 Speyer, Diet of 66 Strasbourg 72, 74 Suarez, Francisco 104 Suleiman the Magnificent 52 Sweden 82, 136 N. American settlements 138 Swiss Brethren 60 Switzerland 74–7, 136

Union of Bohemian Brethren 34 United Provinces 116, 136 universities 24, 41 Uppsala, Synod of 82 Urban V (pope) 30 Urban VI (pope) 30 Utraquists 34 Verde, Cape 44 Vermigli, Peter Martyr 73, 88, 112 voyages of discovery 44–9 Waldensians 26, 144 Wallenstein, Albrecht von 132 War of Liberation 96 Warsaw, Concord of 92 Westminster Confession 90, 142 Westphalia, Peace Treaties of 116, 132, 134 White Mountain, Battle of the 132 William the Silent 116 Williams, Roger 129–30 Windesheim Canons 28 Winthrop fleet 125 Winthrop, John 128 Wishart, George 90 Wittenberg, university 41, 54, 64, 66 Worms, Diet of 54 Wyclif, John 32 Xavier, Francis 106, 146 Zurich 60, 70, 76 Zwickau prophets 57 Zwingli, Huldrych 16, 70–71

Thirty Years’ War 132 Thomas à Kempis 28 Thorlaksson, Gudbrandur 82 Tilly, Baron 132 Tordesillas, Treaty of 46 Tournon, François de 112 transubstantiation 100 Trent, Council of 17, 98–101, 126 Twelve Articles 58

INDEX

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 159

1 59

09/06/2015 15:41

Photograph acknowledgments All photographs © Tim Dowley Associates Ltd except p. 12: p. 13: p. 14: pp. 22/23: p. 44: pp. 50/51: p. 54: p. 56: p. 58: p. 64: p. 68: p. 70: p. 77: p. 80: pp. 94/95: p. 96: p. 106: p. 110: p. 118: pp. 120/121: p. 124: p. 140: p. 142: p. 144:

160

© Mauro Bighin | Dreamstime.com © Spaceheater | Dreamstime.com © Georgios Kollidas | Dreamstime.com © Neil Harrison | Dreamstime.com © Stbernardstudio | Dreamstime.com © Bkaiser | Dreamstime.com © Ian Danbury | Dreamstime.com © Hans Klamm | Dreamstime.com © Weber11 | Dreamstime.com © Georgios Kollidas | Dreamstime.com © Andreas Weber | Dreamstime.com (Zwingli) © Georgios Kollidas | Dreamstime.com (Grossmünster) © Tomas1111 | Dreamstime.com © Hai Huy Ton That | Dreamstime.com © Ams22 | Dreamstime.com © Tonino Corso | Dreamstime.com © Georgios Kollidas | Dreamstime.com © Pongmanat Tasiri | Dreamstime.com © Jose Antonio Sánchez Reyes | Dreamstime.com © Joymsk | Dreamstime.com © Americanspirit | Dreamstime.com © Americanspirit | Dreamstime.com © Amanda Lewis | Dreamstime.com © Georgios Kollidas | Dreamstime.com © Tim@awe | Dreamstime.com

At l a s o f t h e E u r o p e a n R e f o r m at i o n s

01_04 sections_FA_Reformation map layout.indd 160

09/06/2015 15:41

Rh

in e

Metz 1200

R.

SCHAFFHAUSEN

Catholic canton Zwinglian or Calvinist canton mixed religious allegiance Forest cantons

Mainz 1233

R.

Mo se

Se ine R.

R. lle

R hin e

The Swiss Ref

Earliest Waldensians Waldensian concentration with earliest recorded date Waldensian ‘schola’ Political divisions as around 1360

09

I R E2 map 26 THE REFORMATION IN SWITZERLAND H O L Y R O M A N E M P map

. in R Ma

The Waldensians

DISTRIBUTION OF THE WALDENSIANS

D ou

bs

R.

Constance

Basel

1528-9 oecolampadius reforms church Statue of Francisco

B AS E L Pizarro, AarauTrujillo, ARGAU Caceres,A Spain. SOLOTHURN c1262 Regensburg

solothurn

st Gall

1526 Vadianus (1484-1551) reforms church

Zurich

1522-25 Zwingli reforms church

L. Zurich

Drosendorf

L. Zug ZUG

Dan ub eR

Toul

B A V A R I A L. Constance

THUR GAU

ZURICH

France. They made slow progress at first because they were fiercely opposed by the authorities. Calvinism was initially strongest in Antwerp, Ghent, and areas near Germany, from which it gradually spread northwards. Calvinism was not even recognized as an option by the German princes in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), and was generally regarded with suspicion by the ruling elite. It first entered Germany via the Netherlands in the 1560s, developing into a popular movement

Calvinism took early root in many places where Waldensian churches had previously been active. The most promising area for the growth of Calvinism was France, Calvin’s homeland. Many French Protestants came to Geneva to train before carrying Calvin’s theology home. In 1559 the Geneva Academy had 162 students; by 1564 more than 1500, mostly foreign. The first Huguenot (Reformed) ministers arrived in France in 1553; by the time of Calvin’s death it is estimated some two million French people professed the Reformed faith.

The Reformation Wall, Geneva: (left to right) Guillaume Farel, The Jesuits introduced a controversial method of protecting Native Americans fro Jean Calvin, Theodore Beza, John Knox. exploitation. Between 1583 and 1605 they created a system of self-sufficient native reservations that offered a settlement and refuge for the Guarani Indians of Parag and Brazil who had been enslaved by the Spanish colonists. Although colonists opposed this policy, Philip III of Spain aided the Jesuits by means of subsidies and legal measures. This venture later became so successful that the Spanish governme no longer needed to subsidize it.

APPENZELL ST GALL

Nalb Lengenfeld LUCERNE Pupping B E R N SCHWYZ Langenlois Stratzing Glarus St Oswald GL ARUS Anzbach Bern 1528 haller Neuhofen UNTERWALDEN St Christophen Ybbs reforms church Steyr Kammer St Peter Ollersbach URI

m Spreads

002 WALDENSIANS

Around 1175 a merchant of Lyons, Peter Waldo (or Valdes, c. 1140– c. 1218), gave away his wealth to lead a life of poverty and preaching. He had vernacular translations made from the Latin New Testament and soon attracted many followers. But in little more than a decade what began as an enthusiastic popular movement had been branded as heresy.

