AP English 9781423222415, 9781423222378

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WORLD’S #1 ACADEMIC OUTLINE

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Strategy & Tips to Boost Your Score

3. Determine the clues that express the reaction of the parents to the situation by looking for strongly connoted words (e.g., “excited” and “stressed”); from these words, it can be concluded that the parents are “agitated” by the situation (agitation is a combination of excitement and stress). 4. Examine the answer choices to find a similar choice to the conclusion that you have reached.

Overview of the Exam Section I: Multiple Choice

60 minutes; score represents 45% of your overall AP composite score • Multiple-choice section: 53 to 55 multiple-choice items. • Multiple-choice booklet: There will be passages on the left-hand side of the booklet, and questions for that passage on the right-hand side; if questions overflow to the next page, the passage will be repeated on the next page, with the additional questions to the right. • Order of questions: Unlike the SAT, the questions on the AP exam are not ordered by difficulty; rather, they are ordered according to the appearance of the related information within the passage.

Other Types of Questions

Footnote & Endnote Questions • These will appear within the nonfiction passage on the exam. • These require an understanding of the parts of a correctly formatted footnote or endnote. • A correct footnote would include the following information and formatting: EX: Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name, Title of Book (Publication City, State: Publisher, Publication Date), Page Number(s). • Multiple-choice questions will ask you to identify entries that are correctly formatted, to interpret the information within a footnote, and to define the correct use of a footnote within a text.

Section II: Essays

2 hours and 15 minutes; combined essay scores represent 55% of your overall AP composite score • Synthesis question: Six to eight artifacts to stimulate your thinking in response to an argumentative prompt; 15 minutes will be allotted to read the artifacts, and 40 minutes will be allotted for the written response. • Analysis question: A prompt directing you to determine the purpose of an author’s rhetoric within a given passage and to analyze the rhetorical devices used to achieve that purpose; 40 minutes will be allotted to read the passage and write the response. • Argumentation question: A scenario or quotation designed to elicit your opinion on an issue. Use your background experience and knowledge to support a stance on the issue; 40 minutes will be allotted to write the response.

Author’s Purpose Questions

• These will direct you to choose the reason for the rhetorical choices of writers. This choice will acknowledge the specific reason for the inclusion of a stylistic technique, piece of evidence, structural element, or literary device. EX: In lines 1–31, the author uses an extended metaphor in order to…

Tone Questions

• These will often refer to the author’s “attitude,” “feelings,” or “tone” concerning the topic of the passage, theme expressed by the passage, or a specific piece of information contained within the passage. EX: The author’s tone in the passage as a whole can best be described as…

Section I: Multiple Choice

Stylistic Feature Questions

• These will ask you to identify the specific technique or textual feature the author employed in the passage. EX: The author’s use of the quotation marks in paragraph 2 is primarily to…

Passages included in this section are predominantly nonfiction and require that you follow the author’s line of reasoning to determine how his/her stance has been supported. These passages can range from pre-twentieth-century to contemporary pieces of literature, from expository to argumentative. Therefore, you should expose yourself to a wide variety of types and modes of literature to prepare for the exam.

Organizational Structure Questions

• These will ask you to define the specific organization of a passage or part of a passage, or to compare and contrast the organization of two different parts of a passage. EX: Which of the following best describes the reason for the inclusion of the reference to an authority in paragraph 11?

Types of Questions & Strategies for Answering Them Vocabulary-in-Context Questions

• These require you to determine the correct use of a word included in the reading passage. EX: As used in line 43, the word “position” is best interpreted to mean… • To answer this type of question accurately: 1. Act as if there is a blank in the sentence where the word position is used. 2. Read one sentence prior to the sentence containing position to understand the correct context of its use. 3. Upon arriving at the word in question, determine another word to use in the blank that would correctly complete the sentence. 4. Examine the answer choices, and choose the option that matches or is synonymous with the word used to fill in the blank.

Common Errors Faced on Multiple-Choice Questions

• Gridding incorrectly is a common problem because the exam is timed. As you handle the time constraints of the test, try your best to keep track of which bubble you are filling in on the answer sheet, as gridding incorrectly can play havoc with your test score. • Don’t forget to adjust your purpose for reading. Because you do not need to remember the information within the passages beyond the one hour given to complete the multiple-choice section, you do not need to annotate the passage; rather, scan the passage quickly to verify answers and do not try to memorize the information for later recall. • Misinterpreting questions is another common problem because, in your hurry to get through the test, you might skip over an important word (e.g., “least” or “not”) or miss the prefix on a word (such as un- or mis-), which would completely change the meaning of what is being asked. Realize that every word and prefix within a question is important, so annotating the questions is much more important than annotating the passages. • The multiple-choice questions on the exam will often use choices that contain twoword answers: EX: The author’s attitude within this passage is best described as… (a) hopeful but reserved (b) ambivalent and critical (c) analytical and intrigued (d) respectful but inquisitive (e) whimsical and informal In these types of questions, it is important to realize that both answers must be correct for the choice to be the correct answer. Do not jump to conclusions and bubble in an answer simply because the first term in the answer is the response you identified before you looked at all the choices. • True-but-incorrect questions are also often tricky. Just because an answer is true based on information within the passage does not mean that it is the correct answer to the question. EX: George Washington captures the attention of his troops most effectively by… (a) taking his place in front of the audience at the podium (b) greeting each of the soldiers as he enters the gathering area

Literal Detail Questions

• These questions usually contain verbs such as “provides,” “refers,” “discusses,” “states,” or “emphasizes.” EX: The author discusses the idea of tectonic plate shift in lines 40–42 as a process that many scientists… • To answer this type of question accurately: 1. Read the sentence prior to the one that begins in line 40. 2. Read one sentence past the line number referenced within the question stem (in this case, perhaps to line 44 or 45). 3. Scan the text for the words tectonic plate shift and scientists to determine what connection exists between the two ideas. 4. Examine the answer choices to find a similar choice to the conclusion that you have reached.

