Atlas of Christian History 1451499701, 9781451499704

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Atlas of Christian History

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Atlas of Christian History by Tim Dowley Cartographer Nick Rowland FRGS

Fortress Press Minneapolis

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ATLAS OF christian history Copyright © 2016 Fortress Press. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical articles or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Visit http://www.augsburgfortress.org/ copyrights/ or write to Permissions, Augsburg Fortress, Box 1209, Minneapolis, MN 55440. Cover design: Alisha Lofgren Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Print ISBN: 978-1-4514-9970-4 eBook ISBN: 978-1-5064-1688-5 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z329.48-1984. Manufactured in China

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Photograph acknowledgments p. 16: © Alessandro 0770, Dreamstime.com p. 28: © Tomas Marek, Dreamstime.com p. 34: © Alexey Bykov, Dreamstime.com p. 42: © Rsazonov, Dreamstime.com p. 58: © Ancher, Dreamstime.com p. 62: © Paul Prescott, Dreamstime.com p. 64: © Mrplum, Dreamstime.com p. 70: © Baucys, Dreamstime.com p.86: © Hecke01, Dreamstime.com p. 99: © Takahiro Sanui, Dreamstime.com p. 114: © Byelikova, Dreamstime.com p. 118: Tim Dowley Associates Ltd p. 122: © Colin Young, Dreamstime.com p. 126: © Ajay Bhaskar | Dreamstime.com p. 130: © Lee Snider | Dreamstime.com p. 140: © Kevin Duke | Dreamstime.com p. 150: © Giuseppe Fucile | Dreamstime.com

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What are all histories but God manifesting himself? Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658)

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Contents

Foreword 11 Introduction 12

Part 1: The Early Christians The Mission of the Twelve

18

Jews and Christians in Palestine

20

Christianity by ad 100

22

Christianity by ad 300

24

Constantine the Great

26

Part 2: The Church under Siege The Arian Challenge

30

Monophysite Christianity

32

The Nestorian Church

34

The Church in the West

38

The First Monks

40

Justinian I

44

The Rise of Islam

46

The Eastern Church after 451

48

Celtic Monks and Missionaries

50

Charlemagne 52 The Anglo-Saxon Church

54

Byzantium to 1000

56

The Making of the Russian Church

58

The Great Schism

60

Part 3: The Middle Ages

6

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Monasteries Reformed: Cluny

64

The Cistercians

66

The Crusades

68

The Jews Oppressed

72

Christian Pilgrimage

74

The Rise of Learning

76

The Rise of the Friars

78

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Missions to the Mongols

80

Medieval Heresy

82

Christian Muscovy: 1221–1510

84

Part 4: The Reformations and After The West in 1500

88

Charles V

90

Christian Europe: 1560

92

The Counter Reformation

94

The Thirty Years’ War

96

Catholic Missions

98

Christianity in the Philippines

102

The Great Migration

104

Christian Europe: 1700

106

Christianity in South America

108

Pietism

110

The British Colonies: 1750

112

Part 5: The Modern Church The Great Awakening

116

The Second Awakening

118

African Christianity

120

The First U.S. Missions

122

Modern Missions to Africa

124

Missions to India and Asia

126

Missions to China and Japan

128

Catholicism in the U.S.A.

130

New Religious Movements

132

The Rise of Pentecostalism

134

African-American Churches

136

Christianity in Australasia

138

The Latin American Church

140

Missions Worldwide

142

The Ecumenical Movement

144

CO N T E N T S

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The Church in the U.S.A.

146

Christianity in Russia since 1917

148

Worldwide Christianity Today

151

A Chronology of Christian History

154

Further reading

162

Gazetteer 163 Index 175

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The Apostles and Tradition

18

2

Early Christian Communities in Palestine

21

3

Distribution of Christianity by ad 100

22

4

Distribution of Christianity by ad 300

24

5

Constantine the Great and the Christian Church

26

6

The Spread of Arianism

30

7

The Council of Chalcedon and the Monophysite Church

33

8

The Spread of the Nestorian and Monophysite Churches

36

9

The Church in the West in the Sixth Century

39

10

The Spread of Monasticism

40

11

The Empire of Justinian I

44

12

The Spread of Islam: 622–1075

46

13

Byzantium under Threat: 632–750

49

14

Early Missions in the Christian West

51

15

The Empire of Charlemagne

52

16

The British Church c. 800

55

17

The Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000

57

18

Christianity in the Kievan Rus’: 1050

59

19

The Great Schism: 1054

61

20

The Spread of Cluniac Monasticism

65

21

The Spread of Cistercian Monasticism

67

22

The First Three Crusades

68

23

Christian Oppression of the Jews 1200–1500

72

24

Medieval Pilgrimage Routes

74

25

The Rise of the European Universities

77

26

The Spread of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders

78

27

Medieval Missions to the Mongol Empire and the East

80

28

Distribution of Medieval Heresy and Dissent

82

29

The Growth of Christian Muscovy

85

30

The Western Church in 1500

88

31

Charles V and the European Reformation

90

32

Reformation Europe: 1560

92

33

Christian Europe: 1600

94

34

Christian Europe after the Peace of Westphalia: 1648

96

35

Catholic Missions Worldwide: 1400–1800

100

36

Christianity in the Philippines C16–C21

103

LIST OF MAPS

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List of maps

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37

Protestant Settlers in North America: C17

105

38

The Church in Europe in 1700

106

39

Roman Catholic Missions in South America: 1750

109

40

Pietist Activity in Europe: 1650–1820

110

41

Distribution of English-speaking Churches in North America: 1750

113

42

The Great Awakening in North America

117

43

The Second Awakening in North America: 1790–1830

119

44

Christianity in Africa to 1800

121

45

Pioneers of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions

122

46

Christianity in Africa 1800–1914

125

47

Christian Missions to India and South-east Asia

127

48

Protestant and Catholic Missions to China and Japan: 1920

128

49

Growth and Distribution of Roman Catholicism in the U.S.A.

130

50

The Rise of New Religious Movements in the U.S.A.

132

51

The Origins of Pentecostalism in the U.S.A.

134

52

The Growth and Distribution of African-American Churches

136

53

The Rise and Distribution of the Church in Australasia

139

54

Christianity in Latin America: 1900–

141

55

Worldwide Distribution of Protestant Mission Stations: 1925

142

56

Significant Meetings of the Worldwide Ecumenical Movement

144

57

Distribution of Christian Denominations in the U.S.A.: 2000

146

58

The Russian Church today

148

59

Worldwide Christianity Today

152



Roman Catholics



Eastern Orthodox

Protestants

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Persecution of Christians

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Foreword

This atlas has been designed to examine the origins, beginnings, growth, and worldwide spread and development of Christianity. With such a vast subject, the selection of topics has been of necessity somewhat limited. However, it is hoped all major topics and geographical areas have received attention. The European Reformations have been relatively underemphasized as this atlas is a companion to the Atlas of the European Reformations, which gives extensive attention to this topic. An exhaustive chronology has also been included to provide a useful timeline against which to understand events and developments. All research and writing has been undertaken by Dr Tim Dowley. The cartography is the work of Cambridge-based Nick Rowland. Page layout and design has been carried out by Trevor Bounford of Bounford.com, while the index and gazetteer have been compiled by Christopher Pipe of Watermark. The academic consultant is Dr Aaron Denlinger, Professor of Church History and Historical Theology at Reformation Bible College in Sanford, Florida. Dulwich, December 2015

FOREWORD

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Christianity rapidly spread beyond its original geographical region of Roman-occupied Palestine to the entire Mediterranean area, as described in the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament. Three centres of the Christian church rapidly emerged in the eastern Mediterranean. The church became a significant presence in its original heartlands, with Jerusalem a leading centre. Asia Minor (modern Turkey) was already an important area of Christian expansion, which continued, with the great imperial city of Constantinople (modern Istanbul) becoming a particularly influential centre. Further growth took place in the south, with the Egyptian city of Alexandria emerging as a Christian stronghold. With this expansion, significant debates opened up. While the New Testament deals with the relationship between Christianity and Judaism, the expansion of Christianity into Greek-speaking regions led to discussions about how Christianity related to Greek philosophy. Christian writers tried to demonstrate, for example, that Christianity fulfilled the great themes of Plato’s philosophy. Early Christian expansion also faced obstacles. The ‘imperial cult’ – which saw worship of the Roman emperor as a test of loyalty to the empire – was strong in the eastern Mediterranean, and many Christians were penalized for worshipping only Christ. The expansion of Christianity regularly triggered off persecutions – for example, the Decian persecution of 249–51, which was particularly vicious in North Africa.

Constantine, and soon after became the official religion of the Roman Empire. This period of Christian history was marked by controversies over the identity of Jesus Christ and the Christian doctrine of God. A series of councils attempted to resolve these differences, and ensure the unity of the Christian church within the Empire. The most important of these was the Council of Chalcedon (451), which set out the Christian interpretation of the identity of Jesus as ‘true God and true man’. The fall of the Roman Empire – traditionally dated to 476 – led to widespread insecurity within the Western Church. In the East, the church continued to flourish, as the Eastern Empire, based at Constantinople, was largely unaffected by the attacks from northern European invaders that eventually terminated Roman power in the West. The removal of Rome as a stabilizing influence gave a new role to the church in the West – particularly to its monasteries. The founding of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino c. 525 is a landmark in this process. The increasingly important political role of the pope also began to emerge during this period. The major disruptions within the Roman Empire in the 5th century led to a growing rift between the Western and Eastern Churches. Increasing tension over political as much as theological issues led to the Great Schism of 1054, by which date the Eastern Church had extended its influence as far north as Moscow.

State religion

In Western Europe, Christianity underwent a major renewal between 1000 and 1500 – the ‘Middle Ages’. The political and social

Christianity was given official recognition by the Roman state in 313, by the Emperor

Middle Ages

INTRODUCTION

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Introduction

Nearly 2,000 years ago, Jesus of Nazareth was put to death on a cross in an obscure corner of the Roman Empire. Today, the worldwide Christian faith has grown as never before, particularly in Africa, South-East Asia, and South America.

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influence of the church was consolidated, and the personal authority of the pope to intervene in political disputes reached new heights. Theological thinking known as ‘scholasticism’ developed, with 13th-century writers such as Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus achieving great theological sophistication. But Scholasticism came to be increasingly questioned. From the 14th century, the European Renaissance stressed the importance of returning to the roots of Christendom. The linked humanist movement believed it was essential to study Scripture in its original languages, creating pressure for new Bible translations. The rise of Islam in the 7th century had a major negative impact on Christianity in North Africa and the Middle East, and seemed about to expand yet further in 1453, when Muslim armies captured Constantinople. By the early 16th century, Islam was poised to enter Austria – though military defeats in fact limited its influence to the Balkans.

Reformations The 16th century saw major upheavals within Western Christianity – the European Reformations. Alarmed at what they saw as the disparity between apostolic and medieval visions of Christianity, men such as Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli pressed for reform. Although the need for reform was widely conceded within the church, reforming communities now appeared outside the mainline church. By the time of John Calvin and his reformation of Geneva, Protestantism had emerged as a distinct type of Christianity, posing a major threat to the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 1540s, the Catholic Church itself commenced a major process of reformation and renewal, often known as the ‘Catholic Reformation’ – formerly the

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‘Counter-Reformation’. The discovery of the Americas led to new interest in spreading the gospel abroad. The Society of Jesus, the ‘Jesuits’, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540, took the lead within the Catholic Church, sending missionaries to the Americas, India, China, and Japan. Christianity also expanded through substantial emigration from Europe to North America, beginning in the late 16th century. In the 18th century Evangelical Revivals that started in Germany spread to Britain and North America, partly in reaction to the speculation of Deism, and to the deadness of  Protestant orthodoxy. John Wesley, George Whitefield, and Jonathan Edwards were leaders in this movement, the repercussions of which were eventually felt throughout the world. Growing hostility towards the church in France contributed to causes of the French Revolution (1789) and to a new spirit of anti-clericalism. The French Revolution saw Christianity temporarily displaced from French society, and revolutionary movements throughout Europe sought to repeat the success of their French counterparts, creating serious difficulties for the Catholic Church, especially in Italy.

Missions There was a surge of Protestant missionary activity from Britain during the last years of the 18th century. The Baptist Missionary Society, London Missionary Society, and Church Missionary Society all played major roles in planting Christianity in Africa, India, and Oceania. American missionary societies also established Christianity in several regions of the world, notably Korea. The churches of late 19th-century Europe and the United States encountered new problems caused by the Industrial Revolution, particularly the rapid rise in the numbers of

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workers in the newly industrialized cities of Britain, France, and Germany. The publication of Charles Darwin’s landmark works divided Christians between those who accepted his views and those who rejected them. Geology, and the wider application of scientific methods to society, also created new tensions. During the 1840s, the German philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72) argued that the idea of God was merely a projection of the human mind.

20th Century At the turn of the 20th century, many Christians believed the kingdom of God – or at least a better world – was at hand. Two world wars, and 50 years’ fearing a third one, buried all hopes of human perfectibility. The Russian Revolution (1917) led to the world’s first atheist state, while dictatorships in Italy, Germany, and Russia challenged Christianity in the inter-war period.

World War II had a devastating impact upon Christianity, with the intentional direction of war against civilians, and the indifference of most leaders in the Christian West to the sufferings of the Jews. The defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 led to Eastern Europe coming under Soviet influence, and the state adoption of anti-religious policies. After the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), Christianity experienced a renaissance in these countries. The Pentecostal movement, begun in 1901 in the USA, held that Christians could experience the supernatural power displayed by the apostles, and spread rapidly worldwide, becoming the fastest growing Christian movement. It was particularly popular in the Third World, notably in Latin America and among the African Independent churches. Today Christianity is primarily a faith of the developing – rather than developed – world.

INTRODUCTION

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The Early Christians

Part 1

It is incredible to see the ardour with which the people of that religion help each other in their wants. They spare nothing. Their first legislator has put into their hearts that they are all brethren Lucian (ad 125–180), on the early Christians

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The Mission of the Twelve 18

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There are many – not necessarily reliable – traditions and legends about the missions of the twelve apostles, who travelled widely carrying the message of the risen Christ, suffering and often meeting violent deaths for their faith. One story claims that the apostles cast lots to decide who should go where. Peter is variously said to have preached in Antioch, Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Rome; his brother Andrew to have preached to the Scythians (modern Georgia) and Thracians (modern Bulgaria), evangelized Byzantium, and to have been crucified at Patrae, Achaia (Greece). ‘Doubting’ Thomas Didymus supposedly preached to the Parthians, Medes, Persians, Hyrcanians, Bactrians, and Margians, and even reached India, where the Mar Thoma Christians regard him as their founder. Philip – though arguably Philip the Evangelist (see Acts 8), not the Apostle – possibly preached in Carthage, North Africa, and Phrygia (modern Turkey). Matthew – ‘Levi’ – is said to have written his gospel in Antioch, and preached in Persia, Parthia, and Ethiopia. Bartholomew – also known as Nathanael – apparently journeyed to India with Thomas, taking Matthew’s Gospel, as well as to Armenia, Ethiopia, and Southern Arabia. James, son of Alphaeus, may have evangelized in Syria; while Simon the Zealot is said to have preached in Persia. James, son of Zebedee, preached in Judea – and, according to legend, in Spain. His brother John was banished to the Aegean island of Patmos, and alone of the Twelve is said to have died a natural death, in Ephesus. (An early tradition has it that he escaped unharmed after having been thrown into boiling oil in Rome.) Judas – also called Lebbaeus and Thaddaeus – preached in Edessa, Armenia, and Mesopotamia, and died at Berytus. Matthias – chosen by lot to replace Judas Iscariot – according to tradition travelled to Syria with Andrew.

The Apostles and Tradition

N ORTH S EA

B R I TAI N Glastonbury A TLANTIC O CEAN

Paul believed to have been beheaded Peter believed to have been crucified upside down

Joseph of Arimathea One tradition has Joseph visiting Glastonbury, England

Andrew beli have been cr

James the Greater

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A

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G

IS

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Jo Died of ol being exiled of Patm the persec Emperor

James, br by Her

A F R I C A

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Ja Jose the

map 1

Extent of Roman Empire c. AD 117 Miles 0

R U S S I A

Philip Supposed to have been cruelly killed by Roman proconsul in Asia Minor

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0 250 500 Kilometers

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S C Y T H I A

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ved to eheaded d to have pside down

Bartholomew Various traditions about his death Andrew believed to have been crucified

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A R M E N IA Matthias

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Thaddeus (Lebaeus)

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Jerusalem Matthias (who replaced Judas Iscariot) Said to have been burned to death in Syria or Armenia

EGYPT Mark

Simon the Zealot Tradition says he was killed in Persia for refusing to sacrifice to the sun god

A S S Y R I A

P E R S I A

RE D

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John Died of old age after being exiled to the island of Patmos during the persecution of the Emperor Domitian

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Smyrna

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Jerusalem James, brother of John executed by Herod Agrippa c. 44 AD

I N D I A

Near Jerusalem James, the brother of Jesus. Josephus claimed he was stoned then clubbed to death c. 70 AD

Thomas Said to have been killed when pierced by the spears of four soldiers

INDIAN OCEAN

MAL

ETHIOPIA

Thomas

Madras

ABA OA R C

Matthew Some traditions claim he was stabbed to death in Ethiopia

ST

T H E M I S S I O N O F T H E T W E LV E

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Jews and Christians in Palestine 20

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The Christian faith began in Palestine, regarded by the Jews as their ‘Promised Land’, but ruled by foreign powers for much of its history because of its favourable strategic location. Egypt and Assyria had fought over it for centuries, then Babylon conquered Assyria, and with it Palestine. The Persians allowed some Jews to return from exile to Palestine, before the Greeks under Alexander the Great conquered the land around 300 bc. There followed rule by the Seleucid dynasty and semi-autonomy under the Hasmonean dynasty before Rome captured Jerusalem in 63 bc. Palestine remained under Roman rule at the time of the birth of Jesus.

First century Judaism Jesus, the apostles, and the earliest converts to Christianity were all Jews, and their teachings were presented in a Jewish context. The Judaism of Jesus’ time was characterized by strict monotheism, a gradual shift from temple ritual to an emphasis on personal ethics, restlessness under foreign occupation and oppression, a strong sense of community, and widespread expectation of a coming messiah. By the time of Christ, several different Jewish groups had formed holding varying views on religious authority, theology, and the Roman occupation. They included a conservative elite called Sadducees (‘righteous ones’), the pious Pharisees (‘separated ones’), the ascetic Essene sect of Qumran, and revolutionary Zealots. The Christian faith entered a world of great religious diversity. First-century Roman Palestine featured not only Judaism, but also the political religion of the Roman state, the Roman imperial cult, the personal religion of the mystery cults, and various schools of Greek philosophy.

Christianity spreads After his death, Jesus’ followers in Jerusalem formed a community of believers that soon spread, first to Samaria, then to Phoenicia, Gaza, and Egypt, and later to the Syrian cities of Antioch and Damascus, and to Cyprus, as the message was carried by itinerant preachers and missionaries. At first all believers were Jews, but they were soon joined by Gentiles;

they were called variously followers of ‘the Way’, ‘Christians’, and ‘Nazarenes’. In ad 62 the death of James, leader of the Jerusalem believers, led some to leave the city, weakening its Jewish Christian community. During the First Jewish-Roman War (or Great Revolt, ad 66–73), Rome destroyed Herod’s Temple and sacked Jerusalem. According to the Romano-Jewish historian Josephus (ad 37–100), most inhabitants were killed, committed suicide, or fled. The destruction of the Temple ended the priesthood and sacrifice system, and was a lasting catastrophe for Judaism. The Christian community may have left Jerusalem just before the siege, taking refuge at Pella, beyond the Jordan, though some believers later returned. Christian communities founded by the apostles near the Mediterranean coast survived, as did those at Capernaum and Rimmon, in Galilee, and Cochaba, in Gaulanitis. After the failure of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (or Second Jewish Revolt, ad 132–35), the highest Jewish court, Sanhedrin, moved to Jamnia (Javneh), Galilee. Many Jews were killed, expelled, or sold into slavery after the two rebellions against Rome; this, combined with the conversion of pagans, Samaritans, and Jews, gradually resulted in a Christian majority in Palestine. Christianity separated from Judaism gradually over several generations, the destruction of the Temple and disaster of the two Jewish Wars accelerating this mutual estrangement.

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Early Christian Communities in Palestine

map 2

Jewish Community 1st century Christian community 2nd century Christian community 3rd century Christian community 4th century Christian community Roman Province border

sR Oro nte

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Beirut

I

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Abila

N Sidon

Damascus

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Emmaus

Azotus Ascalon

Bethel

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I S I T T B A N A

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J E W S A N D C H R I S T I A N S I N PA L E S T I N E

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Arra Bostra

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Jamnia

Shiloh

A

Lydda

E A

Arimathea

A

Neapolis

Adraa Capitolias (Edrei)

Canatha

Gerasa

R

Joppa

Sychar

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Apollonia

Abila

Dionysias

Pella

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Sebaste (Samaria)

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Caesarea Maritima

Gadara

R.

O L I S C A P D E

Nazareth Legio (Megiddo) Scythopolis (Beth Shan)

Dora

uk rm Ya

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Sycaminium

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BethsaidaB A Julias Capernaum Rimmon SEA OF Hippos Cochaba GALILEE

Ptolemais

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Christianity by ad 100

By the end of the first century, Christianity was still confined virtually to the eastern Roman Empire, possibly concentrated in Asia Minor – where Jewish communities were long established and had created around them many semi-proselytized ‘Godfearing’ Gentiles. There were also believing communities in Italy in Rome itself, Puteoli, around the Bay of Naples, and possibly also in Spain. The only church known outside the Empire was at Edessa, beyond the River Euphrates. Names of towns and cities with Christians are given in the New Testament – for instance the seven churches of Revelation chapters 1–3 – and in contemporary correspondence. The Christian Father Ignatius of Antioch (c. ad 35/50–98/117) writes of churches at Magnesia and Tralles, and later writers mention Alexandria, home of one of Paul’s several helpers, Apollos. The first significant persecution of Christians, under the Emperor Nero (r. 54–68), was short-lived and concentrated in Rome but did not hinder the growth of the church.

Distribution of Christianity by ad 100 Tergeste Po R.

Genoa

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ILLYRICUM (DALMATIA I

CORSICA

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Rome

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A Puteoli

SARDINIA

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Carthage

SICILIA

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T MALTA Melite

TR

MYSIA

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Mursa Ravenna

A

Paul and his fellow Jewish apostles carried the Christian message to regions beyond Palestine. With the express purpose of evangelizing Gentiles, they travelled extensively in Asia Minor and Greece, visiting synagogues in the Jewish Diaspora – where their teaching often provoked opposition – but also speaking with Gentiles in the marketplaces. They left behind small, uncertain groups of Jewish and Gentile Christians whose faith was built up by subsequent visits and by letters such as those we know in the New Testament.

IP

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IT

AN

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R

IA

City with Christian community by AD 100 City with large Jewish community Areas with Jewish communities Border of Roman Empire Roman province or region

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R

A

map 3

DACIA

BOSPORUS

Mursa

LLYRICUM DALMATIA)

be R. Danu

MOESIA

B LACK S EA

Serdica

Thessalonica

T H R A C E

Byzantium

Philippi Apollonia

Beroea

Troas

A

AEGEAN SEA

AC

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Nicopolis

Corinth Cenchrea

Athens

ISLAND OF PATMOS

Aegina

Prusa

MYSIA Pergamum

H BIT

Y N I A A N D P Amisus ON TU S R. s Haly

Ancyra

PHRYGIA

Antioch Thyatira Sardis in Pisidia Lake Smyrna Philadelphia Tuz Caesarea Ephesus Laodicea G Iconium Hierapolis Mazaca Magnesia Colosse Lystra Derbe C I L I C Miletus Tralles Tarsus Attalia Perge Seleucia

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Paphos

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Tripolis Sidon Tyre Ptolemais

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Cyrene

Damascus Capernaum

Caesarea Joppa

Pella Samaria Lydda Jerusalem

Berenice

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Salamis

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Alexandria

Pelusium

Memphis

Babylon

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Gaza

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During the second century Christian communities spread west and north, as far as Gaul and Germany. Also many groups were established in North Africa, laying the foundations for a strong church there in the third century. In Egypt, Christianity began to extend beyond the great city of Alexandria into surrounding rural areas. Further Christian communities were founded in Mesopotamia, and in Asia Minor the church spread both north and east. Christians were largely left in peace, unmolested by the authorities, during the period of the Antonine emperors – Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus (ad 96 –192) – which greatly helped the growth of Christianity throughout the empire. By the end of the third century the complexion of the Christian world looked quite different. With the westward expansion of the church, as far as Roman Britain, Rome – as well as Alexandria and Antioch – had become an important centre.

Distribution of Christianity by ad 300

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Augustod

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Tingitanum

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257-8, 303 Christians se persecute

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Augusta Trevirorum

177: Centre of Christian persecutions

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Durocortorum

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The second century, particularly the period following the Bar Kokhba revolt, saw a decisive split between Christianity and Judaism. The destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple, the exile of the Jews from Judea after the revolt, and the appointment of a Gentile – Mark (or Mahalia) – rather than a Jew as Bishop of Jerusalem all helped widen the breach. By this time the majority of Christians were of Gentile origin.

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Christianity by ad 300

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Town/city with Christian community by AD 300 Strong Christian community by AD 300 Border of Roman Empire in AD 300 Roman province or region

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Colonia Agrippina

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Lauriacum RAETIA Aguntum N O R I C U M

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PA Poetovio N N O N IA DACIA Aquileia Mursa Vienna digala Mediolanum D A S (Milan) A Singidunum Arelate E N S I NI L A N T O B I R Salonae M A NA U 303: Great Persecution MOESIA B LACK S EA T launched here I A Massilia L I Sinope A Rome Chalcedon THRACIA MACEDONIA N IA Y H T I B Puteoli Philippi Byzantium Neocaesarea Amisus Thessalonica Neapolis (Constantinople) Nicomedia PONT U S Beroea GA ARMENIA Troas MYSIA Nicaea Ancyra L A T I A ASIA Assos Carales Nyssa Pergamum Nicopolis Caesarea Sardes PhiladelphiaN I A M E D Chalcis Smyrna Melitene Athens CAPPADOCIA I Antioch 257-8, 303-12: T Rhegium Laodicea Corinth Ephesus Nazianzus Christians severely E S I C I L I A Samosata Carthage Cenchrea persecuted CILICIA Lystra Iconium Miletus R Tarsus R Syracuse Edessa Perga Derbe Sicca A Cirta Veneraria Tipasa N U M I D I A RHODES N Myra Antioch Salamis CRETA E Thagaste A Palmyra A Dura Europos CYPRUS N Gortyna Emesa SYRIA 303-12: S E Damascus Sidon Christians severely A Cyrene persecuted Pella Caesarea 250, 311: Centre of Leptis Magna Christian persecutions Joppa Sebaste Berenice C Y R E N A I C A Jerusalem Lydda Alexandria LIB YA Azotus Bethlehem

Centre hristian cutions

312: Edict of Milan grants religious Lugdunum freedom

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CHRISTIANIT Y BY AD 300

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NORTH SEA

B R I TA N NI A Londinium

in

The Empire was collapsing: despotism, endless wars, and civil strife had already destroyed its traditional values. For at least a century the emperors had been either rough barbarians or corrupt tyrants, sustained by the legions. As the political, economic, and military situation deteriorated, invasions by barbarian tribes from both the north and east became increasingly successful. Between 306 and 323 Constantine strove to halt this decline and to rally Christian support in his struggle for power. Although still tolerant of the old faiths, his grant of toleration for Christianity at Milan in 313 inaugurated a new era for the longpersecuted Christians, who were now for the first time allowed to worship in public and to build churches. When Constantine moved his capital to Byzantium – renaming it Constantinople – he even erected a number of new churches at public expense. Despite Constantine’s hope that Christianity would serve as an integrating force, theological disputes continued to divide. One important split was that by the Donatists in Carthage, stubbornly standing for ritual holiness and total separation of church and state, which caused a major Christian schism.



Treveri

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314: Constantine calls Council of Arles, mainly to address Donatist schism

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In ad 312 Constantine the Great (274–337) won the decisive battle of the Milvian Bridge, outside Rome, having invoked the ‘God of the Christians’ and having put the new Christian ‘chi-rho’ symbol on his shield. This victory put him on a path to supreme power.

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Constantine the Great

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Constantine the Great and the Christian Church

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map 5

Church represented at Council of Nicaea Major See recognized at Council of Nicaea Border of Roman Empire in 305 Roman province or region Site of conflict

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323: Constantine defeats Licinius

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325: Constantine calls Council of Nicaea, mainly to address Arian Controversy

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T H R A C I A founded on site of Byzantium EDONIA Constantinople MAC Adrianople Nicomedia Thessalonica Nicaea

Constantine defeats Maxentius

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stantine calls cil of Arles, to address ist schism

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c.336: Constantine builds Church of the Holy Sepulchre Empress Helena builds Chapel of the Ascension

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Sinai: Helena builds Church of the Burning Bush

CO N S TA N T I N E T H E G R E AT

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The Church under Siege

Part 2

The church, by its connection with Christian princes, gained in power and riches, but lost in virtues. Jerome (347–420)

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The controversy led Constantine to call a major synod of several hundred bishops to Nicaea, Asia Minor, in 325, including representatives of many Greek provinces, but also two presbyters representing Si(y)lvester, Bishop of Rome (r. 314–35). The Emperor Constantine presided in person at the opening session of this First Council of Nicaea, the earliest worldwide (‘ecumenical’) council. Its agreed creed rejected Arius’ hypotheses and affirmed that Son and Father are ‘of one substance’ (homoousios, consubstantial). Arguments over this wording led to fifty years’ further controversy. While Western bishops largely upheld Nicea, confident that the creed maintained the Son’s equality with the Father while maintaining a proper distinction between persons, many Eastern bishops worried that it collapsed Father and Son together into a single entity (modalism). Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria (r. 328 –73), was chief theological champion of what finally became orthodox teaching on the deity of God the Son, as defined in the Creed of Nicaea, revised at the Council of Constantinople (381), and decreed by the Emperor Theodosius I (r. 378–95). This marked the end of Arianism within the Empire. But the barbarian Gothic, Visigothic, Frankish, and Vandal kingdoms all adopted Arianism in opposition to Rome and Constantinople.

The Spread of Arianism

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British/Irish monk Pelagius opposes teachings of Augustine in Africa; 417 excommunicated

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Around 318 a particularly divisive dispute flared between Arius (c. 250–c. 336), a presbyter in Alexandria, and the Patriarch Alexander (r. 313–26). Arius was teaching that, if the Son of God had been crucified, he suffered – as the supreme deity cannot do. He argued that Jesus Christ was therefore not eternal, but made by the Father to do his creative work. By dividing off the Son from God the Father, Arius undermined Christ’s status as God’s revelation and as the saviour of humankind.

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Border of Roman Empire Border of Patriarchate Arian believers Donatist believers Orthodox Christian Patriarchate Major cathedral

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Ravenna

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c. 320: Eusebius of Nicomedia leader of Arianism 325: Signs anti-Arian creed of Nicaea

343: Council of Sardica condemns Arianism

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Nicomedia Gregory opposes Nicaea Ancyra Arianism Nyssa Melitene Sardes Nazianzus Ephesus Basil and Gregory 325: Constantine calls Council that condems Arianism

382-5: Jerome secretary to Pope Damasus opposes Arianism and Pelagianism

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Augustine (354-430): defines orthodoxy in response to Manichaeism, Donatism and Pelagianism

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325: At Council of Nicaea Eusebius attempts reconciliation with Arianism Later accepts anti-Arian creed of Nicaea

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Monophysite Christianity

From the outset, Christians were people with certain beliefs – especially about Jesus Christ – seen as fundamental to the existence of the church. The fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries were marked by lengthy controversies – particularly in the Eastern Church – about how Christ, the Son of God, was himself God (the doctrine of the Trinity); and how he was both man and God (the doctrine of the person of Christ, or Christology). This was a period of great importance in the formation of orthodox Christian theology. Deliberations in councils were often influenced by power struggles between the Bishop of Rome and the Emperor, by the rival claims of the five major patriarchates, and by the need of the imperial administration to maintain unity against the threats of the Persian Empire, the empire of Attila, and the barbarian kingdoms pressing in from the north. This was an age of domination by emperors, of abrasive personalities, and of rancorous conflict between leading bishops. Technical terms with no biblical origin were made key words in statements of belief. Usage of such words contributed to misunderstandings and misrepresentations between the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East – and even between different sections within the Greek Church. Such disputes contributed to major divisions in the Christian world. Numerous councils of bishops were held during this period. Four of the most important – Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (451) – came to be regarded as ecumenical councils, binding on the whole church, although some parts of the Eastern church rejected decisions made at Ephesus and/or Chalcedon.

Nestorius While the fourth century church often dealt with questions about the Trinity (in the Arian debates), in the fifth century disputes erupted over equally difficult questions about the nature of Christ. How could Christ be both human and divine, without the divine

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swallowing up the human? A theologian named Nestorius (d. c. 451) arguably attributed distinct personhood to each nature; while the third ecumenical council, in Ephesus, maintained the integrity of each nature and the singularity of Christ’s person. In ad 449 a theologian named Eutyches (c. 380–c. 456) was teaching that before the incarnation Christ had two natures; after the incarnation, the divine swallowed up the human, so that there was only one nature. Such a view gained support at a further church council at Ephesus in the same year, a gathering that Pope Leo I (r. 440–61) denounced as a ‘synod of robbers’ (latrocinium).

Chalcedon The fourth ecumenical council, at Chalcedon (451), brought together more bishops than any previous synod – roughly 600, almost all from the Eastern half of the Empire. This council succeeded in resolving the Christological controversy among many of the Greek and Latin congregations with a formula still widely accepted among Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant churches. The (mainly Greek) bishops endorsed Leo’s position: that Christ is one person with two natures – one human, one divine – each distinct, but both united in the one person. The crucial words are (in translation): ‘one and the same... Son, Lord, Only-begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures without confusion, without change, without division, or without separation’. This creed was as important for the views it rejected as heretical (for instance Adoptionist,

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The Council of Chalcedon and the Monophysite Church

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451: Emperor Marcian calls Council of Chalcedon to debate theology of Constantinople Eutyches of Constaninople

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In Egypt and other parts of the Near East ‘one-nature’ (Monophysite, or Miaphysite) Christians, who rejected the consensus of Chalcedon, were the ancestors of modern Coptic Christians.

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Gnostic, Arian, Nestorian, and Monophysite) as for its statement of what had come to be widely believed as orthodox. With such carefully worded statements of belief, the church now felt enabled to resist opponents who ridiculed such apparent complexities as the doctrine of the Trinity.

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Syrian Monophysites (later known as Jacobites) break away after Council of Chalcedon

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The Nestorian Church 34

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In 428 Nestorius (c. 381–c. 451), a native of Syria and student at Antioch, was invited by the Eastern Emperor to become Patriarch of Constantinople. Both a popular preacher and reformer – and opponent of Arianism – Nestorius campaigned to defend the full humanity of Jesus, but in doing do seemed to suggest there are two separate Persons in the Incarnate Christ, one divine and the other human. The Council of Ephesus (431) reasserted the unity of the Second Person of the Trinity – at once human and divine – and condemned and banished Nestorius. He died in Upper Egypt around 451. However other Eastern bishops refused to submit to the council’s decision and proceeded to form a ‘Nestorian’ Church, based in Persia.

Monophysites This dispute also represented a clash of theological traditions between Antioch – represented by Nestorius – and Alexandria – chiefly represented by Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria (r. 412 –44). In 451 the Council of Chalcedon condemned the belief, which Cyril seemed to hold, that in Christ there was only one nature, insisting there were two natures – one divine and one human – existing (contrary to Nestorianism) in only one person. Those who believed there was only one nature came to be called

‘Monophysites’ (from the Greek for ‘one nature’). The party that upheld the council’s definition of two natures – and whose beliefs were favoured by the Byzantine Emperor – is called Chalcedonian, or Melkite.

Nestorianism An old tradition claims that King Abgar V of Edessa corresponded with Jesus, was healed by one of his followers, and was a very early Christian convert. Whatever the truth, 4th century Coptic monastery of St Antony, Egypt.

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Abgar IX (179–214) did actually convert, bringing his subjects with him in the first mass conversion of Gentiles. Between 435 and 489 the Nestorians based themselves in a school in Edessa, east of the Euphrates. But when the head of that school, Narses (or Narsai, ?399– c. 503), was forced to flee to Nisibis around 471, Nestorian Christians came to be identified with Persia, the Persian church becoming officially Nestorian in 486. A school developed at Nisibis, and the see of the Nestorian Patriarch (Catholikos) was located first at Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the capital of the Empire, and then at Baghdad, around 775. The Nestorians suffered under the early Sassanids, for whom Zoroastrianism was the favoured religion. After the Muslim conquest of Persia in 651, the Nestorians were alternatingly tolerated and persecuted. Over the centuries they lost ground to Islam, though a diaspora of Nestorian refugees helped spread their beliefs into new areas. The Nestorian Church survived by turning east. By the 6th century, Nestorian missionaries were active in Arabia, India, and Turkestan, and had followed the Silk Road as far as east as China. In Chang’an, the contemporary Chinese capital, stands a Nestorian Stone – with an inscription in Chinese and Syriac – originally set up in 781 to commemorate the arrival of Nestorian missionaries in China 150 years earlier. However in 987 a monk reported that the church in China had entirely vanished.

Top section of a stele of ad 781 celebrating 150 years of Monophysite Christianity in China. This ‘Nestorian Stone’, or ‘Chang’an Stone’, is now housed in the Beilin Museum, and has inscriptions in both Chinese and Syriac.

Monophysitism Monophysite (or Miaphysite) Christians formed another alternative hierarchy to those following the Chalcedonian definition. In the mid-sixth century Jacob Baradeus, Bishop of Edessa (r. 543–78), created Monophysite bishoprics throughout the East. The Syrian Jacobites (named after Baradeus) and the Copts of Egypt and Ethiopia formed themselves into autonomous Monophysite churches. Armenia also became Monophysite in this period, mainly to achieve independence from the Empire and Constantinople. Cut off from the Empire like the Nestorians, Jacobite missionaries travelled along the caravan routes, especially into northern and central Arabia. Both Nestorians and Monophysites suffered when the Mongols arrived in the 13th century, and their numbers fell further in the 17th century, after one group united with the papacy.

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The Spread of the Nestorian and Monophysite Churches Sarai

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a te

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Centre of Nestorian teaching 489: Emperor closes school; Nestorians migrate to Persia

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Nestorianism travels to India

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The Church in the West 38

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From the third century onwards, Goths were raiding the Danube frontier of the Roman Empire. In the fourth century the Visigoths advanced west of the River Dniester and the Ostrogoths east of the Dniester. In about 350 the Goth Wulfila (Ulfilas, c. 311–83) converted most of his people to Arian Christianity. Many of the Germanic tribes, such as the Vandals, who subsequently came into contact with the Goths, similarly adopted Arianism. After 376 the Huns forced both the Visigoths and Ostrogoths southwards and westwards. By the time of the Emperor Theodosius I (347–95) tensions between the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire had become overt and under his sons the Empire was divided permanently. The emperor allowed Visigoths to settle in the Balkans, but burdened them with such huge taxes that they eventually rebelled and – shockingly – sacked the city of Rome itself in 410. In the century that followed, further massive tribal population migrations threw Western Europe into political turmoil. Any hopes of continuity and stability centred on the Bishops of Rome, such as Leo I ‘the Great’ (r. 440–61), who by skilful diplomacy extended the power of Rome throughout the West and resisted the Huns, in 452 persuading them to withdraw beyond the Danube. Following the death of their leader Attila in 453, the menace of the Huns diminished, although other barbarian peoples continued to assert territorial claims. Between 493 and 553 the Arian Ostrogoths invaded and controlled Italy, posing an serious threat to the Catholic church there. But Lombard invaders from Germany in turn overcame the Ostrogoths, forming their own kingdom in 584. The Visigoths sustained a powerful kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul, as did the Vandals in North Africa. Meanwhile the Frankish chief Clovis I (c. 466–c. 511) had taken advantage of the declining Roman Empire to unite northern

Gaul under his leadership in 494, adopting Catholic Christianity and overseeing the mass conversion of his people. His successors founded the Merovingian dynasty that ruled the Frankish Kingdom until the Carolingian dynasty emerged in the eighth century.

Gregory the Great Pope Gregory I, ‘the Great’ (r. 590–604), an outstanding leader of the western half of the Empire, laid the foundations of the Medieval papacy. An accomplished administrator of the extensive church lands and skilful political leader, he resisted the claims of both the emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople, made a separate peace treaty with the invading Lombards, and eliminated the power of the Byzantine exarch at Ravenna. He also attempted to convert the pagan tribes of England and Germany, launching the Latin missions to Britain led by Augustine of Canterbury (596) and Paulinus (601). Anglo-Saxon invasions of Britain had pushed back the Celtic church, leaving the path clear for Roman Christianity to take a new hold in England. These shifts signalled the beginnings of the gradual transformation of Christianity from a Mediterranean into a European religion. Yet, despite a scattering of leaders of ability, Christianity generally declined between 500 and 950, divided internally and suffering from external political instability.

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ATL O

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The Church in the West in the Sixth Century

map 9

Catholic Arian Pagan Pagans converted to Catholicism

Patriarchate Archbishopric Bishopric Bishopric founded in C6

N ORTH SEA

B A LT I C SEA

J U T ES

Bangor Clonard C E L T I C Ardmore

L A N D S

ANGLES AND SAXONS London

SA XO N S

Canterbury

Cologne

Tournai

BRI T TA N Y Loire R.

Rheims

KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS

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Carpentras

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Ravenna

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VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM Coria

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R h ône R.

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THE CHURCH IN THE WEST

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The First Monks

Most religions include people who take their beliefs more literally, more seriously, or more exactingly than the rest. Sometimes this means rejecting things that other people consider normal and good – for example marriage and sex. Sometimes it’s a matter of increased piety – more praying, at more inconvenient times. And sometimes it means withdrawing from society to a solitary life, devoted to cultivating the soul, or to a community life, apart from the world but with others of similar persuasion. There had always been such a strand within Judaism. In the time of Jesus, John the Baptist was a solitary ascetic, living on a restricted diet in the Judean wilderness and preaching a stern message of repentance. Probably the best-known religious community of this period is that which settled at Qumran, on the north-west shore of the Dead Sea. A thread of asceticism can also be traced through some early Christian groups in the centuries immediately following. James, first leader of the Jerusalem church, was noted for his frequent fasting and prayer. Some early Syriac-speaking churches seem to have restricted baptism to those who were celibate. And asceticism was common among some early fringe Christian movements, such as the Montanists and the followers of Marcion of Sinope (c. 85–c. 160).

The call to asceticism After the official toleration and recognition of Christianity in the time of Constantine, the church began to attract many new members – but standards of ethical and spiritual practice fell as less now seemed to be demanded of adherents. Believers who sought a purer form of Christianity began to withdraw from the existing churches – and from society itself.

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The Spread of Monasticism

Columba (521–97) founds monasteries and evangelizes north Britain

N ORTH SEA

Iona (563)

Whithorn Lindisfarne (635) (Candida Casa) c. 397 Jarrow Wearmouth Clonard (520)

Bardsey Bangor Iscoed Canterbury (514) (596) Llantwit (C6)

Echterna Trier 372: Martin of Tours founds monastery

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Aleth (C6) Marmoutier

St Brieuc (C6)

Ile de Noirmoutier Ligugé

Tours Poitiers

Luxeuil Auxerre Cîteaux Lyons

St Claude St M

Bobb Arles

Lé Marseille

c. 41 John Cassia Abbey of on Egyptia

Hippo Regiu (c. 390

Thaga

. le R Ni C5: 9 monks take Syrian monasticism to Ethiopia

R ED S EA

Axum

E T H I O P I A Lalibela to same scale and projection as main map

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map 10

Nola (394) Monastic community + date of foundation Monasteries following early Egyptian model Monasteries following British and Celtic tradition Monasteries following Rule of Benedict Sites of other monastic communities Spread of Egyptian monasticism Spread of Benedictine monasticism Spread of British and Celtic monasticism Area following Egyptian monasticism Area following Benedictine monasticism Area following British and Celtic monasticism Border of Roman Empire

TH A

B A LT I C SEA

Echternach

Fulda

Trier

Luxeuil xerre

Cîteaux Lyons Arles

St Gall (612) St Claude St Maurice Vercelli (360) Bobbio

614: Columbanus sets up monastery in Celtic tradition 480: Benedict, founder of Benedictine Order, born here c. 529: Benedict founds first monasteries of Benedictine Order

Lérins (410) Marseilles

Nursia Subiaco Rome (570) c. 415: Monte Cassino John Cassian founds Abbey of St Victor c. 529: Benedict Nola (394) on Egyptian model

B LACK S EA

Mt Athos (C9) Meteora

founds monastery

Macrina (c. 327–79) founds small community

Chalcedon Constantinople (400)

Annesi Neocaesarea Sebastea

Mt Olympus

Vivarium

Hippo Regius (c. 390)

c. 539: Cassiodorus establishes ‘Vivarium’ Gives way to Rule of St Benedict

Caesarea(360)

Basil the Great (330–79) organizer of Greek/Byzantine monasticism

Mt Latmos

Thagaste (388)

Myra

M EDITERRANEAN S EA

Seleucia Salamis (335)

Jerusalem Canopus Gaza Alexandria Bethlehem Nitria Wadi Natrun (320–30) Scetis (330) Pispir Mt Antony (c.256–356) Sinai

Chalcis

Betw. 370/378 Basil founds monastery on Mount of Olives 432 Melania the Younger convent on Mar Saba founds Mount of Olives

pioneers desert monasticism

After 320: Pachomius founds many monasteries and convents

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c. 478 Sabas (St Saba) founds Byzantine monastery Late C4: Jerome founds 2 monasteries c. 460: Theodosius the Cenobiarch founds Monastery of Theodosius 548–65: St Catherine’s Monastery built by order of Justinian I

see inset

THE FIRST MONKS

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St Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai, Egypt.