Dowley

The only atlas of the Reformations available today!

the German-speaking and French-speaking introduced Reform in Neuchatel and Geneva. Reformation parties and was adopted by nonIn 1524 the four traditionally Lutheran churches in Switzerland, Scotland, conservative mountain cantons formed a France, Poland, and Hungary. Bullinger’s Christian Union to resist Reform; in response importance in the Reformation has been the Zwinglians of Zurich and Constance widely underestimated: in England he was to formed their own Christian Alliance (1527), 026 THE SWISSbecome REFORMATION more influential04 than Calvin. joined later by others.

1529, Forest cantons form a Christian Union, allied with hapsburg Austria

.

nR

ra g u ay R.

R

A

G

Con go

Mississipp i R.

ra n

CUBA

1589

oR .

INDIAN OCEAN

1533

Mexico City

JESUS REDUCT

HISPANIOLA

Santo Domingo

Oaxaca

1483

NEW SPAIN

Guatemala

1566

San Juan

PUERTO RICO

1500

ANTILLES Caracas

1511 Darien

1639

Panama NEW GRANADA Medellin Santa Fé de Bogotá Cali

Equator

Quito

1500

mazon Manaus A

PERU

R.

Belem

Sao Luís Fortaleza

Cape of Good Hope

Edinburgh

La Paz

B R A ZIL 1549

Santa Cruz Paran aR .

1535

R.

Tim Dowley

0 500 1000 1500 Kilometers

1551

o Salad

06

SOUTH AMERICA

Cuzco

1568

Tropic of Cancer

1580

Espiritu Santo

Paraguay R.

014 EMPIRE CHARLES V THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES V 1000

Recife

P ACIFIC Nuño Tristão 1441, 1443 OCEAN Diogo Cão (1484-6) Pêro da Covilhã (c. 1487-90) Bartolomeu Dias (1487-8) Vasco da Gama (1497) map 14 (1500) Pedro Cabral

Rio de Janeiro Sao Paolo

Santa Maria

Córdoba

Santiago

Buenos Aires

Montevideo

Bahia Carmelite mission Capuchin mission Jesuit mission Franciscan mission Augustinian mission Dominican mission Sulpician mission Mercedarian mission Jesuit ‘reductions’ from 1610

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Catholic Reform and Counter-Reformation

Line of demarcation: Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494

Miles 0

500

0 500 Kilometers

1000

1000

1500

R

G

R.

A

ine

1

HU N

Rh

in e

R.

AR

The German Knights’War

Rh

Königsberg

O

Before the Reformation

109

Part 3

e

.

Dias and da Gama

El b

Germany 1618

Pa

ru

gu

ay

R.

HU N

Pa

R.

in e

Rh

SARDINIA

A

M EX ICO

Major Portuguese voyages

Mosselbaai

500

FLO RID

Mozambique

N ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

1566

La Tampico

Port Nolloth

Miles 0

an Gr Rio

ATLANTIC OCEAN

La Paz

Mombasa

Benguela

1566

St Augustine

M

ose

R. ain M

l R.

Meu se R.

O

R.

D

AN

in e

EL

IN

RH

Rh

E

R.

A

.

AIN

S PA I N

E

TH

D

N

F

SARDINIA

RR

IA

SA

PORTUGAL

A

der

LO

M HE BO

Martin Luther

.

