219 32 142MB
English Pages [274] Year 1984
Animals and Archaeology: 4. Husbandry in Europe
edited by Caroline Grigson and Juliet Clutton-Brock
BAR Int ernat ional Series 227 1984
B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.
BAR -S227, 1 984 :'Animals and Archaeology :4.Husbandry in Europe'
©
The Indi victual Authors, 1984
The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542957 paperback ISBN 9781407338385 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542957 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
C NTENTS PREFACE
1
A. T. CLASON: The possible first ap pearance of different breeds of domestic animals in the Netherlands .
3
J. G. NANDRIS: Man-animal relationships and the validation of ethnoarchaeology in highland south-east F.urope.
13
RUDOLF MUSIL: The first known domestication of wolves in central __ / Europe.
23
PAUL G. BAHN: Pre-Neolithic control of animals in western Europe: the faunal evidence.
27
PE TER BOGUCKI: Patterns of animal exploitation in th Neolithic of the Polish lowlands.
35
early
HASKEL J. GREENFIELD: A model of changing animal exploitation strategies during the later prehistory of the Central Balkans.
45
ALICE M. CHOYKE: Patterns in the use of cattle and sheep/goat metapodials in Bronze Age Hungary .
57
LASZLO BARTOSIEWICZ: Reconstruction of prehistoric cattle represented by astragali in a Bronze Age "sacrificial pit".
67
M . 4St. UDRE SCU: Problemes d'archeozoologie concernant les periodes geto-daces et daco-romaine en Roumanie .
81
MANFRED TEICHERT: Size variB;,.:ion and Ge mania Libera.
93
1 cattle from C_nnania Romana
BARBARA A. NODDLE: A comparison of the bones of cattle, sheep, and pigs from ten Iron Age and Romano-British sites.
105
J. M . MAL T BY:
125
Animal bones and the Romano-British economy.
L. TEICHERT: Zur Wirtschaft und Kultur der slawischen Stamme im Oder-Havelgebiet der DDR, dargestellt am Beispiel der Tierreste aus den slawischen Burgen Wiesenau, Kr. Eisenhuttenstadt, und Brandenburg(Havel)PhaseibisII/III.
139
ALICJA LASOTA-MOSKALEW SKA: Anatomical distribution of bone remains from the Medieval castle at Ciechanow, Poland.
155
KATHLEEN BIDDICK: Pig husbandry on the Peterborough Abbey Estate from the twelfth to the fourteenth century A.D .
161
ANNIE GRANT: evidence.
Medieval animal husbandry:
the archaeozoological
179
It
HANNS-HERMANN MULLER: Zoological and historical interpretation of bones from food and sacrifices in early Medieval times.
187
LOUISE H. van WIJNGAARDEN-BAKKER: Faunal analysis and historical record: meat preservation and the faunal remains at Smeerenburg, Spitsbergen.
195
LOUIS CHAIX: A Rhaetian deposit of goat bones at Monte-Ozol, Trentino, Italy: problems of interpretation.
205
I. KUHL: Animal remains in cremations from the Bronze Age to the Viking period in Schleswig-Holstein, North Germany.
209
ANNIE GRANT: Survival or sacrifice? A critical appraisal of animal burials in Britain in the Iron Age.
221
LESLIE CRAM:
229
Footprints in the sands of time.
ACHILLES GAUTIER: How do ·1 crunt you, let me count the ways? Problems of archaeozoological quantification.
237
JOHN R. BAKER: The study of animal diseases w ith regard to agricultural practices and man's attitude to his animals.
253
SUE STALLIBRASS: The distinction between the effects of small carnivores and humans on post-glacial faunal assemblages. A case study using scavenging of sheep carcasses by foxes.
259
PREFACE T his is the fourth and final volume of the proceedings of the fourth major conference of the International Council for Archaeozoology, which was held in April 1982 at the University of London under the auspices of the Institute of Archaeology. The general theme of the conference was, '%e Contrirution of Faunal Analysis to the Study of Man", with an emphasis on the relationships between peopl e and animals, and the d etailed aspects of human strategies for obtaining food during the prehistoric and historic periods. Stress was laid on the need for the collection and interpretation of scientifically valid data, and papers. on methodology were included in the programme. As well.as the organization of conferences the International Council for Archaeozoology (ICAZ) exists to develop and stimulate research, to standardize me�hods, to strengthen cooperation amongst archaeozoologists, and to foster collaboration with archaeologists and other scientists working in the field of archaeology. After the Conference in London, we felt that a good way to further these aims would be to publish in full the majority of the papers that were presented to the meeting, and we would like to express our gratitude to BAR for publishing nearly one r.undred papers. The first two volumes, "Animals and Archaeology: 1. Hunters and their Prey" and "Animals and Archaeology: 2. Shell Middens, Fishes and Birds" (BAR International Series 163 and 183) were published in 1983. They were followed early in 1984 by, "Animals and Archaeology: 3. Early Herders and their Flocks" (BAR International Series 202). This volume covers the archaeozoology of domestic animals in Europe, b egi nning with papers on the origins of breeds and the relevance of ethnoarchaeology. The papers on husbandry as part of subsistence are arranged in chronological order from the Pal aeolithic to historical times; they include discussions on the correlation of the faunal analysis with historical documentation, and are followed by contributions on the use of animals in ritual activities and funerary practices. Further aspects that are discussed are the interpretation of preserved animal footprints and the osteological manifestations of pathology. The papers on methods that compl ete the volu me touch on two major problems: the quantification of animal remains on archaeological sites and the taphonomic factors that influence the nature of archaeological assemblages .
