Are You Making a Meal Out of Research?: A Recipe for Research Success [1 ed.] 9781032392301, 9781032392325, 1032392304

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A RECIPE FOR RESEARCH SUCCESS

Steve Reay, Cassie Khoo, Gareth Terry, Guy Collier, Trent Dallas and Valance Smith

First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Steve Reay, Cassie Khoo, Gareth Terry, Guy Collier, Trent Dallas and Valance Smith The right of Steve Reay, Cassie Khoo, Gareth Terry, Guy Collier, Trent Dallas and Valance Smith to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-032-39230-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-39232-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-34892-4 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003348924 Typeset in Caveat Publisher’s Note This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the authors

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4 But research doesn’t have to be so difficult.

This guide will help you think about what research is and how you might get started.

We hope that it will demystify research by making visible the different approaches and positions you can take as a researcher.

We use ‘making a meal’ — or cooking — as an analogy for research.

Just as there are many ways to make a meal,

there are also many possible ways to approach your research.

5 For example, in cooking there are many different flavours and cuisines that are made from different combinations of ingredients.

whereas other people’s cooking is a little more intuitive.

Some people prefer to cook by following recipes,

The same goes for research.

It just depends what you want to make (or ‘find out’) — and whether you have the right tools for the job.

6 Using this analogy, this guide explores four possible ways to approach your research. These are positivism, interpretivism, Kaupapa Māori * and post-critical. These are represented by…

THE BAKER

THE CHEF

THE KAIMAHI

and

THE FORAGER

They are precise in their measurements of flour, water, sugar, salt, and butter.

The Baker follows a strict recipe to make things like bread, pastries, cakes, cookies, and scones.

They are very methodical. That’s because baking requires special care.

The Baker uses specific techniques and methods that have been developed over time to ensure that their baking isn’t, say, too dry. *Kaupapa Māori is an indigenous approach used in Aotearoa, New Zealand. More appropriate indigenous approaches to your context willl need to be explored.

7 The Chef also uses a range of techniques to make a meal,

but they have more room to explore different ingredients and flavour combinations.

but then diverge from it to accommodate different tastes and preferences.

They might follow a recipe too, up to a point

and will continuously adapt their cooking to satisfy the wants and needs of diners.

They’ll keep tasting their food to see what’s working and what isn’t,

8 The Kaimahi (Kaupapa Māori) is a collective. When they cook, they cook together.

For the Kaimahi, the cooking process is just as important as the outcome, RELATIONSHIPS

THE COOKING PROCESS

because it is through the process that existing relationships are strengthened and new ones are formed.

THE PROCESS

UNDERPINNED BY MAORI VALUES

For the Kaimahi, cooking is all about connecting and sharing.

Their cooking process is underpinned by Māori values.

9 The Forager is free from the constraints of traditional cooking.

In fact, they question whether you need a recipe at all.

they venture into the hills to find new ingredients.

Rather than staying in the kitchen,

The Forager travels deep into unexplored territory and often brings back entirely new ways of thinking about food!

10 By the end of this guide, you might find that you don’t fall neatly into any one of these positions.

That’s because research is, of course, a little more complicated.

THE BAKER

THE CHEF

THE KAIMAHI

THE FORAGER

You might like to think of these characters as representing a spectrum of research positions.

THE CHEF

THE KAIMAHI CHEF

THE KAIMAHI

As such, you might fall somewhere in between,

or draw inspiration from several different approaches to form your own way of tackling a problem.

11 First approaching research can be complex and there are many resources on a vast variety of research topics.

OCEAN OF KNOWLEDGE ON + ABOUT RESEARCH

We know it can be overwhelming to dive head first into this ocean of knowledge when trying to figure out what research is and how you should be doing it. METHODS ASSUMPTIONS

PARADIGM/ THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

STARTING POINT

ONTOLOGY METHODOLOGY EPISTEMOLOGY PROCESS

DISSEMINATION/ SHARING OF KNOWLEDGE

This small workbook is designed to give you a very brief, high-level overview of what to consider.

