Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality: An Open Window to the Early Population of Patagonia (The Latin American Studies Book Series) [1st ed. 2022] 9783030925024, 9783030925031, 3030925021

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The Latin American Studies Book Series

Laura Miotti Monica Salemme Darío Hermo   Editors

Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality An Open Window to the Early Population of Patagonia

The Latin American Studies Book Series Series Editors Eustógio W. Correia Dantas, Departamento de Geografia, Centro de Ciências, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil Jorge Rabassa, Laboratorio de Geomorfología y Cuaternario, CADIC-CONICET, Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina

The Latin American Studies Book Series promotes quality scientific research focusing on Latin American countries. The series accepts disciplinary and interdisciplinary titles related to geographical, environmental, cultural, economic, political and urban research dedicated to Latin America. The series publishes comprehensive monographs, edited volumes and textbooks refereed by a region or country expert specialized in Latin American studies. The series aims to raise the profile of Latin American studies, showcasing important works developed focusing on the region. It is aimed at researchers, students, and everyone interested in Latin American topics. Submit a proposal: Proposals for the series will be considered by the Series Advisory Board. A book proposal form can be obtained from the Publisher, Juliana Pitanguy ([email protected]).

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15104

Laura Miotti · Monica Salemme · Darío Hermo Editors

Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality An Open Window to the Early Population of Patagonia

Editors Laura Miotti CONICET, División Arqueología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP) La Plata, Argentina

Monica Salemme CADIC-CONICET, Laboratorio de Geomorfologia y Cuaternario and Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego Ushuaia, Argentina

Darío Hermo CONICET, División Arqueología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP) La Plata, Argentina

ISSN 2366-3421 ISSN 2366-343X (electronic) The Latin American Studies Book Series ISBN 978-3-030-92502-4 ISBN 978-3-030-92503-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Foreword

This book is the result of three decades of work at Piedra Museo locality and mainly in Alero Piedra Museo 1 (AEP-1), a site that is central to relevant issues concerning Patagonian and American archaeology in general. This site has a very long occupational history, one of the longest recorded for Patagonia east of the Andes. My memories about the site are related to the visit during the international INQUA workshop held in 2000 and hosted by Laura Miotti at the National University of La Plata. I have seen research progress throughout a great part of my career, as many of the authors of these papers have been my lifelong colleagues, and friends and some even have been my students. That is to say, in no way can I claim to be an unbiased reader. My first comment is related to a characteristic of this book, apparently disconnected from its academic strength: the language chosen by the editors. In her introduction, Miotti mentions other books written in English that deal with important early Patagonian sites: one by Bird (1988), edited by Hyslop, and another one by Dillehay (1997). She also mentions two books in Spanish written by Gradin and Aguerre (1994) and by Massone (2004). That is, the local authors tend to present a great amount of detailed information in Spanish, their native language. The same is true if we look further north into the Pampean region, where even if Mazzanti and especially Politis publish regularly in English, the books containing detailed basic information about the early sites they study are in Spanish (Politis et al. 2014, Mazzanti and Quintana 2001). This is a different case; although part of the information contained here has already been published in both English and Spanish, this book constitutes a special effort to make first-hand data, which as mentioned above is relevant for both North and South American archaeology, available to English readers. We have already dwelled on this subject in our Introduction to the Southbound volume (Miotti et al. 2012) and it also was the spirit that guided a previous volume (Miotti et al. 2003). It is my desire that this effort is appreciated as such and the information here presented is widely used and cited. I have a clear image of Luis Borrero at the 2013 Santa Fe Paleoamerican Odyssey meeting urging North American archaeologists working on peopling issues to read original papers in Spanish. I cannot agree more on this issue. This is one of the v

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rare occasions where English readers can access data and also concerns and practical information about an early site in remote Patagonia in their mother tongue. Goebel, in this book, goes one step forward and advocates for joint working in interdisciplinary international projects that function on a two-way basis. The following paragraphs highlight some of what I believe are the book´s strengths. The introduction presents a vivid description of what the archaeological fieldwork is like in Argentina. Through the site’s research history, Miotti paints a picture of the context in which many of our research projects are carried out. It is relevant to understand under what conditions knowledge is constructed in our country. De Aparicio, a geologist, first recognized the archaeological significance of the locality during the early twentieth century. The prominent space dedicated to paleoenvironmental studies in this book follows in this tradition of shared interdisciplinary work which is commonly undertaken by many of the authors, most of whom studied or work at the Natural Sciences Faculty and Museum at La Plata University. The book can be consulted to obtain information on different issues presented at several spatial and temporal scales. Two chapters are the skeleton on which the others rest: they deal with geoarchaeology and chronology. The former is concerned with both the general geology and the site and local stratigraphy; considerations on soil-forming processes and surface stability are basic to the interpretation of archaeological contexts. The latter presents a careful explanation of the location and characteristics of the charcoal samples which are particularly relevant as the earliest occupational event in the Lower Component (at SU 6) is dated between 13,100 and 12,000 cal yr BP. Site chronology as addressed by other authors is also discussed in detail. As readers, we are left with an intriguing question: what is the dating of the Mylodontidae rib with cutmarks from the lower occupational level? The paleoenvironment and paleoecology chapters in Part I include several proxies. There is information about the glacial environment setting a general geographical picture for the human occupation, about the coexistence of people and fauna from the Late Pleistocene to the Middle Holocene in Fuego-Patagonia, about the climatic and vegetation regional history as seen through pollen analysis, and on diatom analysis from the paleolake sediments close to Piedra Museo. Additionally in Part II, there is a specific chapter on δ13 C and δ15 N analysis on extinct fauna and guanaco remains. Most of these chapters present analysis at the site or locality scale, but correlate results with paleoenvironmental data from Patagonia, thus the volume acquires regional significance on these issues. Another interesting approach in this section is that, although many researchers from other disciplines author these chapters, they reveal a close understanding of the site´s archaeology. As an archaeologist, I am thankful; it makes their studies relevant to my interests and those of other colleagues, which is not always the case. The second part of the book is dedicated to papers dealing with the material record at Piedra Museo. These chapters show a cohesive comprehension of the paleoenvironmental and stratigraphic interpretation at the site and discuss activities carried out during different moments of site occupation. Thus, information from faunal analysis reinforces interpretations from lithic analysis and vice versa. There are three chapters dedicated to faunistic studies, three to lithic analysis at site AEP-1, and the last one to

Foreword

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rock art at sites Alero El Galpón and Cueva Grande. A first chapter on faunal analysis at the AEP-1 site describes the three diachronic assemblages identified with a careful description of taphonomy and human bone modifications. Relating faunal analysis with site formation and lithic studies, it discusses activities carried out at the site during the different periods. Rheids merit a chapter dedicated to their consumption, paleoenvironmental significance, and participation in social and symbolic spheres due to their exceptional proportion in the archaeofauna. Finally, there is a chapter that has already been mentioned on isotopic analysis of bone remains. Regarding lithic analysis, chapters cover a detailed description of assemblages recovered from the Lower Component (SU 6 and SU 4/5), from both a perspective of organization of technology, including raw materials provenience, and a perspective based on the design of retouched tools. Another comprehensive chapter deals with tool production and activities in the Lower and Upper Components studied through micro-wear analysis. The section closes with a chapter on rock art, which proposes a relative chronological sequence for pictographs and describes densely engraved panels of petroglyphs. The last group of chapters under Part III gives this book a twist. The chapter on patrimonialization renders a complete history of research in the area and describes its status and conflicts generated by different actors regarding its current use. It is relevant to discuss the place archaeology holds in our society. Two papers written by North American colleagues are evidence of the importance of South American sites such as AEP-1 bearing on the broader issue of the peopling of the Americas. One paints a general picture of the subject and the other compares Bonneville Estates Rockshelter to AEP-1 and sets the agenda for future work. In so doing, it addresses a variety of issues, some of which are obvious such as paleoecology, chronology, material record, past technology, subsistence, and settlement social organization, and others are not so evident, as disciplina traditions, formation of Paleoindian record and use of symbols. In no way is this chapter naïve regarding the early Patagonian record as the author fears. The last chapter starts with a synthesis of previous and current work at the site and goes on to discuss the interpretations and implications of these results. It ends with a discussion of what the evidence presented in the book means at a regional and continental scale. It gives a clear insight into the ideas sustaining research in this very Patagonian locality. I wish to thank the authors for the opportunity of writing this prologue that has given me the chance to read the book in full before being published. As any book that you find interesting this one has left me thinking about several issues. As mentioned above the significant question of the chronology of SU 6 will be further addressed through a new (although possibly very old) dating of the Mylodontidae rib. Pacific coast–Atlantic coast migrations, why would people share traditions on both sides of the Andes? How permeable was this divide and how strong were the shared traditions? Also, a subject that is most dear to me, are there unifacial industries in South America or are sites with unifaces a segment of a larger context including bifaces? Would people forget or ignore a skill such as bifacial flintknapping? How can we contribute constructively and with equality for those concerned in building a pan American view on the peopling? These are some of the thoughts haunting me

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after finishing my reading. Lastly, I am intrigued by a question whose answer you already know, what is the cover of the book like? Nora Flegenheimer CONICET- Área de Museos Municipalidad de Necochea Necochea, Argentina

References Bird J (1988) Travels and archaeology in South Chile. In: Hyslop J (ed) University of Iowa Press. Iowa City Dillehay T (1997) Monte Verde: a late Pleistocene settlement in Chile. The archaeological context and interpretation, vol 2. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London Gradín C, Aguerre A (1994) Contribución a la arqueología del Río Pinturas, provincia de Santa Cruz. Búsqueda-Ayllu, pp 375, Concepción del Uruguay-Argentina Massone M (2004) Los cazadores después del hielo. Santiago, Chile, p 183 Mazzanti D, Quintana C (eds) (2001) Cueva Tixi: Cazadores y Recolectores de las Sierras de Tandilia Oriental. l. Geología, Paleontología y Zooarqueología, Publicación Especial 1, LARBO-UNMDP, Mar del Plata Miotti L, Salemme M, Flegenheimer N (2003) (eds) Where the south winds blow. Ancient evidence of Paleo South Americans. Center for the study of First Americans, Texas A&M University, p 166 Miotti L, Salemme M, Flegenheimer N, Goebel T (2012) The debate at the beginning of the 21st century on the Peopling of the Americas. In: Miotti L, Salemme M, Flegenheimer N, Goebel T (eds), Southbound: a late Pleistocene peopling of Latin America. Peopling of the Americas Publication, Center for the Study of the First Americans, Texas A&M University Politis G, Gutiérrez M, Scabuzzo C (eds) 2014 Estado actual de las Investigaciones en el Sitio arqueológico Arroyo Seco 2 (Partido de Tres Arroyos, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina) Serie Monográfica No. 5 INCUAPA-CONICET–UNICEN

Acknowledgements

In these past three decades, numerous people and institutions have collaborated to make possible the Piedra Museo’s research project on the human past in Southern Patagonia. Many colleagues, students, and friends joined the team with enthusiasm, expertise, and camaraderie from the very beginning of fieldwork. All of them are mentioned in Chap. 1 of this book. Since the discovery of the place, the Ferreira family, the owners of the ranch where the archaeological site is located, showed great interest in our archaeological tasks and gave us unrestricted access to Piedra Museo. We also want to thank the owners of the neighboring ranches through which we had to cross to get to the site and where, besides, we have carried out archaeological surveys and spent most of the day and night many times at their homes: Chela and Dionisio Iribarne and his family from Estancia (i.e., “a large, extensive ranch”) Aguada del Cuero, Gerd and Juan Carlos Toldness from Estancia Bella Vista, Magdalena Kuzle and family from Estancia La Trabajosa, Nico and Marilú Urricelqui from Estancia La Paloma. We cannot forget Domingo and Linares, the rural stall workers (“puesteros”) from Aguada del Cuero and San Miguel, who shared infinite “mate” (a local South American infusion) sessions and stories from the “neighborhood” that were of great importance for knowing who was in the area precisely that year, and at other times they became our pathfinders. The park rangers of the “Bosques Petrificados de Jaramillo Natural Monument”, who since 1988 were in charge of it, always provided us with accommodation, accompanied us in the fieldwork and while we were absent in the area, they carefully monitored the conservation conditions of the petroglyphs and the site in general, bringing us closer to the news if any change was observed. The Moreno family (Nelly, Eduardo, and Fernando), appreciated neighbors from the city of Pico Truncado, offered us their love and friendship, and they were our companions to the field many times. Fernando Moreno, a great friend, in addition, made often available with his truck the transfer of people and equipment from Pico Truncado to Piedra Museo Locality. Andrés and Silvia Maquiavello, two key friends from Pico Truncado offered their support and made possible the first excavation campaign in 1990. Together with Fernando Moreno, they also accompanied us plenty more times to Piedra Museo.

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Acknowledgements

The municipality of Pico Truncado generously assisted with the logistics in each of the campaigns, with the accommodation of the work team and the accompaniment of vehicles for transportation, to and from the field. Mónica Salemme and Jorge Rabassa also made their private vehicles available for fieldwork. The maps of Chaps. 1, 15, and 18 were carried out by Diego Gobbo, from the Archaeology Division of the Museum of La Plata. Figure 6 of Chap. 9 was made by Fernando Santiago (CADIC-CONICET) and figure 4 of the same chapter by Martín Vázquez (CADIC-CONICET). We are deeply grateful to Jorge Rabassa who pushed us to organize and publish all our research from Piedra Museo concentrated in a single book, which we are presenting today. He, with infinite patience, reviewed the English version of each one of the chapters of this book; he corrected the language and also, he fully translated this last chapter. Different grants from CONICET, ANPCyT, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, the National Geographic Society, and the Wenner Gren Foundation were essential to carry out the different field campaigns and laboratory work on the different materials recovered in this locality and to cover the expenses of several technical services and attending many congresses, workshops, and Seminars. We also want to thank all the colleagues who assisted the workshop held in 2000 at the Museo de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina, and from where they traveled with us to visit the localities of Piedra Museo, Los Toldos, and La María. The on-site discussion with all of them was very stimulating and enriching. Finally, to Humberto Sartori, who made available to the team the vehicles that year after year took us to the sites. Besides, he kindly supported us with cheeses of his own production, those that we managed as a treasure for the days we stayed in the field, far from any town and unable to acquire “delicatessen” for daily meals, during long, extended weeks. He also carefully drove his truck thousands of kilometers each year that we had to travel between the city of La Plata and Piedra Museo. Last, but not least, we would like to thank our families for the continuous and lovely support throughout our long research times.

Reviewers

Alvarez, Myrian. CADIC—CONICET, Ushuaia, Argentina Aschero, Carlos. CONICET—Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Argentina Civalero, Ma. Teresa. CONICET—Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina Conforti, M. Eugenia. CONICET—Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Olavarría, Argentina Espinosa Marcela. CONICET—Instituto de Geología de Costas y del CuaternarioUniversidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina Franco Nora. CONICET—Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas. Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina Giardina Miguel Angel. Instituto De Evolución, Ecología y Ambiente (IDEVEA)CONICET, San Rafael, Mendoza, Argentina Labarca Rafael. Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra y Evolución, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile Mancini Ma. Virginia. CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina Martínez Jorge. CONICET—Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Argentina Santiago Fernando. CONICET-CADIC, Ushuaia, Argentina Serna Alejandro. CONICET—Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Yacobaccio Hugo. CONICET—Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Contents

1

Piedra Museo, A Place and a History of the Peopling of Patagonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laura Miotti

Part I 2

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Palaeoenvironments and Paleoecology

Last Glacial Maximum, Late Glacial and Holocene of Patagonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jorge Rabassa, Andrea Coronato, Oscar Martínez, and Agustina Reato

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Geoarchaeology of Piedra Museo Locality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marcelo Zárate, Bruno Mosquera, Adriana Blasi, and Florencia Lorenzo

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Radiocarbon Chronology at the AEP-1 Rockshelter in Piedra Museo Locality: An Update and Discussion of the Datings . . . . . . . . 111 Laura Miotti, Bruno Mosquera, Mónica Salemme, and Jorge Rabassa

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Quaternary Fossil Vertebrates of Tierra del Fuego and Southernmost Patagonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Germán Mariano Gasparini and Eduardo Pedro Tonni

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Late Pleistocene and Holocene Palaeovegetational Changes at Alero El Puesto (AEP-1) Archaeological Site in the Northern Deseado Massif. Regional Palaeoenvironmental Implications and Early Human Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Ana María Borromei and Lorena Laura Musotto

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Diatom Analysis of Piedra Museo Paleolake, Santa Cruz, Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Marilén Fernández

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Part II

Archaeofaunas, Lithic Materials and Rock Art

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The Archaeofaunas of Piedra Museo. Zooarchaeological and Taphonomic Study of the AEP-1 Site (Argentine Patagonia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Laura Marchionni, Martín Vázquez, and Laura Miotti

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The Rheids as Palaeoenvironmental and Consumption Indicators During the Latest Pleistocene and the Middle Holocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Mónica Salemme and Laura Miotti

10 An Isotopic Perspective of the Alero El Puesto 1 Zooarchaeology: Environmental Changes, Extinct Fauna and the First Human Occupations of Southern Patagonia . . . . . . . . . 291 Augusto Tessone 11 About Humans and Rocks at the End of the Southern Cone. A Lithic Technology Overview at Piedra Museo Locality . . . . . . . . . . 309 Gabriela Roxana Cattáneo 12 Stone Tools Production and Use in Aep-1 Site of Piedra Museo Locality, Patagonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Virginia Lynch 13 The Retouched Tools of the Lower Component of AEP-1 (Piedra Museo, Argentina) from a Perspective of Design . . . . . . . . . . 377 Darío Hermo 14 Back to a Time Perspective: New Insights for the Study of Piedra Museo’s Ancient Rock Art, Patagonia, Argentina . . . . . . . 399 Natalia Carden Part III Piedra Museo in the XXI Century 15 Challenges for the Twenty-First Century: The Patrimonialization of Piedra Museo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Laura Miotti, Lucía Magnin, and Enrique Terranova 16 To the End of the World: Southern Patagonia in Models of the Initial Peopling of the Western Hemisphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Ruth Gruhn 17 Opposites Attract: Why a Bi-Polar, Hemispheric Perspective to the Peopling of the Americas is Needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Ted Goebel 18 Concluding Remarks and a New Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Laura Miotti, Darío Hermo, and Mónica Salemme

Contributors

Adriana Blasi CIC-División Mineralogía, Petrología y Sedimentología.- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), La Plata, Argentina Ana María Borromei Instituto Geológico del Sur (INGEOSUR), Universidad Nacional del Sur-CONICET, Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina Natalia Carden Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, INCUAPA-CONICET, Universidad del Centro de La Provincia de Buenos Aires, Olavarría, Argentina Gabriela Roxana Cattáneo Departamento de Antropología, Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades, Instituto de Antropología de Córdoba (CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina Andrea Coronato CONICET-CADIC, Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina; Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego, Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina Marilén Fernández Laboratorio de Geomorfología y Cuaternario, CADICCONICET, Ushuaia, Argentina Germán Mariano Gasparini División Paleontología Vertebrados, Unidades de Investigación Anexo Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Ted Goebel Center for the Study of the First Americans, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA Ruth Gruhn Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada Darío Hermo CONICET y División Arqueología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP) Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina;

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Contributors

CONICET, División Arqueología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Florencia Lorenzo FCEN-UNLPam, Santa Rosa, La Pampa, Argentina Virginia Lynch CONICET- División Arqueología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina Lucía Magnin CONICET, División Arqueología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina Laura Marchionni CONICET-División Arqueología Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM – UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina Oscar Martínez Universidad Nacional de La Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Esquel, Chubut, Argentina Laura Miotti CONICET, División Arqueología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina Bruno Mosquera CONICET-División Mineralogía, Petrología y SedimentologíaFacultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyMUNLP), La Plata, Argentina; División Mineralogía, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, La Plata, Argentina Lorena Laura Musotto Instituto Geológico del Sur (INGEOSUR), Universidad Nacional del Sur-CONICET, Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina Jorge Rabassa CONICET-CADIC, Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina; Academia Nacional de Ciencias en Córdoba, Cordoba, Argentina; Fundación Bariloche, San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina Agustina Reato Centro de Investigación Esquel de Montaña y Estepa Patagónica (CIEMEP), Universidad Nacional de La Patagonia San Juan Bosco - CONICET, Esquel, Chubut, Argentina Mónica Salemme CADIC-CONICET and Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego, Ushuaia, Argentina; Laboratorio de Geología del Cuaternario, CADIC–CONICET, Ushuaia, Argentina; CADIC-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur, Ushuaia, Argentina Enrique Terranova CONICET, División Arqueología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Contributors

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Augusto Tessone Instituto de Geocronología Y Geología Isotópica (INGEIS), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas Y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina Eduardo Pedro Tonni División Paleontología Vertebrados, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), La Plata, Argentina Martín Vázquez CONICET-CADIC, Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina Marcelo Zárate INCITAP (CONICET-UNLPam) Avenida Uruguay 151, Santa Rosa, La Pampa, Argentina

Chapter 1

Piedra Museo, A Place and a History of the Peopling of Patagonia Laura Miotti

Abstract This book presents the archaeological and paleo-environmental information of the Piedra Museo locality (Santa Cruz, Argentina), produced by the field and laboratory work with our research team at the La Plata Museum (Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina), which is a multidisciplinary way and during three decades has made significant progress in various aspects of the human past, the environment, and the management of cultural assets. All this allows us to sketch the occupational history of hunter-gatherers who explored and inhabited Southern Patagonia since the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Keywords American Peopling · Pleistocene/Holocene transition · Hunter-gatherers · Patagonia When you start your journey to Ithaca/ask that the road be long/full of adventures and experiences. May there be many mornings/when you arrive—with pleasure and joy!—at unknown ports … Always keep Ithaca in your mind/Getting there is your destination, enriched with how much you earned along the way/without waiting for Ithaca to enrich you. Ithaca gave you such a beautiful journey/Without her you would not have started on the road. So,… with so much experience, you will already understand what the Ithacas mean. (K. Kavafis 1999 free translation by the present author).

L. Miotti (B) CONICET, División Arqueología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), Paseo del Bosque s/n (1900), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Miotti et al. (eds.), Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality, The Latin American Studies Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1_1

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L. Miotti

1 The Bases of Archaeological Research in the Landscapes of the Peopling of Patagonia If someone asks us: what is the most difficult thing to find in the Patagonian plateaus to the east of the Andes? The answer surely will not be gold, fossils, caves, or guanacos, which are undoubtedly found in significant amounts and variety in this region. The answer, without doubt, will be water! And wherever we find it, also there will surely be evidence of people who inhabited those spaces thousands of years ago. Thus, with the vitality of water in mind, we could begin the account of the archaeological explorations of the Piedra Museo locality, a place that we will refer to throughout this book. This archaeological locality, besides the importance of life in such an arid environment, due to its cool water springs, represents a significant reference of the human peopling of Patagonia and, likewise, of the entire American continent (Fig. 1). This is the reason why this book presents the works of archaeological and environmental research that we have been carrying out with a multidisciplinary team of colleagues and distinguished friends since the late 1980s. Regarding the contribution of Piedra Museo to the archaeology of the American peopling, we can say firstly that it adds reliable information in a crucial place for the modelling of the peopling in Southern Patagonia. It is, in distance and time, so far, the last place in the American continent where the first human beings arrived after their long journey from the Old World. At the beginning of the excavation of the site (1990), the theories of the peopling of Patagonia were dominated by two well-defined groups: on one hand, the theory of a fast and late peopling (of post-glacial times) with an efficient technology for hunting large terrestrial mammals, such as the Clovis points, as the first American patent (Wormington 1957). This way of specialized hunting life would become relevant in the extinction of a great number of mammal species (Martin 1973). These facts gave rise shortly to the formulation of the “Clovis First” model, with the idea of human migration to the continent, possible only by accepting the Beringia land bridge and the opening of the free-ice corridor between the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets (Fiedel 2006; Haynes 1974, 1981; Martin 1973). On the other hand, the idea of an early pre-Clovis peopling, along the Pacific edge of Asia and America, as the main dispersal route for Homo sapiens, was presented as another strong alternative (Bryan 1978). It is in this theoretical framework that the CircumPacific model started to take shape toward the 1970s with the works of Alan Bryan, followed by numerous researchers (Bonnichsen and Turnmire 1991, 1999; Bryan 1973, 1978, 1986; Dillehay 1997; Erlandson et al. 2007; Fladmark 1979; Gruhn 2005, Rabassa and Ponce 2013 among others). In this dichotomous context of thought about the American peopling, any new archaeological and/or paleoenvironmental evidence could tip the scale. Thus, by the middle 1990s, Piedra Museo (Miotti 1991, 1993–1996, 1995; Miotti et al. 1999) represented also an impact, adding new evidence to sites that such as Monte Verde (Dillehay 1997), Los Toldos (Cardich et al. 1973), Tres Arroyos (Massone 1987, 2004, Fell (Bird 1988), Cueva del Medio

1 Piedra Museo, A Place and a History of the Peopling of Patagonia

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Fig. 1 Piedra Museo and the main archaeological sites of the peopling of the Southern Cone of South America

(Nami 1987) and the middle latitude sites Tagua Tagua (Núñez Atencio et al. 1994), La Moderna (Politis 1991), Arroyo Seco (Politis et al. 2014; Fidalgo et al. 1986), and Cerro Sombrero (Flegenheimer and Weissel 2017) were already anomalies to the Clovis First model. Besides, Piedra Museo strengthened the idea of a late Pleistocene peopling, at least post-Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), between 14 and 12 ka BP for the extreme south of South America (Bueno et al. 2013; Politis et al. 2016; see Table 1 and Fig. 1).

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Table 1 Early archaeological sites in Pampa and Patagonia regions No

Patagonia sites shown in Fig. 1

14 C

1

Monte Verde II, layers 6–5

12,780 ± 240–11,800 ± 80

Dillehay (1997)

2

Los Toldos cave 3 layer 11 Los Toldos cave 3, layers 9 and 8

12,600 ± 650–ca. 11,000 ca. 9500–8750 ± 480

Cardich (1977)

3

Piedra Museo AEP-1 Stratigraphic Unit 6 Stratigraphic Unit (SU) 4/5

11,000 ± 50–10,470 ± 10.470 ± 65–9230 ± 105

Miotti et al. (1999, 2003, 2021)

4

Tres Arroyos rock shelter

11,880 ± 250–10,280 ± 110

Massone et al. (1988)

5

Cerro Tres Tetas, cave

11,575 ± 140–10,260 ± 110

Paunero (2003)

6

Lago Sofía 1, cave

11,560 ± 70–10,300 ± 40

Martin (2013)

7

Cueva del Milodón

11,330 ± *–10,200 ± *

Borrero and Martin (2012)

8

Cueva del Medio

11,120 ± 130–10,310 ± 70

Nami (1994)

9

Casa del Minero I cave

11,000 ± 55–10,970 ± 55

Paunero et al. (2007, 2010)

10

Fell Cave (Fell 1 period)

11,000 ± 160–10.720 ± 300 10,080 ± 160–9100 ± 70

Bird (1988)

11

Cerro Casa de Piedra 7 (CCP 7) cave lower layers

10,690 ± –10,530 ± 620 9730 ± 100–8300 ± 115

Civalero and Aschero (2003)

12

La Gruta 1 cave

10,845 ± 61–10,400 ± 50

Franco et al. (2010)

13

El Trébol rockshelter

10,600 ± 100–10, 570 ± 130

Hajduk et al. (2012)

14

La María, Túnel cave

10,510 ± 90–10,400 ± 100

Miotti et al. (2018)

15

Marifilo rockshelter 1

10,410 ± 70–8420 ± 40

Salemme and Miotti (2008)

16

CoAW (Cerro Amigo Oeste)

ca. 10,000

Miotti and Terranova (2015)

17

Epullán Grande cave

9970 ± 100–7550 ± 70

Salemme and Miotti (2008)

18

Cuyín Manzano cave

9920 ± 240

Salemme and Miotti (2008)

19

Chorrillo Malo-2

9740 ± 50–9690 ± 80

Franco and Borrero (2003)

20

Marazzi rockshelter

9590 ± 210

Morello et al. (1999)

21

Huenul cave unit IV

10,155 ± 98–9261 ± 66

Barberena et al. (2015)

22

Baño Nuevo 1 cave

9530 ± 25–8530 ± 160

Mena et al. (2003)

23

Cueva Maripe, layer 5 layer 4

9518 ± 64–7153 ± 50 8270 ± 87–8012 ± 80

Miotti et al. (2014)

24

El Ceibo 7 rockshelter, layer 12

ca. 9500

Miotti (2006a, b)

dating

References

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) No

Patagonia sites shown in Fig. 1

14 C

25

Traful 1 cave

9430 ± 230–9285 ± 105

Salemme and Miotti (2008)

26

Arroyo Feo cave

9410 ± 70–8410 ± 70

Silveira (1979)

27

Cueva de Las Manos

9320 ± 90–9300 ± 90

Mengoni and Silveira (1976)

28

La Mesada cave

9090 ± 40

Paunero et al. (2007)

29

La Martita cave

8050 ± 90–7940 ± 260

Aguerre (2003)

30

El Verano cave

8960 ± 140–7500 ± 250

Durán et al. (2003)

dating

References

No

PAMPA sites shown in Fig. 1

14 C

31

Arroyo Seco 2. 1th. occupation Arroyo Seco 2. Human burials

11,320 ± 110–11,000 ± 100 8980 ± 410–7043 ± 82

Politis et al. (2014)

32

Paso Otero 5

10,440 ± 100–10,210 ± 50

Martínez and Gutiérrez (2011)

33

Cerro La China

10,804 ± 75–10,525 ± 74

Mazzia and Flegenheimer (2012)

34

Cerro El Sombrero (CoES) rockshelter

10,725 ± 90

Flegenheimer et al. (2013)

35

Cueva Zoro rockshelter

10,153 ± 61

Mazzia and Flegenheimer (2012)

36

Tixi cave

10,375 ± 90–10,045 ± 95

Mazzanti et al. (2012)

37

Los Pinos

10,465 ± 65 – 8750 ± 160

Mazzanti et al. (2012)

38

Amalia site 2

10,425 ± 75

Mazzanti et al. (2012)

39

Cave Burucuyá

10,000 ± 120

Mazzanti et al. (2012)

40

Paso Otero 4

9283 ± 83–7314 ± 73

Gutiérrez et al. (2010)

41

Campo Laborde

8090 ± 190–7750 ± 250

Politis and Messineo (2008)

42

Lobería 1 sitio 1

9878 ± 81

Mazzanti et al. (2012)

43

Los Helechos

9640 ± 40

Mazzia and Flegenheimer (2012)

44

El Abra cave

9834 ± 65

Mazzanti et al. (2012)

45

La Brava cave

9670 ± 120

Mazzanti et al. (2012)

46

El Guanaco 1

9250 ± 40–7494 ± 74

Frontini (2012)

47

El Guanaco 2

9140 ± 120 - 8123 ± 82

Frontini (2012)

48

La Moderna

8356 ± 65–7448 ± 109

Politis and Gutiérrez (1998)

dating

References

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This state of growing archaeological anomalies in South America gave rise to brainstorming about the first Americans toward the end of the twentieth century, and therefore an important meeting was held in 1999 in Santa Fe, New Mexico, organized by the Center for the Study of the First Americans (CSFA) to discuss these ideas about American peopling. The meeting was called “Clovis and beyond”, and I was kindly invited by Dr. Robson Bonnichsen (Center for the Study of First Americans, USA), founder and director of the Center. In this way, Piedra Museo had the opportunity to enter the main arenas of discussion on the topic and according to the two volumes published on that event, Piedra Museo was the new reliable evidence of the Southern Cone supporting the theory of an early and more diverse peopling than the Clovis people. In short, and for being the only work presented by South America, I think it was the one “beyond” the symposium (Bonnichsen et al. 2005; Lepper 2004; Miotti 2004; Miotti and Salemme 2005). The information presented was reliable for various North American colleagues, but it was doubtful for others. This was the reason why, in 2000, and generously sponsored by INQUA (International Council of Quaternary Sciences), CSFA, the Wenner Gren Foundation, the School of Natural Sciences and Museum of the La Plata National University (UNLP), the Comahue National University (Northern Patagonia, Argentina), CONICET (National Council of Scientific and Technical Research) and ANPCyT (National Agency of Scientific and Technological Promotion), we were able to carry out at UNLP, La Plata, Argentina, the first International workshop about “The colonization of South America during the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition” (Miotti and Salemme 2003; Miotti et al. 2000, 2003). In the framework of this event, a fieldwork excursion was carried out at Piedra Museo, Los Toldos and La María localities, in Santa Cruz province, Southern Patagonia, Argentina (Figs. 1 and 2). More than 30 Argentinian and foreign researchers participated in this field trip, including Annete Aguerre, Cristina Bayón, Juan Belardi, Cristina Bellelli, Luis Borrero, Natalia Carden, Roxana Cattáneo, M. Teresa Civalero, Nora Flegenheimer, Nora Franco, Alejandro García, Miguel Giardina, María Gutiérrez, Darío Hermo, Gustavo Martínez, Lucía Magnin, Rafael Paunero, Isabel Pereda, Cecilia Pérez de Micou, Bruno Pianzola, Jorge Rabassa, Mónica Salemme, Martín Vázquez (all of them from Argentina), Donald Jackson, Mauricio Massone, Francisco Mena Larraín (Chile), Rafael Suárez (Uruguay), Alan Bryan, Ruth Gruhn (Canada), and Rob Bonnichsen, Tom Dillehay, Robert Kelly (USA). The support received by the national and international institutions and the colleagues’ interest for this visit was undoubtedly a clear indicator of what Piedra Museo had produced, which was also reinforced by additional key evidence from the same region, such as Los Toldos and La María localities (Fig. 1, Table 1). On the other hand, it must be highlighted the important logistic support provided by the town of Pico Truncado (Santa Cruz province, Southern Patagonia, Argentina) that helped in the accommodation of all the researchers’ committee to travel, from this town to the archaeological sites located in the Deseado Massif, in northeastern Santa Cruz province. The American peopling was, from the beginning of the studies of American archaeology, one of the key issues developed by a large number of researchers from

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Fig. 2 Photographs taken during the fieldwork trip to Piedra Museo, December 2000. a Researchers group visiting Piedra Museo locality. b Laura Miotti explaining stratigraphic profile of AEP-1. c Jorge Rabassa explaining the geoarchaeology of the site. d Lunch nearby the old abandoned mud-brick building of the Ranch. e Donald Jackson displays an experimental knapping during the lunch

Fig. 2 (continued)

8

Fig. 2 (continued)

Fig. 2 (continued)

L. Miotti

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Fig. 2 (continued)

America and from the Old World. Today, more than 140 years after the first International Congress of Americanists, held in Nancy, France, as early as in July 1875, the fascination of researchers and students presently continues with renewed and sophisticated questions regarding that remote pre-Columbian past. The role played by Patagonia in the archaeology of the American peopling has always been important since it has provided and continues giving rise to reliable and innovative information for contrasting the theoretical models, both in the construction of past events and for the representation of the past in the present (Ricoeur 1995; Nastri 2015). As it will be seen later on, this remote region impressed both the first sailors of the Magellan expedition in the sixteenth century and the Victorian naturalists such as Charles Darwin (1839]2009), and it continues to be a source of key questions for contemporary scientists. Numerous national and foreign expeditions have invested great economic and human efforts in the search for answers to the questions like when, who, how, and from where the first settlers arrived on the continent. To answer these questions, they have constantly and systematically referred to the archaeological practice in Patagonia. This region is supposed to be

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the last point of the continent where human beings arrived from the Old World. It has certainly a major relevance due to the significant archaeological and paleontological findings that toward the end of the last century have been creating all sorts of expectations (Bird 1938, 1946, 1988) or scientific myths (Ameghino 1898; Hauthal 1899; Lehmann Niestche 1899). In the past decades, the radiocarbon dating of the archaeological sites from South America, and in particular those from Patagonia, continued to challenge, because of their great antiquity, the most conservative scientific positions about the arrival of the first humans to the region (Bueno et al. 2013; Mosquera 2018). These reasons, among other several ones detailed in different chapters of this book, are those that have characterized Southern Patagonia as a place detained in the time of the “Stone Age” (Outes 1905). The landscapes are so vast and solitary, full of natural mysteries and where it is possible to recreate the past of the first immigrants that may have arrived after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; ca. 23.5 ka BP; see Rabassa 2008; Rabassa and Ponce 2013), and before 14,000 years ago (Miotti 2003, 2006a, b). In this sense, Piedra Museo, together with the early sites of the Southern Cone, and in particular of the Santa Cruz tablelands (Fig. 1), are key places for the study of the human settlement of the South American continent. Throughout this book, the different arguments obtained from the study of archaeological, geological, paleontological, and ecological evidence of the region are presented, along with the study of current hunter-gatherer societies and the experimentation with lithic and bony materials through which we think it is highly probable that the first Americans decided to turn those spots, today almost deserted, into their homes no less than 14,000 calibrated years before present. On the other hand, this book is devoted mainly to the study of the Piedra Museo archaeological locality. It presents the interdisciplinary contribution of the social and natural sciences that gave rise to ideas about human peopling and the environmental evolution of this Patagonian region. It also explores its relevance in topics such as the use of mineral, animal, and plant resources, circulation of objects, people, and ideas, as well as the social transformation of landscapes from the unknown land, without human history, to the creation of networks of places with a history (Laguens and Alberti 2019; Miotti et al. 2015). This phenomenon, between fascination and the search for answers to our questions about the first landscapes of human settlement in Patagonia, has begun with the very emergence of the anthropological, geological, and paleontological sciences of South America. This is so because, also in the sites where the presence of the first Americans was detected, the contexts found there have associated equipment of lithic artifacts, with hearths, rock art, and remains of extinct mammals and other extant species, still consumed nowadays. However, and despite the appearance of plentiful reliable information from South America, it just crossed the boundaries of the national publications in the 1990s. Thus, we observe that the detailed presentations and discussions on the study of the first Americans, as shown by the published production, have not always been easy and successful tasks for the researchers from the Southern Cone (Núñez and Meggers 1987).