Extended Thinking Questions

• These require you to draw conclusions and make inferences based on information in the text. • These usually contain verbs such as “suggests,” “implies,” or “inferred.” EX: It can be inferred from the passage that the parents understand the “situation” (line 18) as indicative of… • To answer this type of question accurately: 1. Read the sentence prior to the one that begins in line 18. 2. Read one sentence past the line number referenced within the question stem (in this case, perhaps to line 20 or 21). 1

Section I: Multiple Choice (continued )

• Serious: characterized by deep thought and sincerity • Solemn: causing serious thought

(c) stating his intentions to lead the troops himself against the uprising, thus leading by example (d) allowing other officers to speak first, thus demonstrating his respect toward his fellow officers (e) standing at attention as his fellow officers take their places on the podium, recognizing their positions Read all the answer choices and consider them together before choosing. Do not choose an answer simply because you recognize it from the passage, as all responses are plausible answers and several may be true. However, in this case, only one of the responses is the most effective way in which Washington captured the troop’s attention. • Running out of time is common because the passages and questions are challenging for most students. Because questions are not ordered by difficulty, you should purposely omit questions that are draining your time and return to them if time allows. Whereas omitted questions were previously not penalized and incorrect answers were penalized with a quarter-point deduction, in August 2010, the College Board discontinued this policy; therefore, you should employ an educated guess and ensure that every question has been answered.

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Vocabulary for Multiple-Choice Questions Tone Words Positive Connotation

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Amiable: friendly Amused: pleased or entertained Complimentary: politely flattering Conciliatory: overcoming distrust or appeasing Emphatic: forcefully expressive Enthusiastic: excitedly interested Impassioned: filled with passion Lighthearted: cheerful and carefree Lyrical: pleasingly melodious or highly enthusiastic Optimistic: believing in the eventuality of a favorable outcome in any situation Reverent: feeling profound respect Romantic: dominated by idealism Sympathetic: pity or sorrow for the feelings of another Witty: very clever and humorous

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Cynical: believing that people are motivated by selfishness Disdainful: treating with contempt or hatred Humorous: characterized by a use of humor and wit Ironic: contrary to the intended or expected result Irreverent: purposely showing disrespect Mocking: treating with ridicule or contempt Sarcastic: marked by bitterness or intentional inflection of pain Satirical: attacking a vice or folly through irony or wit Wry: deviously distorted in meaning

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Aloof: reserved and remote Ambivalent: uncertain or indecisive Analytical: examining the rudimentary parts or principles Authoritative: showing a sense of control Capricious: impulsive and unpredictable Contemplative: attentively and thoughtfully considerate Didactic: intended to instruct Dramatic: forceful in effect Dry: lacking tenderness, warmth, or involvement Empathic: able to identify with the feelings of another Intimate: showing close acquaintance or familiarity Journalistic: characterized by direct factual presentation with little interpretation or analysis Judicious: exhibiting sound judgment Moralistic: overly concerned with being in accord with standards of right and wrong Nostalgic: longing for situations, persons, or things of the past Objective: not based upon personal prejudice or feelings Puzzled: baffled or perplexed Reflective: contemplative and thoughtful Scientific: relying on the vocabulary or methodology of science Sincere: free of deceit or falseness

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Apprehensive: fearful and uneasy that something might happen Brooding: persistently worried Elegiac: mournful or sorrowful toward the past Melancholy: a prolonged pensiveness or gloomy state Morose: melancholy or gloomy Pessimistic: characterized by a gloomy outlook Remorseful: anguished over past deeds

Acerbic: sharp or biting Bitter: marked by resentment or cynicism Chiding: gently scolding to cause improvement Condescending: displaying an overtly superior attitude; lowering oneself to a level considered inferior Confrontational: reacting with defiance or hostility Heedless: paying little attention; thoughtless Indignant: anger resulting from a sense of unjustness or unworthiness Inflammatory: arousing anger or hostility Outraged: extremely violent or vicious Resentful: possessing a feeling of ill will Scandalized: damaged through disgrace or dishonor Scornful: exhibiting disdain toward what is considered despicable or unworthy Strident: harsh or grating Superficial: concerned with only what is the most obvious or shallow