BudapestLUTHER _ BEGINNINGS OF cause, seeing in OF Lutheran 015 MARTIN REFORMATION 06 Many depended upon dwindling adherents ofnorth-east the 1501 Luther university student von Sickingen and knightsOF of Martin Luther (1483–1546) moderate. was born in Eisleben, a small mining AUSTRIA more than thirty years’ struggle to maintain The size of his empire presented Charles with P R U town S S I A inBURGUNDY We 1505 BURGUNDY 1483 Luther born monk Franconia, Swabia and Rhineland MARTIN LUTHER AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION map 15 Luther Augustinian Nantes ser ORTH EA kind from their lands, a shortage it an opportunity to recover the declining declare war on Archbishop of Trier HOLSTEIN 1546up Luther dies A N T I payments C andinwas R.and religious unity, gave his empire his many problems, principally military threats POMERANIA Germany, grew up TinL Mansfeld, educated in Eisenach, Magdeburg, and the CHAROLAIS of income made more acute by the spiralling influence of the Christian nobility in Trent 2 1519 Debate between MECKLENBURG throne. The family lands in Austria and BREMEN from France and the Ottoman Turks. As a OLD Sickingen’s attack OEck quam cito transit University of Erfurt, where he studied law. In 1505 he joined a closed Augustinian friary C E A N Frankfurt and Luther Mohacsrepulsed 1526 ENB inflation that followed the discovery and Sickingen, who Hamburg Elb gloria mundi. UR G B Waldstein R A NDE NB UR G the Imperial title now went to his brother result, Charles had been forced to ignore e . W IC K-WOL FE NB ÜT T E L 45 P O R T U G UVENICE E S E V OYA G E S O F D I S CO V E R BYRUNS F R the A NGerman COrdained E nation. Milan le R in Erfurt,Rafter having made a dramatic a thunderstorm. in for 1507, of thevow Newduring World. The increased had previously fought the emperors Oh how quickly the BRANDENBURG O plundering Saa Mainz Ferdinand. the Protestants while he dealt with urgent BRUNSWICK world’s glory passes away! M AGDE B UR G of kings, together withranks the power Maximilian and Charles V, was sometimes Venice UNITED Ebernberg he studied theologyBerlin and roseauthority through the academic at the university. Transferring Trier matters on his borders. Not until 1546 was THomAs à kempis PROVINCES HA Münster and wealth of some princes of the church, called ‘the last knight’. With Hutten, he Amsterdam Worms Magdeburg MAGDEBURG he able to attack the defensive alliance of to the new University of Wittenberg in 1511, he was P O Llinked A N D with that institution for Wittenberg RZ MÜNSTER 1516 Charles proclaimed Ottoman FRANCONIA Jüterborg further jeopardized the status, and excited Rhine R proposed the unification of GermanSt Wendel Nuremberg 1529 Luther discusses Despite the Peace of Augsburg, Calvinism Odenwald Lutheran princes known as the Schmalkaldic . Wittenberg King Charlesvisited I of Spain Rome for his order, and was profoundly 1517 Tetzel preaches on indulgences Turks G Ethe R Mrest A Nof Y his Leipzig MKaiserslauten life. In 1510–11 E Lord’s Supper with Zwingli SIL ESIA theLuther envy, of the knightly class. Their selfspeaking lands and secularization of Genoa F O G Avignon O League. Although he won a decisive military and Reformed Protestantism Toulouse LUS AT IA Cologne 1517 Luther’s 95 Theses Speyer U allied himself with the French king at a time HESSE shockedSAXONY Z addition, the R continued energies to translating the New Testament Francis Iby and E S newly colonized Spanish Giessen by the corruption and extravagance he encountered in the papal city. In 1512 he N 1521-2 Luther in hiding image had been flattered by the medieval ecclesiastical principalities. Influenced Dresden R Landau Florence 1521 Luther excommunicated SILESIA SPANISH PAPAL Landstuhl OT TO MAN Forces3of Palatine, TA T raising victory, the factors summarized above totranslates spread across Germany, further E Charles V both New Testament D NETHERLANDS HANAU when concerted action with Charles might chivalry and of their role in the into German. territories in North, Central, and South lb R STATES claim Milan 1534 Translatestensions. Old Testament IN became a doctor of theologycode andofprofessor biblical studies at Wittenberg. and Trier besiege NASSAU prevented him from imposing firm imperial religious Calvinists gained from the e IA E MP IRE Hesse Sickingen’s castle: S R.. Eisleben be R u n a Crusades; now both their economic base and D Prague NAVARRE Frankfurt The Sickingen Heights, in the Palatinate, Germany, he capitulates dies Since 1483 Saxony had been divided control and his Catholic faith in Germany; TI otherwise have crushed the Reformation. America poured wealth from the New student Lutherans major states such as the Palatinate, university Lutherand 1501 Mainz LUXEMBOURG Coburg UPPER BOHEMIA We 1505 Luther Augustinian monk C Halle 1483 Luther born political power were declining rapidly. near von Sickingen’s town, Landstuhl. PALATINATE PALATINATE ser Trier Strasbourg Lutheranism and the political privileges of Ansbach, and Hesse, states such as W ÜRZ BUR G while into two parts: Ernestine and Albertine, or 1546 Luther dies SE BO HEM IA Holy Roman Emperor in person, and fearing CORSICA Rome After a long spiritual crisis, Luther rejected R. During the 1550s Charles gradually World into his treasury. Go forth and set the MOR AVIA Nuremberg Leipzig Frankfurt A Brandenburg became a mix of LutheranB AYREUT H Augsburg world on fire. 1519 Debate between Electoral and Ducal respectively. During the German princes were both too deeply M O R AV IA A R AG ON for his life, Luther again refused to recant. theology based on the inherited tradition, Kassel abdicated from parts of his empire. He gave Charles also inherited from his paternal WÜRTTEMBERG Eck and Luther entrenched. and Reformed, instead of solely Lutheran NAPLES Barcelona ignATius of LoyoLA Strasbourg Augsburg his career as reformer, Luther was fortunate Mainz H U N He G A was R Y declared an outlaw, but kidnapped eR Bayreuth emphasizing instead the individual l AUSTRIA BAVARIA a as before. Strong bodies of Reform also 1519: Charles V crowned Dresden Sa Sicily, Naples, and Milan to his son Philip in grandmother, Mary of Burgundy (r. 1477– Naples Wartburg Vienna . Weimar R Holy Roman Emperor to live in Electoral Saxony, where the ruler, ain Munich existed in Hungary; the Magyars preferred Cuius regio, eius religio for his own protection by the sympathetic understanding and experience of Scripture, Madrid M an U BIA by the Pope Basel ube R 1554; he abdicated from the Netherlands in 82), much of the Netherlands, FrancheS