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It happens the same for the Patagonian region as for the rest of South America, with few papers of archaeological sites, which were developed as recently as by the end of the 1980s. Two of these papers are by American researchers and editions (Bird 1988; Dillehay 1997); the complete paper of the first of them, even though the research of Fell site dates from the 1930s (Bird 1946), was published in English, translated into Spanish in Chile in 1988 and it was edited by John Hyslop (Bird 1988). The third book corresponding to the peopling of a Patagonian region in Santa Cruz was written by two Argentine researchers (Gradín and Aguerre 1994); however, in the latter, archaeological evidence indicates that the area treated—the Alto Río Pinturas in the province of Santa Cruz—began to be populated after 9,500 years AP. Finally, in 2004, an important book appeared about one of the key sites related to the peopling of Patagonia, the Tres Arroyos rock shelter, in the Chilean sector of the present island of Tierra del Fuego (Massone 2004). In this sense, the publication of this volume with the basic data of all the performed works so far in Piedra Museo aims to be a contribution for the questioning and discussions on the topic of human settlement of the southernmost part of the Southern Cone. Besides, the difficult logistic access to the places in Patagonia with archaeological evidence of the first Americans has contributed to keeping the region as a true “Galapagos Archipelago” for the sciences of the past. This concept of the exotic island is perceived since the early European settlements in the area as foreign, strange, or otherness. Consequently, the stone objects, such as fishtail points, bolas, polished axes, collar beads, and engraved plates, all of them of high technological development and excellent lithic material, have been the cause of permanent search as collectible objects and, sometimes, saleable (Miotti and Podgorny 1995). It is very common to enter a Patagonian house and find “archaeological” and “paleontological” objects over fireplaces, or tables and pictures in the main rooms of the house. In the vast central plains of Santa Cruz, the population density is smaller than 0.5 people/km2 , where most inhabitants are internal migrants (from the northern provinces of Argentina) or external (mainly Chileans and Europeans). The perception of material objects from the remote past of native peoples is related to aesthetics, filled with exoticism and mystery, unaware of the daily life of a current inhabitant of urban centers (Miotti and Podgorny 1995). Piedra Museo was not and it is not far from this either, but being far away from cities and the lack of present population in the area has contributed to a better preservation of its archaeological heritage than any of the other sites of the area where it has been known for several decades that there are materials of the first settlers, or at least what it is called as “Indian stuff”. However, it is noteworthy the transformation of Piedra Museo due to the use that local residents have given to the place until today (see Miotti et al., of this volume, Chap. 15). A similar case regarding the fascination developed by the studies of archaeological Paleo-Indian sites and objects in specialists and non-specialists is presented in a work by George Frison (1990). In that paper, the author pointed out the present human activity motivated by the information of those places and objects of the “Palisaded Plains” of the USA. This action ranges from superficial collections to the creation of archaeological museums (Podgorny 2011). In these terms, though the social context has varied, the scientific research is intertwined with popular imaginary, spreading of

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knowledge, other information sources, myths of treasuries and beings, the distance of time–space and the remains of the extinct megafauna as well, and in that sense, it involves the anthropological Quaternary thought and that of other non-specialist social actors (see Chap. 15 of this volume).

2 Pleistocene Evidence of Human Occupations in the Central Plateau and Adjacent Areas Nowadays, in addition to Piedra Museo, there are several localities of the central plateau with evidence of human occupation during the Pleistocene/Holocene transition: Los Toldos, San Rafael, La María, La Gruta and El Ceibo, and Cueva Maripe, all of them in between ca. 14–11 cal ka BP (Fig. 1). Regarding these, the degree of information is different and the radiocarbon dating of the El Ceibo locality is not yet available. However, there is an unpublished dating of ca. 9200 years BP of El Ceibo site that was done in the University of Arizona (Cardich, personal communication, 1990). Los Toldos and Piedra Museo were the first localities known for their rock art and in the case of Los Toldos for a sedimentary profile surveyed by Joaquin Frenguelli during his trip with Francisco De Aparicio in 1933 (De Aparicio 1933–35). Even though no Pleistocene archaeological evidence is cited in this pioneering work, it can be foreseen that both localities appeared to be of great interest for the study of human settlement occupations, or as they were defined by their discoverers “the Paleolithic stations” (De Aparicio 1933–35, Geographical Chart I). Los Toldos was the site where archaeological research lasted longer, since its early scientific publication in the 1930s. In 1950, the stratigraphic survey in caves 1, 2, and 3 and the recording of outstanding rock art images of the main caves continued, carried out by Osvaldo Menghin (Menghin 1952, 1957), and from 1971 onwards, Augusto Cardich excavated Caves 2, 3, and 13 producing numerous publications such as Cardich et al. 1973; Cardich 1987, 2003; Cardich and Flegenheimer 1978; Cardich and Miotti 1983; Cardich and Laguens 1984; Cardich and Paunero 1991; Miotti ([1989] 1998). In all these works only one radiocarbon dating of around 12,600 years BP was obtained. Therefore, Cardich considered that the first human occupation of Cave 3 took place then (see dating table in Chap. 3). This age has been regarded as an “outlier” for different reasons (Borrero 1989, 1994–95; Borrero et al. 1998; Politis 1991; Politis et al. 2016; Prates et al. 2013; Miotti 2017; Mosquera 2018). But beyond these dates, both Menghin and Cardich found archaeological materials associated to bony remains of Pleistocene horse (Hippidion saldiasi) and related fauna, and of a camelid similar to an extant vicuña (Lama gracilis) in caves 2 and 3 (Cardich and Miotti 1983; Miotti [1989] 1998). This association with the unquestionable lithic technology makes “Level 11” occupation a reliable archaeological entity of the Late Pleistocene.

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Since 2015 we have begun a systematic recording of rock art (Miotti et al. 2016; Carden and Miotti 2020; Carden et al. 2018) and prospecting work of the ravine and adjacent plateau, with rich new archaeological data (Hermo et al. 2017; Marchionni et al. 2017), paleo-environmental (Mosquera 2018) and taphonomic information (Marchionni et al. 2017) that together with the beginning of explorations and excavations in other caves of the locality (Miotti 2017) are making relevant progress in the recovery of thorough archaeological information. In the El Ceibo site, about 200 km south of Los Toldos Cave, excavations and rock art systematic recordings began in the 1970s; they were also developed by A. Cardich and his team members (Cardich 1987; Mansur 1983; Miotti [1989] 1998). The excavated site is a small rock shelter known as Cave 7, where lithic materials have been found. These materials share the unifacial technology of the oldest occupation levels of the Los Toldos, Piedra Museo and other Magellan sites, Ultima Esperanza and northern Tierra del Fuego, such as the Tres Arroyos Shelter (Jackson et al. 2004; Massone 2004); Fell 1 (Bird 1938, 1988); Component Fell 1 of Cueva del Medio (Nami 1987); Tagua Tagua (Montané 1968; Núñez Atencio et al. 1994). In all these places, dating supports the first occupations between ca. 13,500 and 11,400 cal years BP. However, both for Los Toldos and for El Ceibo, the only artifact technique appeared to be unifacial, while for the rest of the sites, in addition to tools and debris of unifacial knapping, other tools were found with bifacial technologies, applied in general for projectile points. In four of them (Piedra Museo, Fell, Cueva del Medio, and Tagua Tagua), unifacial tools and bifacial lithic heads known as Fell 1 points or fishtail points (FTP) were recorded together. The name of FTP was given by Junius Bird in 1938 and whose techno-morphological features were detailed in his article of 1969. The two fragments of fishtail points of Piedra Museo present the technological features described by Bird (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 a Reddish FTP (fragmented) coming from A square, SU 4 /5. b Pinkish fragment of FTP coming from F square, SU 4 /5, layer 4

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At this point, it is worth mentioning a series of events that can help to better understand why this kind of lithic points was not found in stratigraphy in Los Toldos or El Ceibo, even though both Menghin in 1964 for Los Toldos and Cardich in 1979 for El Ceibo argue that FTPs were found at the surface in both localities. Recently, it was disclosed an isolated specimen of FTP collected several years ago by a geologist at the surface of the Los Toldos ravine; unfortunately, this finding was presented through a brief summary published in the proceedings of the National Congress of Argentine Archaeology (Paunero et al. 2017), without further information. Therefore, this finding needs to be archaeologically contextualized. In both localities, the FTPs are present but they need a stratigraphic anchorage that, in this case, corresponds to the oldest levels, both in Cave 3 in Los Toldos and El Ceibo. This would allow keeping a pattern shared with Piedra Museo and the other localities where, from the beginning, unifacial and bifacial technologies coexisted. Something similar occurred in the Tagua Tagua site in Chile, where toward the end of the 1960s, on the banks of an ancient lake, Julio Montané discovered bony remains of Pleistocene mastodons and horses associated to a series of unifacially knapped stone tools (Montané 1968). Due to political issues in Chile, Montané had to abandon the country after the 1973 military coup and the site research was canceled for more than twenty years. Throughout this long period, there was the idea that these findings were very related to those of A. Cardich in the extreme south of Argentine Patagonia and that, in any case, the association of Pleistocene megafauna was associated with unifacial technologies in the times of the first human population. However, with the reopening of the excavations of Tagua Tagua 1 and the new site Tagua Tagua 2, discovered at the beginning of the 1990s by Lautaro Núñez Atencio, the technology panorama of the first settlers of the Southern Cone changed significantly. This change was because, in addition to cutting tools, such as knives and unifacial scrapers, manufactured on large flakes, fishtail points were found embedded directly in a mastodon pelvis of the genus Cuvieronius (Núñez Atencio et al. 1994). In this sense, Tagua Tagua has more technological, faunal, and contextual contact points with Piedra Museo site than with the Los Toldos context as defined by A. Cardich as “Level 11 Industry” (Cardich et al. 1973). However, and in the light of the present evidence from Tagua Tagua and Piedra Museo, it is more plausible that toward 13,000 years BP, both technologies were circulating together between a social network of hunter-gatherers of Patagonia, Pampa, and the central basin of Chile (Miotti et al. 2015, 2021). In this sense, the absence of FTPs in sites with archaeological contexts similar to Tagua Tagua and Piedra Museo (Los Toldos, El Ceibo, La María) may be due to sampling issues.

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3 Piedra Museo Locality Some of the questions of the previous section may have been answered with the work carried out in Piedra Museo since 1988 (Miotti and Podgorny 1995; Miotti 1991, 1992, 1993–96). The first step to designing the research in this basin of shallow, salty lakes, and residual depressions (“bajos”) in the eastern part of the Deseado Massif was the zooarchaeological analysis of Los Toldos and El Ceibo localities (Miotti [1989]1998) and the study of water distribution as a critical resource in a currently dry zone, in medium to high latitudes (Fig. 4). In 1988, we visited the site for the first time and the evidence of a large number of lithic materials on the land surface, with their morphologies and technologies, brought to our mind early moments of the human occupation in the region. On the other hand, the great concentration of guanacos (South American wild camelid), rheas (South American like-ostriches), and partridges in the springs close to the rocky outcrop, and the intermediate position of Piedra Museo locality with respect to Los Toldos and El Ceibo, prompted the idea that this would be an

Fig. 4 Distribution of animal, plant, and freshwater sources related to the main archaeological localities at northeastern Deseado Massif

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important point to refine the proposals about peopling of the region and the human mobility of hunter-gatherers (Fig. 4). Piedra Museo is located on the edge of an old water body or temporary shallow salty lake as a result of the widened floodplain of the stream Zanjón Hornia (see Zárate et al. 2021). This stream forms part of a relictual and endorheic basin with watercourses and temporary shallow lakes (Fig. 4). In this sense, and with the available paleoenvironmental information, our underlying assumption was that in times of the first human occupations, this basin would have had more availability of water with a high variety of potentially usable resources, such as rock shelters, animals, and vegetation. Its intermediate geographical location between the cores of the earliest occupations, Los Toldos to the north and El Ceibo/La Maria to the south, also positions it as a good place in a potential circuit of human mobility within the process of exploration and consolidation of social communication networks in the region (Figs. 1 and 4). Here, I highlight that at the time of the first works in Piedra Museo, the other basins in the region having records of the first human occupations were: Zanjón del Pescado and all its tributaries, where it is located the archaeological localities of Los Toldos (Cardich et al. 1973), La Suerte, Alma Gaucha, Aguada del Cuero, Laguna Sierras Blancas (Miotti 1988, [1989]1998); La María Lowland and Ravine system (Mansur 1983; Cardich 2003; Miotti [1989] 1998), El Ceibo (Cardich 1979; Cardich et al. 1982; Mansur 1983; Miotti [1989] 1998), La Martita (Aguerre 1987, 2003) and El Verano (Durán 1988) for the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene period. Although the environmental and technological variability is broad, their artifact and faunal evidence have a recurrence. On the other hand, a main characteristic of the Deseado Massif, also known as the Central Plateau of Santa Cruz, which may have been crucial for the settlement of the first human groups, is the high availability of mineral resources with excellent rocks for knapping and pigments for paints (Hermo 2008; Cattáneo 2002 and this volume). As proposed in Miotti ([1989] 1998), all the area between the Deseado river to the north and the Chalía river to the south, constitutes a distinguishable area for the outcrops of silicified tuff, petrified wood, and rocks of excellent to good quality for knapping and that knappers would carefully search for making their tool equipment for daily life. Besides, in these outcrops, there is a large number of caves and rock shelters suitable for camp settlement, places for special activities (sites for control and animal hunting, ceremony practices, quarries, and workshops). Evidence of this is the rock art and engravings that were documented in most of these rock shelters and this has mainly attracted the attention not only of anthropologists and archaeologists, but also of residents and visitors since the end of the last century. Thus, we can see that the area had great potentialities for human life and, due to all the available archaeological and ethnographic information, it appears to be that it allowed a successful human settlement with an economy based on hunting and gathering and with a great mobility of human groups for more than 13,000 years, continuously.

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4 Research History in the Locality The first report of the Piedra Museo site was produced by Francisco De Aparicio (1933–1935) and Joaquín Frenguelli, who together with Mr. José Brandmayr made an anthropological and environmental exploration trip to the territory of Santa Cruz at the beginning of 1930. That exploration was subsidized by Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales (YPF, the National Oil Company of Argentina) and therefore, the main objective of the trip was the detection of geological deposits, and secondly, the archaeological systematic recording (De Aparicio 1933–1935). In such fieldwork seasons, they traveled around 2,000 km by local roads and gravel routes through the hilly areas and plateaus of the low basin of the Deseado River, and the city of Comodoro Rivadavia was the place of departure and arrival for this trip. A large amount and variety of archaeological sites and lithic materials were recorded in that exploration and Piedra Museo was one of those sites (Figs. 5 and 6, taken by De Aparicio 1933–1935). In this way, de Aparicio introduced Piedra Museo in the archaeological literature as a place with curious rock art. This rock art was later cited by different authors until the beginning of our own research in 1988. In that sense, Piedra Museo continued being one of the sites without archaeological expectations for the study of the early peopling in Patagonia. As de Aparicio described it in 1933–35, the locality is “15 km al este del casco de la estancia San Miguel, siguiendo la ruta a Deseado, se levanta al borde de una laguna de agua dulce, un gran banco rocoso en el cual se han formado numerosos abrigos.” (de Aparicio 1933–1935:83) (Fig. 6a, b). In that work, he also

Fig. 5 Map I, de Aparicio 1933–1935, depicting the localities identified

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Fig. 6 a Plate XXIX a De Aparicio 1933–1935 of Piedra Museo showing the rock shelter AEG-2 and AEP-1, before the adobe walls built in 1950. b in the photograph below, the basin shows the freshwater shallow lake. b Present photograph (Miotti 1991) of Piedra Museo with the rock shelter. c The saltpeter basin with the freshwater spring. d A guanaco group on the outcrop top. e Maras (Dolichotis patagonum) in the “bajo” of Piedra Museo

1 Piedra Museo, A Place and a History of the Peopling of Patagonia

Fig. 6 (continued)

Fig. 6 (continued)

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20

Fig. 6 (continued)

Fig. 6 (continued)

L. Miotti

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recognized the currently called Puesto El Museo Formation (Panza 2001) as a relict of a Salamanca Formation old marine shore. On the other hand, he highlighted the importance that these shelters and the freshwater shallow lake may have had in the life of the ancient natives, the fact that he deduced from the great abundance of lithic materials he found both on the shelter surface and on the edges of the springs on the shallow lake coast. Petroglyphs and paintings of hands in negative on the walls are recorded both in Abrigo Grande (CG) and in Alero El Galpón (AEG-2). The sector of the narrowest corridor and without rock art was called Alero El Puesto (AEP-1) and the sector with adobe wall AEG-2. The latter was used alternatively as a rural tool shed and as a ranch worker’s housing until the 1980s (Fig. 6). A thorough analysis of this rock art was presented in a doctoral thesis (Carden 2008) and it is comparatively analyzed with other sites of the region in this volume (Figs. 7 and 8; Carden this volume). As it can be observed in the photos since the visit of de Aparicio and Frenguelli, the engraved motifs of labyrinths and circles with wedge were interpreted by different authors as stylizations of Neolithic motifs from the Old World (Aschero 1973; Casamiquela 1960; Menghin 1952, 1957) or as possible horse footprints (De Aparicio 1933–1935; Carden 2008; Miotti 1991).

Fig. 7 a Piedra Museo outcrop with cairns on top. b Abrigo Grande and petroglyphs. c Labyrinthic motives of petroglyph 2. d Animal footprints and complex labyrinths in petroglyph 4

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Fig. 7 (continued)

Fig. 7 (continued)

L. Miotti

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Fig. 7 (continued)

Fig. 8 a View of rock shelters excavated petroglyph of Small Shelter), today known as AEG-2 and AEP-1. b Petroglyph with animal footprints at AEG-2. c Details of circular carvings of the petroglyph of AEG-2

24

Fig. 8 (continued)

Fig. 8 (continued)

L. Miotti

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4.1 The First Visit to Piedra Museo The search for this place took me around three years, and began to gravitate in my mind with the idea of undertaking regional archaeology in 1985, once I had made direct contact with Los Toldos locality, where I developed my doctoral thesis on Deseado Massif and Atlantic coast zooarchaeology (Miotti 1989[1998]). Only by visiting the area and observing the ways in which the few and distant human settlements were concentrated in this northern sector of the Deseado Massif is when the idea of first looking for freshwater sources aroused. Piedra Museo landscape covered those expectations since it is in the geomorphological unit of basins and residual shallow salty lakes in the sense of De Giusto and team members (1980). On the other hand, being close to Los Toldos locality, Piedra Museo adopted another value as a possible node of human mobility of hunter-gatherers. However, the exploration in those three years had shortcomings, and it was hard to find the San Miguel ranch, which was the one mentioned by de Aparicio (1933–1935) and which had already been practically abandoned in the 1980s. On our way, we found at least two other ranches of the region that had the same name. In January 1988, finally, we arrived at the right place. Here I should pause, since if we had not stopped at midday on January 27th in Aguada del Cuero Ranch, we would have hardly found the Piedra Museo site the following day. That day, I turned 32 years old and I was doing archaeology, an activity that made me feel the same as what was expressed by the fictional character, the “Old timer”, of the smart theoretical essay by Kent Flannery: “Hell, I don’t break the soil periodically to ‘reaffirm my status.‘ I do it because archaeology is still the most fun you can have with your pants on (1984: 278).” I was with my colleagues Irina Podgorny, Eduardo Moreno, Eduardo Puscyk, my daughters Soledad and Agustina and my husband Humberto Sartori, all together in that remote place of Patagonia. The Aguada del Cuero Ranch (Fig. 9) is a compulsory stop for the travelers who circulate along those forgotten paths of the Hills, and we were not the exception. That gravel route links the towns of Pico Truncado and Gobernador Gregores roughly around 300 km away from each other, and the Aguada del Cuero Ranch is halfway between them. The importance of the Aguada del Cuero Ranch is due to the depopulation of the region, which worsened towards the end of the 1980s with the depreciation of the wool price and the advance of desertification. Therefore, in that lonely solitude, “La Aguada” was, and it continues to be, the only ranch by the road where you can find people throughout the year, a kind of “Bagdad Café”, impossible to avoid. Thus, the usual way for safety is that travelers stop to drink some “mates” (an Argentine hot drink, a sort of strong tea) with cakes, to describe where they are going and when they will return to town. There we found not only very useful information about the Piedra Museo locality and other archaeological sites in the same ranch, which we would study years later (Carden 2008; Miotti et al. 1999; Miotti and Salemme 2005), but we also met lovely friends. The welcome by Mrs. Chela, Dionisio, and Carlos Iribarne was very friendly, and Dionisio (owner of “La Aguada”) and Juan

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Fig. 9 Map of the tracks from Aguada del Cuero to Piedra Museo, as it was drafted by Dionisio Iribarne and Juan Ferreiro and the satellite image that shows the same track

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Ferreiro—one of the owners of the San Miguel Ranch, who by chance was there with his wife Olga having lunch—drew for us a map to arrive at San Miguel Ranch and El Museo, around 70 km east. The map was the object of a tough discussion among them because Juan and Olga were not going there, but they were staying three days in La Aguada to shear sheep from another ranch of their own, called La Paloma to the west of La Aguada (Fig. 9). Even though the map was drawn on an elementary school notebook sheet, it was so accurate that we reached the San Miguel ranch house without problems and orientation mistakes. They recommended us to ask a rural worker of the ranch, don Linares (in this sense, “don” is a formal treatment to a respected man, usually somebody of age, a treatment inherited from the colonial Spanish times; when applied to women, the term “doña” is used), who was in the ranch main house, about the path to follow for arriving at the caves that were closer to the ranch, but since the track was abandoned and there were several overlapping pathways it was very complicated to choose the right one. After eating cherries and pears from the orchard, Mrs. Chela showed us the collections of archaeological materials and fossils that she had been collecting from her own field and other neighboring fields for more than 20 years. There appeared one among the materials that called my attention and it was a “fishtail” point (Fig. 10). Unfortunately, Chela did not remember where she had found it but this filled me with great expectations of finding others in a controlled archaeological context. After some years and several visits to Iribarne’s ranch, Irina and I wrote an article about the neighbors’ (the inhabitants of the region) perception of the plateau regarding the archaeological and paleontological matters and the aboriginals (Miotti and Podgorny 1995). However, that night, as we were driving a trailer home, we had to drive at less

Fig. 10 FTP of Mrs. Chela Iribarne collection, Aguada del Cuero. Behind floral fossils

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than 40 km/h due to the poor conditions of the dirt road, and we arrived at 10 p.m. at the Bella Vista Ranch, where fortunately the owner Gerd Toldness (“la Garda” as everyone called her there) and her son Juan Carlos allowed us to stay in a shearing shed. The following morning, we left the trailer in the Bella Vista Ranch and at 8.30 a.m. (according to my fieldbook) we were in a neighboring erased track toward San Miguel. We crossed two deep ravines, Zanjón Blanco and Zanjón Rojo, and we arrived at the ranch house where only the rural worker lived. The man was deaf and that day was very windy, so even though we blew our horn and went through the corrals, nobody appeared and as there were no dogs, we thought that the man would be on horseback or walking across the field. Therefore, of all the visible tracks, we took one passing by the house and, as expected, it was the wrong one. Because of this mistake, we went to a sandy area where we got stuck and we spent three hours and a half hours getting the pickup truck out of the mud (Fig. 11). When we returned, again without finding the site, Mr. Linares was at the house door and, after having some “mates”, he indicated us the right track leading to the pasture of rams, about 2.5–3 leagues (12 km) southeast of the house. That was the place where the caves were. Although it was 3 p.m., we decided to go to the site and there, we were walking and exploring until 8 p.m. (in Patagonia, in summer and at high latitudes, it is still sunny at this time) and, unwillingly to return 45 km of an uncertain track to pick up the trailer in Bella Vista Ranch. At this point of the explorations, my expectations were

Fig. 11 a First trip to Piedra Museo during 1988. We got stuck in the sandy ground of the San Miguel ranch (La Porfiada shallow lake). b Truck of Fernando Moreno crossing Zanjón Hornia in 1990. c Crossing Zanjón Hornia on my car in 1990

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Fig. 11 (continued)

Fig. 11 (continued)

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successfully fulfilled since the abundance of archaeological materials on the surface, the incredible rock art, and the landscape itself suggested a huge potential for this place in order to make progress with our research about the first human inhabitants of Patagonia. In September that same year, the 9th National Congress of Argentine Archaeology was held in Buenos Aires. Irina and I presented a poster about Piedra Museo and the perception that some residents of the region had about the rock art of these caves (Miotti and Podgorny 1995). Our own impressions of that site were captured in two watercolors that Irina made for that presentation (Fig. 12). I could reconstruct all this information based on my fieldbook.

Fig. 12 Watercolors performed by Irina Podgorny (2011) about the landscape of Piedra Museo

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In that same congress, I had the good fortune to meet a great colleague and friend: Victoria (Vicky) Horwitz, who, when looking at the poster, told me she knew the site because Juan Ferreiro’s daughter was her friend and in previous years she had invited Vicky to visit the site in order that she could do research in it. By that time, Vicky had an excellent project in Tierra del Fuego archaeology, and therefore she declined her friend’s offer. But she commented to me that I could get information directly from her concerning her visit to the site years ago, reaffirming her archaeological work in the Big Island in Luis Borrero’s team. Several years later and observing the results we were obtaining with the prospecting and excavation works (Figs. 13 and 14), Vicky told me: “Laura, look what I missed out because of a theoretical conviction, from which I receive many rewarding results anyway. And, on the other hand, I am very happy that it was you who had taken the task so enthusiastically.” In 1990, I began the first excavation works, at that time I was a fellow of CONICET and therefore, I did not have institutional grants. The scarce savings only allowed Humberto and me to organize the crew. We worked hard for 24 days, in which I was only able to open two 1.5 m grids on each side, divided into 9 squares of 50 cm on each side, to better record their depth, which were then grid A and J of the general plant of excavation (Fig. 13). But we were also able to explore all the basins on foot and to detect sites of quarries, workshops, open-air camps, and even a “chenque”

Fig. 13 a Map of AEP-1 with the excavated grids. b L. Miotti at the end of the first excavation in 1990 (grid A). c Excavation grids B, C, D in 1992. Behind display grid A excavated in 1990. d Excavation 1990. forward grids D and C, backward A and B. e Workbreak during excavation 1995, grids G, F, E. f) Excavation 1996, grids I and H. g Excavation 1995 open grids J, I. H, G, F, E, and K. h SU 4/5 displays part of a bonepile. i Workbreak during excavation 1996. j Excavation 1997, grids B and C. k Excavation 1999 showing enlargement of the excavation of grid A and trench for geoarchaeological profile. l L. Miotti showing site profile in 2000

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Fig. 13 (continued)

Fig. 13 (continued)

L. Miotti

1 Piedra Museo, A Place and a History of the Peopling of Patagonia

Fig. 13 (continued)

Fig. 13 (continued)

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Fig. 13 (continued)

Fig. 13 (continued)

L. Miotti

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Fig. 13 (continued)

(an aboriginal funerary structure) which I was able to date several years later (Miotti 2008; Miotti et al. 2018). In 1999, we closed the first excavation stage. Figure 13 shows the plant of excavated areas between 1990 and 1999. The second stage of systematic excavation has not started yet, since I decided to wait not less than ten years to open new grids, with new questions and in more detail theoretically, methodologically, and technically. The locality has still a lot to offer regarding human and environmental past, and although more than two decades had passed since that work. This book is the result that compiles all the contributions obtained so far by the research team. Many of them have been colleagues and students who have formed part and helped in Piedra Museo throughout the years. Both, tasks and participants, are shown in Table 2 and Figs. 13 and 14. The following excavation years were highly fruitful in learning about the site and its past. The archaeological excavation carried out in AEP-1 covered a total area of 42.25 m2 ; 9 m2 were excavated until 1992, and the rest in successive years (Fig. 13). In this process, numerous records corresponding to lithic and bony materials, charcoal

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Fig. 13 (continued)

samples, and sediments were performed. As a result, a collection of archaeological materials was created and formed part of the archaeological collections in the care of the La Plata Museum since 1999. Regarding the rock art studies, 13 rocky blocks with N = 231 engraved motifs were registered together with N = 40 motifs painted on the walls of CG and three rocky blocks with N = 84 motifs engraved in AEG-2. Unfortunately, a petroglyph of about 50 cm on each side by 15 cm thick, which had been photographed by De Aparicio in 1935 (Plate XXXI) was already missing when the surveys began in 1988 (Carden 2008; Miotti 1991).

5 The Most Outstanding Results Achieved so Far The main results obtained until now have been presented in each of the chapters of this book. The authors took part in the field and research work. Many of them began as students, they completed their doctoral theses and today they are specialized researchers on different work lines of the Patagonia Archaeology team in La Plata Museum; many of them are also CONICET researchers in other centers in the country. Others are endearing colleagues that, from other Quaternary disciplines, have taught us to view the study place from different angles and they continue working with us (Table 2). Based on these works, the results obtained, which are addressed in the different chapters of this book, are summarized below.