l
F inancial
s upport
f or t he c onference w as p rovided b y a l oan f rom t he
R oyal S ociety, a nd g rants t o p articipants f rom t he B ritish C ouncil, t he N ational S cience F oundation , t he L .S .B . L eakey F oundation , t he W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch , t he T hreshold F oundation , a nd t he M editerranean A rchaeological T rust . T he I nternational C ouncil f or A rchaeozoology w ould l ike t o r eiterate i ts g ratitude t o t hese i nstitutions f or t heir m agnificent a ssistance w hich e nabled t he c onference t o b e s uch a s uccess. I n a ddition we would
l ike
t o t hank t he s taff o f t he I nstitute o f
A rchaeology a nd a ll t hose f riends a nd c olleagues who h elped u s w ith t he r unning o f t he c onference , t he r eceptions , a nd t he e xcursions . F inally , w e m ust e xpress o ur g ratitude t o M rs . D iana B roun o f " WordPowern, f or t yping s o m any p apers o f v arying l ength , s tyle a nd l anguage , a s w ell a s t ables a nd r eference l ists o f t ortuous c omplexity , a nd f or e nduring a d iverse v ariety o f c orrections a nd r e-corrections w ith m uch p atience a nd g ood h umour .
J uliet C lutton-Brock D epartment o f Z oology
C aroline G rigson O dontological M useum R oyal C ollege o f S urgeons 3 5-43 L incoln 's I nn F ields
B ritish M useum ( Natural H istory) C romwell R oad L ondon S W7 5 BD
L ondon W C2A 3 PN
2
T HE P OSSIBLE F IRST A PPEARANCE O F D IFFERENT B REEDS O F D OMESTIC A NIMALS I N T HE N ETHERLANDS
A .T. C lason A rchaeozoological D epartment B iologisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut P oststraat 6 9 712 E R G RONINGEN N etherlands
D uring t he p ast d ecade t here h as b een a g rowing c oncern t hat m any o f t he t raditional b reeds o f f arm a nimals a re r apidly d isappearing a nd a re b eing r eplaced b y a l imited n umber o f b reeds w ith a h igh y ield o f m eat, m ilk, e ggs o r w ool.
T he q uestion a rises a t w hat p oint i n t ime t he d ifferent b reeds o f
d omestic a nimals f irst c ame i nto e xistence. I t i s d ifficult,
a nd i n m ost c ases i mpossible ,
t o d istinguish b reeds o n
t he b asis o f d ata o btained b y s tudying s ubfossil b ones, c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t his c entury i t w as
a lthough i n t he 1 9th
t hought p ossible t o d o s o ,
a nd m any b reeds w ere d istinguished a nd g iven n ames ( Antonius, 1 922; H ilzheimer , 1 926). L ater , i t w as t hought t hat t his h ad b een t oo o ptimistic , b ut n ow t here i s m uch m ore a rchaeozoological m aterial a vailable f or r esearch a nd w e a re c autiously t rying t o f ind
o ut
w hether o r n ot w e
c an d iscern a t
l east r egional d ifferences i n t he s ize a nd s tature o f d omestic a nimals. H erre & R öhrs
( 1973)
h ave
p ointed
o ut
t hat
t he n otion o f
a b reed
c an
o nly b e u sed f or t he s ubdivision o f d omestic a nimals. A b reed c onsists o f t hose s pecimens o f a d omestic s pecies w hich d iffer f rom t he o ther a nimals o f t he
s ame
d omesticated
s pecies
A b reed
i s
i nheritable q ualities
v ariety,
i ts p articulars c an o ften b e m easured s tatistically.
C lutton-Brock ,
i solation.
a nd
i n
b ut
s exual
i n c haracteristics
a nd a re k ept
a s ubjectively
d etermined ( See a lso
1 979).
D uring t he
1 8th a nd
1 9th c entury
t here w as a m ounting i nterest i n f arm
a nimals
i n n orthwestern E urope.
