Aquaculture Ecosystems: Adaptability and Sustainability 9781118778548, 1118778545

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Aquaculture Ecosystems

Aquaculture Ecosystems Adaptability and Sustainability Editors

Saleem Mustafa Rossita Shapawi Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia

This edition first published 2015 © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030‐5774, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley‐blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data applied for ISBN: 9781118778548 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover image: ©iStock.com/eugenesergeev ©iStock.com/tttuna ©iStock.com/stepnemo ©iStock.com/howardoates ©Shigeharu Senoo Set in 9.5/13pt Meridien by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

1 2015

Contents

Contributors, xi Preface, xiii 1 Sustainability of seafood production – challenges and the way forward, 1

Saleem Mustafa 1.1 Sustainability issues and concerns, 1 1.2 The emergence of aquaculture, 4 1.2.1 Selecting culture sites, 6 1.2.2 Effects of climate change, 9 1.2.3 Impact of aquaculture on climate change, 15 1.2.4 Adaptation to climate change, 17 1.3 Biotechnology intervention, 22 1.4 Ecological fisheries–ecological aquaculture synergy, 29 2 Biology of aquaculture animals – learning from nature

to manage culture, 37 Rossita Shapawi and Sitti Raehanah M. Shaleh 2.1 The aquatic ecosystems, 37 2.2 Attributes of aquatic animals for production efficiency, 41 2.3 Biological characteristics, 42 2.4 Diversity and general organization, 49 2.4.1 Molluscs, 49 2.4.2 Echinoderms, 52 2.4.3 Crustaceans, 54 2.4.4 Fish, 56 2.5 Selection of species for culture, 65 2.5.1 Market demand, 65 2.5.2 Tolerance to crowding, 65 2.5.3 Feeding habits and nutritional requirements, 66 2.5.4 Resistance to environmental variations, 66 2.5.5 Disease resistance, 66 2.5.6 Captive breeding, 67 3 Fish behaviour and aquaculture, 68

Gunzo Kawamura, Teodora U. Bagarinao and Lim Leong Seng 3.1 Introduction, 68 3.2 Sensory systems and functions, 70 3.2.1 Vision, 70 3.2.2 Photopic and scotopic vision, 70 v

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3.2.3 Ultraviolet vision, 71 3.2.4 Colour vision, 72 3.3 Photoreception by the pineal organ, 72 3.3.1 Chemoreception by the olfactory organ, 74 3.3.2 Chemoreception by taste buds, 75 3.3.3 Mechanoreception by the lateral line organ, 75 3.3.4 Mechanoreception by the inner ear, 77 3.4 Ontogeny of the sense organs in fish larvae, 77 3.5 Effect of colour on fish larvae and juveniles in tanks and cages, 80 3.6 Preference of fish for colour of prey or feed, 89 3.7 Effect of turbidity on fish feeding, 90 3.8 Food search, taste preference and feed stimulants, 91 3.9 Prey preference of captive tuna, 92 3.10 Net collisions of juvenile Pacific bluefin tuna in cages, 93 3.11 Predator attacks and escape of farmed fish from cages, 94 3.12 Spawning of broodstocks in cages, 95 3.13 Effect of cage design and materials on fish, 96 3.14 Effect of cage aquaculture on wild fish, 98 3.15 Stress factors for fish sensory systems, 99 3.15.1 Total dissolved gas supersaturation and exophthalmia, 99 3.15.2 Betanodavirus infections or viral nervous necrosis (VNN), 99 3.15.3 Parasite infections, 100 3.15.4 Chemotherapeutants, 101 3.15.5 Acidification of natural waters, 102 3.15.6 Underwater noise, 103 3.15.7 Crowding or high stocking density, 105 3.16 Behavioural signs of stress in captive fish, 106 4 Biofouling challenge and management methods in

marine aquaculture, 107 John Madin and Chong Ving Ching 4.1 Introduction, 107 4.2 Vulnerability of a floating cage to biofouling, 113 4.3 Community structure and colonization of biofouling organisms, 118 4.3.1 Diversity of macrofouling assemblages, 118 4.3.2 Depth distribution of sessile macrofouling, 123 4.3.3 Colonization dynamics and succession of macrofouling organisms, 124 4.3.4 Biofouling development and occlusion rates of net mesh size, 126 4.4 Factors affecting biofouling assemblages, 127 4.4.1 Effect of season, 127 4.4.2 Effect of rearing fish, 131 4.4.3 Effect of water flow rates, 132 4.5 Biofouling prevention and control, 134