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Fig. 13 (continued)

The paleoenvironmental reconstruction (Chap. 2 this volume) was carried out from different proxies. From geo-archaeology, the basin and extra-basin sedimentological studies were carried out in order to characterize the depositing of archaeological materials (see Chap. 3, Zárate et al. 2021). The chronological anchorage with thirteen radiocarbon datings that sequenced the human occupations corresponds to Chap. 4 where Miotti and coauthors discuss the contributions of each of those datings, especially those that essentially contribute to the discussion of peopling not only of the region but also of the continent (see Chap. 4, Miotti et al. this volume, a). The first of those datings was carried out on a camelid bone from grid A, and it was the first evidence of an archaeological level over 10,000 years BP (Fig. 15; Miotti 1995, 1993–96). The dating list was published in numerous previous works (Miotti et al. 2003, among others), which are detailed herein and discussed altogether with the corresponding calibrations. The local and regional paleo-ecosystems were addressed from different angles such as the glacial geomorphology of Fuego-Patagonia (Chap. 2, Rabassa et al. 2021), the main issue to reaffirm the hypothesis of an earlier peopling in Santa Cruz plateau

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Fig. 13 (continued)

than in the Andean cordillera and foothills. There, data about the environmental possibilities for settlement in the plateau sector vs the Andean sector towards the late Pleistocene are shown.

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Fig. 13 (continued)

An analysis of the Quaternary fauna which coexisted with the hunter-gatherers of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene is developed in Chap. 4 by G. Gasparini and E. Tonni, who also make a contribution to the environmental conditions of that period. In Chap. 6, Borromei and Mussotto analyze the pollen sequence of the site and make a comparison with palynological columns of the localities in the vicinity. This allows them to set up a paleo-climatic diagram of the region in agreement with that obtained in other proxies here discussed. Those data are also verified with the paleo-environmental information presented by Fernández in Chap. 7, where she analyzes and discusses the evolution of the water resources in the basin from a diatomological study of a core taken in Zanjón Hornia that crosses the floodplain, “the paleo-lake”. The other two chapters aim at the study of archaeofaunas of the site, with two purposes, the first presents the human use of fauna over time (Miotti et al 2021, Chap. 8, Marchionni et al. 2017) whereas in Chap. 9 (Salemme and Miotti 2008) the authors analyze the human use of two species of ratites (great flightless birds); it includes the taphonomic processes that would affect their preservation in the site and

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Fig. 14 Photographs of the surveys and register of rock art tasks in Piedra Museo locality. a Sampling profile of stream Zanjón Hornia on 2004. b Natalia Carden recording (cast) petroglyph in AEP-1 during 2005. c Photo of cairns on top Piedra Museo outcrop. d Laura Miotti sampling ochers. e Green Silex on primary quarry. f Diego Gonnet, Laura Miotti and Laura Marchionni prospecting one of the freshwater springs at Piedra Museo Bajo (2013). g Dinner in the AEG-2 (Abrigo El Galpón) during fieldtrip 2013

the climatic changes having an impact in the disappearance of one of these species in the area by the Early Holocene. Noteworthy, both chapters show the low impact produced in the local societies with the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna and the disappearance of one of the rhea species (Rhea americana) in the area. The hypothesis about the low impact produced by human peopling of Patagonia was advanced in previous works and in the evidence consigned herein also reinforces this theory (Borrero and Martin 2012; Cione et al. 2009; Miotti and Salemme 1999; Miotti et al. 2018). These studies were complemented with the isotopic information of the extinct and extant species developed in Chap. 10 by Tessone. As regards the aspects of lithic materials, they were analyzed in three chapters ranging from the sources of raw materials (Cattáneo, Chap. 11) to the aspects of tool design and its evolution in time (Hermo, Chap. 13), whereas the functional aspects are described in Chap. 12 by V. Lynch. From these three studies about the numerous lithic materials of the site, interesting interpretations came to light about the technology, operational chains, raw materials, and their circulation.

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Fig. 14 (continued)

Fig. 14 (continued)

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Fig. 14 (continued)

Fig. 14 (continued)

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Fig. 14 (continued)

Fig. 14 (continued)

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Table 2 Field tasks and participants of fieldworks in Piedra Museo Year

Field trip

Participants

Exploration, Survey, rock art

1988

1st

Laura Miotti, Eduardo Moreno, Irina Podgorny, Eduardo Pusyck, Agustina, Soledad and Humberto Sartori

X

1990

2nd

L. Miotti, Andrés Macchiavello, Fernando Moreno, Humberto Sartori

X

1992

3rd

1994

4rd

Excavation of Raw material grids rock art prospections

Monitoring and Management

X

A and pit survey

X

L. Miotti, X Adolfo Gil, María Gutiérrez, Cecilia Landini, José Ranieri, Marta Roa, Humberto Sartori

B, C, D

X

Laura Miotti, X Laura Mameli, Miguel Saghessi, Humberto Sartori

AD

X

(continued)

The analysis of rock art (Carden, Chap. 14) presents, apart from issues of image elaboration, relationships on human attitudes regarding the use of such images from the study of their spatiality. In Chap. 15, Miotti and coauthors address the multivocality of archaeological objects and sites from the perception that scientists and the rural and local community have about them, in this specific case of Piedra Museo, the state of conservation throughout history as an asset of scientific knowledge until nowadays and the projects undertaken by the team in order to achieve its patrimonialization.

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Table 2 (continued) Year

Field trip

Participants

Exploration, Survey, rock art

1995

5th

L. Miotti, X Marcelo Beretta, María Canosa, Roxana Catáneo, Natalia Carden, P. Cicinelli, Karina Garret, Darío Hermo, Patricia Madrid, Fernando Moreno, Tito Petz, Soledad and Humberto Sartori, Martín Vázquez

D, E, F, G

X

1996

6th

L. Miotti, X Natalia Carden, Roxana Cattáneo, Darío Hermo, Laura Mammeli, Tito Petz, Jorge Rabassa, Mónica Salemme, Martín Vázquez

G, H, I, J, L

X

1997

7th

L. Miotti, Mariano Bonomo, Natalia Carden, Roxana Cattáneo, Darío Hermo, CJorge Rabassa, Mónica Salemme, M. Zárate

B, C

X

X

Excavation of Raw material grids rock art prospections

Monitoring and Management

(continued)

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Table 2 (continued) Year

Field trip

Participants

Exploration, Survey, rock art

1999

8th

L. Miotti, Katy X Ariet, Natalia Carden, Roxana Cattáneo, Miguel Giardina, Darío Hermo, Bruno Pianzola, Fernando Ramírez Rossi, Humberto Sartori, Martín Vázquez, Marcelo Zárate

Sectors a2 y a3 of A

X

2000

9th

Laura Miotti, Rafael Paunero

Profile conditioning F and L

X

X

Excavation of Raw material grids rock art prospections

Monitoring and Management

X

(continued)

As a final conclusion and summary, the perception of the American Academy regarding the information obtained in Piedra Museo is presented. In Chap. 16, Ruth Gruhn provides an overview of the site and the impact that caused in the Academy toward the 1990s. In Chap. 17, Ted Goebel discusses the Great Basin sites that he himself researches on and the relation of the American peopling, considering Piedra Museo as another site in the extreme south of the continent, to give an account on how the process may have been taking into account these two extreme points of the continent where the first humans populations started their life histories. Finally, the advances produced by Piedra Museo research are summarized in Chap. 18 (Miotti, Hermo, and Salemme), where the conclusions and agenda are presented. Thus, I hope that, in the light of this knowledge about Piedra Museo, we will be able to start new research with new analytical ways and also the most improved methodologies will allow progress in this site in order to enhance the information obtained about peopling in this region of Patagonia.

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Table 2 (continued) Year

Field trip

Participants

Exploration, Survey, rock art

2000

Post Congres trip

Anette X Aguerre, Cristina Bayón, Cristina Bellelli, Juan Belardi, Rob Bonnichsen, Luis Borrero, Alan Bryan, Tere Civalero, Tom Dillehay, Nora Flegenheimer, Nora Franco, Miguel Giardina, Alejandro García, Ruth Grhun, María Gutiérrez, Donald Jackson, Bob Kelly, Lucía Magnin, Francisco Mena Larrain, Gustavo Martínez, Laura Miotti, Cecilia Pérez, Isabel Pereda, Bruno Pianzola, Rafael Paunero, Jorge Rabassa, Mónica Salemme, Humberto Sartori, Rafael Suárez

X

2004

10th

Laura Miotti

X

X

Excavation of Raw material grids rock art prospections

Monitoring and Management

(continued)

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Table 2 (continued) Year

Field trip

Participants

Exploration, Survey, rock art

Excavation of Raw material grids rock art prospections

Monitoring and Management

2005

11th

L. Miotti, Natalia Carden, Lucía Magnin

X

X

X

2008

12 h

L. Miotti, X Lucía Magnin, Marilén Fernández, Mónica Salemme

X

X

2013

13th

L. Miotti, Laura Marchionni, Bruno Mosquera, Diego Gonnet

X

X

X

2016

14th

Bruno Mosquera, Federico Ponce, Jorge Rabassa

X

Drilled in the salpeter paleolake

Fig. 15 The Camelidae vertebra from which the first radiocarbon dating of the site was obtained in 1992

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Acknowledgements We are indebted to Diego Gobbo for the support in Figures 1 and 4. There are so many people and institutions that supported these works over so many years that it would be unfair if I only mention a few. Therefore, a huge “Thank you” to friends, colleagues, and family for so much teaching and love that they offered me to travel this exploratory trip to Piedra Museo, a place in the heart of Patagonia with a deep history.

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Miotti L (2017) Caminante no hay camino, se hace camino al andar. Las prácticas que materializan los lugares y articulan el poblamiento. Simposio 4: ¿Qué hay de nuevo con lo más antiguo? Ocupaciones iniciales en los diferentes sectores de la Patagonia. X Jornadas de Arqueología de la Patagonia, Libro de resúmenes. CENPAT, Pto. Madryn, Argentina. Agosto 2017, p 18 Montané J (1968) Primera fecha radiocarbónica de Tagua Tagua. Noticiario Mensual, año XII(139):11. Museo de Historia Natural de Santiago. Chile Morello F, Contreras L, San Román M (1999) La localidad Marazzi y el sitio arqueológico Marazzi 1: una reevaluación. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia (Ser. Ciencias Humanas) 27:183–197. Punta Arenas, Chile Mosquera B (2018) Análisis de la información radiocarbónica de sitios arqueológicos del Macizo del Deseado, provincia de Santa Cruz, Argentina. Intersecciones en Antropología 19:25–36. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Olavarría, Argentina Nami H (1987) Cueva del Medio, perspectivas arqueológicas para la Patagonia austral. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia (Serie Ciencias Sociales) 17:71–106. Punta Arenas, Chile Nami H (1994) Reseña sobre los avances de la arqueología Finipleistocénica del extremo sur de Sudamérica. Chungara 26:145–163. Chile Nastri J (2015) O estudo das ordens sociais Pré-Colombianas por meio da iconografia: Algumas chaves interpretativas. Revista Do Museu De Arqueologia e Etnologia, São Paulo, Suplemento 20:23–31 Núñez L, Meggers B (1987) Investigaciones Paleoindias al sur de la línea ecuatorial. Estudios Atacameños 8, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile Nuñez Atencio L, Varela J, Casamiquela R, Schiappacasse V, Niemeyer H, Villagrán C (1994) Cuenca de Tagua Tagua en Chile: el ambiente del Pleistoceno superior y ocupaciones humanas. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 67:503–519. Chile Outes F (1905) La edad de la piedra en Patagonia. Estudio De Arqueologia Comparada. Juan Alsina Imprenta Panza L (2001) Hoja geológica 44769-IV, Monumento Natural Bosques Petrificados, provincia de Santa Cruz. Instituto De Geología y Recursos Minerales, Servicio Geológico Minero Argentino, Boletín 258:1–110 Paunero R, Frank A, Skarbun F, Rosales G, Cueto M, Zapata G, Paunero M, Lunazzi N, Del Giorgio M (2007) Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Sitio Casa Del Minero 1, Estancia La María, Meseta Central de Santa Cruz. In: Morello F, Martinic M, Prieto A, Bahamonde G (eds) Arqueología de Fuego-Patagonia: Levantando piedras, desenterrando huesos…y develando arcanos. Ediciones CEQUA, Punta Arenas, pp 577–588 Paunero R, Paunero M, Ramos D (2010) Artefactos óseos en componentes del Pleistoceno final de las localidades La María y Cerro Tres Tetas, Santa Cruz, Argentina. In: Gutiérrez MA, De Nigris M, Fernández PM, Giardina M, Gil A, Izeta A, Neme G, Yacobaccio H (eds) Zooarqueología a principios del siglo XXI: Aportes teóricos, metodológicos y casos de estudio. Ediciones del Espinillo, Buenos Aires, pp 459–466 Paunero R, Cueto M (2017) Hallazgo de una punta cola de pescado en Los Toldos, Santa Cruz Argentina. In: Resúmenes de trabajos presentados en las X Jornadas de Arqueología de Patagonia. CENPAT-CONICET, Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina Paunero RS, Valiza Davis C, Rindel D, Tessone A (2017) La Fauna Pleistocénica: Evidencias Zooarqueológicas en la Meseta Central de Santa Cruz, los Sitios de La María. Magallania 45(2):181–198. Punta Arenas Paunero R (2003) The Cerro Tres Tetas (C3T) locality in the central plateau of Santa Cruz, Argentina. In: Miotti L, Salemme M, Flegenheimer N (eds) Where the South Winds Blow. Ancient evidence of Paleo South Americans. Center for the Study of First Americans, Texas A&M University Press, pp 133–140 Podgorny I (2011) Dinosaurios en la era industrial. Revista Museo La Plata 25:96–98. Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata

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Politis G (1991) Fishtail projectile points in the Southern Cone of South America: an overview. In: Bonnichsen R, Turnmire K (eds) Clovis, Origins and adaptations. Center of the Study of the First Americans, Oregon State University, Corvallis, pp 287–303 Politis G, Messineo P (2008) The campo laborde site: new evidence for the Holocene survival of Pleistocene megafauna in the Argentine Pampas. Quatern Int 191:98–114 Politis G, Gutiérrez MA (1998) Gliptodontes y cazadores-recolectores de la Región Pampeana (Argentina). Latin Am Antiquity 9(2):111-134 Politis G, Gutiérrez M, Scabuzzo C (eds) (2014) Estado actual de las investigaciones en el sitio arqueológico Arroyo Seco 2, partido de Tres Arroyos, provincia de Buenos Aires. UNICEN, Olavarría Politis G, Gutiérrez M, Rafuse D, Blasi A (2016) The arrival of Homo sapiens into the southern cone at 14,000 years ago. PLOS ONE 11(9) Prates L, Politis G, Steele J (2013) Radiocarbon chronology of the early human occupation of Argentina. Quatern Int 301:104–122. Elsevier Rabassa J, Coronato A, Martínez O, Reato A (2021) Last glacial maximum, late glacial and Holocene of Patagonia. In Miotti L, Salemme M, Hermo D (eds) Archaeology of Piedra Museo locality. An open window to the early peopling of Patagonia, chapter 2. Latin American Studies Book Series, Springer Nature, Switzerland Rabassa J, Ponce JF (2013) The Heinrich and Dansgaard-Oeschger climatic events during Marine Isotopic Stage 3: searching for appropriate times for human colonization of the Americas. Quatern Int 299:94–105 Rabassa J (2008) Cenozoic glaciations in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. In: Rabassa J (ed) The late Cenozoic of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Developments in Quaternary Science 11, Elsevier, pp 151–204 Ricoeur P (1995) Tiempo y narración. México: Siglo XXI Salemme M, Miotti L (2008) Archaeological hunter-gatherer landscapes since the latest Pleistocene in Fuego-Patagonia. In: Rabassa J (ed) Late cenozoic of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Developments In Quaternary Science 11, Elsevier, pp 437–483 Silveira M (1979) Análisis e interpretación de los restos faunísticos de la Cueva Grande del Arroyo Feo. Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología XIII:229–253 Willey G (1966) An introduction to American archaeology, vol 1: South America. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey, Englewood Cliff, USA Willey G (1971) An introduction to American archaeology, vol 2: South America. Prentice Hall, Inc. New Jersey, Englewood Cliff, USA Wormington HM (1957) Ancient man in North America. Denver Museum of Natural History. Popular Series, no 4. 4ta ed. extended Zárate M, Mosquera B, Blasi A, Lorenzo F (2021) Geoarchaeology of piedra museo locality. In Miotti L, Salemme M, Hermo D (eds) Archaeology of piedra museo locality. An open window to the early peopling of Patagonia, chapter 3. Latin American Studies Book Series, Springer Nature, Switzerland

Part I

Palaeoenvironments and Paleoecology

Chapter 2

Last Glacial Maximum, Late Glacial and Holocene of Patagonia Jorge Rabassa, Andrea Coronato, Oscar Martínez, and Agustina Reato

Abstract The Patagonian glaciations developed since the latest Miocene (ca. 6 Ma) in multiple events, of varied duration and intensity. Most of the present glacial landscape is the outcome of the glacial modelling during the Pleistocene, since the Great Patagonian Glaciation (GPG; ca. 1 Ma). The Patagonian Andes were covered by a continuous mountain ice sheet, from 37º S to Cape Horn (56º S) in at least five major glaciations for more than 15 cold events in the last million years. The present drainage network was developed after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; ca. 24 cal. ka BP), particularly those cases with drainage reversal, when the glaciers began to melt due to global climatic changes. The environmental impact of Pleistocene glaciations extended all over Patagonia. The knowledge about the Last Glaciation, the Late Glacial and Holocene glaciations is very important because the human settling of the Patagonian landscape as we know it took place during this period. Moreover, the human colonization of Patagonia took place sometime after the Last Glacial Maximum and during the Late Glacial (ca. 18,000 to 10,000 years ago) and it was completed along the entire Early Holocene. Keywords Patagonian glaciations · Last glaciation · Late glacial times · Holocene neoglaciations · Human colonization · Patagonia · Piedra Museo archaeological locality J. Rabassa (B) · A. Coronato CONICET-CADIC, B. Houssay 200, (9410), Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina A. Coronato Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego, Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina O. Martínez Universidad Nacional de La Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Sede Esquel, (9200), Esquel, Chubut, Argentina A. Reato Centro de Investigación Esquel de Montaña y Estepa Patagónica (CIEMEP), Universidad Nacional de La Patagonia San Juan Bosco - CONICET, Esquel, Chubut, Argentina J. Rabassa Academia Nacional de Ciencias en Córdoba, Cordoba, Argentina Fundación Bariloche, San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Miotti et al. (eds.), Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality, The Latin American Studies Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1_2

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1 Introduction 1.1 The Patagonian Region Continental and alpine-type glaciations of varied ages and extent are both very well represented in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego (Coronato et al. 2004a, b). Morphological evidence of ancient glaciations is widespread both in the mountains and in the lowlands. Till deposits interbedded with basalt flows indicate the occurrence of glaciation already at the end of the Miocene (ca. 6–5 Ma; Mercer 1976; Rabassa 2008). Many glacial events took place after this primordial glaciation, associated with the final uplift of the Patagonian Andes, including perhaps two major glacial events during the Pliocene (Clague et al. 2020; Griffing et al. 2020, 2021). However, this chapter will be devoted only to the Last Glacial Maximum, the Late Glacial and the Holocene Neoglaciations, because these were the times when the oldest and following human colonization events took place in Piedra Museo locality (Deseado Massif, Santa Cruz province; Miotti 1998) as well as in the entire Patagonia (Salemme and Miotti 2008). However, we found it necessary to start from the Late Miocene, when the junction of global, cooler climatic conditions and the final rise of the Southern Andes enabled the formation of mountain glaciers in the area. The objective of this chapter is to present the absolute chronology of the Patagonian terrestrial glacial sequences, basically dated by means of 40 Ar/39 Ar dating techniques on volcanic rocks associated with glacial landforms and deposits, and by cosmogenic isotope dating techniques on erratic boulders and glacial erosional surfaces (Kaplan et al. 2004; Singer et al. 2004a). In some cases, the magnetostratigraphy of glacial deposits is available, thus allowing the correlation with the Pampean (central eastern Argentina) continental sequences (mostly loess units) and with the global ocean record (Rabassa et al. 2005). Likewise, the stratigraphic and biostratigraphic units of the Pampean Region of Central Argentina have been chronologically linked by means of paleomagnetic dating techniques, thus providing a basis for regional and planetary correlation between the glacial events and the Pampean loess deposition (Cione and Tonni 1999; Rabassa et al. 2005). Argentine Patagonia extends southward of the Río Colorado valley (Fig. 1), with a total length of almost 2500 km, between 36º and 55º S latitude, on the eastern side of the Andean Cordillera, including the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (Fig. 1). If a map of Patagonia is superimposed in an upside-down position on top of a map of Europe at the same scale, the extremes of the ancient Patagonian mountain ice sheet would be coincident with the latitudes of the island of Malta and Copenhagen, respectively, a very long distance (more than 2000 km) that explains the great variety of climates and ecosystems of this region. Patagonia is formed by two main physiographic units: the Patagonian Andes (Fig. 1), which extend in a N–S direction, except in Tierra del Fuego where they turn eastward to reach a W–E arrangement, and extra-Andean Patagonia, mostly lowlying, semiarid flat terrains, volcanic tablelands and low ridges of varied geological composition. The localities cited in the text are found in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1 List of localities cited in the text. 1. Río Santa Cruz Valley, 2. Buenos Aires Lake area, 3. Río Gallegos Valley, 4. Belgrano Lake/lobe, 5. San Martín lake area, 6. Viedma Lake area, 7. Argentino Lake area, 8. Epuyén lobe, 9. Cholila lobe, 10. Futaleufú lobe. 11. Río Corcovado Valley, 12. General Vintter Lake área, 13. Río Pico Valley, 14. Río Apeleg Valley, 15. La Plata and Fontana lakes área. 16. El Coyte Lobe, 17. Río Mayo Lobe, 18. Lago Blanco lobe, 19. Esquel and Corintos Valley, 20. Río Tecka área. 21. Río Chubut, 22. Río Huemul, 23. Meseta del Senguer, 24. Pampa de Chalía, 25. Meseta de Guenguel. 26. Jeinemeni–Ghio corridor. 27. Zeballos river, 28. PueyrredónPosadas lakes/lobe area. 29. Burmeister lake. 30. Río Guanaco Valley, 31. Brazo Rico Valley, 32. Magellan Peninsula, 33. Cachorro Creek Valley, 34. Punta Banderas. 35. Río Coyle Valley. 36. Última Esperanza sound. 37. Carrilaufquen Chica and Grande. 38. Musters and Colhue Huapi. 39. Cardiel Lake. Due to the extension of the area and the scale used, it was sometimes necessary to merge several closer localities under one single number

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1.2 The Patagonian Glaciations There are still many questions concerning the age of the glaciations and their geographical extension. The landforms of the older glaciations, even those of the Great Patagonian Glaciation (GPG, Mercer 1976; ca. 1 Ma), are very well preserved, due to the persistent arid conditions in the Patagonian tablelands during the entire Pleistocene. A detailed overview of the physical geography of Patagonia is given by Coronato et al. (2008) and reviews of Patagonian glaciations were presented by Rabassa (2008), Rabassa et al. (2008, 2011) and Coronato and Rabassa (2011). The first observations of glacial boulders found scattered over the landscape were made by Charles Darwin (1842) in the Río Santa Cruz valley (Fig. 1(1)). Almost a century later, Carl Caldenius (1932) mapped four major glacial boundaries east of the Patagonian Andes from 41° S to Cape Horn, at the southernmost tip of South America (56° S). Caldenius (1932) mistakenly considered the glacial stages as retreat phases of the last glaciation and named them as “Initioglacial”, “Daniglacial”, “Gotiglacial” and “Finiglacial”, following the Scandinavian model. He also described “Post-Finiglacial” moraines, which were assigned a post-Last Glacial Maximum age (LGM; Coronato and Rabassa 2006a, b; Rabassa 2008). The relationship of the Pleistocene glaciations with the Pampean biostratigraphical stages was discussed by Rabassa et al. (2005) and Rabassa and Coronato (2009). Holocene glaciations, including the Little Ice Age, have been studied by Rabassa (2008) and references cited there, such as Glasser et al. (2004, 2008), Wenzens (2005) and Kilian et al. (2007), among many others. This chapter is an updated review of the Patagonian glaciations following Coronato et al. (2004a, b), Coronato and Rabassa (2006a, b, 2011), Rabassa (2008), Martínez et al. (2011) and, since the maximum of the Last Glaciation, and including the Late Glacial events and the Holocene Neoglaciations. The Patagonian glacial boundaries are depicted following Caldenius (1932) and later authors, but they were re-drawn using Digital Terrain Models (90 m; freely available on https://srtm.csi. cgiar.org) and based on new field information. This study contributes to the understanding of the Patagonian ice fields as a unique source of ice from which many outlet glaciers flowed to the east and west, although each of them behaved slightly differently depending on the local conditions, giving rise to differing capabilities of landscape sculpturing. The glaciers never reached the Piedra Museo Locality (Figs. 1 and 2), but the environment in which the first inhabitants of the region lived was defined by the long sequence of glacial-periglacial (colder) and interglacial (warmer) periods that have characterized the last 6 million years. The Great Patagonian Glaciation (GPG, Mercer 1976) has been radiometrically dated by 40 Ar/39 Ar at 1.08 Ma, in Lago Buenos Aires (Fig. 1(2); e.g., Singer et al. 2004a) and the Río Gallegos valley (Fig. 1(3); Meglioli 1992; Ton-That et al. 1999). The GPG is considered to have taken place during Oxygen Isotope Stages (OIS) 30 to 34, and it was most likely to be composed of at least three different ice advance episodes (Bockheim et al. 2009). The established relationship with the OIS curve suggests that, after the GPG, the region went through at least 15 glacial events and

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Fig. 2 List of Holocene glaciation (neoglaciations?) localities cited in the text. 1. San Rafael glacier, 2. Soler glacier, 3. Eastern San Lorenzo glacier, 4. Belgrano lake, 5. Narvaez glacier, 6. Ofhidro glacier, 7. San Martín Lake, 8. Huemul glacier, 9. O’Higgins glacier, 10. Precordilleran glaciers, 11. Río Guanaco, 12. Neoglacial moraines, head of Viedma lake, 13. Punta Banderas, 14. Brazo rico, 15. Upsala glacier, 16. Frías glacier, 17. Perro glacier, 18. Frances glacier. 19. Tyndall glacier

15 interglacial periods until present times. The repeated advance and retreat of the Cordilleran Mountain ice sheet after the GPG has undoubtedly imprinted special characteristics to the area under study (Rabassa and Clapperton 1990). The GPG glacial event may be clearly identified in the field, and thus, it has been considered a key reference to following glaciations. During the GPG and the following events, the discharge glaciers of the mountain ice sheet reached the Patagonian lowlands, in some cases up to just a few hundred kilometres from the Piedra Museo locality. After the GPG, several major glaciations occurred during the Middle Pleistocene, and finally the Last Glacial Maximum took place at ca. 24 ka BP (cosmogenic isotope

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dating; Singer et al. 2004a, b; Rabassa 2008). The different glaciation boundaries and its re-advance phases during overall glacial retreat are depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. The eastern limits of the mountain ice sheet formed in northern Patagonia (between 39º 30 S and 46º S) during each of the Patagonian Pleistocene glaciations have been represented as an update of Coronato et al. (2004a, b), Rabassa (2008) and Rutter et al. (2012). The boundaries of the Great Patagonian Glaciation (Mercer 1976; Clapperton 1993; the “Initioglacial” event of Caldenius 1932) have been used as main references. This glaciation occurred at around 1.1 Ma (cosmogenic isotope age); towards the end of the Early Pleistocene (Matuyama Geochron; Meglioli 1992; Ton-That et al. 1999; Singer et al. 2004a; Rabassa 2008). At least three main glaciations took place since the maximum of the GPG. Finally, the Last Glaciation (LG, Mercer 1976) took place immediately after the Last Interglacial episode (named as the Sangamon event), which corresponded to the Oxygen Isotope Stage 5e, ca. 120 ka BP. The Last Glaciation was characterized for an initial colder episode (OIS 4, ca. 80– 60 ka BP) during the Late Pleistocene, when the Patagonian mountain Ice Cap was formed, followed by an interstadial episode, that is, a warmer event that extended along OIS 3 (ca. 30–60 ka BP). The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) took place during OIS 2, ca. 30–15 ka BP. This was the coldest episode of the Late Pleistocene, peaking at ca. 24 ka BP (cosmogenic isotope age). The initial peopling of Patagonia probably took place during the last years of the Oxygen Isotope Stage 2 and the beginning of the Late Glacial (ca. 15–10 14 C ka BP) (Clapperton 1993; Rutter et al. 2012; Rabassa 2008). The different human societies that occupied Patagonia occurred since the LGM-Late Glacial boundary, continued during the entire Late Glacial (conventionally, non-calibrated ca. 15–10 14 C ka BP) and the beginning of the Holocene (conventionally, ca. 10 14 C ka BP) until the arrival of the Europeans (XVIth. century).

1.3 The Glacial Landscape and Paleoclimates The climate of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, following the general conditions on the Earth, has suffered significant variations during the Cenozoic, particularly since the Miocene. These climatic changes are related to various causes such as continental displacement due to plate tectonics, modification on greenhouse gases content in the lower atmosphere and changes in astronomical parameters, namely eccentricity of the Earth orbit, obliquity of the planetary axis and equinoctial precession. Though this process of climate deterioration was initiated possibly toward the end of the Mesozoic, but most likely, at the beginning of the Paleogene, it culminated with the recurrence of multiple cold-warm climatic cycles starting in the Miocene, which led to the development of global ice ages. Starting in the latest Miocene, glacial landforms and deposits have been preserved, though sometimes rather in a fragmentary manner, thanks to their interbedding with volcanic flows that have protected them from erosion, besides allowing their absolute radiometric dating. Similarly, the relative tectonic stability of the area, after the final

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emplacement of the Southern Andes, and the dry climate that has dominated the region since the Late Miocene have contributed to keep the glacigenic deposits from denudation. The occurrence of a regional drainage deepening event of tectonic nature known as the “canyon-cutting event” (Rabassa and Clapperton 1990) close to the Early Pleistocene/Middle Pleistocene boundary, allowed the preservation of older glaciations sediments and landforms over the divides. The landscape that the first waves of human colonization found was remarkably similar to the present environments. A recent contribution by Clague et al. (2020) and Griffing et al. (2020, 2021) described more ancient glaciations, of Late Pliocene and Middle Pleistocene age, which had been previously cited by Feruglio (1944) and Mercer (1976). In these glacial events, the glacier ice abandoned the Cordilleran environment and expanded on top of the extra-Andean Patagonian tablelands. At least five major glaciations have been identified for the Pleistocene, some including more than one glacial episode. Each of these glaciations developed a complex suite of glacial landforms and deposits, particularly terminal moraines ridges, which appear nested with each other, with the older moraine systems in the outermost positions and the younger systems in the inside. Due to their younger age and better preservation, the Last Glaciation (LG) moraines provide greater certainties concerning the extent of the piedmont glaciers, the local glacio-stratigraphical scheme, and the subsequent regional correlation. Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego show one of the longest and most complete sequences of glacigenic deposits and landforms in the Southern Hemisphere outside of Antarctica and, perhaps, of the entire world. The knowledge of the Late Cenozoic glaciations in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego (Fig. 1) has made significant progress in the last decades, thanks mainly to the application of absolute dating techniques, following the pioneer work of John Mercer (Mercer 1976, among many other benchmark contributions; Meglioli 1992; Clapperton 1993; Ton-That et al. 1999; Singer et al. 2004a). The cited dating techniques have allowed to link the Patagonian records with other glaciated regions and with the global marine isotopic sequence (Shackleton 1995; Rabassa 2008). During the LGM, the glaciers covered the whole mountain ranges and the piedmont areas. The main discharge glaciers were occupying the present basins of the large glaciolacustrine basins, such as those corresponding to the large lakes of the eastern side of the Patagonian Andes, being the Buenos Aires, Belgrano, San Martín, Viedma, and Argentino lakes the most impressive ones (Fig. 1(2, 4, 5, 6, 7)), all of them of glacigenic origin. Although it is not clear whether the first Piedra Museo inhabitants had any kind of contact with the large lakes of the piedmont area, the lakes had already been there for several millennia before the arrival of the first humans at Piedra Museo.