The monastic life came to be seen as the ideal for the most devout. From private asceticism, some began to pursue the life of the hermit, dedicated to God. Antony (or Anthony the Great, c. 256–356), a young Egyptian, is the earliest celebrated Christian hermit (though some doubt whether he was the innovator and pioneer he is claimed to be – even whether he was an historical figure). He is said to have spent 15 years as a hermit, living among tombs in the desert, before moving to the middle of the desert to escape human society and cultivate a closer relationship with God. Finally Antony set up a community of monks at Mount Colzim, near the Red Sea. Many similar hermits withdrew to the deserts of Syria and Egypt, in temporary or permanent retreat from society, and in search of a more spiritual form of life. Living alone or in small groups, they dedicated their time to prayer and meditation, often also attempting feats of spiritual and physical endurance, such as fasting or sleep deprivation.

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Communal monasticism The first communal Christian monastery we know of was set up around 320 by Pachomius (c. 287–346), who founded an ascetic community at Tabennisi, by the River Nile. Rejecting extreme rigour, Pachomius laid down regular routines for meals and worship. Further communities followed, and, although the first were for men only, Pachomius later also superintended communities for women. He created an important pattern for monasticism: a community of monks, sometimes living in a single building, and following a set rule. Initially, a looser arrangement tended to prevail, where the group of monks spent most of their time alone in individual huts, but gathered for communal meals and prayer. By the end of the fourth century, the monastic life had spread from Egypt throughout the Christian world, both town and country. There were by this time at least 300 monastic houses in the city of Constantinople, and others in such remote spots as St Catherine’s, Mount Sinai; rock-cut caves in Cappadocia; and the Holy Mountain of Athos, Greece.

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Eastern model Basil the Great (330–79) who was made Bishop of Caesarea, Cappadocia, in 364, founded a community that introduced important new features. He ruled that monks and hermits should be better integrated with the local church; that the local bishop should have authority over a monastery; and that communal rather than solitary prayer should take priority within the monastery. Basil also wanted to ensure that monasteries served society: his own community offered medical help, poor relief, and education to those living nearby. Basil’s model for monastic life was summed up in two ‘rules’ that Eastern Orthodox monks still observe today.

Western monks Martin of Tours (d. 397) pioneered monasticism in Western Europe. The monastery he set up at Marmoutier, France, became noted for its austerity and holiness, and acted as a catalyst for the spread of Christianity into France. Further monasteries were founded: on the island of Lérins, near Cannes, by a monk named Honoratus around 410; and in 415 at Marseilles by John Cassian (d. c. 433), who wrote widely on monasticism. Another innovator, the Roman statesman Cassiodorus (c. 485–c. 585), founded a monastery at Vivarium, in Calabria, southern Italy, which introduced the study and copying of ancient manuscripts, an activity that became associated with Christian monasteries and helped save much of classical culture.

Benedict Benedict of Nursia (c. 480–c. 547) – so-called ‘Father of Western Monasticism’ – created the definitive ‘rule’ for monasteries in Western Europe. Little is known about him, and there is some doubt whether (like Antony) he actually existed. Benedict is supposed to have been

born in Nursia, Umbria, and studied in Rome. After living as a hermit in Subiaco, southern Italy, he is said to have set up what became the influential monastery of Monte Cassino in 528. Benedict’s ‘Rule’ was written there, but only after his death, when a copy reached Pope Gregory I, did it become widely known. Benedict’s monastic rule is of huge significance. It divides a monk’s life into two essential activities – prayer and work (in Latin, orare et laborare) – and required vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Benedict also stipulated that the monastery should provide care for the weak and the sick, and hospitality to strangers. Daily life in a Benedictine monastery was built around a set pattern of seven prayer services: Matins (or Lauds), Prime, Terce, Sect, Nones, Vespers, and Compline. Gradually the Rule of Benedict supplanted all other rules for monasteries in Western Europe. Benedictines established monasteries throughout the West, supporting education and promoting culture. Even today, most monasteries observe the Rule of Benedict largely as it was originally set out.

Ireland Beyond the orbit of Rome, a different form of monasticism sprang up in Ireland, where it took on a similar pattern to Egyptian monastic communities. Irish monks became known for their devotion to Christ, mystical spirituality, scholarship, asceticism, restlessness, and evangelistic zeal. The Irish monasteries became known for their libraries and richly illuminated (illustrated) manuscripts, with their distinctive, intricate Celtic designs. But while monks elsewhere were required by the Rule of Benedict to stay put in one geographical location, the Irish monks exhibited a strong wanderlust known as ‘peregrinatio’: a self-imposed exile and wandering for the love of God.

THE FIRST MONKS

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Although for many years the emperor in the East continued to claim authority over the West, the last to retain any real control beyond the Byzantine East was Justinian I (r. 527–65). Italy, western North Africa, and southern Spain were controlled by Germanic tribes when he became Byzantine Emperor; but by the end of his reign he had conquered all these lands and instituted an ‘Exarchate’ government over Italy at Ravenna, on the Adriatic coast. Defeat of the Arian leadership of the Vandals in North Africa and the Ostrogoths in Italy helped strengthen Catholicism in the West. Justinian took an active interest in the church, allowing little deviation outside what he considered orthodox belief and practice. He was intolerant of other Christian traditions and beliefs, which led to divisions within the Eastern Empire – a debilitating effect that contributed to the lowering of the resistance of Christians to the arrival of Islam in the following century. Justinian is credited with building a number of new churches, as well as the reconstruction of the great Hagia Sophia in Constantinople after it had been burnt down during riots, and the development St Catherine’s Monastery at Mount Sinai, Egypt.

The Empire of Justinian I

FR AN KI SH

Justinian I

After Constantine I moved the capital of the empire to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium) in ad 330, Rome and the rest of Italy came increasingly under the influence and control of the Bishop of Rome. The Latin Catholic Church of the Roman West and the Eastern Orthodox Church of the East increasingly took on separate identities as the political division of the Roman Empire into East and West became permanent.

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NUMIDIA

map 11 DA N E S

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nub

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Ratiaria Marcianopolis Justiniana Serdica Prima Beroea 537: Church of THRACIA Scodra St Sophia Constantinople Philippopolis Adrianople MACEDONIA Nicomedia

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Rhône R.

The Rise of Islam

Muhammad was born in Mecca in ad 570. The Spread of Islam: 622–1075 In 610, he claimed the angel Gabriel had told him that he had been chosen to turn people Paris FR ANKISH from the prevalent paganism, polytheism, EMPIRE Tours immorality, and materialism to worship Charles Martel A T L A N T IC halts Arab advance Poitiers the one true God – Allah – whose prophet Poitiers 732 OCEAN he was. However, when Muhammad gained Nice only 40 followers in a hostile Mecca, he Ebro and his friend Abu Bakr fled to Medina R. R . o r u in 622 – an event celebrated as the Hegira Do Zaragoza (hijra), Year 1 in the Muslim calendar. gus R. Ta

In 630 Muhammad returned, defeated Mecca, converted most of its people to the new faith – Islam – and established religious rites at the Ka‘aba, an ancient black stone. By 632, the year of his death, Muhammad had conquered most of western Arabia for Islam. 100 years later, Islam had reached as far as the Atlantic Ocean in the west and the borders of China in the east.

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Palermo

Cordova Tabarka (Barga)

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840

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Islam reaches Atlantic 682

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Z

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The Caliphs (632–61) A succession crisis arose after Muhammad’s death. One group claimed that he had chosen Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, to succeed him; another that Abu Bakr, his friend and father-in-law, should become the new leader, or caliph. In the event, Abu Bakr (r. 632–34) became first caliph, securing the entire Arabian peninsula for Islam, taking the new faith to the frontiers of the Eastern Christian Empire in Syria, and declaring jihad (holy war) against the Byzantine state. The second caliph, Umar (or Omar, r. 63444), won the strategic battle of Yarmuk (636), and captured Christian Damascus (635) and the Christian holy city of Jerusalem (637) from the Byzantine Empire. In 642 he took the major Christian centre of Alexandria (Egypt). Uthman (or Osman, 644–56), a member of the influential Umayyad family, succeeded Umar, and continued the expansion of Islam, capturing Cyprus in 649, and arriving at the eastern borders of Persia in 653. After his

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assassination in 656, the Islamic community underwent the historic split between the majority orthodox Sunni and the minority Shi’ites, who followed descendants of Ali.

The Umayyad Dynasty The first Sunni caliphate, the Umayyad dynasty, ruled from Damascus and lasted until 750. By the 8th century Muslim armies had crossed the Mediterranean from North Africa and in 711 began to conquer Spain, where the population remained largely Christian under Muslim rule. By 732 a Muslim army

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KHAZ AR EMPIRE Danube R .

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had crossed the Pyrenees and penetrated as far as Tours, south-central France, where it was checked at the Battle of Poitiers by the Frankish leader Charles Martel (r. 718–41) in a victory that saved Western Christendom. Strife within Christendom – battles between Orthodox and Montanists, Donatists, and Arians in North Africa, and the secession of the Nestorians and Monophysites – made the victory of Islam much easier. Many Christians crossed over to Islam, with its clear statement of faith and strong call to brotherhood.

0 100 300 Kilometers

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From its original base in Arabia, Islam spread by force extraordinarily quickly throughout the Middle East, central Asia, and North Africa, overrunning more than half of Christendom within a century. The majority of the population within the new Islamic empire remained non-Muslim. In the early years, Islam allowed indigenous cultures to continue, with little attempt at religious conversion. The Monophysite and Nestorian churches of Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Middle East all survived the coming of Islam, and even shared a common enemy: Byzantium, the Eastern Empire.

THE RISE OF ISLAM

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The Eastern Church after 451

From the time of the Council of Chalcedon (451), two increasingly different Christian traditions were developing, one centred on Rome, the other on Constantinople. With diverging emphases, the Western and Eastern churches gradually grew apart, with the East developing its own traditions of spirituality, worship, and church life. The tradition now known variously as Orthodox Christianity, Eastern Orthodoxy, or the Orthodox Church began as the eastern half of early Christendom. The Orthodox tradition was fixed in the Apostolic Age and confirmed by Seven Ecumenical Councils.

Emperor and Patriarch Unlike the Western, the Eastern Church never attempted to claim independence of the state; rather, it formed in effect the spiritual arm of the government. The Emperor Constantine, who chaired the Council of Nicaea, guaranteed unity for the church in return for its independence. Succeeding emperors continued to work for Christian tranquillity and unity by browbeating and overawing the church. The Bishop of Constantinople became in effect the imperial court-preacher and needed to retain the emperor’s favour in order to succeed. Those who – like the great preacher John Chrysostom (c. 344–407) – criticized the emperor were likely to be punished. As the Islamic forces swept across the east, the Eastern Church was drastically pushed back. With the capture of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, the two surviving major centres of Christianity emerged as rivals: Rome under the guidance of the pope, and Constantinople under the leadership of the patriarch. At first the Orthodox Patriarch appeared to be the more powerful, especially since he presided over the wealthier – and still viable – Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). However, the patriarch continued to be subservient to the Eastern Emperor who, in practice, ran both church and state.

Iconoclasm In the East, complex theological controversies continued to rage, especially over the nature and person of Jesus Christ. The East also

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L CHR E

contrasted with Rome in glorying in images and representations of God. Icons decorated with gold – symbolically representing Christ, Mary (theotokos, or the God-bearer), and the saints – were employed to help people worship and to illustrate the mystery of holiness. However these icons provoked bitter controversy. The Seventh Ecumenical Council (Nicaea II, 787) took place amid a dispute over their use. Emperor Leo III of Syria (c. 675–741) – who saved the Eastern Empire by defeating Muslim armies in 718 and 740 – set out to prohibit the worship of icons, which he possibly believed to be an obstacle to converting Jews and Muslims. This council eventually approved the making and veneration – but not worship – of religious images. The Fourth Council of Constantinople (879), summoned by the learned Patriarch Photius (r. 858–67, 877–86), condemned both Monophysites and Iconoclasts, thus creating further divisions within the empire. Yet finally icons triumphed, continuing as an essential feature of Eastern Christianity. Among the chief defenders of their use was John of Damascus (c. 675–c. 749), a monk and theologian who grew up under the Muslims. His writings marked a high point of Eastern Orthodox thought into the modern period.

Ra

5 Byzant

Cyril and Methodius In this period the most important expansion of Christianity in the East was effected by the brothers Cyril (826–69) and Methodius (c. 815–85) from Thessalonica. In 862 Prince

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Byzantium under Threat: 632–750 L ATIN CHRISTIAN EMPIRE

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Cyril and Methodius evangelize tribes They create Cyrillic script for Slavic Bible

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Rastislav of Great Moravia (r. 846–70) asked the emperor to send him missionaries to translate the Bible into Slavic. Cyril (who knew both Arabic and Latin) and Methodius were selected and proceeded to devise the ‘Glagolitic’ alphabet for the Slavic language – not previously reduced to written form. They then translated into ‘Old Church Slavonic’ the New Testament, the Psalms, and other parts of the Old Testament, as well as sections of the liturgy. After the death of Methodius, his followers were exiled from Moravia and

SYRIA

John of Damascus supports use of icons (675-749)

Jerusalem Latin Roman Empire Khazar territory Muslim territory

found refuge in Bulgaria, which accepted Christianity in 865. The Slavic translation of Cyril and Methodius was enthusiastically accepted, and under Tsar Simeon I (‘the Great’, r. 893–927) Slavic literacy and liturgy flourished. Unlike the Western church, which was unified by its use of the Latin liturgy, the Byzantines permitted each nation and people to foster its own independent, autocephalous church with a liturgy conducted in the vernacular.

THE EASTERN CHURCH AFTER 451

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Celtic Monks and Missionaries 50

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For much of earlier Christian history, the pattern of Christian conversion was familial and tribal. Following military defeat or political subjugation, chiefs and leaders accepted baptism and their people followed. Missionary work could be perilous, especially if tribal religion involved ritual human sacrifice, or if Christian missionaries were regarded as part of an expansionist imperial strategy. Monasticism played a vital role in the Christianization of Europe. In the fifth-century the Briton Ninian founded a monastery at Whithorn (Candida Casa) and preached among the Picts of southern Scotland. Columba (c. 521–97) founded several monasteries in his native Ireland before sailing to the island of Iona, off the west coast of Scotland, in 563. He and his followers then evangelized in Scotland, and one disciple, Aidan (d. 651), journeyed to Northumbria, north-east England, in 633 to found the monastery of Lindisfarne, on Holy Island. Part of the missionary impulse of these Irish monks was the concept that exile in Christ’s name (peregrinatio) was per se a useful spiritual discipline. The monks often travelled in groups of twelve, in imitation of the Twelve Apostles, establishing churches, holy days, and cults of saints to supplant the shrines and beliefs of the northern pagan cults. Another disciple of Columba, Columban (or Columbanus, c. 543–615) travelled to France, founding monasteries at Annegray, Luxeuil, and at Bobbio, northern Italy. Amandus (d. 675), born near Nantes, Brittany, became a monk, then a hermit, and evangelized in Flanders, founding a number of monasteries. Willibrord (658– 739), ‘Apostle to the Frisians’, founded the monastery of Echternach, which grew into a major missionary centre.

Possibly the most remarkable missionary of this period was Winfrith, better known as Boniface (c. 675–754), the ‘Apostle of Germany’. Likely born at Crediton, Devon, Boniface founded several monasteries, including Fulda (c. 743), where he was buried after his martyrdom. Boniface’s courage in felling Thor’s Oak at Geismar much impressed the pagan tribespeople. Ansgar (or Anskar, 801–65), the ‘Apostle of the North’, came originally from Amiens, but was educated at Corbie, where he became a monk. Appointed Archbishop of Hamburg in 832, he entered Denmark under royal protection before moving on to Sweden. Though travelled widely in Scandinavia, Anskar found its people resistant to conversion. Sigfrid (d. 1045) – probably English, and certainly from the monastery at Glastonbury – evangelized remote areas of Sweden before moving to Denmark, where he was consecrated Bishop of Växjo. Reversing the Celtic missionary trend, in 596 Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine (d. c. 604), prior of the Abbey of St Andrew, Rome, to Canterbury with a group of around 40 monks to preach to the Anglo-Saxons. Arriving in 597, he converted Aethelbert and became the first Bishop of Canterbury. Paulinus (d. 644) followed Augustine’s group with a second mission that arrived in England in 604, later converting King Edwin of Northumbria.

Columb

Cand

Lough Corib

ATL O

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Early Missions in the Christian West Miles 0

300

200

100

0 100 200 Kilometers

map 14 Trondheim 1029

to Iceland and Greenland

400

Mission c. 400–750 with missionary name Mission c. 750–1000 with missionary name Archbishopric – date of foundation Bishopric – date of foundation Monastery – date of foundation Area of Celtic monasticism

N O R WAY Bergen c.1070

SWEDEN

Uppsala 1164

N ORTH SEA

Birka Sigfrid 852-54

Sigfrid Boniface (Winfrid) 716

SCOTLAND

Columba 563

Aidan

Iona 563 Ninian

Armagh Lough Corib

Lindisfarne 635

Clonard

IRELAND

Whitby 664

Ripon

Kentigern (Mungo) Fursey 648

WALES

York 625

Hedeby Hamburg 834

Paulinus of York 627-33

ENGLAND

Roskilde

Ribe 948 Sigfrid

Aidan, Cuthbert 634-64

Bangor 559

B ALTIC S EA

DENMARK

Åarhus 948

Hexham Monkwearmouth/ 678 Jarrow

Candida Casa, Whithorn 397

Växjö

Wilfrid/Willibrord 678, 690

PRUSSIA Anskar 826

Gniezno 1000

Bremen 788

Dunwich 669

Utrecht 696 Ewalde

Od

er

R.

e

HESSE

El b

London Aman Canterbury 604 dus 597 Rochester Ghent Winchester 676

Glastonbury

Magdeburg 958 Corvey 815

Suid bert

Fulda 744 SA XO N Y

R.

POLAND Adalbert c. 995

Prague Mainz Bamberg 973 743 1007 Krakow Rouen B O H EMI A Echternach MO R AVI A 1004 698 Regensburg 739 Eichstätt 742 Rheims Passau 739 Kilian 686 Gran Freising B AVA R I A Sens Columbanus 590 1001 Reichenau 724 780 Salzburg 798 Ga l l u s Tours St Gall Luxeuil Pa c.673 u c.590 lin CA R I N T H I A us Gallus Bourges 6 Rh ine R.

Corbie

01

Aquileia

Vienne TIA

Toledo 1085

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

OA

Tagus R.

Ravenna

s

Augustine 596-7

CORSICA

S PA I N

CR

Bobbio c.614

du an

NAVARRE

Narbonne

Boniface (Winfrid) 716

Am

Toulouse

Rhône R.

FRANCE

Danube R.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

I TA LY

Rome

SARDINIA

C E LT I C M O N K S A N D MSICILY ISSIONARIES

51

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Iona

PICTISH KINGDOMS

KINGDOM OF SCOTS

N ORTH S EA Lindisfarne

Derry Armagh

Whithorn

Jarrow Whitby York

Saxons conq Christianiz 30 years’

Northumbria

Kells

Bangor ANGLO-SAXON KINGDOM IES

IRISH KINGDOMS

LIT

Mercia

East Anglia

I PA

Utrech

NC H P RI

Wessex

Aachen

Charlemagne

Prü Alcuin advisor to Charlemagne Eriugena principal of Palace School

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Landévennec

BRETONS

Rheims

Paris Rennes Nantes

St Noirmoutier

Strasb

Orleans Loire

FRANKISH KINGDOM

R.

Lyons Vienne Bordeaux Moissac

R hône R.

A pious man, the Frankish King Charles attempted to reform the church by encouraging Benedictine monasticism, appointing effective bishops, attacking paganism, spreading the Roman liturgy, and sponsoring an intellectual and artistic revival that became known as the ‘Carolingian Renaissance’, strongly guided by Alcuin of York (c. 735–804). Charles made it clear that he, and not the pope, would govern the church in his expanding kingdom. The popes tried to curb him, but when some Roman aristocrats accused Pope Leo III (795–816) of misconduct, drove him out of office, and attempted to kill him, Charles rescued the hapless pontiff. Leo was restored to office – in return for dependence upon the emperor. In an attempt to establish his independence from the Eastern Church, on Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo crowned Charlemagne emperor, so reviving the Empire in the West. Charlemagne abhorred the idea of owing his crown to the pope, and for the following fourteen years strove to dominate the papacy. Charlemagne was King of the Franks, but the pope had created him emperor; did this mean the pope alone could create an emperor? The popes believed this to be the case – but Charlemagne’s successors disputed it. As the ninth century continued, the imperial title went to the most powerful contender – and the popes were constantly embroiled in politics.

The Empire of Charlemagne

WELS

Charlemagne 52

The Pope and Western Emperor struggled for power time and again. When the leaders of the Christian community in the West were not trying to stem the Muslim tide or absorb barbarian invasions from the East, they were battling with great temporal leaders such as Charlemagne (‘Charles the Great’, r. 800–14) for control of the church.

Toulouse

KINGDOM OF ASTURIAS

Narbonne

Zaragoza

774 Char conquers Take “King of the

Barcelona

Tagus R.

U M AY YA D C A L I P H AT E Lisbon

M

E

D

Seville

U M AY YA D C A L I P H AT

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map 15 SVEAR

NORSE

GÖTAR

SEA

B A LT I C SEA

DANES

a

Utrecht

El b

Fulda 794 Synod affirms use of icons

R. in e

Milan

DS AR M BVenice O L E OF TH KINGDOM Bobbio

AVA R C A L I P H AT E Aquileia G OTH S

R hône R.

CROATS

Ravenna

Split

SARDINIA

E

Danub e R.

Pavia

774 Charlemagne conquers Lombardy CORSICA Rome Takes title Christmas 800: “King of the Lombards” Leo III crowns Charlemagne

M

D

.

V OL H YN I A N S

Salzburg

rbonne

ona

D ER E V L I A N S rR

BOHEMIANS

Passau Augsburg

St Gallen

Lyons Vienne

Moissac

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

St Emmeram

Regensburg

Rh

Metz Strasbourg

de

.

Frankfurt

Prüm

FRANKISH KINGDOM

S O RBS

eR

O

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Rheims

ux

200

S A XO N S Magdeburg

Aachen

R.

Miles 0 100

Hamburg POMERANIANS A BO DRI T E S Vi s Bremen tul a R. W I LT ZI T E S Hildesheim P O LE S

Charlemagne’s capital

rleans

B A LT S MAZOVIANS

Saxons conquered and Christianized after 30 years’ conflict

Paris

Byzantine Empire 732 Umayyad Caliphate 732 Frankish Kingdom 732 Charlemagne 814 SEmpire L O V I NofI A NS Borders Site of conflict Patriarchate Monastery

I

B U LG A R K H A N AT E

S ER B S

Danube R .

Farfa Monte Cassino

Benevento DUCHY OF BENVENTO

Naples

Constantinople Thessalonica BYZANTINE EMPIRE (EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE UNTIL 610)

Cagliari

T

E

R

Tunis

U M AY YA D C A L I P H AT E

B LACK SEA

VL AC H S Ragusa

DUCHY OF SPOLETO

R

Corinth

SICILY

A

N

Athens

Ephesus

Syracuse E

A

N

S

E

A

CRETE

CYPRUS

CHARLEMAGNE

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The Anglo-Saxon Church

For generations England was first plundered, then settled by raiding tribes from Scandinavia and Germany. During the late 5th century Saxon invaders destroyed many of the old centres of Christianity, and descendants of the original inhabitants were pushed into outlying areas. Celtic Christianity survived largely in mountain strongholds and island fastnesses. For a time the Celtic and Roman varieties of Christianity co-existed uncomfortably. However in 664 King Oswiu (or Oswig, 612–79) of Northumbria, whose own family was divided and hence celebrated Easter on different dates, called a church council. At the Synod of Whitby (664) this dispute was settled in favour of the Roman rite and calendar, though Celtic practices of private confession and disciplinary penitence were adopted. Some monks were unhappy with this and withdrew to Ireland and Scotland; Celtic Christianity eventually disappeared in England. By 600 a group of larger English kingdoms – Wessex, East Anglia, Kent, Mercia, and Northumbria – had emerged, having gradually absorbed smaller neighbours such as Sussex, Essex, the Hwicce, and the Western Marches. By 700 every kingdom had become Christian with the consolidation of the conversion in the south initiated by Augustine in 597, and in the north by Irish missionaries early in the seventh century.

Alfred the Great During the 9th century Wessex emerged as the strongest kingdom in England. Alfred the Great (849–99) reinforced this position,

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successfully beating off Viking attacks, reaching an agreement with the Vikings in the Danelaw, and reoccupying London (886). The king fostered a religious and educational renaissance that turned the tide against tribal gods and priests. Alfred’s sons and grandsons, Edward the Elder (r. 899–924), Aethelstan (r. 924–39), Edmund (r. 939–46), and Eadred (r. 946–55), extended their power to Mercia, the Danelaw and, ultimately, Northumbria, paving the way for the unification of England. The writings of the Venerable Bede (c. 673–735) witness to the energy of the British church in adversity. Yet England remained vulnerable to Danish attacks, which culminated in the reign of the Danish king Cnut (or Canute, r. 1016–35), who ruled Norway and Denmark as well as England. English kings had always been closely allied with the church; from about 900 this connexion was strengthened with the introduction of a Christian ceremony of royal coronation. The leading English churchman of the time, Archbishop of Canterbury Dunstan (c. 909–88), a strict ascetic, enforced the Benedictine Rule as abbot and reformed both secular and religious administrations as advisor to King Edgar (r. 959–75).

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The British Church c. 800

map 16

SHE TLAND

Birsay

Gaelic Pictish Anglo-Saxon British Major church Celtic bishopric Anglo-Saxon bishopric

ORKNEY

CAITHNESS

St Ninian’s Isle to same scale as main map

Udal

MORAY

Applecross

PICTLAND

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Brechin

DAL RIATA

Dunblane Govan Abercorn Edinburgh

Glasgow STRATHCLYDE

Corbridge

RI

York

A

Bangor YN

ED

D

t R.

Sh an non R.

MB

Ripon

St Asaph POWYS

LINDSEY Lincoln

Tr

Lichfield

Leicester Crowland Elmham EAST Ferns Peterborough Ely ANGLIA Llanbadarn Fawr BUILTH MERCIA Dunwich Worcester Ipswich BRYCHEINIOG Hereford St David’s DYFED St Albans ESSEX Dorchester GLYWYSING London Barking Th Llanilltud Fawr am es R . Dinas Powys Rochester WESSEX Winchester KENT Canterbury C E LT I C Sherborne SUSSEX SEA Wimborne Selsey A I N N O Bodmin ENGLISH CHANNEL DU

M

CE

RE

DIG

ION

LAIGIN

rn R. Seve

50

Cork

Whitby

HU

Ardfert MUNSTER Lismore

IRISH SEA

GW

Emly

Cashel

Jarrow Monkwearmouth

RT

SOUTHERN Monasterboice UÍ NÉILL

Kells Trim Ardagh Clonmacnoise Kildare Glendalough Kilfenora Inishcaltra Sletty

30

Whithorn Nendrum

Clogher Armagh Downpatrick

CONNACHT

Miles 0 10

Hexham

ULAID

AIRGIALLA

Inishmurray

Lindisfarne

Melrose

en

Derry

Coldingham

NO

NORTHERN UÍ NÉILL

Skellig Michael

N ORTH SEA

Dunkeld Iona

Inisfallen

Deer

0 10 30 50 Kilometers

T H E A N G LO - S A XO N C H U R C H

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Byzantium to 1000

From the late 630s the Eastern Empire struggled for survival against Arab Islamic forces that dwarfed it both militarily and economically. The Arab conquests of the seventh century rapidly reduced the East Roman Empire to a core in Anatolia. The imperial authorities faced almost annual Arab raids into their remaining territories, yet the Byzantine army fought a lengthy guerrilla war against the invaders, believing theirs was the empire of Christ and they could win with his aid. The Abbasid revolution in the mid-eighth century fragmented the Islamic world, which started to alter the military balance. The Byzantine army was now better able to resist the invaders. By the early tenth century, Byzantine forces, aided by local knowledge of the terrain and lengthy experience of Byzantine-Arab warfare, began to advance into Arab-held territory. In the 930s the Byzantine general John Kourkouas (Curcuas) led victorious Byzantine forces into the cities of Melitene and Samosata, and even began to advance beyond the River Euphrates. Armenia and Georgia, which had been under Muslim rule, were now annexed by Byzantium.

Slav incursions Meanwhile Slav incursions into the Balkans left the Eastern Empire with only minimal control beyond its coasts. From the 6th century various peoples migrated across the south Russian steppe to lands north and south of the River Danube. The Slavicspeaking people who settled throughout the Balkan peninsula were followed by the Turkic Bulgars, who dominated north of the Balkan mountains on both sides of the Danube. Two centuries later, the Magyars conquered the Carpathian Basin and ended Bulgar rule north of the river. All these peoples interacted with the Byzantine Empire, which had till now dominated the region.

Conversion In 687/88 Emperor Justinian II (r. 685–95, 705–11) confronted the Bulgars, and in 758 Emperor Constantine V (r. 741–75)

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launched a full-scale attack on the Balkan Slavs. However the Turkic Bulgars established a powerful empire that was able to withstand Byzantine attempts to recover the northern Balkans. In 811 Emperor Nikephoros I and his army were slaughtered by forces led by the Bulgar Khan Krum. Yet, following defeat by a Byzantine army in 864, Khan Boris (852–89) was baptized into the Eastern Church. Byzantine missionaries such as Clement of Ohrid (c. 840–916) and Naum of Preslav (c. 830–910) were sent to Bulgaria to help convert its people, utilizing the Glagolitic script previously created by Cyril and Methodius. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople provided Boris with guidelines for a Christian ruler. Gradually the Byzantines brought the Slav population of the southern Balkans to Orthodox Christianity, and during the reign of Emperor Basil II (976–1025) overcame the rival Bulgar Empire. In 895–6 the Magyars arrived in the Carpathian Basin and proceeded to raid lands to the west, until the German Otto I (‘the Great’, r. 934–70) defeated them at the decisive Battle of Lechfeld (955). The Magyar Stephen I (c. 975–1038) was converted to Christianity around 1000; Pope Sylvester II sent him a crown for use at his coronation. In southern Italy too, Byzantium once more became a force to be reckoned with, leading the Christians of the region against the Muslim invaders. By the 11th century, Constantinople was again capital of the greatest power in Christendom.

B

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The Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000

Dvin a R.

BOHEMIA Da

Salzburg

Prague

Olmutz

V

O

LH

Vladimirin-Volhynia

Turov

IA

G A Galich LI CI A

nub e R.

CHERNIGOV KI EV

Venice

Dni epe rR

.

R.

. Don R

Bosporos

CR OAT IA

K H A Z A R S

Cherson

Silistra Turnovo

Rome

RS

PEREJ ASL AV

Zagreb

Sardica SE R BIA B ULGAR I A Veles Philippopolis Dyrrachium Thessalonica

LGA

Kiev

S M A N C U I N A K S T Z A P

HUNGARY

BU

Kursk

Chernigov

Belgorod Dn ies ter

Murom

Ryazan

Smolensk

Pinsk

YN

Moscow

R.

Nishni Novgorod

R.

Krakov

S

S M O L E N S K

Vladimir

ga

Volg a

TO POLAND

IAN

A L Z D S U

N

Riga

RY A Z A

C

Yaroslavl Rostov

LITHUANIANS

TEU R.

er R. Od

Elb e

Vis tul aR .

V I A T K A

Novgorod the Great

l

NI

N O V G O R O D

LETTS

ER

SS PRU

Beloozero (Belozersk)

Vo

D

Ladoga

O T S K P O L

OR

Orthodox Church: Greek rite Orthodox Church: Slavonic rite Orthodox Church: Georgian rite Latin Church Islam

map 17

Alania

B LACK S EA

GEORGIA

Constantinople

Tiflis

Neocaesarea

Nicaea Ankara

AR M E NI A Smyrna SIC ILY

200

300

Iconium

Melitene Antioch

M

CRETE

Candia

E D I T E R R A 0 100 200 400 N E A Kilometers N Byzantine Empire extent until late 12th century Patriarchal see Metropolitan see or archbishopric

Rhodes CYPRUS

S E A

Euph ra

ABBASID C A L I P H AT E Jerusalem

B Y Z A N T I U M TO 1 0 0 0

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Laodicea

R. tes

Miles 100 0

Ephesus

Antioch

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The Making of the Russian Church 58

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According to tradition, the Russian church was founded by the Apostle Andrew, said to have visited Scythia and Greek colonies on the Black Sea during the first century ad. As we know, between 863 and 869 Eastern Orthodox missionaries – Cyril and Methodius – travelled to eastern Europe and translated parts of the Bible into the Old Slavonic language for the first time – having first apparently invented the Glagolitic alphabet, paving the way for the Christianization of the Slavs.

Kievan Rus’ The Rus’ were probably a multi-ethnic group of merchants, mercenaries, and peasants, which included Slavs, Balts, and Finns, whose trading activity extended across the Caspian Sea into central Asia. They established their capital at Kiev, which became an archbishopric after they converted to Christianity. Around 866 it seems the first Christian bishop was sent to Kiev from Constantinople by Patriarch Photius I. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler to convert to Christianity, in 955 or 957. Soon a Christian community arose among the Kievan nobility, led by Greek and Byzantine priests, although paganism still dominated the region. Olga’s grandson, the regent Vladimir Syatoslavich (Prince Vladimir I of Kiev, 980–1015), established the Kievan state of Rus’. Much impressed by the splendour of Byzantine worship, architecture, and culture during a trip to Constantinople in 988, when he returned to Kiev, Vladimir instigated

the mass baptism of his people (988). This marked the official founding of the Russian Orthodox Church. Russia imported many features of Byzantine culture, including a literary language, styles of masonry and mosaics, music and liturgy, monasticism, and an elaborate theological system. Initially the Russian Church belonged to the Patriarchate of Constantinople, but in 1051 a Russian primate was established, Statue of Saints Cyril and Methodius, inventors of the Glagolitic (Cyrillic) alphabet, Kiev, Ukraine.

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Christianity in the Kievan Rus’: 1050

map 18

Kievan Rus’ c. 1050 Archbishopric Bishopric

NOVGOR OD R EPUB LI C Novgorod Jurev (Dorpat)

Pskov

R OSTOV Pereyaslavl

Dvin a

SUZDA L Rostov

R.

B A LT I C SEA

LITHUANIANS

Polotsk SMOLENSK Smolensk

P OLOTS K Minsk Vis tul aR .

VOL BULG GA ARS

Moscow

Vladimir

lga

R.

Ryazan

KIE VAN R U S’

CHER NI GOV

on

D

I G O V R N Pinsk T U R O V E Ugrovsk C H Turov Kursk Chernigov POLES VLADIMIR Vladimir-Volynsk K I E V Kiev VOLYN S K Belgorod Pereyaslavl Przemysl Krakow Dnie per Yurev Galich R. PECH Dn ies GAL ICH te

R.

ENEGS

rR .

Vo . aR lg

M A G YA

Vo

Nizhniy Novgorod

RS

K H A Z A R S Tmutarakan

Miles 100 0 0 100 200 Kilometers

200

300 Danube R.

B LACK S EA

400

and a separate, distinctive Russian Orthodox Church began to develop, eventually claiming to be the true successor of Rome and Constantinople. By the 12th century, the Russian church had become an important force, unifying the Russian people at a time of acute division. The Russian Metropolitan’s residence was initially in Kiev. However the Kievan state became unstable, partly as a result of

uncertainties over the succession, leaving it vulnerable to external attacks, especially by the Pechenegs. From 1237 the invading Mongol armies of Batu Khan (c. 1207–55), grandson of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan, finally destroyed Kiev’s supremacy. As a result, Metropolitan Maximus moved to Vladimir in 1299; by 1326 his successors, Metropolitans Peter and Theognostus, moved on to Moscow.

THE MAKING OF THE RUSSIAN CHURCH

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The Eastern Church never accepted the socalled filioque clause, added to the Nicene Creed in the sixth century, which stated that the Holy Spirit proceeded from both the Father ‘and the son’ (filioque). This addition was intended to reaffirm the divinity of the Son; but Eastern theologians objected both to the unilateral editing of a creed produced by an ecumenical council and to the word changes themselves. For Eastern Christians, both the Spirit and the Son have their origin in the Father. Other differences between the two churches included the question of whether the clergy could be married (East) or must remain celibate (West). The two churches also disputed the Christian calendar, and the date when Easter should be celebrated. The fact that East and West worshipped in different languages also played a part in the divorce.

The Roman West After Charlemagne, the Western Empire gradually disintegrated into warring principalities, and political division was accompanied by economic disintegration. Between 970 and 1048 a total of 48 years’ famine reduced many in the West to subsistence level. Trade declined, communications collapsed, and travel became perilous. Robber barons dominated small regions, preying on travellers and terrorizing the peasantry. As government fell apart, and the administrative structures created by Roman emperors and their successors broke down, patterns of political power reverted to tribal practices. Only the church – and particularly monastic communities – tried to sustain a more civilized way of life.

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During this period, conflict also increased between rulers and popes, particularly when a reforming pope such as Leo IX (r. 1049–54) attempted to re-establish the dignity of his office and protect the church’s conduct of its own affairs. At the Easter Synod (1049), Leo led a campaign against the sale of church offices (simony) and for clerical celibacy. However he was decisively defeated by Norman military forces at the Battle of Civitate (1053), and lived to see the Latin church of the West and Eastern Orthodoxy permanently divided.

IRELA

ATLANTI OCEAN

Schism Byzantium no longer enjoyed intellectual pre-eminence. Patriarch Michael Cerularius (r. 1043–58) was spiritual head of an Eastern kingdom torn apart by internal intrigue and crushed between the powerful empire of the Bulgars and the expanding Islamic empire of the Turks. After 1025 Orthodox Christianity suffered severe military setbacks in Asia Minor, and in 1080 the Turks captured Nicaea, less than 100 miles from Constantinople. In 1054 a serious dispute over authority finally brought matters to a head between East and West. The papacy claimed direct succession from the Apostle Peter – and thus supreme church authority – claiming support from a document known as the ‘Donation of Constantine’ (later discovered to be a fake). Finally an immovable Pope (Leo IX) excommunicated an equally uncompromising Patriarch (Michael Cerularius). In response, the patriarch excommunicated the legates of Leo IX, who personally delivered the sentence of excommunication and anathematized the pope. Following this apparently irrevocable ‘Great Schism’, a glimmer of hope for

LE

PORTUGAL

The Great Schism

Division between East and West can arguably be traced to the early 3rd century, when Latin became the language of theological discourse in the West. The two wings of the church continued to drift apart after the Council of Nicaea in 325, for many different reasons of theology, church government, and liturgy.

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The Great Schism: 1054

map 19

N OR WAY

N ORTH SEA

SCOTLAND

B A LT IC SEA

SW E D E N

Novgorod Dvin a

R.

DENMARK

Volga R .

R U S S I A

York

IRELAND

Hamburg Leipzig

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Chartres Rhône R.

F R A N CE

CASTILE

SARDINIA

Toledo Tagus R.

Norman invaders

A

Kiev ie st

Halicz

A

V

VENICE CROATIA

Belgrade

B LACK Trnovo Sardica Constantinople Thessalonica Chalcedon B U LG AR I A

Rome Naples Salerno KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES

Palermo

D anu b e R.

BYZANTINE EMP IR

D

500

M E C A L I P H A T E

E

C ASP I A N S EA

SEA

Nicaea Antioch

Melitene Edessa

CRETE

D I T E R R A N E A N

reconciliation appeared at the beginning of the Crusades, when the West came to the aid of the East against the Turks. But especially after the Fourth Crusade (1200–04), when Western Crusaders brutally sacked and occupied Constantinople, the ultimate outcome was heightened hostility between the two churches. The assault on Constantinople led eventually to the loss of the Byzantine capital to the Muslim

S

E A Alexandria

up

hra te

Jerusalem

ID CALIPH AT E Nile R.

0 100 300 500 700 Kilometers

FAT I M

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Antioch

. sR

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R

R.

R ED S EA

Ottomans in 1453, and has never been forgotten by the Eastern Orthodox Church. It was now clear that the East/West break was final and that the unity of the church was completely severed. Although the Schism was the last straw, this separation was neither sudden nor unexpected. For centuries there had been a multitude of significant religious, cultural, and political differences between the Eastern and Western churches.

T H E G R E AT S C H I S M

Atlas of Christian History.indd 61

. ris R Tig

O

on

Dni epe rR .

er R .

SICILY

L

M

HUNGARY

BURGUNDY

CORSICA

A R AG O N

Seville

Dn

Genoa Ravenna PAPAL Marseilles STATES

N AVA R R E

LEÓN

Milan

Krakov Prague

D

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Vist u

POLAND

. la R

ENGLAND London Winchester

PORTUGAL

Roman Catholic West Orthodox East Muslim northern limits by 1050 Patriarchate

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The Middle Ages

Part 3

There is one Universal Church of the faithful, outside of which there is absolutely no salvation. Canons of the 4th Lateran Council, 1215, Canon 1

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Monasteries Reformed: Cluny 64

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During the centuries of barbarian invasion and political disorder, the monasteries became centres of learning much valued for their libraries. Their prestige began to be derived from cultural achievement rather than the original ideals of piety and selfdenial. Spiritual discipline frequently became lax, and large and valuable buildings were often acquired through the donations of the faithful. From the 10th century, spiritual renewal started to sweep through the monasteries of Western Europe, beginning around 910 with the founding of Cluny in Burgundy by William the Pious (875–918). A series of gifted leaders, notably Abbot Odo (r. 927–42) and Abbot Odilo (r. 994–1048), steered this reform movement, stressing personal spiritual life, common worship, and manual labour. Cluny became a model for monastic reform, and eventually more than 1,000 daughter houses followed. Cluny aimed to reinvigorate Christian monasticism by stricter observance of the Benedictine rule, reverting to the purity of the monasteries initiated by Benedict of Nursia, and his stress on the daily cycle of worship as monks’ core activity. But whereas Benedict had striven to segregate monks from society, Cluny tried to integrate monasticism with society. The reformers wanted to present lay people with an alternative way of life from that of the ordinary clergy, some of whom had become affluent and even dissolute. Cluniac monks usually joined as young boys and received their training solely within the cloister. By contrast with earlier monasteries, which had essentially been independent, linked only by shared practices,

beliefs, and sometimes shared founders, the powerful abbots of Cluny insisted that every monk in their daughter houses owed ultimate obedience to them rather than to the prior of his respective monastery. Cluniac leaders wished to stamp out the practice of buying and selling church offices and positions (simony), recall the clergy to celibacy, eliminate corruption in the church, and encourage greater piety among ordinary Christians. Their aim was top-down reform through a spiritually revitalized pope who shared their reforming goals – something they accomplished with the election of Hildebrand as Pope Gregory VII (r. 1077–88) in the following century. The Cluniac reforms were repeated in monasteries in the Low Countries, Lorraine, and Anglo-Saxon England, and became the catalyst of a wider reform movement in the church in the West. In England Archbishop Dunstan (909–88) worked to reform the church and promote Benedictine monasticism, while his contemporary Bishop of York, Oswald (d. 992), also eliminated abuses in the church and established new monasteries.

ATL O

La Grande Chartreuse Monastery, France.

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The Spread of Cluniac Monasticism

Major Cluniac monastery Daughter house of Cluny Cluniac monastery

map 20

Main area of first 100 years’ Cluniac reform Other areas of 1st C Cluniac reform

N ORTH SEA

F R I ESL A N D

IRELAND

Elbe R.

SA XO N Y

ENGLAND

Hildesheim Th

MünchenT H U R I N GI A Gladbach Bermondsey Cologne St Trond Merseburg Ghent Hersfeld Lewes Siegburg Liège St Vaast Malmédy Fulda G E R M A N Y Brogne Stablo N CO N I A LO R R A I N E Lorsch F R AFeuchtwangen Fécamp B O H EMI A Metz Verdun Se Rouen in e Regensburg R. Da Paris Gorze NORM A NDY nu Hirsau be R B AVA R I A . SWA B I A BRI T TA N Y Fleury Ebersburg St Blaise Auxerre Tegernsee Vézelay e R. Loir La Charité Dijon Einsiedeln

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Moissac G AS CON Y

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a m es R.

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Sahagún

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C A S TIL E

Eb ro R.