Rhetoric-Related Terms

• Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning or middle of a series of words. EX: Sally sells seashells by the seashore. • Allusion: A minor reference to a literary or historical person, place, or event or to another literary work or passage. –– Mythical allusions include references to specific gods or goddesses by name (e.g., Zeus, Cupid, and Mars). –– Biblical allusions include references to places (e.g., Sodom or Eden), people (e.g., David and Goliath or Judah), or situations (e.g., Armageddon or the Great Flood) found in the Bible. –– Literary allusions refer to characters (e.g., Don Juan or Don Quixote) or settings (e.g., Utopia or Animal Farm) from works of literature. • Analogy: A comparison between two objects or ideas where one unfamiliar idea or object is elucidated through a comparison to a better-known idea or object. • Anecdote: A short narrative lacking complication of plot and subtleties of character in an effort to highlight an interesting event or episode. • Anthimeria: The use of one word from one part of speech for another (e.g., a noun used as a verb). EX: My sea-gown scarf’d about me. (Hamlet) • Antithesis: A specific use of parallelism where grammatical forms or parts of speech are repeated in a sentence and used to express opposing or contrary meanings. EX: That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong) • Assertion: A statement that lacks any concrete evidence. • Asyndeton: A condensed expression where conjunctions are absent between items in series. EX: A government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth. (Abraham Lincoln) • Attitude: A speaker’s, author’s, or character’s disposition toward or opinion of a subject. • Bias: An inclination that prevents a listener or writer from considering a particular side of an argument. • Cliché: An expression whose freshness and clarity have worn off. • Connotation: The emotional implications and associations connected with a word that may not be expressed through its denotative meeting. • Denotation: The dictionary-defined meaning of a word, without the emotional implications and associations. • Diction: Word choice. Since all writers use words, specific categories of diction include the following: –– Colloquial (slang) –– Informal (conversational) –– Formal (literary) –– Connotative (suggestive of meaning) –– Denotative (exact in meaning) –– Concrete (specific) –– Abstract (general or conceptual) –– Euphonious (pleasant sounding) –– Cacophonous (harsh sounding) –– Monosyllabic (primarily composed of single-syllable words) –– Polysyllabic (primarily composed of multiple-syllable words) • Hyperbole: Bold overstatements or an extreme exaggeration of fact or possibility. • Imagery: The images, sensory details, and figurative language used in a work. Not all description is considered imagery. Imagery is the purposeful activation of the senses by an author through the use of words and phrases, literal or figurative. • Inversion: Placing a sentence element out of its normal position. EX: Never have I been so worried. • Irony: An expression that notes something other than, and often the opposite of, something’s literal meaning; three types of irony are: –– Verbal irony, in which a contrast between what is said and what is meant is used.

Humorous, Ironic, or Sarcastic Connotation

Neutral Connotation

Sorrowful, Fearful, or Worried Connotation

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–– Dramatic irony, in which a character thinks one thing to be true, while a reader or viewer knows the opposite is true. –– Situational irony, in which what happens is contrasted against what was expected to happen. Juxtaposition: Placing normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases next to one another to create an effect of surprise and wit. • Loose (cumulative) sentence: A sentence where the independent clause is followed by various types of phrases or dependent clauses. EX: Ms. Garnsey taught first grade for forty-seven years, which was longer than many of her coworkers had been alive, since before the Vietnam and Korean wars, just after the assassination of President Kennedy. Metonymy: Much like synecdoche, metonymy is employed when a word is used to represent something to which it is closely related; however, unlike synecdoche, the word that is used is not part of the thing that it represents. EX: The Oval Office refers to the workings of the U.S. government; however, the office is not part of the activity that occurs within it. EX: English citizens might refer to the majesty, authority, and responsibilities of the crown; however, the crown itself has no majesty or power, as that belongs to its wearer, which the crown is not a part of. Mood: The attitude of the author toward the subject. Motif: A pattern or strand of imagery or symbolism in a work of literature (e.g., the appearance of the ducks in J. D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye). Narrative techniques: The methods involved in telling a story; also, the procedures used by a writer of stories or accounts. Oxymoron: A combination of self-contradictory words (e.g., jumbo shrimp or bittersweet). Paradox: A figure of speech that seeks to create a discontinuity by appearing contradictory on the surface while exposing a truth beneath the surface; these sentences cause a reader to pause to contemplate what is actually being said. EX: While attempting to cover more material in a course, less material is understood. Parallelism: The repetition of the same grammatical form within a sentence or selection, often combined with the repetition of one or more of the same words. EX: You can fool all of the people some of the time, and some of the people all of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time. (Abraham Lincoln) Periodic sentence: A sentence built with several dependent clauses prior to the independent clause. EX: Since leaving his unfulfilling job and applying for several others, and even while considering starting his own company, the executive sat at home. • Personification: Attributing human qualities to nonhuman things. EX: Every morning, the microwave, toaster, and coffee maker spoke to the man, saying, “Hi!…time to start your day.” Polysyndeton: Using more conjunctions than expected to elongate ideas, making them more suspenseful or tense. EX: As the man stumbled out of the wreckage and down the sandhill and attempted to stand, he looked around to find someone to whom he could appeal for help, but there was nothing except sand and sky and blazing sun and arid Earth as far as his eyes could see. Rhetorical fragment: A sentence fragment purposely chosen by an author to emphasize a particular piece of information. EX: No shirt, no shoes, no service. Rhetorical techniques: The devices used in effective or persuasive language. Satire: A writing genre that employs sharp humor and wit through which to issue harsh criticisms in the hope of improving human institutions or the human condition. Simple sentence: A sentence built with one independent clause and no dependent clauses. EX: The girl sang. Structure: The arrangement of materials within a work, or the logical divisions of a work; also, the relationship of the parts of a work to the whole. Style: The mode of expression in language; also, an author’s characteristic manner of expression. Syllogism: A three-part argument where two premises lead to a conclusion; a syllogism can be expressed in as little as a sentence, but a syllogistic argument can be written throughout several paragraphs. EX: All human beings must live by a moral code. The president of the United States is a human being. Therefore, the president of the United States must have a moral code. Synecdoche: Using a part of something to refer to the whole thing; conversely, using a thing to refer to one of its parts. EX: The phrase “all hands on deck” does not mean that all men need to put their hands on the ship’s floor. Rather, “hands” is used to represent the whole man. EX: The Pentagon represents all the U.S. defense systems. EX: Kleenex represents all types of tissue. • Syntax: The structure of or arrangement of words in a sentence. Since all writers structure their sentences, specific categories of syntax include: –– Sentence length, including appropriateness for subject matter and effectiveness in context. –– Sentence variety, including changing or repetitive beginnings or phrasing. –– Sentence type, including declarative (statement), imperative (command), interrogative (question), and exclamatory (exclamation). –– Inversion, or the reversing of the order, such as that of the subject and verb.