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2 The Changes in the Earth’s Climate Global climatic changes have always existed on Earth, at least during the last 10 million years, when we have detailed information to compare. The climatic changes in our planet have taken place frequently during geological times, and particularly during the Quaternary, that is, the last 2.6 Ma BP. These global climatic changes recognize many different causes, but, particularly, as it has been mentioned before, the variations in the shape and dimensions of the Earth’s orbit, which imply different degrees of exposition of the surface of the planet to solar radiation. This is the case of the so-called Milankovitch cycles, related to three main astronomical parameters, such as eccentricity of the terrestrial orbit (cycles of ca. 100,000 years), the inclination of the Earth’s rotation axis (cycles of 41,000 years) with respect to the Ecliptic plane, and the equinoctial precession of the terrestrial axis, which determines an inverted revolution cone that depicts the annual occurrence of equinoxes and solstices (cycles of ca. 26,000 years). These movements and changes in the Earth’s orbit become superposed in time and generate variations in the reception of solar radiation at the Earth’s surface, which are repeated in a cyclic manner. Thus, sometimes the respective effects are compensated and in others, they are added, generating global climatic changes that force the existence of glacial periods (smaller received radiation, colder period) and interglacial episodes (larger solar radiation received, warmer episodes). The temporal distribution of these climatic events may allow to know how the climate was in any moment of a certain sequence, for a certain locality, during the last 10 Ma (Berger and Loutre 1991). Since the planet is presently going through an interglacial period, and being these quite predictable astronomic episodes, their study allows to estimate when the next global glaciation may take place, perhaps sometime in the next 10,000 years, but also it is possible to estimate the mean annual temperature of a certain site into the past, with at least some degree of approximation. These large glacial and interglacial cycles are also coincident, in some cases, with minor episodes related to plate tectonics, volcanism, changes in the geomagnetic conditions and the own variability of solar activity, measured in terms of sunspot cycles. The intercalation of colder and warmer episodes has had a strong impact in the regional climate and therefore, on the ecosystems of the region. Likewise, during the colder periods, the glaciers expanded over the continental areas, retaining water as ice and impeding the water flow into the ocean. During the LGM the glaciers never reached within 200–300 km of Piedra Museo, but the climate of the area was most certainly under periglacial conditions, that is, showing frozen, patterned grounds and development of ice wedges. There are many examples of frozen and patterned ground in the region and even much closer to Piedra Museo. The present climate shows that the mean temperature of the month of June is only 1.5 ºC and the mean annual temperature for this region is 12 °C. During the glacial events, the mean annual temperature of the region was significantly lower than the present one. This difference between present and past mean annual temperatures was minimum at the equatorial latitudes, but it was much larger towards the poles. For the latitude of Piedra Museo, the mean annual temperature during the Last Glaciation

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was around 6–8 ºC below the present conditions, that is, somewhere between +1 ºC and −2 ºC, with regional climate conditions close to freezing point during most of the year. This means that the region was very close to frozen ground conditions, and that at least half of the year the area was below freezing point. This was perhaps the general climatic condition of the region at the end of the Pleistocene, but it is not possible to assess when the frozen ground melted away and the ice wedges were replaced by sand wedges though it is possible that this happened after the Younger Dryas and Antarctic Cold Reversal cold events took place. These data would suggest that when the first dwellers of the region arrived there when the soil was still partially frozen. At the latitude of Río Gallegos valley, in Santa Cruz Province (Fig. 1(3)), the piedmont glacier extended over the tablelands (Ercolano et al. 2016, 2021); southwards they reached the present submarine platform during the GPG, but the following ice advances during the rest of the Pleistocene glaciations did not allow the glaciers to grow large enough so as to reach again the coastal environments during the entire Pleistocene. As a consequence of glacial conditions, the sea level has changed significantly in Patagonia during the last million years. The global sea level descended between 100 and 140 m during glacial episodes, totally changing the littoral areas of the continent. In these colder events, the territorial extent of Patagonia would have been perhaps twice the present extension and its climate was much more continental than today. However, by the time humans were already at Piedra Museo locality, sea level was probably lower than today but still quite similar to present conditions, because most of the world’s glaciers had already melted away, with the exception of Greenland, the Arctic islands and Antarctica. Sea level was then probably just 10 m or so below present sea level, and the Late Glacial coast was not much far away than a few kilometers away from the present shore. Thus, the fact that the coast was a bit farther away from Piedra Museo, probably had no significance for the local dwellers, who probably had no direct contact at all with the coastal marine environment of those times. The Patagonian forest was almost entirely wiped out by the advancing glaciers in the Cordilleran zones during the maximum of the Last Glaciation. This ecosystem survived in ecological refuges away from the Cordilleran axis into the piedmont areas, but it may have totally disappeared in some regions. Anyhow, this is probably irrelevant for the Piedra Museo dwellers of that moment, because the forest never reached the surroundings of the Piedra Museo locality. Thus, neither the coastal marine environments nor the forest lands and fluvial-gallery forests were close to Piedra Museo, perhaps at least 200–400 km away from these environments in both east and west directions. Therefore, it is likely that the resources available in the cited environments were never within the reach of the local population, at least not regularly. The global climatic variations also provoked changes in the oceanic circulation in both hemispheres, generating a closer location to the Circumpolar Antarctic Current, and therefore a greater displacement of the Malvinas Current to the east. If this was

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the case, it is not clear whether the climate was actually warmer and wetter than today. The more recent global changes have taken place in the last 2000 years with a complex sequence of climatic events, such as the Roman Climatic Optimum, ca. 200 years BC—150 AD, the Transitional Roman Period, ca. 150 AD—450 AD, the Ancient Little Ice Age, ca. 450 AD—700 AD, the Medieval Warm period (ca. 700 AD—1500 AD) and the Little Ice Age (from ca. 1500 AD to ca. 1850 AD). Since 1850, an intense global warming event has taken place during the entire twentieth century, which has been attributed to the incorporation of anthropogenic greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, related to the second Industrial Revolution, the global deforestation and the intensive use of fossil fuels.

3 Andean Glaciations Occurred Northwest of Piedra Museo We know that the glacier ice never reached even close to the location of Piedra Museo. Therefore, to look for paleoclimate and paleoglacial information it is necessary to review the data of the glaciated areas in the Southern Patagonian Andes and the corresponding piedmont slopes, closer to the studied archaeological locality. Glaciers flowed down from the Patagonian Ice Sheet, the largest icefield in the Southern Hemisphere outside Antarctica, which extended from 37º S to 57° S, at the southernmost end of the continent. The information presented here corresponds to part of the northern portion of the Patagonian Ice Sheet, a 3000 km long ice field. In the present territory of the province of Chubut, northwest of the Piedra Museo locality, 11 main, ancient paleo-lobes developed in the Cordilleran and Extra-Andean areas, establishing their position during at least in 5 opportunities which are correlated with glacial maxima corresponding to marine Oxygen Isotope Stages. These glacial paleo-lobes have received informal denominations by different authors and, if ordered from North to South they are named as the “Epuyén”, “Cholila”, “Río Futaleufú”, “Río Corcovado”, “Lago Vinter”, “Río Pico”, “Arroyo Apeleg”, “Lago Fontana”, “El Coyte”, “Río Mayo” and “Lago Blanco” paleo-lobes (Fig. 1 sites 8 to 18). Descriptions of these glacigenic sequences have been provided by Coronato et al. (2004a), Glasser et al. (2008), Rabassa (2008) and Martínez et al. (2011). During the Penultimate and Last glaciations, the Northern Patagonian glaciers defined and formed the paleo-lobe that occupied the present valley of Lago Epuyén, whereas, towards the South, an equivalent ice mass occupied the valley of Cholila. Extensive remnants of pro-glacial plains are exposed towards the east of the moraine crest. The glacial paleo-lobes “Epuyén” and “Cholila” correspond to the northernmost discharge glaciers of the studied area and their glacio-stratigraphy and their geological and geomorphological impact in the Southern Andes and the Patagonian tablelands have been studied by Caldenius (1932), Flint and Fidalgo (1964, 1969), Miró (1967), González Díaz (1993a, b), González Díaz and Andrada de Palomera

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(1996) and Ruiz (2013). Due to their proximity these local sequences may be correlated with the moraine systems and glacial drift of the area of San Carlos de Bariloche (Province of Río Negro, ca. 400 km farther north), which have been widely studied by different authors such as Rabassa et al. (1990), Rabassa and Evenson (1996), Rabassa et al. (2011), among many others. A number of no less than 4 glacial stabilization events have been indicated by the corresponding remains of marginal moraines pertaining to these paleo-lobes. The most external and eroded are coincident at least, with 2 very old glaciations, including the Great Patagonian Glaciation (GPG, ca. 1.0 Ma; Mercer 1976; Clapperton 1993; Rabassa 2008). The “Río Futaleufú” paleo-lobe extended over the 4–5 glacial boundaries presented by Caldenius (1932). For these areas, the interpretations by Flint and Fidalgo (1969) should be mentioned, as well as those by González Díaz and Andrada de Palomera (1996), Martínez (2005a, b, 2016). In this sector, up to 5 main glacial expansions have been confirmed, together with 12 more of smaller dimensions, all of them indicated by drift units and/or marginal moraines, with a varied degree of preservation. This set of landforms and deposits correspond to the GPG, the LGM and the Late Glacial (Martínez et al. 2005; Martínez 2016). The pre-Cordilleran ranges, oriented from North to South generated that the ice became branching during its advance phases. In the valleys of Esquel and Río Corintos (northwestern Chubut province), glaciolacustrine deposits are still preserved, with several meters in thickness (Beraza 1991). Many of the glaciated valleys were blocked towards the east by the moraine crests and the extensive pro-glacial plains. This favored that, during the glacial terminations, when ice was very rapidly receding, these valleys became flooded by meltwater, generating glacilacustrine basins widely recognized by Caldenius (1932) and Feruglio (1950), among many others. These sequences are based upon the work of Martínez (2002) and papers cited there. South-west of Laguna Súnica, a moraine 2 km long and the remnants of a second, more distal one, are found corresponding to the Last Glaciation. The Esquel valley is blocked on the east by an elongated moraine arc of the same age, today highly degraded by glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine erosion. Between these Last Glaciation moraines and those beyond, there are important terraced glaciofluvial deposits reaching the Río Tecka valley (Fig. 1(20)). This stream and the Río Chubut (Fig. 1(21)) acted as glaciofluvial drainage spillways towards the Atlantic Ocean, during the Last Glaciation. The Last Glaciation moraines dammed meltwaters during ice recession. These lakes were interconnected and occupied a large part of the Cordilleran environment until they ultimately drained towards the Pacific Ocean when the water level overtopped the surface of the ice bodies located towards the west. The characteristics of the glacial sequence related to the “Río Corcovado” glacial paleo-lobe” are taken from the work of Lapido et al. (1990), Haller et al. (2010), Coronato et al. (2004a), Martínez (2005a, b), Martínez et al. (2011), Rabassa et al. (2011) and Leger et al. (2020). During the last three major glacial events (the Last, the Penultimate Glaciation and the Pre-penultimate glaciations) this ice mass advanced towards the east following the present valley of the Río Corcovado (Fig. 1(11)) and,

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near the town of such name, it became divided in three branches: (a) one branch that advanced towards the North until it merged with the “Río Futaleufú” lobe (Fig. 1(10)), (b) another that penetrated the transversal valley of the Río Huemul (Fig. 1(22)), the heads of the Río Tecka and (c) a third one that moved towards the southeast with their moraines defined the heads of the Río Corcovado. The drift near Tecka defined a landscape of smooth hills and shallow depressions, with a very irregular distribution (hummocky moraines). This drift is correlated with the “Tecka Drift” by Lapido et al. (1990) and the Tres Lagunas Drift by Martínez (2005b). Southwards, the “Lago Vinterr” paleo-glacial lobe occupied the present depression of the lake of that name (Fig. 1(12)) and it built in its eastern margin, a sequence of 6–7 frontal moraines very well preserved, formed during the LGM (Martínez 2005a, b). The age of these landforms (18.2/16.2 ka BP) has been confirmed by radiometric dating by the method of cosmogenic isotopes (10 Be) in granite boulders (Martínez et al. 2009). Geomorphological and paleo-glaciological analyses permitted to conclude that during the last three glaciations, the lake basin was occupied by an alpine type glacier, unconnected from the regional Ice Sheet, with an approximate surface of 600 km2 . In this way, the margins of the ice reached the stabilization position reaching a climatic phase during a relatively shorter period that in the larger discharge lobes. This marked asymmetry in the response velocity to the climatic variations would have been very important in the formation of the lateral moraines in both cases. To the south, the “Río Pico” glacial paleo-lobe (Fig. 1(13)) developed. It is undoubtedly the largest discharge glacier of this region. The successive advances and stabilization phases of this glacier excavated a deep depression, between heights of 550 and 1000 m a.s.l.), with a minimum of 7 main moraine fronts. At least 2 terraced glacio-lacustrine plains are seen at the bottom of this valley. The glaciostratigraphic scheme for this glacial sequence emerges from the work of Beraza and Vilas (1989) and Lapido (2000). The paleomagnetic determinations by Beraza and Vilas (1989) allowed to propose 4 drift units, named as Groups I, II, III and IV, ordered in decreasing age. The magnetic polarity of these allostratigraphic units is normal, pertaining to the Brunhes Magnetic Epoch. Lapido (2000) identified a sequence of seven moraine units, usually associated to the remains of their proglacial plains. The younger unit is located at the beginning of the Holocene whereas the oldest one corresponds to the Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary. In the “Arroyo Apeleg” and “Lago Fontana” paleo-ice lobes (Fig. 1(14, 15)) the glacial sequence of the lobe that advanced along the Arroyo Apeleg valley (44° 30 S, Fig. 1(14)) is mostly represented in Chilean territory. The drift units that were identified in Chubut province by Lapido (2000) were correlated by these authors with its corresponding Pleistocene drift units of the “Río Pico” drift, located immediately to the north. Ploszkiewicz and Ramos (1977) mentioned the presence of three moraine units with different degree of preservation that correlate with the last glaciation following the stratigraphic scheme of Flint and Fidalgo (1964). Farther south, in the depression that is presently occupied by the Fontana and La Plata lakes (44° 50 S, Fig. 1(15)), the 4 units mapped by Caldenius (1932) may be identified. Ramos (1981) described two glacigenic units, the “Río Moro Till” and the “Fontana Till”.

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This author also indicates the presence of Post-Last-Glaciation units in more western positions, which would correspond to the Late Glacial events (Coronato et al. 2004a; Cano et al. 2017). On the slopes that bound this lacustrine basin to the south, at an elevation above 1000 m a.s.l. Lapido (2000) located the oldermost accumulations of ancient glacial drift, of probable Pliocene–Pleistocene age. The “El Coyle” paleoglacial lobe (Fig. 1(16)) is comparable in size to the “Río Pico” paleo lobe. This glacier, during its stabilized periods, built a sequence of terminal moraines that may be divided in 5 main groups (Coronato et al. 2004a; Martínez et al. 2011). The innermost system is composed of different glacial landforms and sediments, including glacio-lacustrine units. It is located within the Chilean territory and it correlates, tentatively, with the Last Glaciation (OIS 2). Besides, the outermost moraine system is a large frontal moraine, with more than 30 km in length, that bounds towards the west the corresponding proglacial plain, which covers and defines the Meseta (i.e., tableland) del Senguer (Fig. 1(23)). This high plain descends smoothly towards the east, with a length extent of 65 km and it is bound towards the north, east and south by almost vertical scarps that may locally reach a height of 90 m. Over the tableland, in its eastern end, basaltic rocks were dated by Bruni (2007), who assigned them an age of 2.7/2.8 Ma. Considering that these flows cover the glaciofluvial level mentioned, this may confirm an advance and stabilization of a large discharge ice lobe during the latest Pliocene in this area. Remains of another frontal moraine appear at 2 km towards the east, partially buried by the younger glaciofluvial sediments, confirming a pre-Quaternary age of, at least, the surface of this huge tableland. A tectonic event, probably during the Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary, generated a scarp in the eastern end of the tableland. The glacial lobes and their younger glaciofluvial deposits expanded in lower topographic levels that generated a similar scenario to that one observed in the northern segment in the Middle Pleistocene. The glacial sequences of the palaeo-lobes “Río Mayo” and “Lago Blanco” (Fig. 1(17, 18)) were studied by Beltramone (1991), Dal Molín and González Díaz (2002) and the regional synthesis by Coronato et al. (2004a) and Martínez et al. (2011). These sequences have not absolutes ages or other quantitative determinations that would allow to ascertain the antiquity of the identified units, but its nearness to the moraine system of Lago Buenos Aires (Fig. 1(2)), in northwestern Santa Cruz province, provides a detailed Pleistocene chronostratigraphy, based upon absolute dating (Ton-That et al. 1999; Singer et al. 2004a, b; Kaplan et al. 2004, 2005) that makes that the correlation between the morphosedimentary units in both areas would be highly relevant to extend the time scheme in the southwest of Chubut province. Beltramone (1991) identified, in the valley of the Río Mayo (45° 30 S, Fig. 1(17)), three main drift units: the La Elvira Drift, the Río Mayo Drift and the Ricardo Rojas Drift, that may be correlated with the Last, Penultimate and Prepenultimate glaciations, respectively. Dal Molín and González Díaz (2002) agreed with this glaciostratigraphic scheme and extended it to the Lago Blanco valley (45° 55 S, Fig. 1(18)). However, it should not be disregarded that the last cited unit and other outermost isolated till deposits, that is, located more to the east or at higher altitudes, which are representing the GPG. Besides, it may be confirmed that the sequence

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of these paleo-lobes comprises a period that exceeds the Quaternary. Precisely, on the smoothly inclined surface of the Pampa de Chalía (Fig. 1(24)), in elevations over 1000 m a.s.l., both in the northeastern slope, related to the paleoglacial lobe “Río Mayo”, as in the southeastern side, related to the paleoglacial lobe “Lago Blanco”, large till covered surfaces appear, that in most cases constitute remains of terminal moraines oriented in an east–west direction. Due to its topographic position, their outer location with respect to the moraine systems assigned to the Pleistocene in both paleolobes, and according to their good physical and spatial correlation with the moraines of the “Chipanque Glaciation” (Malagnino 1995), lying at the Meseta de Guenguel (Fig. 1(25)) and in the Lago Buenos Aires basin, it is interpreted that these extended drift accumulations are of Pliocene age (Martínez et al. 2016). In the scarps that bound this high plain by the west have been identified deposits that could be even much older than the “Chipanque Glaciation”, inclusive of Late Miocene age (Lagabrielle et al. 2010; Martínez et al. 2016).

4 The Southern Patagonian Palaeo Ice-Lobes Occurring Southwest of Piedra Museo In Southern Patagonia, the piedmont areas were extensively glaciated by giant outlet glaciers coming out from the Patagonian Ice Sheet. At latitude 46° S, the Lago Buenos Aires (Argentina) or General Carreras (as it is named in Chile) is located (Figs. 1(2) and 2). Singer et al. (2004a) and Kaplan et al. (2004) described 19 moraine suites that relate to the frontal position of a piedmont lobe flowing from the palaeo-Northern Patagonian Icefield (or “Hielo Patagónico Norte”; Fig. 1) between 1.2 Ma and 16 ka BP The Fénix I-IV moraines (16–25 ka BP) correspond to the LGM and the Menucos moraines, younger than ca. 8210 cal. years BP (McCulloch et al. 2016). This suggests the persistence of colder conditions later than the general retreat of the principal Patagonian ice lobes between 14,500 and 10,000 14 C years BP (Glasser et al. 2016). West of the Lago Buenos Aires area, in Laguna San Rafael (Northern Patagonian Icefield, Fig. 2(1)), Heusser (1960) and Muller (1960) identified a glacier advance before 3610 14 C years BP, possibly as early as 5000 14 C years BP (Glasser et al. 2004). In the Soler glacier region (Northern Patagonian Icefield, Fig. 1(2)), Holocene glacial advances were dated at 1,300 14 C years BP (Aniya and Naruse 1999) and AD 1220–1340 (Glasser et al. 2002). One of the earliest archaeological evidence for human occupation of this region was found in the Zeballos river area (Fig. 1(27)); it is the “Sol de Mayo I” rock shelter, dated at 6940–6970 cal. years BP) (Mengoni Goñalons et al. 2013). The Pueyrredón-Posadas lakes paleolobe (47° 08 –47° 30 S; 71° 47 –72° 33 W; Figs. 1(28) and 2) was the closest to Piedra Museo. Its more external moraines, corresponding to the Middle Pleistocene glaciations, are located 200–300 km northwest of the cited archaeological locality. Their meltwater outlet rivers drained to the Atlantic Ocean but north of the Piedra Museo latitude. No glaciofluvial streamlines coming from this paleolobe are recognized in the Piedra Museo surroundings. Hein et al. (2009) reported the detailed mapping of four glacial boundaries following those of Caldenius (1932), the youngest being the “Río Blanco” moraines, of “Finiglacial” age (i.e., Late Glacial, post LGM). The age of the Río Blanco glaciation was determined at ca. 27–25 ka BP, which is similar to that of Lago Buenos Aires LGM moraines (23.6 ka BP; Singer et al. 2004a). Based on bathymetry, geomorphology and sedimentology studies, Horta et al. (2015, 2016) proposed the existence of a paleolake system which had reached their maximum extent during the Early Holocene and its final size and position during the Late Holocene. During the Middle Holocene, the separation of the two lakes occurred. The retraction of the Early Holocene paleolake released new lands and opened new routes for humans, from the steppe to the forest, mountains and glaciers. Archaeological sites around the lakes noticed that the area was inhabited since 10 ka BP South of the Pueyrredón Lake, in the Mt. San Lorenzo, Mercer (1968) dated a Neoglacial advance in 4590 14 C years BP (Fig. 2(3)). At a distance of 300 km southwest of the Piedra Museo locality, the “Belgrano” and “Burmeister” paleolobes flowed (#4, and 29 in Figs. 1 and 2). The LGM moraines have been identified several km east of the present heads of these lakes (Wenzens 2005). Moraines closing the lakes were referred to Late-glacial readvances. Horta et al. (2017) pointed out the development of two lakes before the LGM, at 31,200 cal yr BP. One of them is related to the present Lake Belgrano (Fig. 1(4)), while the other could be probably related to the Lake Burmeister (Fig. 1(29)), although the studied deposits are located more than 10 km eastwards of its present location (Fig. 2). During the end of the Late Glacial, between 11,731 cal. years BP and 10,819 cal. years BP, the lake environment would have been larger, reaching 900–920 m a.s.l, almost 100 m above the present lake level. The decrease of the paleolake level was recorded at 6900 cal yr BP, during the Middle Holocene when two major lacustrine systems were separated by morainic deposits. Westwards of the Belgrano lake (Fig. 2(4)), a

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moraine, dated at 6650 years BP by Wenzens (2005) indicate a Neoglacial advance, probably the oldest of the three ones originally proposed by Mercer (1976, 1983). This is a geomorphological proof of a general cooling of the environmental conditions affecting the native populations. In the heads of the Río Chico river, in the Narvaez glacier (Fig. 2(5)), and further west, in the Ofhidro glacier (Southern Patagonian Icefield, Fig. 2(6)), Mercer (1968) recognized Neoglacial advances between 4300 and 4060 14 C years BP. In the “San Martín-Tar paleolobes” (Figs. 1(5) and 2), the LGM moraines were defined surrounding the Lago Tar and the southern coast of Lago San Martín (Wenzens 2003, 2005). Radiocarbon dating on basal organic matter in a drainage channel between two moraine arcs indicated that the oldest Late-glacial advance occurred before 13.1 ka BP and the youngest one occurred prior to 9.3 ka BP (Wenzens 1999). Late-glacial moraines have been mapped enclosing the two branches of the Lago San Martín and both shores of the central lake branch (Fig. 2(7)). They were interpreted as representing a third Late-glacial readvance at ca. 10.5– 9.5 14 C ka BP (Wenzens 2003). Westwards, in the Huemul glacier, (on the Hudson Volcano, Fig. 2(8)), Geyh and Röthlisberger (1986) recognized a Neoglacial advance, at 2500 14 C years BP, and Röthlisberger (1987) dated another one of AD 1180–1295. Further west, in the O’Higgins glacier (Fig. 2(9)) Geyh and Röthlisberger (1986) identified a 4700–3300 14 C years BP glacier advance. Paleogeographic reconstructions of the Tar–San Martín lacustrine system reveals the existence of high lacustrine levels during the late Pleistocene–Holocene (Horta et al. 2019). Lacustrine deposits, fan-deltas and paleocoastlines have been related to a lake system bigger than the current one, developed between 28 to 12 ka ago when it reached its maximum. The San Martín lake glaciolacustrine deposits represent fluctuations in its paleolevel of up to 85 m and a rise of 2.4 m/1000 years. A sharp drop at a rate of 37.4 m/1000 years took place until ca. 9.5 ka BP. The contraction of sizes and the stabilization of lake levels occurred in the Early Holocene, at a time when hunter-gatherer populations were moving around or settling in the region. In the Lago Viedma lobe area (Figs. 1(6) and 2), a set of moraine arcs surrounding the head of the lake and the Río Guanaco valley (Figs. 1(30) and 2(11, 12)) were recognised by Wenzens (1999) as marking the ice position during the LGM. An extensive drumlin and megaflute field occur between the LGM moraines and the lake heads (Rabassa et al. 2011). Late-glacial ice limits have been identified along the coasts of Lago Viedma, the Cóndor and Guanaco valleys (Fig. 2(10, 11)). Wenzens (1999, 2005) proposed that these glaciers advanced three times between 14 and 10 14 C ka BP, the youngest of them probably partially equivalent to the Younger Dryas (YD) stadial (12.9–11.7 cal ka BP). Geomorphological evidence of surging activity of the Viedma paleoglacier at some time during the Late Glacial was described by Ponce et al. (2019) in the lake headwaters. Surging would have been triggered by a change in the glacial thermal regime from polar during the LGM to temperate during the beginning of the Late Glacial with a rapid retreat or collapse of the ice margins following the LGM. The change in the glacier regime reflects an amelioration of climatic conditions towards the Late Glacial.

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Several terminal moraines have been mapped by different authors at the “Lago Argentino” lobe (Figs. 1(7) and 2), indicating the occurrence of at least nine separate glacial advances since the Late Pliocene to the Late-glacial (Coronato et al. 2004a; Rabassa 2008). The LGM limits are located 10–20 km eastwards of the lake heads (Schellman 1988) closing a flat basal and flutes moraine system lodging plentiful erratic boulders. Lateral moraines extent to the west plucked to the low hills and tablelands of the southern margin of the valley up to the Brazo Rico valley (Fig. 1(31)), where receding moraines and glacilacustrine plains developed at the foot of the Magellan Peninsula (Fig. 1(32)). In the Cachorro creek glacial valley (Fig. 1(33)), a sequence of four frontal moraine suites was mapped by Lovecchio et al. (2008) and assigned to the Punta Banderas (Fig. 1(34)) sequence (Strelin et al. 2011, 2014) based upon geomorphological characteristics. Punta Banderas moraines were assigned by these authors to the Late Glacial cooling and glacial re-advance during the Antarctic Cold Reversal event (Fig. 2(13)). Bathymetric and high-resolution seismic profiles survey in the “Canal de los Témpanos” and “Brazo Rico” lake channels (Fig. 2(14)), revealed the position of subaqueous glacial bedforms interpreted as the Perito Moreno glacier frontal positions in earlier times (Lodolo et al. 2020a, b; Lozano et al. 2020). These submerged landforms mark the position of a large glacier advance after the LGM times and were interpreted by those authors as two subaqueous moraine systems and correlated them with the “Herminita” moraines, previously identified on land by Strelin et al. (2014). These moraines are interpreted as bedforms originated by a pronounced advance of the Perito Moreno paleoglacier during the middle Holocene cooling event. Mercer (1976) recognized one Neoglacial advance in the Upsala glacier (Fig. 2(15)), which he assumed to have an age of 2310 14 C years BP according to his scheme of three Neoglacial advances in the Patagonian Ice Field (the first was at 4700–4200 14 C BP, the second at 2700–2000 14 C years BP and the third corresponding to the Little Ice Age). Then, Aniya (1995) presented a new scheme modifying that of Mercer, identifying two Neoglacial advances from radiocarbon dates of ca. 3600 14 C years BP, and ca. 2300 14 C years BP (Pearson I), and the Little Ice Age glaciation (Pearson II) dated between AD 1600 and 1,760 from dendrochronological analyses. In the Frías glacier (Fig. 2(16)), Mercer (1970) dated a Neoglacial moraine of 3465 14 C years BP Southwards, five glacial limits were recognised along the “Río Coyle” valley (Fig. 1(35)) based on geomorphology along the upstream valley, the youngest systems corresponding to the LGM (Coronato et al. 2004a). Westwards, in the Torres del Paine area, Röthlisberger (1987) dated Neoglacial moraines in the Perro (AD 1250) and Frances (AD 1305) glaciers (Fig. 1(17, 18)). Further south, Aniya (1995) dated four enclosing moraines of the Tyndall glacier (Fig. 2(19)), of ca. 3600 14 C years BP, ca. 2300 14 C years BP, ca. 1400 14 C years BP and ca. AD 1700, corresponding to the eastern closure of the Southern Patagonian Icefield. The upper stream of the “Río Gallegos valley” (Fig. 1(3)) flowed along the Late Pleistocene moraines (Meglioli 1992; Ercolano et al. 2004; 2021), but the younger moraine arcs are located westwards, in the Balmaceda and Pinto lakes (Chile), close to the Última Esperanza sound (Fig. 1(36)). According to Sagredo et al. (2011) a piedmont ice lobe covered the head of this valley during the LGM, after which the

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Balmaceda and Pinto lakes were formed. The LGM limits are represented by the Arauco, Pinto and Antonio Varas moraine complexes which represent the final LGM advance, a stabilization phase, and subsequent advances. Proglacial lakes developed between 125 and 150 m a.s.l. after the retreat of the ice from the Arauco moraines. The chronology for the highest lake level was bracketed by these authors between 16,200 and 16,900 cal yr BP A regressive phase was reached once the Última Esperanza ice lobe abandoned this stabilized position exposing sectors with elevations below 125 m a.s.l. The transition from lacustrine to terrestrial environments and peat development between 14.6 and 14.9 cal. yr BP suggested a negative hydrologic balance triggered from a decline in precipitation (Moreno et al. 2012).

5 Environmental Changes in Southern South America During the Glaciations The Patagonian glacial sequence provides a reasonable framework for understanding the environmental evolution of Southernmost South America from the latest Miocene to the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary. Clapperton (1993), Rabassa et al. (2005) and Rabassa (2008) discussed the climatic and environmental changes in Southern South America that followed the establishment and development of the Late Cenozoic Patagonian glaciations. Firstly, global sea level changes partially exposed the Argentine submarine shelf, enhancing continental climatic conditions. Significant eustatic movements took place, with sea level decreasing up to 100–140 m during full glacial episodes. Climatic continentality of the surrounding areas increased, with rising extreme temperatures, decreasing precipitation, and lack of the sea moderating effect as the coastline moved eastwards. This process occurred both in Pampa and Patagonia (Fig. 1), with almost a doubling in size of the continental areas and subsequent strong continentalization (Cavallotto et al. 2011; Ponce et al. 2011). Sea surface temperatures were lowered up to 4 °C in the tropical areas during MIS 2, with increased lowering towards the poles, perhaps up to 16 ºC less in mean annual temperature in the coldest sites in Antarctica. This lowering in mean sea surface temperature (MSST) affected evaporation and mobility of marine currents, with a consequent decrease of mean annual temperature in all continental areas. In Northern Patagonia, temperatures would have been at least 5–6 °C lower than at present, and temperatures would perhaps have been even lower farther south (Clapperton 1993). These conditions increased the influence of the Malvinas-Falkland Current, which today reaches up to Southern Brazil. Most likely, this current reached a much more northerly position along the Brazilian coast during the glacial winters and stayed there for longer portions of the year (Cavallotto et al. 2011). As a consequence of the coastline mobility, the position of the littoral marine currents, both the Brazil and Malvinas-Falkland currents were affected. During the glacial epochs their meeting front was displaced northwards, modifying the Pampean winter storm pattern, and probably, diminishing the oceanic influence and increasing water deficit during these

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periods. Moreover, sea level lowering provoked a strong shallowing of marine depths between the Patagonian coast and the Malvinas-Falkland archipelago (Fig. 1), forcing an eastward displacement of the Malvinas-Falkland Current, with a further increase in continental climate intensity along the present littoral zones. The climatic conditions during glacial episodes had an influence on the displacement of the oceanic anticyclonic centers, both in the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans. The South Pacific anticyclonic center was displaced northwards during the glacial periods, increasing the effect of the “Pampero”, colder-drier winds which dominate the weather and eolian sedimentation in the Pampas of eastern Argentina (Fig. 1) and Uruguay (not shown, east of Fig. 1). The northward movement of this anticyclonic area determined that those regions previously free of the colder and drier “westerlies” became affected by these winds. The increasing eolian action led to the development of intensive deflation processes, with the genesis of hydro-eolian depressions, salt-lakes and endorheic basins, and also the dune field formation in Northern Patagonia and Western Buenos Aires Province (Fig. 1). This eolian activity was also responsible for loess accumulation in the Pampean region and Uruguay, where the Pampean vegetation, though thinner than in interglacial times, was capable of retaining the fine sand-coarse silt fractions (Rabassa et al. 2005). Deflation was strongly dominant during all glacial events, with formation of eolian features in areas that are wetter today. Climatic changes forced changes in the plant cover, with large latitudinal displacements of the major ecosystems during glaciations. Tundra, which is restricted today in Patagonia to mountain summits above tree line, developed all over southern Patagonia, and perhaps up to 42–44° S. Tundra conditions included permanent or transient frozen ground, at least around the ice margins, though its eastward expansion could have been larger. These colder Late Glacial episodes may be comparable both in chronology and intensity with their Northern Hemisphere equivalents, the “Oldest/Older Dryas” and “Younger Dryas” events. Alternatively, a strong influence of the Antarctic Cold Reversal episode has been proposed (Sugden et al. 2005). Nevertheless, the pollen record undoubtedly indicates that the second event was more intense and extreme than the previous one, but its environmental consequences on the forest are still unknown. The Pleistocene-Holocene transition, the timing of the human occupation of Patagonia, was an epoch of high environmental instability. There was a varied environmental mosaic which, together with locations closer to the sea, and valleys occupied by rivers fed by meltwater and hosting gallery forests, and under its influence, would have offered appropriate, though perhaps different, routes for human peopling that were linking accessible eco-refuges. Perhaps, these could have been the paleoenvironmental conditions in Piedra Museo and other archaeological localities located in the region, during the Late Glacial period. In those times, the environments and thus, their faunal resources would have still been widely available in both Pampa and Patagonia. These faunas are characteristic of grassland environments or, at least, grassy steppes of colder, drier to semiarid climates (Cione and Tonni 1999). The changes leading to definitive Holocene environments took place only after 9.0 14 C ka BP, towards a shrubby steppe, with the final disappearance of the Pleistocene megafaunas.

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When the Holocene environments were finally established, the glaciers were reduced almost to their present conditions, thus allowing for full occupation of most of the Patagonian lands, including the Andean piedmont.