But it can’t tell you everything you need to know - that’s for you to discover as part of your ongoing research journey.

INSIGHTS

It should act as a starting point and help you navigate the vast array of resources.

12

Research can be defined as “a process of investigation leading to new insights, effectively shared” (Research Excellence Framework). We break this definition down into three main sections in this workbook:

How researchers do what they do Starts on page 17

What they find out Starts on page 50

How researchers share new knowledge Starts on page 59

13

To help make the ideas more relatable, we will base our examples around four characters and use cooking as an analogy/metaphor to explain things. We have chosen this, as food is something we all have a feel for. Meet...

THE BAKER

THE CHEF

THE KAIMAHI

THE FORAGER Cool eh!

14

Starting a research project is a bit like figuring out how to make a meal. You might start by opening the pantry to see what’s in there. But what you see will differ — depending on whether you’re approaching the pantry as a Baker, a Chef, the Kaimahi, or a Forager.

THE PANTRY

15 A Baker will instantly see the butter and flour.

The Chef might see the herbs and spices.

The Kaimahi might see ingredients for a hāngī.*

A Forager might see some wild mushrooms.

*The Māori hāngī is a traditional way of cooking food using an earth oven.

16

In a similar way, when researchers look at the world, what they see will depend on their ‘epistemology’ – their deeply held beliefs and assumptions about what the world is and how it behaves. For example, some researchers, such as physicists, believe that reality is objective and measureable. Whereas other researchers, such as social anthropologists, might believe that reality is subjective and socially constructed. Both of these perspectives are valid. To help you think about which perspective resonates with you, let’s first find out who you are and what you want to do.

17

Before you begin your research journey, it’s important to have a general sense of where you’re going or it can feel a little overwhelming. To help with this, in this first activity, we’d like you to think about what your project is, why you’re doing it and what success might look like. Fill in the sections on the next page.

Topic

What do you know?

Why are you doing this?

What does success look like?

19

It is very rare that you will come to a topic with a blank slate. You will have expectations, preconceived ideas, and maybe even some experience of the topic. These are not things to avoid thinking about in an attempt to be ‘objective’, but things to acknowledge. When you acknowledge these things and draw understanding from them, they can be strengths in the research process, not limitations. Fill out the four boxes on the next pages to unpack what you know, feel, think and need to know about your research topic.

20 What I know about _______?

What I feel about _______?

21 What I think about _______?

What I need to know about _______?

22

IDENTIFY YOUR TYPE OF 'KITCHEN' Now that we’ve unpacked your assumptions about your research topic, let’s take a step back and talk about your paradigm (or ‘kitchen’) and how this relates to all those ‘fancy things’ around it.

PARADIGM / YOUR 'KITCHEN' Your paradigm refers to your lens — your way of thinking about or seeing the world (your world view). Explaining your paradigm helps others understand how you see the world, your values, and how this informs what underpins your research. Your paradigm influences all the decisions you make.

23

PARADIGM / THE 'KITCHEN' WHAT IS POSSIBLE (ONTOLOGY)

WHAT IS KNOWABLE (EPISTEMOLOGY)

HOW YOUR VALUES SHAPE THINGS (AXIOLOGY)

METHODOLOGY

Explained on page 24 METHODS

Explained on page 42 DATA

The ingredients you use to cook with

In ‘making a meal’, we use ‘kitchens’ to represent paradigms or world views. Your ‘kitchen’ influences the approach you take to cooking (methodology), the tools you use (methods) and the ingredients you use to cook with (data). Your paradigm is built from various philosophical assumptions, or multiple layers that influence each other, including what is possible (ontology), what is knowable (epistemology) and how your values shape these things (axiology) — these are the bits and pieces that make up your kitchen.