–– Juxtaposition, or placing normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases side by side (e.g., unbiased opinion). –– Punctuation, including ellipses, dashes, quotation marks, semicolons, colons, and exclamation points. –– Formatting, including capitalization, italics, and underlining. • Tautology: The use of different words to redundantly repeat the same meaning. EX: Receive a free gift with purchase! • Theme: The main thought expressed by a work. • Understatement: Something that is deliberately represented as having a lesser magnitude or importance than it really has; this is usually done for ironic effect. EX: We teachers are rather good at magic, you know. (Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets)

Section II: Essay Questions In 2007, the exam changed its focus to argumentation, which seeks to convince or persuade by proving or refuting a point of view or an issue. Of the three essay questions, two of them are always argumentative (the synthesis question and the argument), but the third can also be argumentative. The analysis question often asks you to identify the author’s purpose and the writing decisions that helped achieve that purpose, which most of the time is persuasive.

Argumentative Structures Present in Effective Persuasive Texts

Whether writing an argumentative essay or analyzing one that is given on the test, you would benefit from a knowledge of the most common organizational structures for effective persuasion.

Classical Argumentative Structure

1. Introduction: Engages the reader’s attention and presents the issue or topic with a concrete image or anecdote while providing relevant background information, defining key terms, and presenting the guiding claim for the argument. 2. Concession and refutation: Two key parts to building a credible argument; the concession recognizes and acknowledges the validity of the opposing viewpoints, thus conceding some points to the other side. The refutation explores the weaknesses within the opposing view’s reasoning, facts, testimony, or logical development while presenting supporting information to strengthen your claim. These parts can be recognized by a “yes, it is true…but…” structure, where the “yes” part concedes and the “but” part refutes. 3. Confirmation: Expresses the reasoning and evidence supporting your claim. This should be the longest part of your essay and should highlight the strongest evidence first. The confirmation should also include emotional appeals to human needs and values. 4. Conclusion: Restates the issue under discussion, as well as your claim. Here, provide a new appeal to needs or values, supported with additional commentary. Finally, conclude with a call to action, a plea for readers to take action or to change their thinking.

Alternative Argumentative Structure

1. Introduction: Engages the reader’s attention and orients the audience to the issue. 2. Statement of background: Explains the key elements behind the issue and provides information necessary so the reader can understand your stance, such as definitions of terms or historical perspective. 3. Proposition: Outlines the major points that you will develop and indicates the lines of reasoning the rest of your argument will follow. 4. Proof, data, and evidence: Discusses the reasons (based on data) that have caused you to accept your position and cites evidence that most effectively proves yours is the stronger stance. 5. Refutation: Anticipates opposing views and refutes them by pointing out flaws in the opposing viewpoint’s reasoning while showing that you are an authority on the issue and that you have reached a conclusion that all reasonable people could reach if they considered the issue thoughtfully. 6. Conclusion: Summarizes the most important points within your stance and includes your final appeal to values and feelings that will leave the audience with a favorable impression of you.

The Toulmin Method

This three-part argumentative strategy keeps the method of reasoning as straightforward as possible. 1. Claim: This is the point that you are attempting to make (a.k.a. the thesis or central idea) and answers the question “So what is your point?” Claims are either values (involving opinions, attitudes, and subjective evaluations of things), facts (focusing on empirically verifiable phenomena), or policies (advocating courses of action to be undertaken). EX: VALUE: Although most people view them as harmless mechanisms to pass the time, most popular magazines reinforce stereotypes. EX: FACT: The new library will require twenty percent more shelf space to accommodate all of the new books that have been donated. EX: POLICY: All students should be required to wear identification badges in the school for safety purposes. 3

Section II: Essay Questions (continued )