B erckhey
( 1811) d escribed c attle a nd h orse k eeping i n t he 1 8th c entury.
t he
f irst
b reeds, l ater
h alf
o f
t he
w hile H engeveld t o
r ecognized B oogaert, W hat,
m ake i n
a n T he
I n
T he
1 9th c entury N uman ( 1865)
i nventory N etherlands
t ravelled o f
D utch
w ere
N etherlands,
( 1835)
d escribed
L e
F rancq
v an I n
t he D utch s heep
t hrough T he N etherlands s ome y ears c attle.
f inally
T he
c attle
e stablished
i n
b reeds
1 907
n ow
( Adrichem
1 970). w e m ay a sk ,
i s t he e arliest d ate a t w hich w e c an e xpect d ifferent
b reeds o f d omestic a nimals, a nd w hy o r h ow d id t hey c ome i nto e xistence? T o
b egin w ith ,
t he w ild
s pecies
t hat w ere
f irst
d omesticated a nd a re
s till o f m ajor i mportance t o m an h ad a w ide d istribution r ange a nd v ariations
3
C LASON : B REEDS O F E ARLY D OMESTIC A NIMALS I N T HE N ETHERLANDS m ust h ave
o ccurred
d omesticated
d ue
i n m ore
t o
g eographical
t han o ne
l ocality,
e ach o ther m ay h ave b een d omesticated,
d ispersion.
I f
a nimals
w ere
s ubspecies s lightly d iffering f rom s o
t hat
r ight
a t
d omestication a n umber o f b reeds m ay w ell h ave a risen.
t he
b eginning
o f
A ccording t o H erre &
R öhrs ( 1971), h owever , t he v ariation i n t he n ewly d omesticated a nimals w as s o l arge e verywhere t hat n o g eographical d ifferences c ould h ave o ccurred. A s econd c ause o f v ariation i s a daptation t o n ew b iotopes o utside t he o riginal d istribution a rea , w hence t he d omesticated a nimals w ere t aken b y m an. A t hird p ossibility i s t hat m an s tarted t o u se c ertain a nimals f or o ther p urposes t han f or t he p roduction o f f ood , b one a nd h ides. A ccording t o H erre & R öhrs ( 1973), i t w as o nly d uring a c ivilisation t hat b reeds c ould b e d eveloped
f or
s pecialised
p urposes.
A fter
t he
d isintegration
o f
a
c ivilisation t hese b reeds d isappeared a gain . W hen c an w e e xpect f irst d ifferent b reeds i n T he N etherlands? 4 500 B .C., s outh o f
A round
B andceramic f armers b rought t he f irst d omesticated a nimals t o t he T he N etherlands:
c attle,
s heep,
g oat,
p ig a nd d og.
I n t he
f ollowing m illennia f arming s pread f rom t he s outh t o t he r est o f t he c ountry. T he f irst d omesticated a nimals
t hat w ere b rought t here w ere a dapted t o
c entral a nd n orthwest E uropean c onditions, t hat i s t o s ay, t o a n a rea c overed b y m ore o r l ess c losed d eciduous w oods, w ith s mall t emporary m an-made c learings, a lternating w ith m oors, l akes a nd r ivers. T his s ituation a lso e xisted i n T he N etherlands w hen t he f irst d omestic a nimals w ere i ntroduced. A c hange o ccurred i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 3 rd m illennium B .C. i mpact o n t he v egetation b ecame m ore p ermanent ,
i .e.
w hen m an 's
w hen l arger a reas w ere
d eforested a nd w hen t here w as a b eginning o f t he f ormation o f h eathland.
I n
t he f irst m illennium B .C. n atural p astures c ame i nto e xistence i n W estF riesland i n t he n orthwestern c oastal a rea , a nd i n t he n orth a long t he c oasts o f w hat a re n ow t he P rovinces o f G roningen a nd F riesland. W hether
t his
d iversification
o f
t he
l andscape
l ed
t o
t he
f orming
o f
d istinctive b reeds c annot y et b e p roved, b ut i t i s n ot u nlikely. H eath s heep, f or i nstance, c ould o nly d evelop a fter t he h eathers h ad c ome i nto e xistence , a nd p older- o r m ilking s heep o nly a fter t he f orming o f t he n atural p asture a reas i n t he w est a nd n orth. I t i s , h owever , p ossible t hat t he s heep k ept i n t he s mall c learings i n t he w oods b y B andceramic a nd l ater f armers w ere a nimals w ith s uch u nspecialised f ood d emands t hat t hey c ould a lso s ubsist o n t he h eathland , a nd d id n ot d iffer m uch f rom t he a nimals t hat w ere f irst i ntroduced. I nitially, a reas
i n
t he
H eideschaap
t he r emains o f n orth
( Figure
t he s heep t hat w ere t aken t o t he n ew p asture
r esembled
1 ),
t he
a t
p resent
s till
e xisting
D rentse
a b reed f rom t he P rovince o f D renthe i n t he n orth o f
T he N etherlands ( Reitsma ,
1 932).