6 Final Remarks The timing and knowledge of glaciers behaviour around the time of the LGM and re-advance phases during the Late-glacial is continuously been improved due to the application of a combination of dating methods, Digital Terrain Models and cartographic software for regional mapping and seismic, coring and stratigraphical analyses in glacial sediments. Different glaciological behaviour in the Patagonian Pleistocene ice sheets has been recognised through paleo- ice-modelling, and the Northern and Southern Patagonian (the “Hielo Patagónico Norte” and “Hielo Patagónico Sur”; Figs. 1 and 2) icefields have been described as the main sources of paleoglaciers. The timing and how and where they separated from each other are the focus of current research. The scientific question most actively debated today is whether the Antarctic Cold Reversal forced the main Late-Glacial cooling in Southern Patagonia, while the Younger Dryas event affected the northern Patagonian Andes instead. In addition, the shifting of the westerlies during the Pleistocene, as the key process for humiditysnow delivery and the increase of glacial accumulation areas, is one of the targets of the present palaeoenvironmental studies in the region. The impact of glaciers dynamics was highly significant in the drainage network pattern and the location of the Cordilleran lakes and in consequence, for the freshwater availability in a semi-arid region occupied by nomad populations since the end of the Late Glacial. The basins of all present Andean lakes were formed by glacial action and covered by ice during the LGM. These basins may have been already developed during the Middle Pleistocene glaciations, after the canyon-cutting event. These lakes were finally formed when the climate changed at the end of the LGM, as the ice receded. At least between 16.0 and 11.0 cal ka BP, these lakes were in contact with the glaciers. The Cardiel (Fig. 1(37)), Musters and Colhue Huapi (Fig. 1(38)) and the Carrilaufquen Chico and Grande (Fig. 1(39)) lakes were instead never covered by glacier ice or in ice contact. Finally, as a consequence of the glacier retreat and the occurrence of thick frontal deposits, some of the lakes reversed their drainage towards the Pacific Ocean, but in most cases not before the Younger Dryas event. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all the colleagues which share fieldtrips and paper elaboration along the four decades of work devoted to the understanding of the Patagonian glaciations. CONICET, ANPCYT, and other national and foreign institutions have sponsored different research projects along these last four decades and in various environments and diverse geographical areas.

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Salemme M, Miotti L (2008) Archeological hunter-gatherer landscapes since the Latest Pleistocene in Fuego Patagonia. In: Rabassa J (ed.) The late Cenozoic of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, chap. 22. Developments in Quaternary Science 11, Elsevier, pp 437–483 Schellmann G (1988) Jungkänozoische Landschaftsgeschichte Patagoniens (Argentinien). Andine Vorlandvergletscherungen, Talentwicklung und marine Terrasen. Essener Geographische Arbeiten 29:1–218 Shackleton NJ (1995) New data on the evolution of Pliocene climatic variability. In: Vrba ES, Denton GH, Partridge TC, Burckle LH (eds) Paleoclimate and evolution, with emphasis on human origins. Yale University Press, New Haven and London, pp 242–248 Singer B, Ackert R, Guillou H (2004) 40 Ar/39 Ar and K-Ar chronology of Pleistocene glaciations in Patagonia. Geol Soc Am Bull 116(2):434–450 Singer B, Brown L, Rabassa J, Guillou H (2004b) 40 Ar/39 Ar ages of late Pliocene and early Pleistocene geomagnetic and glacial events in Southern Argentina. AGU Geophysical Monograph Timescales of the Internal Geomagnetic Field, pp 175–190 Strelin JA, Denton GH, Vandergoes MJ, Ninnemann US, Putnam AE (2011) Radiocarbon chronology of the late-glacial Puerto Bandera moraines, Southern Patagonian Icefield, Argentina. Quatern Sci Rev 30:2551–2569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.05.027 Strelin JA, Kaplan MR, Vandergoes MJ, Denton GH, Shaefer JM (2014) Holocene glacier history of the Lago Argentino basin Southern Patagonian Icefield. Quatern Sci Rev 101:125–145 Sugden D, Bentley M, Fogwill C, Hulton N, McCulloch D (2005) Late-Glacial glacier events in Southernmost South America: a blend of “northern” and “southern” hemispheric climatic signals? Geografiska Annaler 87(A):273–288 Ton-That T, Singer B, Mörner N, Rabassa J (1999) Datación de lavas basálticas por 40 Ar/39 Ar y geología glacial de la región del Lago Buenos Aires. Revista De La Asociación Geológica Argentina 54(4):333–352 Turner K, Fogwill R, McCulloch R, Sudgen D (2005) Deglaciation of the Eastern flank of the North Patagonian Icefield and associated continental scale lake diversions. Geografiska Annaler 87(A):363–374 Wenzens G (1999) Fluctuations of outlet and valley glaciers in the Southern Andes (Argentina) during the past 13,000 years. Quatern Res 51:238–247 Wenzens G (2003) Comment on: “The Last Glacial Maximum and deglaciation in southern South America.” Quatern Sci Rev 22:751–754 Wenzens G (2005) Glacier advances east of the Southern Andes between the Last Glacial Maximum and 5,000 BP compared with lake terraces of the endorrheic Lago Cardiel (49° S, Patagonia, Argentina). Zeitschrift Für Geomorphologie 49:433–454

Chapter 3

Geoarchaeology of Piedra Museo Locality Marcelo Zárate, Bruno Mosquera, Adriana Blasi, and Florencia Lorenzo

Abstract This chapter is focused on the main geological, geomorphological, and sedimentological characteristics of the Piedra Museo locality in order to achieve a better understanding of the significance of the archaeological record. A hierarchical spatial scale analysis (regional scale, areal scale, local scale, site scale) was used to interpret the AEP-1 archaeological site. Sedimentological analysis (grain size) and mineralogical analysis were performed in selected samples. The lithological and morphological features of the AEP-1 sedimentary filling which consists of two lithostratigraphic units (A B) suggest a distinct pedological modification that resulted in a soil sequence. Hence, each of the originally identified layers with numbers, are soil horizons. The major pedogenetic reorganization occurred in the upper section of the sedimentary filling (layers 2, 3, 4). The lower layers (5, 6) have been affected by the fluctuations of the water table. The early occupations (late-glacial interval) of the rock shelter occurred when the sedimentation was dominant; instead, the later occupations (early-middle Holocene) occurred when soil-forming processes were prevalent. Keywords Geoarchaeology · Patagonia · Site formation process · Pedology · Late Pleistocene-Holocene M. Zárate (B) INCITAP (CONICET-UNLPam) Avenida Uruguay 151, 6300 Santa Rosa, La Pampa, Argentina e-mail: [email protected] B. Mosquera CONICET-División Mineralogía, Petrología y Sedimentología- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), Paseo del Bosque S/N, La Plata, Argentina e-mail: [email protected] A. Blasi CIC-División Mineralogía, Petrología y Sedimentología.- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), Paseo del Bosque S/N, La Plata, Argentina e-mail: [email protected] F. Lorenzo FCEN-UNLPam, Avenida Uruguay 151, 6300 Santa Rosa, La Pampa, Argentina © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Miotti et al. (eds.), Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality, The Latin American Studies Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1_3

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1 Introduction Piedra Museo is a locality in the southern Patagonian plateau featured by an isolated outcrop of early Cenozoic marine rocks. Frenguelli (1933) and De Aparicio (1935) provided the initial general description of the main geological features. Frenguelli (1933) reported the stratigraphic setting and the geological structure as well as the lithological and paleontological composition of Piedra Museo. Soon after, De Aparicio (1935) presented a detailed lithological description, and mentioned the occurrence of “criptas de deflation” (deflation crypts), a distinct weathering trait of the outcrops. In addition, De Aparicio reported the sizes and locations of the main rock shelters with rock art. After a period of several decades, the marine rock outcrops of Piedra Museo called the attention of researchers during the general geological survey of the Deseado Massif. This time, the focus was on the chronology and correlation with other Cenozoic marine units of southern Patagonia (De Giusto et al. 1980; Panza et al. 1998). The geological and geomorphological framework provided by the aforementioned studies was the contextual information of the archaeological research initiated at Piedra Museo in the 1990s (e.g., Miotti 1992, 1995). Several questions arose from the compiled data and results obtained during the excavations; among others, the paleoenvironmental conditions during the human occupations, the stratigraphic setting, and the site formation processes involved in the generation of the archaeological record. To answer these questions, a geoarchaeological approach was used with the purpose of evaluating the local landscape dynamic and geological history of Piedra Museo. Consequently, the present chapter analyzes the main geological, geomorphological, and sedimentological characteristics of the Piedra Museo locality in order to achieve a better understanding of the significance of the archaeological record.

2 Methodology The observations, descriptions, and general survey of the study area were performed during two field trips (7 days each) in January 1998 and January 1999. A hierarchical spatial scale analysis (regional scale, areal scale, local scale, site scale) was used to analyze the geological, geomorphological, and sedimentological aspects of the Piedra Museo locality. The regional scale covered an area of ~200 km2 (Fig. 1); the purpose was to analyze the geomorphological processes and the regional geological framework of the locality. The areal scale comprised an area of 5 km2 surrounding Piedra Museo (Fig. 2); the landforms and sections of the exposed lithostratigraphic units reported by Panza et al. (1992) were identified and studied. At the local scale (~1500 m2 surrounding the site), 10 pits and a trench were excavated and described with the goal

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Fig. 1 A DEM Location map of the Piedra Museo (P.M.) area and regional setting; drainage system (blue lines); (AZH) Arroyo Zanjón Hornia (also named as Elornia or Zanjón Rojo; (LG) Laguna Grande; 1—La Angelita basalt; 2—Cerro Mojón basalt; 3—Bosque Petrificado National Park; 4—Ignimbritic plateau (Jurassic); 5—Dissected Jurassic volcanic surface; 6- Patagonian gravels levels; B Geological map of the Piedra Museo area taken from Carta Geológica de la República Argentina: Monumento Nacional Bosques Petrificados. 4769-IV. scale 1:250,000. (Panza 2001), 2 Bajo Pobre Fm, 4 Chon Aike Fm, 5 La Matilde Fm, 7 Baquero Fm, 15 Puesto el Museo Fm, 16 Cerro del Doce Basalt, 33–34 Gravels on pediments (“Depósitos que cubren niveles de pedimentos, sensu” Panza 2001), 35 Old lake shore deposits and lacustrine littoral ridges (“Depósitos de antiguas playas y cordones litorales lacustres sensu” Panza 2001), 38 Fine sediments of temporary lakes and depressions (“sedimentos finos de bajos y laguna sensu” Panza 2001), 41 undifferentiated alluvial and colluvial deposits; fractures; folds.

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Fig. 2 The Arroyo Zanjón Hornia drainage system, PM Piedra Museo.G erosional gap at Cerro del Doce Basalts.

of providing information on soils and the lithological characteristics of the surficial sedimentary cover (Fig. 3). The site scale (5 m2 ) encompassed the stratigraphic survey and sampling of the pit walls; also, the rock outcrop was examined with the purpose of

Fig. 3 Southern tip of Puesto Museo Fm and surroundings. Location of pits and AEP-1. WW: water well.

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inferring the weathering and erosive processes involved in the rock shelter formation. A pedosedimentary approach was followed to describe the units considering the color, texture, primary sedimentary structures, boundaries, pedological features (e.g., roots, carbonate content, nodules, mottles). Sedimentological analysis (grain size, composition) was performed in samples taken from the eastern wall of pit F which was considered the type section of AEP-1 stratigraphy. Also, four samples were taken from a 0.80 m deep pit at the nearby floodplain (paleolake, see below) of Zanjón Hornia. The samples were pretreated removing organic material (30% H2 O2 solution) and carbonate cements (35% HCl solution). A 4% sodium hexametaphosphate solution and mechanical shaking were used for sample dispersion. Grain size analysis consisted of sieving the sand fraction at half  intervals and by pipetting the silt and clay fractions (Craver 1971). The obtained results were plotted at a cumulative frequency diagram, and used to calculate statistics coefficients following Folk and Ward (1957). Grain size classification was done according to Folk (1954). The mineralogical composition of the very fine sand fraction (0.125–0.062 mm) was carried out with a Zeiss PHOMI III Pol polarization microscope on loose grain mounts prepared with an immersion liquid (n: 1.538). The coarser sand fractions (300 grains per sand fraction) were examined under a Nikon binocular microscope. Also, X-ray powder diffraction (Philipps PW3710Cu-) was done on a sample from the Piedra Museo marine rock. On the basis of the mineralogical composition, the sedimentary input was inferred following the classification by Farrand (2001) (geogenic, biological, and anthropogenic material). The organic content of the sediments was determined following Walkley and Black (1934). The pH was determined for each layer (one sample) with a digital pH meter (Luton PH-222).

3 Geological and Environmental Setting The locality of Piedra Museo is situated in the extra-Andean Patagonian plateau of the NE Santa Cruz province (Argentina). It is an arid environment characterized by a cold and dry climate with strong western winds; the annual average rainfall is ~200 mm, and occurs during the winter season with frequent snowfalls; frosts are common during most of the year (Administración de Parques Nacionales, 2018). The study area is drained by an ephemeral and low sinuosity arroyo (Zanjón Hornia), a tributary of the Laguna Grande (50 km northwards, Figs. 1A and 2), an endorheic drainage system. Piedra Museo (i.e., Puesto El Museo in geological maps) is situated in the Deseado massif, a geological district characterized by the dominant occurrence of Mesozoic volcanic and pyroclastic rocks (Fig. 1). According to Panza et al. (1998), basalts and andesites (Bajo Pobre Fm, lower Dogger) are exposed eastwards of Piedra Museo. Tuffaceous and epiclastic rocks of La Matilde Fm (Bahia Laura Group, Jurassic, upper Dogger-lower Malm), crop out extensively to the West and Southwest. The

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unit includes silicified rests of tree trunks, tree cones, as well as silicified layers and silica nodules (Panza 2001). The Puesto Museo Formation (Panza et al. 1998) (Fig. 1B) is a marine rock exposure originally correlated with the “Salamanquense” (Frenguelli 1933) or Salamanca Formation (De Giusto et al. 1980). Later, the unit was correlated with the middle-late Eocene marine deposits of the Austral sedimentary basin on the basis of the micropaleontological content (Panza 2001). The stratigraphic boundary with the underlying La Matilde Formation, interpreted as an abrasion platform (Frenguelli 1934), is concordant according to Panza et al. (1998). It is exposed in the northern sector of the locality. Paleogene basalts (Cerro del Doce Formation, upper Eocene, Panza et al. 1992) are exposed around 6 km south of Piedra Museo, (Figs. 1B and 2). Ample aprons of two main levels (II, III) of Rodados Patagónicos (Patagonian gravels) occur to the West and South of Piedra Museo (Panza 2001); the gravels (78% throughout the sedimentary sequence. The exogenous inputs vary from 17% in layer 6 to 5% in layer 4. Exogenous rounded grains (likely wind input) decrease from layer 6 to 4; a low frequency of bones fragments is found in layer 4. The exogenous contribution is represented by 18% and 22% in layer 3 and layer

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Table 3 Radiocarbon ages at AEP-1 taken from Miotti et al. 1999; 2003. The calibrated ages estimated by Mosquera 2016 Layer

Lab code

Radiocarbon age

Calibrated years BP

Material

Reference

Min.

Max.

2

NSRL-11167

7470 ± 140

8514

7967

Charcoal

8636

8186

Bone -L. guanicoe-

Miotti et al. (2000, 2003)

2 -bottom-

LP-450

7670 ± 110

4 -top-

LP-949

9230 ± 105

10655

10183

Bone -L. guanicoe-

4 -base-

LP-859

9710 ± 105

11248

10708

Bone -L. guanicoe-

5

AA-8428

10400 ± 80

12544

11837

Bone -Camelidae-

5

OXA-9249

10470 ± 65

12551

12032

Charcoal

6

OXA-8527

10390 ± 70

12430

11840

Bone -L. guanicoe-

6

GRA-9837

10470 ± 60

12549

12039

Charcoal

6

OXA-8528

10925 ± 65

12932

12685

Bone -H. Saldiasi-

6

AA-27950

11000 ± 65

12995

12714

Charcoal

6

AA-20125

12890 ± 90

15687

15079

Charcoal

2, respectively; bones and charcoal are the main exogenous components of layer 3; while bones and rounded quartz grain dominate in layer 2. According to the lithological properties, the sedimentary filling of the rock shelter is subdivided into two lithostratigraphic units, informally named A and B. Unit A, unconformably overlying unit B (erosional surface), includes layer 1 (C horizon) (Fig. 13). The underlying unit B comprises the soil profile consisting of several horizons (layers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). The morphological and physicochemical properties of the AEP-1 soil suggest an Argid, likely a Natrargid, a dominant soil in the Piedra Museo area (INTA 1990). The organic matter content is low, usually below 1% and up to 0.6% in the 2Ab horizon (layer 2) and the 2Btb horizon (layer 3). The pH is alkaline and relatively constant in the soil profile with a minor decrease in the 2Ab and 2Bt horizon, probably due to the humid condition of the section when surveyed. The occurrence of Fe/Mn nodules and mottles of the 2Bt horizon in some pit walls sections downward permits to infer poor drainage conditions with temporary hydromorphism, suggesting alternating oxidation/reduction conditions during the soil development. It was generated either by a fluctuating groundwater table and/or surficial water ponding by rainfall/snowfall episodes due to the lower permeability of the 2Bt horizon (layer 3) and the occurrence of E horizons in some sectors. The dominant greenish colors of the sedimentary

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Fig. 12 Sedimentological characterization of AEP-1 soils horizons (layers) P: Pebbles, VCS: Very coarse sand, CS: Coarse sand, MS: Medium sand, FS: Fine sand, VFS: Very fine sand, CS: Coarse silt, MS: Medium silt, FS: Fine silt, VFS: Very fine silt, CC: Coarse clay, FC: Fine clay, TC: Total clay

matrix suggest the occurrence of ferrous oxides related to reducing conditions during soil development. The soil development took place in a heterogeneous parent material which was pedogenetically modified giving way to the soil horizons sequence identified as layers during the archaeological excavations. In turn, the pedological reorganization of the parent material and the resulting formation of soil horizons is a transgressive process in relation to the deposits of unit B that show morphological variations of the soil

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Fig. 13 Erosional surface at top of Layer 2, boundary between Units A and B (Taken from Miotti and Marchionni 2011)

horizons (thickness, color, texture) in relation to minor changes of the soil-forming conditions (i.e., microtopography within the shelter, vegetation, humid content and groundwater level, thickness of the parent material). As a result, the archaeological material recovered from the same soil horizon (excavation layer) in different pits might be not strictly contemporaneous. Inversely, two archaeological artifacts found in different horizons (e.g., artifact found at the lower section of the 2Bt horizon, an artifact at the upper section of BC1b might be contemporaneous and correspond to the same occupation level (for more details see archaeological chapters in this volume).

7 Chronology The 14 C dates from the occupation levels of AEP-1 (Table 3) suggest that the accumulation of sediments at the shelter started sometime between 11,000 and 12,890 14 C yr BP. The sedimentation rate was relatively low with the sediment accretion on top of the surface slightly modified by soil formation (minor pedological reorganization). Likely, this was the surface dynamics when people occupied the rock shelter. The 14 C dates from the archaeological material recovered at the soil profile suggest a dominant geomorphological stability with a reduced sedimentation rate and increase of pedogenesis, sometime between 7000 and 10,000 14 C BP. Consequently, the horizonation may have started during the early-middle Holocene, and continued during the rest of the Holocene. No dates were obtained from the uppermost sandy mantle (layer 1, IC horizon). Considering the absence of pedological features and its topmost stratigraphic position in the sedimentary sequence, the accumulation likely occurred in very recent times. Thus, it is hypothesized that it was related to the extended desertification process of Patagonia resulting from sheep grazing that started in the Deseado Massif at the beginning of the twentieth century.

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8 Human Occupation and Site Formation Processes The major pedogenetic reorganization occurred in the upper section of the sedimentary filling (layers 2, 3, 4). The 5 and 6 layers have been more affected by the fluctuations of the water table, and less modified by pedogenesis as suggested by the preservation of primary structures of occupations. The early occupations of the rock shelter occurred when the sedimentation process was more active than pedogenesis; instead, the later occupations occurred when soilforming processes were dominant. Being a soil environment, several considerations related to the archaeological record are plausible. A major frequency of artifact should be expected in layer 2 (2 Ab horizon) and likely the Bt horizon than in the underlying horizons since the soil surface documents an interval of condensed time. In consequence, the bone material from layer 2 (A horizon) might have been incorporated from the surface; hence the age would suggest a moment during the soil development but not the initiation of the stability interval. In summary, the distribution of the archaeological material may register a relative increase, not necessarily related to the intensity of human occupation, but the surface stability under a decreasing sedimentation rate. Under these conditions, the bone material may exhibit traits of a longer exposure before burial (Miotti and Marchionni 2011). In addition, the coexistence of diachronic archaeological material from different occupations might be expected in the upper section of the sedimentary filling of the rock shelter. The dominant alkaline conditions of the soil profile favored the preservation of bone material. In layer 3 (Bt horizon) a decrease of bone material, and also of lithic artifact could be expected to be the horizon with the highest weathering of the soil sequence. The 14 C ages on bones in a context with abundant calcium carbonate would suggest minimum ages since the bone fragments are in contact with carbonate lixiviated by the pedological process. Besides, the groundwater flowing through the sandstones and the lower levels of the soil profile must contain CO2 coming from the dissolution of bioclastic fragments which could have aged the dates (Miotti et al. 2003). In summary, pedogenesis has been the dominant site formation process. The localized action of rodent modifying the context of the lithic and bone material should also be considered. In addition, for the sake of interpretations, no data are available from local conditions during the winter season. Hence, the role played by seasonal freezing reported for the area (Baranov 1959, in Corte 1997) cannot be evaluated; also the snowfalls, the surface runoff, and the resulting saturation of the soil profiles could be potentially significant to fully understand the soil and the groundwater dynamics, as well as the vertical and horizontal movement of particles, clasts, and cultural remains on the surface. Acknowledgements The authors express their gratitude to Laura Miotti and Mónica Salemme for the invitation to participate in this book. Our special thanks to Roxana Cattaneo for assistance during fieldwork.

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Appendix Lithological and morphological description of pits in the surrounding area of Piedra Museo. Colors were determined in the field Table 3pit 1 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–6 cm

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2), fine sand with subordinated gravel fraction, massive, common roots; contact: abrupt, smooth

C

6-9 cm

Brown/dark brown (10YR 4/3), very fine sand with subordinated gravel fraction; laminar; many roots, many macropores (< 1 mm), root remains at root channels, coatings on aggregate surfaces of the underlying B horizon; contact: abrupt, smooth

2E

10–21 cm

Pale brown 10YR 6/3 clayey silty fine sands regular medium prismatic breaking to fine and strong blocks; continuous and well developed clay skins, very common roots, en firm, very common mottles, towards the lower boundary: irregular chalky CO3 Ca accumulations of diffuse boundaries around roots. contact; gradual, smooth

2Bt

21–35 + +

Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6) silty sands with silica nodules, massive, few roots, chalky CO3 Ca concentrations of diffuse boundaries; some mottles, thick, discontinuous clay skins

2BCk

Table 3pit 2 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–60 cm

Dark brown (10 YR 3/3), very fine sands, massive, single grain; rare weathered bioclasts from the rock; quartz grains, increasing rock fragments downward, very common CO3 Ca nodules; contact: abrupt and smooth

C

60 cm

Rock

R

Table 3pit 3 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–3 cm

Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4), fine sand with coarse sand (quartz and silica grains, bioclasts) small blocky, vertical cracking when dry, firm to very firm CO3 Ca at root traces, common to many macropores. contact: abrupt, smooth

A11

3–19 cm

Light brown (7.5 YR 6/4), clayey silty sand, massive breaking to irregular blocky, very firm, very abundant CO3 Ca (friable concretions; veins and irregular platy concetrations), very thin discontinuous clay films, few macropores, many roots, mottling associated with roots. Contact: gradual, smooth

A12

(continued)

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(continued) Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

19–33 cm

Pale brown (10YR 6/3), silty fine sand, massive, chalky CO3 Ca along root traces, nodules; few macropores, moderately firm. contact: clear, smooth

A13

33-60 cm + Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/6) clayey silt, irregular prismatic 2Btkb breaking into smaller medium blocky; many thick clay films on ped surfaces; firm, few macropores, common root channels (up to 2 mm) abundant CO3 Ca (along root channels, friable nodules) oxidation colors along root traces, common remains of decomposed roots

Table 3pit 4 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–4 cm

Brown/dark brown (10YR 4/3-10 YR 7/1) very fine sands, subordinated fraction of very coarse sand—fine gravel (2–4 mm) with some silica clasts; diffuse patches of volcanic ash (Hudson volcano), single grain, loose; many roots; contact: abrupt/smooth

C

5–50 cm + + Brown 10YR 5/3 Light olive brown (2.5 Y 5/3) clayeysilty sand 2Btb with some gravel bioclasts from the PM Fm), strong prismatic structure, breaking to medium size strong prismatic; firm; abundant CO3 Ca: many elongated nodules of diffuse boundaries, friable, many of them associtaed with roots; many roots, few Fe–Mn nodules, few macropores, many root channels, distinct clay films on ped faces common

Table 3pit 5 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–13 cm

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2), fine to very fine sand, subordinated fraction of coarse sands, silica and quartz clasts, fine gravel (2–4 mm) of silica clasts, bioclasts of the PM Fm, loose, massive, many roots, contact: abrupt, smooth

A

13–40 cm

Brown (10YR 5/3), clayey sandy silt, strong, irregular prismatic, breaking to fine prisms and blocks, firm, many roots, common CO3Ca of diffuse boundaries, friable; vertical trend of accumulations, discontinuous, common clay films many mottles, contact: gradual, smooth

2Btkb

40–66 cm + Pale brown (10YR 6/3), slightly clayey sandy silt, massive, common 2BCkb roots; diffuse CO3Ca accumulations with vertical trend, partial coalescense of accumulations, few yellowish mottles (2–3 mm) common macropores, common bioturbations (invertebrate chambers, channels, galleries)

Table 3pit 6

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Depth

Pedosedimentological features

0–18 cm

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), very fine sands including fine gravel A11 (2–4 mm), PM Fm bioclasts, abundant silica grains; single grain, many root; contact: abrupt, smooth

18–28 cm

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2), clayey silt including many PM Fm bioclasts; irregular blocky breaking to small blocks, many Fe–Mn mottles, high CO3 Ca concentration; very common hard/brittle nodules of diffuse discrete boundaries, common roots, weak, discontinuous clay films. Contact: gradual,smooth

28–49 cm

Dark yellowish brown 10YR 3/4, silty clay including many bioclast Btk1 of PM Fm; strong irregular prismatic units breaking into strong, fine, irregular blocks, many Fe–Mn mottles, common CO3Ca nodules, many macropores (1–2 mm). contact: clear, smooth

49–61 cm

Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4), clayey silty sand with many bioclasts of PM Btk2 Fm; massive, plastic, sticky; many Fe–Mn mottles, highly weathered bioclasts with CO3Ca films and Mn?, many Fe–Mn nodules

61 cm + + wet, black and yellowish colors, clay sandy silt, very sticky and plastic

Soil horizon

A12

Bt?

Table 3pit 7 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–9 cm

Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4), fine to very fine sands with very coarse A sand (bioclasts and silica clasts), many roots, single grain, weak aggregation around roots, CO3 Ca rounded nodules (redeposited?); contact: abrupt, clear

9–35 cm

Pale brown (10YR 6/3-5/3) silty fine sand with fraction of Bk2Bk medium/coarse sand (some bioclasts of PM Fm), massive, weak, common roots, many macropores, CO3 Ca nodules (5 mm) in some sectors; contact: gradual, smooth

35–70 cm + Brown (10YR 5/3) clayey silt, strong, irregular prismatic breaking 2Btk into strong, medium blocks, CO3 Ca nodules of discrete and diffuse boundaries mainly to the top of the level, fine veinlets of CO3 Ca, common roots, common mottles (1 mm), Fe–Mn nodules (3–4 mm), wet sediment below

Table 3pit 8 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–5 cm

Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2), fine sand with coarse sand A (bioclasts, silica grains), single grain, many roots; contact: abrupt, smooth

5–30 cm

Pale brown (10YR 6/3) silty fine sand including medium to coarse 2Ab sand, bioclasts of PM Fm, silica clasts, massive; weak, many roots, contact: gradual, smooth (continued)

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(continued) Depth

Pedosedimentological features

30–50 cm

Brown (10YR 5/3) clayey silty sand with bioclasts of PM Fm, 2Btkb prismatic, slighty sticky and plastic, many roots, CO3 Ca concentrations including hard nodules, few macropores; Fe–Mn mottles associated to decomposed roots, contact: gradual, smooth.

Soil horizon

50-65 cm + + Color not determined; Clayey silt/ clayey fine sand, slightly sticky 2BCb (?) and plastic, many macropores, many mottles

Table 3pit 9 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–38 cm

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2) medium to fine sand with coarse sand A (bioclast, silica grains), massive, common roots (rizhome -like root system) transported CO3 Ca nodules, scattered charcoal particles, archaeological lithic artifact; abrupt, smooth

38–60 cm

Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4), clayey silty sand, very firm, coalescent CO3 Ca concentrations (including nodules), brittle, many Fe–Mn mottles (up to 5 mm) common rizhomes (root systems like), few macropores; contact: gradual, smooth

Bk

60–85 cm +

Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4), fine to coarse sand (bioclasts, many silica grains up to 1 cm, many Fe–Mn mottles, CO3 Ca nodules

BC

Table 3pit 10 Depth

Pedosedimentological features

0–23 cm

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2) medium to fine sand with coarse sand A (bioclasts up to 1 cm, silica nodules up to 2 cm), single grain, many roots; abrupt, smooth, the uppermost part includes thin layer of volcanic ash from the Hudson volcano eruption (1991) buried by 1 cm of sediment; contact: abrupt, smooth

23–28 cm

Grayish brown (10YR 5/2) (difficult to determine) due to the abundance of CO3 Ca, clayey sand with coarse sand (bioclasts of PM Fm, weak irregular prismatic units; diffuse concentrations of CO3 Ca along with discrete CO3 Ca accumulations along roots; weak clay films, many roots, few macropores, weak, common mottles (yellowish color);contact: clear/gradual, smooth

28–58 cm

Light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) in sedimentary matrix with 2Bkb CO3 Ca concentrated in most of the level, clayey sandy silt with coarse sand, few roots, very firm, common mottles and clay films, contact: gradual, smooth

58–85 cm + + Brown (10YR 5/3) clayey silty sand with abundant coarse sand fraction (bioclasts) and clasts of the PM Fm > > 3 mm;, massive, moderate, many Fe–Mn mottles, few macropores

Table 3pit 11

Soil horizon

2Bkb

2Btb

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Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–11 cm

Light gray (10 YR 7/1), fine sand with coarse sand, silica nodules A and bioclasts up to 3 cm, single grain, siingle grain to weak granular around roots, many roots, abrupt, smooth

11-40 cm + Olive brown (2.5 Y 4/4), clayey silt with very fine/medium sand 2Btb (biolcasts, CO3 Ca nodules), strong regular prismatic units breaking to fine strong irregular blocks, upper prismatic units showing rounded surfaces (columns), high CO3 Ca concentration throughout the level, many roots, continuous clay films at ped surfaces, many Mn mottles, silica nodules up to 5 mm, invertebrate bioturbations, macropores, very firm

Table 3pit 12 (pediment 2) Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–3 cm

Gray (10 YR 6/1)coarse medium sand with fine gravel (2–4 mm) including silica clasts, single grain no aggregation, many roots, abrupt, smooth,

A

3–6 cm

Light gray (10 YR 7/1) very fine sand with coarser sand A, vesicular subordinated, laminar and vesicular„ many roots, moderate, abrupt smooth

6–20 cm + + Brown (10 YR 5/3), silty clay with silica clasts (Patagonian gravel) 2Btkb strong irregular blocks. CO3 Ca nodules and massive carbonate at 20 cm, very firm

Table 3pi13 (pediment 1) Depth

Pedosedimentological features

Soil horizon

0–4 cm

Light gray (10 YR 7/1), very fine sand, single grain, few roots; contact: abrupt, smooth

C

4–10 cm

Light gray (10 YR 7/2), sandy silt, laminar, slightly vesicular, nodules (1 mm), few macropores, many roots contact: abrupt, irregular

2Ab

10–20 cm + + Brown (10 YR 5/3), clayey silt with pebbles, very firm medium 2Btkb prisms breaking to irregular prisms, grading to column structure, many roots, at 20 cm, irregular CO3 Ca nodules in oxidized matrix (Yellowish brown10 YR 5/6)

References Carver R (1971) Procedures in Sedimentary Petrology. Wiley Interscience, New York Corte A (1997) Geocriología. El frío en la Tierra. Ediciones Culturales de Mendoza.