2. Grounds: Supports your claim with facts or statistics that are usually not open to debate, reports or findings from studies, physical evidence, expert opinions to show the prevalent thoughts surrounding the issue, and personal anecdotes that bring the issue to life. 3. Warrant: Interprets the data and shows how it supports your claim by making a reasonable inference based on the facts to respond to possible counterarguments. A good warrant will not make illogical leaps (fallacies) or assure more than the evidence supports. The warrant is typically implicit (unstated) and will require the listener to recognize the underlying reasoning that makes sense of the claim based on the grounds (through cause-effect, sign reasoning, analogy, generalization, or example); therefore, the warrant serves as a mental link between the grounds and the claim. Warrants are based upon ethos (credibility or authority), logos (inductive or deductive reasoning), pathos (emotional or motivational appeals), and shared values (e.g., free speech, right to privacy, equity, equality). EX: Jonah is in the hallway after the bell rang. He is probably late for class. WARRANT: Sign reasoning that students in the hall after the bell rings are typically tardy for class. EX: My mother’s new car should be very luxurious. It is a Cadillac. WARRANT: Generalization that all Cadillacs are luxurious automobiles.

Rogerian Argument

Another approach is to develop an argument that more thoroughly discusses the context in which your beliefs are expressed. 1. Introduction: Develops a statement of the problem that you hope to resolve with a resulting positive change. This will force opponents to want to address this problem as well. 2. Summary of opposing views: Without judgment and with neutral diction, present facts that state the views of the opposing side of your argument. You will gain credibility and make your writing more accepted by illustrating that you are knowledgeable about all the argument’s facets. 3. Statement of understanding: Also called the statement of validity, this part of the essay proves your ability to understand that situations exist in which the opposing views are valid. Concessions within this part of the argument show that you understand that, at certain times, the opposing view has a stronger case. 4. Statement of your position: By this time, any reader will understand that you are logical and considerate of what is in the audience’s best interest; this part of the essay shares your position as clearly as possible with adequate support for each aspect of your argument. 5. Statement of contexts: Just as you did with the opposing view, discuss when your position would be most forceful by sharing the specific contexts in which it holds most true; at this point, recognize that not all people will agree with you, but you have attempted to find common ground with your opponents. 6. Statement of benefits: Finally, this part of the essay explains to your opponents that their best interests are served by agreeing with you. Here, explain the benefits your opponents receive by accepting your position. This concludes an essay that started positively on a final, hopeful note.

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EX: According to the picture, the contaminated groundwater can be set aflame so that families can enjoy a marshmallow roast in their own kitchens. The two kids appear so immune to the damage done by big oil and gas companies that they reminisce on the “olden days” when fires had to be built outside the home to enjoy this leisure activity. To employ a graph within an argumentative essay, convert the information from visual to textual: Aliens removed by criminal status, fiscal years 1998-2007 EX: From 1998 Non-criminal Criminal 350,000 to 2007, there was 300,000 little increase in the number of aliens who 250,000 were removed from 200,000 the United States 150,000 because of criminal 100,000 activity. Then assess the evidence 50,000 to determine where it 0 fits within the selected argumentative scheme; SOURCE: Adapted from “Table 37. Aliens Removed by Criminal Status and Region this information could and Country of Nationality: Fiscal Years 1998 to 2007,” in Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2007 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, be transformed into a 2008, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/2007/table37d.xls (accessed October 20, 2008) statement of refutation: EX: While the public has been made to believe that crime among illegal aliens is on the rise, in actuality, the number of illegal aliens found guilty of crimes and removed from the United States has stayed consistent over the last ten years.

Stating a Claim as an Answer

• A claim and an overall topic are different. A claim states what should be and thus takes the form of a sentence, whereas an overall topic can be expressed with a single word. A good claim will contain three items: the topic, a stance toward the topic, and reasoning behind the stance. EX: Nuclear energy should be more thoroughly explored due to the significant waste reduction and increased employment that this type of energy brings. • A topic sentence is a smaller part of the claim that is developed within a single paragraph. The topic sentence controls the details that are included within each body paragraph. EX: While the current methods of energy production throughout the United States are largely based on natural resource consumption, nuclear energy is a cleaner and more efficient energy type and should therefore be utilized more often.

Determining Uses for the Artifacts

• Remember that the prompt will identify a minimum number of artifacts that must be cited within the essay in order to achieve an upper-tier score. There is no specific way in which the artifacts should be used; therefore, they can be used to support the claim that has been established in the introduction, to set up a counterclaim, or to develop a concession-refutation strategy.

Argumentative or Explanatory Synthesis

Important Developmental Considerations

• Argumentative synthesis presents a topic that inherently contains varying perspectives that requires you to choose one perspective with which you agree and to take a position using the artifacts. EX: Then, in an essay that synthesizes at least three of the sources, develop a position as to whether the federal government should abandon its current pursuits, given the costliness of the current program, in order to assist the recovery of the United States economy. • Explanatory synthesis presents a topic with different aspects that does not necessarily break into separately competing claims but instead asks you to evaluate the aspects for common concepts or ideas prior to examining the relationships of these aspects. EX: Then, in an essay that synthesizes at least three of the sources, develop a position about what issues should be considered most important in making decisions about curricular planning in schools.