W e d o n ot y et k now w hen t he h ornless F riesian M ilksheep,
w hich i n
h istoric t imes w ere f ound i n t he c oastal p asture a reas f rom B elgium i n t he s outh t o G ermany i n t he n orth , w ere d eveloped o r c ame i nto e xistence. T hey w ere m entioned i n t he s ixteenth c entury a nd s o m ust h ave e xisted b efore t his p eriod ( Bottema & C lason , h ornless.
1 979).
T hereafter t he m ajority o f t he s heep w ere
T hat t hose h ornless a nimals w ere t he p rogenitors o f t he M ilksheep
i s o ne o f t he p ossibilities.
F I GURE
1 :
T wo e wes o f
t he D rentse h eldeschaap
5
o n
t he
h eath
o f
D wIngelo.
C LASON : B REEDS O F E ARLY D OMESTIC A NIMALS I N T HE N ETHERLANDS I n t he s econd h alf o f t he 3 rd m illennium B .C. w e a lso h ave t he f irst i ndications t hat t he d omestic a nimals w ere n ot o nly k ept f or t heir m eat b ut w ere a lso u sed f or o ther p urposes. B ig w ooden w heels w ere f ound w hich m ust h ave b een p arts o f s imple , t wo-Wheeled c arts t hat c ould o nly h ave b een p ulled b y c attle. T hey b elonged t o t he P rotruding F oot B eaker c ulture ( Waals, 1 963). E lsewhere i n E urope , f igurines o f s uch c attle p ulling c arts h ave b een f ound. T he f irst t races o f p loughing a lso c ome f rom t his p eriod. A s a p lough t he a rd w as u sed w hich c ould a lso h ave b een p ulled b y c attle. C attle w ere e vidently u sed a s w orking a nimals a t l east a t 2 000 B .C. T he f irst f armers o f t he B andceramic c ulture b uilt l arge f armhouses ( Figure 2 ) w hich w ere , h owever , p robably n ot u sed f or s talling l ive-stock ( Bäkels, 1 978). F rom t he f ollowing m illennia n o f armbuildings a re k nown. I t i s o nly d uring t he s econd m illenium B .C. t hat w e a gain f ind t races o f l arge f armhouses , t his t ime w ith c lear i ndications t hat c attle w ere s talled ( Figure 3 ) i n t he s andy a rea o f D renthe I n t he n orth o f T he N etherlands ( Waterbolk, 1 975). W hy, a fter c attle h ad b een k ept o utdoors f or t hree m illennia , t he a nimals n ow h ad t o b e s talled i s a n u nanswered q uestion . I t i s t he m ore p uzzling s ince s talling c attle b rought m uch e xtra w ork, f or t he a nimals h ad t o b e p rovided w ith f ood a nd t he s tables h ad t o b e c leaned. W e c an o nly t ry t o f ormulate s ome p ossible a nswers t o t hese q uestions : 1 .
T he l arger a rea u nder c ultivation a t t he t ime m ade i t n ecessary t o m anure t he f ields, a nd t he m ost e fficient w ay o f c ollecting t he m anure w as b y s talling t he a nimals i n s tables.
2 .
C attle h ad g rown s o s mall i n s ize b y t hat t ime t hey h ad t o b e s talled d uring w inter t o s urvive p eriods o f c old a nd f rost.
3 .