W A Erfurt Salzburg 4R I . Freiberg E Calvinism to the early Lutheranism, which In 1555 Charles reluctantly agreed Elector Frederick the Wise (r. 1483–1525), Miles Worms to the N Basel Elector Frederick and taken to G crucially believing justification not to be ST YRIA Marburg Hutton flees to Zurich O T T O of M ASaxony N 0 10 30 R 50 1521 Edict condems G SAL ZBURG 1555; and from his Spanish Empire in 1556. Comté, and domination Luxembourg; IA I German of and from his Neustadt Basel Luther as heretic that gave T YROL PAL ATI N ATE they associated with Zwickau despite remaining a Catholic, protected Peace of Augsburg, a compromise 1529 Luther discusses E Castle. M P I R EThere he devoted his B the Wartburg by works, but by faithCARINTHIA alone. Luther’s . Toledo N SWISS CONFEDERATION O Francis I and Charles Tagus Rviews 0E 20 40 60 Lord’sV Supper with Zwingli (MUSLIM MINORITY ) Hungary. S IL E S IA each German prince the right to choose R F F R A N C E G Kilometers Finally his brother Ferdinand succeeded as both claim Naples paternal grandfather, OR NurembergMaximilian I (r. 1508–E S (CALVINIST/HUGUENOT Z MINORITY ) Balearic Is. Testament energies to translating the New became more widely ES Lisbon known when he sent Giessen 1521-2 Luther in hiding Powered by the Counter-Reformation, the his realm’s religion – provided it was either R T Holy Roman Empire boundary Heidelberg T E Geneva translates New Testament Holy Roman Emperor in 1558, shortly before 16), thehad Habsburg lands of Germany. Shortly Martin Luther (1483–1546). V E Nbishops, ICE CARNIOLAAlbrecht, Roman Catholic Church reclaimed lands Catholic or Lutheran. The prince could into German. by Staupitz a letter to the including 1518 Disputation called 1534 Translates Old Testament Catholic Milan a prominent opponent of Luther. His assault Hutten, Sickingen made his Rhineland estate, lost earlier to Protestantism. territories also claimed decide the faith of his subjects on the basis Lutheran Charles’ death. afterwardsSome the Habsburgs Venice Since 1483 Saxony had been divided Bishop of Mainz, on 31 October 1517 and Coburg failed and he retreated to his supposedly the Ebernburg, into a refuge for Lutheran E R R A N E A N Anglican had always remained loyal to Rome, but the ‘cuius regio, eius religio’ (‘whose the rule, S E A SICIL D I T W ÜRZ B UR G into two parts: Ernestine later (probably mid-November)Seville posted his the eastern flank of the Empire: Hungary, unassailable stronghold at Landstuhl, where sympathizers and a centre for Lutheran B OHE M IA Y M E and Albertine, or Calvinist/Reformed concentrated efforts of the Jesuits in particular his the religion’; a phrase coined in the late Rome AYRE UTbyH an alliance of Frankfurt propaganda. He gave shelter to the reformers Zwinglian he was defeated andBkilled 1510 Luther disillusioned after visit Genoa Electoral and Ducal respectively. During 95 Theses – intended for academic debate Granada M OR AVIA now succeeded in bringing others back to the sixteenth century, but the operating principle Territory of Frederick the Wise, Moravian minority Tunis three German princes. Following Sickingen’s Martin Bucer and Johannes Oecolampadius, be Algiers his careerby as Catholics reformer, Luther was fortunate Latin Church. of the Peace of Westphalia about the sale of indulgences and the church’s Mainz Miles in 1648), although Bayreuth D anu Recovered Elector of Saxony (Ernestine, 1485-1525) A D R I AT I C defeat, Hutten fled to Basel, Switzerland. and even offered refuge to Luther following 0 10 30 Nevertheless the largest Reformation Calvinists, Anabaptists, Socinians, and50other Orthodox Luther’s protector Inherited bytheCharles V Main R. 1530 Augsburg to live in Electoral Saxony, where the ruler, material preoccupations – on . S E Athe door of The common refusal to pay church tithes Diet of Worms. ar R group in Germany continued Confessionto presented Muslim be Lutheran. non-Lutheran Protestants were Miles Neck Territory of the Albertine Dukes of Saxony 0 20 40still60not to be Gained by Charles Oran Elector Frederick the Wise (r. 1483–1525), Wittenberg’s Castle Church. Their effect was to Augsburg Worms during the revolt spread to the peasants and WhileVCharles V was away in Spain, 0 100 200 Kilometers Having emerged from the Schmalkaldic tolerated. 1521 Edict condems Holy RomanSickingen Empire boundary Luther as heretic inspired them to refuse to pay the tithe – one summoned a gathering of knights PA L AT INAT E despite remaining a Catholic, protected undermine the basis of contemporary practice. War, the Interims, and the War of Liberation, Instead of settling Germany’s religious O N.B. This does not include Charles V’s overseas RE 0 100 200 300 of the factors that led to the Peasants’ Revolt. and declared war on empire. the Archbishop of Trier, Nuremberg In December the Archbishop of Mainz Lutheranism was now stabilized in its problems, the Peace of Augsburg actually ST Kilometers Heidelberg strongholds exacerbated them, leading to thousands the narrower limits of Saxony. The ‘Luther him when both northern Empire and Church turned complained to Rome about Luther. Martin Luther (1483–1546). 1518 Disputation called by Staupitz of refugees – especially the Reformed and him. Ducal Saxony, on the other Lands’ are bounded by the Erzgebirge against The latter refused to recant, Anabaptists – fleeing Germany and spreading (Bohemian Massif) on the south-east, hand, was ruled by Duke George, a fierce travelled to Heidelberg in 1518 their religious beliefs to the Netherlands, Rome 56 a set of theses F ofor r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n T H E G E R M A N K N I G H T S’ WA R 57 Electoral Saxony to the north-east, the opponent The Leipzig debate took having prepared France, and England. Charles V, worn out by of Luther. 1510 Luther disillusioned after visit 52 F o r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n CHARLES V 53 Territory of Frederick the Wise, Harz Mountains in the north-west, and the place in his territory. be disputation before his Augustinian Miles D anu Elector of Saxony (Ernestine, 1485-1525) 0 30 10 50 Thuringian Forest around the Wartburg In 1529 Luther travelled to Marburg for order, and was then examined by Luther’s protector 1530 Augsburg . 130 F o r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n GERMANY 1618 131 ar R Confession presented in the south-west. No city in this region is a colloquy with Zwingli and other reformers Neck Territory of the Albertine Dukes of Saxony 0 20 40 60 Cardinal Thomas Cajetan (1469– Augsburg ne R. Rhi