A R AG ON

Farfa Subiaco

Rome

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

A DRIATIC S EA

Pope Leo IX PAPAL 1048-54 STATES Pope Gregory VII 1073-85

Monte Cassino KINGDOM OF SICILY

SARDINIA

Charterhouse The Cluniacs were not the only reforming movement in medieval monasticism. Indeed, they began to attract the criticism of others for their excessive attention to ceremony and splendour. In 1084 Bruno of Cologne (c. 1030–1101), former master of a cathedral school in Rheims, founded the monastery of La Grande Chartreuse in southern France ‘on a high and dreadful cliff under which there is a deep gorge in a precipitous valley’. Against

common practice, this house reverted to a hermit-type organization, with the monks living solitary lives in a cluster of individual cells. The Carthusian order (English, ‘Charterhouse’), which started here, remained the most austere form of monasticism throughout the Middle Ages, its leaders claiming it was never reformed because it was never corrupted.

M O N A S T E R I E S R E F O R M E D : C LU N Y

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The Cistercians

Some monastic leaders believed the Cluniac reforms did not go far enough. A much more austere form of monastery was founded by Robert of Molesme (c. 1029–1111) at Cîteaux, near Dijon, Burgundy, in 1098. This rapidly gave rise to the new order of Cistercian monks, who reverted to a strict observance of the Benedictine Rule. Cistercian monasteries were deliberately built in remote locations to avoid contact with towndwellers. The Cistercians – often known as ‘White Monks’ from the colour of their habit – emphasized silence and rigour, and renewed emphasis on hard, manual work. They rejected ‘the use of coats, capes, worsted cloth, hoods, pants, combs, counterpanes and bed-clothes, together with a variety of dishes in the refectory’. Like the Cluniacs, the network of Cistercian monasteries had a centralized form of organization, headed by the Abbot of Cîteaux, with an annual assembly of all abbots at the mother house. Leading Cistercians included Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153), celebrated for his spirituality and for his impact on both church and state – and on the first Crusade. Just two years after he entered Cîteaux, Bernard was despatched to establish Clairvaux, which became one of the most influential houses of the Cistercian order. With his rigorous asceticism, spirituality, and popularity as an effective preacher, Bernard played a major role in political and religious life.

Rapid growth By the year of Bernard’s death in 1153, there were already some 360 Cistercian monasteries in Europe, including 122 in Britain, 88 in Italy, 56 in Spain, and 100 in German-speaking lands; and by the end of the thirteenth century there was a total of 694 Cistercian houses in Western Europe. With their strictness of life and lofty spiritual expectations, the Cistercians soon became a significant force for reform within the church and eventually in the papacy. By their example of selfless living, by their high esteem

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among lay people, and by skilful political strategy they supported the continuing fight against simony, nepotism, and lay manipulation of church offices and finances. Cistercian monks often cultivated the wasteland around their monasteries, rapidly acquiring expertise in sheep farming. Ironically, this was to be the seed of their downfall. To help clear the land and meet the growing demand for their wool, the monasteries employed illiterate ‘lay brothers’ who were only part-members of the order, so diluting the purity of the monastic ideal. The Cistercians’ financial success – resulting from the sale of wool – soon made the order extremely rich, so an order that started by seeking extreme austerity ended by being fiercely criticized for its greed and avarice.

I

Augustinians Other new orders of the mid-eleventh century included the less austere Augustinians (known in England as ‘Austin Canons’), who claimed their rule of life was based on principles first set out by Augustine of Hippo (354–430). Among other activities, they helped set up schools, hospitals for the care of the sick and for pregnant women, and hospices for people suffering from leprosy. Monasteries were generally not slow in succumbing to worldly temptations. Wealthy benefactors made lavish donations to monastic houses in return for prayers for prosperity in this world and the next, which led to successful monasteries acquiring vast estates. The monastic life began as a calling but often became corrupted into a profession; monastic scholarship frequently stultified into dry traditionalism.

A

Alcoba

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The Spread of Cistercian Monasticism

map 21

Lyse

Major Cistercian house Daughter house of Cîteaux Other Cistercian house 1130–1300 Political boundary

N O R WAY

SWEDEN

Hovedø

Alvastra

N ORTH SEA

SCOTLAND

D E N M A R K

Melrose

Holme

Løgum Rievaulx 1132

Furness Mellifont

Fountains

IRELAND

Amelungsborn

.

Sei ne Longpont 1112: Bernard makes

R.

monastery head of

H O LY R O M A N E M P I R E

Royaumont Cistercian order Clairvaux Savigny Pontigny Morimand Orleans R . Fontenay Molesme Loire

ATLANTIC OCEAN

1098: Monks from Benedictine abbey leave to found Cîteaux

Magdeburg

Lubiaz

R.

e

eR

Clairmarais

Lad

El b

R hi n

Waverley 1128

Vi s

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Bebenhausen

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Bukowo

Doberan

Roche WALES Tintern

B A LT I C SEA

Esrom

a R.

POLAND Sulejów

SILESIA nub

tul

Szepes

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Borsmonoster Zirc

Cîteaux La Ferté

Obazine

R hô ne R.

FRANCE

Chiaravalle

VENICE

Belakut

Tupuszco

Sénanque

BYZ ANTINE EMPIRE

Fontfroide N AVA RRE

LEÓN

Las Huelgas

GAL

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Poblet

C A S TIL E

Fossanova

Santa Creus

C

PORTU

Y

SI

SARDINIA

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OF

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KIN

P ALMOHAD CALI

GD

OM

Alcobaça

CORSICA

A R AG ON

Miles 0

100

200

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THE CISTERCIANS

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ENGL AND

Aachen Cologne

Se

Lo i r

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Poitiers

eR

R. Paris

.

Vézelay

FR ANCE Clermont

ARLES

NAVARRE Eb

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1095: Pope Urban II calls for crusade

LEÓN

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Marseilles

CORS

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C ASTILE Tagus R.

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O

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London

PORTUGAL

The Crusades

IREL AND

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V

I

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E

The First Crusade (1096–99) The First Crusade seemed always to be on the verge of disaster. It had no single leader, no effective supply lines, and no detailed strategy and huge numbers of its participants died in battle or from disease and starvation. Yet by 1098 the Crusaders

D

NORTH SEA

A

At the Council of Clermont (1095) Pope Urban II (r. 1088–99) called on Christendom to resist and push back Islam. He presented the Crusaders with a number of goals: rescue of the Eastern Christians, recovery of the Holy Land – particularly the holy city of Jerusalem – from Muslim occupation, and free access to the Holy Land for Christian pilgrims. This triggered not just the First Crusade, but also the entire crusading movement that was to last for centuries. Thousands of knights took a vow of the cross and prepared for war, partly as an act of penitence. Medieval Crusaders felt that they were both on a military expedition blessed by the pope and on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, for which they expected to receive a special indulgence guaranteeing entrance to heaven.

The First Three Crusades

R.

In the 11th century the Seljuk Turks conquered Asia Minor (modern Turkey), parts of which had been Christian since the missions of the Apostle Paul. The Byzantine Empire was now reduced to little more than the area of modern Greece. In 1095 the Eastern Emperor, Alexius I Comnenus (1081–1118), pleaded for aid from the Christian West, as the Turks were now threatening Constantinople, the home of Eastern Christianity. The Crusades were a response to more than four centuries of Islamic conquest, during which Muslims had captured two-thirds of the Christian world.

Miles 0 100

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P

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0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers

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map 22

Muslim 1095 Latin Christian 1095 Orthodox Christian 1095 Armenian Christian 1095 First Crusade 1096–99 Second Crusade 1146–48 Third Crusade 1188–92 Crusader States by 1144 Area of anti-Jewish riots Battle

D E N MA R K

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El b

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.

Od er R.

tu l

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POLAND

Prague Regensburg (Ratisbon) Da

Dn

Dn ies ter R

BOHEMIA Vienna

nub e R.

Salzburg

ay

AUSTRIA

Rhône R.

Genoa Pisa

rseilles

SERBIA

Nish Sofia

NORMAN KINGDOM OF SICILY SARDINIA

D on

Bari Brindisi Taranto

Ochrid

1095: Emperor appeals to West for aid against Turks

Philippopolis

Adrianople

Constantinople

Trebizond

Nicomedia 1096 Nicaea 1097

Thessalonica

ly Ha

Dorylaeum

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T

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E

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ARMENIA Edessa 1144

Edessa

Attalia

Antioch 1098

R

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Aleppo

Candia

E

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CRETE

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R. ris

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GEORGIA

. s R SELJUK SULTANATE

Dorylaeum 1097, 1147

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R.

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na

.

ube R. Dan

BYZANTINE

I TA LY CORSICA

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CARINTHIA Venice

ARLES

iep er

SYRIA Damascus Damascus 1148 Hattin 1187

Arsuf 1191

FAT I M I D C ALIP H

Jerusalem

Alexandria

Ascalon 1099

AT E

1078: Turks take Jerusalem and obstruct Christian pilgrims 1099: Crusaders besiege and massacre inhabitants

Nile R .

EGYPT

THE CRUSADES

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had restored Christian rule to Nicaea and to the major centre of Antioch, and in July 1099 captured Jerusalem itself. Over the next twenty years they established four Crusader States in the Levant. Although it seemed the tide might finally be turning against the Muslims, the Crusaders had in fact attacked at a particularly opportune moment, when Islam was temporarily split by internal feuds. During the ensuing five centuries of struggle, only the First Crusade significantly resisted the military progress of Islam.

Anti-semitism In 1095 a mob of Crusaders made its way down the River Rhine, Germany, robbing and murdering Jews. These warriors saw Jews – like Muslims – as enemies of Christ, and believed plundering and killing them to be no crime. The church condemned such anti-Jewish attacks. Fifty years later, a Cistercian monk named Radulf again stirred up Rhinelanders against the Jews, rousing Bernard of Clairvaux to travel to Germany, in an attempt to end the massacres.

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Crac des Chevaliers Crusaders’ castle, Syria.

The Second Crusade (1145–49) When the Crusader State of Edessa fell to the Turks and Kurds in 1144, widespread support was voiced in Europe for a second crusade. Preached by Bernard of Clairvaux, this crusade was led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, but failed miserably. Most of its warriors were killed en route, while those who actually reached Palestine made matters worse by attacking Muslim Damascus, which had been a strong ally of the Christians. By the late 12th century, crusading had become a society-wide effort. Knights were asked to sacrifice wealth and life to defend the Christian East, and Christians at home supported the Crusaders through prayer, fasting, and almsgiving. Yet the Muslims continued to grow in strength. Their legendary leader Saladin (Salah ad-Din, 1137/8–93) united the Islamic Near East, preaching jihad against the Christians. At the Battle of Hattin (1187) he wiped out the Christian armies and captured a relic of the

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True Cross. Christian cities surrendered to him, culminating in the disastrous capitulation of Jerusalem.

Third Crusade The Third Crusade (1189–92), led by Emperor Frederick I ‘Barbarossa’ of Germany (r. 1155–90), Philip II Augustus of France (r. 1180–1223), and Richard I ‘Lionheart’ of England (r. 1189–99), appeared very grand. But the aged Frederick drowned crossing a river and his army returned home having never reached the Holy Land. After retaking Acre, Philip of France returned home too. Richard I led Christian forces on to victory, eventually retaking the entire coast of the Levant. But after two abortive attempts, Richard abandoned the struggle to reconquer Jerusalem, agreeing terms with Saladin that ensured peace in the region and free access to Jerusalem for unarmed pilgrims.

The Fourth Crusade (1201–04) Feuding now broke out between the East and West that led to the diversion to

Constantinople of the Fourth Crusade (1202), to support an imperial claimant who promised generous rewards. Once on the throne, he refused to fulfil his promises. Feeling cheated, the Western crusaders captured and sacked Constantinople (1204), the greatest Christian city of the contemporary world. Pope Innocent III (1198–1216), who had authorized this crusade, excommunicated the entire expedition and denounced the crusaders. But the events of 1204 closed the door for centuries on any rapprochement between the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. Numerous squalid military expeditions followed, and warriors, pilgrims, and traders travelled continually between Europe and the Holy Land. A few crusaders sustained a toehold in the Holy Land, but far from converting locals to Christianity, they often took up Eastern customs themselves. The Crusades finally ended in 1270, leaving a poisonous heritage of ill-feeling between Christians and Muslims.

THE CRUSADES

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SCOTLAND Christian Oppression of the Jews 1200–1500 Jewish migration with date Massacre of Jews at 1st Crusade Massacre of Jews with date Anti-Jewish riots 1348–50

B A LT I C SEA

N ORTH S EA York 1190 Hamburg

ENGLAND

IRELAND

London 1189, 1262, 1264

Deventer

Utrecht Antwerp

1290

Münster

Rhi

MAGDEBURG 1493

Elbe R.

Goslar

R. ne

WALES

Amsterdam

192

1096-1

Berlin

er R. Od

Norwich Lynn 1190 1190 Bury St Edmunds 1190 Colchester 1190 1290

POMERANIA 1492

MECKLENBURG 1492

1348-5

0

Erfurt 1458

tul

a

Kalisz Breslau

Cologne 1424 SAXO NY Fulda 1432 Koblenz Louvain B R AB ANT Mainz 1438, 1462, 1473 Frankfurt 1241,1336, 1349 Bamberg 1478 1261 Prague 1400 Würzburg 1453, 1496 Rouen Worms Trier Nuremberg 1499 B OH EMI A Metz Rothenburg Speyer Regensburg 6 Nördlingen Paris 1380 130 WÜRT TEMBERG Vienna Augsburg 1440 Ulm1499 1498 Passau 1478 1421 B AVA R I A MA I NE Strasbourg BRI T TA N Y AUSTRIA 1450 Rouffach 1288 1240 1470 Loir Ravensburg Ensisheim eR Munich Salzburg Nantes A N J O U B U R G U N D Y Mulhouse Wiener Constance 1380 1288 Chinon 1320 1306-15, 1322-61 ST YRI A Neustadt SAL ZB UR G Basel Zurich 1496 1498 Bourges 1320 T YR O L CARINTH I A Lucerne 1475 Villedieu P OI TO U St Saturnin 1496 1348-50 Brussels

Vi s

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Udine

Venice 1497 Mantua

Rhône R.

2 49

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Madrid 1391

Tagus R.

Toledo 1391

S PA I N

Cuenca 1391 B ALEARIC ISL ANDS

1492

M

E

D

13

91

97 14

Fez

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Naples

NAPLES

1497

Algiers to Brazil

Cattaro

Palma 1391

Valencia 1391

Cordoba 1391

ITALY Rome 1215 4th Lateran Council

SARDINIA 1492

1492 Seville 1391

Livorno

Oran Tiemcen

Closed to Jews by 1300 Closed to Jews by 1400 Closed to Jews by 1500

I

T

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R

R Tunis

A

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SICI LY 1492

A

7

Segovia 1391

Spalato (Split)

14 9

1496

PORTUGAL

Douro R.

Danube R.

06 .

F R AN C E St Genix Yenne Aiguebelle 1182-98, 1251-52, Châtel Chambéry 1306-15, 1322-60, Turin 1394 Tain l’Hermitage Montmélian Valence Nyons Veynes Genoa Buis les Barronnies GASCO NY Forcalquier Orange 1288 Toulouse Manesque Baudiuen 1320 Toulon NAVA R R E 4 139 Jaca Eb 1498 149 Solsona CO RSICA 8 ro Tárrega R. Cervera Lérida 1391 Barcelona 1391 1492

Burgos 1391

72

1421

13

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Kra 14

N

Fluctuations in closure by 1500 Catholic area remaining open to Jews Muslim rule by 1500

S

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E

A

B A LT I C SEA

Miles 0 149

100

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0 100 200 Kilometers

5

ERANIA

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Grodno

192

Bialystok a R.

Kalisz Breslau

Lodz

LITHUANIA 1495-1503

Radom

Chernikov

R US S IA

Lublin

Lutzk Lemberg

Krakov 1494

Vienna 1421

Pinsk

Brest-Litovsk

POLAND

00

45

tul

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Vi s

Posen

Dn

ies

Kiev Zhitomir

Tarnopol

ter R.

1421

Eger Danube R.

Wiener Neustadt

HUNGARY

Kishinev

1349, 1360-64 9-60

134

Spalato (Split)

Danube R .

Nicopolis

B LACK SEA

OT TOMAN EM PIR E Adrianople

Cattaro

Constantinople

Salonika

PLES

14 9

7

Smyrna

S

E

A

CR E T E

Town with Christian ruler offering refuge to Jews Town with Muslim ruler offering refuge to Jews 1492 date of expulsion of Jews 1497

Under Muslim rule, Jews were generally free to practise their own religion. As a result, the Jews of Spain tended to welcome the Islamic conquest of the Arian Christian Visigothic Kingdom. By 950 Cordoba had become a major centre of Jewish scholarship. The ancient Jewish communities of Italy had by 1095 spread north into the Rhineland, where the First Crusade resulted in attacks on the Jews. In acrimonious public debates, for example in Barcelona in 1263, Jews were pressed to convert. In northern Europe, Jews were excluded from craft guilds, so concentrated instead on money-lending – for which Christians criticized them as ‘usurers’. In Spain the Almohad Muslims began to persecute the hitherto unmolested Jews, who as a consequence migrated towards Christian Toledo, which by 1100 supplanted Cordoba as the leading centre of Jewish scholarship. Hostility to the Jews spread, with conversion campaigns by itinerant friars increasing tension. Jews were vulnerable to arbitrary decrees, religious fanaticism, economic exploitation, and mob violence – sometimes accompanied by baseless accusations of ritual murder of Christian children (the ‘blood libel’) and desecration of the Host (sacramental wafer). Some rulers confined the Jews to crowded ghettoes, others expelled them. Around 1300 England, France, and Naples exiled the Jews. In the 1490s came a new wave of Jewish expulsions from Italy, Germany, and the Iberian peninsula. Spanish pogroms created many forced converts, who often continued to practise Judaism secretly, attracting the attentions of the Spanish Inquisition. After nearly 1500 years’ settlement in Spain, the Sephardic Jews left for Italy and the Ottoman Empire.

THE JEWS OPPRESSED

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The Jews Oppressed

2

map 23

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SCOTLAND

N ORTH S EA

D E N

Whithorn Downpatrick

IRELAND WA L E S

Lough Derg

Lüb Hamburg

ENGLAND

Walsingham St Albans

Renkum

Schiedam

Telgte

Corve

Mont St Michel

Poitiers

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Odilienberg Vézelay

L

St Maurice Brioude

Le Puy

Conques St Gilles Santiago de Compostela

GAL

LEÓN

C ASTI LE

Tagus R.

Mérida

NAVARRE Eb ro R.

Zaragoza

Zurzach Einsiedeln

R hô ne R .

Rocamadour

Arles

Eichs

R

Châlon

FRANCE

Clermont

Rh

Paris

Chartres Tours

in e R.

London Bruges Anderlecht Cologne Fuld Canterbury Glastonbury Boulogne Aachen Leau Novellas Vierzehnheili Dieppe Trier

PORTU

Christian Pilgrimage Atlas of Christian History.indd 74

Three main places were visited by pilgrims: Rome, with the traditional tombs of Saints Peter and Paul; Jerusalem, together with other sites in the Holy Land associated with Jesus; and Santiago de Compostela, where St James’ alleged tomb was discovered around 830. After the recapture of Jerusalem in 1099, during the First Crusade, the Holy Land became particularly popular with pilgrims – whilst the establishment of the Christian Orders of knights made travel there more secure. However, when the Muslim reconquest of Jerusalem in 1187 made the city inaccessible, the number of pilgrimages to Rome and Santiago de Compostela greatly increased. The routes to Santiago through France, via Tours and Vézelay (which claimed to possess the relics of Mary Magdalene), were the most popular, largely as a result of Cluniac influence. As the idea of the sanctity of saints’ relics and of their supernatural power developed, such relics proliferated along these routes. Local shrines, hospices, and owners of relics allegedly recovered from the Holy Land grew affluent at the expense of people undertaking pilgrimages. Following the murder and canonization of Archbishop Thomas Becket (c. 1118–70), Canterbury became a favourite destination for English pilgrims, as famously described by Geoffrey Chaucer.

Medieval Pilgrimage Routes

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Pilgrimages to Christian holy sites had been undertaken ever since the 4th century, but became more common in the medieval period, when they offered the possibility of gaining God’s grace – and even eternal life. Pilgrimage could replace public penance as an act to absolve sin, and from the 11th century journeys to holy sites were organized as a major enterprise.

St Maximin

Oropa Turin

Vallo

Marseilles

CORSICA

ARAGON Montserrat

Barcelona

SARDINIA

Guadalupe

HA ALIP ALMOHAD C Granada

TE

M

E

D

I

T

E

Tunis

Major pilgrimage destination Pilgrim centre Major pilgrimage route c. 350–1500

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B A LT I C SEA

Elb

Telgte

e R.

Vi Gniezno stula R

Wilsnack

.

Julias Capernaum Bethsaida Gennesaret S EA OF Tiberias G ALILEE Mt Carmel Mt Tabor Nazareth Gadara Nain Caesarea

ITER

Sebaste

Rh

in e R.

. rR

Od Rosenthal Corvey e POLAND RUSSIAN Hulfsberg Trebnitz Anderlecht PRINCIPALITIES Cologne Fulda H O L Y Mariaschein R O M A N Prague Krakow Aachen Warta as Vierzehnheiligen Sázava Trier E M P I R E Dn Pribram ies ter Bogenburg Eichstätt R. Bettbrunn Odilienberg Altötting Esztergom Zurzach Augsburg ay Mariazell St Wolfgang Rankweil HUNGARY hâlon Einsiedeln Heiligenblut Maria Saal St Maurice Venice ude Oropa Trsat Padua Turin Lucca St Danube R Maximin . Vallombrosa AUST R IA es Loreto Marseilles Viterbo CORSICA BYZANTINE Rome Mt Gargano EMPIRE Anaplus Naples Thessalonica Bari Salerno SARDINIA I LY IC

Paneas

Ptolemais (Acre)

AN

Lübeck Hamburg Renkum

Tyre

SEA

Haraldstedt

Damascus

Sichar Arimathea

Jaffa

Jordan R.

D E N M A R K

RANE

EA

Sidon Sarepta

MED

m

map 24

Gerasa

R hô ne R .

Danube R.

Lydda Jericho Emmaus Jerusalem Bethany Azotus Bethlehem Bethphage Hebron D EAD

Gaza

S EA

B LACK S EA Chalcedon

T

E

R

A

N

Ephesus

Patras

SICILY

Patmos E

N

SYRIA

CRETE

S

E

CYPRUS

Eup h

A

Jerusalem Bethlehem

Menapolis

FAT I M

Cyrrhus

Seleucia

R. tes ra

A

Chonae (Honaz)

R. ris Tig

Tunis

R

ID CALIPH AT E

See enlargement

EGYPT R.

I

Nile

D

KIN

E

GD

OM

OF

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Euchaita

Mt Sinai

Miles 0 100

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C H R I S T I A N P I LG R I M A G E

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The Rise of Learning 76

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During the age of Charlemagne and the 10th and 11th centuries, education in Christian Europe was based mainly in monasteries and cathedral schools – largely the former until the 11th century. A learned monk would teach novices (new monks), and if he were well known adult monks from other houses would also come to study under him. Other young men from wealthy families would be sent to study under a monastic tutor. By the 12th century, cathedral schools had overtaken the monastic establishments. The chancellor taught the seven liberal arts and theology to advanced students, while other teachers instructed younger scholars in Latin grammar. Most students were destined to become clerics. A licence to teach, given by the chancellor, was the predecessor of a university degree. During the 11th century, the leading cathedral schools in northern Europe were at Laon, Paris, Chartres, and Cologne. Debates in these schools reinvigorated intellectual life in Europe, drawing on the philosophy of ancient Greece, the Bible, and the teachings of the early Christian writers.

First universities The cathedral schools culminated in the founding of the first universities. The term universitas was used to describe a guild, or corporation, of teachers or scholars who banded together. A city with a well-known cathedral might become the centre for a number of schools. Guilds of professors organized the universities of northern Europe, while in Italy the students themselves formed the guilds. The first universities obtained a charter from the pope; those established later applied to the secular ruler. The gradual development of universities makes it difficult to date them precisely, but among the first were Bologna, Paris, Salerno, Oxford, Cambridge, Montpellier, Padua, Salamanca, and Toulouse. The universities typically taught the seven liberal arts, which included grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music; however

logic (philosophy) tended to dominate undergraduate education. Graduate faculties taught medicine, law, and theology. A few universities, such as Bologna, Padua, and Montpellier, devoted themselves to a single discipline – law or medicine. Paris, Cambridge, and Oxford became particularly noted for theology. Medieval universities were relatively small by modern standards, the largest boasting between 3,000 and 4,000 students.

IR

Scholasticism Paris was the most important place of learning for theology, adopted by both Franciscans and Dominicans as their main training centre. Major scholars of this period who studied or taught at Paris include William of Ockham (c. 1288–c. 1348), Anselm of Bec (1033–1109), Peter Abelard (1079–1142), Peter Lombard (1100–60), Albertus Magnus (‘the Great’, c. 1200–80), Duns Scotus (c. 1265–1308), Thomas Aquinas (1225–74), and Lothar of Segni (later Pope Innocent III, r. 1198–1216). Their legacy – a systematic account known as ‘scholasticism’ – attempted to harmonize the theology of Augustine with the philosophy of classical Greek thinkers, especially Aristotle. The synthesis of Catholic dogma and reasoning by logic was the achievement of Aquinas in his Summa Theologica, a cornerstone of future Catholic theology, although some of his teaching was condemned by the Church in 1277. By 1500 there were more than 60 universities in Europe.

AT O

Coimbra 1290

Lisbo

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The Rise of the European Universities

map 25

Major monastic school Important cathedral school University founded before 1300 University founded 1301–1400 University founded 1401–1500

N O R WAY

SCOTLAND

Aberdeen 1494

N ORTH SEA

SWEDEN

Glasgow St Andrews 1410/13 1451 Jarrow Wearmouth York

IRELAND

DENMARK

Rievaulx

Lübeck

Greifswald 1456

Elbe R.

Peterborough Cambridge 1209 WALES Oxford 1167 London

Hildesheim

Utrecht

Mainz 1477

.

Cologne 1388

eR

Louvain 1425 Tournai

Corvey

Rhin

Canterbury

Copenhagen 1478

Trier 1473

Magdeburg

Vi s

er R. Od

ENGLAND

Rostock 1419

B A LT I C SEA

Rouen

Laon

Rheims Paris c.1150

Krakow 1364

Worms

HUNGARY

Pressburg 1467 Buda 1389 Pécs 1367

BYZ ANTINE EMPIRE

Seville 1254

Palma 1483

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Monreale

DOM

Valencia 1499

KING

Tagus R. Toledo

OF

SIC

Rhône R.

PORTUGAL

.

Fulda Bamberg

. eR ein

Lisbon 1290

aR

POLAND

Leipzig 1409 Erfurt 1379

Prague Würzburg 1402 1348 Heidelberg 1386 Regensburg Bec Mont St Michel Da Vienna nub Tübingen 1477 Ingolstadt 1472 S e R. 1365 Clairvaux Savigny Chartres Freiburg 1457 H O L Y Fleury Basel Angers 1337 re R.Orleans Besançon 1485 1460 St Gall ROMAN Loi 1235 ATLANTIC SWISS Cîteaux Tours E MPIRE Nantes 1460 Bourges Dôle CONFEDERATION OCEAN 1463 Cluny 1422 Poitiers 1431 Milan Vicenza Vercelli Treviso 1318 FRANCE 1228 Pavia 1204 La Chaise Dieu Grenoble Venice 1361 1339 Padua 1222 Cahors Valence 1452 Turin Piacenza Bologna Ferrara 1391 Bordeaux 1441 1331 Ravenna 1404 1248 1088 Orange 1365 Toulouse 1229 Avignon 1303 Aix 1409 Pisa 1343 Florence 1321 Arezzo 1215 Siena 1240 Montpellier N AVA RRE 1289 Huesca LÉON Palencia Perugia 1308 Eb 1354 ro 1208 Perpignan CORSICA R. A R A G O N 1349 Rome 1303 Valladolid 1241 Siguenza Monte Cassino Lérida CASTILE 1489 1300 Barcelona1450 Naples 1224 Salamanca SARDINIA Coimbra I LY 1134 Salerno1231 Alcalá 1499 1290 Caen 1432

tul

Messina Catania 1434 Miles 0 100 0 100 200 Kilometers

THE RISE OF LEARNING

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In time Francis’ followers became recognized as a new Christian order, the Franciscans – often nicknamed ‘Grey Friars’ from their grey habits. Though they took similar vows to other monks, the Franciscans were known as ‘friars’ (brothers), and as ‘mendicants’ were constantly on the road, not based in a single location or building. They broke away from the monastic ideal of living apart from the world, desiring to bring the faith to ordinary people by living among them. Although Francis is often associated with the birds and wild creatures, his efforts were largely devoted to the cities of medieval Italy. His friend Clare (c.1193–1253) established an order for women similar to the Franciscans, known as the Poor Clares. Mission was a key concern for the Franciscans. Francis travelled to Egypt in 1219; and Franciscans later journeyed to Hungary, Spain, and the East, establishing a presence in Eastern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East in the 13th century. Franciscan missionaries later travelled as far as Central Asia and India.

Dominic The Dominicans, ‘Black Friars’, or the Order of Friars Preacher, were founded by the Spaniard Dominic de Guzmán (1170–1221) in 1214. Like the Franciscans, these preaching-monks spent much of their time in the towns and cities, gaining respect by their simple living and caring. The Dominicans pursued learning keenly and were closely involved in the rise of the new universities.

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Miles 0

100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

N ORT Edinburgh

York Dublin Norwich

ENGLAND

London Oxford Canterbury

Beauvai Paris Angers

ATLANTIC OCEAN

F R A N C E Limoges

Montpell Toulouse

Salamanca

PORTUGAL

The Rise of the Friars

The Italian Francis of Assisi (1181/2–1226) rejected his family fortune in obedience to Christ’s words in the Gospels, and took up a wandering life, followed by a few friends. They begged from the rich, gave to the poor, tended the sick, and preached to anyone they met.

Lérida

S P A I N . Tagus R

Toledo

MALLORCA

M

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E

D

The Spread of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders map 26

Franciscan houses established by 1300 Dominican houses established by 1500

Skanninge Visby

S W E D E N

N ORTH S EA

B A LT I C SEA

Lund

Ribe

Roskilde

Vilnius Stralsund

Lübeck Bremen

AND

Magdeburg R.

G E R M A N Y

R.

Beauvais

in e

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Da

Rh

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Lublin Prague

Mainz

Trier

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a R.

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tul

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terbury

Vi s

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HUNGARY nub

ies

e R.

ter R.

Vienna

s

Basel SWITZERLAND

F R A N C E

AUSTRIA

Bern

Cluj

Pécs

Limoges R hô ne R.

Padua

BULGARIA

Bologna Genoa Florence

Montpellier

Danube R .

Toulouse Dubrovnik

Perugia Rome

CORSICA

Lérida

I TA LY Naples

SARDINIA MALLORCA

M

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R

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THE RISE OF THE FRIARS

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Missions to the Mongols

RUSSIAN P R I N C I PA L I T I E S

Cologne A TLANTIC O CEAN

Paris

E U R O P E

Lyons

Kiev Vienna

Venice

Avignon Rome

Constantinople

M E D I T E R R A N E A N

B LACK S EA Tr Konya

Ed

S E A

Tripoli Alexandria

CYPRUS

Alep

Damas Jerusalem

A F R I C A

S EA

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The Mongols first entered Christendom in 1237, attacking Kievan Rus’ and destroying its great trading cities. Pope Innocent IV (r. 1243–54) was so impressed by the Mongols’ military might – they were not yet committed to Islam – that between 1245 and 1247 he dispatched Giovanni Carpini (c. 1185–1252) far into Asia to propose an alliance with them. A few years later Louis IX of France (‘St Louis’, r. 1226–70) sent another ambassador, the Franciscan William of Rubruck (c. 1220–c. 1293), which encouraged others to make similar journeys. In 1294 an Italian Franciscan, John of Montecorvino (1247–1328), arrived at the court of the Khan in Peking bearing a letter from the pope. He remained for 30 years, building churches, translating the New Testament, and winning converts. However in 1368 the Mongols were overthrown and the Ming dynasty once again closed China to foreigners. After Montecorvino’s death, the khan asked Pope Benedict XII to send another spiritual adviser to his court. In response, Giovanni de’ Marignolli (John of Marignola,



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An extraordinary achievement of the Franciscans and Dominicans was their missions outside Christendom. The Mongol invasions had opened up the road to the East, and by 1239 Dominicans had penetrated east of the middle Volga. Ten years later Andrew of Longjumeau reached Tabriz, in modern north-west Iran. For some 100 years Dominicans worked in central Asia, India, and Samarkand, while Franciscans reached as far as Peking (Beijing), capital of the Mongol empire, where they established a bishopric. These pioneering missionaries discovered Nestorian Christians in China and thousands of Christians who had been carried off to Asia by the Mongols after their raids on Europe.

Giovanni da Pian del Carpine route (1245–47) William of Rubruck route (1252–55) John of Montecorvino route (1291–94) Odoric of Pordenone route (1318–30) Giovanni de’ Marignolli route (1338–53) Mongol Empire c. 1275 Silk road

fl. 1338–53), originally from Florence, set out from Avignon in 1338. Travelling via Constantinople and the Black Sea to Caffa, his company arrived at the court of Mohammed Uzbeg, Khan of the Golden Horde, at Sarai, before crossing the steppes to Armalec (Kulja), where he built a church. He reached Cambalec (Beijing) in 1342, where he was welcomed by the last of the Mongol dynasty

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Medieval Missions to the Mongol Empire and the East map 27

R S G A L U B

RUSSIAN N C I PA L I T I E S

1339: Giovanni de’ Marignolli meets Muhammad Uzbeg, Khan of the Golden Horde

Kiev

Karakorum MONGOLIA

Mosul

Kerman

s R. RS

ARABIA

NG

UL

TIBET Lhasa

HIM ALAYAS

F

R ED

Ganges R.

S EA

INDIA Tana

A RABIAN S EA

N J I

E M

Chengtu

Brah m

ap

P

I R

E

Y ELLOW S EA

Yan

c. 1329: Odoric of Pordenone may have visited, after 3 years in Beijing

PERSIA Ormuz

PE

IA

U I G H U R S

R. se gt

te hra

Damascus Jerusalem

Balkh

Sultaniyeh Baghdad

Eup

Kashgar

Yellow R.

Aleppo

Samarkand Merv

Indu sR .

CYPRUS

S EA

Edessa

Tabriz

1308: John of Montecorvino made archbishop

Beijing

Almalyk

Hangchow

C H I N A

R.

N

Konya

T A T A R S

Shangtu

Otrar

tra

O

xu sR .

PIA

B LACK S EA Trebizond

. ris R Tig

xandria

Sarai

C AS

ople

1246: Giovanni da Pian del Carpine meets great khan Guyuk 1253: Franciscan William of Rubruck meets Genghis Khan

u

Zaitun

Foochow

Canton

B AY OF B E N G AL Saba

MAL

S OU T H C HI N A S EA

ABA

Madras

AS R CO

T

Pervilis

SU

BORNEO

MA TR

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in China. Marignolli left China in 1347, travelling back to Europe via Malabar, Java, Pervilis, Sri Lanka, Ormuz, Baghdad, Mosul,

J AVA

Aleppo, Damascus, and Jerusalem. He finally arrived in Avignon in 1353, delivering a letter from the great khan to Pope Innocent VI.

M I S S I O N S TO T H E M O N G O L S

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N ORTH S EA

York

ENGLAND Lincoln

S

Derby Cambridge

Worcester Oxford

Ipswich London

Canterbury Wells Bristol Winchester Dover Salisbury

Se

ine

R.

Groo

Tou

Paris

ATLANTIC OCEAN

F R A N C E Clermont

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R hôn

A more extreme sect, the Cathars, or Albigensians – from Albi, France – had appeared early in the 11th century, and by the 1160s was established in Languedoc and Lombardy. Its adherents appear to have believed that all created matter was evil, and the incarnation and crucifixion false. In 1209 Pope Innocent III launched a savage 20-year crusade against both the Albigensians and Waldensians. At the Council of Constance (1414–18) Jan Hus (John Huss, c. 1372–1415), a reformer from Bohemia whose denunciation of the morals of the clergy angered the church authorities, was convicted of heresy and burnt to death. His views had much in common with Lollardy in England, which drew on the writings of John Wyclif (1330–84). Hus became a national hero and the Czechs established the Hussite church, or Bohemian Brethren, which formed a national focus for rebellion against the papacy. In the Low Countries from the late 14th century the Brethren of the Common Life propagated the devotio moderna reform movement among both lay people and members of religious orders.

D

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Medieval Heresy 82

The reforming monastic orders’ new emphasis on poverty encouraged some to challenge affluent clergy and corrupt monasteries. Peter Valdes (or Waldo, d. c. 1210), a rich merchant from Lyons, sold all he possessed, translated the New Testament into the vernacular, and preached without authorization. His followers – known as Waldensians – criticized ecclesiastical authority, which soon led to their condemnation as heretics. Nevertheless the movement grew, and by the close of the 13th century had spread through much of Europe. Followers in northern Italy became more radical.

Castres Toulouse Carcassonne Narbonne

M

A Ar

Montpelli

Montségur Huesca

AR AGON C ASTILE

Lérida Tarragona

M

E D I T E R R A N E

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B A LT I C S E A Distribution of Medieval Heresy and Dissent map 28 D E N MA R K

Hussites Hussite centre Lollards Lollard centre Albigensians (Cathars) Albigensian centre Bogomils (Paulicians) Bogomil centre

N ORTH S EA Hamburg

E M P I R E

Prague R.

Regensburg

Rh

in e

Metz

Toul

R.

Melnik Cesky Brod

Trier Paris

P O L A N D er

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Cologne Liège

Od

.

aR t ul

H O L Y Groonendaal

E lb

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Warsaw Vis

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Waldensians Waldensian centre Fraticelli Fraticelli centre Brethren of the Free Spirit Brethren of the Free Spirit centre

Kutná Hora

Tábor

Sankt Oswald Pupping Neustadt Sankt Christophen

Jonvelle

Da

n u b e R.

Besançon

rmont

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H U N GARY

R hôn

C E

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Legnano

Vienne

Turin Pavia

Valence ARLES Albi

astres

e bonne

Bergamo

Verona Ferrara Parma

Genoa

Montélimar Avignon Arles Aix

Vicenza

Milan

Bologna Faenza Florence Rimini

Modena Pisa

Antibes

Montpellier CORSICA

Siena

Arezzo Asciano Orvieto Viterbo

A D RIAT IC SEA

Nish Sofia Belyatovo

Rome

Philippopolis

BYZANTINE

agona

Naples

E D I T E R R A N E A N

S

E A

S A RDIN IA

M DO N G I C I LY I K S OF

EMPIRE

CRETE

M E D I E VA L H E R E S Y

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Christian Muscovy: 1221–1510

In the mid-13th century the Mongols invaded the Rus’ and had by 1240 captured Kiev. Although Aleksandr Nevskii (1221–63) attempted to stem the tide, by 1262 the Mongols controlled all the lands of the Rus’. Yet this was not a unqualified disaster for Christianity; the Mongol Kipchak Khanate, for example, based at Sarai on the lower Volga, tolerated the Christian church. Metropolitan Kirill (r. 1242–82) strove to sustain religious cohesion, but in 1299/1300 Maximus of Kiev (r. 1283–1305) transferred the Metropolitan seat of the Russian Orthodox Church from Kiev to Vladimir, 100 miles east of Moscow, and his own residence to Moscow itself – moves that subverted the importance of Kiev. Following the Mongol invasions, a collection of principalities formed in the Ukraine, Belarus’, and Greater Russia, including Tver and the urban republics of Novgorod and Pskov, with Moscow becoming increasingly dominant. In 1331 the ruler of Moscow was given the title ‘grand prince’, and his attacks on other princes, such as those of Tver, gained the support of the Mongols. The church was pivotal in the survival and life of the Russian state. Sergius of Radonezh (1314–92), Metropolitan of Kiev and all Russia, who established the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, encouraged resistance to the Mongols, while Metropolitan Alexius (1296–1378) helped his people both to withstand years of Tatar oppression and to expand economically. During the 14th century Novgorod – founded in 1221 by Iurii Vsevolodovich – reached the height of its success, based on the profits of the Baltic trade. But in the following century the princes of Moscow challenged its independence. Prince Ivan III of Muscovy (‘Ivan the Great’, r. 1462–1505) defeated Novgorod in 1471.

Third Rome

Jonah (or Jonas, r. 1448–61), installed by the Council of Russian bishops in 1448, was given the title Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus. In 1472 Ivan III married Zoe, niece of the last Greek Emperor of Constantinople; from this time dates the claim of Russian rulers to succeed the Greeks as protectors of Orthodox Christianity and successors to Byzantium, dubbing Moscow ‘the Third Rome’ and its ruler ‘Tsar’ (Caesar). Monastic life flourished in Russia, focusing on prayer and spiritual growth. Disciples of Sergius founded hundreds of monasteries across Russia, some of the most notable in the north, to show that the faith could flourish even in inhospitable lands. Artists such as the icon painter Andrei Rublev (c. 1360–1427/8 or 1430) adorned many Moscow churches – for example the Kremlin, the monastery of St Sergii, the Dormition cathedral in Vladimir, and the Church of the Trinity, Zvengorod.

Possessors and Non-Possessors In 1503 Nilus of Sora (1443–1508) clashed with Joseph, Abbot of Volokolamsk (1439/40–1515) in a dispute concerning the role and duty of monastics. Joseph stressed the social obligations of monks, while Nilus insisted that a monk’s primary role is prayer and separation from the world. A split occurred: Joseph’s ‘Possessors’ believed church and state should be closely allied, and that monks should care for the sick and the poor; Nilus’ ‘Non-Possessors’ opted for a life of holy detachment.

By 1448, the Russian Church had become independent of Constantinople. Metropolitan

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The Growth of Christian Muscovy

map 29

BARENTS SEA

Pe c h

ND

R.

LA

o ra

W HITE S EA

P E R M

N

FI

On a R. eg

Ladoga

Beloozero

Novgorod

R.

. na R kho Su

Ustiug

V I AT K A

Vologda Galich

Makarev Kostroma Rostov a R. olg Zagorsk Pereyaslavl-Zalesski Suzdal Nizhny Volokolamsk Novgorod Vladimir Moscow Murom Smolensk Solotcha RS Borovsk TA TA Riazan Yaroslavl

Pskov

V

Dvin a

in a

N OVG O R O D

L. Onega

L. Ladoga

R.

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K H A N AT E O F KAZAN

aR

.

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P C AS

Muscovy in 1300 Grand Principality of Moscow in 1462 Important monastery

IAN

SEA

Territory acquired by Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow, between 1462 and 1505 Territory acquired by Vasily III, Grand Prince of Moscow, between 1505 and 1533

C H R I S T I A N M U S CO V Y: 1 2 2 1 – 15 1 0

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The Reformation and After

Part 4

…A reformation of the Church is near at hand…, and while God opens new ways for the preaching of the Gospel by the discoveries of the Portuguese and Spaniards, we must hope that he will also visit his Church and raise her from the abasement into which she has fallen… Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples (c. 1455–1536)

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During the 15th century the papacy began to reap the results of centuries of compromise. The Avignon papacy (1303–78) and Great Schism (1378) saw two – even three – men claiming to be pope; whilst the Council of Constance (1414–18) became a power struggle between bishops and pope, all damaging papal government and harming the church’s reputation in the eyes of the laity. The church continued to sell offices and indulgences, and remained the political tool of princes and a useful source of income for second sons and the corrupt. Criticism of clerical abuses had been widespread in Europe for centuries. But as society became more urbanized, better educated, and richer, the literate laity turned up the volume of criticism of the church and clergy. Yet in 1500 the Catholic Church seemed to stand undivided and virtually unchallenged. Its dioceses and archdioceses neatly divided up Western Europe, its bureaucracy was widely envied, and its wealth was almost unmatched.

The Western Church in 1500

PORTUGAL

The West in 1500

Throughout the Middle Ages pope and emperor had been engaged in a contest for supremacy, a conflict that generally resulted in victory for the papacy, but created bitter antagonism between Rome and the Holy Roman Empire. Such antagonism increased in the 14th and 15th centuries as national feelings grew – particularly in German-speaking countries. Resentment of papal taxes and against submission to officials of a distant, foreign papacy became common in Europe.

Granada

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Charles V

As a descendant of Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1479–1516) and Isabella of Castile (r. 1474–1504), Charles inherited the Spanish crown in 1516, taking the title Charles I. He also ruled Sardinia, Sicily, the Kingdom of Naples, and the Balearic Islands, while the newly colonized Spanish territories in the New World poured wealth into his treasury. Charles inherited from his grandparents much of the Netherlands, Franche-Comté, Luxembourg, and the Habsburg lands of Germany; while Charles’ Habsburg family also claimed Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. In 1519 Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor.