24

METHODOLOGY / YOUR APPROACH TO COOKING Methodology is often used to refer to the approaches that guide how knowledge is discovered and analysed in a systematic way. It is the strategy or overall plan for how to best acquire information, produce knowledge and ensure your research is rigorous. Methodologies are a little more specific than philosophies. Methodologies are the whole package of tools, thinking and training, etc. It’s like your approach to food and the way you engage with it. The micro-skills, the craft skills, the knowledge that gets enhanced by experience, the way you look at and think about it. Its more than just a recipe, but the understanding behind the recipe and how you study, make sense of and interpret the recipe, which ultimately shapes how you cook.

25

METHODS / TOOLS Methods refer to the exact procedures we can use to gather and analyse information. They are like the tools you use to make your food. We unpack this more from page 42.

SO, WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN? Your kitchen, your approach and your tools should all align. For example, it would be hard to be a great baker in the kitchen of a forager and vice versa. The kitchen environment shapes (or dictates) what is possible and how you can think about what you can do. This is why people who do experimental research are often confused by some features of qualitative research (and vice versa).

26

WHAT IS THIS 'PARADIGM' YOU SPEAK OF?

Understanding what makes up paradigms is not easy — even for experienced researchers (and cooks). But hopefully this gives you a basic understanding of how paradigms, methodology and methods all intertwine. Many researchers have bought into or are trained in a particular methodology. Consequently, a lot of these decisions and answers are predetermined by nature of the research they are conducting. This can make things seem simpler in the short term, but it can also mean you may not understand why you do things the way you do.

VOILA!

Now that you understand your ‘kitchen’. Let’s go take a look inside the pantry. What you see when you open the pantry door depends on your perspective (or your paradigm). Let’s explore the perspectives of different cooks. (turn the page to open the pantry)

28

THE BAKER The Baker would see the specific ingredients they need to make a cake. These are specific and predetermined by a recipe they are following. Circle the specific ingredients the Baker will need to make a fluffy cake.

30

THE CHEF The Chef on the other hand might have a rough sense of what they might need to make dumplings, but they might leave some ingredients open, to see how it goes through the cooking process, or they might choose an assortment to make various options. Circle the ingredients the Chef might use to make dumplings.

32

THE KAIMAHI The Kaimahi see relationships between ingredients, people and the collective — who might be tasked with looking after various ingredients, how can working together make the meal (and the experience of cooking it) better, and who are we providing for? What kind of relationships do the ingredients in the pantry have? Link these up!

34

THE FORAGER And the Forager wouldn’t find much of what they are after in the pantry, but instead they would be led to the hidden world behind the pantry to discover what ingredients might lie beyond. What other ingredients might the Forager discover in the hidden world beyond the pantry? Draw these down below.

36

WHO ARE YOU?

THE BAKER

THE CHEF

THEORETICAL PERSEPCTIVE

POSITIVIST

INTERPRETIVIST

ONTOLOGICAL STANCE

“There is one objective reality.”

“Reality is shaped by social, political, cultural, and economic forces.”

EXAMPLE METHODOLOGIES

• Scientific method • Experimental research • Hypothesis-driven

• Phenomenology • Participatory action research • Interpretive-descriptive

APPROPRIATE ANALYTIC METHODS

Quantitative

(e.g., measurement, sampling, surveys, statistical analysis)

Qualitative or mixed methods

(e.g., interviews, observations, focus groups, surveys)

Note: There is lots of complexity and disagreement about how these are used. Consider this an entry point to these theoretical perspectives.

37

As you can see in the table below, you don’t just pick up your tools and cooking implements from the same drawer as someone with a different theoretical orientation. It would have to be a very big drawer, and who has the time to figure out how to use all the tools?

THE KAIMAHI

THE FORAGER

KAUPAPA MAORI

POST/CRITICAL

“By Māori, with Māori, for Māori. All things are related and interconnected. All knowledge is valid if it leads to better outcomes for Māori.”

“There are multiple, socially constructed realities.”

Interested in disrupting power.