T he p ractice o f m ilking c ows h ad c ome i nto u se a nd t he a nimals h ad t o b e s talled d uring w inter , s ince m ilk p roduction i s i nfluenced u nfavourably b y t he c old , a lthough a t emperature a bove 1 4* i s n ot r equired ( Duerst , 1 931). I t i s n ot p ossible t o p rove t hat o ne o f t hese p ossibilities a pplied , b ut
i t m ay h ave b een t hat a c ombination o f a ll t hree m ade i t a dvisable t o s tall c attle. W hether
t he
c hange
i n
t he
h usbandry
o f
c attle
a lso
l ed
t o
t he
d evelopment o f d ifferent b reeds t o s erve e ach d ifferent p urpose i s n ot u nlikely, t hough i t i s n ot n ecessary e ither , s ince p rimitive f arm a nimals w ere o ften , e ven n ot s o l ong a go , m ulti-purpose a nimals, w hich w ere m ilked , u sed f or t raction a nd s laughtered i n t he e nd t o p rovide m eat, f at , h orn , h ides a nd o ther r aw m aterials. I f b reeds d id e merge a t t hat t ime , t hese w ere p robably n ot d eliberately c reated b y m an . I t i s o nly d uring t he R oman p eriod,
w hen t he r iver R hine w as
t he
n orthern f rontier o f t he R oman E mpire , t hat i n T he N etherlands s outh o f t his l ine , a g reater v ariation i n t he s ize o f t he s keletal r emains o f c attle , h orse, s heep, p ig a nd d og c an b e o bserved t han b efore o r a fter t his o ccupation . N ot o nly i s ag reater v ariation f ound , b ut t he m aximum a nd m ean v alues a re a lso h igher ( Clason , 1 980). U nder t he i nfluence o f t he R omans , b etter a nimals o f i mproved b reeds m ay h ave b een i mported i nto t he a rea t o c ross w ith l ocal l ive-stock. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat b reeds w ere l ocally d eveloped f or d istinct p urposes. T here i s n o w ritten e vidence , h owever , t o
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G REENFIELD :
AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES
S ection 1 o f t he M odel I t c an b e p redicted t hat i ncreased f orest c learance a nd t he c oncomitant s pread o f a reas u nder c ultivation a fter t he t ermination o f t he A tlantic o ptimum a nd t he o nset o f t he S ub-boreal f unctioned t o d ecrease t he i mportance o f w ild a nimal s pecies f avoring f orest h abitats , e specially t hose s pecies w hich w ould h ave
c ompeted w ith h umans
a nd d omestic
a nimals
f or a ccess t o
s tanding c ultivated c rops a nd g razing r esources . T his w ould h ave o ccurred t hrough a d isruption o f t heir h abitat r esulting i n ad ecrease i n t he d ensity , a ggregation l evel a nd p redictability o f w ild a nimal s pecies , t hereby r educing t heir i mportance t o t he s ubsistence e conomy . T he s pread o f f orests d uring t he A tlantic o ptimum ( c . 6 000 - 3 000 b c) , i n c onjunction w ith p eriodic c learing o f a reas a nd t heir e ventual r egeneration , w ould h ave f avored r elatively h igh p opulation d ensities f or r oe d eer ( Capreolus c apreolus) , r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus) , a nd p igs ( Sus s crofa ) . R oe d eer p refer m ixed f orests w ith o ccasional o pen a reas a nd h eavy u ndergrowth .
R ed d eer h ave h igher
d ensities i n o pen f orests , w ith l ight u ndergrowth . P igs p refer a f orest b iotope w ith h eavy u ndergrowth t o f acilitate r ooting b ehavior . D ensities o f a urochs ( Bos p rimigenius) m ight h ave b een s omewhat d epressed . U ngulates m ight b e e xpected t o e xperience t emporary l ocal i ncreases i n d ensity a round a reas c leared f or a griculture , g razing , o r h abitation , s ince • plant r egeneration w ould R hoades ,
b e
m ost
i ntense
i n
t emporary
e cotones
( Mellars ,
1 976 ;
1 978) .
W ith t he o nset o f t he S ub-boreal a t a bout 3 ,000 b c ,
p ollen s pectra f rom
n orthern , c entral a nd s outheastern E urope i ndicate a d ecrease i n a rboreal p ollen . T he i ntroduction a nd r apid s pread o f p lough c ultivation a nd p erhaps o f c astrated c attle f or t raction i n t he L ate N eolithic o r E arly B ronze A ge ( C . S chwartz, p ers . c omm . ; S herratt, 1 980b) a ppear t o a ccount f or t his w idespread h orizon r ather t han s imple c limatic f actors . D eforestation d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a s w idespread i n t emperate E urope , a s i t w as i n t he m ore a rid a reas t o t he s outh . N evertheless , a n i ncrease i n t he a rea o f l and u nder c ultivation a nd f or g razing i s n oticeable a nd s o w ild ungulates p robably d ecreased .