VO

R.

Y

M HE BO

IA

N

R.

F

ne R. Rhi

became more widely known when he sent a letter to the bishops, including Albrecht, Bishop of Mainz, on 31 October 1517 and Historylater (probably mid-November) posted his 95 Theses – intended for academic debate about the sale of indulgences and the church’s material preoccupations – on the door of Wittenberg’s Castle Church. Their effect was to undermine the basis of contemporary practice. In December the Archbishop of Mainz complained to Rome about Luther. The latter refused to recant, travelled to Heidelberg in 1518 having prepared a set of theses for disputation before his Augustinian order, and was then examined by Cardinal Thomas Cajetan (1469– 1534) in Augsburg. When he heard he might be arrested, Luther fled. In July 1519, during a disputation at Leipzig with his sharpest opponent Johann Eck (1486–1543), Luther denied the supremacy of the pope and the infallibility of church councils. Two years later he was excommunicated. At the famous Diet of Worms

a R.

In

Reformation

RE

AR

A

SOUTH

Porto Seguro

. ee R ess nn Te

Calicut

Baton Rouge San New Orleans Antonio 1514

Malindi

KONGO

Richmond

Santa Fe El Paso de

Tropic of Capricorn

C AT H O L I C M I S S I O N S TO A M E R I C A

Portuguese of Discovery Charles Voyages V

NI

Tucson

European Reformations SOUTH AMERICA

R.

T ER R I TOR I ES

ad lor Co

Los Angeles

F o r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n

Elmina

. uri R isso

OR

110

LIF

San Francisco Aden

AFRICA

GU INEA

CA

Atlas of the g

Cape Verde Is. (1455)

. al R

PORTUGAL

Following Pope Alexander VI’s line of demarcation, the Portuguese colonized Brazil while the remainder of Latin America fell within the Spanish sphere of influence.