• For your claim to be thorough, it should not be obvious (otherwise, there is no reason for it to be discussed) or vague. A good claim should be engaging, logical, debatable, and written in a complex sentence, as the complexity of a good claim can rarely be stated in a simple sentence. • Within each paragraph, develop your topic sentences well to maintain cohesion throughout the essay. • You should integrate your evidence throughout the essay with commentary as to why the evidence should be trusted and believed; therefore, citing the origins of the evidence often provides authority and builds trust with your readers.

Essay 1: Synthesis

Within this essay, you must cite three or four of the given artifacts to support your stance on the overall issue. Passages included as artifacts for the synthesis essay are short, nonfiction, expository, or argumentative pieces that are reprinted from magazines, journals, websites, or speech transcripts. These passages require you to assess the author’s stance by considering the evidence and diction employed. Visual artifacts can range from photographs and tables to figures and cartoons; these artifacts must be interpreted before they can be used within an essay.

Methods of Citing Evidence within an Essay to Support a Claim • When citing within the synthesis essay, a number of citation methods can be utilized; the artifacts will be listed below the question, as follows: Source A (Yoder) Source B (Reliance Energy) Source C (Greenpeace) Source D (Department of Energy) Source E (Mackintosh) Source F (Perrin) • Sources may be cited by artifact letter: EX: Individual natural resource consumption is higher among Americans than among the citizens of any other major nation (Source B). • Sources may also be referred to by the artifact’s author or title within the parentheses: EX: Reliance Energy reports that, per person, natural resource use is highest among Americans. EX: Individual natural resource consumption is higher among Americans than among the citizens of any other major nation (Reliance Energy). • Adherence to a particular style guide in terms of source citation is not assessed within this essay; rather, you must show that you effectively cited the minimum number of artifacts to support the argument that you have established.

Using Visual Artifacts

To employ this cartoon within an argumentative essay, you must interpret the author’s purpose for the visual: EX: Recently, political satirists have speared the careless destruction of our environment by greedy corporations. Then indicate which evidence from the visual supports this interpretation: EX: After ecological problems linked to the recent process of drilling for natural gas called hydraulic fracturing (fracking) surfaced, the caption implies that consumers should make the best of contaminated groundwater. 4

Section II: Essay Questions (continued )

–– Syntax and grammar, including such elements as sentence type, length, and punctuation • Remember to determine the author’s targeted audience; this can be done by answering the following questions: –– Who are they? –– What do they know? –– What rebuttals could they offer? –– What will they want addressed?

Common Problems with the Synthesis Essay • Allowing the artifacts to drive the argument is never wise. Remember, this essay is an evaluation of your ability to analyze a problem and take a stance or to identify the most important part of a subject; the artifacts are included only to support your position; students who use the artifacts to steer their arguments find their essays are scored lower and have less success in meeting the overall requirements. • Failing to answer the question can occur when you are too focused on attempting to summarize the artifacts, interpreting the artifacts for the scorers, or integrating the artifacts into an essay rather than using the artifacts as support for your stance. Always check to make sure that you have answered the question first, then make sure that you have used the minimum number of artifacts to support your answer. • Utilizing too many artifacts within the essay can lead to artifact overload, shifting the essay’s focus to the artifacts rather than your claim. While you may use as many of the artifacts as you would like in your essay, the focus should always remain on supporting your claim, not employing as many of the artifacts as you possibly can. • Do not critique the artifacts; rather, use them as support. When you become unsure about how to cite or employ an artifact, a common error is to turn into an artifact critic: EX: Source B does a good job of proving my point. Remember, these are professionally written documents, so their quality does not need to be commented on; while pointing out fallacies within the artifacts or discrepancies related to what has been reported could bolster an argument, the writing must be clear: EX: Amounts of energy consumed by American businesses, especially compared to other smaller nations, fails to be reported (Source B); therefore, data presented are skewed, incorrectly reporting higher consumption of energy among Americans. While Americans do need to conserve, the situation is not as dire as sources such as Reliance Energy would lead a reader to believe.

Tip

Use effective transitions: ■■ And/furthermore: used to extend an example through parallel ideas ■■ But/yet/however/though/although: used to show exceptions or contrasts to an established idea ■■ Or/nor: used to show a choice ■■ That is: used to introduce a restatement or definition of a concept already mentioned ■■ For example: used to introduce a concrete occurrence of a more abstract idea that has been discussed ■■ For/so/therefore/consequently: used to illustrate a connection between a cause and an effect • Once the author’s purpose and devices have been identified, establish a solid claim statement and choose the most effective support for the claim. Consider your essay’s organization, especially the most effective transitions between ideas. • When wrapping up the essay, restate the main claim before finishing. In addition, recap the main evidence or reasoning that you used to support your answer. Finally, leave the readers with a comment on the larger implications or meaning of the selection that is analyzed.

Common Problems with the Rhetorical Essay

• Failing to answer the question can easily occur if you do not understand the passage. In this case, students often try and write their way to understanding, and there is simply no time for this to occur. • Failing to reach the level of analysis occurs when you spend too much time on summarizing the passage rather than choosing a specific technique used by the author and commenting on how that technique helped the author to achieve a specific purpose. • Covering too many techniques when you answer the question can lead to a shallow treatment of the subject; remember, one or two well-developed explanations of the techniques used will be much better than a laundry list of every technique that has been employed within the passage. • Critiquing the author is another common problem; remember, the literature included on the test has already been recognized as high in quality. Therefore, there is no need to state the obvious; stay focused on answering the question rather than criticizing the provided sources.