T heir r esponse
t o
i ncreased
p redation a t
t he f orest
m argins m ay h ave b een t o r etreat f arther a way f rom a reas f requented b y h umans -i n o ther w ords , t here was a r egional r edistribution o f w ild a nimal p opulations t o l ess a ffected a reas . E ven d omestic p ig p roduction m ay h ave b een a ffected b y t hese c onditions . P igs a re k nown , h istorically , t o h ave b een r aised i n f orest h abitats i n E urope ( Gri pon , 1 982) . D omestic p ig p roduction m ay h ave b een r elegated t o a reas d eep i n t he f orests i n o rder t o k eep t hem o ut o f f ields . I n f act , t his w as t he s ituation i n h istorical S erbia ( Halpern , 1 967) . T he p resence o f d ogs a nd t heir p robable c ompetition f or r efuse , a s w ell a s t he e xtremely l ow d ensity o f b one r emains o f a ll s pecies i n B ronze A ge s ites ( Bankoff & W inter , 1 982 ; B ankoff , W inter & G reenfield , 1 980) m ay i ndicate t hat p igs w ere l argely f orest-bred . D ecreases i n t he f orested a rea c lose t o s ettlements m ay h ave r esulted i n i ncreased e nergy e xpenditure t o r aise t hem i n t he m ore d istant f orest e nvironments , which c ould e asily b e o ffset b y t heir r eproductive c apability . T he i mportant r ole t hat d omestic p igs c ontinue t o p lay i n t he e conomy a nd t he l ack o f e vidence f or e nclosures ( i .e . p igsties) i n B ronze A ge s ites m ay i mply t hat e xtra e ffort w as m ade t o r emove t hem f rom h abitation a nd a gricultural a reas . D omestic c attle , s heep a nd g oats a re e xpected t o i ncrease a s g rasslands e xpand , a nd a s m an h unts o ut t hose w ild a nimals c ompeting f or t he s ame g razing r esources , a nd a s h e p rotects d omestic a nimals
5 0
G REENFIELD :
AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES
f rom p redation , f avoring t heir r eproductive p otential . U tilization o f a nadromous f ish , f or e xample t he s turgeon , i s e xpected t o d ecrease d uring t he B ronze A ge . D uring t he P iora O scillation a nd t he S ub b oreal , w ith t heir a ssociated t emperature a nd p recipitation f luctuations , c ontinued f orest c learance, r esulting i n i ncreased r un-off v ariability , e rosion a nd s iltation , m ay h ave d isrupted t he s hallower u pstream s pawning t ributaries ( Schalk , 1 977) . D uring t he N eolithic , when t emperature a nd p recipitation l evels a re t hought t o h ave b een h igher ( Gribben & L amb , 1 978) , r un-off a nd s tream d ischarge r egimes w ould h ave b een r elatively f avorable f or t he m igration a nd s pawning o f a nadromous f ish . T he p redictable r uns o f a nadromous f ish t o u pstream s pawning a reas a ppear t o h ave p rovided a n i mportant d ietary r esource d uring t he N eolithic , b ut e vidence f or a nadromous f ish e xploitation a way f rom m ajor r ivers , s uch a s t he D anube a nd S ava , d uring t he B ronze A ge i s n on-existent .
T his c annot b e s olely a ttributed t o b iases
i n r ecovery p rocedures . T he e xcavations a t t he B ronze A ge s ites i n t he J asenica d rainage c onducted i n 1 977 a nd 1 980 u sed 1 c m2 a nd 3 mm 2 s ieves ( Bankoff & W inter ,
1 982 ;
B ankoff ,
W inter & G reenfield ,
1 980) .
I n a ddition ,
t here i s an otable a bsence o f a b one f ishing t echnology , w hich h ad b een v ery p revalent d uring t he E arly a nd L ate N eolithic . T his m ay b e a ttributable t o t he u se o f m etal a s as ubstitute , b ut t he a bsence o f b one r emains u ndermines t his l ine o f r easoning . T he d isruptions a ssociated w ith t he c hange t o t he S ub-boreal w ould h ave i nterfered w ith w hat i s h istorically a n i mportant r esource i n t his a rea ( Rohan-Csermak ,
1 963) .
I t s hould b e n oted t hat u ntil
t he c onstruction o f t he H ydroelectric d am a t K aratas a nd t he p ollution o f t he D anube , s turgeon c ame u p t he D anube a s f ar a s B udapest ( Rohan- C sermak , 1 963) .
R emains
o f
c atfish ( Silurus g lanis L .) h ave
b een f ound a t
t he L ate
N eolithic s ites o f S elevac ( Tringham e t a l, 1 980) a nd G omolava ( Clason , 1 979) . U tilization o f c atfish a nd o ther n on-anadromous f ish r esources w ould n ot b e e xpected t o c hange , a s t he e nvironmental c hanges o f t he S ub-boreal w ould n ot h ave a ffected t hem . S imilarly n o c hange w ould b e e xpected i n t he e xploitation o f s easonally a vailable b irds m igrating t hrough t he a rea .
T hey
w ould h ave c ontinued t o m ove u p s uch m ovement-limiting c orridors a s t he V ardar-Morava ( Navy , 1 944) o n t heir m igrations t o a nd f rom n esting g rounds . S ection 2 o f t he M odel I t
i s
e xpected
t hat
i n
t he
a bsence
o f
e vidence
f or
p roductive
s pecilization i n n on-metal r elated a reas o f t he l ocal e conomy d uring t he L ate N eolithic ( Evans , 1 978 ; K aufman , 1 977) a nd t he B ronze A ge ( Bankoff , 1 974 & 1 977) , a nimals w ould n ot b e e xploited i n a s pecialized m anner . P atterns o f a nimal
e xploitation
s hould
n ot
b e
d ifferentiable
i nto
s pecialized
e xploitation s trategies f or o btaining m eat, m ilk , o r h ides, b ut s hould r epresent a c ombined s trategy . E ach l ocal c ommunity s hould b e s elfs ufficient ,
e xploiting t he f ull r ange o f a nimal r esources .