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De Aparicio F (1935) Viaje preliminar de exploración en el territorio de Santa Cruz. Publicaciones Museo Antropológico y Etnográfico de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. Serie A III: 71–92. Buenos Aires. De Giusto JM, Di Persia CA, Pezzi E (1980) Nesocratón del Deseado. In: Geología Regional Argentina. Academia Nacional de Ciencias 2:1389–1430, Córdoba. Farrand WR (2001) Sediments and stratigraphy in rockshelters and caves: A personal perspective on principles and pragmatics. Geoarchaeology, an International Journal 16(5):537–557 Fernández M (2013) Los paleoambientes de Patagonia meridional, Tierra del Fuego e Isla de los Estados en los tiempos de las primeras ocupaciones humanas. PhD. Dissertation, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 208. La Plata. Unpublished. Frenguelli J (1933) Situación estratigráfica y edad de la “zona con araucaria” al sur del curso inferior del río Deseado. Apuntes de Geología Patagónica. Boletín de Informaciones Petrolíferas 112: 843–900. Buenos Aires. Folk R (1954) The distinction between grain size and mineral composition in sedimentary rock nomenclature. J Geol 62:344–359 Folk R, Ward W (1957) Brazos river bar: a study in the significance of grain size parameters. J Sediment Petrol 37(2):514–552 Miotti L (1992) Paleoindian occupations at Piedra Museo Locality, Santa Cruz province, Argentina. Current Research in the Pleistocene 9:30–32 Miotti L (1995) Piedra Museo locality: a special place in the New World. Current Research in the Pleistocene 12:37–40 Miotti L, Salemme M (1999) Biodiversity, taxonomic richness and specialists-generalists during late Pleistocene early Holocene times in Pampa and Patagonia (Argentina, southern South America). Quatern Int 53:53–68 Miotti L, Marchionni L (2011) The study of archaeofauna at middle Holocene in AEP-1 rockshelter, Santa Cruz, Argentina: Taphonomic implications. Quatern Int 245(1):148–158 Miotti L, Salemme M, Rabassa J (2003) Radiocarbon chronology at Piedra Museo locality. In: Miotti L, Salemme M, Flegenheimer N (eds) Where the south winds blow, pp. 99–104. Center for the Study of First Americans, Texas A&M University. Mosquera B (2016) Geoarqueología de los zanjones Blanco y Rojo, Macizo del Deseado, provincia de Santa Cruz. Ph. D. Dissertation, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 315. La Plata. Unpublished. Panza JL (2001) Hoja Geológica 4769-IV Monumento Natural Bosques Petrificados, Provincia de Santa Cruz. Boletín del SEGEMAR 258. Instituto de Geología y Recursos Minerales, Buenos Aires. Panza JL, Náñez C, Malumián N (1998) Afloramientos y foraminíferos eocenos en el Macizo del Deseado, Provincia de Santa Cruz. In: Casadío S (ed.), Paleógeno de América del Sur y de la Península Antártica. Asociación Paleontológica Argentina, Publicación Especial 5: 95–107. Buenos Aires. Twidale CR (1982) Granite Landforms. Elsevier Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci 37(1):29–38

Chapter 4

Radiocarbon Chronology at the AEP-1 Rockshelter in Piedra Museo Locality: An Update and Discussion of the Datings Laura Miotti, Bruno Mosquera, Mónica Salemme, and Jorge Rabassa

Abstract This chapter presents the compilation and critical analysis of radiocarbon dates from the AEP-1 site at Piedra Museo locality in order to achieve a better understanding on the stratigraphic sequence and the environmental conditions during the human occupations of this site. The lithological and morphological features of the AEP-1 site sedimentary filling consist of two lithostratigraphic units, an aeolian unit and a truncated soil, that suggest a distinct pedological modification and resulted in a soil sequence. All radiocarbon dates come from the soil horizons. The major pedogenetic reorganization occurred in the upper section of the sedimentary filling (stratigraphic units 2, 3, 4). The lowest layers (5 and 6) have been affected by the fluctuations of the water table. In these terms, reliable and rejected datings are discussed. The earliest occupations date from the Late Glacial interval, i.e., 15–10 ka BP. They occurred when the sedimentation event was dominant in the rockshelter; instead, the latest occupations (Early-Middle Holocene) occurred when soil forming processes were dominant. On the basis of the curve calibration and the subsequent calculation of the probability sum of the dates, this archaeological sequence allows us inferring that the human occupation of this locality started during Late Glacial times, toward the end of the Late Pleistocene. Between 11,000 and 9800 cal years BP a massive collapse of the roof of the rockshelter provoked the loss of its habitable surface.

L. Miotti CONICET, División Arqueología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina B. Mosquera CONICET-División Mineralogía, Petrología y Sedimentología- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), Paseo del Bosque s/n, La Plata, Argentina M. Salemme (B) Laboratorio de Geología del Cuaternario, CADIC–CONICET, Ushuaia, Argentina Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur, Ushuaia, Argentina J. Rabassa Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina Fundación Bariloche, San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Miotti et al. (eds.), Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality, The Latin American Studies Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1_4

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After that, the rockshelter was reoccupied by humans at the beginning of the Middle Holocene. Keywords Radiocarbon dates · Peopling of the Americas · Pleistocene–Holocene · Patagonia

1 Introduction The Piedra Museo Locality (47°53 42 S, 67°52 04 W), located in the Deseado Massif of Southern Argentine Patagonia (Santa Cruz province), groups several openair sites and rockshelters in an area across the ephemeral fluvial and lacustrine basins, such as the Zanjón Blanco, Zanjón del Zorro, and Zanjón Hornia creeks, all of them flowing to the Laguna Grande (Miotti 2021; Fig. 1). The excavated AEP-1 site is located in a sector of this closed basin; it constitutes an actual eco-refugium in the windy tableland surroundings. The spring freshwater at the edge of a salty shallow depression should have been a good attractor for human life; the great boulders and the rocky outcrop conform a topographic trap to drive and ambush the guanaco herds to be hunted, and probably it was so during the peopling of this place (Miotti et al. 2021). Two strata were identified through the excavation of this site, where almost 70% of the surface under the rockshelter was dug; it comprises a studied area of ca. 45 m2 . The upper layer (Stratigraphic Unit 1–SU1) is an aeolian unit, whereas the lower stratum (SU 2 to SU 6, from top to bottom) constitutes a truncated soil profile. Five units were described in this stratum; they are separated based on the sedimentological

Fig. 1 Schematic profile from Square A. On the left, the archaeological components; on the right, the sedimentological and pedological units

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characteristics (texture, color, structures, grain size, and lateral, and vertical boundaries) (Miotti 1992, 1996; Zárate et al. 2000, 2021), as well as the degree of bone preservation, the spatial distribution, and bone modifications in each layer (Miotti et al. 1999; Miotti and Marchionni 2011). It was described as an edaphic profile, where a remarkable unconformity is visible only between strata 1 and 2; the horizon boundaries are gradual and transitional, since they belong to different reworked zones of same palaeosoil (Fig. 2). Two main archaeological contexts were identified in this soil profile and named as Upper and Lower Components: the Upper Component represents a Holocene occupation and ranges from 8700 to 8000 cal yr BP, on average, while the Lower one occurred during the Late Pleistocene/Holocene transition, dated between 13,000 and 10,200 cal yr BP. Both components are separated by a chronological span of about 1600 years (Fig. 2 and Table 1). At least two occupational events were confirmed for the Lower Component. The earliest context (SU 6) ranges between 13,100 and 12,000 cal yr BP (Table 1a and

Fig. 2 Distribution of the calibrated dates using OxCal 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey 2009) and SHCal 2020 calibration curve (Hogg et al. 2020)

2 Bottom

4 Top

4 Bottom

5 Middle

5 re-dated (#7)

5 Bottom

6 Middle

6 Bottom

6 re-dated (#11)

6 Bottom

6 Bottom

6 Bottom

5/6 transition

5/6 transition

Redated (#11)

SU?

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

8518 8687 10,658 11,248 12,579 12,592 12,592 12,612 12,613 12,734 12,971 13,071 15,644 11,070 11,707 11,759 11,952

7,470 ± 140 7,670 ± 110 9,230 ± 105 9,710 ± 105 10,400 ± 80 10,400 ± 79 10,470 ± 65 10,390 ± 70 10,470 ± 60 10,675 ± 55 10,925 ± 65 11,000 ± 65 12,890 ± 90 9350 ± 130 9950 ± 75 9952 ± 97 10,100 ± 110

LP 949b

LP 859b

AA-8428a

OxA39367a

OxA9249a

OxA8527a

GRA9837a

OxA15870a

OxA8528a

AA-27950a

AA-20125a

OxA9508a

OxA9509a

AA-39362c

OxA9507a

Min

−17.7

−22.1

−10.5

−21.2

−25

−23.4

−19.3

−18.7

N/D

−18.1

−26.6

−26.2

−25.8

N/D

−20

N/D

N/D

d 13C ‰

Bone

Bone

Charcoal

Charcoal

Charcoal

Charcoal

Bone

Bone

Charcoal

Bone

Charcoal

Charcoal

vertebra

Bone

Bone

Bone

Charcoal

Material

Lama sp. (?)

Hippidion saldiasi

Schinus sp.

Schinus sp.

Indet

Indet

Hippidion saldiasi

Hippidion saldiasi

Indet

Lama guanicoe

indet

Schinus sp.

Camelidae

Lama guanicoe

Lama guanicoe

Lama guanicoe

Indet

Taxa

Steele and Politis (2009)

Steele and Politis (2009)

Steele and Politis (2009)

Steele and Politis (2009)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Steele & Politis (2009)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti (1995)

Steele and Politis (2009)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti et al. (2003)

Miotti et al. (2003)

References

Processing methods: # 5 is rejected in the present paper for unknown provenance #9 and #10 are both rejected due to statistical inconsistences by Steele and Politis (2009) #13 is rejected due to statistical inconsistency and anomalous δ 13 C ‰ respect to the original (#15) and replicated samples (#15) of Hippidion saldiasi.

11,242

11,180

11,198

10,226

15,100

12,760

12,733

12,493

12,018

12,021

11,889

11,890

11,890

10,708

10,184

8181

7969

Max

Yr cal. BP

LP 450b

14C yr BP

NSRL11167a

Code lab

a AMS, b standard, c ultrafiltered

2 Middle

1

Stratigraphic Unit (SU)

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates from AEP-1 calibrated with OxCal 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey 2009) using the curve SHCal20 (Hogg et al. 2020). (a) Datings accepted herein and in the references cited; (b) Datings rejected or unexplained in Steele and Politis (2009)

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Fig. 2), and illustrates the initial Late Pleistocene occupation in southernmost Patagonia (sensu Borrero 1999; Miotti and Salemme 1999, 2004, 2005). This stage was related to the hunter-gatherer population’s exploration in the framework of environmental learning of unfamiliar landscapes (Rockman 2003; Miotti et al. 2015). Meanwhile, SU 4/5 represents the regional stage of effective colonization (sensu Borrero 1999; Miotti 1998; Miotti and Salemme 1999, 2004, 2005; Miotti et al. 2015) which ranges between 12,600 and 10,200 cal yr BP (see Table 1a and Fig. 2). The difference between SU 6 and SU 4/5 would merely be the result of two different events, the first one, corresponding to a scouting stage and the second to a repetitive use of the place and their incorporation at the pioneer mobility circuits of huntergatherers in the region. In both situations the place was used as a hunting spot for butchering tasks as the main activities, even though there are subtle technological changes in these levels (Cattáneo 2021; Hermo 2008, 2021; Lynch 2016, 2021; Miotti and Cattáneo 1997). However, there are differences in the faunal composition such as a higher biodiversity, including several extinguished mammals, in SU6 than in SU 4/5 (Miotti and Salemme 2005; Miotti et al. 1999, 2003; Marchionni et al. 2021; Salemme and Miotti 2021). This idea reinforces the hypothesis of humans coming back to this place and, thus, it implies the entrenchment of the earliest human groups in this region (Miotti et al. 2015).

2 Radiocarbon Dating In the Argentinian Extra-Andean Patagonia, AEP-1 site is known as the first site where two fragments of Fishtail points (FTP) were recorded in stratigraphic context (Miotti 1992, 2021; Hermo 2021). These kinds of points are a clear marker of technology and use of the resources of the early peopling stages (Bonnichsen et al. 2005; Borrero 1999, 2016; Bryan 1991; Bueno et al. 2013; Goebel et al. 2008; Gruhn 2021; Miotti 2003, 2006; Miotti and Salemme 1999, 2005; Meltzer 2009; Miotti et al. 2015; Prates et al. 2013; Politis et al. 2020; Suárez 2010; Waters 2019, Waters and Stafford 2007, 2014; Waters et al. 2018, among many others). The first radiocarbon date (AA-8428; Table 1a) was published announcing the primary association between the fragment of a fishtail projectile point and a context referred to the Late Pleistocene and defined as a Paleoindian occupation (Miotti 1992). Nowadays we know that this dating identifies a second occupational event, coming from the SU 4/5 (Miotti et al. 1999). After this first dating, eight radiocarbon dates more (Table 1a) confirmed the interpretation of this early context and allowed us to separate, at least, two early occupational events in this area of the Deseado Massif, Argentine Southern Patagonia. A subsequent sequence of radiocarbon analyses by the AMS method, as well as the different resolution of the contexts place the earliest human occupation between 11,000 and 10,400 14 C years BP (13,100–12,000 years cal. BP), whereas the second occupational event dates between 10,400 and 9,200 14 C years BP (12,600– 10,200 years cal. BP; Table 1a). All these datings will be discussed below, together

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with the dating of 12,890 14 C yr BP which was argued against by other authors (Steele and Politis 2009; Prates et al. 2020). For the latest occupation, from the Middle Holocene, two standard radiocarbon dates are available: 7670 and 7470 14 C years BP (8700–8000 years cal. BP; Table 1a). The source and the analysis of the radiocarbon samples are discussed following their association with the weakened and slim burning zones, mixed with organic matter of the soil, structures, and the archaeological materials. We follow the stratigraphy proposed by Zárate et al. (2000, 2021). A total of 17 radiocarbon dates have been obtained from the archaeological sequence in AEP-1 site (Table 1a, b). Two samples (Oxa 9509 and Oxa 9508) were mentioned in Miotti et al. (2003) as in process of redating since it was suspected they have been rejuvenated by contamination with pedogenetic carbonates from the matrix. These samples came from a charcoal-like overriding SU 6 and SU 4/5 and it was expected to be younger than 12,890 and close to 11,000 years BP; they were sent to Dr James Steele in 2000 (Southampton University). Years later, Steele and Politis (2009) published the results of those samples and the redating of others. These authors rejected some of them without any previous discussion with the authors of this chapter; in addition, they processed a sample obtained from a bone of Lama sp (?) from which they did not indicate its stratigraphic and the grid provenance. Two occupational events assigned to the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene transition comprise the Lower Component (Fig. 2) and they have been dated through bone and charcoal samples; instead, only small charcoal speckles come from the squares excavated during 1995, 1996, and 1997. During the 1997 field season, the squares B and C have yielded a probable area of burning at the bottom of SU 5 and the top of SU 6, in a contact line. The sample OxA-9249 was obtained close to this hearth-like structure, and two others were acquired, respectively, from the top and bottom of this charcoal-like organic matter lens (see Table 1a, b). Nevertheless, ulterior sedimentological and taphonomic analyses proved that this burning area was disturbed by the development of the paleosoil. “Bioturbation destroyed the original hearth structure and the organic matter of the soil was mixed with the charcoal of the previous hearth” (Miotti et al. 2003: 102). Since the radiocarbon samples from this zone could have been rejuvenated by the addition of younger organic matter, the samples OxA-9508 and OxA-9509 were processed again, being their δ13 C contents too high. In the case of OxA-9249, it should be also considered as a minimum age (James Steele, pers. comm. to Laura Miotti, 2001). AA-20125 and OxA-8527 samples from U6 seem to be anomalous regarding the rest of the samples. The samples came from different excavation squares, but from similar depths (Fig. 2); both of them correspond to the stratigraphic unit (SU 6). Yet, and considering the explanation of possible contamination, the diachronic differences could be attributed to several factors, some of which are the following: (a)

(b)

Samples were contaminated with acids or alkalis or carbonates, maybe of carbogenetic origin or by dissolution of bedrock, considering the underground water table; The samples come from a disturbed area;

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(c) (d)

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Laboratory or field mistakes in the manipulation of samples; A mix of charcoal with organic matter coming from the soil developed after the archaeological material deposition.

Even though, there is a closer accordance among the other radiocarbon datings of SU 6 that indicate an interval between 11,000 and 10,500 14 C yr BP (13,100– 12,000 years cal. BP). The date of 12,890 14 C yr BP was considered as an outlier since it could not be replicated yet, like Steele and Politis (2009) suggested (Mosquera 2018). Moreover, in the same sense there seem to be additional arguments to reject the date of 10,390 yr BP (OxA8527) as being too young though both are embedded in the same layer (bottom and middle section of SU6). In any case, this event interpreted as a locus of carcass-processing occurred under dry environmental conditions, that ca. 13,000 years ago (the exploring stage in terms of human colonization) changed, probably due to an increase in rainfall and lower mean annual temperatures (Borromei and Mussotto this volume), and led the possibility of expansion of herbivorous fauna like native horses, mylodons, and Rhea americana (Salemme and Miotti 2021). The sandy matrix may be also vouched in this hypothesis. The deposition of SU 6 or the development of the 2BC2 Horizon (sensu Zárate et al. 2021) was the result of later edaphic process, which began to rework the sediments, during the Holocene. It might be considered that the carbonate lixiviation and water mineralization acted on the sample, giving to it an older radiocarbon age. This could be consistent with the development of the soil and the calcareous bedrock as substrate. The samples taken close to or within the block itself, in grids B and C, and developed as a transition between SU 5 and SU 6 (Fig. 2) might be considered with similar problem of rejuvenation and aging, more remarkable with the occurrence of local event of organic matter, interpolated between the bottom of SU 5 and the top of SU 6. Then, it is assumed that the oldest date of 12,890 14 C yr BP is a reliable one, though an outlier in the light of the complete sequence; but the formation of the paleosoil perturbed and rejuvenated some of the materials, mainly associated to this structure. Nevertheless, we assume that all dates could be contaminated rather with younger carbon than with older carbonates coming from the dissolution of bedrock, taking into account the high proportions of organic substances of SU 4/5. The formation of the paleosoil began ca. the Early-Middle Holocene (Zárate et al. 2021); thus, this process would have rejuvenated the obtained ages. The radiocarbon ages coming from samples of the same stratigraphic unit though from different excavation units confirm the internal synchronicity in each one of the two Pleistocene events. For the later occupational event, with a higher resolution and archaeological integrity, the radiocarbon dates coming from the block of Units 4/5 or 2BC1b and 2BC2b Horizons (Fig. 2) are distributed between 12,500 and 10,200 cal yr BP (12,600– 10,200 years cal. BP). Probably, the pedogenetic processes are the main cause of post-depositional transformation; the carbonate lixiviation from 2BTb Horizon (SU 3) affected in a lesser scale the organic materials of the lower Units; thus, all these radiocarbon dates should be considered as minimum ages; all of them might have older antiquity than those ages they reflect.

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There are no radiocarbon dates from the SU3, since no archaeological materials in primary association were recorded in this context. The scarce materials registered have migrated from the underlying levels in the squares where the evidence of roof collapse was visible. Regarding the chronology of the Upper Component, the SU 2 provided two radiocarbon dates at 7670 ± 110 14 C yr BP (LP-450) (8687–8181 years cal. BP) and 7470 ± 140 14 C yr BP (NSRL-11167) (8518–7969 years cal. BP; Table 1a). None of them has been redated, as it occurred with some samples of the Lower Component. An imperceptible boundary separates this SU 2 from the lower ones and set (SU 3) a clear separation of approximately 1600 years between the Late Pleistocene / Early Holocene contexts from that of the first part of the Middle Holocene (Table 1a; Fig. 2). That means the internal space of the rockshelter was levelled with sediments after the roof collapse that took place sometime after 11,000 cal years BP.

3 Discussion From the Lower Component, 15 samples were radiocarbon dated by AMS and dated it by the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene transition, whereas two others come from the Upper Component and dated it by the early Middle Holocene. The oldest date (AA 20,125) comes from the bottom of SU 6 and it is the only one that shows a distance of almost 2000 years from the other group of datings of the same Component; nevertheless, it has not been redated or replicated yet. As it has not demonstrated contamination problems, we never considered it as anomalous (Miotti et al. 2003) though today we accept and sustain it as an outlier (Mosquera 2018). Initially, a Mylodontinae rib was registered close to the place of provenance of this old charcoal sample. A sample of this specimen was sent in 1999 to the AMS Lab of Arizona University and the laboratory informed that it did not provide collagen; more recently, another rib with cutmarks was identified as the same taxon (Marchionni and Vázquez 2012) and coming from the same level (Fig. 3) provided collagen and its isotopic content could be evaluated (Tessone et al. 2020; Tessone 2021). To be more precise and to solve this question of the earliest date, this rib will be dated; if our interpretation is correct, it is expected to show an age close to 13,000 years. Regarding the radiocarbon sequence of AEP-1 site, it is interesting to point out some differences in the radiocarbon dates highlighted in a paper by colleagues (Steele and Politis 2009). As it was above mentioned, some samples were sent to Dr. James Steele (presently at Oxford University) in 2000 to be dated. Three samples have been dated and redated a few years ago; all of them were performed on charcoal (sensu Miotti 1995; Miotti et al. 1999, 2003). Steele and Politis (2009: 421) identified this charcoal as from Schinus sp. (a shrub locally known as “molle”). Two other dates come from a Hippidion saldiasi (a fossil American horse) bone with cutmarks and helically fractured (OXA-8528) (Miotti and Cattáneo 1997; Miotti et al. 1999, 2003). This sample was twice redated after a process of ultrafiltration; one of them (OxA15870) was

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Fig. 3 Two ribs of Mylodontinae from grid D in SU 6 associated to a bifacial reduction large flake of chalcedony

considered inconsistent with the previous result and the other (AA39362) has also been discounted, since the value of 13 C ‰ is anomalous (see Table 1b; Steele and Politis 2009: 426). The sixth dated sample (OxA9507) belongs to a bone of Lama sp., whose stratigraphic and spatial provenance details have not been presented in Steele and Politis (2009), and therefore, we cannot refer it to the excavation; thus, this radiocarbon date is rejected in the present contribution. In the case of the redated Schinus charcoal, the sample OxA39367 is consistent with the previous one OxA9249 that was only identified as charcoal (Miotti et al. 2003). The other two (Table 1b) are rejected by Steele and Politis (2009) because of the inconsistent values of δ 13 C ‰. This rejection may be related to the fact that they date younger than 10,000 years BP, but the cited authors have not been able to explain it. Moreover, a misinterpretation of our profile and sample descriptions has been published by our colleagues when they say “…A block of soil from a stratum reportedly sealing the basal cultural layer, and containing dense charcoal…” (Steele and Politis 2009: 426). We never defined this hearth-like structure as a seal; otherwise, we interpreted it as a block that could suggest a continuity in the human occupations since the structure came from the boundary between the roof of Unit 6 and the bottom of Unit 5. In our previously published papers, we have never interpreted it as a stratigraphic seal between cultural units. Concerning the bone of Hippidion sp., which has been redated twice, one of their results (AA-39362) after an ultrafiltered process (Table 1b) was discarded by the cited authors; it also dates at less than 10,000 years BP. Nevertheless, they have accepted the sample OxA 15,870 since it is consistent with the previous date of 10,925 14 C years BP (OxA8528) (Miotti et al. 2003), on the same fossil bone.

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In their opinion the results of four of those new six dates should be discounted by statistical inconsistency (Steele and Politis 2009: 426). However, in a more recent paper, Prates et al. (2013) used these rejected samples in a bulk of radiocarbon dates to explain the chronology of the early human occupation in Argentina without any argument against that rejection. This inconsistency could drive to mistakes or erroneous interpretations to other authors and/or to sustain the misconception to the following papers, like in Prates et al. (2020). Stratigraphic Unit 3 (SU 3) is archaeologically sterile; a few materials recorded within it could just be the result of vertical displacement from the overlying unit, if the occurrence of a massive collapse of the shelter roof is considered, dated between 9000 and 8000 14 C years BP (10,600–10,200 years cal BP). According to the faunal assemblage, stratigraphic position, archaeological context, and radiocarbon dating, SU 2 represents the latest pre-European huntergatherer occupation in the site, during the beginning of the Middle Holocene. The results of the two samples from the Upper Component were dated under the conventional and standard radiocarbon method at the LATYR Laboratory (CONICET & University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina). This assemblage and latest occupation is related to the stage of territorial consolidation phase for the local hunter-gatherer societies (Miotti 1998; Miotti and Salemme 1999; Borrero 1999). The archaeological context allowed us to infer deep changes in the technologies and use of the space and fauna (Cattáneo 2021; Hermo 2021; Marchionni et al. 2021; Salemme and Miotti 2021).

4 Final Remarks The different occupational events were defined partly by the radiocarbon data, but also by taphonomic, taxonomic, spatial, and statistical archaeozoological analyses as well as the technology of both lithic and bone artifacts. Throughout the taxonomy, the higher biodiversity was identified in SU 6 as compared to SU 4/5. Meanwhile SU 2 gets the lower biodiversity of the sequence, and in this component the fauna represented belongs to living species only, being the guanaco (Lama guanicoe, a native camelid) the best represented species (Marchionni et al. this volume). Unit 6 includes the higher proportion of extinguished mammals and rheids presently absent in the area (Marchionni et al. 2021; Miotti and Salemme 2005; Salemme and Miotti 2021). In spite of the fact that SU 4/5 are considered as a block in a cultural sense, there are pedogenetic differences between U5 and U4 from a geological point of view (both are soil horizons). However, the aeolian sedimentary matrix is the same, and the differences are due to pedogenetic reworking of the sediments (Fig. 2; Zárate et al. 2021). Moreover, from this block it is observed that there are more extinct species represented in SU 5 than in SU 4. That is, the extinct fauna decreases in number and / or species from bottom (SU 6) to top of SU 4. And, finally, there are no remains of extinguished species in Unit 2. Even though Lama guanicoe dominates

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the spectra, in SU 6 the NISP of Lama gracilis (extinct camelid) is major than Lama guanicoe (see Marchionni et al. this volume). Two alternative interpretations are considered for the decrease in biodiversity from SU 6 to SU 4: (a) sample bias and (b) differential extinction of the Pleistocene fauna (Miotti et al. 1999; Miotti and Salemme 2005). The second hypothesis seems to be the more reliable when it is compared to the other archaeological contexts of similar antiquity from the Patagonian region (Miotti et al. 2018; see Gasparini and Tonni 2021). Concerning the lithic technology, it is the same both in SU 6 as in SU 4/5, producing unifacial and bifacial artifacts as well. In SU 4/5, the bifacial production reaches the production of formal instruments, as the two fishtail points (Hermo et al. 2020). These technological patterns come back to take an important twist in SU 2, with the standardization of the unifacial and bifacial artifacts, and the standardization of the bone instruments as well (Cattáneo 2021; Hermo 2021; Lynch 2021; Miotti and Marchionni 2012; Marchionni et al. 2021). Considering also the products of hunting, technology, and radiocarbon dates, we consider that. – SU 6 shows lower integrity and archaeological resolution (Miotti et al. 1999) allowing us to define it as a brief occupation (scouting) from the exploration stage in the Latest Pleistocene landscape in Southern Patagonia (Miotti and Salemme 2005), ca 13,100 yr cal BP. Likewise, the analyses of bone refitting and spatial distribution of archaeological materials indicate that SU 4/5 presents the best archaeological resolution and the higher integrity of the entire sequence and allow us to interpret it as a second occupational event by the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene transition in a unique block. – We do not refer to a unique synchronic occupation, but instead as the reoccupation of the site between 12,600 and 10,200 yr cal BP, where the first stages of processing of prey hunted in the surroundings of the rock shelter. Concerning the redating of the samples promoted to adjust the temporal dispersion of the earlier occupations of the site (SU 6 and SU 4/5) 3 out of 6 samples were unfortunately discarded by the cited authors themselves (Steele and Politis 2009), due to inconsistencies and contamination problems, based upon the levels of δC13 ; a fourth sample (OxA9507) was regrettably unexplained. The other two samples were accepted since they are consistent with the previous dating of the site (Miotti 1995; Miotti and Cattáneo 1997; Miotti et al. 1999, 2003) and they confirm the chronological sequence established with the beginning of the human occupation (scouting) toward the end of the Pleistocene and the human consolidation in the region toward the Pleistocene/Holocene transition and the possible territorial consolidation stage toward the Middle Holocene (Fig. 2). In summary, remains of SU 6 and SU 4/5 have been related to different occupational events. Likewise, if we accept that the pedogenetic processes could also rejuvenate the sample, all samples from SU 4/5 to SU 6 might be considered as minimum ages. The SU 6 spans between 13,100 and 12,600 14 C cal years BP and represents ephemeral and exploratory occupations while the SU 4/5 spans between 12,600 and

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10,200 14 C cal years BP (Table 1a and Fig. 2) and depicts occupations where the artefactual standardization and production increase together with the consumption of extinguished and living faunal species. The third occupational event, represented in SU 2, is related to Early/Middle Holocene times (8700–8000 14 C cal years BP). The radiocarbon sequence obtained from the AEP-1 site is congruent and consistent with these human occupations. The two occupational events assigned to the Lower Component come from different depths below the surface of the site where changes in the sedimentology of these units are visible. Both archaeological contexts are interpreted as loci of hunting and carcass-processing events corresponding to two different episodes in the human colonization of the region. These events show the same lithic technology (see Hermo this volume) and the use of extinguished and living fauna. The SU 4/5 shows a major intensity in the human occupation of AEP-1 site. Then, when the falling down of the rockshelter roof took place, the environmental conditions changed in the area (i.e., more temperate and humid conditions developed) (Borromei and Musotto 2021; Gasparini and Tonni 2021), and with it, the beginning of the soil development (environmental stability). During this time, important changes in the technology and the fauna consumed were recorded too. The rockshelter was inhabited again by the initial times of the Middle Holocene for about at least two hundred years. Acknowledgements We are indebted to Dr James Steele (University College London, Institute of Archaeology, UK) for the processing and redating of some radiocarbon dates. To Dr. Gustavo Politis for allowing us to redate some samples of AEP-1 together with samples of other provenance of early archaeological sites of Pampa and Patagonia regions. Other datings obtained in this locality were financed through several Grants from CONICET and ANPCyT, Argentina.

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Prates L, Politis G, Steele J (2013) Radiocarbon chronology of the early human occupation of Argentina. Quatern Int 301:104–122 Prates L, Politis GG, Perez SI (2020) Rapid radiation of humans in South America after the last glacial maximum: a radiocarbon-based study. PLoS ONE 15(7): e0236023. https://doi.org/10. 1371/journal.pone.0236023 Rockman M (2003) Knowledge and learning in the archaeology of colonization. In: Rockman M, Steele J (eds) Colonization of unfamiliar landscapes. The archaeology of adaptation. Routledge, Londres, pp 3–24 Salemme M, Miotti L (2021) The rheids as palaeoenvironmental and consumption indicators during the Latest Pleistocene and the Middle Holocene. In: Miotti L, Salemme M, Hermo D (eds) Archaeology of Piedra Museo locality. An open window to the early peopling of Patagonia, chapter 9: Springer. Latin American Studies Book Series, Springer Nature, Switzerland Steele J, Politis G (2009) AMS 14 C dating of early human occupation of southern South America. J Archaeol Sci 36(2):419–429 Suárez R (2010) Arqueología durante la transición Pleistoceno-Holoceno: components paleoindios, organización de la tecnología lítica y movilidad de los primeros americanos en Uruguay. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Tessone A, Miotti L, Marchionni L, Hermo D, Mosquera B (2020) δ13 C y δ15 N de fauna proveniente de sitios arqueológicos del Macizo del Deseado, Santa Cruz, Argentina. Magallania 48:123–140. Punta Arenas, Chile Tessone A (2021) An isotopic perspective of the Alero el Puesto 1 zooarchaeology: environmental changes, extinct fauna and the first human occupations of southern Patagonia. In: Miotti, L, Salemme M, Hermo D (eds) Archaeology of Piedra Museo locality. An open window to the early peopling of Patagonia, chapter 10. Springer. Latin American Studies Book Series, Springer Nature, Switzerland Waters M (2019) Late Pleistocene exploration and settlement of the Americas by modern humans. Science 365:1–9 Waters M, Stafford TW Jr (2007) Redefining the age of Clovis: implications for the peopling of the Americas. Science 315:1122–1126 Waters M, Stafford TW Jr (2014) The first Americans: a review of the evidence for the LatePleistocene peopling of the Americas. In: Graf K, Ketron CV, Waters M (eds) Paleoamerican Odyssey. Texas A&M University Press, pp 541–560 Waters M, Keene J, Forman S, Prewitt E, Carlson D, Wiederhold J (2018) Pre-Clovis projectile points at the Debra L. Friedkin site, Texas. Implications for the late Pleistocene peopling of the Americas. Sci Adv 4:1–13 Zárate M, Blasi A, Rabassa J (2000) Geoarqueología de la Localidad Piedra Museo. In: Miotti L, Paunero R, Salemme M, Cattáneo GR (eds) Guía de campo de la visita a las localidades arqueológicas. Taller Internacional de INQUA, La colonización del Sur de América durante la transición Pleistoceno/Holoceno. La Plata-Santa Cruz, Argentina, pp 56–64 Zárate M, Mosquera B, Blasi A, Lorenzo, F (2021) Geoarchaeology of Piedra Museo: the paleolake and AEP-1. In: Miotti L, Salemme M, Hermo D (eds) Archaeology of Piedra Museo locality. An open window to the early peopling of Patagonia, chapter 3: Springer. Latin American Studies Book Series, Springer Nature, Switzerland

Chapter 5

Quaternary Fossil Vertebrates of Tierra del Fuego and Southernmost Patagonia Germán Mariano Gasparini and Eduardo Pedro Tonni

Abstract In the Fuego-Patagonian region, except for a very few exceptions, no mammals that may be clearly correlated with those characterizing the uppermost Miocene-Early Pleistocene units of the extra-Patagonian area (Montehermosan, Chapadmalalan, Marplatan and Ensenadan stages) have been recorded. The remains of the Late Pleistocene in Patagonia are diverse and relatively frequent, but almost restricted to those representing approximately the last 15,000 years, many of which are directly or indirectly associated with archaeological sites. The goals of this contribution are 1—to present an updated revision of the information about Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene fauna records in archaeological/paleontological sites of the Fuego-Patagonian region (43º 30’–55º 30’S) and 2—to comment on the climatic conditions that occurred in Patagonia during this period. During the Antarctic Cold Reversal, several species of Pampean herbivore megamammals expanded their distribution to reach the south of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. These herbivores were accompanied by their potential predators. This expansion of the distribution toward high latitudes can be attributed to environmental conditions that favored the increase of primary productivity. However, toward the end of the Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene, these mammals became extinct. In Patagonia, the extinction of megamammals took place as a result of a combination of climatic change and human presence. Although it is unlikely that human predation was the sole cause of extinction of all large/megafauna, it may have reduced population sizes of some large/megamammals, particularly in environmental change conditions. Human settlement in South America could have occurred since ca. 18,500 and 14,500 years cal BP. Extinctions occurred prior to, during, and after human colonization. There is some evidence of extinct fauna surviving into the Early Holocene, implying that G. M. Gasparini (B) División Paleontología Vertebrados, Unidades de Investigación Anexo Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 122 y 60, CP 1900 La Plata, Argentina E. P. Tonni División Paleontología Vertebrados, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (FCNyM-UNLP), 122 y 60, CP 1900 La Plata, Argentina e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Miotti et al. (eds.), Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality, The Latin American Studies Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1_5

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some megamammals and large mammals persisted for some millennial alongside people. Keywords Late Pleistocene · Middle Holocene · Archaeological sites · Paleontological sites · Radiocarbon dates · Fuego-Patagonian region · Fossil mammals · Fossil birds

1 Introduction In the Fuego-Patagonian region (both in Chilean and Argentinian territories), no mammals that may be clearly correlated with those characterizing the uppermost Miocene–Pliocene units of the extra-Patagonian area (Montehermosan, Chapadmalalan and Marplatan stages; Cione et al. 2015) have been recorded. The single exceptions are the few reports from the Puerto Madryn Formation (Dozo et al. 1999, 2002) or those of the Cerro Azul Formation at the northern boundary of the Patagonian region (Montalvo 2000, 2001, 2003; Urrutia and Scillato-Yané 2003; Montalvo and Verzi 2004; among others). Those of the Early to Middle Pleistocene (Ensenadan Stage; see Cione et al. 2015) are not present either. The remains of the Late Pleistocene in Patagonia are diverse and relatively frequent, but almost restricted to those representing approximately the last 15,000 years, many of which are directly or indirectly associated with archaeological sites. Tonni et al. (1982: 149) pointed out that during the Pleistocene “... gran parte del territorio patagónico estuvo habitado por megamamíferos de las mismas especies o muy cercanamente emparentadas a las que habitaron el área pampeana” [“... a large portion of the Patagonian territory was inhabited by megamammals of the same species or very close related to those inhabiting the Pampean region”]. The Fuego-Patagonia is a region that has a large number of taxon dates. This is particularly due to the zooarchaeological findings made in southern Chilean and Argentinian territories, such as Aysén, Última Esperanza, Pali Aike, Tierra del Fuego, and Santa Cruz. An important milestone in these studies was established in 1895 by the discovery of a large piece of skin of a mammal until then unknown, in what would later be known as the Milodón cave, Magallanes Province, Chile (Pérez et al. 2018). Since then, a large amount of archaeological and/or paleontological sites from the Late Pleistocene and Holocene have been studied, which have an abundant and diverse paleofaunistic record. Among the first findings of Pleistocene mammals are those recovered by Charles Darwin in 1834 in Puerto San Julián, belonging to a large native South American ungulate, described by Owen (1838–1840) as Macrauchenia patachonica. Although this author recognized the similarity with the camelids in the length of their cervical vertebrae—hence its generic name—he pointed out that it was an ungulate different from any other known before. In 1889, Ameghino proposed to include this curious genus, together with others from the Neogene, in the Order Litopterna.