Essay 2: Rhetorical Analysis

Passages used within the rhetorical analysis question can range from the early 1700s to contemporary texts. Whatever the text, while reading, it is helpful to analyze and annotate the passage through the lens of the question. A prompt for this type of essay will often employ the following type of question: EX: Write an essay that examines the author’s use of rhetorical devices to achieve his purpose.

Joliffe Rhetorical Analysis Strategy

Dr. David Joliffe, former head reader of the AP Language and Composition exam, proposed that students consider the following elements when analyzing a text to most effectively compose their rhetorical analysis essay. JOLIFFE RHETORICAL ANALYSIS STRATEGY

Essay 3: Argumentation

TOP

EXIGENCE

What’s bugging me/the author? What’s the spark?

AUDIENCE

With whom will this be shared?

PURPOSE

What do I/does the author want to happen?

The argumentation question will present a small passage, quotation, or situation. While developing a stance on the argumentation topic, you should consider the commonly accepted view on the topic, the writer’s own view of the topic, and his/ her reasons for that view.

Construct the Most Effective Argumentative Essay

Does the author establish his/her credibility/appropriateness for the topic?

How am I developing this? What is the thought process behind the arrangement of ideas (e.g., compare/contrast, letters/speeches)?

Have you considered logos before the other three elements, since logos must be understood first?

LOGOS

ETHOS

• Choose an argumentative method and organizational plan. • Begin with the strongest reason and move to the weakest. • Decide how to support your claim: –– Personal experience –– Historical knowledge –– Observational knowledge –– Current event knowledge –– Educational knowledge –– Literary knowledge

TONE

Is the tone appropriate for the audience?

PATHOS

ORGANIZATION/STRUCTURE/FORM

DICTION

SYNTAX

IMAGERY

Do the connotations of the words and images chosen support the purpose?

Do the sentence length and structure, punctuation, and tense aid the purpose?

Are the images used effective for the chosen purpose and audience?

Cite Evidence to Support a Claim

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE Does the figurative language add clarity to the ideas expressed?

• Use a combination of both general statements and specific examples. Rely on the categories of support to place your claim in the most concrete terms possible for the reader. • Avoid logical fallacies, which are errors in reasoning that render an argument invalid: –– Ad hominem fallacies occur when a writer attacks the character of the person who is stating the argument rather than the issue of the argument. EX: Susan Balden is not a trustworthy person because I often see her finishing her work at the last minute. –– Ad populum fallacies occur when a widespread event or trend is assumed to be true or right. EX: Joseph’s parents, as well as the parents of a few other students from the neighborhood, are allowing their children to travel abroad during the summer, so Angela’s parents should allow her to travel as well. –– Begging the question occurs when an issue that needs to be proven is automatically assumed to be correct in order to prove another assertion. EX: Freedom of speech is important because people should be able to speak freely. –– Either-or reasoning occurs when a person sees an issue (or all issues) as having only two sides. EX: The legal use of marijuana should be declared or its use should be eliminated altogether.

BOTTOM

• Establish the author’s purpose for writing –– Support a cause –– Promote a change –– Refute a theory –– Stimulate interest –– Win agreement –– Change an attitude –– Evoke action • Locate the rhetorical methods used to develop the passage, which could include one or more of the following: –– Elevated language –– Repetition –– Rhetorical question –– Persuasive appeals –– Diction –– Imagery –– Figurative language 5

Section II: Essay Questions (continued )

–– Hasty generalization occurs when a conclusion is based on a few cases that may or may not be representative of the general population. EX: Because the author’s new book contains graphic scenes that are not appropriate for adolescents, all of his books should be banned from the library. –– Non sequitur fallacies occur when a conclusion does not logically follow its premise. EX: John Fellows is certainly the most imperturbable person I know; he must be intelligent. –– Post hoc, ergo propter hoc is literally translated to “after this, therefore because of this” and is a logical appeal that assumes that because one event follows another, the first event must have caused the second. EX: After studying for four hours prior to the quiz, John received the highest grade in the class; therefore, he should study four hours for every quiz or test just prior to taking the assessment. –– Propaganda is the strategy of using images or words that persuade through emotional appeal rather than through the use of proof; this is usually accomplished through the use of connotative words or images. There are many different types of propaganda techniques; for example, the bandwagon approach is propaganda that convinces the public to take action because everyone else is doing so and so the audience should avoid being left out. EX: All of the most intelligent people are investing in technology stocks because they understand that technology is the key to the future. –– Red herring fallacies occur when an irrelevant topic is used to divert attention away from the key issue. EX: Study hall should be required for all athletes, but teachers’ salaries should not be affected by the budget cuts. –– Slippery slope fallacies assert that one thing must lead to another; if A happens, then through a series of events, Z will happen too. EX: If the school’s football team doesn’t win this game, they will get a bad reputation and never win another game.

character, for humor or for satire (as in the works of Oscar Wilde, in which characters are to be seen as bombastic).