O

Columbus landed in the West Indies in the same year that the Spanish drove the Moors out of their last stronghold in Spain, and his companions brought the same crusading zeal to the New World. Combining a desire for wealth and military success with dedication to Christian mission, they created a huge Spanish empire in the Americas. Although the men who led Spain’s conquest of Latin America were often cruel and used questionable means to achieve their objectives, they saw themselves as fulfilling a mission to liberate the natives from superstitious practices. Hernan Cortes (1485–1547), who led the conquest of Mexico, attended Mass daily, carried a statue of the Virgin Mary with him wherever he went, and displayed the cross on the flag he carried. Using brutal methods, the Spanish conquered the Aztec kingdom in Mexico and the Incas of Peru. Cortes slaughtered more than 3,000 Cholula in Mexico, and in 1532 Francisco Pizarro (c. 1471/76–1541), the conqueror of Peru, massacred thousands of Incas. The Inca leader was sentenced to death by burning at the stake; but when he agreed to be baptized, his sentence was commuted to death by strangling. The conquest of Mexico and Peru provided Spain with a rich source of precious metals and vast tracts of land which were granted to Spanish settlers. In return for providing protection and instruction in the Christian faith, the landowners were allowed to use the natives as virtual slaves. Although Queen Isabella of Spain forbade enslavement of the

F o r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n

r

TIM DOWLEY is editor of the highly acclaimed and successful Introduction to the History of Christianity: Second Edition (Fortress Press, 2013) and author S Eisleben of The Christians: An Illustrated History (2008) and The Student BibletheAtlas: Rebetween the Pope and Charles, and it was title Charles I. With theHalle fall of Granada N S Holy Roman Emperor in person, and fearing After a long spiritual crisis, Luther rejected papal policy that no power should control in 1492, the last of the Muslim Moors Leipzighad vised Editionfor his(Fortress 2015), among many other Kassel titles on been history of life, Luther againPress, refused to recant. theology based on the inherited tradition, both Naples and Milan. The pope often driven from the Iberian peninsula. 44 F o r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n was declared an outlaw, but kidnapped emphasizing instead the individual Dresden backed Francis rather than Charles: Pope Through Wartburg ChristianityHe and the Bible. He has traveled extensively and lives with hisFerdinand wife Weimarand Isabella, Charles for his own protection by the sympathetic understanding and experience of Scripture, U R also Erfurt received Sardinia, Sicily, the Kingdom Freiberg Leo XE supported Francis over Charles in the IN Elector Frederick of Saxony and taken to G crucially believing justification not to be Marburg Religious tensions GI and three children in Dulwich, South London, England. I R NeustadtIslands. of Naples, and the Balearic In AN Zwickau B imperial elections, and Pope Clement VII the Wartburg Castle. There he devoted his by works, but by faith alone. Luther’s views E

Martin Luther

Catholic Missions to America

D EThe N MPortuguese A R K Copenhagen capital, Lisbon, now N ORTH S EA became a major trading centre with the East. Meanwhile Portuguese sailors continued Another outstanding seaman, Afonso de to press southward. The daring voyage of Danzig Albuquerque (c. 1453–1515), laid the basis of Bartolomeu Dias (c. 1451–1500), who in Francis I and Charles V I R EL A ND both claim Artois empire, taking Goa in India in 1510, Malacca 1488 rounded the Cape ofand Good FlandersHope on in 1511, and Hormuz on the Horn of Arabia the southern tip of Africa, disproved the H O LY ENGLAND in 1515. These conquests evolved into aP O L A N D long-held belief that India was inaccessible ROMAN London network of strategic Portuguese trading ports from the Atlantic Ocean. Finally in 1497 LUSATIA 016 GERMAN KNIGHTS WAR 04 R. de EMPIRE rR I S Ghent rather than colonies, since theTHE Portuguese Vasco da Gama 1460s–1524), having Given the revolutionary nature of(c. Lutheranism and economic and Cologne political T O the . GERMAN KNIGHTS’ WAR 1522–23 map 16 SILESIA S R E D tensions of the time, it is not surprising that the Reformation soon became marked by AN had neither the men nor the resources L rounded the Cape, continued along the coast F Mainz of lands of Europe too. G violence and extremism. The German Knights’ War of 1522–23, in which members BRUN SW ICK-WOthe L F EN schism BÜT T EL in the church caused by the BR A N D EN BURcentral in Erfurt, after having made a dramatic vow during a thunderstorm. Ordained in 1507, 1530; Lutherans present inReformers, 1457,Empire, theand Gold Coast in increase 1471, and required to establish BOHEMIA a colonial empire. of East Africa andstrong withsupporters the help of a pilot the lower nobility – some of them of Luther – rebelled against the Route of von Sickingen and Knights HoweverCHRISTIAN Charles’ extensive holdings IN GERMANY IN 1618GERMANY defend histhe Charles V had always held precarious control over the Holy Roman a M AG D EBURand G Charles V with 050 CATHOLICS/PROTESTANTS c1618 08 CONFESSIONS map 52 he studied theology and rose through the academic ranks at the university. Transferring authorities in south-west Germany, was quickly crushed. Retreat of von Sickingen Augsburg Confession Congo River in jealously 1482.AsIna 1490 Portuguese patchwork of more than 300 principalities, church states, and all sailed across the Indian H A free cities, S e Ocean, reaching MORAVIA and ambitions did not allow him an easy holdings. descendant Advance of forces of Hesse to the new University of Wittenberg in 1511, he was linked with that institution for guarding their liberties against any attempts by the Emperor hereditary ine Da R Zincrease Magdeburg to his Jüterborg Paris R.Revolt Advance of Archbishop of Trier and his forces nu explorers worked their way up the river and in to1498. As medievalCalicut society began crumble, the Wittenberg rule. Charles and Francis I both lay claim to offrom Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1479–1516) on indulgences preaches 1517 Tetzel be Y M Catholic the rest of his life. In 1510–11 Luther visited Rome for his order, and was profoundlyauthority. He had not been able even to raise effective support states R. Vienna Holy Roman Empire boundary Miles O lesser nobility of the German states found The knights rose in revolt under Franz 0 100 200 LUSAT IA 1517 Luther’s Theses U might Christianity the king of95he the tohe help suppress the Lutherans, since Catholic princes fearedconverted success give him theTheKingdom of Lady Naples, Burgundy, and Isabella Castile (r. 1474–1504), Augsburg shocked by the corruption and extravagance he encountered in the papal city. In 1512 N to of Church of our of theMilan, Immaculate Conception, B A Lbetween T I C S Epowerful A 1521 Luther excommunicated Duchy of Burgundy TA themselves squeezed von Sickingen (1481–1523) and Ulrich HESSE 0 100 200 300 D E N M A R K increased power over them too. claimed by Vienna 1529 Cologne lb Kilometers I N Spanish crown in 1516, taking became a doctor of theology and professor of biblical studies at Wittenberg. Flanders, and inherited the Kongo Empire. Goa, founded inArtois. 1540. There was also rivalry eR forces they could neither control nor Francis and Charles von Hutten DUCHY (1488–1523). COUNTYBoth became