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4.5.1 Siting, design and arrangement of cage units, 134 4.5.2 Rearing season, 135 4.5.3 Biological control of biofouling organisms, 135 4.5.4 Control of biofouling enhancer, 137 4.5.5 Biofouling control with non‐toxic material, 137 4.6 Future research on biofouling, 138 5 Aquaculture, coastal pollution and the environment, 139

Nicholas Kathijotes, Lubna Alam and Artemis Kontou 5.1 Introduction, 140 5.1.1 Nutrient release and potential pollution, 141 5.2 Practices in developing countries, 142 5.2.1 Aquaculture in developing countries, 143 5.3 The Cyprus nutrient situation, 154 5.3.1 Urban waste water and storm water, 154 5.3.2 Industry, 155 5.3.3 Aquaculture, 156 5.3.4 Agricultural run‐off, 156 5.3.5 Climate change – fisheries, aquaculture and the environment (adapted from CYPADAPT 2014), 157 5.4 Mitigation and control, 161 5.5 Conclusions, 163 6 Integrated multitrophic aquaculture, 164

Abentin Estim 6.1 Introduction, 164 6.2 Biofiltration in IMTA, 167 6.3 Aquaponics, 175 6.4 Recirculating system, 177 7 Significance of blue carbon in ecological aquaculture in the context of

interrelated issues: A case study of Costa Rica, 182 Marco Sepúlveda‐Machado and Bernardo Aguilar‐González 7.1 Introduction, 183 7.2 Ecosystem services and blue carbon habitats, 185 7.3 Mangroves – ecosystem services, 186 7.3.1 Provision goods and services, 187 7.3.2 Supporting services, 189 7.3.3 Regulating services, 191 7.3.4 The monetary value of mangrove ecosystem services, 193 7.4 Trends conditioning the state of mangroves, 193 7.4.1 Pressures, 193 7.5 Blue carbon financial and institutional alternatives  to command and control policies, 200 7.5.1 Blue carbon and aquaculture, 201

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7.6 Costa Rica: blue carbon potential and institutional profile, 205 7.6.1 International regulatory framework, 206 7.6.2 National regulatory framework, 207 7.6.3 Policy development, 209 7.6.4 Constraints and opportunities for blue carbon projects, 213 7.7 Market and fund‐based mechanisms for mangrove rehabilitation and conservation, 215 7.7.1 The Clean Development Mechanism, 215 7.7.2 Mangrove conservation via REDD+, 217 7.7.3 Nationally appropriate mitigation actions: mangroves and beyond, 220 7.8 Community‐based conservation of mangrove ecosystems as an institutional and financial alternative, 221 7.8.1 The situation of Central America in general and Costa Rica in specific: evolution toward relating community‐based mangrove conservation and sustainable productive activities, 222 7.8.2 Community‐based mangrove conservation options and sustainable productive activities under REDD+, 225 7.9 Current events in Costa Rican climate change policies, 227 7.9.1 The Terraba‐Sierpe National Wetland in the REDD+ national strategy, 227 7.9.2 The new voluntary market opportunities of the carbon board and ban CO2, 227 7.10 A hybrid pioneer experience from the field: the community blue carbon programme promoted by Fundación Neotrópica, 228 7.10.1 Developing the building blocks: ECOTICOS and Mangle‐Benin, 228 7.10.2 New project support and private sector participation, 232 7.10.3 Linking the community conservation model with productive activities: ecological aquaculture and tourism, 234 7.11 Blue carbon and aquaculture – fine tuning the institutional setting and scientific methods, 236 7.11.1 Identify key ecosystems and their potential driver of degradation, 237 7.11.2 Address institutional and legislative inefficiencies, 238 7.11.3 Promote collaboration between academic, governmental and social organizations, 239 7.11.4 Integrate conservation and development policies and measures with alternative institutional mechanisms, 240 7.12 Conclusions, 241