Charles V and the European Reformation

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However Charles’ extensive holdings and ambitions did not afford him an easy rule. In 1517 Martin Luther made the first moves in what soon grew into a major dispute within the church. Charles might have crushed the Reformation in its early stages, in concerted action with the other major powers, had Pope Clement VII (r. 1523–34) not allied himself with the French king, Francis I (r. 1515–47). At the Imperial Diet at Augsburg (1530), attended by Charles V, there was optimism about re-uniting the opposing religious parties. The Lutherans submitted their beliefs in the form of the Augsburg Confession (or Augustana) but the Roman Catholics rejected all the reformers’ submissions and the Emperor ordered a recess. The Protestant princes realized that Charles V now intended to make war on Protestantism, and in response formed the Schmalkaldic League.

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Luther’s teachings were condemned by Charles V at the Diet of Worms (1521), whilst a Catholic majority at the Diet of Speyer (1529) attempted to prohibit the further spread of Lutheranism and to ensure toleration for Catholics in Lutheran territories. Lutheran princes ‘protested’ against this, thereby coining the term ‘Protestant’. But the Reformation was motivated as much by politics as by religion; rulers of Europe took advantage of the church’s unpopularity to seize much of its wealth and power. In 1534 Henry VIII (1491–1547) declared himself Head of the Church of England, while many of the German princes supported Luther for both political and religious reasons. Under the Peace of Augsburg (1555) it was agreed that the ruler of every German state – there were about 300 – should choose between Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism, enforcing his chosen faith upon his subjects (cuius regio, eius religio). Meanwhile Reformed Protestantism, or ‘Calvinism’, took root – at least for a time – in France, Poland, Hungary, and Scotland. The longstanding concept of the religious unity of a single Christian community throughout Western Europe under the supreme authority of the pope had been destroyed once for all.

Reformation Europe: 1560

Toulouse NAVARRE

Barcelona

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Christian Europe: 1560

In 1517 Martin Luther (1483–1546) posted his 95 Theses at Wittenberg. Huldreich Zwingli of Zurich (1484–1531) also revolted against Rome, and the Frenchman John Calvin (1509–64) later became convinced he should restore the church to its original purity.

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Christian Europe: 1600

In 1534 the Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556) to spearhead the Catholic revival. It soon became largely responsible for reinforcing the Catholic faith in southern Europe. The Roman Catholic Church summoned the Council of Trent (1545–63) to re-establish doctrines of the Catholicism challenged by Protestantism. At the council, leaders of the Latin Church tightened discipline and doctrine, and re-invigorated the church. A leaner, more focussed, Roman Catholic Church emerged and the supremacy of the pope was re-affirmed. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, wars of religion shook every country in Europe. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) had not ended conflict in central Europe, but merely provided a breathing space. The territorial expansion of Protestantism reached its widest extent in central Europe around 1566, after which it began to recede confronted by the militant forces of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. The reforms, divisions, and revolutions of the sixteenth century led to a redefining, tightening, and redrawing of geographical, ecclesiastical, and theological boundaries. But the major divide remained between Roman Catholic insistence upon the finality of papal authority and Protestant insistence upon the finality of Biblical rule.

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The Counter Reformation

Revival in the Roman Catholic Church, the ‘Catholic Reformation’, was in part a response to the rise of Protestantism. But reform of the Catholic religious orders had already begun independently as early as the 1520s.

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map 33 Christiania

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Although ostensibly a religious conflict, this war did not significantly change the confessional map of central Europe. The Peace of Westphalia reaffirmed the Peace of Augsburg, except that Reformed Churches were now awarded the same legal recognition as Roman Catholics and Lutherans, choice of permitted faith depending upon the government of the respective territory. With the exception of lands of the Austrian Habsburgs, where Counter Reformation gains were allowed to stand, areas that were Protestant or Catholic in January 1624 were to remain so. The heaviest losers in the war were the German people. For thirty years armies had lived off their lands, looting, murdering, raping, and destroying. Plague and famine followed the mercenary armies – and even cannibalism was reported in several areas. The Treaty of Westphalia marked the end of the final significant religious war in Europe. Whereas up to 1648 religion had been a major factor determining internal and external politics, it became much less so after the devastating Thirty Years’ War.



i ne Rh

The Thirty Years’ War

The Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) was a disaster for central Europe. Rival armies marched across the region, sometimes fighting, constantly plundering. Great military leaders appeared, flourished, and fell again. After lengthy negotiations, compromise finally prevailed, and the Peace of Westphalia was signed in October 1648.

Christian Europe after the Peace of Westphalia: 1648 map 34 Christiania (Oslo)

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Catholic Missions

Portugal colonized Brazil, while the remainder of South America fell within the Spanish sphere of influence, as agreed in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). The Pope instructed both colonial powers to take missionaries to the New World and set up new bishoprics in a network of dioceses.

Missions to America The Spanish conquered the Aztec kingdom in Mexico and the Incas of Peru, employing particularly brutal methods. Despite the appalling way in which they were treated, many Native Americans converted to Christianity: it was claimed that between 1524 and 1531 more than one million were baptized. In reality enthusiastic missionaries exaggerated their success, and conversions were often quite superficial, with ‘converts’ possessing minimal understanding of their new faith. Generally the Spanish treated the natives as inferiors. A few priests protested, the best known of them being Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566), who became convinced Spanish treatment of Native Americans was contrary to Christian teaching.

Ignatius Loyola In 1534 the Spaniard Ignatius Loyola (c. 1491–1556) with six friends vowed to practise poverty, chastity, and celibacy, and to devote the rest of their lives to mission, thus initiating the ‘Society of Jesus’, better known as the Jesuits. In 1540 this new order received written authorization from Paul III, and set out to fulfil its mission to carry the gospel to the peoples of newly discovered continents. The Jesuits regarded themselves as a spiritual élite, at the pope’s disposal to use however he felt appropriate for spreading the ‘true church’. The order grew rapidly: when its founder Loyola died in 1556, there were already more than 1,500 Jesuits, mainly in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, but also in India, Brazil, Japan, Africa, and almost every other country in Europe.

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The Jesuits focussed on three main tasks: education, counteracting Protestantism, and missionary expansion into new areas. In France, the Low Countries, southern Germany, and particularly eastern Europe, the Jesuits led the counter-attack against Protestants. Several Jesuits served as papal representatives, or legates, tying countries such as Ireland, Sweden, and Russia more firmly to Rome. Other Jesuits served as court preacher or confessor to the emperor, the kings of France and Poland, and the dukes of Bavaria.

Jesuit missions When they sailed to America, Africa, and Asia in search of converts, Jesuit priests often travelled in Spanish and Portuguese ships searching for new colonies. They endowed their converts with their own enthusiastic brand of Catholicism. The Jesuits played a leading role in the conversion of Brazil and Paraguay, and, together with the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Augustinians, led the Church of Rome in a period of rapid overseas expansion between 1550 and 1650. As a result of their enterprise, almost all of Mexico, Central, and South America, along with much of the population of the Philippines, became adherents of the Roman Catholic Church. In Brazil and Paraguay the Jesuits introduced a controversial method of protecting Native Americans from exploitation. Between 1583 and 1605 they created a system of around 30 native reservations, or reductions, offering settlement and refuge to Guarani Indians who had been enslaved by Spanish colonists. Residents led a rather regimented life,

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Jesuit church in village of Tarahumara, near Creel, Mexico.

isolated from the ‘corruption’ of wider society, in a system that has been criticized for its paternalism.

Francis Xavier The pioneering Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier (1506–52) – ‘apostle to the Indies and Japan’ – was born in Navarre, Spain. When John III of Portugal asked the Jesuits for missionaries for his empire, Xavier responded, arriving in Goa, India, in 1542. Respected for his ability to live and work alongside the poor, Francis soon moved on to Sri Lanka, the Molucca Islands, the Banda Islands, and the Malay Peninsula, preaching and baptizing wherever he went. In 1549

Xavier landed at Kagoshima, Japan, adopting local mores to attract converts. Before he could gain entry to China, he died of fever, still aged only forty-six. Other Jesuits carried on Xavier’s work, achieving considerable success, and by 1600 the Japanese church numbered more than 300,000 members. However, after rivalry erupted between the Western powers and Christian orders, the Japanese shogun (governor) instigated brutal persecution of Christians. In 1640 the Japanese government set up an Office of Inquisition for Christian Affairs to detect and punish Christians. Before long the Japanese church was almost completely eradicated.

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Catholic Missions Worldwide: 1400–1800

H U DSON B AY

Quebec 1674

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Cacheo G U I N E A

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Baltimore 1789

ATLANTIC New Orleans 1793 Havana OCEAN Durango 1620 Mexico Mérida 1787 Santiago 1561 1522 La Vega 1511 1546 Guadalajara 1548 San Juan 1511 Chiapas 1538 Morelia 1536 Puebla 1527 Cartagena Oaxaca 1535 Santo Domingo 1511 1534 Guatemala 1743 St Marta 1534 Tegucigalpa (Tegus) 1531 Caracas 1531 Managua 1531 Panama Mérida St Thomas 1790 1778 1513 Bogotá 1564 Popoyan 1546 Sonora 1779

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SU

CO N G O

Cabinda 1521 Loanda 1596

Beijing 1690

SICHUAN 1696

go R.

R.

o Thomé 1534

SHAANXI 1696

Goa 1538 Cranganore (Angamala) 1605 Cochin 1557

Nig

UINEA

PERSIA

.

BAGHDAD 1632

us R

Ceuta 1421 angier 1468 1487

In d

PAIN

J AVA

Mozambique 1614

ancis Xavier

C AT H O L I C M I S S I O N S

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Christianity in the Philippines 102

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A Spanish expedition from America, which included five Augustinian friars, seized the Philippines in 1561–62. Other religious orders soon followed, and at the Synod of Manila (1580) the Jesuits, Augustinians, Dominicans, and Franciscans divided up the islands between them for proselytization. Mass conversions followed, and more than half a million people were baptized within 30 years. By the early 17th century, Spanish rule had been firmly established, though less oppressively than in the New World. Church institutions covered the islands and around half the population had converted. The Philippines became themselves a base from which missions were launched into other parts of Asia. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Philippines had been a mainly Christian country for about 200 years. There were Muslim communities in the south, and some remote mountainous areas had still not yet been successfully evangelized. Pre-Christian beliefs and practices had not entirely disappeared, and a Filipino ‘folk’ Catholicism evolved. Opposition to Spanish domination of the church, and the wealth of, and corruption within, the religious orders, helped fuel nationalist feeling. Few Filipinos were able to join the orders, and even in the secular priesthood they tended to have low status, which caused much bitterness, particularly among the growing numbers of educated Filipino clergy. From the 1850s onward some Filipino priests began to urge political reform. After the United States annexation of the Philippines in 1898, the Roman Catholic hierarchy sided with the Americans. In the following decade, church and state were separated, Spanish religious orders gradually withdrew, and many non-Spanish Roman Catholic clergy arrived. Spanish bishops were gradually replaced by Americans, rather than Filipinos. The widely-resented Roman Catholic Church now faced competition from both the nationalist Iglesia Filipina Independiente and from American Protestant missionaries.

Aglipay The Iglesia Filipina Independiente traces its foundation to 1899. A Filipino priest named Gregorio Aglipay (1860–1940) became its leader in 1902, and it had soon attracted around 25 per cent of Filipino Catholics. Influenced by Isabelo de los Reyes (or Don Belong, 1864–1938), the new ‘Aglipayan’ church betrayed Unitarian leanings. It attracted fierce opposition from the Roman Catholic Church, which gradually regained stability, with Filipino priests playing an increasingly significant role. Apart from the Episcopal (Anglican) Church, which worked among remote nonChristian tribes and Muslim communities, Protestant denominations concentrated on evangelizing Roman Catholics. Splits occurred as independent churches were formed by Filipinos keen to control their own religious affairs. ‘Quasi-Christian’ churches also appeared, most important among them the Iglesia ni Cristo, formed in 1914 by Felix Manalo (Ka Félix, 1886–1963), who claimed it was the only true church. This organization grew rapidly after World War II. In 1946 the Philippines gained independence, but Christianity continued to play an important role in the country. The Roman Catholic Church still depends heavily on foreign clergy, mostly from religious orders. The Philippines is the only country in Asia with a predominantly Christian population; church attendance is high and religious life vigorous. The church still exerts political influence, evidenced in its active role in the campaign to bring to an end the Marcos regime in 1986.

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Christianity in the Philippines C16–C21

Laong Cathedral C16

map 36

Jesuit missionaries C17 Dominican missionaries C17 Franciscan missionaries C17 Augustinian missionaries C17 Major church today Major mosque today

Paoay Church C18

Sarrat Badoc

LUZON

Cagayan R.

Vigan

Vigan Cathedral

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Lourdes Grotto

P Manila Cathedral San Agustin Church C16 San Sebastian Church C19

H Manila

I L

I

S IBUYAN S EA

P

MINDORO

P SAMAR

N

SOUTH CHINA SEA

I

Miagao Fortress Church

PANAY

Silay

Magellan’s Cross

San Agustin Church C16

Baclayon Church C16

BOHOL

Calape Church

Calape

King Faysal Mosque

R. san Agu

B OHOL S EA S U LU SEA

S

NEGROS

PALAWAN

LEYTE

E

CEBU

Chapel of the Angry Christ

Marawi

MINDANAO Al a h R.

BORNEO

CELEBES SEA

CHRISTIANITY IN THE PHILIPPINES

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The Great Migration

Early in the seventeenth century Protestants began to colonize North America, starting with settlements on the Atlantic coast. The pioneer colonists sometimes combined commercial motives with missionary zeal and a desire for freedom of worship. In 1607 a community was set up at Jamestown, Virginia, with Robert Hunt (c. 1568–1608) acting as Anglican chaplain. However Anglicanism was never the most popular form of Christianity in the New World.

Pilgrim Fathers The ‘Pilgrim Fathers’ who disembarked at Plymouth, New England, in 1620, were Independents who had already left the English national church to seek ecclesiastical asylum in Holland. They subsequently left Europe on board the Mayflower to find somewhere they could practise their faith freely and set up an ideal Christian commonwealth. They drew up the ‘Mayflower Compact’, translating into political terms their understanding of the voluntary basis of human associations that made them radical Puritans in church matters. Plymouth Colony remained relatively democratic, and its congregational covenant spread to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Great Migration Religious conflict worsened in England under Charles I (r. 1625–49) and many Puritans decided to leave the country. The ‘Great Migration’ of 1629–40 saw some 80,000 people leave England, about 20,000 migrating to each of Ireland, New England, the West Indies, and the Netherlands. The ‘Winthrop fleet’ of eleven ships took around 800 passengers to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. By 1641, a total of around 200 ships had arrived, carrying about 21,000 immigrants, among them 129 clergymen and theologians.

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Both the Pilgrims and the Massachusetts Bay Colony believed in the ideal of a Christian commonwealth governed by Christian principles, seeking to achieve the earthly prototype of the heavenly city. The first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, John Winthrop (1588–1649), stated: ‘We shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us.’ Massachusetts established a state church, a representative assembly – and by 1636, Harvard College. Further settlements were set up in what became New Hampshire and Maine, committed to remaining in the Church of England and working for reform from within.

Dissent Conflict arose early between establishment orthodoxy and dissenters such as Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams, who moved to frontier settlements where they could better explore religious freedom and political democracy. In 1636 Williams (c. 1603–83) founded Providence Plantation on Rhode Island, a colony characterized by religious diversity. The Baptists who settled there committed to another characteristic of future American politics: separation of church and state. William Penn (1644–1718), a member of the Society of Friends, or ‘Quakers’, set up Pennsylvania as a refuge for his own group fleeing persecution in England.

I

I ND

AN

GEORG 173

Founde by Og

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Protestant Settlers in North America: C17

EN

R.

P E N N S Y LVA N I A 1 6 8 1 Ohio

N IO

AT RV

VIRGINIA 1607

SE

James R.

AN

NEW HAMPSHIRE 1623

Portsmouth 1630: Massachusetts Bay (Pilgrim Fathers) Salem

CONNECTICUT 1635 RHODE ISLAND 1636

NEW JERSEY 1638

Baltimore

ac MARYLAND R. 1634

RE

DI

1697: New York

1681: Philadelphia

1623

1636: Harvard from England 1692: witch trials MASSACHUSETTS 1629 1656: Boston 1633: Hartford 1639: Providence

.

1682: William Penn arrives

m to Po

IN

Delawa re R

NEW YORK

L. Erie

Hudson R .

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L. Ontario

G

N D MAINE A L

Connec ticut R.

S

. ce R ren w a tL

nebec R. Ken

L. Huron

map 37

1620: Cape Cod 1661: Newport (Rhode Island)

1638: New Haven 1624: Nutten Island (now Governors Island)

from Netherlands

DELAWARE 1638

Richmond

Jamestown

Roano ke

Norfolk

1619: first African slaves imported

R.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

. ee R eD Pe

1706: Huguenot refugees settle

CAROLINA 1663 R. ah nn va Sa

GEORGIA 1733

Charleston

Founded as refuge by Oglethorpe

Savannah

Miles 0 0 100 Kilometers

100

Puritan Dutch Reformed Baptist Quaker Anglican

MAINE 1623

Name of State / Founding date

T H E G R E AT M I G R AT I O N

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Miles 0 100 0 100 200 Kilometers

C

300

200 400

N ORTH S EA

SCOTLAND Edinburgh

ENGLAND WALES

Amsterdam

London

Antwerp

U PRO NI T E D VIN CES

Dublin

IRELAND

ine

SPANISH NETHERLANDS Se

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Lo

in e

R

P R.

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Strasb Bas

. ir e R

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FRANCE Lyons

Ber Geneva SAVOY

Rhône R.

While countries such as Spain, Italy, Portugal, and France were almost entirely populated by Roman Catholics, Britain – though officially Protestant – was more heterogeneous in its religious make-up. Meanwhile secularization was spreading in West European society, culture, and thought. Christianity was becoming more a matter of intense personal decision – with secularization the inevitable counterpart. Christianity was evolving in ethos and doctrine, finding new emphases, new inspirations, and appealing in novel ways to new classes of people, as the world changed around it. European life was being secularized; religion was becoming personalized and individualized: the two developed together and were interdependent.

The Church in Europe in 1700

Rh

Christian Europe: 1700

By 1700 Europe had settled into broad religious divisions. The north of Europe was predominantly Protestant, countries to the south and east of Europe were predominantly Roman Catholic, whilst Russia and the Baltic nations were largely Orthodox Christian. At this period, the Balkan countries formed part of the Muslim Ottoman Empire: Christianity there was heavily oppressed, and any Christian activity had to be carried out in secret.

Toulouse

Lisbon

PORTUGAL

Eb ro R.

Barcelona

Madrid Tagus R.

S PA I N

M

E

D

Seville

A F R I C A

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I

map 38

MARK-NORWAY DEN

Christiania (Oslo)

EA

Catholic Catholic influenced Lutheran Anglican Calvinist/Reformed Calvinist influenced Pietism Orthodox Muslim Pietist centre Holy Roman Empire boundary

Stockholm E S TO N I A

SWEDEN

L I VO N I A Riga

B A LT I C SEA

Copenhagen

CO U R L A N D

PRUSSIA Vis tul a

R.

Paris

WÜRTTEMBERG BAVARIA Strasbourg Augsburg Basel

AUSTRIA Vienna

E

Bern Geneva

VENETIAN REPUBLIC

SAVOY

MILAN

POLAND UKRAINE Y

T R A N S Y LVA N I A

A AT I

PAPAL STATES

SERBIA

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M

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B LACK S EA

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SARDINIA

iep er

WA L L AC H I A

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CORSICA

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Dn ies ter R.

HUNGARY

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R GA

Krakow

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IMPE

SWISS CONFEDERATION

R.

Warsaw

er R. Od

ine

SPANISH NETHERLANDS

R U S S I A

L I T H UA N I A

Danube R.

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BRANDENBURG Halle Herrnhut SAXONY SILESIA H O L Y Dresden ROMAN Prague EMPIRE BOHEMIA PALATINATE MORAVIA Nuremberg

L H U

Antwerp

Hanover

Stettin

Elbe R.

RIA

msterdam

U PRO NI T E D VIN CES

Danzig

E

A

N

S

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A

CHRISTIAN EUROPE: 1700

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Christianity in South America 108

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After 1650 Spain – weakened militarily and financially – continued as a major colonial power, but lost her ability to compete with her northern neighbours. Portugal’s population was too small, the grip on her colonies too weak, and the colonies too spread out to protect them successfully. Spain suffered territorial losses in the Caribbean and along the Gulf coast. Britain occupied the islands of Barbados and Trinidad, and seized Jamaica in 1655. In 1697 France added Haiti to her colonies of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint Christophe. The Dutch, French, and English each grabbed their respective Guiana on the north-east coast of South America, between Spanish and Portuguese colonies. In 1622 Pope Gregory XV (r. 1621–23) founded the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (the ‘Propaganda’) in an effort to secure direct control of Catholic missions. This new policy aimed to replace the patronage system employed in missions since the end of the 15th century. Patronage had been granted by the pope to the monarchs of Spain and Portugal, giving them responsibility for Christianizing natives, establishing dioceses, and appointing clergy in their colonies. However in Latin America the patronage system continued, despite pressure from the pope. The cross and the crown were more closely linked here than elsewhere in the Catholic world. The Council of the Indies, in Madrid, continued to control important ecclesiastical positions in Latin America. Every major religious order – mobilizing tens of thousands of priests – contributed

to the almost total – but superficial – Christianization of Latin America. A minority opposed the political and economic oppression suffered by native populations. For example, António Vieira (1608–97), a Portuguese ambassador who subsequently became a Jesuit, won concessions from the Portuguese government for Brazilian Indians and blacks.

Jesuit reductions The Jesuits continued to pioneer mission methodology in the vast, uncolonized areas of Paraguay. To protect, defend, and Christianize the Indians, priests gathered them into the self-contained and self-sustaining villages called reductions, in an experiment that flourished between 1650 and 1720. Natives were instructed in basic Christianity, their lives were organized into set times for prayer, for work in the fields or at trades, for religious festivals, and recreation. At their height there were approximately sixty reductions, involving overall more than 100,000 people. However what proved to be a controversial trial collapsed in the 18th century, in part through Spanish-Portuguese boundary disputes, and in part as a result of increasing opposition to the Jesuit order.

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Roman Catholic Missions in South America: 1750 map 39

Cartagena Panama

o R. Orinoc

Bogotá 1565

NEW GRANADA

Quito

Japura R.

R. azon Am

Sao Luis

P ACIFIC OCEAN

. Paraguay R

Charcas 1609

San Salvador 1676

Sa

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gu R

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Buenos Aires Rio

Colora do R .

PATAG O N I A Miles 0

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de l a

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SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Jesuit mission Franciscan mission Dominican mission Capuchin mission Jesuit Reduction Archbishopric with date of establishment Bishopric (selected)

CHRISTIANITY IN SOUTH AMERICA

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Pietist Activity in Europe: 1650–1820 Trondheim

Seminary founded

300

1721: Egade’s Pietist mission to Greenland

1716: Pietist mission to Lapps

Christiania (Oslo)

MARK-NORWAY DEN

Bergen

N ORTH SEA

SCOTLAND Edinburgh

Johann Arndt (1663-1727): forerunner of Pietism

Bishop encourages Pietism

Stockholm Linköping

SWEDEN

L I VO N I A

Copenhagen

1747-55: von Mosheim church historian

Altona

Antwerp

London

Hanover

PALATINATE

eR

Paris

.

1819 -: Centre of WÜRTTEMBERG Korntal Württemberg Pietism

1732: Moravian mission to St Thomas, Caribbean

R Loire

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Basel

FRANCE

SWISS CONFEDERATION

Bern

Geneva

Frederick William I V influenced by Francke istul a R. 1692-1727: Francke sets up Pietist BRANDENBURG institutions

LITHUANIA Warsaw

O

de SAXONY Herrnhut r POLAND SILESIA R. Dresden 1722: Zinzendorf sets up refugee asylum Prague Krakow BOHEMIA MORAVIA Nuremberg Y

Denkendorf BAVARIA Augsburg

Strasbourg

.

Stettin

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H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Rhine R.

S

ein

e R.

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NDS S PA N I S H N E T H E R L A 1675, 1680: Moravian brethren Spener publishes Frankfurt influence Christians major Pietist works in London

John Wesley and George Whitefield return from America influenced by Pietism

Elb

Da

nu

be R AUSTRIA .

1713-41: Bengel publishes Pietist works

Vienna

L H U

Amsterdam

1672: Labadie flees here

RIA

1728: Moravian church

WALES Oxford

Danzig

IMPE

1738: John Wesley’s ‘warming experience’

CO U R L A N D

PRUSSIA

U PRO NITE D VIN CES

ENGLAND

IRELAND

Riga

B A LT I C SEA

1670-72: Labadie gathers house church

Dublin

E S TO N I A

NG

AR

T R A N S Y LV A N I A

HUNGARY

SAVOY

In the early 17th century German Lutherans continued Philipp Melanchthon’s efforts to construct a distinctive systematic theology, with many scholars displaying a tendency to sterile dogmatic debate. Advocates of a more personal, devotional form of Christianity – such as the mystic Jakob Boehme (1575–1624) and author Johann Arndt (1555–1621), author of the widely-read Wahres Christentum (True Christianity) – were fore-runners of the influential Pietist movement.

Spener The founder of ‘Pietism’ – initially a term of ridicule used by its opponents – was

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Philipp Jakob Spener (1635–1705). Born in Alsace, Spener became convinced of the need for moral and religious reform within

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Pietist centre Pietist influence

E S TO N I A

L I VO N I A

c. 1720: Swedes returning from prison in Siberia spread Pietism

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ND Moscow

Francke influences Peter the Great

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Spener’s lines, but soon met opposition and left to found the University of Halle, which became a Pietist centre. Guided by Francke, Pietism spread throughout central and northern Germany, its influence reaching Sweden and as far as Moscow. Francke also founded a celebrated orphanage at Halle in 1695. Spener’s emphasis on separation from the world led Pietists to avoid ‘worldly’ entertainments such as dancing and the theatre, while some insisted that ‘new birth’ must be preceded by agonized repentance. Pietism reached its greatest strength in the mid-18th century, its individualism ironically helping prepare the way for secular Enlightenment thinking. Pietism aided the revival of biblical studies in Germany, helped make religion again a matter of the heart and daily life, and brought a new emphasis on the role of the laity in the church.

Pietism

map 40

Lutheranism. In 1669 he started to hold religious meetings (collegia pietatis) in his home. In 1675 he published Pia desideria, which suggested methods of restoring life to the church, including Bible-study meetings and greater lay involvement. His book had considerable impact throughout Germany. Some theologians at Leipzig, including August Hermann Francke (1663–1727), started to lecture on Christianity along

No distinct Pietist church was formed until in 1722 Count Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700–60) – Spener’s godson – founded a colony at Herrnhut, on his estates in Saxony, which became known as the Moravian Brethren. This denomination later despatched dynamic missionaries throughout Europe and overseas. Among its pioneers were Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (1682–1719) and C. F. Schwartz (1726–60) in India, and Georg Schmidt (1709–85) in South Africa. Moravian pietism also influenced the Norwegian Lutheran missionary Hans Egede (1686–1758) – known as ‘the Apostle of Greenland’ – and inspired Alexander Mack (1679–1735) to begin the New Baptists, or Brethren group in Germany – today known as the Church of the Brethren. Pietism and the Moravian Christians were a major influence on John Wesley and others who launched the Methodist movement in England, and upon the Great Awakening.

PIETISM

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The British Colonies: 1750 112

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In its early years the 1607 Jamestown, Virginia, settlement looked unlikely to survive; yet it overcame unrest, starvation, Indian uprising, and economic collapse to become England’s most populous North American colony. The Church of England was given official status there as early as 1619, and by the middle of the 18th century Virginia boasted some 100 Anglican churches. The Church of England had become stronger here than anywhere else in the New World. Although Maryland was founded in 1634 under the auspices of English Catholics, by the end of the century the Church of England was officially established there too, as it was in South and North Carolina – though the latter colony had in addition a major Quaker settlement and a growing Baptist presence. Georgia was not founded till 1733 – the last of the 13 colonies that were to become the United States – but also established the Anglican Church. At the time of the American Revolution, Anglicanism dominated the South, especially the areas of earliest settlement. However, the Revolution badly impaired both the prestige and appeal of the Church of England, and within a generation it had been reduced to a minority denomination throughout the region.

Congregationalism in New England The situation in New England differed considerably from that of the South. Slavery was a much smaller institution, life expectancy was greater, and serious theological debate more common. The Congregational Church enjoyed legal favour in the colonies of Massachusetts and Connecticut, and grew steadily, with educated ministers supplied by Harvard (founded in 1636), and Yale (1701). The Great Awakening of the 1740s intensified enthusiasm and led some to separate from the official church.

The American Revolution was strongly supported by Congregationalists. By contrast the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations continued to practise the religious variety and diversity encouraged by its founder, Roger Williams. The Baptists profited from this religious liberty, as did the Quakers, who established Newport, Rhode Island, as their main New England base.

The Middle Colonies Located between the South and New England, the Middle Colonies included diverse ethnicities, nationalities, languages, and denominations. The Dutch, who came first to the area we now know as New York, brought with them their national church. Although the British took over the Dutch colony in 1664, the Dutch Reformed religion continued in New York and New Jersey, and the Dutch Reformed Rutger’s College was founded in 1766. The Calvinist Dutch joined in the Great Awakening of the 1740s, as did the Scottish and Irish Presbyterians of the Middle Colonies, who had begun to settle in this region early in the 18th century. Led by the Quaker William Penn, Pennsylvania became a haven not solely for persecuted Quakers, but for many other religious dissenters too. Though not founded until 1682, by 1750 Philadelphia had become the cultural capital of America.

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Distribution of English-speaking Churches in North America: 1750

t

R. ce en r w La

MAINE

L. Ontario

NEW HAMPSHIRE

NEW YORK

MASSACHUSETTS

P E N N S Y LVA N I A Harrisburg

Ohio

.

Portsmouth

Boston

Providence RHODE ISLAND

Hudson R.

Delawa re R

L. Erie

R.

K

L. Champlain

Conne cticu t R.

S

L. Huron

ennebec R.

Georgian Bay

map 41

CONNECTICUT

Plymouth

New Haven

NEW JERSEY

New York

Philadelphia m to Po

MARYLAND

Baltimore ac R.

V I R G I N I A

Dover

DELAWARE

Fredericksburg

James R. Richmond

. eR

Roan ok Halifax

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Norfolk

. wR Ha

Hertford

NORTH CAROLINA New Bern

R. Dee Pee

SOUTH CAROLINA h nna va Sa

Georgetown

R.

Charleston

GEORGIA Savannah

Miles 0

100

0 100 Kilometers

Approximate extent of 13 colonies Anglican/Episcopalian Baptist Roman Catholic Congregationalist Lutheran Presbyterian/Reformed Quaker

T H E B R I T I S H CO LO N I E S : 1 7 5 0

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The Modern Church

Part 5

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof… First Amendment, United States Constitution

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The Great Awakening, America’s first major revival, was possibly the most momentous religious occurrence of the colonial period. It arose out of Pietist beliefs that German, Scottish, and Scotch-Irish migrants brought with them across the Atlantic between the 1680s and 1730s. The first evidence of the Awakening appeared in the 1720s among Pietists in the Middle Colonies. In the Delaware Valley, the Irish Presbyterian William Tennent Sr. (1673–1746) spread enthusiastic piety and offered training to ministers at his ‘log college’ at Neshaminy, Pennsylvania. (Johann) Conrad Beissel (1691– 1768) arrived in Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 1712, and from 1722 led revivals among the newly arrived German Dunkers; whilst the Dutch Reformed minister Theodore Frelinghuysen (1691–1748) led several revivals in the Raritan Valley, New Jersey. In the early 18th century the Congregationalist Solomon Stoddard (1643–1729) saw revivals among his congregation in Northampton, Massachusetts; whilst from 1734 till the early 1740s his grandson, the theologian Jonathan Edwards (1703–58), inspired fervent conversions here and in frontier towns throughout the Connecticut Valley. An extraordinary tour by the British Anglican evangelist George Whitefield (1714– 70) transformed these local events into an intercolonial phenomenon. Arriving from England in October 1739, his integrity, rhetorical skills, and unusual mix of Anglicanism, Pietism, and Calvinism contributed to his wide appeal. Whitefield preached in churches and in the open air – sometimes to crowds of more than 20,000 – often defying the opposition of local clergymen. Whitefield achieved his greatest success in New England, but engendered religious excitement and revival throughout the colonies. The Awakening peaked in the late 1730s and early 1740s, as other evangelists followed Whitefield. In 1741 Gilbert Tennent (1703–64) retraced Whitefield’s route through

New England; Long Island preacher James Davenport (1716–57) aroused enthusiasm in Connecticut and Massachusetts; and the German Moravian leader Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf arrived in Pennsylvania and encouraged ecumenical evangelicalism among the German Pietists.

The South The Awakening was initially most effective in the middle and northern
colonies, but by the
mid-1740s the revival began to wane there. It developed later and more slowly in the South, hampered by unsympathetic Anglican clergymen and scattered settlements. But in the late 1740s and 1750s itinerant preachers solidified the Awakening here too. Samuel Davies (1723–61) and other ‘log college’ graduates took ‘New Side Presbyterianism’ into Virginia, and Separate Baptists from New England began to arrive in 1754. The Anglican Devereux Jarratt (1733–1801), minister at Bath parish, Virginia, worked with the Methodist societies that began to appear in the area in the 1760s and 1770s. In 1784 some Anglicans defected to join the Methodist denomination, while others, including Jarratt, formed the basis of an Evangelical party within the Episcopal (US Anglican) Church. Controversy over revivalism caused a schism within Presbyterianism, conflict among Congregationalists, and the growth of rival parties within Anglicanism. Yet the revivals appealed to men and women of all regions, classes, and Protestant denominations and churches. Their egalitarian and antiauthoritarian nature were especially popular in the rural interior. Critics of the Awakening denounced the revivalists’ ‘enthusiasm’.

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The Great Awakening in North America

MAINE

L. Ontario

son R.

NEW HAMPSHIRE

H ud

NEW YORK

Solomon Stoddard revives church

MASSACHUSETTS

Northampton

L. Erie

P E N N S Y LVA N I A

Raritan Valley 1726: Theodore Frelinghuysen revives church

Delaw are

Connecticut Valley 1734-1740s: Jonathan Edwards spreads revival 1741-42: Zinzendorf revives German Pietists

R.

R.

Ohio

Hartford

CONNECTICUT

York

Harvard

Boston Plymouth RHODE ISLAND

Yale New Haven

NEW JERSEY

Delaware Valley 1720s: William Tennent Snr. spreads pietist fervour

K

L. Champlain

Conne cticu t R.

S

L. Huron

R. ce en r aw tL

ennebec R.

Georgian Bay

map 42

Southold New York Elizabeth

1740: James Davenport spreads revival in Connecticut and Massachusetts 1750s: Shubal Stearns evangelizes and sets up Baptist churches

Neshaminy 1720s Gilbert Tennent

Germantown 1722: Conrad Beissel revives German Dunkers Philadelphia

to Po m

1736: Evangelist George Whitefield arrives from England

MARYLAND

1740s-50s: ac R Samuel Davies . revives Virginia

Dover DELAWARE Annapolis

V I R G I N I A

Early C18: Pietists from Germany via England

1739: George Whitefield from England

James R . Bath parish 1760s-70s: Devereux Jarratt revivalism among Methodists

Richmond

HANOVER COUNTY

R. ke

Roano Halifax

Williamsburg

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Norfolk Hertford

NORTH CAROLINA New Bern R. Dee Pee

SOUTH CAROLINA Sa . ah R nn va

GEORGIA Savannah

Georgetown Charleston Beaufort 1735: Wesley brothers arrive as missionaries

Jan 1741 Whitefield returns to England Miles 0

100

0 100 Kilometers

Centre of Awakening Log college: sends out revivalists Whitefield’s tour (overland)

T H E G R E AT AWA K E N I N G

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Congregationalists and Presbyterians joined forces to found churches and schools.

MICH TERRI

Frontier revivals A different – and more lively – Awakening occurred in the 1790s among the swelling number of Americans crossing the Cumberland Gap into Kentucky and Tennessee – mainly Methodists, Baptists, and Scots-Irish Presbyterians from western Virginia and the Carolinas. The Scots-Irish Presbyterian James McGready (1758–1817) and some Methodists from North Carolina conducted revivals in 1799 and 1800 at Muddy River, Red River, and Caspar River, south-western Kentucky. The Presbyterian Barton Stone (1772–1844), minister of Concord and Cane Ridge churches, western Kentucky, arranged a huge ‘camp meeting’ at Cane Ridge in 1801. It was attended by some 10,000 people and lasting a whole week. Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist preachers present at this ‘Great Revival’ went on to hold numerous camp meetings across Kentucky, Tennessee, and southern Ohio over the ensuing three years. Particularly suited to the sparsely settled Western frontier, these gatherings spread Protestantism throughout the region, and gave denominations such as the Baptists and Methodists new national prominence. Presbyterians in the east denounced these emotional revivals, provoking revivalist Presbyterians in Tennessee to form the breakaway Cumberland Presbyterian Church in 1810.

R.

ILL 1

Mi ssis sip

The Second Awakening commenced in rural Connecticut and New Hampshire in the late 1790s. In New England it gained strength when in 1801 Yale College students attended revivals and then – as ministers – spread revivalism throughout the region’s Congregational churches. New England revivalism led to the formation of a plethora of voluntary missionary, philanthropic, and reform societies. Yale and Andover seminary graduates, stimulated by the Awakening, became missionaries and educators and accompanied the westward ‘Yankee migration’ into the states of New York and Ohio. There under the ‘Plan of Union’ (1801)

i pp issi Miss

The Second Awakening

Between the 1790s and the 1830s a further series of nationwide religious revivals, known as the ‘Second Great Awakening’, made revivalism an enduring feature of American Christianity. This phenomenon was closely linked to the westward expansion of the newly independent nation

Charles Grandison Finney at age of 80.

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The Second Awakening in North America: 1790–1830

map 43 . eR enc wr a L St K

L. Huron

Rochester

NEW YORK Erie Canal

R.

Susquehannah Valley

m to Po

Oh io R.

R.

Mi ssis sipp i

MARYLAND

ac R.

Cane Ridge

VIRGINIA

KENTUCKY 1792 Muddy River Red River

w Dela are R

PENNSYLVANIA OHIO 1803

.

Andover Seminary

MASSACHUSETTS

Boston New Hartford Newton RHODE

CONNECTICUT ISLAND

Yale College

New Haven

NEW JERSEY New York

Philadelphia DELAWARE

James R.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Richmond

Gasper River

Roa no ke R.

Cumberland Gap

TENNESSEE 1796

NEW HAMPSHIRE

Albany

L. Erie

INDIANA 1816

Connectic ut R .

i pp issi Miss

L. M

L. Ontario

Hudson R.

ich iga n

L. Champlain VERMONT 1791

Buffalo

ILLINOIS 1818

ebec R. enn

MICHIGAN TERRITORY

MAINE 1820

NORTH CAROLINA OHIO 1803

SOUTH CAROLINA Charleston Savannah

Revivalism New York State was a rapidly developing region in this period, populated largely by ‘Yankee migrants’. Charles Grandison Finney (1792–1875) and others conducted countless revivals here during the 1820s and early 1830s, creating an atmosphere of evangelism,

Miles 0 0 100 Kilometers

100

Name of State / Founding date Migration route 1790 –1830 Revival route 1801 camp meeting Area of Kentucky revival ‘Burned-over’ district, New York

reform, and religious experiment that was so intense that western New York State was often dubbed the ‘burned-over district’. Although the revivals eventually subsided, their impact did not. The Awakenings helped shape the religious and cultural life of the United States profoundly and lastingly.

T H E S E CO N D AWA K E N I N G

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African Christianity

Christianity had been strongly established in North Africa in Roman times, but during the 7th century it all but disappeared, following the Arab invasions and spread of Islam. However substantial Christian minorities of ancient churches that had resisted Byzantine and Roman control – Copts, Jacobites, and Nestorians – persisted despite the Muslim conquest.

Ethiopia Christianity was present in Ethiopia from very early times, with an extensive network of monastic communities. In the mid-13th century a new flowering of Christian work began under an able Abuna (patriarch). Several popes sent legates to Ethiopia who tried in vain to bring the Coptic church there into communion with Rome. Ethiopian delegates also participated in the Council of Florence (1441–42), and further embassies reached Lisbon in 1452 and Rome in 1481. Although nothing came of their specific purpose – to set up an alliance against the Muslim powers based in Cairo and Baghdad – these visits aroused Western interest in Africa.

Sub-Saharan Africa Christianity was introduced to sub-Saharan Africa much later. From the late-15th to the mid-17th centuries efforts were made by Portuguese priests and traders. In 1487 Portuguese explorers reached Timbuktu overland from the coast. Portuguese rulers hoped to prevent the further spread of Islam by converting to Christianity the peoples south of the Sahara. The introduction of Christianity to Africa also provided a means for successive Portuguese kings to gain control over parts of the continent. Portuguese Catholic missionaries directed their attention to the rulers of African kingdoms, sending delegations to the courts of Benin, Warri, Kongo, and

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Mutapa. These missionary endeavours were combined with commercial and political interests. In Kongo, for instance, the king converted to Catholicism in the late 15th century, and attempted to spread his new faith amongst his subjects. However he was offered teaching aids and priests by Portugal only in return for handing over huge numbers of slaves. In Mutapa, too, the kings converted, recognizing the dominance of Portugal; but Christianity failed to spread beyond the royal family.

Decline With the collapse of her empire in the 17th century, Portugal’s monopoly on missionary activity in Africa ended. This – together with the disruption caused by the slave trade – led to a steady decline of Christianity in Africa. By 1700 there were very few African Christians, despite several centuries of missionary activity. Some converts lived in trading posts established along the coast, whilst a small number in the Kongo maintained the Catholic faith. New moves by other European powers laid the pattern of events for the following centuries. In 1686 Louis XIV of France annexed Madagascar, where the French had first settled in 1626. In 1652 the Dutch founded what was to become the strategic settlement at Cape Town. And in 1713, under the Asiento Treaty, Britain acquired the right to import slaves from Africa into Spanish America, commencing this extensive, lucrative, and shameful trade.

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Christianity in Africa to 1800

Lisbon

M

Tangier

AT

L

M AS

map 44

OUN

TA

E D I T E R R A Algiers Tunis N E A N INS

S

Tripoli

E A

Cairo

S

A

R

A

Cape Verde Is (1444)

Suakin Bilma

Timbuktu Awdaghost Sen Walata e Jenne

1792: Freed slaves

Massawa (1541)

R. er Nig

l R. ga

Freetown

Lagos

Elmina (1471)

Accra

Kano

Zeila

A DA M AWA

ADEN

Mogadishu

GUINEA

São Tomé (1480)

INDIAN

Lamu Malindi Mombasa

OCEAN to India

Mpindi (1504) Luanda

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Socotra (1507)

Warri

Co ngo R.

OF

G

F ULF O

ET H I O P I A N H I GH L A NDS

Fernando Po (1472) GULF

SEA

Arguin(1443)

RED

Nile R.

Ghat

H

A

Kilwa Kisiwani (1505)

Benguela

Za

ezi R. mb Quelimane Sofala (1505) Limpopo R.

Roman Catholic mission activity C16–C17 Coptic Church Reformed/Calvinist in late C18 Islam Portuguese settlement (date) Portuguese route

KALAHARI DESERT

Orange R.

Dutch, German and French colonists after 1652

Cape Town

Miles 0 0 500 Kilometers

AFRICAN CHRISTIANITY

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500 1000

1000 1500

121

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The First U.S. Missions

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (A.B.C.F.M.), formed in 1810 as a result of the Great Awakening, was the earliest American missionary society. In 1806 a group of students at Williams College, Massachusetts, committed to foreign missions and organized a ‘Society of Brethren’. Some went on to Andover Seminary, Newton, Massachusetts, where they made more recruits, notably the pioneer missionary to Burma, Adoniram Judson (1788–1850). By 1810 Congregationalist ministers in Connecticut and Massachusetts had organized the American Board of Commissioners.

P

GREEN

C

Rocky Mountains ABCFM starts mission to Native Americans

N

A

D A

Bow 1810: A Gre

Brunswick

1820: 20 Congregationalist missionaries arrive from New England

Philadelphia U N I T E D S TAT E S

1814: American Baptist Missionary Union founded

1823 South America 2

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Miles 0 500 0 1000 Kilometers

1000

BRAZIL

1500

2000

Hopkins Hall and First Congregational Church, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts.