Methodologies are derived from mātauranga Māori and underpinned by Māori values

• Critical discourse analysis • Foucauldian discourse analysis

All research methods are appropriate, depending on the needs of the project and the people doing the research

Qualitative

(e.g., interviews, observations, focus groups, discourse analysis)

38

LOCATING YOUR RESEARCH KAIMAHI (KAUPAPA MAORI)

ONTOLOGY (WHAT IS POSSIBLE)

Within paradigms are other ‘Big Theory’ ideas (Braun and Clarke, 2022) like ontology and epistemology. These brief descriptions are a starting point that will help you filter your reading and knowledge.

REALISM Reality is ‘out there’ and can be uncovered in an accurate and objective way.

KAIMAHI (KAUPAPA MAORI)

BAKER (POSITIVIST)

39

CONSTRUCTIONISM Knowledge is continually produced through our attempts to understand the world around us.

FORAGER (POST/CRITICAL)

KAIMAHI (KAUPAPA MAORI)

CHEF (INTERPRETIVIST)

CRITICAL REALISM Reality ‘out there’, but it’s almost impossible to access due to our cultural lenses.

Knowledge is discovered KAIMAHI through our senses. (KAUPAPA MAORI) Theories about reality must be tested against observations and experience of the natural world.

EMPIRICISM

EPISTEMOLOGY (WHAT IS KNOWABLE)

RELATIVISM There are multiple realities because human practices shape how we can think about and view the world.

40 Who you are and the theory you bring to your topic will shape the types of tools you might use, and there are even variations within each group.

A Chef who cooks for vegetarians would need a different set of knives and other implements

than one who cooks with meat.

Many tools have been designed specifically for different theoretical perspectives,

SKILL ACQUIRED

so choosing the tools that fit is important to your success!

It also means you can dedicate time to the specific skills each tool needs (machetes need a good efficient technique to cut through the underbrush of Narnia).

41

RELATIONSHIP TO THEORY Researchers use different ideas and theories to support their work. Here are some examples:

THE BAKER

Uses theory to answer a question

THE CHEF

Draws on theory to make real change in the world

THE KAIMAHI

Uses Māori theory and philosophy to explain the world as Māori experience it THE FORAGER

Uses theory to understand things that are a little hidden beneath the surface of our experience

42

Methods are like the tools you use to make your food. You need to use the right tools, in the right order and combination to help make a meal (i.e., you wouldn’t use a peeler to prepare your meat!). The same goes for research. You need methods that help you collect your data, methods that help you analyse it, and methods that help your decide what type of participants you might be interested in (or if you are interested in participants at all!).

43

For each character, consider the variety of tools they may need to prepare a meal. Note: There may be overlaps!

THE BAKER

THE CHEF

THE KAIMAHI

THE FORAGER

44

Have a look at the methods below and on the next page. Circle the methods you think you might use in your project, and feel free to add any that aren’t listed here! ASSUMPTION MAPPING

USER TESTING

OBSERVATIONS

JOURNEY MAPPING RANDOMISED CONTROLLED TRIAL

INTERVIEW

PROTOTYPING

STATISTICAL MODELLING ETHNOGRAPHY

-

KAPU TI (CUP OF TEA)

45 CO-DESIGN WORKSHOP

EXPERIMENTS

REFLECTIONS/ DIARY

MOODBOARD

DATA ANALYSIS BRAINSTORMING

PROJECT BRIEF

CONTEXTUAL OR LITERATURE REVIEW

FOCUS GROUP

-

WANANGA (FOCUS GROUP)

SKETCHING

EVALUATION OR CRITIQUE

PERSONAS

PHOTO STUDY OR DOCUMENTATION

WIREFRAMING

VALUE PROPOSITION MAP

ROLEPLAY

SURVEYS/ QUESTIONNAIRE

46

CHOOSING YOUR TOOLS

INTERVIEW OBSERVATIONS

FOCUS GROUP

It’s time to think about choosing the tools for your research (refer back to pages 44–45 as a starting point). What methods (tools) do you think you might use and when would you use them in your research? Draw your chosen methods in the boxes. Describe how and when you will use this method in your research and why this method is most appropriate for your research. You may use more or less methods as appropriate to your research. It is possible you may use more than the boxes we have provided here, but we encourage you to do the same exercise for any method you use in your research. This will be useful when your write up your research at the end.