Contents   ix 8 Implications of global climate change and aquaculture on blue

carbon sequestration and storage: Submerged aquatic ecosystems, 243 John Barry Gallagher 8.1 Introduction, 244 8.2 Seagrasses and macroalgae, 247 8.3 Conceptual models, 247 8.3.1 Macroalgal ecosystem attractor, 250 8.3.2 Microalgal ecosystem attractor, 252 8.3.3 Seagrass ecosystem attractor, 252 8.4 Net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB): inputs, outputs, and storage terms, 253 8.4.1 Element stoichiometry theory: partitioning the NECB, 256 8.5 Blue carbon model parameters, 258 8.5.1 Low frequency climatic parameter changes, 260 8.6 Climate change effects on the community’s blue carbon sequestration and storage, 261 8.6.1 Sea level change, 263 8.6.2 Storm and flood frequency, 263 8.6.3 Changes in water quality: nitrogen, pH, inorganic carbon, and temperature, 264 8.6.4 Effects of climate change at the ecosystem level, 266 8.7 The effects of aquaculture on blue carbon sequestration and storage, 268 8.7.1 Shellfish aquaculture, 269 8.7.2 Finfish aquaculture, 271 8.7.3 Seaweed aquaculture, 274 8.8 Gaps in current knowledge, 276 8.9 Conclusions, 277 9 Knowledge management in modern aquaculture, 281

Faizan Hasan Mustafa, Shigeharu Senoo and Awangku Hassanal Bahar Pengiran Bagul 9.1 Introduction, 281 9.2 Knowledge management ecosystem in aquaculture, 285 9.3 Knowledge management systems and tools, 291 9.3.1 Brainstorming, 291 9.3.2 Knowledge forum, 292 9.3.3 Document management and data bases, 292 9.3.4 Web‐based platforms and social networking services, 294 9.3.5 Knowledge blogs, 297 9.4 Learning and capturing ideas with modern tools, 298 9.4.1 Knowledge café, 298 9.4.2 Peer Assist, 299

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9.4.3 Voice and VOIP, 300 9.4.4 Artificial intelligent systems, 301 9.4.5 Robotics in aquaculture, 305 9.4.6 Knowledge clusters, 306 9.5 Knowledge management strategies for aquaculture, 308 9.5.1 Role of universities in generating knowledge and critical mass, 308 9.5.2 Coproduction of knowledge, 310 9.6 Knowledge management for aquaculture incubator centres, 312 9.6.1 Requirements for aquaculture incubator centres, 313 9.7 Knowledge management for policy making, planning and management, 315 9.8 Conclusions, 318 References, 319 Index, 372

Contributors

Bernardo Aguilar‐González, PhD University for International Cooperation, San Jose, Costa Rica Lubna Alam, PhD Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor DE, Malaysia Teodora U. Bagarinao, PhD Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre, Iloilo, Philippines Awangku Hassanal Bahar Pengiran Bagul, PhD Faculty of Business, Economics and Accounting, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia Chong Ving Ching, PhD Faculty of Science, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Abentin Estim, PhD Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia John Barry Gallagher, PhD School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia Nicholas Kathijotes, PhD Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus Gunzo Kawamura, PhD Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia Artemis Kontou, MSc Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus John Madin, PhD Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia

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xii   Contributors

Faizan Hasan Mustafa, MBA Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia Saleem Mustafa, PhD Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia Lim Leong Seng, MSc Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia Shigeharu Senoo, PhD Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia Marco Sepúlveda‐Machado, PhD School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Sitti Raehanah M. Shaleh, PhD Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia Rossita Shapawi, PhD Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia

Preface

Aquaculture continues to maintain its position as a major provider of protein‐rich seafood. Capture fisheries cannot meet the demand. Aquaculture must grow rapidly to make up for the shortfall in seafood supply by addressing the mounting challenges that constrain its expansion. The nature and magnitude of the challenges in the twenty‐first century are different from those in the last two centuries, and the world does not have the luxury of time to continue with the ‘business‐as‐usual’ approach. Sustainability of aquaculture will be determined by its ability to adapt to challenges as they arise without compromising environmental standards. For such an ecologically sustainable aquaculture system to develop we require new ideas, tools and methods that can gain widespread acceptance by the main actors in the aquaculture ­sector. Thinking creatively is important but practical translation of the ideas that emerge has to be put through mechanisms that incorporate them as a part of the culture and practice. Sustainability of aquaculture requires models of growth and development that evolve in an innovation ecosystem. This is important for accelerating the merger of time‐tested approaches with modern technology deeply rooted in environmental compatibility. Also needed is an institutionalized transfer of knowledge from the strict confines of research institutions to the market through the academia–industry interface. Aquaculture has more biosecurity challenges now than ever before. It cannot grow as a sustainable enterprise if its carbon and ecological footprints are high. It will not be successful if issues related to healthy seed production and larval survival are not addressed. It will be vulnerable to crash if water quality is not managed. It will succumb to the effects of climate change if adaptation measures are not applied. Reliance of aquaculture on scarce resources should reduce and it should embrace the smart way of producing something from virtually ‘nothing’. All of it will require that aquaculture should no longer be driven by purely short‐ term commercial gains for a limited few but should focus on priorities for ­sustainable benefits to larger sections of society. Such a contextual transformation will ensure value creation relying on a system‐wide approach to new ways of doing business. The relevance of aquaculture will be determined by its success in forging synergies with other methods of seafood production and meeting the expected

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targets. Being free from issues related to the ‘heritage of the commons’ and the free access that constrains the regulatory frameworks of action in ocean fisheries management, aquaculture is open to the application of adaptive management techniques and evaluation of their performance. The new perspectives of aquaculture must become elements of economic planning for social welfare and community engagement, and accepted as an activity for small and medium enterprises as well as industrial‐scale operations. Scientists are sounding alarms about the consequences of human actions for the ocean ecosystem and the global food supply, and drawing attention towards the extremely complex problems in the making. There is an urgent need for knowledge‐based action. The options elaborated in this book for global seafood security in the twenty‐ first century are rational to the core. The ecological and economic reasons for modernizing the seafood production sectors through common sense, synthesis of knowledge, realistic thinking and adaptive management strategies are presented explicitly. This book is written to give due emphasis to the emerging paradigms. It contains a synthesis of current information on aquaculture practices and substantial discussion of the way forward in transforming this sector. Efforts have been made to include topics that go beyond the stage of debate on old concepts, so that conclusions could emerge to provide leads for action plans and practices that take into consideration contemporary and future concerns. This book strives to deliver such information to scholars, policy makers and social ecologists keen to know more of the current state of the subject and interested in new ideas with problem‐solving outcomes. Learning from nature to evolve new models for ­ecological aquaculture that recognize the wisdom of established practices while ­giving due importance to new approaches centred on environment and sustainability is the hallmark of this book. The contents of the book have been structured in a novel way so as to emphasize the importance of building on established facts using new technologies to evolve a sort of hybrid approach that respects and blends traditional and modern knowledge while inviting problem‐solving innovations. The book is not intended merely to provide a large quantity of statistical data but more to provide discussion on the changing realities that demand a radical shift in the way we perceive and practise aquaculture. Obviously, those looking to ‘think beyond data’ and ‘out of the box’ at a time when seafood security is being increasingly challenged by climate change will read this book with interest. Chapter 1, dealing with the seafood security, sets the tone in favour of new approaches and radical transformation of the aquaculture sector. Chapter  2 ­discusses how learning about natural life processes is important for managing the culture systems. Extending the discussion on the importance of data on