I n a ddition ,
a s
t he e xploitation o f w ild a nimals d ecreased , t he s et o f r esources t hat e ach s pecies h ad c ontributed t o t he l ocal e conomy w ould b e r eplaced b y t hose o f d omestic s pecies .
T o d ate ,
t here i s l ittle t hat c an b e s aid a bout p roductive
s pecialization . A ll t he B ronze A ge l ithics a ppear t o b e d erived f rom l ocal r iver c hannels a nd t here i s n o e vidence f or t he k ind o f l ong-distance e xchange o f s tone a s o ccurred i n t he N eolithic o f t his a rea , a nd e lsewhere i n E urope , d uring t he B ronze A ge ( Ira B erman , p ers . c omm . ; S herratt , 1 976) . A c hange i s a lso e vident a mong t he b one t ools . A nalysis o f E arly a nd L ate N eolithic b one t ools
( Ba &alov ,
1 979 ;
N andris ,
1 972 ;
S terud & S terud ,
1 974 ;
T ringham , 1 971) s hows a t remendous d iversity o f s pecies a nd e lements u sed , o f
5 1
G REENFIELD : t ool t ypes ,
AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES
a nd o f t ool f unction .
W ith t he a dvent o f t he B ronze A ge a nd t he
g rowing u se o f m etals, w e s ee a d ramatic d rop i n t he o verall n umbers o f t ools , t ool t ypes , a nd q uality o f b one t ool m anufacture ( two o r t hree m ajor t ypes a s o pposed t o o ver f ifteen f rom e arlier p eriods) . T he r elatively s udden p roliferation o f m etal a rtifacts i n g raves a nd h oards d uring t he D eveloped B ronze A ge c an b e s een a s a nother i ndication o f t his t rend . A f urther i mplication o f t his i s t hat t he e xchange n etworks o f t he N eolithic m ay h ave s till b een o perative , b ut t hat o ther m aterial ( metal i nstead o f s tone) w as t he a rchaeologically-visible m anifestation o f t he p rocess. S ection 3 o f t he M odel T he p rinciples u nderlying t he d uration a nd s eason o f s ite o ccupation a re b ased ,
i n p art,
o n g eneralized a nimal r esource u tilization s trategies .
T herefore , i f t hese s trategies w ere d ifferent d uring t he B ronze A ge , t he d uration a nd s eason o f o ccupation o f s ettlement m ight a lso h ave b een d ifferent .
U nglates
h ave
g reat
d ifficulty
i n f oraging
a nd
m oving
t hrough
d eeply s now-covered a reas , s o a t t he b eginning o f w inter w ild a nimals m ay h ave t ravelled , a nd d omestic a nimals m ay h ave b een d riven , f rom u pland t o l owland a reas w ith l ess s now , g reater p rotection f rom t he w ind , a nd g reater d ensity ( Clark ,
a nd v ariability 1 952) a nd t he
o f v egetation . T he a ccumulation o f w inter f orage movement o f h erds t o m ore t emperate l owland
e nvironments a re c omplementary s trategies f or e nsuring t he s urvival o f h erds o ver t he w inter . B oth m ay h ave b een p racticed . T he h eavy s nowfall ( two m eters i s n ot u nusual - p ers . o bs .) n ecessitates f odder a ccumulation i n t his a rea ( Halpern , 1 967) . I t i s n ot s uggested t hat f odder c rops w ere g rown , a s t here i s n o e vidence f or t his ; i nstead , f odder was p robably c ollected ( Dennell , 1 978) . I t i s , t herefore , p ossible t hat l owland l ocalities , s uch a s N ovaeka 6 uprija n ear S mederevska P alanka a nd M ala V rbica L ivade n ear K ladovo , w ere o ccupied , a t l east , d uring t he w et a nd c old p eriod f rom l ate A utumn t o e arly S pring . H owever , u sing t he e ffort-minimization a ssumption t hat i t i s e asier t o g row a nd t o s tore c rops i n t he s ame l ocation , i t i s s uggested t hat t hese s ettlements may h ave b een o ccupied a ll y ear-round , e ven t hough m aintaining h erds o f d omestic a nimals i n c lose p roximity t o c rops a nd t o w inter f odder d uring t he g rowing s eason c an c reate p roblems . I n t emperate e nvironments , w here t he s ummers a re m oist a nd t he t opography l ow , i t i s n ot n ecessary t o m ove h erds t o p astures i n t he c ooler h ighlands , a nd l owland a reas a re n ot d essicated b y e xtreme h eat a nd a ridity . I n t he C entral B alkans , t ranshumant a ctivities a re k nown t o h ave b een l argely a f unction o f t he u nstable p olitical c onditions u nder t he O ttomans a nd t he 1 9th c entury S erbian D ynasts . E ven p igs, who a re n ot u sually t hought o f a s v iable t ranshumants , a re k nown t o h ave p articipated i n s uch m ovements ( Navy , 1 944) . I nstead , t he o verall l ow d ensity o f s ites d uring t he B ronze A ge ( although h igher t han i n t he p receding L ate N eolithic) d oes n ot a rgue f or t he r emoval o f l ivestock t o g razing g rounds d istant f rom s ettlements a nd c ultivated a reas . T he e xpectation i s t hat l ivestock w ere p robably g razed l ocally , f or p art o f t he y ear i n n on-cultivated h abitats s uch a s m arshes ,
a nd t he r est o f
t he y ear o n f allow f ields , a s i s t he c ase t oday a nd i n t he r ecent p ast ( Vincze, 1 980) . T he p resence o f s mall B ronze A ge s ites w ith m inimal o ccupation d ebris , l ocated a t p oints s trategic f or c ontrolling h erd m ovements ( e .g . G ob oB rdo a nd J erinin G rad - B ankoff , W inter & G reenfield , 1 980) a nd b etween t he l arger s ettlements w ould a ppear t o s ubstantiate t his e xpectation .