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NOR

1820 Hawaii 160

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

When Judson and his colleague Luther Rice (1783–1836) sailed – initially to India – in 1812, Samuel J. Mills, Jr. (1783–1818) remained at home to gather support. During their voyage, both Judson and Mills became convinced of Baptist views, which led to the founding of the Baptist General Convention for Foreign Missions (1814). However the A.B.C.F.M. persisted, becoming active in home missions too. Between 1801 and 1826 Congregationalists and Presbyterians cooperated in the Ohio and Mississippi River Valley ‘Plan of Union’, supported by the American Bible Society, the American Tract Society, and other interdenominational associations founded

A

Great Plains 1837: Stephen R. Riggs starts mission to Sioux

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Pioneers of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions map 45

swick

a

1816

GREENLAND

Persia 12

SWEDEN

Bowdoin College 1810: ABCFM founded in Great Awakening

UNITED KINGDOM

N ORTH A TLANTIC OCEAN

R

U

S

S

I

Major missionary action Missionary action Year first missionary arrived Initial number of missionaries

A

1846: Bible translated into Armenian 1831: William Goodell (ABCFM) GERMANY begins mission work 1835: ABCFM mission to Nestorians and Chaldeans

1820 China 8

Constantinople

1826 1829 Greece 16 Turkey 37 1822 Malta 13 Beirut 1834 Cyprus 5 1834 ALGERIA 1827 I R AN Persia 12 Palestine 32

1834 West Africa 8

1823: first ABCFM missionary arrives

NIGERIA

C H I N A 1813: Adoniram Judson arrives in Burma INDIA 1813 India 119

1831 Siam (Thailand) 23

1816 Ceylon (Sri Lanka) 66

1823 South America 2

Tropic of Capricorn

P ACIFIC OCEAN

1834: 13

Equator

1838 Borneo 16

BRAZIL

INDIAN OCEAN SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

1835: 29

SO U TH AFRI C A

AUSTRALIA

Tropic of Cancer

NEW ZEALAND

during an upsurge of voluntary religion linked to the Awakening. ‘Societies of Inquiry’ [into the claims of missions] spread rapidly among the eastern colleges, with Yale and Princeton becoming major recruitment centres for volunteers. ‘Yale Bands’ travelled West, having studied Native American languages – founding colleges and persuading legislatures to establish school systems. Congregationalists

were also prominent in missions to Native Americans and freed slaves, operating chiefly through the A.B.C.F.M.’s sister organization, the American Missionary Association (1846). After the American Civil War (1861–65) they took the lead in founding institutions for African-Americans, such as the Hampton Institute (1868), Atlanta University (1865), and Fisk University (1866).

T H E F I R S T U. S . M I S S I O N S

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Modern Missions to Africa 124

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By 1790, missionary activity in Africa had reached a low point. The earliest new attempts to spread Christianity among Africans began at the Cape of Good Hope, where there had been white settlers since the mid-17th century. In 1792 the Moravians revived their mission at Baviaanskloof (Genadendal), Western Cape, followed by the Nederlandsche Zendinggenootschap at Bethelsdorp, under the controversial Dutchman Johannes van der Kemp (1747–1811), and the London Missionary Society at Kuruman under Robert Moffat (1795–1883). The first sustained efforts in West Africa were in and around Freetown, Sierra Leone, by German members of the Church Missionary Society from 1804, and Wesleyans from 1811. The missionaries mainly worked among former slaves returning to Africa and others liberated from slave-trading ships. The Baptist Missionary Society (B.M.S., founded in 1792) and the Berlin Society (1824) were among the great Protestant societies formed at this period. However until the 1840s missionary work was held back by poor geographical knowledge and by the depredations of climate and disease, particularly in West Africa. Foreign missionaries depended on African assistance, needing permission from African rulers to settle and teach, and requiring Africans to act as interpreters, translators, catechizers, and workers.

Mid-19th century The Swiss Basel and British Wesleyan missions evangelized the Gold Coast, and from the 1840s to the 1870s missionaries began to evangelize the African interior. Protestant missions such as the Church Missionary Society in Britain were now stronger and better funded. From the 1830s African converts from Sierra Leone began to return to their homelands – many to western Nigeria – and requests for missionaries followed. Missionaries now started to work in East Africa and Zanzibar too. Evangelicals regarded commerce such as the palm-oil trade as a means of opening the way for the gospel, whilst the increasing numbers of educated African Christians

seemed to offer the possibility of indigenous churches. In 1864 Samuel Ajayi Crowther (c. 1809–91) was consecrated as the first African Anglican bishop. Perhaps the greatest propagandist for ‘commerce and Christianity’ was Dr David Livingstone (1813–73). Many followed his example, from the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa (U.M.C.A.) to Scots missions to Nyasaland (Malawi). Roman Catholic missions in Africa now revived too: the Holy Ghost Fathers were founded in 1848; the Society of African Missions in 1856; and the White Fathers were established by Cardinal Lavigerie (1825–92) in 1868. However progress was slow. Influenced partly by American revivalism and millennialist theology, many Protestants began to call instead for a more individualistic approach: the rapid ‘evangelization of the world in this generation’.

Scramble for Africa After 1880, missionaries started to become caught up in the friction and conflict caused by the partition of Africa among the European powers. As missionary numbers grew, they began to compete – like traders and governments – for ‘spheres of influence’: Protestants against Roman Catholics, and evangelical faith missions against those working by older, more settled methods. The Congo Free State, for example, restricted British and American Baptists and Presbyterians, but favoured Catholic missionaries, after reaching agreement with the Vatican.

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Christianity in Africa 1800–1914

M

Tangier

SPANISH MOROCCO

Casablanca

M

IFNI 1912 Spanish Protectorate

O MOU CC RO LAS

E D I T E R

Algiers

NT

AINS

R

A N E A N

ALGERIA

O AT

S

Tripoli

E A

Alexandria

Benghazi

Cairo

L I B YA

SPANISH SAHARA

Asyut

1912 to Italy

S

RIO DE ORO

H

A

R

EGYPT

A

RED

Nile R.

A

British Protestant mission French Protestant mission US Protestant mission German Protestant mission British Catholic mission French Catholic mission Other mission

Tamanrasset

W E S T

IVORY COAST

Kumasi

I

Abidjan

Ibadan

K AM E R U N

GOLD Lagos COASTAccra

1823: J.Ashmun founds Liberia as home for freed slaves

OF

Yaounde

GUINEA

UGANDA

RIO MUNI to Spain

São Tomé Lambarené

1913: Dr Albert Schweitzer starts mission hospital

BRITISH EAST AFRICA

Stanleyville FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA CONGO

Brazzaville

G ULF

B E LG I AN CO NG O

Kampala

Nairobi

GERMAN EAST AFRICA

Léopoldville

OF

ITA

N L I A 18

David Livingstone (1813-73) explores and opens southern Africa for missions

Mombasa

Zanzibar Dar es Salaam

Luanda

DE

SIA

Mozambique BI

ezi R. mb

E

Blantyre

QU

RHO

M

Za

NO

RN RTHE

ZA

to Portugal

GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA Windhoek

SOUTHERN RHODESIA

M

Tananarive

BECHUANALAND Limpopo

Pretoria Johannesburg Kuruman range R.

O

Kimberley UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA Cape Town

SWAZILAND BASUTOLAND

Durban Miles 0 0 500 Kilometers

M O D E R N M I S S I O N S TO A F R I C A

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MADAGASCAR 1896 to France

O

R.

Walvis Bay

Political borders 1914 Advance of Christian missions Ethiopian Coptic Church Islam Animist religions Christian mission activity

INDIAN

OCEAN ANGOLA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

ADEN

BRITISH SOMALILAND

ETHIOPIAN HIGHLANDS

to Germany

Calabar

GULF

Djibouti ETHIOPIA Addis Ababa

FRE

ER

A

Cong oR .

LIB

Monrovia

Massawa

NCH

N I G E R I A to Britain

ERITREA 1889 to Italy

Khartoum ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN

E QUAT

TOGO to Germany

Freetown SIERRA LEONE to Britain

NIGER

R. er Nig

UPPER VOLTA

l R. ga

GAMBIA to Britain PORTUGUESE GUINEA

Sen e

A F R I C A

ORIAL AFRIC A

F R E N C H

St Louis

SEA

Bathurst

8 9 S OM to ALI It a L A N ly D

1868: Charles Lavigerie founds White Fathers

map 46

500 1000

1000 1500

125

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The first Protestant missions arrived in 1706, undertaken by Francke’s Pietist missionary centre in Halle, but sponsored by the Lutheran King of Denmark. The German Bartolomäus Ziegenbalg (1683–1719) translated the New Testament and part of the Old into Tamil, supported by missionary societies in Germany and by the British Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (S.P.C.K.), founded in 1698. Another German Lutheran, Christian Friedrich Schwarz (1726–98), starting in Tranquebar, made a substantial contribution to the growth of Christianity in India. However at the outset of the 19th century many Europeans in Asia regarded the propagation of Christianity there as unimportant, seeing little purpose in provoking Hindus and Muslims by encouraging Christian proselytization. Dutch Calvinist missions in Ceylon, Java, and other parts of Indonesia had declined. Although the British administered large areas via the East India Company, before 1813 missionaries were not permitted to work inside its territories. Only in the Danish settlements of Tranquebar and Serampore was evangelization officially encouraged.

at Calcutta – and by their example exerted an influence far beyond in a huge expansion of Christian activity in Asia. The East India Company’s charter was revised in 1813 to permit missionaries to operate within its territories. Missions now spread rapidly in south and west India, moving later into central and northern regions. After 1833, missionaries were allowed to travel quite freely. The Anglican Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.) reached Amritsar in 1852, and Peshawar in 1855, and Anglican bishoprics were established at Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1814 and Madras (Chennai) in 1835. By 1851 19 Protestant missions were at work in India, and it was estimated there were more than 90,000 Protestant converts, mostly in the south. Strong Catholic communities continued to exist in Ceylon and parts of Vietnam, and from the 1840s the revival of Roman Catholic missions began to impact the whole of Asia. In 1886 the Catholic Church organized a new hierarchy for India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

185 Missio

Peshaw

Ind

Missions to India and Asia

In the 18th century, European nations with trading and colonial interests targeted the Indian sub-continent, the British eventually emerging dominant. A century of religious unrest and war between Moguls, Hindus, and Sikhs helped open up the way for colonial control.

18

A R A BI A N S E A Da

1813: ABCFM

1835: ABCFM

Ma

1834: Basel Missio

1816: Ch Missionary

1841: L

1814

Fort Dansborg in the former Danish colony at Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu, India.

New era of missions In 1799 three British Baptist missionaries, William Carey (1761–1834), Joshua Marshman (1768– 1837), and William Ward (1769–1823), established themselves at Serampore – not far from the English centre

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u

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Huang R.

Christian Missions to India and South-east Asia

1855: Church Missionary Society

Yan

Peshawar

N E PA L Ganges R.

1833: Presbyterian Church of USA

Tavoy

S OU T H C HI N A S EA

1706: Frederick IV of Denmark sends 2 Pietists from Halle 1728: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK)

Malacca Singapore

BORNEO

SU

1865: Rhenish Mission

A

1862: Rhenish Mission 1836: Rhenish Mission, Basel Mission 1849: Netherlands Missionary Society

By 1910, only Afghanistan, Nepal, and Tibet remained closed to missionaries. Yet overall, Asian reactions to Christianity were typically indifferent or hostile.

China and Japan Except for a tiny Dutch presence permitted at Deshima, near Nagasaki, Japan was totally closed to Westerners, whilst in China Europeans were restricted to commercial

MOLUCCAS

500

0 250 500 750 Kilometers

Christian before 1800 British control Dutch control Portuguese control Spanish control Danish control

D U T C H

E A S T

I N D I E S

NEW GUINEA

TIMOR

exchanges at Canton and the Portuguese colony of Macao. In Canton the Briton Robert Morrison (1782–1834) – the first Protestant missionary to China – began to evangelize and translate the Chinese Bible. Inland, in both China and Japan Christianity was outlawed. Harsh persecution had almost eradicated earlier Roman Catholic activity. In the remainder of South and East Asia, Christianity was virtually non-existent.

M I S S I O N S TO I N D I A A N D A S I A

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750

CELEBES

TR MA

N D I A N O C E A N

ES

1855: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG)

1831: ABCFM 1840: Presbyterian Church of USA

Miles 0 250

PIN

Missionary Society

CEYLON

1814: Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society

P ACIFIC O CEAN IP

Madurai

FORMOSA

HAINAN

SIAM

Vellore B AY O F B EN G AL Madras Pondicherry 1824: Baptist Tranquebar

1841: Lutherans

I

Xiamen Canton Macao

1859 American Presbyterians

1842 (after Treaty of Nanking) London Missionary Society Church Missionary Society General Baptist Missionary Society Presbyterian Church of USA American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society Protestant Episcopalian Church

IL

1816: Church Missionary Society

1793: Baptist Missionary Society (William Carey)

E AST C HI N A S EA

PH

Calicut Cochin

B ra h m

J APAN

Nagasaki

Fuzhou

u ap

R. kong Me

Mangalore 1834: Basel Mission

Nanking Shanghai Ningbo

Chandernagore Serampore Calcutta B UR MA

Surat A R A BI A N S E A Daman INDIA 1813: Bombay ABCFM Goa

CHINA

T IBE T

R. us

1835: ABCFM

KO R E A Y ELLOW S EA

tra . R

Ind

R. se gt

KASHMIR Lahore

map 47

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Missions to China and Japan Atlas of Christian History.indd 128

Pr

R

However the traditional hostility of most Chinese towards foreigners was now concentrated on the missionaries. After 1860, anti-foreign protests grew, culminating in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900. The suppression of the Boxers, the collapse of imperial authority, and the revolution of 1911 marked a further period of missionary expansion and relative success. Many Chinese began to see Christianity as a means of personal advancement and of establishing a modernized China

S

S

I

XINJIANG UIGHUR

QINGHAI Ya ng

TIBET

Japan Western missionaries were finally admitted to Tokyo, Hakodate, and Nagasaki in 1859, but Christianity remained proscribed. Although some religious freedom was granted in 1873, not until the Meiji constitution of 1889 was this liberty permanently guaranteed. By that date around 450 Protestant missionaries were at work, but travel inland was still restricted, and Japanese Christianity remained an urban religion. Some Japanese converts attempted to create a distinctively Japanese theology, resulting in the ‘Nonchurch’ Christianity (Mukyokai) of Uchimura Kanzo (1861– 1930), whose adherents combined a personal experience of God with a puritan ethic, developed in small, independent Bible-study groups.

U

tse

128

Within China, the expansion of Christianity became possible only after Britain’s acquisition of Hong Kong, the Treaties of Nanking (1842) and Tientsin (1858), and after the Peking Convention (1860) allowed missionaries into the interior. Within 30 years the number of Protestant missionaries shot up from 81 to 1,269, and doubled again to 2,818 by 1900. Roman Catholic priests, 639 in 1890, numbered 883 by 1900.

NEP

R. us Ind

AL Gang es R.

B URMA

INDIA

B AY O F B E NG A L

I

O

N D I A N C E A N

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Protestant and Catholic Missions to China and Japan: 1920 map 48

U

S

S

I

A

N

E

M

P

I

R

E ur R. Am

Approximate proportion of Protestant/Catholic missions Catholic Protestant Major mission centre 1912 China border

MANCHURIA OUTER MONGOLIA

C

H

I

N

A

Sapporo Hakodate

INNER MONGOLIA Beijing

Ya ng

R. tse

B URMA

Huang R.

SHANXI

QINGHAI

GANSU

HOKKAIDO

BEIZHILI

Tianjin

S E A OF J APAN

KOREA

Yantai

HONSHU

Seoul SHANDONG

SHAANXI

JAPAN

Sendai

Kobe Nagoya Tokyo Hiroshima Osaka Nagasaki

Y ELLOW S EA

JIANGSU Nanjing SICHUAN Suzhou HUBEI Hankou ANHUI Shanghai Chengdu Batang Wuchang Hangzhou Ningbo ZHEJIANG E AST Changsha C HI N A JIANGXI S EA HUNAN GUIZHOU FUJIAN Fuzhou Xiamen YUNNAN GUANGXI GUANGDONG FORMOSA Shantou Guangzhou HENAN

Fukuoka

SHIKOKU KYUSHU

Kagoshima

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Hong Kong Miles 0 HAINAN

0 250 Kilometers

NG AL

IL

IP

S O U TH C H I N A S EA

PH

R. kong Me

SIAM

500

500 750

PIN

ES

Density of missions per province c. 1920 More than 251 201–250 151–200 101–150 51–100 0–50

M I S S I O N S TO C H I N A A N D J A PA N

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WASHINGTON

Seattle MONTANA

Walla Walla (1846)

IDAHO

OREGON

WYOMING

NEVADA

COLORADO

UTAH

R.

Since the early years of the French Empire in North America, French priests had held the majority of senior posts in the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Now Irish priests gradually replaced them. As Protestant Prussia increased its strength relative to other German states during the 19th century, many German Roman Catholics emigrated to North America. The German Chancellor Bismarck’s anti-Catholic Kulturkampf (1871–76) strengthened the pull of America for German Catholics, especially those from Bavaria and the Rhineland. Many newly-arrived German immigrants soon moved on to the Mid-West. American Catholics faced a bitter campaign of anti-foreignism displayed as vestryism (church ownership and control at local level), ‘Know Nothingism’ (aimed at restricting office to native-born citizens), and economic disadvantage. However they were ably led by such men as John Hughes (1797–1864) of New York, John England



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Catholicism in the U.S.A.

Roman Catholics had long been feared and disfranchised in many of the British North American colonies. The first mass immigration of Roman Catholics occurred as families fled the Irish Potato Famine of 1847, many settling as day labourers in Eastern cities.

San Francisco (1853) CALIFORNIA

Santa Fe (1853)

Los Angeles

ARIZONA NEW MEXICO

El Paso

P ACIFIC OCEAN

1895 from Mexico

1895 from the Philippines Miles 0 100

200

1895 from Mexico

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

Baltimore Cathedral, built in 1821, was the first Roman Catholic cathedral in the U.S.A.

130

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M

Growth and Distribution of Roman Catholicism in the U.S.A. map 49

NORTH DAKOTA

New diocese with date established ‘German Triangle’ Indigenous black Catholics New concentration of black Catholics

L. Superior

TANA

MINNESOTA

L. Huron

pi sip

SOUTH DAKOTA

MAINE

WISCONSIN

R.

Milwaukee (1843)

WYOMING

NEBRASKA

ouri R. Miss

Dubuque (1837) IOWA

L. Michigan

Mi ssi s St Paul (1850)

MICHIGAN

Detroit (1833)

Chicago (1843) ILLINOIS

NEW MEXICO

WEST VIRGINIA

Bardstown (1808)

MS CT

1815 and after from Germany 1820s from Ireland

RI

New York (1808)

1858: Paulist Fathers founded

VIRGINIA

Richmond (1820)

TENNESSEE

1880-1915 from Italy, Poland, Austria-Hungary, Lithuania

NORTH CAROLINA

SOUTH CAROLINA

MISSISSIPPI

Dallas El Paso

KENTUCKY

Nashville (1837) ARKANSAS

Scranton (1868)

Boston (1808)

Philadelphia (1808) NJ Cincinnati MD (1821) Baltimore (1789) DE

INDIANA

Vincennes (1834)

Miss issip pi R .

Santa Fe (1853)

Ark an sa OKLAHOMA s R .

1897: Polish National Catholic Church formed

1787: German Catholics form Holy Trinity Church

OHIO

KANSAS

MISSOURI

L. Erie

NH NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

COLORADO

St Louis (1826)

VT

L. Ontario

ALABAMA GEORGIA

TEXAS

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Charleston (1820)

LOUISIANA

New Orleans (1826)

Galveston (1847) 1895 from Mexico

FLORIDA

1837: Sisters of the Presentation founded

1895 from Mexico

GULF

OF

M EXICO

(1786–1842) of Charleston, and Cardinal James Gibbons (1834–1921), Archbishop of Baltimore from 1877. In the papal encyclical Rerum novarum (1891) Catholics won from the Vatican the important right to participate fully in labour unions.

1790 /1800s from Haiti

Miami 1945 from 1959 from Cuba Caribbean

1945 from Puerto Rico

Catholic church density 1890 per county More than 20 11–20 6–10 3–5 1–2

A major achievement of American Catholicism was the construction of a full Christian school system: elementary, secondary, and university.

C AT H O L I C I S M I N T H E U. S . A .

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WASHINGTON MONTANA

IDAHO

OREGON

WYOMING

184 Mormon tr

Salt Lake City

NEVADA

1847: Brigham Young establishes Mormon theocratic state of Deseret UTAH

COLORADO

R.

These new movements included Puritan communities such as Brook Farm (1841–47), which burgeoned from religious discussions in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Oneida, New York State, was founded by the Congregational minister John Humphrey Noyes (1811–86), and initially thrived. But when Oneida experimented with ‘complex marriage’ (an organized form of promiscuity) and scientific birth control, it was assaulted by clergy and broke up. The Shakers, who formed 19 successful celibate communes, were also byproducts of New England culture. The Seventh Day Baptist (German) Johann Conrad Beissel (1691–1768) founded Ephrata, for a time the cultural centre of the Pennsylvania Dutch; whilst Count Zinzendorf set up Pietist colonies in Pennsylvania similar to the mother community at Herrnhut, Saxony. Followers of the German immigrant George Rapp (1757– 1847) set up thriving ‘Rappite’ or ‘Harmonist’ communities at Economy, Pennsylvania, and Harmony, Indiana. The Mormons – ‘The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints’ – were the most successful of the religious communes with a New England background, established at Salt Lake, Utah, by Brigham Young (1801–77) in 1847, after a long trek westwards. There was



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New Religious Movements 132

During the first half of the 19th century, many American frontier regions were settled by a variety of religious communities and communes seeking the freedom and space to practise their beliefs. People roused to commitment to a new life by the revivalists often moved on to one or other of these new movements: Oneida, the Shakers, or the Mormons – or to new denominations such as the Seventh-day Adventists and Church of God (Anderson), whose first settlement practised Christian communism.

San Francisco

1880s: Malinda Cramer gathers Church of Divine Science CALIFORNIA 1908: United Lodge of Theosophists founded

Los Angeles

ARIZONA

NEW MEXICO

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Miles 0 100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

also a ‘Reorganized LDS Church’, founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. (1832–1914), with headquarters in Independence, Missouri, which didn’t practise polygamy, and several splinter groups. Like many other groups, the Jehovah’s Witnesses, founded around 1870 by Charles

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The Rise of New Religious Movements in the U.S.A. map 50

Early spiritualist churches 1848: Community founded by Noyes NORTH DAKOTA

TANA

1860: Joseph Smith III forms Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints WISCONSIN

so

i R.

NEBRASKA

IOWA

Amana

oR .

COLORADO

1839: Mormons build Nauvoo temple

Only surviving Shaker community

1836: Mormon temple dedicated

Battle Creek

L. Erie Kirtland PENNSYLVANIA

NEW MEXICO

NORTH CAROLINA

SOUTH CAROLINA

MISSISSIPPI

ALABAMA

NH

Sabbathday Lake 1879 : Original Church of Christ, Scientist

MS CT

RI Wallingford Harmony New York Pittsburgh NJ Philadelphia

TENNESSEE

ARKANSAS

VT

Lynn 1881: Christian Science Boston headquarters 1882: Church of the Higher Life established 1892: First Church of Christ, Scientist

1804: Rapp establishes community

Economy ILLINOIS OHIO Anderson Columbus 1881: Warner founds Church of God (Anderson) holiness church MD INDIANA James Fowler Given Kansas City founds Christian Unity Church KANSAS 1889: Unity School of WEST Christianity established New Harmony VIRGINIA VIRGINIA 1815: Rappite 1870: community moves KENTUCKY MISSOURI Charles Taze Russell founds Jehovah’s Witnesses Ark an sa OKLAHOMA s R .

NEW YORK

Oneida Fayette Watervliet Ebenezer

1825: Rappite community moves again

Commerce

Miss issip pi R .

1846-68: Mormon trek westward

MICHIGAN 1863: Seventh-day Adventist Church established

Chicago

1854: Inspirationists migrate

MAINE

L. Huron

L. Michigan

M is

ur

WYOMING

1888: Christian Science Theological Seminary 1893: National Spiritualist Association of Churches formed

1776: First Shaker community

1843: Inspirationists set up Amana colony

MINNESOTA

SOUTH DAKOTA

et

1830: Joseph Smith Jr. sets up Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints

L. Superior

GEORGIA

TEXAS

DE

1774: Shakers from Manchester, England 1843: Inspirationists from Rhineland, Germany 1851: Branch of Oneida Community founded 1804: Rappites from Württemberg, Germany

1840s: Seventh-day Adventists grow out of Millerites after ‘Great Disappointment’ 1864: John Thomas names his Restorationist movement Christadelphian 1875: Theosophical Society of America established 1817: First general convention of the Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians)

Chincoteague Island

Joseph B. Lynch founds Christ’s Sanctified Holy Church

LOUISIANA FLORIDA

ATLANTIC OCEAN GULF

OF

M EXICO

Taze Russell (1852–1916), believed they were restoring New Testament Christianity. At their headquarters in Brooklyn, New Jersey, they practised a form of Christian communism modelled on Acts 4:32. Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), founder of the ‘Mother Church’ of Christian Science

in Boston, claimed to have been healed by Phineas P. Quimby (1802–66) greatly admiring his New Thought system. In 1875 she brought out the first edition of Science and Health, and in 1908 founded The Christian Science Monitor, which became one of the leading daily newspapers in America.

NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

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WASHINGTON MONTANA

OREGON

IDAHO WYOMING

NEVADA

UTAH

COLORADO

R.

According to Pentecostalist tradition, on 1 January 1901 the first ‘Pentecostals’ are said to have appeared at Charles Parham’s (1873– 1929) Bethel Bible College, Topeka, Kansas, when Agnes Ozman received the baptism of the Holy Spirit and spoke in tongues. Parham now began to teach that tongues was ‘Bible evidence’ of baptism in the Holy Spirit, and a supernatural gift of human languages to aid in world evangelization. Pentecostalism achieved worldwide attention in 1906 through the Azusa Street revival, Los Angeles, led by the AfricanAmerican preacher William Joseph Seymour (1870–1922). His Apostolic Faith Mission conducted almost continuous services, where thousands of people claimed to have received the gift of tongues and baptism in the Holy Spirit. Several holiness denominations soon joined the new movement, including the Pentecostal Holiness Church, the Fire-Baptized Holiness Church, and the Pentecostal Free-Will Baptist Church. The African-American Charles Harrison Mason (1866–1961) carried the tongues experience back to his Church of God in Christ at Memphis, Tennessee and the denomination

The Origins of Pentecostalism in the U.S.A.

San Francisco

1906: Cashwell visits Azusa St; returns with Pentecostal message

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The Rise of Pentecostalism 134

Pentecostalism in America arose out of the holiness movement, and appeared in holiness churches and camp meetings from the mid-1860s onwards. As the 20th century approached, there were increasing numbers of incidences of people speaking in tongues and other physical signs of the Holy Spirit’s powers. The first Pentecostal churches started before 1901, including the mainly African-American Church of God in Christ (1897), the Pentecostal Holiness Church (1898), and the Church of God, headquartered in Cleveland, Tennessee (1906).

CALIFORNIA 1906-09: Seymour’s Azusa Street revival March 1907: C. H. Mason sent to Los Angeles

NEW MEXICO

Los Angeles ARIZONA

1906: Se to L

P ACIFIC OCEAN to Latin America Miles 0 100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

soon mushroomed. Having received tongues at Azusa Street in 1907, William H. Durham (1873–1912) returned to Chicago, where he led thousands into the Pentecostal movement, evolving into the largely white Assemblies of God denomination in 1914.

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U.S.A.

map 51

Major Pentecostal location L. Superior

NORTH DAKOTA

TANA

MINNESOTA

SOUTH DAKOTA

MAINE

WISCONSIN

L. Huron L. Michigan

i M

ss iss ipp iR .

WYOMING

ouri R. Miss

NEBRASKA

COLORADO

MICHIGAN

VT

L. Ontario

Chicago ILLINOIS

CT

NJ MD

Topeka

ARKANSAS

NORTH CAROLINA

TENNESSEE

Memphis

Hot Springs

c. 1905: Parham teaching in Houston

Dunn

Camp Creek

1896: Speaking in tongues 1902: Holiness Church set up SOUTH CAROLINA

1907: C. H. Mason founds Church of God in Christ ALABAMA

GEORGIA

1906-7: G. B. Cashwell leads Pentecostal revival

Charleston

MISSISSIPPI

1906: Seymour moves to Los Angeles

ATLANTIC OCEAN

LOUISIANA

Houston

to Latin America

VIRGINIA

KENTUCKY

1914: Assemblies of God founded

TEXAS

DE

WEST VIRGINIA

Mississippi R .

a ns Arka

1907: Mason moves to Memphis

NEW MEXICO

RI

New York

INDIANA

MISSOURI

H. Mason ngeles

PENNSYLVANIA

OHIO

KANSAS

sR .

Boston

MS

L. Erie

IOWA

1900: Parham establishes Bethel Bible School 1901: Speaking in tongues 1903: Parham starts ‘Apostolic Faith’ movement

OKLAHOMA

NH NEW YORK

New Orleans

1905: W. J. Seymour at Parham’s school

FLORIDA

to Africa to Latin America

to Caribbean

GULF

OF

M EXICO

T H E R I S E O F P E N T E CO S TA L I S M

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After emancipation, the black churches were the sole major institution controlled by African-Americans, and became significant centres of black identity. A new militancy emerged with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (N.A.A.C.P.), founded in 1910, and the National Urban League, founded in 1911. National political initiatives combined with black congregations to empower the civil rights movement during and after World War II. James L. Farmer, Jr. (1920–99) and George Houser (1916– ) – a black and a white – both sons of Methodist ministers, founded the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) in 1942. In 1957 the Baptist preacher Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–68) organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (S.C.L.C.). King possessed the ability to



WASHINGTON

MONTANA

IDAHO

OREGON

WYOMING

NEVADA UTAH

R.

COLORADO

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African-American Churches 136

The first independent black churches arose in response to the indignities suffered by black Christians in white congregations. These new churches often borrowed the denominational name of the church they left. Richard Allen (1760–1831) led his people out of a white Methodist church to found the Bethel African Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) church in Philadelphia in 1794. The new denomination held its first General Conference in 1816. James Varick (1750–1827) founded the African Methodist Episcopal Zion (A.M.E. Zion) Church in New York in 1821. Black Baptist churches soon formed too, though Baptist conventions (denominational organizations) were not started until later. The first black foreign missionary, Lott Cary (or Carey, 1780–1828), of Richmond, Virginia, sailed to Liberia in 1821 for the African Baptist Missionary Society, founded in 1815.

CALIFORNIA

1906: Azusa Street revival

Los Angeles

ARIZONA

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Miles 0 100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

employ the language and traditions of the African American congregations and was supported by thousands of black Christians in his celebrated freedom marches seeking civil rights for black Americans.

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NEW MEXICO

The Growth and Distribution of African-American Churches map 52

African American denomination formed (date) L. Superior NORTH DAKOTA

MONTANA

MINNESOTA MAINE WISCONSIN

WYOMING

L. Michigan

SOUTH DAKOTA

ouri R. Miss

NEBRASKA

MISSOURI

Mississipp i

IOWA

MICHIGAN

INDIANA

ILLINOIS

OHIO

1961: Progressive National Baptist Convention, Incorporated (PNBC) formed

1816: Richard Allen founds African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church PENNSYLVANIA NJ MD

1870: Christian Methodist Episcopal (CME) Church formed

OKLAHOMA

Jackson

ARKANSAS

Cumberland Valley TENNESSEE

Memphis

TEXAS

Mis sissippi R.

1907: National Primitive Baptist Convention USA first organized MISSISSIPPI

Raleigh

NORTH CAROLINA

Huntsville Atlanta

ALABAMA

Jackson Montgomery

1821: African American Episcopal Zion (AMEZ) Church formed

Wilmington

1813: Peter Spencer founds African Union First Colored Methodist Protestant (AUMP) Church

VIRGINIA

KENTUCKY

1874: Colored Cumberland Presbyterian Church formed

1958: Martin Luther King Jr. organizes Southern Christian Leadership Conference

RI

New York

DE

WEST VIRGINIA

MS CT

Philadelphia

Cincinnati

Arkansas R .

NH NEW YORK

L. Erie

R.

KANSAS

.

VT

L. Ontario

COLORADO

NEW MEXICO

L. Huron

1886: United Holy Church of America (UHCA) formed

Kinston SOUTH CAROLINA

1901: First United American Free Will Baptist Church conference

GEORGIA

1880: National Baptist Convention, USA Inc. formed

1895: National Baptist Convention (NBC) formed

ATLANTIC OCEAN

LOUISIANA FLORIDA 1896: Church of Christ (Holiness) U.S.A. formed

GULF

OF

M EXICO

Concentration of African American Baptists per U.S. county 1990 More than 4500 2000–4500 1000–1999 500–999 1–499

AFRICAN-AMERICAN CHURCHES

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Christianity in Australasia 138

Atlas of Christian History.indd 138

In the South Seas, missionary activity progressed generally from east to west. Hearing favourable reports about Tahiti, Western Protestant missionaries journeyed there first, moving on later to the more hostile Melanesian Islands in the west. Missionaries with the London Missionary Society were the first to reach the Society Islands; from there they progressed to the western islands of Polynesia: Tonga, Western Samoa, and Fiji. Christianity was carried to Paumotu by native Protestants from Tahiti, just twenty years after missionaries arrived at the larger island. Similarly, the Christianization of Samoa and the Navigator Islands was begun in 1830 by native Methodists from Tonga. Rotuma, Fiji, New Hebrides, and the Loyalty Islands too were all first evangelized by native Christians. After missionaries from the American Board (A.B.C.F.M.) brought Christianity to Hawaii, the major enterprise of crossing the Pacific was undertaken in 1852 by missions to the Marshall Islands and to the Caroline and Gilbert Islands.

Catholic missions In the 17th century, Spanish Roman Catholics crossed from the Christianized Philippines to western Micronesia and converted the population of the Marianas Islands. But no further Catholic evangelization occurred in this region until the late 19th century. The main Catholic missions in the area were French: in Melanesia, the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary – the ‘Pipcus Fathers’; and in Polynesia, the Marist Fathers. The arrival of Catholic missionaries frequently precipitated tension – even conflict – with Protestant converts. It was to avoid such problems that New Guinea was by agreement divided into separate mission fields, Protestant and Catholic. French Catholics also established themselves in New Caledonia and southern New Guinea, as well as on the far eastern islands of Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, Mangereva, and Easter Island.

IND OCE

Australia and New Zealand The English naval explorer James Cook (1728–79) first charted the coasts of Australia and New Zealand in 1770. When Britain set up a penal colony in Australia, an Anglican chaplain, Richard Johnson (c. 1753–1827), sailed out with the first convict ship in 1788. Wesleyans followed in 1815, and Presbyterians in 1823. Christianity was established not so much by missionary enterprise – though missionaries attempted to evangelize the Aboriginal and Maori peoples – or state imposition, as by the voluntary efforts of individual British settlers, soldiers, and officials. By the time an Anglican establishment had been set up in the 1820s, Scottish Presbyterians and Irish Catholics had already become numerous, with Roman Catholic priests serving the mainly Irish Catholic population. Between 1860 and 1940 clergy recruited in Ireland continued to dominate the Australian Catholic church. In New South Wales, the favoured Church of England initially received government grants of land on which to build churches and schools; but after 1836 these grants were made non-denominational. By 1871 a policy of religious voluntarism had been adopted, with state support for solely secular education. The first European settlers arrived in New Zealand in 1805, and the first missionaries nine years later. It became a British colony in 1841, with a religious voluntarism similar to that in Australia adopted in 1877, despite early attempts at founding denominational

W

Ge

c. 182 Scottish Pres

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The Rise and Distribution of the Church in Australasia

TIMOR SEA

INDIAN OCEAN

Pre-1914 Protestant mission Pre-1914 Catholic mission Mission to Aborigines after 1901 Christian by 1800 Aboriginal lands

Darwin Cooktown

map 53

CORAL SEA

NO R T H ER N T ER R I TO RY

A

U

S

T

R

A

WE STE RN AUSTRAL I A Anglicans Roman Catholics Presbyterians Methodists

Alice Springs

Geraldton

S O UT H AUS T R ALI A

L

I

A

QUEENSLAND

D

ar

lin

gR

Brisbane

.

NEW SOUTH WALES

Mu rra

. yR

Adelaide

Albany

Bundaberg

Lutherans Anglicans Roman Catholics Presbyterians Methodists

Methodists Lutherans

Perth

Mackay

1825: Picpus Fathers 1836: Society of Mary (Marists)

Sydney Canberra

VICTORIA Melbourne

c. 1820: Scottish Presbyterians

Auckland

T ASMAN SEA

SOUTHERN OCEAN TASMANIA Hobart

Miles 0

P ACIFIC OCEAN

NE W ZEAL AND

NORTH ISLAND

Napier Wellington

SOUTH ISLAND

Christchurch Dunedin

250

0 500 Kilometers

500

750

1000

settlements in Christchurch (Anglican) and Otago (Presbyterian). Anglicans eventually came to form the majority of the population, with large minorities of Scottish Presbyterians, Roman Catholics, and Methodists.

C H R I S T I A N I T Y I N AU S T R A L A S I A

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During the 19th century Protestant missionaries began to come to Latin America from the USA. North American Protestantism proved attractive to the middle-class liberals who had led the Latin American republics’ fight for political independence. Roman Catholic missions had been ejected, and a shortage of priests in South America brought about a decline in the faith. In the Caribbean, Methodist and Baptist missionaries arrived, often as part of the anti-slavery movement. At the start of the 20th century, the Assemblies of God and Seventh-day Adventists were among the most evangelistic missions working in Latin America. By the outbreak of World War I, every Latin American republic had established Protestant missions. However, with only half a million converts in the entire region, they still represented only a fraction in comparison with the Catholic population. By 1970 about 50 per cent of the Roman Catholic clergy of Latin America were foreigners. Many of them supported indigenous political movements striving for justice against repressive governments. Less dependent on their bishops than local priests, and often paid by missionary societies, foreign clergy felt freer to challenge the authorities. Yet some indigenous clergy – notably Archbishop Óscar Romero of El Salvador (1917–80), who was assassinated for

his stance – also began openly to denounce their governments. Persecutions of the church followed; between 1964 and 1978 260 foreign missionaries were expelled from Latin American states, and more than 450 priests were arrested. During the 1960s Protestant growth escalated, especially in poor urban districts. In much of Latin America the population was only nominally Catholic. The most spectacular Protestant growth in Latin America has been among the Pentecostal groups, especially in Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Guatemala. The most widespread of the Pentecostal churches is the Assemblies of God, whilst the non-Pentecostal Seventh-day Adventists have also become very popular. The interior of the National Cathedral, El Salvador, where Archbishop Óscar Romero was assassinated. His portrait is on the wall.

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Christianity in Latin America: 1900–

map 54 Roman Catholic archbishopric Distribution of Pentecostalism

MEXICO CUBA HAITI JAMAICA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PUERTO RICO

HONDURAS NICARAGUA

MA

COSTA RICA

PA N

A

Port of Spain

Maracaibo

Caracas

Pamplona

VENEZUELA

Medellin Manizales Bogotá

TRINIDAD

oco R. Orin

Georgetown Paramaribo Cayenne

G U YA N A

OR

VA D

N ORTH

San Juan

Cali COLOMBIA

ME SURINA

MA

LA

BELIZE

TE G UA AL EL S

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

FRENCH GUIANA

Quito

PERU

BRAZIL

BOLIVIA

CHILE

AY

1000

GU

0 500 Kilometers

500

RA

Punta Arenas

Vitoria Mariana

Sao Paulo

Santa Porto Alegre Fe Paraná Y Córdoba A URUGU Rosario Montevideo Buenos Aires

1000 1500

Diamantina

Asunción

ARGENTINA

Penco

San Salvador

Brasilia

R.

Santiago

Salta

Maceió

Belo Horizonte Riberao Prêto R.

FALKLAND ISLANDS

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Distribution and strength of Roman Catholicism 50–69% of population 75–89% of population Over 90% of population Mainly Protestant

T H E L AT I N A M E R I C A N C H U R C H

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Fortaleza Natal Olinda-Recife

Salado

La Serena

PA

Goiânia

Para ná

La Paz

Paraguay R.

Arequipa

Cuiaba

Sucre

Miles 0

Teresina

Lima Cuzco

P ACIFIC OCEAN

S. Luiz de Maranhao

Manaus Tocantins R .

Trujillo

Belém

zon R. Ama

ECUADOR

Guayaquil Cuenca

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C

N

A

D

A

NO ATLA OC

U N I T E D S TAT E S

MEXICO

Modern missions

CUBA JAMAICA

P ACIFIC OCEAN

BRITISH GUIANA

ECUADOR

B R AZIL BO

1000

A

C H I L E

Miles 0

ARGENTIN

The birth of modern missions is often traced to the English Baptist cobbler William Carey’s conviction of the claim of the Great Commission in Mark 16:15 upon his life. Carey (1761–1834) taught himself Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Dutch, and French and sailed to India as a pioneering missionary. In the USA the beginning of modern missions dates from the founding of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1810. Throughout the 19th century, missions emanated from churches with a strong belief in the active participation of their members in the work of worldwide evangelization. Some churches were specifically founded to give primary emphasis to missions: for instance the Swedish Mission Covenant Church, founded in 1877, and Christian and Missionary Alliance (C.M.A.), founded in 1897. A. B. Simpson (1844–1919), who started the C.M.A., was also founder of Nyack Missionary College, the earliest ‘Bible institute’ (1882). Similar Bible institutes and colleges soon became vital centres for the training of ministers and missionaries. In 1854 a series of Anglo-American Missionary Conferences commenced, providing much of the impetus leading to the seminal Edinburgh Conference of 1910. In 1866

A

2000

0 1000 2000 Kilometers

Distribution of Protestant Mission Stations in 1925

Continental Missionary Conferences started meeting at Bremen, Germany. In 1888 delegates were sent to the London Conference from 55 societies in Britain and its colonies, 66 societies in North America, and 18 in continental Europe; whilst at the New York Conference of 1900 168 different missionary societies were represented. Among new agencies exhibiting the broader, democratic basis of foreign missions, and making use of diverse talents, the China Inland Mission (C.I.M.) was particularly influential. It was a ‘faith mission’ – dependent on the voluntary support of

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UR

Missions Worldwide

G R E E N

VIA

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LI

142

By 1938 two-thirds of missionaries worldwide were sent out by the Free Churches. Most of those from established churches had either a Pietist (German, Swiss, Dutch, or Scandinavian) or Wesleyan background. During the ‘Great Century of Christian Missions’ (1792–1914), the base of Christian outreach shifted from the patronage of Christian rulers – its foundation for centuries – to a new basis: the voluntary donations of millions of ordinary Christians, and the recruitment of thousands of lay people as missionaries.

UG

UA Y

Worldwide Distribution of Protestant Mission Stations: 1925 map 55

G R E E N L A N D

R

UNITED KINGDOM

N ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

U

S

S

I

A

TURKEY

KOREA

C

H

I

N

A

PERSIA

MOROCCO ALGERIA

EGYPT

JAPAN I N D I A BURMA

SUDAN

AICA

FRENCH INDOCHINA

NIGERIA BRITISH GUIANA

P ACIFIC OCEAN

PHILIPPINES

ABYSSINIA MALAYA LIBERIA

CAMEROONS SU

GOLD COAST

BR A Z I L BO

NE W GUINEA JA VA

SOLOMON ISLANDS

ANGOLA

LI

MADAGASCAR

VIA

AU STR AL IA A

SOUTH AFRICA

UR

ARGENTIN

C H I L E

BORNEO

TRA

INDIAN OCEAN

MA

BELGIAN CONGO

CUADOR

UG

UA Y

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

people responding according to their belief, inclination, and ability – and became the largest single Protestant mission in China. During the 19th century the United States became the major source of new Protestant missions and of missionary personnel. Of seminal importance there was student conference at Northfield, Massachusetts, in 1886, when the ‘Mount Hermon Hundred’ volunteered for mission work. By 1920 more than 20,000 young people had volunteered as missionaries after being challenged by the Student Volunteer Movement (S.V.M.).

NEW ZEALAND

A revolution during the ‘Great Century’ was the mushrooming of the participation of women in missionary work. At the start of the century there were very few women missionaries, but by the end of this period women comprised just over 50 per cent of overseas personnel. During the 19th century about 160 new orders were established in the Roman Catholic Church, mostly devoted to home or foreign missions. France was the greatest source and support for these new Roman Catholic orders.

MISSIONS WORLDWIDE

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The Ecumenical Movement 144

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In 1895 the interdenominational Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), founded in 1844 by the Englishman George Williams (1821–1905), gave birth to the World Student Christian Federation (W.S.C.F.), which, together with the Student Volunteer Movement – a major mission organization – produced some of the great prophets of Christian unity. The 1910 World Missionary Conference, held in Edinburgh and presided over by Student Volunteer Movement leader John R. Mott (1865–1955), reviewed the state of world evangelism. The largest Protestant gathering until that date, this conference was called to promote work for world mission across denominational lines. Mott’s slogan – ‘The Evangelization of the World in this Generation’ – proved a memorable catalyst. The Edinburgh conference succeeded in establishing greater co-operation in missions but also helped launch the modern ecumenical movement. By 1937, the Eastern Orthodox Church was also taking part in ecumenical discussions, as were churches in Africa and Asia. In 1945, the end of World War II spurred the churches to reconvene in Amsterdam in 1948 to form the World Council of Churches. W.C.C. headquarters were later moved to Geneva, and a series of world assemblies followed.