Preface   xv

­ iology, Chapter 3 focuses on the importance of behavioural studies in maximizing b the production efficiency of the culture systems. Aquaculture started by our understanding of the biology of aquatic animals and it makes sense to go deeper in this area and use that knowledge to improve systems of farming. Aquaculture practiced with more biological paradigms would be environment friendly, cost effective and without negative labels. It will also be a part of good management practices although challenges will have to be addressed as they arise. Biofouling in marine aquaculture is a major challenge. How to manage this with appropriate options is elaborated in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 details aquaculture’s relationship with the environment and practically feasible mitigation measures to reduce the ecological footprint. Well‐aligned with the topic of environmental compatibility of aquatic farming, is the focus of discussion on low carbon integrated multitropic aquaculture modules in Chapter  6. Chapters 7 and 8 introduce a great deal of novelty to this book since, despite the growing importance of the topic of blue carbon, this is not adequately dealt with in aquaculture books with perspectives related to this subsector of food production. The last chapter ­presents a detailed account of the significance of reforming and shaping the aquaculture sector using appropriate knowledge management tools to meet the goals of ­sustainable development of aquatic food. We thank the authors who contributed chapters to this book. It has been so much fun working with each of them. Our colleagues in the Borneo Marine Research Institute enabled us to give attention to writing our share of the chapters and editing the book. Lastly, we would like to express our appreciation to publisher, Wiley‐ Blackwell, for its faith in this book and for providing exemplary cooperation throughout the various stages of its preparation. Professor Dr Saleem Mustafa Professor Dr Rossita Shapawi Borneo Marine Research Institute Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah Malaysia

Chapter 1

Sustainability of seafood production – challenges and the way forward Saleem Mustafa Borneo Marine Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sabah, Malaysia

Abstract Sustainability of seafood supplies is a matter of growing concern at a time when demand is increasing and some of the factors constraining the development of aquaculture are challenging the efforts towards increasing production. Stabilization of harvest from fisheries has generated a great deal of interest in aquaculture. Besides directly enhancing production, aquaculture can reduce pressure on wild stocks and biodiversity, and contribute to enhancing depleted stocks. Aquaculture systems are diverse, requiring a comprehensive understanding of the different issues and knowledge‐based solutions, and an enabling environment that favours application of innovative ideas to support development of this sector. Diversity in aquaculture often requires adopting more balanced and informed approaches that take into consideration the environmental, social and economic conditions. The future of aquaculture depends on management of key issues and application of appropriate strategies. This chapter discusses the trends that characterize the emergence of aquaculture as a major provider of high quality protein, the challenges it faces in a changing climate, the impact of adaptation measures on sustainability, the possible role of some forms of biotechnology, introducing ecosystem perspectives and the potential of forging synergies of this sector with other means of producing seafood. Keywords: Seafood security, aquaculture, climate change, adaptation strategies, ecosystem approaches

1.1  Sustainability issues and concerns The long‐held world view of oceans as a limitless source of fish was a mistaken notion. In less than two centuries, during the age of industrialization, human impacts have pushed the oceans to the brink. We have not taken seriously signs Aquaculture Ecosystems: Adaptability and Sustainability, First Edition. Edited by Saleem Mustafa and Rossita Shapawi. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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2   Chapter 1

of resource exhaustion, out of ignorance of the consequences or for convenience, and we still continue to do so for lack of cheap options. Until a few decades ago we did not believe that the cost of inaction could be far greater than the cost of remedial action. Catching fish from the sea is, of course, cheaper than farming it but the situation in the twenty‐first century tells us what used to be a free bounty has a cost. Oceans have been taken for granted for too long. We need to invest not just in saving what is left in the oceans but also in growing in farms what we used to harvest from the sea. Most of the marine fish stocks are under great pressure: almost 30% are overexploited, 57% are fully exploited (at or close to their maximum sustainable production) and only about 13% are not fully exploited (FAO, 2012). For a long time, we did not care about the environmental impacts of fish farming. We could have learned lessons from the green revolution but we chose not to. The green revolution increased agricultural production from land‐based crops and saved a vast population from hunger and malnutrition. However, it created environmental problems. The blue revolution was launched with the aim of increasing animal protein supply. This was achieved but also at the cost of the environment. When the green revolution was launched and progressed, oceans were still viewed as a major frontier for food production. However, this frontier is facing serious challenges that are pushing it to the tipping points. Oceans being the last frontier on Earth for food supply, we have nowhere else to go to produce food. The consequences of factors as powerful as ocean acidification, warming and oxygen deficit on capture fisheries are already becoming visible and are strong enough to undermine the seafood supply. Sustainably managing what is left in the oceans and rapidly developing ­sustainable aquaculture are the very basis of seafood security. The world’s human population has exceeded seven billion and is projected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050 (UN, 2010). The maximum potential fish production from current marine fisheries is estimated to be about 80 million tonnes per year (FAO, 2010). If it declines while human population grows, aquaculture would be expected to meet the world demand. How much marine fisheries and aquaculture will be able to supply fish in the future will depend to a great extent on ecosystem productivity (Brander, 2007; Cheung et al., 2009a, 2009b), the efficiency of fisheries management (Rice and Garcia, 2011) and on the capacity to expand environment‐friendly aquaculture (Naylor et al., 2009). The human welfare dimension of fisheries and aquaculture is more than just direct consumption of seafood. These sectors also provide means of livelihood and income. In the course of this chapter, certain terms will be used and to avoid any confusion their technical definitions provided by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) are explained here. Let us start with aquaculture and fisheries. Aquaculture denotes farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants, which implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular

Sustainability of seafood production – challenges and the way forward    3

stocking, feeding and protection from predators. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. The aquatic organisms that are harvested by an individual or a corporate body that has owned them throughout their rearing period contribute to aquaculture, while aquatic organisms which are exploitable by the public as a common property resource, with or without appropriate licences, are the harvest of capture fisheries. Capture fisheries comprise the range of all activities related to harvesting fish and may refer to the location, the target resource, the technology used, the social characteristics (artisanal, industrial), the purpose (subsistence, commercial, ­ ­recreational) as well as the season. The primary sector of fish production engaged 55 million people in 2010 (FAO, 2012). Interestingly, due to stagnation in capture fisheries, the number of people engaged in fishing increased by only 0.8% per year compared to 5.5% in fish farming based on the pattern in the last five years (FAO, 2012). The FAO report further stated that, in addition to the primary production sector, numerous jobs are also provided by ancillary activities, such as: post‐harvest processing; packaging; marketing; distribution; manufacture of fish‐processing equipment, nets and gears; ice factories; feed mills; boat construction; maintenance of facilities; transport of product; administration; and research and ­professional services. Overfishing should be viewed from the point of view of its adverse impact on fish production and its socioeconomic consequences. To increase the contribution of marine fisheries and aquaculture to food security, economies and human welfare, a thoroughly integrated and effective management of seafood production along the lines suggested above is absolutely necessary and time is not on our side. Our options are reducing and the cost of the remaining options is increasing. There are pathways explained in the FAO’s Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, Guidelines for Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture, Sustainable Livelihoods Approach, Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management, UN Fish Stocks Agreement and Manual of Good Aquaculture Practices. Provisions under these frameworks can be implemented according to local conditions. The UN Conference on Sustainable Development held in 2012, known as Rio+20, dealt with the governance of fisheries and aquaculture and countered the notion that sustainability and growth are mutually exclusive. At a time when pressures on land‐based farming systems are increasing, the focus on the world’s oceans is a logical development. In this context, the importance of improved management and sustainable growth in minimizing the use of n ­ atural resources and increasing food security cannot be overemphasized. World supply of fish from capture fisheries and aquaculture reached 154 ­million tonnes (mt) in 2011. Capture fisheries contributed 90.4 mt and aquaculture 63.6 mt to this total fish production (Table  1.1). This figure suggests an increasing trend in production, which was demand driven. Analysis of production and consumption data for the period 2006–2011 ­presented in Table 1.1 suggests that:

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Table 1.1  World fisheries and aquaculture production and use (FAO, 2012). 2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

PRODUCTION (Million tonnes) Capture Inland Marine Total capture

9.8 80.2 90.0

10.0 80.4 90.3

10.2 79.5 89.7

10.4 79.2 89.6

11.2 77.4 88.6

11.5 78.9 90.4

Aquaculture Inland Marine Total aquaculture

31.3 16.0 47.3

33.4 16.6 49.9

36.0 16.9 52.9

38.1 17.6 55.7

41.7 18.1 59.9

44.3 19.3 63.6

TOTAL WORLD FISH PRODUCTION

137.3

140.2

142.6

145.3

148.5

154.0

USE Human consumption Non‐food uses Population (billions) Per capita food fish supply (kg)