TH

Reformation / Church

e Tib

100

0 100 200 Kilometers

A

A

Reformations

Reformation

O

D

Y

uTHeR

“Not only the ‘when’ but also the ‘where’ of past events brings our history into meaningful focus. This volume provides a running overview of the cauldrons of our heritage in the years leading to the Reformation, the sixteenth century itself, and elements of its impact on the seventeenth century, alongside clearly detailed maps. These maps make concrete the spaces in which the epoch-making unfolding of the Reformation took 52 F o r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n place. Scholars and beginners alike will gain a clearer understanding by situating the places of the Reformation into their geographical and chronological frameworks. A valuable tool for teaching and learning, formal and informal.” boatload of African slaves in Portugal; an Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. In 1519 The third in this trio, the Holy Roman ominous precedent. Progressing gradually 06 Robert Kolb 015 MARTIN LUTHER _ BEGINNINGS OF REFORMATION Martin Luther (1483–1546) was born in Eisleben, a small mining town in north-east Charles was elected Emperor Charles V (r. 1519–56), attempted MARTIN LUTHER AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION map 15Holy Roman Emperor further south, Portuguese sailors rounded Germany, grew up in Mansfeld, and was educated in Eisenach, Magdeburg, and the becoming, at least in name, sovereign of the to maintain order, repel the Turks, heal Emeritus, Concordia Seminary, St. Louis University of Erfurt, where he studied law. In 1505 he joined a closed Augustinian friary Cape Verde in 1445, reaching Sierra Leone Miles 0

N

Y

sailors from the maritime states of GenoaEGenoa MPIRE Turks Avignon (MUSLIM MINORITY ) and Venice.Toulouse In 1415, the Portuguese Francis I and Florence PAPAL OT TOMA N Charles V both D R STATES claim Milan Holy Roman Empire boundary captured Ceuta, Morocco, and subsequently IA EM PI R E VENICE CARNIOLA NAVARRE TI Catholic embarked on the progressive discovery of C SE Rome Lutheran CORSICA Venice A the West African coast. Iberian ships driven A R AG ON Anglican NAPLES Barcelona Atlantic islands S P A I N off these coasts discovered Calvinist/Reformed 1519: Charles V crowned Naples Holy Roman Emperor Zwinglian and the Cape Madrid such as Madeira, the Azores, by the Pope minority Verde Islands, which wereMoravian then explored Recovered by Catholics R I ATcolonized. IC Francis I and Charles V Tagus R. ToledoA Dand both claim Naples Is. Orthodox S E AAs Governor Balearic of the Order of Christ, Muslim the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator T E R R A N E A N S E A SICIL D I much Seville (1394–1460) funnelled of this Y M E Granada organization’s wealth into scientific, Tunis Algiers commercial, and religious expeditions, Inherited by Charles V with ultimate aim of circumnavigating Earlythe sixteenth-century Western Europe was dominated byGained a trioby ofCharles powerful and V Oran 200 Africa. In 1434 a ship dispatched Holy Roman ambitious monarchs. Henry VIIIby (r. 1509–¬47), the first English kingEmpire to be boundary addressed N.B. This does not include Charles V’s overseas empire. 300 Prince Henry passed the much-feared as ‘majesty’ , was courted by both the French king and the Holy Roman Emperor, Cape Bojador, at that with time the regarded as the I (r. 1515–47) reinforced the absolutist and famously broke pope. Francis claims of of histhe immediate as King of France and unsuccessfully challenged boundary knowablepredecessors world. Having Charles this V forcape the after title of Holy Roman Emperor. Meanwhile the Ottoman Turks rounded a decade of trying, V the Christian 53 E RMagnificent M Athe NY 1 6(r. 1 81520–66) 1 3enviously 1C H A R L E S at under Suleiman the were looking Henry’s caravels G reached Senegal River armies tooksouthern Belgrade in 1521 and defeated the Hungarian army at innorth. 1436 The and Sultan’s Cape Blanc, at the Part 1 Mohács in 1526. However, limits of the Sahara Desert, Suleiman’s in 1441. In siege of Vienna in 1529 was eventually raised, whileone hisof foray into Austria in 1532 was successfully resisted at Güns. 1444 his captains landed the first King Charles I of Spain CARINTHIA

“The beautifully produced maps of this atlas—along with informative time lines, well-chosen illustrations, and clear, accessible prose—make this book an excellent contribution to 500th anniversary commemorations of the Reformation. All who are concerned about the fate of Christianity today will benefit from this illuminating window into the crises, the renewal, and the worldwide effects of theLisbon Reformation era.” Mark A. Noll University of Notre Dame VO

d by the ave quoted cience is e Word of and I will thing, since e nor right onscience. elp me.

SA

t2

Geneva

otherwise have crushed the Reformation. Milan During the 1550s Charles gradually abdicated from parts of his empire. He gave Sicily, Naples, and Milan to his son Philip in 1554; he abdicated from the Netherlands in Genoa 1555; and from his Spanish Empire in 1556. Finally his brother Ferdinand succeeded as Holy Roman Emperor in 1558, shortly before Charles’ death.

e

E

e r e F o r m At i o n

Roman Catholic Church had reclaimed lands America poured wealth from the New lost earlier to Protestantism. Some territories World into his treasury. had always remained loyal to Rome, but the Charles also inherited from his paternal concentrated efforts of the Jesuits in particular grandmother, Mary of Burgundy (r. 1477– now succeeded in bringing others back to82), the much of the Netherlands, FrancheLatin Church. Comté, and Luxembourg; and from his Nevertheless the largest Reformation paternal grandfather, Maximilian I (r. 1508– group in Germany continued to be Lutheran. 16), the Habsburg lands of Germany. Shortly Having emerged from the Schmalkaldic afterwards the Habsburgs also claimed the eastern flank of the Empire: Hungary, War, the Interims, and the War of Liberation, Lutheranism was now stabilized in its northern strongholds

El b

AIN

many’s religious gsburg actually g to thousands e Reformed and many and spreading he Netherlands, rles V, worn out by

T YROL

SWISS CONFEDERATION

(CALVINIST/HUGUENOT MINORITY )

Atlas of the European

RR

O

“An invaluable resource for all students of the Reformation era.” Alister E. McGrath imperial elections, and Pope Clement VII of Naples, and the Balearic Islands. In Hungary. N C himself E with the French king at a time addition, the newly colonized Spanish F R Aallied University of Oxford Powered by the Counter-Reformation, the when concerted action with Charles might territories in North, Central, and South

. eR

R.

LO

A Praise for the Atlas of the European Reformations

ight to choose ided it was either prince could jects on the basis whose the rule, coined in the late operating principle a in 1648), although ocinians, and other were still not to be

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

der

Consciously written for students at any level, the volume is perfect for independent or classroom use.

gio

S

Rhône R.