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Mercerat (1897) mentioned “Typotherium” (=Mesotherium), a guide taxon from the Ensenadan Stage (Early to Middle Pleistocene; Cione et al. 2015), as collected in Shang Aiken, Río Coig. However, later authors such as Ameghino and Feruglio considered this reference as highly dubious (see Tonni et al. 1982; Pascual et al. 2002; Tonni and Carlini 2008). In Bahía Sanguineto, Santa Cruz Province, Parodi (1930) cited the record of Megatherium “australis” (an invalid taxon), Mylodon darwini, and Glyptodon clavipes. Likewise, Tonni et al. (1982) cited several unpublished records on materials housed in the collections of the División Paleontología Vertebrados of the Museo de La Plata (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina). This is the case of Macrauchenia sp. in central Chubut Province (“Cerro Guacho”) and Equidae indet. from Cañadón Seco, Santa Cruz Province. Also in the province of Santa Cruz (Puerto Deseado), the geologist C.A. Ferrari found remains of Megatherium sp. (see Tonni et al. 1982:149; Tonni and Carlini 2008). It is worthy to mention that there are other Lujanian Stage (Late Pleistoceneearliest Holocene; Cione et al. 2015) records in northern Argentinean Patagonia such as Antifer sp. from the confluence of the Limay and Neuquén Rivers (Tonni and Carlini 2008); Equus in Sierra de Portezuelo (Neuquén Province; Garrido and Álvarez 2004); and “Stegomastodon” in Huahuel Niyeu valley, near the city of Ingeniero Jacobacci (Río Negro Province; Pascual et al. 1984). However, the occurrence of “Stegomastodon” in South America was questioned by Mothé et al. (2011, 2012). These authors suggested that the two species previously referred to “Stegomastodon” should be assigned to the endemic South American genus Notiomastodon. The goals of this contribution are (1) to present an updated revision of the information about Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene fauna records in archaeological/paleontological sites of the Fuego-Patagonian region (43º 30’–55º 30’S), and (2) to comment on the climatic conditions that occurred in Patagonia during this period.

2 Materials and Methods In this chapter, 35 archaeological and/or paleontological sites of Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene (ca. 15,000–5,000 years BP) of the Fuego-Patagonian (Chilean and Argentinian) region were studied: Baño Nuevo cave (Velásquez and Mena 2006), Las Guanacas cave (Labarca et al. 2008), Fitz Roy, Bahía Sanguineto, Puerto Deseado, Piedra Museo (Miotti 1998; Miotti et al. 1999, 2003; Miotti and Salemme 2003; Cajal et al. 2010; Miotti and Marchionni 2012; Lynch 2014), Los Toldos (Tambussi and Tonni 1985; Cardich 1987; Miotti 1998; Miotti et al. 1999; Cajal et al. 2010), Maripe (Miotti et al. 2014), Arroyo Feo cave, de las Manos cave, Cerro Casa de Piedra, Cerro Tres Tetas, El Verano, La María Túnel cave (Paunero 2003a), La Gruta, La Martita 4 cave (Miotti 1998), El Ceibo 7 cave (Cardich 1987; Miotti et al. 1999; Borrero 2008; Cajal et al. 2010), La Mesada, Casa del Minero (Paunero 2003b), Cerro Bombero (Paunero 2010), Lago Sofía 1 cave (Borrero et al. 1997), Lago

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Sofía 4 cave (Prieto 1991; Borrero et al. 1997; Prieto and Canto 1997; Labarca and Prieto 2009; Weinstock et al. 2009; Martín 2013; Metcalf et al. 2016; Labarca 2016), Las Buitreras cave (Scillato-Yané 1976; Miotti 1998; Borrero and Martin 2008), Escondida cave (Martin et al. 2014), de la Ventana cave (Frassinetti and Alberdi 2001), Dos Herraduras 3 (Borrero et al. 1998; Labarca 2016), del Milodón cave (Tonni et al. 2003; Massone 2004; Barnett et al. 2005; Paunero 2010; Canto et al. 2010; Martín 2013; Martin and Borrero 2017; Labarca 2016; Perez et al. 2018), del Medio cave (Nami and Menegaz 1991; Nami and Nakamura 1995; Cajal et al. 2010; Paunero 2010), Chica cave (Martin et al. 2012), Fell cave (Bird 1988; Martín 2013; Canto et al. 2010), Cerro Sota cave, del Puma cave (Martin et al. 2004; Martin 2013; Metcalf et al. 2016; Labarca 2016), Pali Aike cave (Bird 1988; Prevosti et al. 2003; Barnett et al. 2005), Los Chingues cave (Prevosti et al. 2003, 2009; Soibelzon et al. 2005; Martín 2013; Prevosti and Martin 2013; Metcalf et al. 2016; Labarca 2016), Tres Arroyos I (Prieto and Canto 1997; Borrero 2003; Massone 2004; Massone and Prieto 2004; Martín et al. 2009; Cajal et al. 2010; Metcalf et al. 2016; Labarca 2016). The archaeological/paleontological sites with the fossil remains registered in them are listed in Table 1. The radiocarbon dates corresponding to the fossil remains of mammals found in those archaeological sites are listed in Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5. Minimum, intermediate, and maximum radiocarbon dates were considered. To calculate the calibrated ages, the program CalPal2007_HULU (http://www.calpalonline.de/) was used. The geographic location of archaeological/paleontological sites in the FuegoPatagonian region mentioned in this contribution is shown in Fig. 1. General views of certain archaeological and paleontological sites mentioned in this contribution are shown in Fig. 2. According to the geographic location of these sites, the Fuego-Patagonian region was divided into five main sectors: Aysén, Última Esperanza, Pali Aike, Tierra del Fuego, and Santa Cruz.

3 Climatic Conditions During the Late Pleistocene and Holocene In Patagonia, since the Middle Miocene until the end of the Pleistocene (or the beginning of the Holocene), changes toward lower mean temperature and humidity were gradual and largely determined the faunal changes in different mammal groups and at different moments according to their specific sensitivity (Ortiz Jaureguizar et al. 1993; Pascual et al. 1996; Zachos et al. 2001). From the latest Pliocene to the Early Pleistocene (ca. 2.5–1 Ma), frequent glaciations were recorded in southern Patagonia, with a remarkable increase of the continental ice sheet between 1.5 and 1.2 Ma (Singer et al. 2005). In the latest Pleistocene, during the last glacial advance in Late Glacial times (13,000 to 11,000 14 C yrs BP) (McCulloch et al. 2000; see also Strelin and Denton

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Fig. 1 Map showing the paleontological and archeological sites mentioned in the text. 1—Baño Nuevo Cave; 2—Las Guanacas cave; 3—Fitz Roy; 4—Bahía Sanguineto; 5—Puerto Deseado; 6— Piedra Museo; 7—Los Toldos; 8—Maripe; 9—Arroyo Feo; 10—de las Manos cave; 11—Cerro Casa de Piedra; 12—Cerro Tres Tetas; 13—El Verano; 14—La María Túnel cave; 15—La Gruta; 16—La Martita 4 cave; 17—El Ceibo 7 cave; 18—La Mesada; 19—Casa del Minero; 20—Cerro Bombero; 21—Lago Sofía 1 cave; 22—Lago Sofía 4 cave; 23—Las Buitreras; 24—Escondida cave; 25—de la Ventana cave; 26—Dos Herraduras; 27—del Milodón cave; 28—del Medio cave; 29— Chica cave; 30—Fell cave; 31—Cueva Cerro Sota; 32—del Puma cave; 33—Pali-Aike; 34—de los Chingues cave; 35—Tres Arroyos

2005), conditions of higher moisture were recorded in southern Patagonia to support a high diversity of large mammals (megaherbivores specially and their predators) corresponding to Pampean lineages that dispersed toward the south (e.g., Mylodontidae sloths, Tremarctinae bears, Machraucheniidae South American ungulates, Machairodontinae smilodons; Tonni et al. 2003; Tonni and Carlini 2008). These favorable conditions may relate to the higher moisture or alternatively with lower evapotranspiration caused by the lower temperature. These conditions seem to have favored also the southern expansion of the running bird Rhea americana (see Tambussi and Tonni 1985). Recent data provided by McCulloch et al. (2000) note that in the Estrecho de Magallanes, between 12,700 and 10,300 14 C yrs BP (15,350–12,250 yrs cal BP) an advance of glaciers took place around 80 km compared to the previous warm phase. This is the last advance of the ice in the Magellan Straits region and it is related to pollen data indicating an increase in humidity compared to the 2000 previous

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Fig. 2 a–i General views of certain archaeological and paleontological sites mentioned in this contribution. a del Medio cave; b Tres Arroyos I Rockshelter; c Pinturas river, from de las Manos cave; d Los Toldos canyon; e Los Toldos cave 2; f Los Toldos; g Sofía 4 cave; h Piedra Museo; i Baño Nuevo 1; j Sofía 1 cave. Photographs by Thierry Dupradou (a); Rafael Labarca Encina (b, g, j); Francisco Mena (i) fig. d,e, f, h: Laura Miotti

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years. But at least one recent contribution (Strelin et al. 2014) does not agree with the interpretations of McCulloch et al. (2000) and Rabassa (2008) in regard to the greater extent of glaciers during the Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR). Strelin et al. (2014) note that morphostratigraphic and geochronological studies, carried out by McCulloch et al. (2000) and Rabassa (2008), show that after a major retreat from their LGM moraine positions, the outlet-glaciers re-advanced again even beyond their Andean Cordillera limits. These advances correlate well with the ACR from 15,170 to 13,340 years BP (Graham et al. 2017). However, such large advances did not occur north and south of this Central Sector, where the outlet-glaciers of Lago Buenos Aires and Lago Pueyrredón (Turner et al. 2005)—to the north—and between Seno Skyring and Beagle Channel (Kilian et al. 2007; Hall et al. 2013)—to the south—were subjected to rapid and deep ice recession, and thus their existing lateglacial moraines did not abandon the Cordilleran fjords and valleys. These recent findings disagree with earlier interpretations of glacier behavior in the Southern Sector (which postulate the existence of large ice-masses occupying the occidental part of the Magellan Strait during the ACR (McCulloch et al. 2005) and the Beagle Channel until at least 11.8 ka BP (Rabassa 2008). Based on the data provided by the analysis of cores of the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) obtained in Site 1233 located at 41° 0.005’ S and 74° 26.992’ W at 838 m water depth, Heusser et al. (2006) concluded that (1) at the end of the last glacial stage, glacial vegetation was abruptly replaced by more temperate Valdivian and Lowland Deciduous Forests ca. 17 ka BP, (2) a brief climate reversal, centred on ca. 14–12 ka BP, interrupted the unidirectional glacial–interglaciation transition, and (3) the structure and variability of southern Chilean vegetation and climate closely resemble changes in Antarctic ice core data and in marine surface offshore. According to Heusser et al. (1994) the pollen analyzed in the Mylodon excrement found in the cave determined tundra type vegetation for the span 13,500–11,300 14 C yrs BP. de Porras et al. (2014) carried out a study based on pollen and charcoal records from Mallín El Embudo located in the deciduous Nothofagus forest (central Chile, 44° 40’ S, 71° 42’ W). These authors determined that the open landscapes dominated by grasses associated with scattered Nothofagus forest patches dominated the region between 13 and 11.2 ka BP, suggesting low effective moisture but also indicating that landscape configuration after glacial retreat was still ongoing. At 11.2 ka BP, the sudden development of an open and quite dynamic Nothofagus forest probably associated with the synchronous high fire activity occurred, suggesting a rise in effective moisture associated with dry summers. Since 9.5 ka BP, the record reflects the presence of a closed Nothofagus forest related to higher effective moisture conditions than before combined with moderate dry summers that may have triggered a high frequency of low-magnitude crown fires that did not severely affect the forest. The forest experienced a slight canopy opening after 5.7 ka BP, probably due to slightly drier conditions than before followed by a sudden change to open forest conditions around 4.2 ka BP associated with fire and volcanic disturbances. Around 2 ka BP, the recovery of a closed Nothofagus forest related to slightly wetter conditions (similar to present) occurred and persisted under highly variable

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climatic conditions up to 0.1 ka when massive forest burning and logging due to European settlements occurred. Central Chilean Patagonian climatic and environmental changes at millennial–centennial timescales since the Late Glacial were driven by changes in the southern westerlies latitudinal position and/or intensity, but during the late Holocene the fire, volcanism and humans arose as forces contributing to environmental dynamics.

4 Paleontological and Archaeological Records During the Late Pleistocene-Middle Holocene The Fuego-Patagonian region has recorded a great diversity and abundance of Late Pleistocene-Middle Holocene fauna in Chilean and Argentinian territories (Table 1). Besides this, it is a region that has a large number of taxon dates. This is particularly due to the zooarchaeological findings made in Aysén, Última Esperanza, Pali Aike, Tierra del Fuego and Santa Cruz (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5). Regarding the Xenarthra, several findings can be mentioned in southern Patagonia, not always related to archaeological sites. In the Fitz Roy locality, Santa Cruz Province, during the excavations for a sport building, remains of Panochthus, and others referred to Scelidotherium (A. Carlini, pers. comm.) were found. Both taxa form part of the Lujanian fauna (Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene) in the Pampean region (Zamorano et al 2014; Miño Boilini et al. 2014) and, so far, they have not been documented in sites of the Patagonian region, since only accuracy ascribed those of Bahia Sanguineto and Puerto Deseado to Lujanian xenarthrans remains (Parodi 1930; Tonni et al. 1982; Tonni and Carlini 2008). Such mammals appear stratigraphically in sediments of lagoon and swamp type, as well as eolian type, and their habitats were those of open savanna and grasslands related to periglacial areas and with temperatures lower than those of today. In both regions these basic ecological characteristics for Lujanian mammals were confirmed by independent evidence lines such as palynology, the studies of sea cores, and stable isotopes (Czerwonogora et al. 2011). According to Esteban (1996), Mylodon darwini is the only Xenarthra registered at Late Pleistocene of the southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Several findings cited as Mylodon sp., Mylodon listai ?, Mylodon darwini listai, Mylodontinae and Mylodontinae cf . Mylodon probably should be included in the mentioned species. In Baño Nuevo 1, López (2009: 120–121) mentioned “un fragmento de mandíbula asignado a la familia Megalonychidae”. According to López Mendoza and Mena Larraín (2011: 521) “Megalonychidae remains correspond to as yet unpublished mandible remains and one phalanx, currently under study…” (López Mendoza and Mena Larraín 2011: 521). Shortly after, Bostelmann et al. (2011) referred this material to Diabolotherium cf. nordeskioldi, previously known from the Late Pleistocene of Peru and from Chubut, Argentina (Pardiñas et al. 2008).

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Recent works showed the presence of the ground sloths in the altitude as well as in high latitudes. In the south of Chile, some caves were known recording some remains of Mylodon without archaeological association, such as Las Guanacas [13,275 ± 30 14 C yrs BP (16,206 ± 407 yrs cal BP)], Dos Herraduras 3 [11,380 ± 50 14 C yrs BP (13,274 ± 126 yrs cal BP) and 12,825 ± 110 14 C yrs BP (15,368 ± 344 yrs cal BP)] and Lago Sofía 4 [11,050 ± 60 14 C yrs BP (12,944 ± 107 yrs cal BP), 11,590 ± 100 14 C yrs BP (13,481 ± 144 yrs cal BP), 13,400 ± 90 14 C yrs BP (16,337 ± 425 yrs cal BP)]. These sites were considered as probable refuges (burrows) of large carnivores (possibly a mid-sized felid such as Panthera onca mesembrina) that preyed on Mylodon sp. (Borrero et al. 1998; Labarca et al. 2008). Besides that, this xenarthran megamammal is registered in numerous sites in southern Chile and only in two sites in the Argentinian Patagonia [Piedra Museo: 12,890 ± 90 14 C yrs BP (15,595 ± 380 yrs cal BP), and de la Ventana cave] (see Tables 1 and 5). Respects to the Camelidae, according to recent systematic studies, five genera of the tribe Lamini are recognized in South America (see Scherer 2009, 2013): Hemiauchenia, Palaeolama, Eulamaops, Lama, and Vicugna. The extant forms include only two genera with two wild species, the guanaco, Lama guanicoe, and the vicuña, Vicugna, and two domesticated species, the “llama”, Lama glama and the “alpaca”, Vicugna pacos. A similar form to Lama guanicoe has been mentioned for Patagonia; however, it owns a larger size; this has been considered as Camelidae indet. (Labarca et al. 2008), Lama sp. (Mengoni Goñalons 1988; López 2009), and Lama morphotype Lama oweni (Nami and Menegaz 1991).Scherer (2009) argued that several characters supporting distinction between Hemiauchenia paradoxa and Palaeolama major, including the dental morphology and limb dimensions (morphology of the lingual lophs and labial lophids of molar teeth, size of protostylid, and parastylid of the molars and the proportions of distal segments of limbs). The materials attributed to these taxa in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego are isolated and are not properly described, so the attribution to any of these species is not possible. Considering the important metric variability of the Camelidae family, it cannot be ruled out that mentions of Hemiauchenia and Palaeolama should be attributed to large individuals of Lama guanicoe. L’Heureux (2007) studied the metric variability in the bones of the appendicular skeleton of L. guanicoe at the southern end of continental Patagonia, from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene; this author concluded that the sizes were statistically larger during periods of low temperatures and were reduced concomitantly with the increase of this climatic parameter. The extinct camelid, Lama gracilis was recorded in Última Esperanza (e.g., Chica cave, Lago Sofía 4 cave, del Medio cave), Pali Aike (e.g., Cerro Sota cave), Tierra del Fuego (e.g., Tres Arroyos I), Santa Cruz Province (e.g., El Ceibo 7 cave, Los Toldos 3 cave, Piedra Museo, La María Túnel cave, and Casa del Minero) (see Table 1). Weinstock et al. (2009) sustained that “In light of the combined genetic and morphological arguments discussed above, we argue that the fossil remains assigned to L. gracilis probably belong to V. vicugna…” Cajal et al. (2010) pointed out that “In any case, it should be noted that molecular analysis, based on few genetic markers (e.g. from mt DNA) not always match fossil records” (Cajal et al., 2010: 130).

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Cajal et al. (2010: 132) sustained that “If L. gracilis –unlike the guanaco–, had environmental sensitivity and strict trophic and habitat requirements, similar to those of the vicuña in modern high plains, the climatic change in low plains (Tonni et al. 1999) could have reduced their populations up to levels in which hunting pressure of paleoindian groups led them to extinction”. Alternatively these authors indicated that if it is proved that L. gracilis and V. vicugna are the same species as Weinstock et al. (2009; see also Prieto and Canto 1997; Scherer 2009) argued, the local extinction in the low areas and their retraction to regions of the high plains or Andean “altipampas” can be attributed also to the anthropic action that not only includes the hunt burden but also other factors as the environmental change and ethological changes caused by the human presence. Scherer (2009) considered L. gracilis synonymous of V. vicugna in the taxonomic and phylogenetic studies including the South American Camelidae Lamini. In Argentina, L. gracilis (or V. vicugna) is stratigraphically associated to L. guanicoe at least in four sites of the Santa Cruz Province: La María Túnel cave [10,967 ± 55 14 C yrs BP (12,894 ± 97 yrs cal BP), Paunero 2003a], Los Toldos [12,600 ± 650 14 C yrs BP (15,141 ± 1032 yrs cal BP); Cardich et al. 1973; Cardich 1987], El Ceibo 7 cave (ca. 11,000 14 C yrs BP; Cardich 1987), and Piedra Museo [units 6 to 4, dated between 12,890 ± 90 (15,595 ± 380 yrs cal BP) and 9,230 ± 105 14 C yrs BP (10,424 ± 125 yrs cal BP); Miotti and Salemme 2005]. In the Chilean sector of the island of Tierra del Fuego, in the site Tres Arroyos I, one mandibular symphysis referred to Vicugna sp. by Prieto and Canto (1997) probably pertains to L. gracilis; it is stratigraphically associated to L. guanicoe in a level dated 10,630 ± 90 14 C yrs BP (12,582 ± 122 yrs cal BP) (Massone and Prieto 2004). This radiocarbon date is a taxon-date obtained on bone collagen, and it is similar to other three taxon-dates obtained on L. guanicoe bones from the site del Medio cave [10,450 ± 100 (12,361 ± 205 yrs cal BP), 10,710 ± 190 (12,703 ± 43 yrs cal BP), and 10,850 ± 130 14 C yrs BP (12,835 ± 120 yrs cal BP); see Nami and Nakamura 1995]. In Cerro Sota cave, both species were registered but no taxon dates are available. In Lago Sofia 4 cave, several dates confirm the coexistence of both camelids (see Table 2). In the great majority of cases, in which not taxon-dates proved the coexistence of both species, the stratigraphical association averaged a short period of time. Consequently, it is considered as coeval in a broad sense. In all these sites, the remains of L. guanicoe are always dominant over those of L. gracilis (Cajal et al. 2010). In the region considered in this contribution, the fossil record of cervids is scarce. There are records of Hippocamelus bisulcus only in a few sites in Chile, such as Baño Nuevo cave [5,095 ± 15 14 C yrs BP (5,839 ± 61 yrs cal BP)], Las Guanacas cave, Lago Sofía 1 cave, Lago Sofía 4 cave, and Los Chingues cave (see Table 1). Fossil remains assigned to Cervidae indet. was registered in del Medio cave (see Table 1). The mention of Pudu puda in Las Guanacas cave (Labarca et al. 2008) has been ruled out, since it is a matter of little diagnostic materials that could correspond to juvenile individuals of Hippocamelus bisulcus (González et al. 2014). Horses have an abundant record in Fuego-Patagonian sites. According to fossil dates (see Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5), they coexisted with humans in Patagonia for a long time. Besides that, there are other evidences supporting the hypothesis about

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Table 1 Paleontological and archeological sites and their fossil records

the economic use of these mammals such as equid images and cut/blow marks of butchering made by humans in several Patagonian sites (Miotti et al. 2018). It is worth highlighting that in Patagonia there is only one species recorded, Hippidion saldiasi (in contrast with the two species registered in the Pampean region). This species was recorded in 20 localities (see Table 1); Hippidion sp. was registered in 5 sites (see Table 1). In the region, the time of the last equid appearance reached the early Holocene, recorded with taxon date in cerro Bombero site [8,850 ± 80 14 C yrs BP (9,943 ± 165 yrs cal BP)] and Los Toldos 3 cave [8,750 ± 480 14 C yrs BP (9,851 ± 612 yrs cal BP)] (see Table 5).

M. darwini

Mylodon sp.

10,200 ± 400 (11,870 ± 587 yrs cal BP), 10,377 ± 481 (12,009 ± 646 yrs cal BP), 11,330 ± 140 (13,241 ± 168 yrs cal BP), 11,905 ± 335 (14,007 ± 499 yrs cal BP), 12,870 ± 100 (15,529 ± 377 yrs cal BP), y 13,630 ± 50 (16,724 ± 253 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

11,380 ± 50 (13,274 ± 126 yrs cal BP), 12,825 ± 110 (15,368 ± 344 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

11,380 ± 50 (13,274 ± 126 yrs cal BP) y 12,825 ± 110 (15,368 ± 344 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Chile

10,780 ± 50 (12,759 ± 56 yrs cal BP), 13,970 ± 70 (17,221 ± 213 yrs cal BP), 14,240 ± 60 (17,451 ± 252 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Chile

11,780 ± 50 (13,470–13,760 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Chile

12,720 ± 300 (15,242 ± 672 yrs cal BP), 13,100 ± 50 (16,008 ± 383 yrs cal BP), 13,670 ± 50 (16,792 ± 217 yrs cal BP), 13,790 ± 60 (16,971 ± 156 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Chile

9,700 ± 100 (11,025 ± 166 yrs cal BP), 11,590 ± 100 (13,481 ± 144 yrs cal BP ), 12,250 ± 110 (14,375 ± 331 yrs cal BP), 12,990 ± 490 (15,630 ± 893 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

11,380 ± 50 (13,274 ± 126 yrs cal BP) y 12,825 ± 110 (15,368 ± 344 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Chile

(continued)

11,050 ± 60 (12,944 ± 107 yrs cal BP), 11,590 ± 100 (13,481 ± 144 yrs cal BP), 13,400 ± 90 (16,337 ± 425 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Chile

Lago Sofía 1 cave Lago Sofía 4 cave

Última Esperanza Última Esperanza Última Esperanza Última Esperanza Última Esperanza Última Esperanza Última Esperanza

del Medio cave

Chile

Escondida cave

Sector

Dos Herraduras 3 Chica cave

Country

Milodón cave

Table 2 Radiocarbon dates of fossil remains of mammals found in those archaeological sites from Última Esperanza region (Chile). Minimum, intermediate, and maximum radiocarbon dates are shown. Calibrated ages are written between parentheses

138 G. M. Gasparini and E. P. Tonni

11,480 ± 60 (13,388 ± ±125 yrs cal BP), 11,900 ± 60 (13,800 ± 150 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

H. saldiasi

Camelidae

11,200 ± 170 (13,099 ± 190 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

M. cf. M. listai

Milodón cave

Table 2 (continued)

Dos Herraduras 3 Chica cave

del Medio cave

10,910 ± 50 (12,857 ± 82 yrs cal BP), 12,720 ± 70 (15,121 ± 308 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

10,450 ± 100 (12,361 ± 205 yrs cal BP), 10,850 ± 130 (12,835 ± 120 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

13,890 ± 60 10,310 ± 70 (17,136 ± 199 yrs (12,183 ± 212 yrs cal BP) RCYBP cal BP), 10,350 ± 130 (12,202 ± 286 yrs cal BP), 10,680 ± 40 (12,682 ± 51 yrs cal BP), 10,860 ± 160 (12,841 ± 145 yrs cal BP), 11,570 ± 50 (13,454 ± 112 yrs cal BP), 11,990 ± 100 (13,975 ± 232 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Escondida cave

10,310 ± 160 (12,112 ± 343 yrs cal BP) y 10,780 ± 60 (12,764 ± 64 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

(continued)

Lago Sofía 1 cave Lago Sofía 4 cave

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10,430 ± 100 (12,341 ± 207 yrs cal BP), 10,710 ± 190 (12,570 ± 272 yrs cal BP), 11,040 ± 250 (12,991 ± 226 yrs cal BP), 11,120 ± 130 (13,028 ± 160 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

del Medio cave

Lama sp.

Escondida cave 10,450 ± 100 (12,361 ± 205 yrs cal BP), 10,720 ± 45 (12,703 ± 43 yrs cal BP), 10,850 ± 130 (12,835 ± 120 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Dos Herraduras 3 Chica cave

Lama guanicoe

Milodón cave

Table 2 (continued)

(continued)

10,830 ± 100 (12,819 ± 103 yrs cal BP), 11,435 ± 50 (13,349 ± 125 yrs cal BP), 12,650 ± 55 (15,020 ± 303 yrs cal BP), 13,275 ± 55 (16,205 ± 412 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Lago Sofía 1 cave Lago Sofía 4 cave

140 G. M. Gasparini and E. P. Tonni

S. populator

D. avus

L. gracilis

11,265 ± -45 (13,170 ± 93 yrs cal BP), 11,420 ± 50 (13,324 ± 129 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Milodón cave

Table 2 (continued) 14,870 ± 70 (18,191 ± 255 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Dos Herraduras 3 Chica cave

Escondida cave

11,100 ± 80 (13,000 ± 128 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

10,925 ± 45 (yrs cal BP) RCYBP

del Medio cave

10,140 ± 120 (11,761 ± 272 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

(continued)

11,095 ± 50 (12,986 ± 106 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

10,640 ± 45 (12,649 ± 61 yrs cal BP), 10,765 ± 50 (12,745 ± 51 yrs cal BP), 11,050 ± 45 (12,943 ± 102 yrs cal BP), 12,610 ± 45 (14,969 ± 293 yrs cal BP), 13,200 ± 100 (16,131 ± 412 yrs cal BP), 13,915 ± 65 (17,167 ± 207 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Lago Sofía 1 cave Lago Sofía 4 cave

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P. o. mesembrina 11,405 ± 55 (13,303 ± 135 yrs cal BP), 11,925 ± 55 (13,832 ± 154 yrs cal BP), 12,285 ± 55 (14,402 ± 308 yrs cal BP), 12,610 ± ± 60 (14,968 ± 299 yrs cal BP), 12,890 ± 60 (15,573 ± 330 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Milodón cave

Table 2 (continued) 11,470 ± 50 (13,382 ± 123 yrs cal BP), 12,890 ± 60 (15,573 ± 330 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Dos Herraduras 3 Chica cave

Escondida cave 11,410 ± 80 (13,310 ± 147 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

del Medio cave

10,840 ± 60 (12,816 ± 84 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Lago Sofía 1 cave Lago Sofía 4 cave

142 G. M. Gasparini and E. P. Tonni

Los Chingues cave

Pali Aike

11,360 ± 70 (13,260 ± 129 yrs cal BP) RCYBP 10,490 ± 90 (12,403 ± 198 yrs cal BP) RCYBP 3,500 ± 45 (3,788 ± 59 yrs cal BP) RCYBP 10,165 ± 70 (11,810 ± 187 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

A. tarijense

D. avus

P. concolor

Rheidae

10,345 ± 75(12,255 ± 211 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

12,716 – 13,400 yrs cal AP 11,575 ± 80 (13,459 ± 124 yrs cal BP)

10,890 ± 90 (12,857 ± 98 yrs cal 21,587 – 22,171 and 34,622 BP) RCYBP – 35,456 yrs cal B.P

11,990 ± 90 (13,972 ± 224 yrs cal BP), 11,650 ± 50 (13,538 ± 134 yrs cal BP), 11,435 ± 50 (13,349 ± 125 yrs cal BP), 11,210 ± 50 (13,111 ± 106 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Puma cave Chile

Lama sp.

10,600 ± -40 (12,590 ± 98 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Pali Aike 12,165 ± 80 (14,201 ± 243 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Pali Aike

Chile

10,295 ± 65 (12,142 ± 217 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Chile

Fell cave

Lama guanicoe

Camelidae

H. saldiasi

Hippidion sp.