114.3 23.0 6.6 17.4

117.3 23.0 6.7 17.6

119.7 22.9 6.7 17.8

123.6 21.8 6.8 18.1

128.3 20.2 6.9 18.6

130.8 23.2 7.0 18.8

•• Global capture fisheries production remained stable at about 90 mt (inland = 10 mt; marine = 80 mt). •• Aquaculture production increased significantly from 47.3 mt (2006) to 63.6 mt (2011). •• Increase in aquaculture production occurred in both inland as well as marine sectors. •• Inland aquaculture production exceeded marine aquaculture output, with the former registering an increase from 31.3 mt to 44.3 mt steadily during 2006–2011 and the latter an increase from 16 mt to 19.3 mt in the same period. •• The per capita food fish consumption also increased from 17.4 kg (2006) to 18.8 kg (2011) – providing more than 4.3 billion people with about 15% of their animal protein intake. •• In the last three decades (1980–2010), world aquaculture production has grown by almost 12 times, at an average annual rate of 9%. The 2010 production ­figure of about 60 mt is valued at US$ 119 billion. It does not include farmed aquatic plants and non‐food products. When these are included, the world aquaculture production amounts to 79 mt, worth US$ 125 billion in 2010.

1.2 The emergence of aquaculture The trend of rapid growth of aquaculture seen in recent years is likely to continue and even intensify. It is driven by demand and the demand is growing. Aquaculture is a diverse activity. It is carried out in freshwater, brackish water

Sustainability of seafood production – challenges and the way forward    5

and marine water. This classification of environment is based on the level of salinity. Measured in terms of salt concentration (grammes of salt per litre or as parts per thousand, ppt) the environment is considered saltwater, brackish water, saline (marine) and brine if the values are in the range 50 ppt, respectively. Depending on the suitability of species and environment, aquaculture is mostly practiced in ponds, pens, cages, tanks, raceways and paddy fields. For species of molluscs, ropes, floating rafts and trays are used. The common form of aquaculture pond is an earthen unit created by earth levees, although other materials can be used. Ponds are of various sizes and depths, depending upon their purpose. Most ponds have an arrangement for interchanging water (regulated inflow and drainage). Tanks are artificial units of varying sizes capable of holding and renewing water. They can be constructed of cement, fibreglass, hard plastic or any other durable material. A raceway is basically a sort of tank culture facility capable of high rates of water exchange. Cage and pen are facilities for enclosure culture; they hold organisms captive whilst maintaining a free exchange of water. A cage has a rigid frame on all sides and can be enclosed on all four, or all but the top, sides by mesh or netting. In a pen, there is no mesh enclosure at the lower end, since the seabed where the pen is installed forms the bottom. There is some confusion concerning the terms ‘cage’ and ‘pen’ in certain countries, where both names are used interchangeably and marine cages are often referred to as net pens! Rafts, ropes and stakes are used for culture of shellfish, notably mussels, and seaweeds. Ropes are suspended in deeper waters from rafts or buoys while stakes are impaled in the seabed in intertidal areas. Scallops and oysters are also raised in plastic trays suspended from rafts. Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) are gaining popularity due to their environment‐friendly operation. The water flow is controlled by pumps that return it to a storage tank, where wastes are extracted and the water is then pumped back into the tanks for recycling. The design of the facilities, selection of site and quality of environment are important factors in the successful culture of any species. Of course, for all aquatic animals, water quality is a factor of fundamental importance. Sediment characteristics can significantly influence animals that are cultured in ponds. There is no dearth of information on design and operation of the culture facilities and readers can obtain details from numerous books and papers published to date. Several considerations are, however, necessary for a profitable culture. Selection of suitable species, sites and design of the facilities in addition to adaptation to changing climate are of considerable importance, since these factors affect survival and growth of the fish, operational cost and durability of the ­culture unit.