The atlas is built new from the ground up. Featuring more than sixty brand new maps, graphics, and timelines, the atlas is a necessary companion to any study of the Reformation era. Concise, helpful text written by acknowledged authorities guides the experience and interprets the visuals. Religious tensions

N

Part 2

108

Charles V

A new atlas of the European Reformations has been keenly needed. Fortress Press is pleased to offer the Atlas of the European Reformations.

.

Strasbourg 1212 Waldo’s followers, the ‘Waldensians’, neuchâtel KINGDOM 1530 Farel reforms church fled Lyons and started to organize as a NEUCHATEL OF held precarious control over the Holy Roman Empire, a L. Neuchâtel church,014 spreading into two regions noted 050 CATHOLICS/PROTESTANTS GERMANY c1618 08 EMPIRE CHARLES V 06 CHRISTIAN CONFESSIONS IN GERMANY IN 1618 map 52 Chur F R A N C E Jonvelle 1218 Early sixteenth-century Western Europe was dominated by a trio of powerful and on a square pattern with the church at th The Jesuits set up around thirty of these H O Fribourg L Y for unorthodox THE EMPIRE OF CHARLES V beliefs – Lombardy and map 14 Lo n 300 principalities, church states, and free cities, all jealously ire centre. Residents led a rather regimented reservations, known as ‘Reductions’, which R. . Provence. By the end of the thirteenth ambitious monarchs. Henry VIII (r. 1509–¬47), the first English king to be addressed F R I B O U R G In n R Besançon V A U D s against any attempts by the Emperor to increase his G R I S O N S separated from the ‘corruption’ of the wi included hospitals, schools, and provision R O M A N century, though hounded by the newly 1248 as ‘majesty’, was courted by both the French king and the Holy Roman Emperor, lausanne society, in a system that has been criticiz for entertainment and work. Sites for these 1536 Viret reforms church strengthened Inquisition, the Waldensians been able even to raise effective support from Catholic states BO RM IO Miles E M P I R E for its paternalism and regimentation. Reductions were chosen for their healthy L. Geneva and famously broke with the pope. Francis I (r. 1515–47) reinforced the 200 absolutist 0 100 had spread to much of Europe except Britain. Edinburgh therans, since Catholic princes feared success might give him climate and proximity to water, and planned D E N M A R K BURGUNDY B A L T I C S E A The greatest objection to the Waldensians, Copenhagen TICINO claims of his immediate predecessors as King of France and unsuccessfully challenged CHABLAIS O R T H E A R CHIAVENNA . 0 100 200 300 h R ô D E N M A R K e n hem too. who began within the church, was that GE N E VA Kilometers the Ottoman Turks R. Charles V for the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Meanwhile sion Geneva VALTE L L IN A ône they ended up by rejecting that church. Rh 1536-8Dongo Farel and Königsberg 041 JESUIT REDUCTIONS 04 V A L A I S Calvin reform church jESUIT REDUCTIONS IN PARAGUAY map DUCHY Clermont under Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–66) were looking enviously at the Christian Unauthorized preaching from the Bible and SWISS L. Maggiore REPUBLIC 1182/83 SAVOY Gruaro more than thirty years’ struggle to maintain esented Charles with PRUSSIA OF Danzig Lyons C O N F E D E R AT I O N Bergamo 1218 L. Como the rejection of the mediating role of the Miles OF north. The Sultan’s armies took Belgrade in 1521 and defeated the Hungarian army at N ORTH S EA Verona contrary to Christian teaching, and from native population and Emperor 0 20 10 30 V E N I CCharles E Legnano 1177 HOLSTEIN KINGDOM AQ U I TA I N E VENICE clergy were major issues that gained them the his empire and religious unity, gave up his lly military threats 1199 POMERANIA Francis I and Charles V IREL AN D Asunción Milan before 1206 1514 he spent his life campaigning for their V attempted Jesuit ‘reduction’ Vienne 1198 PIEDMONT ( PA RT O F EN GL A N D ) Mohács in 1526. However, Suleiman’s siege of Vienna in 1529 was eventually raised, OF to protect their rights, the claim Artois 0 40 20 reputation ofboth heretics. Ronco L O M B A ignored RDY Cerea Kilometers MECKLENBURG and Flanders rights. He worked tirelessly in Spain and the colonists throne. The family lands in Austria and BREMEN oman Turks. As a Pavia Turin 1210 OLD HUNGARY the rules laid down by before In the decades around 1400, in the while his foray into Austria in 1532 was successfully resisted at Güns. ENB Hamburg Elb Spanish colonies to improve conditions for the distant government. In view of the Valence c1235 Po R. 1203 U Piacenza 1192/97 the Imperial title now went to his brother orced to ignore e R. RG Waldensians’ main region, central and eastern Pinerolo Native Americans, often encountering fierce appalling way in which they were treated, D P O L A NMontélimar D Gourdon c1240 Garo BRANDENBURG OE N G L A NEurope Embrun 1198 – particularly Bohemia, Moravia, nn Modena Faenza Ferdinand. dealt with urgent BRUNSWICK opposition. A few other priests and laymen it is surprising many Native Americans did OA Montcuq Parisot Bagnols Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. In 1519 1206 The third in this trio, the Holy Roman 76 F oFrGtE Nr e sGenoa s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n C A LV I N I S M S P R E A D S 77 Berlin Brandenburg, Pomerania, and Austria – they UNITED Bollène London also came to the natives’ defence. convert to Christianity: it was claimed more IC O P A R A G U A Y Agen L B Najac Not until 1546 was Orange PROVINCES Sisteron LUSATIA St Antonin Ales PU were widely persecuted by the Inquisition. Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor Emperor Charles V (r. 1519–56), attempted than one million were baptized between R . c1230 de Moissac Münster Amsterdam Carpentras Uzes Cologne SERBIAN Nimes S r I Ghent MAGDEBURG Corbarieu During the fifteenth Waldensians R. c1204 nsive alliance of Avignon T O century 1524 and 1531. However, clearly enthusiastic jesuit missions Albi POLAND Wittenberg santa maría de Fe SILESIA PRINCIPALITIES S becoming, at least in name, of the to maintain order, repel the Turks, heal PROVENCE MÜNSTER Florence 1206 Rhinsovereign 012 PORTUGAL VOYAGES Auch 1198 DER Arles 1198 remained active in thisA vital exchanging China and India were to European trade in the Middle Ages.Lavaur However eR Nregion, Montpellier the rise missionaries overestimated their success. As they wentEAST to America, 07 Africa, and Asia santa rosa Jésus santa ignacio Guazú as the Schmalkaldic Despite the Peace of Augsburg, Calvinism PORTUGUESE map 11 P A P A LVOYAGES OF DISCOVERY TO THE EAST FL before 1199 Toulouse c1225 Aix 1198 GERMANY central lands of Europe too. . the schism in the church caused by the REPUBLIC ideas with the Hussites and helping create Mainz conversion was often superficial; in search of converts, Jesuit priests often Leipzig santiago A D R I A T IMoreover C Corpus Hautpoul trinidad Avignonet of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) brought to an end Mongol control of China and S T A T E S Pa ra n a R . OF n a decisive military and Reformed Protestantism continued Reformers, and defend and increase his 1530; Lutherans itapua san ignacio mini the charged atmosphere in which the great Cologne many ‘converts’ had minimal understanding travelled in Spanish and Portuguese ships G Apresent S C O N Y BOHEMIA Narbonne c1190 Aigues-Vives HESSE santa Cosmé y Damian S E A SAXONY However Charles’ extensive holdings Charles V with loreto . FLORENCE 1204 Beziers Dresden SILESIA SPANISH southernreligious Asia,changes closing access to much of Asia for European merchants. At around of the off sixteenth century of their new faith. Frequently the result was in search of new colonies and new riches. yR marized above to spread across Germany, further raising 1194 santa Ana ua N AAugsburg V A R R EConfession Corrientes Candelaria Se Larnat MORAVIA and NETHERLANDS ambitions did not allow him an easy hereditary holdings. As a descendant Urug HANAU were to occur. In France the Waldensians syncretism, with pre-Christian practices They endowed their converts with their mártires ine D san José the same time, the growth of Muslim power in the Middle East following the collapse O R T H an osing firm imperial religious tensions. Calvinists gained from R. beParis san Carlos ube and beliefs surviving and mingling with own enthusiastic brand of Catholicism. continued to harassed until the end of the rule. Charles and Francis I both lay claim toNASSAU of the Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1479–1516) Apóstoles san Javier R. Vienna Prague of the Crusader Frankfurt REPUBLIC Azores. The Jesuits played a leading role in the made land travel toAugsburg India and SPA IN TLANTIC Middle Ages,kingdoms while in Italy they took refuge faith in Germany; Lutherans major states such as the Palatinate, Mainz LUXEMBOURG Concepción santa maría PChristian ORTU GA L tradition. K I Nincreasingly G D O M O F A R Auncertain GON OF the Kingdom of Naples, Milan, Burgundy, and Isabella of Castile (r. 1474–1504), he UPPER (1431) BOHEMIA Rio of Burgundy PALATINATE Generally the Spanish treated the natives conversion of Brazil and Paraguay, and, Lisbon san Angel inDuchy the region of Piedmont, where they were Ij PALATINATE GENOA Trier Valencia hazardous. These tical privileges of Ansbach, and Hesse, while states such asinherited the Spanish crown in 1516, taking claimed by changes helped stimulate sustained attempts san nicolás san luis u i Viennaby 1529Europeans to reach bound by the C E A NI amRome Flanders, and Artois. There was also rivalry as inferior, and although in 1536 one bishop with the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Lerida attacked in 1488. rio de Janeiro FrancisMOR and Charles COUNTY DUCHY CATALONIA M ED P AC IFIC AVIA Scriptures san Juan Nuremberg 1179I have quoted santo tomé I T E R R A Augustinians, Budapest OF OF K(1419) I N G D Ofounded M both too deeply Brandenburg became a mix of Lutheran the title Charles I. With the fall of Granada a college to train native priests near led the Church of Rome in a O C EAN India by sea. M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A sao Paolo san lorenzo Madeira EA N S E and my conscience is A N between the Pope and Charles, and it was AUSTRIA Tarragona BURGUNDY BURGUNDY Miles Nantes san miguel O F Mexico City, the Spanish laity repudiated the period of rapid overseas expansion between san Borja 0 200 100 captive to the Word of 1198 WÜRTTEMBERG TLANTIC and Reformed, instead of solely Lutheran ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS TO THE AMERICAS map 42 santiago papal policy that no power should control in 1492, the last of the Muslim Moors had CHAROLAIS P L E concept S Canary of native clergy. A few Spanish priests 1550 and 1650. Almost all of Mexico, Central God. I cannot and I willN AIs. Buenos Aires Trent Strasbourg Augsburg Cairo 0 Hormuz 50 150 100 HUNGARY AUSTRIA Kilometers la Cruz as before. Strong bodies of Reform also been driven from the Iberian peninsula. not recant anything, since C E ABAVARIA N protested, best known of whom was Bartolomé and South America, along with a large part In the fifteenth century, Portuguese Mohacs 1526 both Naples and Milan. The pope often Cape Bojadur VENICE U S OU T H INDIA Vienna F R A N C E it is neither safe nor right Yapeyú Milan de las Casas (1484–1566), whose father had of the population of the Philippines, became A T L AN T IC Miles Munich existed in Hungary; the Magyars preferred a n made a series of SAHARA DESERT 0 50 R. to go against conscience. and Spanish explorers backed Francis rather than Charles:Basel Pope Through Ferdinand and Isabella, Charles O C EAN L. Superior ence Quebec sailed with Columbus on his second voyage. adherents of the Roman Catholic Church by ube R awr Venice St L Salzburg Cape NE W CE May God helpBlanc me. . NORTH Arguin 1611 Calvinism to the early Lutheranism, which y agreed to the 0 50 100 FR AN NOVA De las Casas became convinced the current these means at this time. M Leo X supported Francis over Charles in the also received Sardinia, Sicily, the Kingdom L. Michigan L. Ontario 1640 exploratory voyages, later emulated by ST YRIA SCOTI A AMERICA Kilometers Zurich OTTOMAN 26 F o r t r e s s At l A s o F t h e r e F o r m At i o n T H E WA L D E N S I A N S 27 L. Erie mARTin LuTHeR SAL ZBURG S treatment of Native Americans was evil and e I NDI AN ne 1516 Charles proclaimed Ottoman they associated with German domination of promise that gave Goa Arlington

from Switzerland and south Germany; but

more than 75 miles from Wittenberg.

1534) in Augsburg. When he heard

Kilometers