11,210 ± 50 (13,111 ± 106 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Pali Aike

Sector

M. darwini

Chile

Country

Pali-Aike cave

10,400 ± 100 (12,308 ± 214 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Pali Aike

Chile

Cerro Sota cave

Table 3 Radiocarbon dates of fossil remains of mammals found in archaeological sites from Pali-Aike region (Chile). Minimum, intermediate, and maximum radiocarbon dates are shown. Calibrated ages are written between parentheses

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Table 4 Radiocarbon dates of fossil remains of mammals found in archaeological sites from Tierra del Fuego and Aisén regions (Chile). Minimum, intermediate, and maximum radiocarbon dates are shown. Calibrated ages are written between parentheses Tres arroyos I

Baño Nuevo cave

Country

Chile

Chile

Chile

Sector

Tierra del Fuego

Aisén

Aisèn

11,255 ± 30 (13,159 ± 84 yrs cal BP), 11,265 ± 35 (13,170 ± 88 yrs cal BP), 11,480 ± 50 (13,389 ± 122 yrs cal BP), 12,510 ± 30 (14,835 ± 284 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Mylodon sp.

H. saldiasi

10,685 ± 70 (12,669 ± 68 yrs cal BP), 12,540 ± 70 (14,874 ± 301 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

13,275 ± 30 (16,206 ± 407 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

5,095 ± 15 (5,839 ± 61 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Hippocamelus bisulcus Lama guanicoe

10,685 ± 50 (12,681 ± 54 yrs cal BP), 10,765 ± 50 (12,745 ± 51 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

L. gracilis

10,630 ± 70 (12,582 ± 122 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

D. avus

10,575 ± 75 (12,508 ± 7,070 ± 25 (7,908 ± 32 164 yrs cal BP) RCYBP yrs cal BP) RCYBP

P. o. mesembrina

11,085 ± 70 (12,978 ± ca. 13,500 and 11,200 115 yrs cal BP) RCYBP yrs. cal. B.P

Arctotherium sp.

ca. 13,500 and 11,200 yrs. cal. B.P

Macrauchenia

11,665 ± 50 (13,551 ± 134 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Ctenomys sp.

9,260 ± 25 (10,455 ± 41 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Rheidae

Las Guanacas cave

ca. 13,500 and 11,200 yrs. cal. B.P

9,960 ± 50 (11,434 ± 127 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

The significant presence of the Carnivora order is important. The particular representation of this group in Patagonia is probably related to the diversity of prey recognized for this period. Prevosti et al. (2003) reported the southernmost record of a bear, “Pararctotherium” (Arctotherium tarijense, see Soibelzon et al. 2005), found in a cave of the Pali-Aike National Park, Magallanes Province, Chile. In this cave, remains were also found of the extinct equid Hippidion sp., on which a radiocarbon dating yielded 11,210 ± 50 14 C yrs BP (13,111 ± 106 yrs cal BP). At the same

Santa Cruz

Sector

12,890 ± 90 (15,595 ± 380 yrs cal BP), 9,230 ± 105 (10,424 ± 125 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

12,600 ± 600 (15,141 ± 1032 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

ca. 11,000 RCYBP

L. gracilis

8,750 ± 480 (9,851 ± 612 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

12,890 ± 90 (15,595 ± 380 yrs cal BP), 9,230 ± 105 (10,424 ± 125 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

12,600 ± 600 (15,141 ± 1032 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

ca. 11,000 RCYBP

Lama guanicoe

Rhea americana

10,925 ± 65 (12,872 ± 93 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

12,890 ± 90 (15,595 ± 380 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Santa Cruz

Argentina

Piedra Museo

8,750 ± 480 (9,851 ± 612 yrs cal BP), 12,600 ± 600 (15,141 ± 1032 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Santa Cruz

Argentina

Los Toldos 3 cave

H. saldiasi

Mylodon sp.

Argentina

Country

El Ceibo 7 cave Santa Cruz

Argentina

La María Túnel cave

10,967 ± 55 (12,894 ± 97 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

10,967 ± 55 (12,894 ± 97 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

8,850 ± 80 (9,943 10,400 ± 100 ± 165 yrs cal BP) (12,308 ± 214 RCYBP yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Santa Cruz

Argentina

Cerro Bombero

Santa Cruz

Argentina

La Gruta

(continued)

8,012 ± 80 (8,864 7,560 ± 30 ± 127 yrs cal BP), (8,383 ± 16 yrs 8,827 ± 87 (9,914 cal BP) RCYBP ± 180 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Santa Cruz

Argentina

Maripé cave

Table 5 Radiocarbon dates of fossil remains of mammals found in archaeological sites from Santa Cruz (Argentina). Minimum, intermediate, and maximum radiocarbon dates are shown. Calibrated ages are written between parentheses

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Eudromia elegans

Table 5 (continued)

El Ceibo 7 cave

12,600 ± 600 (15,141 ± 1032 yrs cal BP) RCYBP

Los Toldos 3 cave

Piedra Museo

Cerro Bombero

La María Túnel cave

Maripé cave

La Gruta

146 G. M. Gasparini and E. P. Tonni

5 Quaternary Fossil Vertebrates of Tierra del Fuego …

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geographic sector (Pali Aike) remains of this bear were found in other caves around 12–13 ka BP (Los Chingues cave [11,360 ± 70 14 C yrs BP (13,260 ± 129 yrs cal BP)], Puma cave [10,345 ± 75 14 C yrs BP (12,255 ± 211 yrs cal BP)]; see Tables 1 and 3). A little further north, remains of A. tarijense were recorded (Última Esperanza sector: Milodón cave, Lago Sofía 1 cave, Lago Sofía 4 cave; see Table 1). López Mendoza et al. (2015) also report the finding of Arctotherium at Baño Nuevo 1 cave; it is associated to Macrauchenia sp., Lama guanicoe, Felidae (aff . Panthera onca mesembrina), Camelidae, Equidae, and Mylodontidae, within a sterile deposit of cultural material, dated between ca. 13,500 and 11,200 yrs. cal. BP. The Machairodontinae subfamily is represented in Ultima Esperanza (Milodón cave, del Medio Cave, Lago Sofía I cave, Lago Sofía 4 cave), Pali Aike (Pali Aike cave), and Tierra del Fuego (Tres Arroyos I) by Smilodon populator, while the subfamily Felinae, represented by three genera with the same number of species, has a much wider geographical distribution (Chile: Última Esperanza, Pali Aike, Tierra del Fuego sectors; Argentina: Santa Cruz Province; see Table 1). Among the Felinae, Panthera onca mesembrina stands out with several records from sites in southern Chile (e.g., Milodón cave, Dos Herraduras 3, Chica cave, Escondida cave, de los Chingues cave, del Puma cave, del Medio cave, Cueva Lago Sofía 1 and 4, Tres Arroyos I, Baño Nuevo cave); in this region some taxon date are known (ca. 12,000–16,000 yrs cal BP; see Tables 2, 3 and 4). In del Medio cave a 10,860 ± 40 14 C yrs BP (12,828 ± 78 yrs cal BP) taxon date (cf. Panthera) is also known (Martin et al. 2015). This felid, also, was registered in a few sites in southern Argentina (e.g., El Ceibo 7 cave, La María Túnel cave; see Table 1). In Patagonia, the time of coexistence with humans was of 2000 years, being 10,840 ± 60 C14 yrs BP (12,816 ± 84 yrs cal BP) (e.g., Lago Sofía 4 cave) the last records of the subspecies Panthera onca mesembrina. In the Late Holocene Lyncodon patagonicus was registered in the Chilean sector of the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (Tres Arroyos I, see Table 1), an island that was part of the South American continent until Late Pleistocene (Clapperton 1993; McCulloch et al. 2000, 2005; Rabassa 2008), and is the only known mustelid that reached this island (Prevosti et al. 2009). During Late Pleistocene and Holocene, Lyncodon patagonicus occurred in eastern regions of Buenos Aires Province where it is now absent (Prevosti and Pardiñas 2001). This geographic occurrence was related to the existence of more arid climates in these areas compared to present times (Tonni et al. 1999; Prevosti and Pardiñas 2001). The species Conepatus humboldtii (Mephitidae) is registered in several sites in southern Chile, such as Milodón cave, Los Chingues cave, Puma cave, and Lago Sofía 4 cave (Table 1); however, no dating is known. The remains of Mustelidae cited as Lyncodon of Milodón cave are included in Galictis sp. (Prevosti and Pardiñas 2001). Within Canidae, the extinct Dusicyon avus is registered in several sites located in Última Esperanza (Milodón cave, Lago Sofía cave I and 4, del Medio cave), Pali Aike (Fell cave, los Chingues cave, Puma cave, Cerro Sota cave, Pali Aike cave), Tierra del Fuego (Tres Arroyos I), Aisén (Baño Nuevo cave), and Santa Cruz (Los Toldos cave) (Prevosti et al. 2011). Besides that, Dusicyon sp. was registered in Las Buitreras cave and Casa del Minero (Santa Cruz). There are a few taxon dates in

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Lago Sofía 1 [10,140 ± 120 14 C yrs BP (11,761 ± 272 yrs cal BP)], los Chingues cave [10,490 ± 90 14 C yrs BP (12,403 ± 198 yrs cal BP)], Tres Arroyos I [10,575 ± 75 14 C yrs BP (12,508 ± 164 yrs cal BP)], and Baño Nuevo 1 [7,070 ± 25 14 C yrs BP (7,908 ± 32 yrs cal BP)]. Fossil remains assigned as Rheidae were registered in Pali Aike (Fell cave and Los Chingues cave), Tierra del Fuego (Tres Arroyos I), and Santa Cruz Province (Casa del Minero, Piedra Museo, and Maripe cave) (see Table 1). The species Rhea pennata was recorded in Pali Aike (Puma cave and Los Chingues cave) and Santa Cruz Province (Piedra Museo, el Ceibo 7 cave, and La Martita 4 cave); Rhea americana was found exclusively in Santa Cruz Province (Los Toldos and Piedra Museo) (Tambussi and Tonni 1985; see Table 1). It is worthy to mention that both species were registered together only in Piedra Museo who today are allopatric, at least to the south of approximately 43º 30’S. Pleistocene–Holocene taxon dates are recorded in Los Toldos [8,750 ± 480 C14 yrs BP (9,851 ± 612 yrs cal BP)], Tres Arroyos I [9,960 ± 50 C14 yrs BP (11,434 ± 127 yrs cal BP], Los Chingues cave [10,165 ± 70 C14 yrs BP (11,810 ± 187 yrs cal BP)] (see Tables 3, 4 and 5), and more recently, a new radiocarbon date was reported on Rhea pennata was reported in Laguna Grande (in Tierra del Fuego, see Salemme and Miotti 2021). Archaeological evidence in certain sites studied such as Arroyo Feo cave, Maripe cave, Cerro Casa de Piedra, Cerro Tres Tetas, El Verano, La Gruta, La Martita 4 cave, de Las Manos cave, and La Mesada confirmed the human presence in these regions during the Early-Middle Holocene; however, a marked absence or scarce presence of fossil remains were observed.

5 Discussion In general terms, the geographical sections proposed by archaeologists that constitute the Fuego-Patagonian region (Chilean and Argentinian territories) have a similar taxonomic composition suggesting a single paleofaunistic unit at the end of the Pleistocene-Middle Holocene in the south of Patagonia and Isla Grande of Tierra del Fuego. During the Late Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene, there were favorable climatic-environmental conditions in southern Patagonia for the human peopling of the territory (Miotti 1998; Miotti et al. 2003; Massone 2003). Humans arrived accompanied by a relatively high diversity of mammals, among which there were representatives of the large, later extinct, South American mammals. Open archaeological sites, refuges, and caves are testimonies of the coexistence of humans with many of those large mammals, which certainly were part of their diet (Tonni and Carlini 2008). The most representative taxa of the Fuego-Patagonian region are Mylodon darwinii, Mylodon sp., Hippidion saldiasi, Lama guanicoe, Lama gracilis, Camelidae indet., Panthera onca mesembrina, Smilodon populator, Puma concolor, Dusicyon avus, Lycalopex culpaeus, Lycalopex griseus, and Arctotherium tarijense.

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From an ecological point of view, the presence in such high latitudes of the Mylodontidae Mylodon is quite surprising, since living xenarthrans in general and particularly the Pilosa (e.g., sloths and anteaters) have endothermic mechanisms which led them to having a variable body temperature. It has been assumed that they could not have inhabited cold or temperate-cold environments. Scillato-Yané (1976: 310) proposed the following argument: the Mylodontidae of the Mylodontinae subfamily lived during the Quaternary period up to relatively high latitudes, both in North America and in South America (southern Patagonia); therefore, they had to bear temperatures which in those times and places were undoubtedly quite low. Evidently, they could in some way adapt to environmental conditions much more rigid than those in which the Tertiary Mylodontidae had prospered. This adaptation is only explained if we consider the possibility that the Quaternary Mylodontinae were better thermo-regulators than their predecessors. Such hypothesis is supported by the following circumstance: the anatomical study of the cranial and mandibular insertions reveals a gradual improvement of the masticatory muscles of these tardigrads during the Cenozoic; such improvement has been reflected in a much better chewing of the food, which in turn allowed a better energetic utilization. A more intense metabolism was necessary for the maintenance of a higher body temperature Many other mammals lived with mylodonts, most of which still inhabit those latitudes of Patagonia, and others are currently restricted to intertropical regions, like the jaguar (Martin et al. 2005). However, it is worth highlighting that the occurrence of the jaguar in intertropical regions seems to be a modern event of refugee as a consequence of anthropic activity; until the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the jaguar lived in Patagonia (Díaz 2010), La Pampa Province and a wide area of the Pampean Region. The evidence obtained in Última Esperanza, Pali Aike, and Tierra del Fuego sections suggests the human presence approximately since 13,500 yrs cal BP (Massone 2004; Martin 2013; Villavicencio et al. 2015), more intensively between 12,000 and 13,000 yrs cal BP. Additionally, the results of taxa dates obtained in archaeological sites of Patagonia allow supporting the hypothesis that Pleistocene large and mega mammals had a period of coexistence with humans of ca. 5,000 years (Cione et al. 2009; Villavicencio et al. 2015). The last records of the Cingulates in Patagonia correspond to the end of the transition Pleistocene/Holocene, i.e., ca. 11 ka BP (Miotti et al. 2018, and bibliographies cited therein). In Patagonia there are no records of glyptodont remains in archaeological sites, but there have been numerous findings of giant sloths. Taking into account the record of Mylodon sp. in the Milodón cave, Tonni et al. (2003) suggested that the possibility of inhabiting extreme environments of this xenarthran probably is related mainly with three factors: (1) (2)

The large body mass (about 2000 kg; see Christiansen and Fariña 2001). A higher metabolism in the living sloths and a great development of muscle mass, which makes it possible to compensate for the heat loss through exercise (Fariña 2002; regarding Megatherium americanum ). The remarkable development of the musculature can be deduced from the strong muscle attachments.

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In addition, compared with living tree sloths (Bradypus and Choloepus), the general structure indicates that Mylodon was a much more active animal. The continuous and abundant hair coverage. Woodward (1900) argued that mylodonts from Milodón cave, hairs were 30 to 50 mm in the back behind the head, 50 to 70 mm in the back, from 70 to 100 mm on the flanks, and up 200 mm in the hindquarters.

In sum, Mylodon sp. dwelt in high latitudes during a period of low temperatures with glacial expansion. It is likely that during the most rigorous of the year, these animals were hibernating in caves. Like Mylodon, Diabolotherium is found in these conditions because it is recorded in central Peruvian Andes (Shockey et al. 2009) as well as in caves or rocky shelters in Chubut (Pardiñas et al. 2008) and in southern Chile (Bostelmann et al. 2011). Coincidentally, Bargo et al. (2000) hypothesized that as the Pampean xenarthrans Scelidotherium and Glossotherium were the likely builders of large caves found in the late Cenozoic. For these xenarthrans, Bargo et al. (2000) estimated masses coming to the 850 and 1500 kg, whereas other mylodont (Lestodon), despite being trained for that activity is excluded by their much higher mass (estimated at 4100 kg). The ability to dig and inhabit caves is not novel for xenarthrans. Moreover, the seasonal lethargy is verified at least a living xenarthra that inhabit in high latitudes, the dasypodid Zaedyus pichiy (see MacNab 1985). During the ACR stage, several species of Pampean herbivore megamammals expanded their distribution to reach the south of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. These herbivores were accompanied by their potential predators. This expansion of the distribution toward higher latitudes can be attributed to environmental conditions that favored the increase of primary productivity (i.e., higher humidity, lower evapotranspiration). However, toward the end of the Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene, these mammals became extinct. According to Ubilla (2018; see also Cárdenas 2008; Borrero 2009), in Patagonia, ca. 12 ka yrs cal BP, the extinction of megamammals occurred with a combination of climatic change and human presence. Although it is unlikely that human predation was the sole cause of extinction of all large/megafauna, it may have reduced population sizes of some large/megamammals, particularly in environmental change conditions. Human settlement in South America could have occurred since ca. 18,500 and 14,500 yrs cal BP (Dillehay et al. 2015). Extinctions occurred prior to, during, and after human colonization. There is some evidence of extinct fauna surviving into the Early Holocene, implying that some megamammals and large mammals persisted for some millennial alongside people. Taking into account the diversity and abundance of the evidence in archaeological and/or paleontological sites in Fuego-Patagonian region (Miotti et al. 2018 and bibliographies cited therein), the main resource hunted were the camelids, and within them Lama guanicoe, meanwhile Hippidion, Lama gracilis, and certain large species of camelids were complementary, and ground giant sloths were occasional. Although a short period of coexistence (2000 years) between Panthera onca and humans in Fuego-Patagonian region, the archaeological evidence indicates that these animals

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formed part of the social and symbolic spheres of the first humans (Miotti et al. 2018). Only some parts of Panthera onca and other great carnivores were used, and these parts may have been obtained from finding dead animals but no from hunting (Miotti et al. 2018). Villavicencio et al. (2015) suggested that the extinction of the mega-carnivores (Smilodon and Panthera) likely slightly preceded extinction of the megaherbivores. These authors pointed out that the humans caused the mega-carnivore extinctions, either by indirect interactions via commandeering more of the megaherbivore prey base once human population sizes/visits reached critical mass/frequency, or by targeting carnivores directly to make the region safer for humans, or a combination of both. Acknowledgements The authors thank the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) and Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo (UNLP). We wish, specially, to thank Dr Laura Miotti and Dr Mónica Salemme for inviting us to contribute to this book.

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Chapter 6

Late Pleistocene and Holocene Palaeovegetational Changes at Alero El Puesto (AEP-1) Archaeological Site in the Northern Deseado Massif. Regional Palaeoenvironmental Implications and Early Human Occupation Ana María Borromei and Lorena Laura Musotto Abstract Interpretation of pollen data from Alero El Puesto (AEP-1) archaeological site at Piedra Museo locality (47° 53 42 S, 67° 52 04 W, 150 m a.s.l.), in the northern Deseado Massif, allows to improve the knowledge about the palaeoenvironmental conditions following the Last Glacial Maximum, and their relationship to the early human occupations. Two climatic events featured the late Pleistocene–early Holocene transition, the Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR, ca. 14,600–12,800 cal BP), and the Northern Hemisphere Younger Dryas event (YD, ca. 12,900–11,700 cal BP). The vegetal palaeocommunities reconstructed from pollen records from the Deseado Massif region reflected abrupt changes related to both temperature and precipitation during these events. Cold and extremely arid conditions characterized the ACR, when vegetation was dominated by shrub steppes with Asteraceae subf. Asteroideae and dwarf shrub steppes with Ephedra. Meanwhile, the spread of grassland steppes with variable proportions of shrubs and dwarf shrubs, coeval with the YD, suggested a change toward warmer and slightly wetter conditions than before. The archaeological data showed an increase in the human use of space during this interval. After that, the trend of increasing temperature and decreasing effective moisture favored the development of a mosaic of shrubby steppes during the early Holocene. The floristically heterogeneous shrub steppes began to dominate the Deseado Massif during the middle and late Holocene. This vegetation reflected arid to semiarid conditions indicating rainfall spatial variation, runoff redistribution, and edaphic diversity. Plant palaeocommunities similar to the present-day ones were established in the north of the Deseado Massif after ca. 4000 cal yr BP, and in the south of this massif after ca. 2100 cal yr BP. Taken together, the palaeoenvironmental conditions recorded in A. M. Borromei (B) · L. L. Musotto Instituto Geológico del Sur (INGEOSUR), Universidad Nacional del Sur-CONICET, Avenida Alem 1253 – Cuerpo B’, Piso 2°, B8000CPB Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina e-mail: [email protected] L. L. Musotto e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 L. Miotti et al. (eds.), Archaeology of Piedra Museo Locality, The Latin American Studies Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92503-1_6

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the studied region are closely related to variations in the latitudinal position and/or strength of the westerlies that would have impacted the early human occupations. Keywords Late Pleistocene-Holocene pollen records · Palaeoenvironments · Palaeoclimates · Deseado Massif region

1 Introduction The Deseado Massif, located in the Central Plateau of Santa Cruz Province, constitutes an important archaeological area as it contains the earliest and more concentrated human occupation sites in the extra-Andean Patagonia. The available radiocarbon dates confirm a late Pleistocene age for the initial phase of colonization from early hunter-gatherer groups (Borrero 1990, 2009; Miotti 2003, 2010; Miotti and Salemme 2004; Salemme and Miotti 2008). It is known that environmental change affects human adaptation in relation to timing, space, and duration of this environmental variability (Mancini 1998). In this sense, palynology plays a contributing role in archaeological research. The good preservation of pollen grains in sedimentary sequences in rock-shelters and caves of this region allows the reconstruction of the past vegetation communities and its relation to climate conditions. Therefore, it is a useful tool for the interpretation of the past environments in which humans were being part as an explanatory factor of human behavior. In sum, archaeological palynology explores the interrelation between ancient human populations and their environments, and infers the impact that the climate changes would have had on the process of human occupation of the region (Borromei and Nami 2000; Danu and Bodi 2016). The aim of this chapter is to examine the vegetation and climate history at Piedra Museo locality and their surrounding region for different time windows throughout the late Pleistocene and Holocene in order to establish the palaeoenvironmental conditions in which took place the earliest human colonization. The comparison with other pollen records from archaeological sites and lacustrine records located in the extra-Andean Patagonia region and on the western flank of the central Patagonian Andes (Table 1) allows to infer the palaeoclimatic conditions that prevailed since Late Glacial times. Conventional radiocarbon ages (14 C BP) previously published and referred to in this chapter were calibrated at the 2σ probability level in calendar years BP (cal BP) using the program Calib 7.1 (Stuiver et al. 2015) and the Southern Hemisphere (SHCal13) atmospheric calibration curve (Hogg et al. 2013).

2 Deseado Massif Region The Deseado Massif (south of 46° S) belongs to the extra-Andean Patagonia region and includes the territory located between the Deseado and Chico rivers in the Santa

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Table 1 Selected sites from extra-Andean Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and central Chilean Andes (44°–49° S) mentioned in the text Deseado Massif North

South

Site No

Site name

Lat. South

Long. West

References

1

Los Toldos

47°

22

58

Paez et al. (1999)

2

Los Toldos cañadón (caves 13 and 1)

47° 29

68° 45

de Porras et al. (2009)

3

Piedra Museo

47° 53 42

4

La Martita Cave 4

68°

67° 52 04

This paper

48°

24

69° 15

Mancini (1998)

24

51

Mancini et al. (2013)

5

La María

48°

6

La Gruta 1

48° 49

69° 23

Mancini et al. (2013)

7

La Gruta lagoons 1 48° 49 and 2

69° 23

Brook et al. (2015)

8

Lago Cardiel

48° 55

71° 50

Piovano et al. (2009)

9

Laguna Potrok Aike

51° 58

70° 23

Haberzettl et al. (2007)

Tierra del Fuego

10

Punta Yartou

53° 51

70° 08

Mansilla et al. (2016)

Central Patagonian Andes (Chile)

11

Lago Shaman

44° 26

71° 11

de Porras et al. (2012)

12

Mallín El Embudo

44° 40

71° 42

de Porras et al. (2014)

13

Mallín Pollux

45° 41 30

71° 50 30

Markgraf et al. (2007)

14

Lago Castor

45.6°

71.8°

Van Daele et al. (2016)

15

Lago Augusta

47° 05

72° 23

Villa-Martínez et al. (2012)

16

Lago Edita

47° 8

72° 25

Henríquez et al. (2017)

Santa Cruz Province

68°

Cruz Province (Fig. 1). It is characterized by tablelands (“mesetas”) with wide depressions and fluvial valleys, resulting from Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic filling of the tectonic blocks of the ancient basement. In particular, the Deseado Massif shows an irregular landscape with a larger tectonic stability over time, composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks resistant to the aeolian erosion. It shows a stepped tableland landscape with erosion scarps, rotational slumps, pediments, and deflation hollows that presents a noted homogeneity (Coronato et al. 2008). This region, with horizontal to subhorizontal reliefs and altitudes varying between 900 and 150 m a.s.l., approximately, is characterized by volcanic cones

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Fig. 1 a Map of southern Patagonia: physical characteristics of the region with the indication of the sites cited in the text: 1. Los Toldos; 2. Los Toldos cañadón (caves 1 and 13); 3. Piedra Museo; 4. La Martita Cave 4; 5. La María; 6. La Gruta 1; 7. La Gruta lagoons 1 and 2; 8. Lago Cardiel; 9. Laguna Potrok Aike; 10. Punta Yartou; 11. Lago Shaman; 12. Mallín El Embudo; 13. Mallín Pollux; 14. Lago Castor; 15. Lago Augusta; 16. Lago Edita

alternating with small round hills and plateaus (Mazzoni and Vázquez 2004). Fluvial, wind—mainly deflation—, and mass wasting processes represented by rockfalls and landslides, are the principal morphogenetic features. Also, a large number of caves caused by weathering and differential erosion constitute another particular feature of this region (Pereyra et al. 2002).

2.1 Modern Climate and Vegetation The climate of extra-Andean Patagonia is mainly determined by its location between the subtropical high-pressure belt and the subpolar low-pressure zone. It is arid to semiarid and displays a steep precipitation gradient due to the strong influence of the Southern Westerly Winds (SWW). The Andean Cordillera intersects the SWW in a perpendicular position and significantly disrupts the precipitation pattern with very wet (dry) conditions to the west (east) of the range (Garreaud et al., 2009). In this sense, the annual rainfall decreases from 800–1000 mm to 200 mm from west to east across the Andes mountains; mean annual temperature ranges from 5 to 8 °C and is mainly controlled by altitude (Paruelo et al. 2000; Peri et al. 2013). Dryness prevails in the extra-Andean Patagonia due to high wind velocities that produce

6 Late Pleistocene and Holocene Palaeovegetational Changes …

163

high evaporation rates. The distinct precipitation gradient substantially influences the vegetation distribution, and its large heterogeneity is a consequence of edaphic and topographic variations (Coronato et al. 2008; Peri et al. 2013). The vegetation at Piedra Museo locality (Fig. 2) is included in the Patagonia Province, Central District, Santa Cruz Subdistrict (Cabrera 1976). In some particular landforms of this wide territory dominated by tablelands, different vegetation units appear forming patches. Thus, usually covering small surfaces, halophytic and sandloving steppes, and wet grasslands (“mallines”) occur which are characterized by a different floristic composition and cover (Coronato et al. 2008). The most widely distributed vegetation unit is the dwarf shrub steppe community. It is characterized by dwarf shrubs such as Nassauvia glomerulosa, N. ulicina and Ephedra chilensis, cushion plants (Azorella monantha, Acantholippia seriphioides), tussock grasses of Pappostipa sp., and isolated patches of shrubs (Mulguraea tridens, Berberis microphylla, Nardophyllum bryoides) (Mancini et al. 2012). The shrub steppe is also

Fig. 2 Map of major vegetation units from Santa Cruz Province (modified from Mancini et al. 2012) showing the location of the Piedra Museo site (red star)

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heterogenous and is characterized by the dominance of different shrubs that develop on hilly areas covered by basaltic mantle, and within valley bottoms and ravines (“cañadones”). The most extended shrub steppe includes Mulguraea sp., N. bryoides, Senecio filaginoides, and Berberis sp. To the north and northeast, it is also composed of Anarthrophyllum rigidum, Lycium chilense, and Prosopis denudans (Mancini et al. 2012). The grass steppe is characterized by grasses (Poaceae) with different associations of vegetation and occurs adjacent to or in a mosaic with shrub and dwarf shrub steppes. To the west and south, or at higher altitudes where the climate is colder and wetter, a grass steppe of Festuca pallescens expands with isolated shrubs of S. filaginoides, Nassauvia darwinii, A. monantha, and Acaena pinnatifida (Mancini 1998).

3 Alero El Puesto (AEP-1) Archaeological Site The archaeological site Alero El Puesto (AEP-1) of the Piedra Museo locality (47° 53 42 S, 67° 52 04 W, 150 m a.s.l.) is a rock-shelter situated in the lower basin of Zanjón Rojo or Elornia which flows to Laguna Grande in the Jaramillo Petrified Forests National Park, in the north of the Deseado Massif (Fig. 1). An area of ca. 50 m2 of surface excavated under the rock-shelter exposed two well-defined stratigraphicsedimentological units and provided chronological information on the use of the shelter by humans. The sedimentary sequence corresponds to a palaeosol with five units (Unit 6 to Unit 2, from bottom to top) distinguished by their sedimentological characteristics (e.g., texture, color, structures, granulometry, and lateral and vertical boundaries). The edaphic profile is covered by an aeolian stratum (Unit 1) through a stratigraphic unconformity or hiatus (Miotti et al. 2003; Zárate et al. 2021). Two archaeological components were identified in the palaeosol sequence. The lower component includes at least two occupation events which were identified at U6 and U4/5 units. The calibrated dates (Table 2) indicated a late Pleistocene–early Holocene transition age to these events, both separated by an interval of a few decades. The initial late Pleistocene occupation event (U6) was dated between 15,338 and 12,282 cal yr BP; and the second occupation event (U4/5) between 12,206 and 10,377 cal yr BP representing the stage of effective colonization of the region (Miotti et al. 2003). The unit U3 was archaeologically sterile and it was not dated. The upper component was recorded in the U2 unit with an early Holocene age according to the calibrated dating. It was related to the territorial consolidation phase of the local hunter-gatherer societies (Miotti et al. 2003). The unit U1 lacks radiocarbon dating; however, a late Holocene age has been inferred from the latest recovered archaeological materials (Lynch 2021).

AA-8428

OxA9249

OxA8527

OxA8528

AA27950

AA-20125

U5 middle*

U6/5 top/bottom

U6 middle

U6 bottom

U6 bottom

U6 bottom*

Processing methods: AMS ▲ standard

Lama guanicoe bone

U4 bottom*

Charcoal

Charcoal

Hippidion saldiasi bone

Lama guanicoe bone

Charcoal

Camelidae bone

Lama guanicoe bone

LP

LP 859▲

U4 top

Lama guanicoe bone

LP 450▲

U2 bottom*

949▲

Charcoal

NSRL11167

U2 middle

Material

Laboratory code

Stratigraphic unit

years BP

−26.6 −18.1 −19.3 −23.4 −25

10,470 ± 65 10,925 ± 65 11,000 ± 65 12,890 ± 90

−25.8

10,400 ± 80 10,390 ± 70

n/d

−20

n/d

n/d

δ13/12 C (‰)

9710 ± 105

9230 ± 105

7670 ± 110

7470 ± 140

14 C

15,338

12,823

12,763

12,197

12,282

12,206

10,995

10,377

8434

8238

Calibrated years BP (median probability)

15,171–15,486

12,729–12,888

12,707–12,799

12,034–12,176

12,068–12,239

12,048–12,180

11,065–11,203

10,242–10,439

8343–8547

8155–8384

1σ range

15,076–15,686

12,713–12,994

12,685–12,928

11,938–12,430

11,980–12,564

11,935–12,436

10,708–11,246

10,180–10,606

8187–8631

7963–8461

2σ range

Table 2 Radiocarbon dates and calibrated ages of the archaeological levels belonging to upper (U2) and lower (U4/5 and U6) components of the Alero El Puesto (AEP-1) site (modified from Miotti 2003). Samples from the dated levels that were used in this pollen study are marked by an asterisk (*)

6 Late Pleistocene and Holocene Palaeovegetational Changes … 165

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3.1 Pollen Analysis Sediment samples were taken from the sedimentary profile excavated on the northeast wall of square F (Miotti et al. 2003). A total of eight pollen samples were studied according to the occupational levels. Methods of pollen extraction and details of palynological results from Piedra Museo locality have been previously discussed in Borromei (2003). In summary, samples were sieved through a 150 μm mesh screen and treated with KOH (10%). The carbonates and silicates were removed using HCl (10%) and HF acids. Finally, acetolysis was performed and the residue was sieved through a 10 μm mesh screen to concentrate palynomorphs, and mounted in glycerine. In this contribution, the frequencies (%) of the main pollen taxa are plotted using the TGView 2.0.2 software package (Grimm 2004). “Other shrubs and herbs” include Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Plantaginaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Verbenaceae. Also, Cyperaceae, Iridaceae, Haloragaceae, Juncaginaceae, and Typha are grouped as “Other wetland herbs.” The fossil pollen data allowed to characterize the palaeoenvironmental conditions contemporaneous to the human use of the AEP-1 rock-shelter (Fig. 3). By about 15,300 cal yr BP (U6 unit), the pollen assemblages reflected the development of shrub steppe vegetation dominated by Asteraceae subf. Asteroideae (54%), accompanied by low values of grasses (Poaceae) and halophytes (Chenopodiaceae), each one with 16 and 14%, respectively. Other herbs (Caryophyllaceae) and dwarf shrubs (Nassauvia and Ephedra) were present (