Persuasive Appeals

• Ethos, or ethical appeal, the most important of the persuasive appeals, is based on the shared moral values that have been communicated by the writer to call forth the audience’s sense of right, justice, and virtue. The ethical appeal is based on the audience’s perception of the speaker or writer; therefore, the audience must trust the speaker or writer in order to accept any part of the proposed argument. Ethos can be analyzed by examining the answers to the questions that follow: –– Is the speaker or writer a reasonable person? (Is he/she willing to listen, compromise, and concede points?) –– Is the speaker or writer authoritative? (Is he/she experienced or knowledgeable in the field being argued?) –– Is the speaker or writer an ethical or moral person? (Is what he/she is arguing for ethically sound or morally right?) –– Is the speaker or writer concerned about the well-being of his/her audience members? • Pathos, or emotional appeal, is an appeal based on specific examples of suffering or potential threats that will often contain loaded language, or language that is rich in connotation and vivid images, designed to direct audience members’ or readers’ emotions toward a specific feeling that has been determined by the author. • Logos, or logical appeal, is a rational appeal, presented inductively or deductively and supported with objective evidence, to support the speaker’s or writer’s claims. Analyzing the reasoning of the argument can assist a writer in finding flaws in the argument’s soundness.

Rhetorical Questions

Rhetorical questions are used by persuasive writers or speakers to demonstrate that their arguments make the answers obvious. These questions can be used for a wide variety of purposes: • To cause the reader to consider the credibility of the author • To chide the audience members for past actions • To express grief for the audience’s behavior • To criticize the audience for inaction • To confuse the audience members through successive questions in order to assist them in developing a new, clearer view of the subject

Methods of Effective Persuasion Repetition

Repetition is effective to direct the audience’s attention to a point that is especially important. Parallelism is a form of repetition that repeats the same structure or shows that items within a series share a specific connection; this repetition can occur in one of four main ways: EX 1: Americans shall not waver in their support of democracy. Americans shall not waver in their expression of liberty. Americans shall not waver in their resistance against tyranny. • In this example, anaphora (the repetition of a word or words at the beginning of successive clauses) shifts the emphasis to what Americans will not do. EX 2: We cannot sit idly by and accept the economic downturn in our country’s hour of need. Americans must react, work harder, close ranks, and offer support as we would to any good friend in their hour of need. • In this example, epistrophe (the repetition of a word or words at the end of successive clauses) shifts the emphasis to a recognition that the time period discussed is a period of need. EX 3: Faith in our ability to overcome any obstacle will lead America into a period of renewed prosperity, as it is well known that our country was born of this same faith. • In this example, epanalepsis (the repetition of a word or words at the beginning and end of a clause) is employed to redirect the audience’s attention and encourage audience members to have faith. EX 4: For every moment that we grieve our current levels of unemployment, we have given in to distrust that will ultimately weaken this democracy. Democracy has the ability to strengthen any government, economy, or community. • In this example, anadiplosis (the repetition of a word or words at the end of one clause and the beginning of the next) is used to remind the audience to have faith in the power of our democracy.

Common Problems with the Argumentative Essay • Failing to answer the question can occur when you are too focused on attempting to interpret the quotation or situation for the scorers rather than spending the writing time refining support for your position. Always make sure that you have answered the question before the end of the writing period. • Failing to plan the essay prior to writing extends the time that an essay will take to develop, causing the essay to be less cohesive overall. You should spend at least part of your time developing a sufficient plan, including a solid thesis, assertions for your paragraphs, solid evidence, and explanatory commentary that will sufficiently connect your evidence to your assertion. • Running out of time is common because the argumentative question is the third essay in the two-hour writing period; remember to pace yourself and budget your time so that you have adequate time to respond to the third essay. • Not employing concrete examples while you are developing your claim will hurt your score; the scoring rubric will examine your essay not only for big ideas but also for specific evidence. • Changing the question to an easier or different question that you would like to answer instead of the one that is presented will hurt your score. • Avoid personal tirades against a controversial issue, especially those that revolve around values; rather, use the essay time to exhibit your strongest writing skills. Remember that the essay must take a clear stance, answer the given question, and employ concrete examples in support of your thinking. • Forcing the essay into a preset format is always problematic, as not all topics lend themselves to, for example, a five-paragraph essay. You should examine the topic and the information that you have to share to determine the best organizational structure for the argument. Specific types of support do not work with every essay prompt; for example, whereas some prompts will work well with personal anecdotes, literary examples, or historical examples, you should not force every prompt to have the same types of support. Let the prompt dictate which types will work best.

Elevated Language

Elevated language, or the use of formal words and phrases, can do the following: • Lend a serious tone to a discussion • Give dignity to a hero (e.g., during discussions of mythological gods or in an epic poem such as Beowulf) • Express the reverence of religious matters (e.g., the Bible or religion-based ceremonies) • Indicate the importance of certain events (e.g., legal contracts or medical diagnoses) However, it is important to note that although the use of higher-level technical terms shows a deeper understanding of an area, it can reveal a self-important or pretentious

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Author: Nathan Scott McClanahan, EdD Artwork: Karen Calanni NOTE TO STUDENT: This guide is intended for informational purposes only. Due to its condensed format, this guide cannot cover every aspect of the subject; rather, it is intended for use in conjunction with course work and assigned texts. BarCharts, Inc., its writers, editors, and design staff are not responsible or liable for the use or misuse of the information contained in this guide. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. © 2013 BarCharts, Inc. 1213 Made in the USA

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