Roman Catholics But Roman Catholics and Russian Orthodox remained notable absentees from ecumenical organisations. Pope John XXIII (r. 1958–63) changed this situation, calling for ‘that unity for which Jesus Christ prayed’ and summoning Vatican II Council (1962–65) to renew the Roman Catholic Church. A new openness to ecumenical affairs entered the Catholic Church after it was announced that other Christian communions were to



Interna lau

C A N A D A

1925: United Church of Canada formed 1921 Lake Mohonk

1983 Vancouver

E

1955 Evanston 1932 New York

U N I T E D S TAT E S

1867: Branch of Evangelical Alliance formed

N ORTH ATLANT OCEAN

P ACIFIC OCEAN

BRAZIL

2006 P

Miles 0

1000

2000

0 1000 2000 Kilometers

be seen as ‘separated brothers’ rather than outside the church. In 1999 representatives of the Lutheran World Federation and Roman Catholic Church signed a joint declaration, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of justification at the root of the Protestant Reformation. But for the Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the Church, and the Church is Orthodoxy. The Eastern Orthodox goal has been to reconcile all non-Orthodox back

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Significant Meetings of the Worldwide Ecumenical Movement map 56 Edinburgh 1910: International Missionary Conference launches ecumenical movement

rk

867: f Evangelical ce formed

Mainly Catholic Mainly Protestant Mainly Orthodox Ecumenical conference

1968 Uppsala Nathan Söderblum (1866-1931) leader of ‘Life and Work’

1937 Edinburgh 1947 Whitby 1924 Birmingham 1937 Oxford

d

921 Mohonk

Amsterdam 1948: World Council of Churches organized Vadstena 1895: World Student Christian Federation formed

1925 Stockholm 1952 Lund

London 1846: Evangelical Alliance founded

N ORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Geneva: World Council of Churches headquarters

R

U

S

S

I

A

1938 Utrecht 1927 Lausanne 1920 Crans 1930 Geneva New Delhi 1961: WCC and IMC unite Russian Orthodox Church joins WCC

Rome 1959: Pope John XXIII calls Second Vatican Council

2013 Busan

1928 Jerusalem

INDIA 1947: Church of South India formed 1975 Nairobi

BRAZIL

P ACIFIC OCEAN

1938 Madras

INDIAN OCEAN

1998 Harare

SOUTH AFRICA

2006 Porto Alegre

SOUTH

AUSTRALIA 1991 Canberra

ATLANTIC OCEAN

into Orthodoxy. Nevertheless in 1965 the anathemas (excommunications) that created the Great Schism of 1054 between Catholics and Orthodox were revoked by Pope John XXIII and the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. But reconciliation proceeded very slowly.

Unity locally Worldwide ecumenism has been reflected in local and grass-roots moves towards unity.

In 1925 the United Church of Canada was formed in a merger of several denominations. Meanwhile many smaller denominations combined with one another in the U.S.A. In 1927 five denominations in China gathered in one Church of Christ. And in 1947 Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Reformed joined to form the Church of South India, serving as a model for others elsewhere.

THE ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT

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Atlas of Christian History.indd 146

Seattle MONTANA

WASHINGTON

Portland IDAHO OREGON WYOMING

NEVADA

COLORADO

Denve

UTAH

R.

During the 19th century, revivalism, religious innovation, immigration, and westward expansion produced new regional patterns that were clear by the turn of the century and form the basis for current American religious regions. New England is characterized by large numbers of Congregationalists, Unitarian-Universalists, Episcopalians, and Catholics. The Midland region to its south – from the mid-Atlantic states to the Rocky Mountains – contains many Methodists, Presbyterians, and German groups, as well as Baptists, Episcopalians, and Disciples of Christ. (The Pennsylvania German sub-region is populated largely by Amish, Mennonite, and similar groups.) The Upper Mid West – west from Lake Michigan through the Dakotas – is dominated by Scandinavian Lutherans, Catholics, and – a result of early 20th-century migration from New England – Congregationalists. Baptists have predominated in the South since the rise of Evangelicalism in the 19th century, but Methodists also form a large minority. The Holiness and Pentecostal churches that grew from both denominations have been strong since 1900. The North Carolina Piedmont region has been occupied by Presbyterian, Quaker, and German groups

D

Col ora do

The Church in the U.S.A. 146

Different geographical areas of the United States have historically been characterized by distinctive religious traditions. In the English colonies, Puritan Congregationalism was concentrated in New England; Anglicanism (later, Episcopalianism) in Virginia, Maryland, New York, and Connecticut; Presbyterianism in the backcountry; Quakerism in Philadelphia and the Delaware Valley; and German groups in western Pennsylvania. These patterns persist, though often overlain by newer ones.

San Francisco San Jose CALIFORNIA

P ACIFIC OCEAN

Las Vegas

Los Angeles San Diego

NEW MEXICO

ARIZONA

Phoenix El Paso

Miles 0 100

200

0 100 200 300 Kilometers

since the Colonial period. Peninsular Florida is peopled by a number of groups who have migrated there since the late 19th century; French Catholic Louisiana is a remnant of the French colonization of the Mississippi Valley; and Texas German the result of 19th-century immigration. Utah and the surrounding area became Mormon in the mid-19th century

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Distribution of Christian Denominations in the U.S.A.: 2000 map 57

L. Superior

NORTH DAKOTA

NTANA MINNESOTA MAINE WISCONSIN

L. Huron L. Michigan

SOUTH DAKOTA

WYOMING IOWA

i R. sour Mis

NEBRASKA

MICHIGAN

Chicago

INDIANA

PENNSYLVANIA OHIO

MISSOURI

Oklahoma City NEW MEXICO

Fort Worth

Dallas

Houston

NORTH CAROLINA

TENNESSEE

ALABAMA

MISSISSIPPI

SOUTH CAROLINA GEORGIA

LOUISIANA FLORIDA

San Antonio

GULF

OF

M EXICO

and is still today religiously uniform. The Spanish Catholic region consists of Catholics of Hispanic descent and Native American Catholics, and is increasingly influenced too by Mexican Catholicism. The Western region has been settled largely by migrants from other areas of the country and has no single dominant group.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Charlotte

Columbus

TEXAS

Austin

VIRGINIA

Nashville

Memphis

New York Philadelphia Baltimore DE

Louisville

ARKANSAS

RI

NJ

WEST Washington D.C. VIRGINIA

KENTUCKY

Mis siss ippi R.

. sR

Ark an sa OKLAHOMA

El Paso

MD

Indianapolis

KANSAS

Boston

MS

L. Erie

CT

COLORADO

Denver

NH

NEW YORK

Detroit ILLINOIS

VT

L. Ontario

Jacksonville Distribution of Christian churches and denominations Baptist Roman Catholic Christian (Restorationist) Lutheran Mennonite Methodist Reformed Mormon Other (Adventist, Episcopalian, Brethren, Quaker, Orthodox, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, United Church of Christ)

These regional divisions are far from exact and other patterns of religious settlement and persuasion co-exist and intersect. Some religious groups – such as Catholics, Episcopalians, and Unitarian-Universalists – are mainly urban; others – such as Churches of God, Disciples of Christ, Baptists, Amish, and Mennonites – principally rural.

T H E C H U R C H I N T H E U. S . A .

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LF

TH

NIA

Arkhangelsk

GU

O

O FB

Helsinki G ULF

St Petersburg

LAND OF F IN

Talinn

Novgorod

Pskov Hill of Crosses

Riga

Meskuiciai (Siaullai) Madonna of Ostra Brava

Yaroslavl

Kalinin

Vilnius

Monastery with relics of St Sergius

Smolensk Kaluga

Minsk

Zagorsk Moscow

Orel

Zhitomir

Ivano-Frankivsk

Kiev

Monastery of the Caves

Vinnytsia

Mukacheve Czernowitz

U

Kirov

Kostroma Ivanov Gorki Vladimir

Tambov Voronezh

Pensa Saratov

Charkov Poltava

UKRAINE

Rostov

Kischenev

Elista

ROMANIA

Krasnodar Simferopol

B ULGARIA

R

Tula

Chernikov Kursk

POLAND Lvov

Vologda

Shrine of Bishop Nikita

B LACK S EA

Stavropol

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SEA

T U R K E Y

N

K’ut’aisi Sukhuumi Saki P’ot’i Bat’umi Akhalts’ikhe Tblisi

Astrakha

IA

Christianity in Russia since 1917

BARENTS SEA

SP

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In 1928 Lenin’s successor, Joseph Stalin (1878–1953), introduced a law on religious associations that allowed a church to operate only if its members were registered, its appointments supervised, its activities were confined to the church building (leased from the state), and it published no ‘propaganda’. Stalin’s aim was to ensure that the church remained submissive and compliant. ‘The Great Patriotic War’ of 1941–45 radically changed matters for the Orthodox Church. Stalin needed support in strengthening the nation’s morale to resist the Nazis, and the church was now utilized as thoroughly as it had previously been persecuted. In 1943, after meeting Stalin, Metropolitan Sergius (1867–1944) was elected Patriarch of Moscow, leader of the Russian Orthodox Church – though his predecessors had been eliminated. In 1946, immediately after World War II, 4 million ‘Uniates’ in the Ukraine – Christians following the Eastern rite but in communion with the Pope – were forcibly converted to Orthodoxy. Attempts to undo this again after the collapse of the USSR in 1989 heightened tensions in the newly-independent Ukraine and damaged relations between the papacy and the Moscow patriarchate. In the 1960s a new wave of religious persecution was unleashed by Nikita

The Russian Church today

CA

148

From its outset the Russian Revolution of 1917 was hostile to Christianity. In a series of decrees Vladimir Lenin (1870– 1924) enforced the separation of church and state, which entailed the church losing all its property and most of its rights. Lenin also launched a campaign to free Russian peasants and workers from the remains of ‘superstition’ (that is, religion). Between 1917 and 1923 more than 1,200 Orthodox priests and 28 bishops were killed.

map 58

Russian Orthodox Patriarchate Archbishopric Bishopric

KARA SEA

Georgian Orthodox Patriarchate Archbishopric Bishopric

Salekhard

angelsk

a

R

U

S

S

I

A

Kirov

roma ov Gorki r Omsk Barnaul

Pensa Saratov

Elista

SP IA

aisi Saki

CA

ropol

Astrakhan

N

SEA

Tblisi

Miles 0 100 200 0 200 Kilometers

400 500

Russian Orthodox more than 60% Russian Orthodox 41–60% Russian Orthodox 21–40% Russian Orthodox less than 20% Protestant minority Jewish minority Muslim

C H R I S T I A N I T Y I N R U S S I A S I N C E 1 91 7

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Khrushchev, Soviet leader between 1955 and 1964. Anti-religious propaganda was increased and half the remaining 63 monasteries closed (there had been more than 1,000 before 1917). President Yuri Andropov (r. 1982–84), one-time head of the KGB, further intensified the ideological campaign against Christians. Article 142 of the Soviet Penal Code banned offences against the separation of church and state, and was used to suppress private prayer and Bible-study meetings and to prevent anyone other than parents from teaching children religion. Such measures were an attempt to quash a religious revival that had been occurring in Russia. Underground, unregistered groups of Christians continued to meet privately – Orthodox, Baptist, Pentecostal, and Mennonite, as well as Roman Catholics in Ukraine and Lithuania.

Eastern Europe Following World War II, treatment of Christianity varied in countries ‘behind the Iron Curtain’ (subject to Communist regimes). After initial attempts at suppression, the Communist government in Poland reached an accommodation with the Roman

150

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Polish pilgrims celebrate the beatification of Pope John Paul II at the Vatican, Rome, Italy.

Catholic Church. Stalin used the subservient Moscow patriarchate to demonstrate to the Orthodox of Romania and Bulgaria that ‘religious liberty’ existed in the Soviet Union. In Albania religion was completely proscribed and all places of worship closed. In Hungary and Czechoslovakia so-called ‘peace movements’ were formed among the clergy, to promote compromise between them and the State. In 1989 the collapse of the Soviet Union and break-up of the Soviet empire brought new freedoms to satellite states in Eastern Europe and led to a revival of Christianity. The Polish Pope John Paul II (r. 1978–2005) played a role in the demise of the Soviet Union with his visits to Poland backing the Solidarity Movement. Lutherans in East Germany and Catholics in Romania also had an important part in ending Communist domination in 1989. In the new Russian Federation President Boris Yeltsin (r. 1991–99) helped restore Orthodoxy to a prominent position.

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North America

Africa

In the USA the huge influence of Mexican, Cuban, and other Latinos has given Catholicism (and increasingly Protestantism) an Hispanic aspect, especially in the South-West and Florida. Eastern Orthodoxy is weaker, except possibly in New York, with its expanding Russian community. Korean and Chinese evangelicals are prominent in California. Though the US constitution stipulates separation between Church and State, politics is strongly influenced by Christian forces. Canada is generally more conservative than America, with Quebec overwhelmingly Catholic.

In Africa, especially West and South, the formation of many African Independent Churches – often blending indigenous themes with those of the Bible – has added a new dimension to Christianity that is beginning to eclipse the mainstream, especially in southern Africa.

Eastern Europe The collapse of the Soviet Union and freeing of satellite states in Eastern Europe led to a revival of Christianity. President Vladimir Putin has attempted to enlist the Russian Orthodox Church in his nationalist revival. In Poland, and elsewhere in Eastern Europe, Roman Catholicism is resurgent.

Latin America In Central and South America, new religions often blend African themes with Christianity. New evangelical and Pentecostal missions, primarily from North America, are increasingly strong. Such Protestantism appeals widely, with its experiential vibrancy and conservative ethics. Catholicism has been transformed by activist priests espousing Liberal Theology which combines left-wing views and the Biblical message – an activism that has often been opposed by the Vatican.

South-East Asia Catholicism has been successful in the Philippines and Protestantism in Korea, but in the rest of Asia the churches’ progress is more modest. Christianity has re-emerged in China, Vietnam, and other countries following lengthy periods of Communist persecution, though it is particularly difficult to quantify as a result of its oppression.

Opposition In a number of countries life has become more difficult for Christians. Islamic extremism has become the most significant source of persecution, particularly in the Arab Middle East and sub-Saharan Africa. Much of the Christian population fled Syria during the civil war that began in 2011. In Nigeria, Islamic militants have attacked Christian communities and abducted their children. In Iraq, the violent jihadist ISIS group has destroyed long-established Christian communities. For a variety of different reasons, North Korea, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Vietnam, India, and China are all particularly difficult places to be Christian. Although some of these countries contain large Christian churches, they face opposition from governments and from Hindu and Buddhist leaders who feel threatened by Christian growth.

W O R L D W I D E C H R I S T I A N I T Y TO D AY

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Worldwide Christianity Today

Although Christianity has greatly declined in Western Europe, in some other regions of the world it has flourished. The demographic centre of gravity has moved south, particularly to Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Pacific.

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Worldwide Christianity Today roman catholic

Catholic 0 – 10% 10 – 25% 25 – 50% over 50%

eastern orthodox

Oriental Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy

0 – 10% 10 – 25% 25 – 50% over 50%

0 – 10% 10 – 25% 25 – 50% over 50%

152

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map 59 protestant

Protestant 0 – 10% 10 – 25% 25 – 50% over 50%

persecution of christians

Persecution Mild Moderate Severe Extreme

W O R L D W I D E C H R I S T I A N I T Y TO D AY

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A Chronology of Christian History c. 4 bc

Jesus is born

ad 29, 30,

Jesus is crucified

311

Donatist schism begins in N. Africa They refuse new Bishop of Carthage because he was made bishop by a bishop who had sacrificed during the persecution

c. 35

Paul is converted

312

Constantine adopts Christian symbol at battle of Milvian Bridge

45–64

Paul’s missionary journeys to Cyprus, Asia Minor, Macedonia, Athens and Corinth. Tried before Herod Agrippa II, appeals to Caesar in Rome.

313

At Milan Emperor Constantine and E. Emperor Licinius agree toleration of Christians

60–100

Four Gospels written – Mark probably first

c. 315

64

Great Fire of Rome; Nero persecutes Christians. Peter probably executed

Eusebius becomes Bishop of Caesarea He writes first history of church


c.67

Paul executed in Rome

c. 320

First church of St Peter’s, Rome

Jews revolt against Rome

324

Constantine sole ruler

70

Romans destroy Jerusalem and Herod’s Temple

325

81–96

Emperor Domitian: renews persecution at end of reign


84

Christians ejected from Jewish synagogue


Council of Nicaea (called later 1st Ecumenical Council) condemns theology of Arius First draft of Nicene Creed

111–13

Letters between Emperor Trajan and Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, about how to treat Christians

325–81

Arian controversy

328–30

Constantine makes Byzantium new capital as ‘Constantinople’ (or ‘New Rome’)

328–73

Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria defends Nicene Creed

c. 330

Macarius founds desert monastery at Wadi-el-Natrun

341–83

Ulfilas Bishop of the Goths: first to convert Germans on large scale Translates Bible into Gothic

or 33

66–70

c. 140–55 Hermas writes The Shepherd c. 140

Christians start writing ‘apologies’ to rebut falsehoods and persuade heathens

144

Marcion excommunicated for heresy: rejecting Old Testament and Jewish origins of Christianity

140–200

Gradual agreement on canon – which books comprise New Testament.

346

Abbot Pachomius, author of famous monastic rule, dies

Polycarp martyred; earliest evidence of ‘cult of martyrs’

361–3

Julian last non-Christian emperor

First Apology of Justin Martyr

364–79

Basil Bishop of Caesarea in Asia Minor; chief mentor for Eastern monks

Montanist prophets active in Asia Minor: believed New Jerusalem coming shortly to earth

c. 371

fl. Gregory of Nazianzus (d. 389) and Gregory of Nyssa (d. 395), Eastern theologians

c. 178–200 Irenaeus Bishop of Lyons

371

Ambrose Bishop of Milan (d. 397)

c. 180

First version of Apostles’ Creed (not so called till c. 390)

378

c. 200

Latin starts being used in some church services rather than Greek

Valens dies at Battle of Adrianople against Goths; leads to military decline of Empire

250

Emperor Decius (r. 249–51) persecutes Christians Origen dies in Syria after torture Novatian founds separate church: believed apostate Christians should not be allowed back in the church

379–95

Emperor Theodosius I, first pious and orthodox emperor After his death, the 2 parts of the Empire grow apart politically

381

1st Council of Constantinople: settles Nicene Creed and Arian controversy

382

Pope Damasus lists canonical books of Old and New Testaments

386

John Chrysostom preaching at Antioch Jerome settles in Bethlehem: translates most of Bible into Latin, 1st version of Vulgate

390

Ambrose excommunicates Emperor Theodosius I for massacre at Thessalonica

155 c.155 c. 170

258

Cyprian (Bishop of Carthage since 248) martyred

c. 280

Gregory the Illuminator converts King Tiridates of Armenia Communities of hermits and monks grow in Egypt and Syria

284–305

Emperor Diocletian starts last great state persecution Many martyrs and apostates

c. 305

Antony of Egypt organizes colony of hermits in Egypt

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395–430

Augustine Bishop of Hippo: writings against Donatists and Pelagians and his City of God dominate Western thinking till Aquinas

622

The Hegira: year 0 of Muslim calendar

395–430

632

Death of Muhammad

First monks in West at Nola and near Marseilles

398–404

635

Aidan Bishop of Lindisfarne (d. 651)

John Chrysostom Patriarch (bishop) of Constantinople

406–7

638–56

Arabs conquer Palestine (and Jerusalem), Iraq, Syria, and Egypt

Germans break through Roman frontier on Rhine

410

664

Synod of Whitby: Roman date for Easter prevails over Celtic

Roman army withdraws from Britain Goths under Alaric sack Rome

681

3rd Council of Constantinople: re-emphasizes Chalcedonian Christology

711–16

Arabs conquer Iberian peninsula

716

Boniface (Wynfrith) makes 1st missionary journey to Frisia


726–843

Iconoclast controversy in East

731

Bede finishes Ecclesiastical History of the English People (d. 735)


732

Charles Martel stops Arab advance in battle near Poitiers 


754

Boniface martyred in Frisia

771–814

Charlemagne King of the Franks

775

See of Nestorian Patriarch moves from Seleucia-Ctesiphon to Baghdad 


781

Alcuin adviser to Charlemagne: ‘Carolingian renaissance’ Sigan-Fu Tablet in China mentions Nestorian missionary there 146 years earlier

416

British monk Pelagius’ teachings condemned at Council of Carthage

416–25

Visigoths take Spain

429–30

Vandals take North Africa

430–61

Leo I first pope with wide authority outside Italy

431

Council of Ephesus reaffirms the faith of Nicaea: Theotokos (‘Godbearer’) accepted as title of Virgin Mary Council deposes Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople; Nestorian churches spread E from Syria to China

438

Theodosian Code, first Christian codification of law, under Theodosius II

451

Council of Chalcedon affirms Christ is one person ‘in two natures’ Rejected by Christians in Egypt and Syria and elsewhere: ‘Oriental’ Orthodox Churches – Armenians, Copts, Ethiopians, and in Syria, Kurdistan, and Malabar – separate from Constantinople

455

787

2nd Council of Nicaea upholds veneration of icons


793

Northmen raid Lindisfarne – and Iona two years later

800

Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III


c. 800

Book of Kells (Ireland)

823

Arabs conquer Crete: begin conquest of Sicily 827

829–65

Anskar of Bremen attempts to convert Denmark and Sweden

843

‘Triumph of Orthodoxy’: icons restored to E. churches

858–67

Nicholas I sole powerful pope for 2 centuries

858

Photius, ‘most learned person in Europe’, Patriarch of Constantinople

863–7

‘Photian Schism’: communion broken between Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople

863

Cyril and Methodius, Orthodox ‘Apostles of the Slavs’ in Moravia Translate Bible and service books into Slavonic

871–99

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, defeats Danes, promotes Christian learning

877

Death of Scotus Erigena: Irish philosopher, head of school at Laon

910

Monastery of Cluny founded; becomes centre of reform

Justinian rebuilds Church of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople

961

Athanasius the Athonite founds Great Lavra on Mount Athos (d. 1003)

Benedict of Nursia draws up monastic rule at Monte Cassino

962

Otto the Great restores Holy Roman Empire Bases public order on rule by bishops

988

Conversion of Russia Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, baptized by Byzantine missionaries

995

Norway converts to Christianity, partly by force

Vandals take Rome: Pope Leo the Great (r. 440–61) negotiates with them

457

Barsumas, Metropolitan of Nisibis, Persia, founds Nestorian school there

c. 460

Death of Patrick ‘Apostle of Ireland’

469–c. 480 Sidonius Apollinaris Bishop of Clermont 476

Romulus Augustulus, last Roman Emperor of W., deposed

488–553

Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy

492–96

Pope Gelasius drafts theory that two powers govern the world: the state for bodies and the Church for souls – the latter more important

496

Clovis, King of the Franks, baptized

c. 520

Dionysius Exiguus creates system of dating by b.c. and a.d.

c. 525

Boethius, author of Consolation of Philosophy, executed

527–65

Emperor Justinian I re-conquers N. Africa from the Vandals and Italy from Goths

529

Code of Justinian revises Theodosian Code: basis of law codes of Christian Europe

532–8 c. 540

c. 542–78 Jacob Baradaeus founds Monophysite (Jacobite) churches E of Edessa 553

2nd Council of Constantinople

c.563

Columba leaves Ireland with 12 disciples: makes Iona his centre (d. 597)

590–604

Pope Gregory I, ‘the Great’; statesman and first monk to become pope

c. 590

Columbanus leaves Ireland: introduces usages of Celtic Church in Gaul

597

Gregory sends Augustine to convert England and become 1st archbishop of the English

996–1021 Caliph el-Hakim persecutes Coptic Church in Egypt 997–1038 King Stephen makes Hungary Christian 1000

Icelandic Thing (Parliament) legalizes Christianity

1009

Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, destroyed

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1012

Romuald founds eremitic monastery of Camaldoli, Tuscany

1031

Caliphate of Cordoba falls

1049–54

Leo IX pope: begins papal reform

c. 1051

Monastery of the Caves founded at Kiev

1054

Mutual anathemas exchanged between papacy and Patriarch Michael Cerularius

C.11–1492 Christians conquer Iberian peninsula

1215

4th Lateran Council: annual confession ordered, doctrine of Eucharist redefined

1215–50

Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily; strongest opponent of medieval popes

1216

Dominican friars established

1217–21

5th Crusade at Damietta

1220

Dominic gives final form to his Order of Friars Preachers (Dominicans)

1223

Franciscan Rule approved by Pope Honorius III

1059–92

Normans conquer S. Italy and Muslim Sicily

1071

Seljuk Turks defeat Byzantines at Battle of Manzikert

1224–44

Mongols invade Russia and Eastern Europe

1073–85

Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand) strives to reform Church, rid it of lay control, and make priests celibate

1226

Death of Francis of Assisi

1232

Gregory IX establishes papal inquisition

1077

Emperor Henry IV made to do penance to pope at Canossa, N. Italy

1237–40

Mongol Tatars overrun Kievan Rus’

1084

Bruno founds Carthusian Order

1239

Gregory IX excommunicates Frederick II

1088

Building of great church at Cluny begins

1244

Jerusalem finally lost to Muslims

1093–1109 Anselm Archbishop of Canterbury

1248–54

Louis IX of France on crusade in Egypt and Palestine

1095

Urban II preaches 1st Crusade at Council of Clermont

c. 1250

All Spain re-conquered for Christianity except Granada

1098

Anselm’s Cur Deus Homo: theology of the atonement Abbey of Cîteaux founded: Cistercian Order quickly spreads

1256

Augustinian Eremites (Austin Friars) founded

1261

Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus recovers Constantinople

1099

Crusaders take Jerusalem

1274

Death of Thomas Aquinas: his Summa marked apex of medieval theology

c. 1116

Peter Abelard teaches at Paris

1291

Last Crusader outpost in Palestine, Acre, falls

1120

Premonstratensian Order founded Templars founded to defend holy places in Palestine Order of St John of Jerusalem (Hospitallers) founded

1295

Mongol dynasty converts to Islam

1302

Pope Boniface VIII’s bull Unam Sanctam claims universal jurisdiction of pope and superiority of spiritual power over secular

1123

1st Lateran Council

1305

Pope Clement V elected: start of French exile of papacy

1124

Conversion of Pomerania and S. Baltic coast begins

1308

Death of Duns Scotus

1139

2nd Lateran Council

1309–77

Popes at Avignon: ‘Babylonian Captivity’

1146

Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153) preaches 2nd Crusade at Vézelay

1311–12

Council of Vienne rules for strict party in dispute over Franciscan poverty

1154–59

Pope Hadrian IV: only English pope

1312

Destruction of Templars

1156

Carmelite order founded at Mt Carmel, Palestine

1314

Latest date for Dante’s Divine Comedy

c. 1157

Peter Lombard’s Sentences completed, Paris


1324

1170

Archbishop Thomas Becket murdered at Canterbury

Marsilius of Padua, Defensor pacis: church should be ruled by general councils

1174

Thomas Becket canonized

1327–47

William of Ockham (b. c. 1285) criticizes philosophy of realism 


Peter Valdes converted: forms ‘the poor men of Lyons’ – Waldensians

1327

Death of Meister Eckhart, German Dominican mystic

1177

3rd Lateran Council


1337

1187

Saladin takes Jerusalem

Hesychast controversy: teaching of Gregory Palamas on Divine Light upheld by councils at Constantinople, 1341, 1347, 1351

1189–92

3rd Crusade

c. 1340

Sergii of Radonezh founds monastery of Holy Trinity, near Moscow


1348–9

Black Death

1357

Death of Gregory Palamas, defender of Hesychasm in E.

1361

Death of Johann Tauler, disciple of Meister Eckhart

1374

Geert de Groote converted: founds Brethren of the Common Life, Deventer, Netherlands

1375–82

John Wyclif attacks clerical wealth, monasticism, and authority of pope
 1378–1415 Great Schism in papacy: 2, then 3, simultaneous popes

1382–95

Wyclif’s Bible: Middle English vernacular translation

1176

1198–1216 Pope Innocent III: politically most powerful pope c. 1200

Teaching communities evolve into universities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Cambridge etc

1204

4th Crusade diverts to Constantinople: Latin troops sack city 


1209

Francis of Assisi gives his friars first Rule

1209–29

Albigensian Crusade against heretics in S. France

1212

Children’s Crusade

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1387

Monastery of Windesheim founded by Radewyns, disciple of de Groote

1409–49

Conciliar Movement: series of councils to end Great Schism and reform church

1534

Henry VIII usurps pope’s authority in England by Act of Supremacy Luther Bible published Loyola founds Jesuits in Paris

1413 1414–18

Jan Hus writes the De Ecclesia: for reform of church along Wyclif’s lines

1536

John Calvin publishes Institutes, arrives in Geneva

Council of Constance states general councils superior to popes Jan Hus burnt. Beginnings of Hussite churches

1537

Pope Paul III declares American Indians entitled to liberty and property Denmark and Norway adopt Lutheran Protestantism

1418

Imitatio Christi, ascribed to Thomas à Kempis


1539

Henry VIII’s Great Bible printed

1431–49

Council of Basel

1540

Pope Paul III approves Loyola’s foundation of Jesuits

1433

Nicholas of Cusa produces programme for reform of church and Empire


1542

Francis Xavier arrives in Goa, India, then Japan

c. 1440

Reform of Ethiopian Church by Emperor Zara Jacob


1453

Ottoman Turks take Constantinople: turn Hagia Sophia into mosque

1454/5

Gutenberg Bible published

1545–47, Council of Trent reforms Catholic Church 1551–52, 1562–63

1479

‘Spanish Inquisition’ established with papal approval 


1492

Muslims expelled from Spain Christopher Columbus lands in West Indies

1493–4

Pope Alexander VI partitions new discoveries between Spain and Portugal 
1498

1501

1549

First Book of Common Prayer, England

1550–2

Iceland adopts Lutheran Protestantism

1551–94

Palestrina at Rome: from 1570 composer to papal chapel

1552

Las Casas publishes account of oppression of S. American Indians Second Book of Common Prayer, England

1st bishopric in Hispaniola, Haiti

1553–58

Mary I reigns in England; tries to restore Catholic Church

Conflict in Russia between monastic ‘Possessors’ and ‘Non-Possessors’

1553

Anti-Trinitarian Spaniard Servetus burnt as heretic in Calvin’s Geneva

1506

Pope Julius II lays foundation stone of St Peter’s, Rome

1555

1508–12

Michelangelo paints ceiling of Sistine Chapel, Rome

1509

Erasmus attacks corruption in church and criticizes monasticism

Peace of Augsburg: Protestant faith legal in Lutheran states and cities: ‘cuius regio eius religio’ Bishops Latimer and Ridley burnt at Oxford

1510

Martin Luther visits Rome

1556

Archbishop Cranmer burnt

c. 1512

Copernicus suggests earth moves round sun

1557

1st Index Librorum Prohibitorum

1516

Erasmus’ Greek New Testament published

1559

1517

Luther issues 95 theses against indulgences at Wittenberg

1st National Synod of French Reformed Church (Huguenots) Queen Elizabeth achieves moderate Protestant settlement, England 1st reduction (reservation for Jesuit-led Indian community), Paraguay

1519

Zwingli begins reform in Zurich

1560

John Knox establishes Reformed church in Scotland

1519–21

Spain conquers Mexico

1561

Belgic Reformed Confession adopted in Antwerp

1521

Pope excommunicates Luther; Charles V outlaws him at Diet of Worms

1562

1522

Luther publishes German New Testament

1522–3

Ignatius Loyola writes Spiritual Exercises

1524

Franciscans arrive in Mexico

Heidelberg Catechism for Palatinate: Calvinist with Lutheran modifications Theresa of Avila reforms Carmelites with teaching of mystical prayer Spain seizes Philippines

1524–6

Peasants’ Revolt in Germany

1562–94

French Wars of Religion

1525

Early Anabaptists in Zurich

1525–30

Protestant Reformation spreads in central and S.W. Germany

1526

Tyndale’s English New Testament published

1528

Reformation adopted in Bern

1529

Diet of Speyer: some members protest against attempt to stop reform – hence ‘Protestants’

1530

Diet of Augsburg: Confession of Augsburg, classic Lutheran statement of faith Denmark adopts Lutheran creed

1503

1531

1st bishop appointed in Nicaragua

1533–35

Anabaptists seize Münster; overthrown by force

1562–1604 Fausto Sozzini spreads Unitarian (‘Socinian’) doctrines 1564

‘Counter Reformation’ decrees of Council of Trent confirmed by Pope Pius IV

1566

Calvinist ‘iconoclast’ movement in Netherlands Philip II of Spain crushes resistance

1568–1648 Dutch Wars of Religion: Eighty Years’ War 1570

Pius V’s bull Regnans in Excelsis declares Elizabeth I a heretic

1572

St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, Paris, attempts to end Huguenot power

1574

Calvinist university of Leyden established, Holland

1577

Formula of Concord: definitive statement of Lutheran Confession

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1579

Jesuits at Mogul court, India Union of Utrecht; 7 N. provinces defy Philip II of Spain; S. Netherlands make peace 1st Archbishop of Manila

1662

English Book of Common Prayer revised ‘Half-way Covenant’ in churches of Massachusetts Bay

1666

Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow, tries to reform church: lasting schism of ‘Old Believers’

1582

Gregorian calendar adopted

1667

Milton’s Paradise Lost

1588

Spanish Armada defeated Molina (Spanish Jesuit) defends free will against predestination

1675

Philipp Jakob Spener begins ‘Pietist’ movement in German Lutheranism

1678

John Bunyan, Pilgrim’s Progress

1589

1st Russian patriarch of Moscow

1682

Quaker William Penn founds Pennsylvania on basis of religious toleration

1590

1st complete Hungarian Bible, translated by Gaspar Karoli

1683

2nd siege of Vienna; W. limit of Ottoman advance

1593

Henry IV turns Catholic, ending Wars of Religion in France Sweden establishes Lutheran church: last Scandinavian country to turn Protestant

1685

Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes Huguenots flee to Britain, Germany, and America

1596

Council of Brest-Litovsk: majority of Orthodox in Ukraine join Rome as ‘Uniates’

1687

1598

Edict of Nantes guarantees toleration for Huguenots in Catholic France

1599

Lima earthquake — Jesuits there institute Three Hours Service of Good Friday Jesuit Eusebio Kino pushes into Arizona and California Pope Innocent XI condemns Quietism of Miguel de Molinos

Synod of Udayamperur: Malabar Christians conform to Rome

1600

1688

Roman Catholic James II driven from English throne

Giordano Bruno burnt in Rome

1601–10

1689

Jesuit Matteo Ricci in Beijing

Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to dissenters in England John Locke: Letters Concerning Toleration

1605

Italian Jesuit missionary Robert de Nobili arrives in India

1692

Imperial decree in China permits Christian worship

1611

Berulle founds French Oratory King James Bible (Authorized Version) published

1698

Charter of East India Co. provides for chaplains to India

1614

1699

Pope condemns Fénelon’s quietism

Christian worship prohibited in Japan

1618–19

1701

Synod of Dort condemns Arminian doctrines

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts founded, London

1618–48

Thirty Years’ War in Germany: in early years attempts to reverse Protestant advances

1704

Papal legate arrives in E. to deal with Jesuit compromises with Chinese and Indian customs

1620

Mayflower sails from Holland and England to America with Puritans

1709–10

Louis XIV destroys the Jansenist centre of Port-Royal, Paris

1622

Bull of Pope Gregory XV, Inscrutabili, creates Congregation de Propaganda Fide

1719

Death of Ziegenbalg, Pietist missionary, in India

1624

1721

Death of Jakob Boehme, mystic

Peter the Great abolishes the Moscow patriarchate; puts church under ‘Holy Synod’

1626

1st Christian church in Tibet (Jesuit)

1722

Count Zinzendorf founds the Pietist Herrnhut colony, Saxony

1629

Patriarch Cyril Loukaris issues a Protestantizing Confession of Faith

1723–26

Reign of Yung Cheng in China: Christians persecuted

1633

Galileo Galilei tried by Inquisition for advocating Copernican theory Sisters of Charity founded by Vincent de Paul and Louise de Marillac

1723–50

J. S. Bach at Leipzig: composes the great religious works

1724

Church of Utrecht (Jansenist connection) separates from Rome

1637

Shimabara Rebellion of persecuted Christians in Japan

1726

Great Awakening begins, N. America

1646

John Eliot starts mission to Native Americans

1727

1647

George Fox begins to preach: organizes Quakers – ‘Society of Friends’

Jonathan Edwards converted: leading Calvinist theologian in N. America (d. 1758)

1648

Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years’ War Calvinists as well as Catholics and Lutherans legal in Germany

1728

William Law, A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life

1736

Joseph Butler, The Analogy of Religion

Iroquois destroy Hurons and their Jesuit mission

1738

John Wesley converted

1652–97

Jesuit Antonio Vieira works on behalf of Indians of Brazil

1740

1654

Pascal converted in night of ‘fire’

Election of Benedict XIV, great pope of C18 (d. 1758) George Whitefield preaches in America (also 1754, 1764, 1770)

1655

Duke of Savoy persecutes the Vaudois (Waldenses)

1742

1st performance of Handel’s Messiah

1656–7

Pascal’s Provincial Letters ridicule Jesuits and defend Jansenists

1746

Pietist missionary Christian Friedrich Schwartz to India

1659

Laval-Montmorency Catholic vicar apostolic at Quebec

1660

Restoration of Charles II and of Anglican Church in England

1649

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1759

British take Quebec; free exercise of religion guaranteed to Roman Catholics of Canada Jesuits expelled from Portugal

1773

1st Methodist Conference in N. America Pope Clement XIV suppresses Jesuits

1781

Emperor Joseph II’s Patent of Toleration

1776

U.S. Declaration of Independence

1787

Protestant marriages legalized in France Constitution of the United States: separation of church and state; civil rights for members of any religion

1789–94

French Revolution: national assembly nationalizes church property, bans monastic vows

1792–3

‘Terror’ attempts to de-Christianize France

1792

Baptist Missionary Society founded, London

1795

London Missionary Society founded

1799

Church Missionary Society founded, London Schleiermacher publishes his addresses, appeals to religious feeling

1800

Camp meetings W. of Appalachians signal ‘Second Great Awakening’: revivalist Protestantism

1801

Bonaparte’s Concordat with Rome revives French Catholic Church, restricted by state 1st major persecution of Roman Catholics in Korea U.S. Congregationalists and Presbyterians organize ‘Plan of Union’ (dissolved 1837)

1804

British and Foreign Bible Society founded: seeks to translate Bible into every significant language

1805

Missionary Henry Martyn arrives in India as chaplain to East India Co.

1807

Britain prohibits slave trade after Wilberforce’s campaign 1st Protestant missionary arrives in China: still illegal to propagate Christianity

1808

Vatican establishes Baltimore as 1st metropolitan see in U.S.A.

1810–24

Future republics of Spanish America struggle for independence: Vatican backs Spain

1810

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (A.B.C.F.M.) formed

1813

East India Co.’s Charter amended to facilitate missionaries entering India

1814

Slave-trade made illegal in Netherlands Pope Pius VII revives Jesuits Bishop of Calcutta consecrated, 1st Anglican bishop in Asia Samuel Marsden’s mission to Maoris of New Zealand

1815

Unitarianism splits from U.S. Congregationalism

1817

Lutherans and Calvinists unite in Prussia and other German states Missionary Robert Moffat arrives in South Africa; works there 50 years

1819

1st Provincial Council of U.S. Catholic bishops, Baltimore

1821

Greek revolt against Ottoman rule; Gregory, patriarch of Constantinople, executed

1822

Brazil gains independence from Portugal

1826–30s Widespread suppression of religious orders in Latin America 1826

Widow-burning banned in British India

1829

Roman Catholic Emancipation in Britain

1830

Protestant starts Nativist crusade against Catholics Book of Mormon

1830–45

Churches in Australia and New Zealand organized

1832

Autonomy of Serbian Orthodox Church

1833

Start of Oxford Movement in Church of England Disestablishment of final U.S. church: Congregationalism in Massachusetts Slavery abolished in British territories

1836

1st Roman Catholic and Anglican bishops in Australia


1839

Bull of Gregory XVI condemns slavery

1840

German missionary J. L. Krapf expelled from Abyssinia Scots missionary David Livingstone arrives in Africa: continues explorations till 1873

1842

George Augustus Selwyn, 1st Anglican bishop of New Zealand

1843

Kierkegaard publishes his Either-Or, existential view of Christianity J. H. Newman’s sermon on ‘The Parting of Friends’ Scottish Disruption: split in Scots Presbyterians over relations with church establishment

1844

Nativists riot against Catholic churches in Philadelphia
 J. L. Krapf sets up C.M.S. mission in Mombasa Adventist groups in U.S.A. and England expect the Second Coming: carry on with modified expectations – 1861 as ‘Seventh-day Adventists’

1845

Baptists and Methodists in U.S. South split off from N. counterparts Newman converts to Roman Catholic Church

1846–78

Pope Pius IX (longest reigning pope). Opposed to world of his time: condemns it in Syllabus of Errors (1864)

1847

Catholic vicariate of Abyssinia created Brigham Young moves Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) to Salt Lake City, Utah

1848

F. D. Maurice and Charles Kingsley found Christian Socialist Movement, London Pope flees Rome revolution Slavery forbidden in all French territories

1850

Establishment of Roman Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales

1851

State support of religion ends in S. Australia

1852

Establishment of Holy Synod in Greece: autocephaly of Greek Orthodox Church


1854

Papal bull by Pius IX: immaculate conception of Virgin Mary an article of faith

1857

Universities’ Mission to Central Africa founded

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1858

Visions of Bernadette at Lourdes Isaac Hecker founds Paulists, 1st U.S. Catholic order of men Treaties of Tientsin imposed on China by Britain, France, Russia, and USA: legalizing of opium importation and free entry of Christian missionaries to interior

1900

Boxer Uprising in China: many missionaries and Chinese Christians massacred

1900–7

Modernist controversy over the right of Catholics to study Bible with historical criticism. Encyclical Pascendi condemns Modernism

1902

Iglesia Filipina Independiente secedes from Roman Catholic Church

1859

Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species

1905

1864

Pope Pius IX’s encyclical Quanta Cura, with attached ‘Syllabus of Errors’

Nihon Kumiai Kirisuto Kyokai (Japan Congregational Church) becomes independent of Western missionary control

1865

Samuel Crowther 1st black Anglican bishop of Nigeria Foundation of the China Inland Mission

1906–7

Separation of church and state in France: state takes church property

1907

1866

St Joseph’s College founded, Mill Hill, London

Walter Rauschenbusch’s Christianity and the Social Crisis proclaims ‘social gospel’

1867

1st Lambeth Conference of Bishops of the Anglican Communion

1908

1868

Archbishop Lavigerie of Algiers founds White Fathers for African mission

Federal Council of Churches founded for U.S. Protestants Churches in S. India unite in South India United Church

1868–70

Italian nationalists seize Rome, annexe papal possessions

1910

Edinburgh Missionary Conference leads to modern reunion movement

1869–70

1st Vatican Council: declares pope infallible

1912

Australian Inland Mission (and flying doctor organization) founded

1871

Old Catholic Church formed in Germany, Switzerland, and Netherlands Disestablishment of Anglican Church in Ireland

1913

J. Chilembwe, nationalist prophet in Nyasaland Theologian Albert Schweitzer to Africa as medical missionary

1872– 79

Kulturkampf in Prussia: Bismarck tries to restrict freedom of Catholic Church

1914

‘Assemblies of God’ affiliation of Pentecostal Churches in N. America

1914–18

World War I

1873

End of open persecution of Christians in Japan

1915

1875

World Alliance of Reformed and Presbyterian Churches formed, Geneva 1878–92

2nd Ku Klux Klan formed: anti-Catholic, anti-Jewish, anti-Black Armenian Christians massacred in Turkey

1916

Charles de Foucauld, ex-soldier and hermit, murdered in Sahara

1879

Australian Methodist missions to Solomon Islands begin Autocephaly of Serbian Orthodox Church

1917

Bolshevik Revolution, Russia

1918

All Russian church property nationalized Many Orthodox bishops and priests killed in Civil War

1881

Westcott and Hort’s Greek New Testament

1884

Tembu national church founded Arrival of the 1st resident Protestant missionary in Korea

1919

World’s Christian Fundamentals Association formed in U.S.A. Karl Barth’s commentary on Romans published

1885

Formation of Romanian Orthodox Church

1920

Serbian patriarchate re-established

1886

Archbishop James Gibbons of Baltimore made cardinal: major U.S. Catholic leader Catholics and Anglicans martyred in Buganda Roman Catholic hierarchy established in India

1921

Church of Jesus Christ through the prophet Simon Kimbangu founded, Congo

1923

Christians expelled from much of Turkey

1924

Autonomy of Finnish Orthodox Church Autonomy of Polish Orthodox Church

1925

Patriarchal status for Romanian Orthodox Church

1927

Faith and Order Movement founded, Lausanne Metropolitan Sergii Stragorodskii accepts recognition of Russian Orthodox Church by Soviet authorities

1928

Conference of the International Missionary Council, Tambaram, S. India

1929

William Temple, Archbishop of York; of Canterbury, 1942–4 Lateran Treaty, Rome: Mussolini creates Vatican City, independent state for pope Mother Teresa begins work in Calcutta

1889

Brazil established as republic: separation of church and state

1890

Anglicans, Methodists, and the L.M.S. agree spheres of mission work in Australian New Guinea

c. 1890

Prophet Harris, W. African revivalist

1891

Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum on social problems

1894–96

Armenian Christians massacred in Turkey

1894–1906 Dreyfus case in France: disputes over anti-Semitism provoke separation of church and state in 1905 1895

Beginnings of World Student Christian Federation (or S.C.M.)