METHOD ONE

METHOD TWO

METHOD THREE

METHOD FOUR

METHOD FIVE

METHOD SIX

50

What is an insight? You haven’t started your research, so it is hard to imagine what this might be – but luckily we have some already cooked up to show you!

51

THE BAKER For a Baker, the relationship between ingredients is super important.

You can’t just substitute one thing in for another without understanding the properties of the product you are interested in. You also need to get the measurements right, or things could go very, very wrong. CAUSE

EFFECT

INSIGHT

An insight for the Baker might be based on careful observation of cause and effect.

or not using enough baking powder,

For example, they might learn that over-whisking,

will result in the cake not rising.

52

THE CHEF The Chef recognises that people have different tastes and preferences, so they adapt their cooking to meet people’s needs.

As such, they focus more on people’s subjective experiences... and less on measuring things, like a Baker.

An insight for the Chef might be that some guests at a dinner party thought their dumplings were too spicy, others thought they weren’t spicy enough,

while others felt they were just right — even though everyone had exactly the same dumplings!

This insight allows the Chef to change their recipe according to people’s preferences.

53

THE KAIMAHI For the Kaimahi, the process is almost more important than the outcome.

THE PROCESS

THE OUTCOME

Everything they do is underpinned by Māori values and knowledge, which informs the prepping and cooking of the meal.

When a meal is made for the community, everyone helps out and everyone benefits.

So an insight for the Kaimahi might be that the process of preparing a hāngī,

and the connections that are made (and learning from one another) while cooking, should sustain relationships beyond the research. The Kaimahi need to be hugely invested as part of the community.

54

THE FORAGER The Forager is interested in understanding power and how it shapes the way we do things.

THE STATUS QUO (FAUNS AS SOURCE OF MEAT)

They use their skills to challenge the status quo and find new ways of doing things.

A Forager understands that what constitutes ‘good food’ is constructed by society’s ideas about it,

and that there are other possibilities.

With this understanding, they go out and search for alternatives.

So, an insight for the Forager might be that mushrooms can be used as an ethical and sustainable alternative to killing fauns for their (admittedly tasty) legs.

55

FINDING NEW INSIGHTS Take a moment to reflect on your own project and fill in the boxes below. This is to help you think about what an insight might be for you. What do you want to find out?

What do you think you might find?

56

LET'S SHIFT PERSPECTIVES Referring back to the characters on pages 36–37, imagine if a ‘Baker’, a ‘Chef’, the ‘Kaimahi’ and a ‘Forager’ did your project. What insights might each of the characters find if they did your project? Write these in the following boxes.

What insights might the ‘Baker’ or a ‘Positivist’ find if they did your project? THE BAKER

57 What insights might the ‘Chef’ or an ‘Interpretivist’ generate if they did your project? THE CHEF

What insights might the ‘Kaimahi’ or ‘Kaupapa Māori’ researchers gain if they did your project? THE KAIMAHI

58 What insights might the ‘Forager’ or a ‘Post/Critical’ researcher generate if they did your project? THE FORAGER

THE BAKER

THE CHEF

THE KAIMAHI

THE FORAGER

You might be inclined to take on one perspective in your project, but don’t feel constrained by it — your project might evolve and change so it’s important to consider other approaches. Remember — there are other valid ways of knowing and learning.

59

Research isn’t just about collecting and analysing data, it’s also about sharing what you learn — just as you make food to share it with others!

22

CAKERY SHOP 22

BEST BURGERS

THE NEW MUSHROOM BURGER!

SAVE THE FAUNS

SHOP

SHOP

In the same way that researchers have different ways of sharing their insights with the world, Bakers, Chefs, Kaimahi and Foragers also have different ways of sharing their delicious creations. Let’s take a look at some of the possibilities.

60

THE BAKER

As a scientist (or ‘positivist’), the Baker might share a step-by-step recipe for the ‘perfect’ cake, based on their experiments.