6   Chapter 1

1.2.1  Selecting culture sites 1.2.1.1  Physical conditions The coastal culture site in the sea should be in a safe location that is sheltered and protected from strong winds and waves. Since climate change is increasing the severity of rough sea conditions, this factor has to be taken more seriously than ever before. Malaysia, being free from typhoons and cyclones, offers many suitable locations, but we still have to take into consideration the rough sea ­conditions and storm surges that can damage the cage culture facilities and put serious stress on captive stocks of fish. The use of cages to culture marine finfish is the most popular and widespread method. In the last three decades, interest in inshore as well as offshore net cages has increased rapidly (Benetti et al., 1995); this has resulted in many designs and sizes of cages. Fredrikson et al. (1999) have discussed three main considerations – biological, engineering and socioeconomic – that have characterized the directions in the development of cage systems. A basic requirement for all types of cages, no matter where they are installed, is the stability of their structures against the forces of currents, waves and winds while holding the fish stocks (Emmanuel and Olivares, 2003). Details of these physical forces on cage systems and suitable designs have been published in the past. Carson (1988) and Beveridge (1996) have discussed this topic with regard to currents. Structural engineering of cages has been elaborated by Cairns and Linfoot (1990). Milne (1972) and Beveridge (1996) have described the mechanics of wind and wave forces on a cage installed in the sea. Basically, there are four types of cages (Beveridge, 1996): fixed (or stationary), floating, submersible and submerged. A fixed cage consists (Figure 1.1) of a net supported by posts (or poles) that are driven into the bottom. This is the simplest and cheapest type of cage; it is used in south‐east Asia in places that are sheltered and shallow, and where the seabed has a substrate that is firm enough to ensure that the supporting poles are stable. The floating net cage has a buoyant frame that supports a net bag. The assembly keeps the net bag suspended in the water. The unit can be easily towed when required. This is the most widely used cage in Asia, including Malaysia. A submersible cage has a frame that ­maintains shape of the cage. The position of the cage can be changed according to prevailing environmental conditions. They are kept at the surface when the water is calm but submerged when the sea is rough. Such cages are mainly used in offshore aquaculture operations. Submerged cages are in the form of boxes, mostly wooden, with spaces between the wooden structural planks to allow the flow of water. They are anchored to the bed using rocks or posts, and are used in running water. The type of cage chosen, its size and design depend on several factors, such as the species selected for stocking, conditions at the site, environmental factors and investment capacity. The advantages of culturing fish in cages are that they: come in various sizes and shapes, can be tailored according to the needs and convenience of farmers

Sustainability of seafood production – challenges and the way forward    7

Figure 1.1  Fixed net cage used for growing coral reef fish in Tuaran, Sabah, Malaysia. (See insert for colour representation of the figure.)

and can be fabricated locally using readily available materials. Moreover, they are cheap compared to other farming facilities, and the caged fish can be easily monitored compared to fish stocked in a pond. The culture site should be away from navigation routes, so as to avoid ­conflict of interest and prevent exposure of the fish to turbulence that passing boats produce. If culture is carried out in cages, the desirable depth of the cages should be such as to ensure flushing to prevent accumulation of waste, decomposition of organic matter (that produces hydrogen sulphide [H2S]) and oxygen depletion. Since the usual depth of floating net cages in coastal water is 2–3 metres, a ground clearance (vertical measure of water column between the seabed and bottom of the cage) of more than five metres but less than 20 metres is sufficient. For stationary cages, the suggested minimum depth is more than four metres but less than eight metres. The physical conditions that require consideration for a suitable net cage culture site are summarized in Table 1.2. The characteristics of the sea bottom in the site selection also deserve attention. A firm substrate compising a suitable mix of gravel, sand and clay is better than a muddy bottom because the latter can impair the water quality and is not suitable for the stability of cage structures. Besides these general physical features, the selection of a suitable culture site also requires consideration of several physical and chemical parameters. These are described in Table  1.3. Since water quality in coastal areas is dynamic, the range of variations needs to be examined before a final decision is taken.

8   Chapter 1

Table 1.2  Criteria for selection of site for marine finfish net cage culture (NACA, 1989). Physical conditions at the site

Wave height, m Depth, m Wind velocity, knots

Type of net cage Stationary cage

Floating cage

4 Maximum