1896

Anglican Orders condemned as null and void by Rome

1898

Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Philippines gain independence from Spain; fall under U.S. hegemony 1st Protestant missionaries enter Philippines

1932

United Methodist Church unites with Wesleyan and Primitive Methodist Churches

1933

Theologian Paul Tillich flees Germany to U.S.A. (d. 1965)

1st Bush Brotherhood, Australia

1934

Synod of Barmen: German churchmen opposed to Hitler found Confessing Church.

1899

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1937

Autocephaly of Albanian Orthodox Church Pope denounces Hitler in encyclical Mit brennender Sorge

1966

Archbishop Ramsey of Canterbury visits Pope Paul VI in Rome Pentecostal and charismatic movements in Protestantism and Catholicism in Americas and Europe Cultural Revolution begins in China: Red Guards close Christian churches

1938

Frank Buchman, founder of Oxford Group, launches Moral Rearmament Kristallnacht: Nazis destroy Jewish shops and synagogues

1939–45

World War II

1968

Papal encyclical Humanae Vitae repeats ban on artificial birth control, stirs Catholic dissent Baptist pastor and civil rights campaigner Martin Luther King assassinated Pope Paul VI inaugurates bishops’ conference, Medellín, Colombia: new openness to social reform

1940

Taizé (ecumenical religious order) founded by Roger Schutz

1943

Concordat with Stalin allows Russian Church to revive and have patriarch again Bishop of Chichester George Bell condemns bombing of German cities

1945

End of Japanese government attempt to control religion In Communist-controlled N. Korea new restrictions on religion Federation of Protestant churches of E. and W. Germany: ‘Evangelical Church in Germany’

1970

World Alliance of Reformed Churches (Congregational and Presbyterian Churches) Formation of Church of North India and Church of Pakistan

1972

Collapse of proposals for Anglican-Methodist constitutional union in U.K.

1946

Abolition of the Eastern-rite (Uniate) Catholic Church in the U.S.S.R.

1976

‘Born-again’ Jimmy Carter elected U.S. President

1947

Church of South India founded (union of Anglicans, Methodists, and South India United Church)

1978

Polish Pope John Paul II elected, first non-Italian since 1523

1948

World Council of Churches founded, Amsterdam New communist governments in E. Europe obstruct and persecute church

1979

Churches in China reopen for public worship John Paul II condemns excesses of liberation theology Nobel Peace Prize to Mother Teresa for work with destitute in Calcutta

1949

U.S. Baptist Billy Graham begins evangelistic tours Communist victory ends Christian proselytism in China

1980

Spokesman for social justice Archbishop Romero of San Salvador assassinated

1950

Pope Pius XII makes Virgin Mary’s bodily assumption into heaven article of faith National Council of Churches formed in U.S.: unites many Protestant and Orthodox churches

1986

Roman Catholic Church and other Christians help end Marcos regime in Philippines Desmond Tutu elected Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town

1988

Millennium of Russian Christianity 3 Lutheran bodies merge as Evangelical Lutheran Church in America

1989

1st woman bishop ordained in U.S. Episcopal Church Ukrainian Eastern-rite (Uniate) Catholic Church authorized in U.S.S.R.

1951

Three-Self Patriotic Movement begins among Protestant Christians in China; similar movement among Roman Catholics: most foreign missionaries leave China

1953

Recognition of Bulgarian Orthodox Church by patriarchate of Constantinople

1989 –90

Communist regimes in E. Europe and Russia fall; state persecution of church ends

1958–64

Khrushchev starts new attack on Russian Orthodox Church

1992

1958

1st Chinese Roman Catholic bishops: opposed by Vatican
 


Church of England decides to ordain women New Catechism of the Catholic Church published

1958–65

Roncalli becomes Pope John XXIII;
 opens up Roman Catholic Church

1993

International Lutheran Council founded

1959

Castro establishes 1st Communist dictatorship in Latin America, in Cuba; limited religious freedoms


1999

Joint Declaration on Doctrine of Justification between Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church

c. 1960

Death of Isaiah Shembe, founder of the Nazareth Movement in South Africa

2001

1700th anniversary of Christianity as state religion of Armenia

2005

Election of Pope Benedict XVI


1960

John F. Kennedy elected 1st Catholic president of U.S.A.

2007

After 80 years’ schism, Russian Orthodox Church reunified

1961

Russian Orthodox Church and most Orthodox churches of E. Europe join World Council of Churches


2009

Father Damien of Molokai canonized by Roman Catholic Church

2013

Argentinian Pope Francis becomes 1st non-European pope of modern era

2015

First woman bishop in Church of England

1962–65

2nd Vatican Council: Catholicism ‘opens’ to modern world; allows services in vernacular, seeks friendship with other denominations

1963

Death of writer C. S. Lewis

1964–85

Clergy criticize military regimes in Brazil for neglecting social justice and abusing human rights

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Further reading Overviews

The Reformations

Diarmaid MacCulloch, A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years, London, 2009 Adrian Hastings, A World History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, Michigan, 2000. Stephen Neill, A History of Christian Missions (The Penguin History of the Church 6), London, 1991 Tim Dowley ed., Introduction to the History of Christianity, 2nd Edition, Minneapolis, 2013

Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe’s House Divided 1490–1700, London, 2003. Martin Marty, Martin Luther, New York, 2004. Bernard Cottret, Calvin: A Biography, Grand Rapids and Edinburgh, 2000. Robert Birley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 1450–1700, Houndmills, 1999. C. R. Boxer, The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion 1440-1770, Baltimore, 1967.

Beginnings Graham N. Stanton, The Gospels and Jesus, 2nd ed., Oxford, 2002. E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, London, 1993. Ivor J. Davidson, The Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine ad 30–312, Oxford, 2004. W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity, London, 1984 J. Stevenson ed., rev. W. H. C. Frend, A New Eusebius, Documents Illustrating the History of the Church to ad 337, London, 1987. Frances Young, The Making of the Creeds, London, 1991.

The Medieval Church Ivor J. Davidson, A Public Faith: From Constantine to the Medieval World ad 312–600, Oxford, 2005. J. Stevenson ed., rev. W. H. C. Frend, Creeds, Councils and Controversies: Documents Illustrating the History of the Church ad 337–461, London, 1989 Philip Jenkins, The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa and Asia, New York, 2008. Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo: A Biography, London, 1969. Richard Fletcher, The Cross and the Crescent: Christianity and Islam from Muhammad to the Reformation, London, 2003. Peter Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity ad 200–1000, Oxford, 1997. Christopher Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades, London 2006. Tibor Szamuely, The Russian Tradition, London, 1974.

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Towards the Modern World Meic Pearse, The Age of Reason: From the Wars of Religion to the French Revolution 1570–1789, Oxford, 2006. W. R. Ward, The Protestant Evangelical Awakening, Cambridge, 1992. Owen Chadwick, The Popes and the European Revolution, Oxford, 1981. Mark A. Noll, A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1992 David Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s, London 1989 and later eds. Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, 1975. Brian Stanley, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Leicester, 1990.

The Modern Age Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity, New York, 2011 Jeremy Morris, The Church in the Modern Age, London, 2007. Ian Breward, A History of the Churches in Australasia, Oxford, 2001. Grant Wacker, Heaven Below: Early Pentecostals and American Culture, Cambridge, MA, 2001.

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Gazetteer Note: Locators show map numbers, not page numbers Aachen Charlemagne’s empire 15 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 Åarhus Early missions in the Christian West 14 Abercorn British Church c. 800 16 Aberdeen European universities 25 Abidjan Africa 1800–1914 46 Abila Early Christian communities 2 Accra Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Acre Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Addis Ababa Africa 1800–1914 46 Adelaide Australasia 53 Adraa Early Christian communities 2 Adrianople Constantine the Great 5 Justinian’s empire 11 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 Aegina Christianity by ad 100 3 Byzantium under threat 13 Aelia Capitolina Early Christian communities 2 Agde Church in the West in the sixth century 9 Agrigentum Church in the West in the sixth century 9 Aguntum Christianity by ad 300 4 Aiguebelle Jews oppressed 23 Aix European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Akhalts’ikhe Russia today 58 Alabama African-American churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Alangard Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Alania Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Albanopolis Apostles and tradition 1

Albany Australasia 53 Albi Medieval heresy 28 Alcalá European universities 25 Alcobaça Cistercian monasticism 21 Aleppo Nestorian and Monophysite churches 8 Crusades 22 Missions to the Mongols 26 Alès Church in the West in the sixth century 9 Aleth Spread of monasticism 10 Alexandria Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Monophysite Church 7 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Great Schism 19 Crusades 22 Missions to the Mongols 26 Africa 1800–1914 46 Algeria Africa 1800–1914 46 Algiers Jews oppressed 23 Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Almalyk Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Altona Pietism 40 Altötting Pilgrimage routes 24 Alvastra Cistercian monasticism 21 Amana New religious movements 50 Amasia Justinian’s empire 11 Amelungsborn Cistercian monasticism 21 Amida Monophysite church 7 Byzantium under threat 13 Amisus Jewish communities 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Justinian’s empire 11 Amorium Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Amsterdam Jews oppressed 23 Catholic Reformation 33

Christian Europe in 1700 38 Anaplus Pilgrimage routes 24 Anazarbus Justinian’s empire 11 Ancrya Arianism 6 Ancyra Jewish communities 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Byzantium under threat 13 Anderlecht Pilgrimage routes 24 Anderson New religious movements 50 Angamala Catholic missions 35 Angers European universities 25 Angola Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Anhui 1920 missions 48 Ankara Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Annaba Church in the West in the sixth century 9 Annapolis Great Awakening 42 Annesi Spread of monasticism 10 Antibes Medieval heresy 28 Antioch Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Great Schism 19 Crusades 22 Antioch in Pisidia Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Great Schism 19 Antivari The West in 1500 30 Antwerp Jews oppressed 23 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Apamea Monophysite Church 7 Justinian’s empire 11

Aphrodisias Monophysite Church 7 Apollonia Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Applecross British Church c. 800 16 Aprah Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Aquileia Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Arbela Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Ardabil Spread of Islam 12 Ardagh British Church c. 800 16 Ardmore Church in the West in the sixth century 9 Arelate Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arequipa Catholic missions 39 Arezzo European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Argentina Latin America 1900- 54 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Arguin Africa to 1800 44 Arimathea Jewish communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Arizona African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Arkansas African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Arkhangelsk Russia today 58 Arles Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Pilgrimage routes 24 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Armagh Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Armenia Apostles and tradition 1

Arra Early Christian communities 2 Arsuf Crusades 22 Arzon Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Ascalon Early Christian communities 2 Crusades 22 Asciano Medieval heresy 28 Assos Christianity by ad 300 4 Astrakhan Russia today 58 Asunción Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900–54 Aswan Spread of Islam 12 Asyut Africa 1800–1914 46 Athens Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Athos Spread of monasticism 10 Attalia Christianity by ad 100 3 Crusades 22 Auch The West in 1500 30 Auckland Australasia 53 Augsburg Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 Charles V 31 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Augusta Trevirorum Christianity by ad 300 4 Augustodunum Christianity by ad 300 4 Auxerre Spread of monasticism 10 Cluniac monasticism 20 Avignon European universities 25 Missions to the Mongols 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Awdaghost Africa to 1800 44 Axum Spread of monasticism 10

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Ayacucho Catholic missions 35 Azores Catholic missions 35 Azotus Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 300 4 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Baalbek Early Christian communities 2 Babylon Christianity by ad 100 3 Spread of Islam 12 Baclayon Philippines 36 Baghdad Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Missions to the Mongols 26 Bagusa The West in 1500 30 Balkh Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Baltimore Catholic missions 35 North America in 1750 41 Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Bamberg Early missions in the Christian West 14 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Catholic Reformation 33 Bangor Church in the West in the sixth century 9 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 British Church c. 800 16 Bangor Iscoed Spread of monasticism 10 Barcelona Charlemagne’s empire 15 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Reformation Europe 32 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Bardsey Spread of monasticism 10 Bardstown Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Barga Spread of Islam 12 Bari Byzantium under threat 13 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 Barka Spread of Islam 12 Barking British Church c. 800 16 Basel Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Friars 26 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34

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Christian Europe in 1700 38 Basra Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Batang 1920 missions 48 Bath Great Awakening 42 Bathurst Africa 1800–1914 46 Battle Creek New religious movements 50 Bat’umi Russia today 58 Baudiuen Jews oppressed 23 Beaufort Great Awakening 42 Beauvais Friars 26 Bebenhausen Cistercian monasticism 21 Bec European universities 25 Beijing Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Catholic missions 35 1920 missions 48 Beirut Early Christian communities 2 American missions 45 Beizhili 1920 missions 48 Belakut Cistercian monasticism 21 Belém Catholic missions 35, 39 Belgian Congo Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Belgorod Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Belgrade Byzantium under threat 13 Great Schism 19 Belo Horizonte Latin America 1900- 54 Beloozero Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Muscovy 29 Belozersk Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Belyatovo Medieval heresy 28 Benevento Charlemagne’s empire 15 The West in 1500 30 Benghazi Africa 1800–1914 46 Benguela Africa to 1800 44 Berenice Jewish communities 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Bergen Pietism 40 Berlin Jews oppressed 23

Pietism 40 Bermondsey Cluniac monasticism 20 Bern Friars 26 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Beroea Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Justinian’s empire 11 Besançon European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Beth Shan Early Christian communities 2 Bethel Early Christian communities 2 Bethlehem Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Spread of monasticism 10 Pilgrimage routes 24 Bethphage Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Bethsaida Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Bethsaida-Julias Early Christian communities 2 Betogabris Early Christian communities 2 Bettbrunn Pilgrimage routes 24 Bialystok Jews oppressed 23 Birka Early missions in the Christian West 14 Birmingham Ecumenical meetings 56 Bius les Barronnies Jews oppressed 23 Blantyre Africa 1800–1914 46 Bobbio Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Bodmin British Church c. 800 16 Bogenburg Pilgrimage routes 24 Bogotá Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Bolivia Latin America 1900- 54 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Bologna European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 Bordeaux Charlemagne’s empire 15 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30

Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Borneo American missions 45 Missions to Asia 47 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Borovsk Muscovy 29 Borsmonoster Cistercian monasticism 21 Bosporos Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Boston North America in 1750 41 Second Awakening 43 Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 New religious movements 50 Bostra Early Christian communities 2 Monophysite Church 7 Justinian’s empire 11 Boulogne Pilgrimage routes 24 Bourges Early missions in the Christian West 14 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Braga Church in the West in the sixth century 9 The West in 1500 30 Brasilia Latin America 1900- 54 Brazil Latin America 1900- 54 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Brazzaville Africa 1800–1914 46 Brechin British Church c. 800 16 Bremen Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Friars 26 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Breslau Jews oppressed 23 Brest-Litovsk Jews oppressed 23 Brindisi Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Crusades 22 The West in 1500 30 Brioude Pilgrimage routes 24 Brisbane Australasia 53 Bristol Medieval heresy 28 British Guiana Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Brogne Cluniac monasticism 20

Bruges Pilgrimage routes 24 Brünn Catholic Reformation 33 Brunswick (Germany) Pietism 40 Brunswick (USA) American missions 45 Brussels Jews oppressed 23 The West in 1500 30 Buda European universities 25 Buenos Aires Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Buffalo Second Awakening 43 Bukhara Spread of Islam 12 Bukowo Cistercian monasticism 21 Bundaberg Australasia 53 Burdigala Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Burgos Jews oppressed 23 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Burma Missions to Asia 47 Bury St Edmunds Jews oppressed 23 Busan Ecumenical meetings 56 Busta Gallorum Justinian’s empire 11 Byblos Early Christian communities 2 Byzantium Jewish communities 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 see also Constantinople Cabasa Monophysite church 7 Cabinda Catholic missions 35 Cacheo Catholic missions 35 Caesarea Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Monophysite Church 7 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Byzantium under threat 13 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Caesarea Maritima Early Christian communities 2 Caesarea Mazaca Christianity by ad 100 3 Caesarea Philippi Early Christian communities 2 Cagliari Charlemagne’s empire 15 The West in 1500 30 Catholic Reformation 33 Cahors European universities 25

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Cairo Spread of Islam 12 Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Calabar Africa 1800–1914 46 Calape Philippines 36 Calcutta Missions to Asia 47 Cali Latin America 1900- 54 Calicut Missions to Asia 47 California African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Calliana Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Cambridge European universities 25 Cameroon (Kamerun) Africa 1800–1914 46 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Camp Creek Pentecostalism 51 Canada Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Canatha Early Christian communities 2 Canberra Australasia 53 Ecumenical meetings 56 Candia Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Crusades 22 Candida Casa Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 see also Whithorn Candidum Spread of monasticism 10 Canopus Spread of monasticism 10 Canterbury Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 British Church c. 800 16 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Canton Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Missions to Asia 47 Cape Cod Protestant settlers 37 Cape Town Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Cape Verde Islands Africa to 1800 44

Capernaum Early Christian communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Capitolias Early Christian communities 2 Caracas Catholic missions 35 Latin America 1900- 54 Carales Christianity by ad 300 4 Carcassone Church in the West in the sixth century 9 Medieval heresy 28 Carmel Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Carnuntum Christianity by ad 300 4 Carpentras Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Carrhae Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Cartagena Justinian’s empire 11 Catholic missions 39 Carthage Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Spread of Islam 12 Carthago Nova Arianism 6 Casablanca Africa 1800–1914 46 Cashel British Church c. 800 16 The West in 1500 30 Castres Medieval heresy 28 Catania European universities 25 Cattaro Jews oppressed 23 Cebu Catholic missions 35 Celebes Missions to Asia 47 Cenchrea Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Cervera Jews oppressed 23 Cesky Brod Medieval heresy 28 Ceuta Catholic missions 35 Ceylon Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 American missions 45 Missions to Asia 47 Chalcedon Christianity by ad 300 4 Spread of monasticism 10 Great schism 19 Pilgrimage routes 24 Chalcis Christianity by ad 300 4 Spread of monasticism 10

Châlon Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Pilgrimage routes 24 Chambéry Jews oppressed 23 Chandernagore Missions to Asia 47 Chang’an Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Changsha 1920 missions 48 Charcas Catholic missions 39 Charkov Russia today 58 Charleston Protestant settlers 37 North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Chartres Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Châtel Jews oppressed 23 Chengdu 1920 missions 48 Chengtu Missions to the Mongols 26 Chernigov (Chernikov) Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Jews oppressed 23 Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Cherson Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Chiapas Catholic missions 35 Chiaravalle Cistercian monasticism 21 Chicago Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 New religious movements 50 Chile Latin America 1900- 54 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 China American missions 45 Missions to Asia 47 1920 missions 48 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Chinon Jews oppressed 23 Chonae Pilgrimage routes 24 Choncoteague Island New religious movements 50 Chorin Cistercian monasticism 21 Christchurch Australasia 53 Christiana Europe after 1648 34 see also Oslo Cincinnati Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 African-American Churches 52

Cirta Christianity by ad 300 4 Cîteaux Spread of monasticism 10 European universities 25 Clairmarais Cistercian monasticism 21 Clairvaux Cistercian monasticism 21 European universities 25 Classe Cluniac monasticism 20 Clermont Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 Medieval heresy 28 Clogher British Church c. 800 16 Clonard Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Clonmacnoise British Church c. 800 16 Cluny Cluniac monasticism 20 European universities 25 Cochaba Early Christian communities 2 Cochin Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Catholic missions 35 Missions to Asia 47 Coimbra European universities 25 Colchester Jews oppressed 23 Coldingham British Church c. 800 16 Cologne Cluniac monasticism 20 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Friars 26 Missions to the Mongols 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Colombia Latin America 1900- 54 Colonia Agrippina Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Colorado African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Colosse Christianity by ad 100 3 Columbus New religious movements 50 Commerce New religious movements 50 Concepción Catholic missions 35, 39 Congo Africa 1800–1914 46 Conques Pilgrimage routes 24 Constance Jews oppressed 23

Constantia Early Christian communities 2 Constantinople Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Monophysite church 7 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Great schism 19 Jews oppressed 23 Missions to the Mongols 26 American missions 45 see also Byzantium Cooktown Australasia 53 Copenhagen European universities 25 Catholic Reformation 33 Corbie Early missions in the Christian West 14 Corbridge British Church c. 800 16 Córdoba (Argentina) Catholic missions 35 Latin America 1900- 54 Cordoba (Cordova) (Spain) Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Jews oppressed 23 Córdoba de Tucamán Catholic missions 39 Cordova Spread of Islam 12 Coria Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Corib Early missions in the Christian West 14 Corinth Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cork British Church c. 800 16 Corvey Early missions in the Christian West 14 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Cranganore Catholic missions 35 Crete Byzantium under threat 13 Crowland British Church c. 800 16 Ctesiphon Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Cuba Protestant mission stations 1925 55

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Cuenca Jews oppressed 23 Catholic missions 35 Latin America 1900- 54 Cuiabá Catholic missions 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Cumberland Gap Second Awakening 43 Cuzco Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Cyrene Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Cyrrhus Pilgrimage routes 24 Czernowitz Russia today 58 Dallas Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Daman Missions to Asia 47 Damascus Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Monophysite church 7 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Missions to the Mongols 26 Danzig Charles V 31 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Dara Monophysite church 7 Darnis Monophysite church 7 Darwin Australasia 53 Deer British Church c. 800 16 Delaware Valley Great Awakening 42 Denkendorf Pietism 40 Derbe Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Derbent Apostles and tradition 1 Derby Medieval heresy 28 Derry Charlemagne’s empire 15 British Church c. 800 16 Detroit Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Deventer Jews oppressed 23 Medieval heresy 28 Diamantina Latin America 1900- 54 Dieppe Pilgrimage routes 24

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Dijon Cluniac monasticism 20 Dillingen Catholic Reformation 33 Dinas Powys British Church c. 800 16 Diocaesarea Justinian’s empire 11 Dionysias Early Christian communities 2 Djibouti Africa 1800–1914 46 Doberan Cistercian monasticism 21 Dôle European universities 25 Dominican Republic Latin America 1900- 54 Dora Jewish communities 2 Dorchester British Church c. 800 16 Dorpat Kievan Rus’ 18 Dorylaeum Crusades 22 Douai Catholic Reformation 33 Dover (Delaware) North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Dover (England) Medieval heresy 28 Downpatrick British Church c. 800 16 Pilgrimage routes 24 Dresden Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Dublin The West in 1500 30 Dubrovnik Friars 26 Dubuque Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Dumio Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Dunblane British Church c. 800 16 Dunedin Australasia 53 Dunkeld British Church c. 800 16 Dunn Pentecostalism 51 Dunwich Early missions in the Christian West 14 British Church c. 800 16 Dura Europos Christianity by ad 300 4 Durango Catholic missions 35 Durban Africa 1800–1914 46 Durocortorum Christianity by ad 300 4 Dutch East Indies Missions to Asia 47 Dyrrachium Justinian’s empire 11 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17

Ebenezer New religious movements 50 Ebersburg Cluniac monasticism 20 Echternach Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Ecuador Latin America 1900- 54 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Edessa Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Monophysite church 7 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Crusades 22 Missions to the Mongols 26 Edinburgh Friars 26 Catholic Reformation 33 Ecumenical meetings 56 Edrei Early Christian communities 2 Eger Jews oppressed 23 Egypt Africa 1800–1914 46 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Eichstätt Early missions in the Christian West 14 Pilgrimage routes 24 Einsiedeln Cluniac monasticism 20 El Paso Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 El Salvador Latin America 1900- 54 Elista Russia today 58 Elizabeth Great Awakening 42 Elmham British Church c. 800 16 Elmina Africa to 1800 44 Elne Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Elvira Christianity by ad 300 4 Ely British Church c. 800 16 Embrun The West in 1500 30 Emesa Christianity by ad 300 4 Monophysite church 7 Emly British Church c. 800 16 Emmaus Early Christian communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset

En-gedi Jewish communities 2 Ensisheim Jews oppressed 23 Ephesus Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Monophysite church 7 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 The West in 1500 30 Erfurt Jews oppressed 23 Eritrea Africa 1800–1914 46 Esbus Early Christian communities 2 Esrom Cistercian monasticism 21 Esztergom Pilgrimage routes 24 Ethiopia Apostles and tradition 1 Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Euchaita Pilgrimage routes 24 Faenza Medieval heresy 28 Farfa Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cluniac monasticism 20 Fayette New religious movements 50 Fécamp Cluniac monasticism 20 Fernando Po Africa to 1800 44 Ferns British Church c. 800 16 Ferrara European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Feuchtwangen Cluniac monasticism 20 Fez Jews oppressed 23 Fleury Cluniac monasticism 20 European universities 25 Florence European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Florida Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 African-American churches 52 Fontenay Cistercian monasticism 21 Fontfroide Cistercian monasticism 21

Foochow Missions to the Mongols 26 Forcalquier Jews oppressed 23 Fortaleza Latin America 1900- 54 Fossanova Cistercian monasticism 21 Fountains Cistercian monasticism 21 Frankfurt Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Pietism 40 Fredericksburg North America in 1750 41 Freetown Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Freiburg European universities 25 Freising Early missions in the Christian West 14 Fruttuaria Cluniac monasticism 20 Fujian 1920 missions 48 Fukuoka 1920 missions 48 Fulda Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cluniac monasticism 20 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Catholic Reformation 33 Funai Catholic missions 35 Funchal Catholic missions 35 Furness Cistercian monasticism 21 Fuzhou Missions to Asia 47 Gadara Early Christian communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Galich Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Muscovy 29 Galveston Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Gambia Africa 1800–1914 46 Gangra Justinian’s empire 11 Gansu 1920 missions 48 Gasper River Second Awakening 43 Gaza Jewish communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Spread of monasticism 10 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Genessaret Pilgrimage routes 24 inset

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Geneva Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Ecumenical meetings 56 Genoa Christianity by ad 100 3 Spread of monasticism 10 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Georgetown (Guyana) Latin America 1900- 54 Georgetown (South Carolina) North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Georgia (N. America) Protestant settlers 37 Denominations in 2000 57 Geraldton Australasia 53 Gerasa Early Christian communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Germantown Great Awakening 42 Ghat Africa to 1800 44 Ghazni Spread of Islam 12 Ghent Early missions in the Christian West 14 Cluniac monasticism 20 Gischala Early Christian communities 2 Glasgow British Church c. 800 16 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Glastonbury Apostles and tradition 1 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Pilgrimage routes 24 Glatz Catholic Reformation 33 Glendalough British Church c. 800 16 Gnesen (Gniezno) The West in 1500 30 Gniezno Early missions in the Christian West 14 Pilgrimage routes 24 Goa Catholic missions 35 Missions to Asia 47 Goiânia Latin America 1900- 54 Gorki Russia today 58 Gortyna Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Gorze Cluniac monasticism 20

Gostar Jews oppressed 23 Göttingen Pietism 40 Govan British Church c. 800 16 Governors Island Protestant settlers 37 Gran Early missions in the Christian West 14 The West in 1500 30 Granada Spread of Islam 12 Crusades 22 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Graz Catholic Reformation 33 Greenland Early missions in the Christian West 14 Greifswald European universities 25 Grenoble European universities 25 Grodno Jews oppressed 23 Groonendaal Medieval heresy 28 Guadalajara Catholic missions 35 Guadalupe Pilgrimage routes 24 Guangxi 1920 missions 48 Guangzhou 1920 missions 48 Guatemala Catholic missions 35 Guayaquil Latin America 1900- 54 Guizhou 1920 missions 48 Gundeshapur Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Guyana Latin America 1900- 54 Hagar Spread of Islam 12 Hagenau Charles V 31 Haifa Crusades 22 Hainan 1920 missions 48 Hakodate 1920 missions 48 Halicz Great schism 19 Halifax North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Halle Christian Europe in 1700 38 Pietism 40 Hamburg Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24

Hami Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Hangchow (Hangzhou) Missions to the Mongols 26 1920 missions 48 Hankou 1920 missions 48 Hanover Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Haraldstedt Pilgrimage routes 24 Harare Protestant mission stations 1925 556 Harmony New religious movements 50 Harran Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Harrisburg North America in 1750 41 Hartford Protestant settlers 37 Great Awakening 42 Harvard Protestant settlers 37 Great Awakening 42 Hattin Crusades 22 Havana Catholic missions 35 Hawaii American missions 45 Hebron Early Christian communities 2 Jewish communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Hedeby Early missions in the Christian West 14 Heidelberg European universities 25 Heiligenblut Pilgrimage routes 24 Heliopolis Early Christian communities 2 Helsinki Russia today 58 Henan 1920 missions 48 Herat Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Hereford British Church c. 800 16 Herford Pietism 40 Hermopolis Christianity by ad 300 4 Herrnhut Christian Europe in 1700 38 Pietism 40 Hersfeld Cluniac monasticism 20 Hertford North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Hexham Early missions in the Christian West 14

British Church c. 800 16 Hierapolis Apostles and tradition 1 Christianity by ad 100 3 Monophysite church 7 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Justinian’s empire 11 Hieria Byzantium under threat 13 Hildesheim Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cluniac monasticism 20 European universities 25 Hippo Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Hippo Regius Spread of monasticism 10 Hippos Early Christian communities 2 Hira Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Hiroshima 1920 missions 48 Hirsau Cluniac monasticism 20 Hispalis Christianity by ad 300 4 Hobart Australasia 53 Hokkaido 1920 missions 48 Holme Cistercian monasticism 21 Holwan Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Holy Roman Empire Christian Europe in 1700 38 Honaz Pilgrimage routes 24 Honduras Latin America 1900- 54 Hong Kong 1920 missions 48 Hot Springs Pentecostalism 51 Houston Pentecostalism 51 Hovedø Cistercian monasticism 21 Hubei 1920 missions 48 Huesca European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Hulfsberg Pilgrimage routes 24 Hunan 1920 missions 48 Ibadan Africa 1800–1914 46 Iceland Early missions in the Christian West 14 Iconium Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Justinian’s empire 11 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17

Crusades 22 Idaho Denominations in 2000 57 Ile de Noirmoutier Spread of monasticism 10 Illinois African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Imperial Catholic missions 39 India Missions to Asia 47 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Indiana Denominations in 2000 57 Ingolstadt European universities 25 Catholic Reformation 33 Inisfallen (Inishfallen) British Church c. 800 16 Inishcaltra (Inis Cealtra or Holy Island) British Church c. 800 16 Inner Mongolia 1920 missions 48 Iona Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 British Church c. 800 16 Iowa Denominations in 2000 57 Ipswich Medieval heresy 28 Isfahan Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Ivano-Frankivsk Russia today 58 Ivanov Russia today 58 Jaca Jews oppressed 23 Jackson African-American Churches 52 Jaffa Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Jamaica Latin America 1900- 54 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Jamnia Early Christian communities 2 Japan Missions to Asia 47 1920 missions 48 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Jarrow Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 British Church c. 800 16 European universities 25 Java Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Jeddah Spread of Islam 12

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Jenne Africa to 1800 44 Jericho Early Christian communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Jerusalem Apostles and tradition 1 Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Byzantium under threat 13 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Great schism 19 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 Missions to the Mongols 26 Ecumenical meetings 56 Jiangsu 1920 missions 48 Johannesburg Africa 1800–1914 46 Jonvelle Medieval heresy 28 Joppa Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Julias Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Jurev Kievan Rus’ 18 Justiniana Prima Justinian’s empire 11 Kabul Spread of Islam 12 Kadamattan Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Kagoshima 1920 missions 48 Kairouan Spread of Islam 12 Kalgan Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Kalinin Russia today 58 Kalisz Jews oppressed 23 Kalocsa The West in 1500 30 Kaluga Russia today 58 Kampala Africa 1800–1914 46 Kandahar Spread of Islam 12 Kano Africa to 1800 44 Kansas Denominations in 2000 57 Kansas City New religious movements 50

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Karakorum Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Kashgar Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Kashmir Missions to Asia 47 Kazan Muscovy 29 Kells Charlemagne’s empire 15 Kentucky Second Awakening 43 Denominations in 2000 57 Kerman Missions to the Mongols 26 Khartoum Africa 1800–1914 46 Khiva Spread of Islam 12 Khotan Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Kiev Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Great schism 19 Jews oppressed 23 Missions to the Mongols 26 Muscovy 29 Charles V 31 Russia today 58 Kildare British Church c. 800 16 Kilfenora British Church c. 800 16 Kimberley Africa 1800–1914 46 Kinston African-American Churches 52 Kirov Russia today 58 Kirtland New religious movements 50 Kischenev Russia today 58 Kishinev Jews oppressed 23 Kobe 1920 missions 48 Koblenz Jews oppressed 23 Konya Missions to the Mongols 26 Korea 1920 missions 48 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Korntal Pietism 40 Kostroma Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Krakov (Krakow) Early missions in the Christian West 14 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25

Charles V 31 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Krasnodar Russia today 58 Kufa Spread of Islam 12 Kumasi Africa 1800–1914 46 Kursk Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Russia today 58 Kuruman Africa 1800–1914 46 K’ut’aisi Russia today 58 Kutná Hora Medieval heresy 28 Kuttenberg Catholic Reformation 33 Kyushu 1920 missions 48 La Chaise Dieu European universities 25 La Charité Cluniac monasticism 20 La Ferté Cistercian monasticism 21 La Flèche Catholic Reformation 33 La Paz Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 La Vega Catholic missions 35 Lad Cistercian monasticism 21 Ladoga Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Muscovy 29 Lagos Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Lahore Missions to Asia 47 Lake Mohonk Ecumenical meetings 56 Lalibela Spread of monasticism 10 Lambarene Africa 1800–1914 46 Lamu Africa to 1800 44 Landévennec Charlemagne’s empire 15 Laodicea Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Laon Church in The West in the sixth century 9 European universities 25 Laong Philippines 36 Larissa Justinian’s empire 11 Las Huelgas Cistercian monasticism 21

Las Palmas Catholic missions 35 Latmos Spread of monasticism 10 Lauriacum Christianity by ad 300 4 Le Puy Pilgrimage routes 24 Leau Novellas Pilgrimage routes 24 Lebaba Early Christian communities 2 Legio Early Christian communities 2 Legnano Medieval heresy 28 Leicester British Church c. 800 16 Leiden Catholic Reformation 33 Leipzig European universities 25 Lemberg Jews oppressed 23 Léopoldville Africa 1800–1914 46 Leptis Magna Christianity by ad 300 4 Justinian’s empire 11 Lérida Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 Lérins Spread of monasticism 10 Lewes Cluniac monasticism 20 Lhasa Missions to the Mongols 26 Liaoyang Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Liberia Africa 1800–1914 46 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Lichfield British Church c. 800 16 Liège Cluniac monasticism 20 Medieval heresy 28 Catholic Reformation 33 Ligugé Spread of monasticism 10 Lima Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Limasol Crusades 22 Limoges Friars 26 Linares Catholic missions 35 Lincoln British Church c. 800 16 Medieval heresy 28 Lindisfarne Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 British Church c. 800 16

Linköping Pietism 40 Lisbon Charlemagne’s empire 15 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Africa to 1800 44 Lismore British Church c. 800 16 Livorno Jews oppressed 23 Llanilltud Fawr British Church c. 800 16 Llantwit Spread of monasticism 10 Loanda Catholic missions 35 Lodz Jews oppressed 23 Løgum Cistercian monasticism 21 Londinium (see London) Constantine the Great 5 London Early missions in the Christian West 14 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 Medieval heresy 28 Catholic Reformation 33 Pietism 40 Jews oppressed 232 Protestant mission stations 1925 556 Longpont Cistercian monasticism 21 Loreto Pilgrimage routes 24 Lorsch Cluniac monasticism 20 Los Angeles New religious movements 50 Pentecostalism 51 African-American Churches 52 Lough Corib Early missions in the Christian West 14 Lough Derg Pilgrimage routes 24 Louisiana Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 African-American Churches 52 Lourdes Philippines 36 Louvain Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Luanda Africa to 1800 44 Lübeck Pilgrimage routes 24 Friars 26 Lubiaz Cistercian monasticism 21 Lublin Jews oppressed 23 Friars 26 Lucca Pilgrimage routes 24 Lucerne Jews oppressed 23

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Lugdunum Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 see also Lyons Luoyang Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Lutzk Jews oppressed 23 Luxeuil Spread of monasticism 10 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Lvov The West in 1500 30 Russia today 58 Lydda Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Lynn Jews oppressed 23 Lynn (Massachusetts) New religious movements 50 Lyons Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Missions to the Mongols 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 see also Lugdunum Lyse Cistercian monasticism 21 Lystra Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Mabbug Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Macao Catholic missions 35 Missions to Asia 47 Maceió Latin America 1900- 54 Mackay Australasia 53 Mâcon Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Madagascar Africa 1800–1914 46 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Madras Apostles and tradition 1 Missions to the Mongols 26 Ecumenical meetings 56 Madrid Jews oppressed 23 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Madurai Missions to Asia 47 Magdeburg Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15

Cistercian monasticism 21 European universities 25 Friars 26 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Magnesia Christianity by ad 100 3 Maine Denominations in 2000 57 Mainz Early missions in the Christian West 14 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Friars 26 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Makarev Muscovy 29 Malaca Christianity by ad 300 4 Malacca Catholic missions 35 Missions to Asia 47 Malatya Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Malindi Africa to 1800 44 Malmédy Cluniac monasticism 20 Malta American missions 45 Mamre Early Christian communities 2 Managua Catholic missions 35 Manaschein Pilgrimage routes 24 Manchuria 1920 missions 48 Manesque Jews oppressed 23 Mangalore Missions to Asia 47 Manila Catholic missions 35 Manizales Latin America 1900- 54 Mantua Jews oppressed 23 Manzikert Monophysite church 7 Mar Saba Spread of monasticism 10 Maracaibo Latin America 1900- 54 Marawi Philippines 36 Marcianopolis Justinian’s empire 11 Maria Saal Pilgrimage routes 24 Mariana Catholic missions 35 Latin America 1900- 54 Mariazell Pilgrimage routes 24 Marseille (Marseilles) Spread of monasticism 10 Cluniac monasticism 20 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 see also Massilia

Massachusetts Protestant settlers 37 Massawa Africa to 1800 44 Massilia Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 see also Marseille (Marseilles) Maurienne Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Mecca Spread of Islam 12 Medellin Latin America 1900- 54 Medina Spread of Islam 12 Mediolanum Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 see also Milan Megiddo Early Christian communities 2 Melbourne Australasia 53 Melite Christianity by ad 100 3 Melitene Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Monophysite church 7 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Justinian’s empire 11 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Mellifont Cistercian monasticism 21 Melnik Medieval heresy 28 Melrose British Church c. 800 16 Cistercian monasticism 21 Memphis (Egypt) Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Memphis (Tennessee) Pentecostalism 51 Menapolis Pilgrimage routes 24 Mérida (S. America) Catholic missions 35 Mérida (Spain) Pilgrimage routes 24 Merseburg Cluniac monasticism 20 Merv Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Missions to the Mongols 26 Meskuiciai Russia today 58 Messina European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Catholic Reformation 33 Meteroa Spread of monasticism 10 Metz Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cluniac monasticism 20 Jews oppressed 23

Medieval heresy 28 Mexico Catholic missions 35 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Miagao Philippines 36 Miami Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Michigan Denominations in 2000 57 Milan Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Charlemagne’s empire 15 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 see also Mediolanum Miletus Christianity by ad 300 4 Milvian Bridge Constantine the Great 5 Milwaukee Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Minnesota Denominations in 2000 57 Minsk Kievan Rus’ 18 Russia today 58 Mississippi Denominations in 2000 57 Missouri Denominations in 2000 57 Modena Medieval heresy 28 Mogadishu Africa to 1800 44 Mohonk (Lake) Ecumenical meetings 56 Moissac Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cluniac monasticism 20 Molesme Cistercian monasticism 21 Molsheim Catholic Reformation 33 Moluccas Missions to Asia 47 Mombasa Africa to 1800 44 Monasterboice British Church c. 800 16 Mongolia Missions to the Mongols 26 1920 missions 48 Monkwearmouth Early missions in the Christian West 14 British Church c. 800 16 Monreale European universities 25 Monrovia Africa 1800–1914 46 Mons Catholic Reformation 33 Mont St Michel Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Montana Denominations in 2000 57 Montauban Medieval heresy 28

Monte Cassino Spread of monasticism 10 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cluniac monasticism 20 European universities 25 Montélimar Medieval heresy 28 Montevideo Latin America 1900- 54 Montgomery African-American Churches 52 Montmélian Jews oppressed 23 Montpellier European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 Montségur Medieval heresy 28 Montserrat Pilgrimage routes 24 Morelia Catholic missions 35 Morimand Cistercian monasticism 21 Morocco Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Moruela Cistercian monasticism 21 Moscow Muscovy 29 Pietism 40 Russia today 58 Mosul Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Mt Athos Spread of monasticism 10 Mt Carmel Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Mt Gargano Pilgrimage routes 24 Mt Latmos Spread of monasticism 10 Mt Olympus Spread of monasticism 10 Mt Sinai Spread of monasticism 10 Pilgrimage routes 24 Mt Tabor Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Mozambique Catholic missions 35 Africa 1800–1914 46 Mpindi Africa to 1800 44 Muddy River Second Awakening 43 Mukacheve Russia today 58 Mulhouse Jews oppressed 23 München-Gladbach Cluniac monasticism 20 Munich Jews oppressed 23 Münster Jews oppressed 23 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Murom Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17

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Muscovy 29 Mursa Jewish communities 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Muscat Spread of Islam 12 Mylapore Catholic missions 35 Myra Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Nag Hammadi Christianity by ad 300 4 Nagasaki 1920 missions 48 Nagoya 1920 missions 48 Nain Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Nairobi Africa 1800–1914 46 Ecumenical meetings 56 Najran Spread of Islam 12 Nanjing 1920 missions 48 Nanking Missions to Asia 47 Nantes Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Napier Australasia 53 Naples Byzantium under threat 13 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Great schism 19 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 Friars 26 The West in 1500 30 Catholic Reformation 33 Narbonne Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Medieval heresy 28 Narnaul Russia today 58 Nashville Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Natal Latin America 1900- 54 Navekath Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Nazareth Early Christian communities 2 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Nazianzus Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Neapolis Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 300 4 Nebraska Denominations in 2000 57 Nehavend Spread of Islam 12

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Nendrum British Church c. 800 16 Neocaesarea Christianity by ad 300 4 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Neshaminy Great Awakening 42 Neuhaus Catholic Reformation 33 Neustadt Medieval heresy 28 Nevada Denominations in 2000 57 Nevers Church in The West in the sixth century 9 New Bern North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 New Delhi Ecumenical meetings 56 New Guinea Missions to Asia 47 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 New Harmony New religious movements 50 New Haven Protestant settlers 37 North America in 1750 41 Second Awakening 43 New Jersey Denominations in 2000 57 New Mexico Denominations in 2000 57 New Orleans Catholic missions 35 Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Pentecostalism 51 New South Wales Australasia 53 New York Protestant settlers 37 North America in 1750 41 Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 New religious movements 50 African-American Churches 52 Ecumenical meetings 56 Denominations in 2000 57 New Zealand Australasia 53 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Newport Protestant settlers 37 Newton Second Awakening 43 Nicaea Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Crusades 22 Nice Spread of Islam 12 Nicomedia Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5

Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Crusades 22 Nicopolis Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Justinian’s empire 11 Jews oppressed 23 Niebla Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Nigeria Africa 1800–1914 46 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Nineveh Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Ningbo Missions to Asia 47 Nish Crusades 22 Medieval heresy 28 Nishapur Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Nishni Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Nisibis Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Nitria Spread of monasticism 10 Nizhny Novgorod Kievan Rus’ 18 Muscovy 29 Nola Spread of monasticism 10 Nördlingen Jews oppressed 23 Norfolk North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 North Carolina African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 North Dakota Denominations in 2000 57 Northampton Great Awakening 42 Norwich Jews oppressed 23 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 Novgorod Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Great schism 19 Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Novgorod the Great Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Nuremberg Jews oppressed 23 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Nursia Spread of monasticism 10 Nutten Island Protestant settlers 37

Nyssa Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Oaxaca Catholic missions 35 Obazine Cistercian monasticism 21 Odilienberg Pilgrimage routes 24 Ohio Protestant mission stations 1925 557 Oklahoma Denominations in 2000 57 Olinda Catholic missions 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Oliwa Cistercian monasticism 21 Olmutz Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Olon-Sume-in Tor Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Olympus Spread of monasticism 10 Omsk Russia today 58 Oneida New religious movements 50 Oran Jews oppressed 23 Orange Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Oregon Denominations in 2000 57 Orel Russia today 58 Oristano The West in 1500 30 Orleans Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cistercian monasticism 21 European universities 25 Ormuz Missions to the Mongols 26 Oropa Pilgrimage routes 24 Orvieto Medieval heresy 28 Osaka 1920 missions 48 Oslo see also Christiana Otranto The West in 1500 30 Otrar Missions to the Mongols 26 Outer Mongolia 1920 missions 48 Oxford European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 Pietism 40 Ecumenical meetings 56 Oxyrhynchus Christianity by ad 300 4 Monophysite church 7 Paderborn Charlemagne’s empire 15

Padua Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Friars 26 Palencia European universities 25 Palermo Spread of Islam 12 Great schism 19 Friars 26 The West in 1500 30 Catholic Reformation 33 Palestine Early Christian communities 2 American missions 45 Palma Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Palmyra Christianity by ad 300 4 Justinian’s empire 11 Pamplona Latin America 1900- 54 Panama European universities 25 Catholic missions 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Paneas Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Paoay Philippines 36 Paphos Christianity by ad 100 3 Paraguay Latin America 1900- 54 Paraná Latin America 1900- 54 Paris Charlemagne’s empire 15 Cluniac monasticism 20 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Friars 26 Missions to the Mongols 26 Medieval heresy 28 Charles V 31 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Parma Medieval heresy 28 Catholic Reformation 33 Passau Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Patmos Apostles and tradition 1 Christianity by ad 100 3 Pilgrimage routes 24 Patrae Apostles and tradition 1 Patras Pilgrimage routes 24 Pavia Charlemagne’s empire 15 European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Pécs European universities 25 Friars 26