61

22

CAKERY SHOP 22

SHOP

SHOP

They might sell their perfect cake at a bakery and get a reputation for the specific recipe they developed – and become well known for it.

62

THE CHEF DUMPLIN CHOOSE

STEAMED

G MENU

A COOK IN

G METHO D

DEEP-FR

IED

PAN-FRIE

D

CHOOSE

LEMON + HERB

A FILLIN G

CABBAG

E + EGG

CHOOSE

SOY SAU CE

TOMATO

+ BASIL

CONDIM

CHILLI SA UCE

ENTS

GINGER

SPRING ONION

For a Chef, there’s no such thing as the ‘perfect’ meal. So they might share their insights by customising a menu to cater for people’s different tastes, needs and preferences.

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THE DUMPLING HOUSE

THE DUMPLING HOUSE

THE DUMPLING HOUSE

THE DUMPLING HOUSE THE TH ED DUMPLING UMP PLING PLIN G HO HOU HOUSE OU USE US

However, a Chef needs to pay as much attention to the context as to the research project itself.

THE DUMPLING HOUSE

BEST BURGERS

CLOSED

It doesn’t mean that a dumpling menu will work in a neighbourhood that prefers burgers.

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THE KAIMAHI The Kaimahi are interested in meals that enhance and grow the communities they work with and within. Spending time making a meal together has meant a new depth of relationship and connection that is transformational and sustainable.

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The Kaimahi use whatever food and tools are most useful to realise the aspirations of their community and ensure everyone’s mana is enhanced by the process and the outcome. It is a strength-based approach, where everyone can contribute according to what they can offer.

It is up to the Kaimahi to ‘effectively share’, but the community needs to be involved in the design of how best to do this, and how the communities and their information can be protected.

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THE FORAGER The Forager has explored new territory and discovered an alternative way of being. They might share this insight in order to disrupt the status quo and make an alternative way of being visible to society. For example, an artist might use a performance or installation as a way to provoke thought about some of the problems in society.

SAVE THE FAUNS.

SAVE THE FAUNS.

Being exposed to different ideas and ways of being in the world creates new opportunities. Some of the social problems that exist can be thought about in a different way (i.e. the fauns are free and no longer hunted as meat for the queen!).

MUSHROOM BURGER

NEW POSSIBILITY!

YAY! WE'RE FREE!

MUSHROOM BURGER

As a result, people might have a more critical perspective on how power operates in society, so that they can start to imagine what an alternative world might look like. Being successful, the word gets out and broader social change might occur.

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DISSEMINATION IMPACT OF YOUR RESEARCH Now let’s think about how you might disseminate your research. It’s important at this stage to consider your target audience and their needs. With that in mind, fill in the boxes below.

WHO IS YOUR IMAGINED AUDIENCE?

HOW MIGHT YOU SHARE YOUR FINDINGS?

WHAT MIGHT THE IMPLICATIONS BE? (OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS)

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BON APPETIT You now have a better sense of the kind of ‘cook’ you want to be, and are in a better place to start or continue your research journey. Remember that research is an ongoing journey of learning, so revisit this workbook and explore the many other fantastic resources that are available.

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RESOURCES Here are some great resources to get you started!

Essentials of Thematic Analysis Gareth Terry & Nikki Hayfield

Successful Qualitative Research: A practical guide for beginners Virginia Braun & Victoria Clarke

Doing Research in the Real World David E. Gray

Decolonizing Methodologies Linda Tuhiwai Smith

Creative Research: The Theory and Practice of Research for the Creative Industries Hilary Collins

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REFERENCES Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Make a meal (out) of. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved June 20, 2021, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/make%20a%20meal%20%28out%29%20of Research Excellence Framework UK. (2021). Submitting practice research outputs to REF2021: key guidance from ‘Guidance on Submissions’ and ‘Panel Criteria and Working Methods’ documents. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.ref.ac.uk/media/1238/submittingpractice-research-outputs-to-ref2021.pdf Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: a practical guide. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.