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Pella Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 300 4 Pelusium Jewish communities 3 Monophysite church 7 Pennsylvania Great Awakening 42 Denominations in 2000 57 Pensa Russia today 58 Pereyaslavi Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Pereyaslavl-Zaleski Muscovy 29 Perga Christianity by ad 300 4 Pergamum Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Perge Christianity by ad 100 3 Monophysite church 7 Perpignan European universities 25 Persepolis Spread of Islam 12 Persia Apostles and tradition 1 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 American missions 45 Perth Australasia 53 Peru Latin America 1900- 54 Perugia European universities 25 Friars 26 Pervilis Missions to the Mongols 26 Peshawar Missions to Asia 47 Peterborough British Church c. 800 16 European universities 25 Petra Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Pforta Cistercian monasticism 21 Philadelphia Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Protestant settlers 37 North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 American missions 45 New religious movements 50 African-American Churches 52 Philippi Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Philippines Missions to Asia 47 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Philippopolis Justinian’s empire 11

Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Medieval heresy 28 Piacenza European universities 25 Pinsk Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Jews oppressed 23 Pisa Crusades 22 European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Pispir Spread of monasticism 10 Pittsburgh New religious movements 50 Plymouth North America in 1750 41 Poblet Cistercian monasticism 21 Poetovio Christianity by ad 300 4 Poitiers Spread of monasticism 10 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Polotsk Kievan Rus’ 18 Muscovy 29 Poltava Russia today 58 Pompeii Christianity by ad 100 3 Pondicherry Missions to Asia 47 Pontigny Cistercian monasticism 21 Popoyan Catholic missions 35 Portsmouth North America in 1750 41 Portuguese Guinea Africa 1800–1914 46 Posen Jews oppressed 23 P’ot’i Russia today 58 Prague Early missions in the Christian West 14 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Pressburg European universities 25 Pretoria Africa 1800–1914 46 Pribram Pilgrimage routes 24 Providence Protestant settlers 37 North America in 1750 41

Prusa Jewish communities 3 Pskov Kievan Rus’ 18 Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Ptolemais Early Christian communities 2 Monophysite church 7 Justinian’s empire 11 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Puebla Catholic missions 35 Puerto Rico Latin America 1900- 54 Punta Arenas Latin America 1900- 54 Pupping Medieval heresy 28 Puteoli Christianity by ad 300 4 Quanzhou Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Quebec Catholic missions 35 Quelimane Africa to 1800 44 Quilon Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Quito Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Radom Jews oppressed 23 Ragusa Charlemagne’s empire 15 The West in 1500 30 Raleigh African-American Churches 52 Rankweil Pilgrimage routes 24 Raritan Valley Great Awakening 42 Ratiaria Justinian’s empire 11 Ratisbon Crusades 22 Ravenna Christianity by ad 100 3 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Justinian’s empire 11 Byzantium under threat 13 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Ravensburg Jews oppressed 23 Recife Catholic missions 35 Latin America 1900- 54 Red River Second Awakening 43 Regensburg Early missions in the Christian West 14

Cluniac monasticism 20 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Reichenau Early missions in the Christian West 14 Remis Arianism 6 Renkum Pilgrimage routes 24 Rennes Charlemagne’s empire 15 Rewardashir Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Rey Spread of Islam 12 Rhages Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Spread of Islam 12 Rhegium Christianity by ad 300 4 Rheims Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Early missions in the Christian West 14 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Catholic Reformation 33 Rhode Island Protestant settlers 37 Rhodes Justinian’s empire 11 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Riazan Muscovy 29 Ribe Early missions in the Christian West 14 Riberao Prêto Latin America 1900- 54 Richmond North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Rievaulx Cistercian monasticism 21 European universities 25 Riga Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 The West in 1500 30 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Pietism 40 Russia today 58 Rimini Medieval heresy 28 Rimmon Early Christian communities 2 Rio de Janeiro Catholic missions 35, 39 Rio Muni Africa 1800–1914 46 Ripon Early missions in the Christian West 14 British Church c. 800 16 Rocamadour Pilgrimage routes 24

Roche Cistercian monasticism 21 Rochester Early missions in the Christian West 14 British Church c. 800 16 Rochester (New York) Second Awakening 43 Rome Apostles and tradition 1 Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Arianism 6 Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Great schism 19 Cluniac monasticism 20 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Friars 26 Missions to the Mongols 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Catholic missions 35 Ecumenical meetings 56 Rosario Latin America 1900- 54 Rosenthal Pilgrimage routes 24 Roskilde Early missions in the Christian West 14 Friars 26 Rossano The West in 1500 30 Rostock European universities 25 Rostov Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Russia today 58 Rothenburg Jews oppressed 23 Rouen Early missions in the Christian West 14 Cluniac monasticism 20 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Rouffach Jews oppressed 23 Royaumont Cistercian monasticism 21 Russia Russia today 58 Ryazan Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17

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Kievan Rus’ 18 S. Luiz de Maranhao Latin America 1900- 54 Saba Missions to the Mongols 26 Sabbathday Lake New religious movements 50 Safi Catholic missions 35 Sahagún Cluniac monasticism 20 St Albans British Church c. 800 16 Pilgrimage routes 24 St Andrews European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 St Asaph British Church c. 800 16 St Blaise Cluniac monasticism 20 St Brieuc Spread of monasticism 10 St Claude Spread of monasticism 10 St David’s British Church c. 800 16 St Emmeran Charlemagne’s empire 15 St Gall Early missions in the Christian West 14 European universities 25 St Gallen Charlemagne’s empire 15 St Genix Jews oppressed 23 St Gilles Pilgrimage routes 24 St Louis Africa 1800–1914 46 St Louis (Missouri) Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 St Marta Catholic missions 35 St Maurice Spread of monasticism 10 Pilgrimage routes 24 St Maximin Pilgrimage routes 24 St Noirmoutier Charlemagne’s empire 15 St Omer Catholic Reformation 33 St Paul (Minnesota) Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 St Petersburg Russia today 58 St Saturnin Jews oppressed 23 St Thomas Catholic missions 35 St Tomé Catholic missions 35 St Trond Cluniac monasticism 20 St Vaast Cluniac monasticism 20 St Wolfgang Pilgrimage routes 24 Saki Russia today 58 Salamanca European universities 25 Catholic Reformation 33

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Salamis Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Salekhard Russia today 58 Salem Protestant settlers 37 Salerno Great schism 19 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Salisbury Medieval heresy 28 Salonae Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Salonika Jews oppressed 23 Salt Lake City New religious movements 50 Salta Latin America 1900- 54 Salzburg Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Samaria Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Samarkand Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Samosata Christianity by ad 300 4 San Francisco Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 New religious movements 50 San Juan Catholic missions 35 Latin America 1900- 54 San Salvador Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Sankt Christophen Medieval heresy 28 Sankt Oswald Medieval heresy 28 Santa Creus Cistercian monasticism 21 Santa Cruz Catholic missions 35 Santa Fe (Argentina) Latin America 1900- 54 Santa Fe (New Mexico) Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Santiago (S. America) Catholic missions 35, 39 Santiago de Compostela Pilgrimage routes 24 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Santo Domingo Catholic missions 35

Sao Luis Catholic missions 35, 39 Sao Paulo Catholic missions 35 Latin America 1900- 54 Sao Thomé Catholic missions 35 São Tomé Africa 1800–1914 46 Sapporo 1920 missions 48 Sarai Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Missions to the Mongols 26 Saratov Russia today 58 Sardes Christianity by ad 300 4 Arianism 6 Justinian’s empire 11 Byzantium under threat 13 Sardica Arianism 6 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Sardis Christianity by ad 100 3 Sarepta Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Sassan Catholic Reformation 33 Sassari The West in 1500 30 Sauxilanges Cluniac monasticism 20 Savannah Protestant settlers 37 North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Savigny Cistercian monasticism 21 European universities 25 Sázava Pilgrimage routes 24 Scetis Spread of monasticism 10 Schiedam Pilgrimage routes 24 Scodra Justinian’s empire 11 Scranton Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Scythopolis Early Christian communities 2 Sebaste Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 300 4 Monophysite church 7 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Sebastea Spread of monasticism 10 Justinian’s empire 11 Byzantium under threat 13 Segovia Jews oppressed 23 Seleucia Christianity by ad 100 3 Monophysite church 7 Spread of monasticism 10 Byzantium under threat 13 Pilgrimage routes 24 Selsey British Church c. 800 16

Sénanque Cistercian monasticism 21 Sendai 1920 missions 48 Sens Early missions in the Christian West 14 The West in 1500 30 Seoul 1920 missions 48 Serampore Missions to Asia 47 Serdica Jewish communities 3 Justinian’s empire 11 Seville Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Shaanxi 1920 missions 48 Shandong 1920 missions 48 Shanghai Missions to Asia 47 1920 missions 48 Shangtu Missions to the Mongols 26 Shantou 1920 missions 48 Shanxi 1920 missions 48 Sherborne British Church c. 800 16 Shetland British Church c. 800 16 Shikoku 1920 missions 48 Shiloh Early Christian communities 2 Shiraz Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Siam American missions 45 Missions to Asia 47 Sicca Veneraria Christianity by ad 300 4 Sichar Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Sichuan 1920 missions 48 Sidon Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Siegburg Cluniac monasticism 20 Siena European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Sierra Leone Africa 1800–1914 46 Siguenza European universities 25

Silistra Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Simferopol Russia today 58 Sinai Constantine the Great 5 Spread of monasticism 10 Pilgrimage routes 24 Singapore Missions to Asia 47 Singidunum Christianity by ad 300 4 Sinope Christianity by ad 300 4 Siponto The West in 1500 30 Sirmium Constantine the Great 5 Skellig Michael British Church c. 800 16 Sletty British Church c. 800 16 Smolensk Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Smyrna Apostles and tradition 1 Christianity by ad 300 4 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Jews oppressed 23 Socotra Africa to 1800 44 Sofala Africa to 1800 44 Sofia Crusades 22 Medieval heresy 28 Solotcha Muscovy 29 Solsona Jews oppressed 23 Sonora Catholic missions 35 South Africa American missions 45 Africa 1800–1914 46 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 South Carolina African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 South Dakota Denominations in 2000 57 Southold Great Awakening 42 Souvigny Cluniac monasticism 20 Spalato Jews oppressed 23 The West in 1500 30 Speyer Jews oppressed 23 Split Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Sri Lanka Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 American missions 45

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Stablo Cluniac monasticism 20 Stanleyville Africa 1800–1914 46 Stavropol Russia today 58 Stettin Catholic Reformation 33 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Stockholm Catholic Reformation 33 Pietism 40 Stralsund Friars 26 Strasbourg Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Friars 26 Reformation Europe 32 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Suakin Africa to 1800 44 Subiaco Spread of monasticism 10 Cluniac monasticism 20 Sucre Latin America 1900- 54 Sudan Africa 1800–1914 46 Sukhuumi Russia today 58 Sulejów Cistercian monasticism 21 Sultaniyeh Missions to the Mongols 26 Sumatra Missions to Asia 47 Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Surat Missions to Asia 47 Suriname Latin America 1900- 54 Susquehannah Valley Second Awakening 43 Suzdal Muscovy 29 Suzhou 1920 missions 48 Sycaminium Early Christian communities 2 Sychar Early Christian communities 2 Sydney Australasia 53 Synnada Justinian’s empire 11 Syracuse Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Friars 26 Syria Apostles and tradition 1 Szepes Cistercian monasticism 21

Tabarka Spread of Islam 12 Tábor Medieval heresy 28 Tabor Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Tabriz Missions to the Mongols 26 Tabuk Spread of Islam 12 Tagrit Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Tahudan Spread of Islam 12 Tain l’Hermitage Jews oppressed 23 Talas Spread of Islam 12 Talinn Russia today 58 Tambov Russia today 58 Tana Missions to the Mongols 26 Tananarive Africa 1800–1914 46 Tangier Spread of Islam 12 Catholic missions 35 Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Taprobane Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Tarantaise The West in 1500 30 Taranto Crusades 22 Tarnopol Jews oppressed 23 Tárraga Jews oppressed 23 Tarragona Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Tarsus Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Monophysite church 7 Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Justinian’s empire 11 Tasmania Australasia 53 Tauchira Justinian’s empire 11 Tavoy Missions to Asia 47 Tbilisi Russia today 58 Tebessa Spread of Islam 12 Tegernsee Cluniac monasticism 20 Tegucigalpa (Tegus) European universities 25 Catholic missions 35 Telgte Pilgrimage routes 24 Tennessee Denominations in 2000 57 Teresina Latin America 1900- 54 Tergeste Christianity by ad 100 3

Texas African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Thagaste Christianity by ad 300 4 Spread of monasticism 10 Thailand American missions 45 Thessalonica Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Justinian’s empire 11 Spread of Islam 12 Byzantium under threat 13 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 Thyatira Christianity by ad 100 3 Tianjin 1920 missions 48 Tiberias Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Tibet Missions to the Mongols 26 Tiemcen Jews oppressed 23 Tiflis Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Timbuktu Africa to 1800 44 Timor Missions to Asia 47 Tingitanum Christianity by ad 300 4 Tintern Cistercian monasticism 21 Tipasa Christianity by ad 300 4 Tmutarakan Kievan Rus’ 18 Togo Africa 1800–1914 46 Tokyo 1920 missions 48 Toledo (Toletum) Christianity by ad 300 4 Constantine the Great 5 Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Spread of Islam 12 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Topeka Pentecostalism 51 Toul Medieval heresy 28 Toulon Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Jews oppressed 23 Crusades 223 Toulouse Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15

Jews oppressed 23 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Tournai Church in The West in the sixth century 9 European universities 25 Tours Church in The West in the sixth century 9 Spread of monasticism 10 Spread of Islam 12 Early missions in the Christian West 14 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Tralles3 Tranava Catholic Reformation 33 Tranquebar Missions to Asia 47 Trebizond Crusades 22 Missions to the Mongols 26 Trebnitz Pilgrimage routes 24 Treveri Constantine the Great 5 Treviso European universities 25 Trier Spread of monasticism 10 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Friars 26 Medieval heresy 28 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Trim British Church c. 800 16 Tripoli Spread of Islam 12 Crusades 22 Missions to the Mongols 26 Africa to 1800 44 Africa 1800–1914 46 Tripolis Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Trivandrum Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Trnovo Great schism 19 Troas Christianity by ad 100 3 Christianity by ad 300 4 Trondheim Early missions in the Christian West 14 Pietism 40 Trujillo Catholic missions 35, 39 Latin America 1900- 54 Tuam The West in 1500 30

Tübingen European universities 25 Tula Russia today 58 Tunis Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 Africa to 1800 44 Tupuszco Cistercian monasticism 21 Turin Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Turkey Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Turnovo Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Turov Kievan Rus’ 18 Tyana Byzantium under threat 13 Tyre Early Christian communities 2 Christianity by ad 100 3 Justinian’s empire 11 Pilgrimage routes 24 inset Udine Jews oppressed 23 The West in 1500 30 Uganda Africa 1800–1914 46 Ugrovsk Kievan Rus’ 18 Ulm Jews oppressed 23 United States of America Protestant settlers 37 North America in 1750 41 Great Awakening 42 Second Awakening 43 American missions 45 Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 New religious movements 50 Pentecostalism 51 African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Uppsala Early missions in the Christian West 14 Uruguay Protestant mission stations 1925 55 Ustiug Muscovy 29 Utah Denominations in 2000 57 Utrecht Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Valarshapat Monophysite church 7 Valence Jews oppressed 23 Medieval heresy 28

GAZET TEER

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Valencia Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Valladolid European universities 25 Catholic Reformation 33 Vallombrosa Pilgrimage routes 24 Vancouver Ecumenical meetings 56 Växjö Early missions in the Christian West 14 Veles Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Vellore Missions to Asia 47 Venezuela Latin America 1900- 54 Venice Byzantium under threat 13 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 Pilgrimage routes 24 Missions to the Mongols 26 The West in 1500 30 Charles V 31 Catholic Reformation 33 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Vercelli Spread of monasticism 10 European universities 25 Verdun Cluniac monasticism 20 Catholic Reformation 33 Vermont Denominations in 2000 57 Verona Medieval heresy 28 Veynes Jews oppressed 23 Vézelay Crusades 22 Pilgrimage routes 24 Vicenza European universities 25 Medieval heresy 28 Vienna Christianity by ad 300 4 Crusades 22 Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Friars 26 Missions to the Mongols 26 Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Europe after 1648 34 Christian Europe in 1700 38 Vienne Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Medieval heresy 28 Vierzehnheiligen Pilgrimage routes 24 Vigan Catholic missions 35 Villedieu Jews oppressed 23

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Vilnius Russia today 58 Viminacium Justinian’s empire 11 Vincennes Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Virginia Great Awakening 42 African-American Churches 52 Denominations in 2000 57 Viterbo Pilgrimage routes 24 Medieval heresy 28 Vitoria Latin America 1900- 54 Vivarium Spread of monasticism 10 Vladimir Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Kievan Rus’ 18 Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Vladimir-in-Volhynia Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Vladimir-Volynsk Kievan Rus’ 18 Vologda Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Volokolamsk Muscovy 29 Voronezh Russia today 58 Wadi Natrun Spread of monasticism 10 Walata Africa to 1800 44 Walla Walla Catholicism in the U.S.A. 49 Wallingford (New York) New religious movements 50 Walsingham Pilgrimage routes 24 Walvis Bay Africa 1800–1914 46 Warri Africa to 1800 44 Warsaw Catholic Reformation 33 Warta Pilgrimage routes 24 Washington Denominations in 2000 57 Watervliet New religious movements 50 Waverley Cistercian monasticism 21 Wearmouth Spread of monasticism 10 European universities 25 Wells Medieval heresy 28 West Virginia Denominations in 2000 57 Whitby Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 British Church c. 800 16 Ecumenical meetings 56 Whithorn Spread of monasticism 10

Early missions in the Christian West 14 Charlemagne’s empire 15 British Church c. 800 16 Pilgrimage routes 24 see also Candida Casa Wiener Neustadt Jews oppressed 23 Williamsburg Great Awakening 42 Wilmington African-American Churches 52 Wilsnack Pilgrimage routes 24 Wimborne British Church c. 800 16 Winchester Early missions in the Christian West 14 British Church c. 800 16 Medieval heresy 28 Windhoek Africa 1800–1914 46 Wisconsin New religious movements 50 Denominations in 2000 57 Wittenberg Reformation Europe 32 Catholic Reformation 33 Worcester British Church c. 800 16 Medieval heresy 28 Worms Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Charles V 31 Wuchang 1920 missions 48 Würzburg Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Catholic Reformation 33 Wyoming Denominations in 2000 57

Jews oppressed 23 European universities 25 Friars 26 The West in 1500 30 York (Maine) Great Awakening 42 Yunnan 1920 missions 48 Yurev Kievan Rus’ 18 Zagorsk Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Zagreb Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Zaitun Missions to the Mongols 26 Zanzibar Catholic missions 35 Africa 1800–1914 46 Zara The West in 1500 30 Zaragoza Spread of Islam 12 Charlemagne’s empire 15 Pilgrimage routes 24 The West in 1500 30 Zaranj Nestorian and Monophysite Churches 8 Zeila Africa to 1800 44 Zheijang 1920 missions 48 Zhitomir Jews oppressed 23 Zirc Cistercian monasticism 21 Zurich Jews oppressed 23

Xiamen Missions to Asia 47 1920 missions 48 Xinjiang Uighur 1920 missions 48 Yale Great Awakening 42 Second Awakening 43 Yamamah Spread of Islam 12 Yantai 1920 missions 48 Yaounde Africa 1800–1914 46 Yarmuk Spread of Islam 12 Yaroslavl Eastern Orthodox Church c. 1000 17 Muscovy 29 Russia today 58 Yenbu Spread of Islam 12 Yenne Jews oppressed 23 York (England) Early missions in the Christian West 14 British Church c. 800 16

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Index

Locators are page numbers, not map numbers Abu Bakr 46 Acre 71 Africa 120, 124, 151 African Independent Churches 151 African-American churches 136 Aglipay, Gregorio 102 Aidan 50 Albania 150 Albigensians 82 Alcuin 52 Alexandria 24 Alexius (Metropolitan) 84 Alfred the Great 54 Allen, Richard 136 Amandus 50 Amritsar 126 Andover 118 Andover Seminary 122 Andropov, Yuri 150 Anglicanism 112 Anglo-Saxon church 54 Ansgar 50 anti-Semitism 70 Antony the Great 42 apostles 18, 22 Apostolic faith Mission 134 Arianism 30, 38 Arles, Council of 26 Armalec 80 Armenia 35 Arndt, Johann 110 asceticism 40 Asia Minor 12 1st-century evangelism 22 conquered by Turks 68 Assemblies of God 134, 140 Athanasius 30 Athos (Mount) 42 Atlanta University 123 Augsburg Imperial Diet 90 Peace of 91, 92, 94 Augsburg Confession 90 Augustine of Canterbury 38, 50 Augustinians 66 Australia 138–9 Avignon 88 Azusa Street revival 134 Baghdad 35 Banda Islands 99 Baptist Missionary Society 13 Barbados 108 Basil the Great 43 Bath (Virginia) 116 Baviaanskloof 124 Bede 54 Beijing 80 Beissel, Conrad 46, 132 Belarus’ 84 Benedict of Nursia 43 Benedictines 43, 54, 64 Bernard of Clairvaux 66, 70 Bethel Bible College 134 Bible institutes 142 Bible translations 13, 49, 58, 80, 126, 127 black churches 136

Bobbio 50 Boehme, Jakob 110 Bogomils 80–81 Bohemian Brethren 80 Boniface 50 Boris (Bulgar khan) 56 Brazil 98 Brethren of the Common Life 80 Brethren of the Free Spirit 80–81 Brook Farm 132 Bulgaria 150 Bulgars 56 Burma 122 Byzantine empire 56, 68 Byzantium 26 Caffa 80 Calcutta 126 calendar 60 Caliphs 46 Calvin, John 13, 92 Calvinism 92 Cambalec 80 camp meetings 118 Candida Casa (Whithorn) 50 Cane Ridge 118 Canterbury, pilgrimage to 74 Cape of Good Hope 124 Cape Town 120 Cappadocia 42 Carey, William 126, 142 Caroline Islands 138 Carolingian dynasty 38 Cary, Lott 136 Cassino (Monte) 43 Cassiodorus 43 Cathars 82 cathedral schools 76 Catholic Reformation 13, 94 Catholicism modern distribution 152 U.S.A. 130, 146–7 see also missionaries, Catholic Celtic Christianity 38, 54 Chalcedon, Council of 12, 32, 34, 48 Charlemagne 52 Charles Martel 47 Charles V (emperor) 90 Charterhouse (La Grande Chartreuse) 64, 65 Chicago 134 China 80, 127, 128, 151 ecumenical church 145 Nestorian Church 35 China Inland Mission 142–3 Christian Science 133 Christology 32 Church of the Brethren 111 Church of England 92 in the U.S.A. 112 Church of God (Anderson) 132 Church Missionary Society 13 Church of South India 145 church and state 26, 52, 66 in medieval Europe 88 in the Philippines 102 in Russia 84, 148, 150

in South America 108 in the U.S.A. 104, 151 Cistercians 64–5, 66 Cîteaux 66 Civitate 60 Clement of Ohrid 56 Clement VII (pope) 90 Clermont, Council of Urban II (pope) 68 Cleveland 134 Clovis I (Frankish chief) 38 Cluny 64 Cnut 54 colonialism 108 Columba 50 Columban 50 Colzim (Mount) 42 Congo Free State 124 Congregationalism 112 Connecticut 112 Conrad III (emperor of Germany) 70 Constance, Council of 82, 88 Constantine 12, 26, 30 Constantine V (emperor) 56 Constantinople 12, 44, 48, 56, 61 Council of 30, 32 in the Crusades 71 fourth Council of 48 Cook, James 138 Coptic Church 33, 34, 120 coronations 54 Counter-Reformation 13, 94 Crac des Chevaliers 70 Crowther, Samuel Ajayi 124 Crusades 61, 68–71 Cyprus, captured by Muslims 46 Cyril of Alexandria 34 Cyril and Methodius 48–9, 59

England Anglo-Saxon church 52, 64 Church of 92 missions to 50 England, John 130 enthusiasm 116 Ephesus, Council of 32 Ephrata 132 Ethiopia 120 Eutyches 32 Evangelical Revivals 13 Farmer, James L. 136 Feuerbach, Ludwig 14 Fiji 138 filioque clause 60 Finney, Charles Grandison 118 Fisk University 123 Flanders 50 Florence, Council of 120 Francis of Assisi 78 Francis Xavier 99 Franciscans 78 Francke, August Hermann 111 Frankish Kingdom 38 Fraticelli 80–81 Frederick I ‘Barbarossa’ 71 Freetown 124 Frelinghuysen, Theodore 46 French Revolution 13 friars 78 Fulda 50

Damascus, captured by Muslims 46, 70 Darwin, Charles 14 Davenport, James 116 Davies, Samuel 116 Decian persecution 12 Delaware Valley 116 Denmark 50 desert monks 42 Deshima 127 Dominicans 78 Donatism 26 Dunstan 54, 64 Durham, William H. 134

Genadendal 124 Geneva, Calvin at 13 Georgia 112 Germantown 46 ghettoes 73 Gibbons, James 130 Gilbert Islands 138 Giovanni Carpini 80 Giovanni de’ Marignolli 80–81 Glagolitic 49, 56 Glastonbury 50 Goa 99 Gold Coast 124 Goths 38 Great Awakening 112, 116 Second 118 Great Migration 104 Great Schism 12, 60–61 Greenland 111 Gregory I (pope) 38, 50 Gregory VII (pope) 64 Gregory XV (pope) 108

East India Company 126 Easter 60 Easter Island 138 Eastern Orthodox Church 44 modern distribution 152 Echternach 50 ecumenical councils 32, 48 ecumenical movement 144–5 Eddy, Mary Baker 133 Edessa 35 Edwards, Jonathan 13, 116 Egypt 24 El Salvador 140

Hagia Sophia 44 Haiti 108 Halle 111, 126 Hampton Institute 123 Harmonists 132 Harvard 112 Hattin 70 Hawaii 138 Henry VIII (king of England) 92 heresy, medieval 82 Herrnhut 111 Hildebrand 64

holiness denominations 134 Honoratus 43 Houser, George 136 Hughes, John 130 humanism 13 Huns 38 Hunt, Robert 104 Hus, Jan 82 Hussites 80–81 Hutchinson, Anne 104 icons 48, 84 Ignatius Loyola 13, 94, 98 images 48 Independence (Missouri) 132 India Church of South India 145 earliest church 18 Jesuit mission 99 Protestant missions 126 Innocent III (pope) 71, 82 Innocent IV (pope) 80 Iona 50 Iraq 151 Irish monks 43 Islam 13 and Byzantium 56 extremism 151 in Persia 35 rise of 46–7 see also Crusades Istanbul 12 Ivan III (‘the Great’) 84 Jacob Baradeus 35 Jacobite churches 120 Jamaica 108 Jamestown 104, 112 Jamnia (Javneh) 20 Japan 99, 127, 128 Jarratt, Devereux 116 Jehovah’s Witnesses 132–3 Jerusalem captured by Muslims 46, 74 pilgrimage to 74 sacked by Rome 20, 24 Jesuits 13, 94, 98–9, 108 Jews 1st-century groups 20 exile 24 persecution of 73 see also anti-Semitism John XXIII (pope) 144–5 John the Baptist 40 John Cassian 43 John Chrysostom 48 John of Damascus 48 John Kourkouas 56 John of Marignola 80 John of Montecorvino 80 John Paul II (pope) 150 Johnson, Richard 138 Joseph (abbot of Volokolamsk) 84 Joseph of Arimathea 18 Judson, Adoniram 122 Justinian I (emperor) 44 Justinian II (emperor) 56

INDEX

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Kagoshima 99 Kanzo, Uchimura 128 Kentucky 118 Khrushchev, Nikita 148–50 Kiev 84 King, Martin Luther 136 kingdom of God 14 Kirill (Metropolitan) 84 Korea 13, 151 Kourkouas, John 56 Krum (Bulgar khan) 56 Kulja 80 Kuruman 124 las Casas, Bartolomé de 98 Latin America 140, 151 missions to 98, 108 Lavigerie, Cardinal 43 Lechfeld 56 Lenin, Vladimir 148 Leo I (pope) 32, 38 Leo III (emperor of Syria) 48 Leo III (pope) 52 Leo IX (pope) 60 Lérins 43 Liberal Theology 151 Liberia 136 Lindisfarne 50 Lithuania 150 Livingstone, David 124 Lollardy 80 London Missionary Society 13 Los Angeles 134 Louis IX (king of France) 80 Louis VII (king of France) 70 Louisiana 146 Luther, Martin 13, 90, 92 Luxeuil 50 McGready, James 118 Mack, Alexander 111 Madagascar 120 Madras 126 Magyars 56 Maine 104 Malawi 124 Malay Peninsula 99 Manalo, Felix 102 Manila, Synod of 102 Mar Thoma Christians 18 Marianas Islands 138 Marist Fathers 138 Marmoutier 43 Marquesas Islands 138 Marseilles 43 Marshman, Joshua 126 Martin of Tours 43 Maryland 112 Mason, Charles Harrison 134 Massachusets Bay Colony 104 Massachusetts 112 Mecca 46 Medina 46 Melanchthon, Philipp 110 Melanesian Islands 138 Melitene 56 Memphis (Tennessee) 134 Merovingian dynasty 38 Methodists 116 Methodius 48–9, 59 Mexico 98 Michael Cerularius 60 Middle Colonies 112, 116 Mills, Samuel J. 122 mission stations 142–3 missionaries

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American 102 Byzantine 56 Catholic 98–9, 108, 138, 143 friars 78, 80–81, 102 Irish 54 Jesuit 13, 98–9 Moravian 111 Nestorian 35 North American 118 Portuguese 120 to Australasia 138–9 women 143 missionary conferences 142, 144–5 missionary societies 13, 122–3, 124, 142 Moffat, Robert 124 Molucca Islands 99 monasteries 40–43 Cistercian 66 education 76 La Grande Chartreuse 64–5 Monte Cassino 12 in Russia 84, 150 monasticism Celtic 50 Ireland 43 reform 64–5 Mongols 59, 80–81 in Muscovy 84 Monophysitism 32–3, 34–5, 48 Monte Cassino 12, 43 Moravian Brethren 111, 124 Mormons 132 Morrison, Robert 127 Moscow 59, 84 Mott, John R. 144 Muhammad 46 Muscovy 84 Narses 35 Naum of Preslav 56 Navigator Islands 138 Nero 22 Neshaminy 116 Nestorian Christians 120 in China 80 Nestorius 32, 34–5 Nevskii, Aleksandr 84 New Guinea 138 New Hampshire 104 new religious movements 132–3 New York 118 New Zealand 138–9 Newport 112 Nicaea captured by Turks 60 Christian rule restored 70 second Council of 48 Synod of 30 Nicene Creed 30, 60 Nigeria 151 Nilus of Sora 84 Ninian 50 Nisibis 35 Nonchurch Christianity 128 North Carolina 112 Northampton (Massachusetts) 46 Northfield 143 Novgorod 84 Noyes, John Humphrey 132 Odilo 64 Odo 64 Oneida 132 Orthodox Christianity 44, 48,

144–5 Ostrogoths 38, 44 Oswald 64 Oswiu 54 Otto I (the Great) 56 Ottoman empire 106 Ozman, Agnes 134 Pachomius 42 Palestine 20 Paraguay 98, 108 Parham, Charles 134 Paris, scholastic learning 76 Paul, St 22 Paulicians 80–81 Paulinus 38, 50 Paumotu 138 Peking Convention 128 Penn, William 104, 112 Pennsylvania 104, 112, 146 Pentecostal movement 14 Pentecostalism 134 persecution of Christians 12, 22, 99, 106, 127, 140, 148, 151, 153 of Jews 73 of Nestorians 35 Persia 35 Peru 98 Peshawar 126 Philadelphia 112 Philip II Augustus (king of France) 71 Philippines 102, 151 Photius 48, 56, 58 Pietism 110–111, 116, 132 Pilgrim Fathers 104 pilgrimage 74 Pipcus Fathers 138 Plymouth 104 Poitiers 47 Poland 150, 151 Polynesia 138 popes authority 13 medieval 38, 88 Portugal as colonial power 108, 120 missionaries from 120 Presbyterian churches 118 Princeton 123 Protestantism 92 emergence of 13 modern distribution 153 Providence Plantation 104, 112 Pskov 84 Puritans 104, 132 Putin, Vladimir 151 Quakers 104, 112 Quimby, Phineas P. 133 Qumran 40 Radulf 70 Rapp, George 132 Rappites 132 Raritan Valley 46 Ratislav 49 Ravenna 38, 44 reductions 98–9, 108 Reformation 13, 90, 92 relics 74 revivals 116, 118, 134 Rhode Island 112 Rice, Luther 122 Richard I ‘Lionheart’ (king of

England) 71 Romania 150 Rome importance 24, 48 pilgrimage to 74 sacked 38 Romero, Óscar 140 Rublev, Andrei 84 Rus’ 58 Russell, Charles Taze 132–3 Russia 84, 148–50 Russian Orthodox Church 58–9, 84 Russian Revolution 14, 148 Rutger’s College 112 St Catherine’s monastery 42, 44 Saladin (Salah ad-Din) 70–71 Salt Lake 132 Samoa 138 Samosata 56 Santiago de Compostela, pilgrimage to 74 Sarai 80, 84 Schmidt, Georg 111 scholasticism 13, 76 Schwarz, Christian Friedrich 111, 126 Seleucia-Ctesiphon 35 Serampore 126 Sergius (Metropolitan) 148 Sergius of Radonezh 84 Seventh-day Adventists 132, 140 Seymour, William Joseph 134 Shakers 132 Sierra Leone 124 Sigfrid 50 Simpson, A. B. 142 Sinai desert 42, 44 slavery 120, 124 Slavic liturgy 49 Slavs 58 Smith, Joseph 132 Society of Friends 104, 112 Society Islands 138 Society of Jesus 13, 94, 98–9, 108 South Carolina 112 Spain as colonial power 108 and the Jews 73 under Muslims 46 Spener, Philipp Jakob 110–111 Speyer, Diet of 92 Sri Lanka 99, 126 Stalin 148, 150 Stephen I (Magyar king) 56 Stoddard, Solomon 46 Stone, Barton 118 Sweden 50 Syria 151 Tabennisi 42 Tabriz 80 Tahiti 138 Temple (Jerusalem), destroyed 24 Tennent, Gilbert 116 Tennent, William 116 Thirty Years’ War 96 Thomas Becket 74 Timbuktu 120 Tonga 138 Topeka 134 Tordesillas, Treaty of 98 Tours 47, 74 Tranquebar 126

Trent, Council of 94 Trinidad 108 Trinity, doctrine of the 32 Tver 84 Ukraine 84, 148, 150 Umar (Omar) 46 Umayyad dynasty 46 Uniates 148 universities 76, 78, 122–3 U.S.A. African-American churches 136 Catholicism 130 denominations in 2000 146–7 early settlements 104, 112 missions from 122–3 new religious movements 132–3 Pentecostalism 134 Protestant missions from 143 revivals 116, 118 Utah 146–7 Uthman (Osman) 46 Valdes, Peter 80 van der Kemp, Johannes 124 Vandals 38, 44 Varick, James 136 Vatican Council (II, 1962-65) 144 Vézelay 74 Vieira, António 108 Vietnam 151 Virginia 112 Visigoths 38 Vivarium 43 Vladimir 59, 84 Vladimir I (prince of Kiev) 58 Waldensians 82 Ward, William 126 Wesley, John 13 Western Samoa 138 Westphalia, Peace of 96 Whitby, Synod of 52 Whitefield, George 13, 116 Whithorn (Candida Casa) 50 William the Pious 64 William of Rubruck 80 Williams College 122 Williams, George 144 Williams, Roger 104 Willibrord 50 Winfrith 50 Winthrop, John 104 Wittenberg 92 World Council of Churches 144 World War II 14 Worms, Diet of 92 Wyclif, John 80 Xavier, Francis 99 Yale 112, 118, 123 Yarmuk 46 Yeltsin, Boris 150 Young, Brigham 132 Ziegenbalg, Bartholomäus 111, 126 Zinzendorf, Ludwig von 111, 116, 132 Zurich 92 Zwingli, Huldrych 13, 92

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These regional divisions are far from exact and other patterns of religious settlement and persuasion co-exist and intersect. some religious groups – such as Catholics, episcopalians, and Unitarian-Universalists – are mainly urban; others – such as Churches of God, Disciples of Christ, Baptists, Amish, and Mennonites – principally rural. map 31

and is still today religiously uniform. The spanish Catholic region consists of Catholics of hispanic descent and native American Catholics, and is increasingly influenced too by Mexican Catholicism. The Western region has been settled largely by migrants from other areas of the country and has no single dominant group.

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Tim Dowley is editor of the highly acclaimed E L AND and successful IRIntroduction to the History of ChrisDiSTRibuTion oF ChRiSTiAn DEnoMinATionS in ThE u.S.A.: 2000 tianity: Second Edition (Fortress Press, 2013) and E NGL AND London eR author of The Christians: An Illustrated History . Aachen Cologne H O L Y (2008) and The Student Bible Atlas: Revised EditionR O M A N MPIRE Prague (Fortress Press, 2015), among many other titlesERegensburg Se (Ratisbon) ine Da R. Paris nub e R. on the history of Christianity and the Bible. He . R Salzburg Vézelay ire o L has traveled extensively and lives with his wife ATLANTIC AUSTRIA Poitiers FR A NCE OCEAN CARINTHIA and three children in Dulwich, South London, Venice Clermont ARLES England. Genoa Seattle

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Khartoum UPPER ,revef fo deid eh ,anihC ot yrtne niag dluoc ne .msilanretap sti rof Massawa GAMBIA ANGLO-EGYPTIAN EVOLTA .xis-ytrof ylno detogBritain a llits uphTOGO ADEN SUDAN Djibouti G U L F O F ra reivax sicnarF to Germany ,krow s’reivaX no deirrac stiuseJPORTUGUESE rGUINEA ehto ETHIOPIA to o Britain 0061 yb dna ,sseccus elbaredisnoc gniveihca sicnarF yranoissim tiusNeJI GgnE iRrIeAen ip eTh BRITISH Addis SOMALILAND Freetown naht erom derebmun hcruhc esenapaJ eht seidni eht ot eltsopa‘ – )25–6051( reivaX Ababa CYPRUS SIERRA LEONE Miles IVORY Kumasi ETHIOPIAN yrlavir refta ,revewoh .srebmem 000to,0Britain 03 .niaCOAST ps ,erravan ni nrobIbadan saw – ’napaJ dna 0 100 200 A K AM E R U N HIGHLANDS GOLD dna srewop nretseW eht neewteb deMonrovia tpure stiuAbidjan seJ eht deCOAST ksa Accra lagutroLagos P fo iii nhoJ nehtoW Germany Calabar nugohs esenapaJ eht ,sredro naitsirhC reivaX ,eripmGeU sL FihO FroGfU sI NeEiAranoissim Yaounde rof 0 100 200 300 ALIAN18 UGANDA IT Kilometers 1823: J.Ashmun founds BRITISH EAST fo noitucesrep laturb detagitsni )ronrevog( .2451 ni ,aidni ,aoG niRIOgnMUNI ivirtoraSpain ,dednopser Stanleyville Liberia as home for freed slaves AFRICA tnemnrevog esenapaJ eht 0461 ni .snaitsirhC krow dna evil ot São ytilibTomé a sih rof detcepsFRENCH er David Livingstone Damascus 1148 Kampala Lambarené (1813-73) explores and naitsirhC rof noitisiuqni fo ecffio na pu tes no devom noos sicnarF ,roop eht edisgEQUATORIAL nAFRICA ola Nairobi B E LGI A N CO NGO opens southern Africa for missions .snaitsirhC hsinup dna tceted ot sriaHattin ffA a1187 dnaB eht 1913: ,sdnaDrlsAlbert i accuSchweitzer loM eht ,aknal irsCONGO ot starts mission hospital GERMAN Brazzaville Mombasa tsomla saw hcArsuf ruhc ese1191 napaJ eht gnol erofeB gnihcaerp ,alusnineP yalaM eht dna ,sdnalsi EAST AFRICA Léopoldville Zanzibar .detacidare yletelpmoc 9451 ni .tnew eh reverehw gnizitpab dna Dar es Salaam 1078: Turks take Jerusalem and INDIAN Luanda obstruct Christian pilgrims

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Over fifty brand new maps FAT I M I D Miles Helpful charts and timelines throughout 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300 400Accessible and concise text accompanies each map Kilometers Extensive treatment of the growth of Christianity in the modern era Substantial material on Asian, African, and Latin American contexts ThE FiRST ThREE CRuSADES Bibliography for further reading

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map 47

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Khrushchev, soviet leader between 1955 Polish pilgrims celebrate the beatification of Pope John Paul II L. Ontario NH at the Vatican, Rome, Italy.MICHIGAN and 1964. Anti-religious propaganda NEW YORK was increased and half the remaining 63 IOWA MS NEBRASKA Boston L. Erie Detroit Catholic Church. stalin used the subservient monasteries closed (there had been more CT RI Chicago Moscow patriarchate to demonstrate to than 1,000 before 1917). President yuri INDIANA PENNSYLVANIA NJ ILLINOIS the orthodox of romania and Bulgaria Andropov (r. 1982–84), one-time head of New York COLORADO Philadelphia that ‘religious liberty’ existedOHIO in the soviet the KGB, further intensified the ideological Denver MD Baltimore Indianapolis UTAH Union. in Albania religion was completely campaign against Christians. Article 142 DE KANSAS Washington D.C. proscribed and all places of worship of the soviet Penal Code banned offences WEST closed. VIRGINIA in hungary and Czechoslovakia so-called against the separation of church and state, MISSOURI Louisville VIRGINIA KENTUCKY ‘peace movements’ were formed among the and was used to suppress private prayer Ark an clergy, to promote compromise between them and Bible-study meetings and to prevent sa NORTH Nashville OKLAHOMA CAROLINA and the state. TENNESSEE anyone other than parents from teaching ARKANSAS ATLANTIC OCEAN Memphis Charlotte Oklahoma City in 1989 the collapse of the soviet Union children religion. such measures were an NEW ARIZONA SOUTH MEXICO and break-up of the soviet empire brought Jacksonville attempt to quash a religious revival that had CAROLINA ALABAMA Phoenix new freedoms to satellite states in eastern been occurring in russia. Underground, GEORGIA MISSISSIPPI Distribution of Christian churches and denominations europe and led to a revival of Christianity. unregistered groupsFort of Christians continued Dallas Worth Columbus El Pasoto meet privately – orthodox, The Polish Pope John Paul ii (r. 1978–2005) Baptist Baptist, TEXAS Roman Catholic Pentecostal, and Mennonite, as well as roman played a role in the demise of the soviet Christian (Restorationist) LOUISIANA Union with his visits to Poland backing Catholics in Ukraine and lithuania. Lutheran Austin Houston FLORIDA the solidarity Movement. lutherans in Mennonite east Germany and Catholics in romania Eastern Europe San Antonio Methodist also had an important part in ending Following World War ii, treatment of Reformed Communist domination in 1989. in the new Mormon Christianity varied in countries ‘behind russian Federation President Boris yeltsin Other (Adventist, Episcopalian, Brethren, the iron Curtain’ (subject to Communist Quaker, Orthodox, Pentecostal, regimes). After initial attempts at suppression, (r. 1991–99) helped restore orthodoxy to a Presbyterian, United Church of Christ) G ULF OF M EXICO prominent position. the Communist government in Poland reached an accommodation with the roman

OREGON

Atlas of Christian History

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Las Vegas

MAINE

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IDAHO

WYOMING

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map 58

Portland

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SERBIA Nish The Atlas of Christian History is built entirely up. BULGARIA Marseillesfrom the ground I TA LY N AVA R R E LEÓN Sofia Philippopolis Featuring more than fifty new maps, graphics, and timelines, the Rome CORSICA EMPIRE Eb D ouro R. ro A R AG O N Adrianople R. to any Barcelona atlas is a necessary companion study of Christian history.NORMAN Bari Ochrid Brindisi KINGDOM STILE Concise, helpful textC Aguides the experience of the user and inter-OF SICILY Taranto Thessalonica SARDINIA . R s agu prets the visual Tpresentation.

D I is perfect Written intentionally for students at any level, the volume SICILY T Granada E R Tunis for independent students as Awell as those in a variety of structured R V courses. I

DiSTRibuTion oF ChRiSTiAn DEnoMinATionS in ThE u.S.A.: 2000

i R. sour Mis

Rhône R.

STRIA A new atlasOof Christian history has needed for manyA Uyears, Poitiers F R Abeen NCE CEA N CARINTHIA and Fortress Press is pleased to offer the Atlas of ChristianVenice History Clermont 1095: Pope Urban II ARLES for crusade for use by students and scholarscallsalike. Genoa

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ZA

Vézelay

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BOHEMIA Vienna

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Aachen Cologne

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