5 2
G REENFIELD :
AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES
C ONCLUSIONS S outheastern E urope i s t hought t o b e t he f irst r egion w ith a t emperate c limate t o h ave r eceived d omesticated p lants a nd a nimals , w hich w as f ollowed b y i ntensification t hrough t he e xploitation o f t he s econdary p roducts o f a nimals ( Sherratt ,
1 980b ) .
A s t he e arliest c enter o f c hange o utside o f t he
N ear E ast , i t i s a n i mportant s ource o f c omparative d ata i n u nderstanding t he r amifying i nfluences o f d omestication a nd i ntensification u pon c ultural a nd e nvironmental s ystems. I ncreased u nderstanding o f t hese p rocesses i s i mportant b ecause w e a re s till e xperiencing t heir e ffects o n o ur m anipulation o f p lants a nd a nimals . T he e volution o f c omplex s ystems o f l and u se , a nd t he i ncreased i ntensification o f f ood p roduction s ystems ,
a re p henomena t hat a re
s till l ittle u nderstood . T he g eneration o f b ehavioral m odels w ill h elp t o a llow a g reater u nderstanding o f h uman-animal i nteractions , o f h ow t hese i nteractions h ave
c hanged o ver t ime ,
a nd o f
t he e ventual e ffects t hey h ave
h ad u pon o ther a spects o f t he c ultural s ystem .
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I nstitute o f
S ome f actors i n t he e arly N eothermal s ettlement o f
S outh-East E urope . I n ( G . d e G . S ieveking , I .H . L ongworth , &K .E . W ilson , E ds .) P roblems i n E conomic a nd S ocial A rchaeology L ondon : D uckworth , p p . 5 49-556. N andris , J . ( 1977) . T he p erspective o f l ong-term c hange i n S outh-East E urope . I n ( F . C arter , E d . ) A n H istorical G eography o f t he B alkans . N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress , p p . 2 5-57. N avy
( 1944) .
Y ugoslavia . G eographical Handbook S eries,
1 , L ondon :
N aval I ntelligence D ivision . R hoades ,
R .E.
( 1978) .
A rchaeological u se a nd a buse o f e cological
c oncepts a nd s tudies, t he e cotone e xample. R ohan-Csermak , G . d e
( 1965) .
A merican A ntiquity 4 3,
S turgeon H ooks o f E urasia .
6 08-614. C hicago :
A ldine. S ahlins , e xpansion.
M .
( 196 0 .
S ahlins, M . t ypes
( 1963) .
a n o rganization o f
p redatory
3 22-345.
P oor Man , R ich Man , B ig Man , C hief, p olitical
i n P olynesia a nd M elanesia .
H istory 5 ,
C omparative S tudies i n S ociety a nd
2 85-303 .
S anders , t he
S egmentary l ineage ,
A merican A nthropologist 6 3,
W .T .
e volution o f
& W ebster ,
D .
( 1978) .
c omplex s ocieties .
U nilinealism ,
I n ( Cd-
A rchaeology , B eyond S ubsistence a nd D ating . 2 49-302.
5 5
R edman ,
N ew
Y ork :
m ultilinealism , e t
a l ,
E ds . )
A cademic
a nd
S ocial
P ress ,
p p .
G REENFIELD :
AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES
S chalk , R .F . ( 1977) . T he s tructure o f a n a nadromous f ish r esource . I n ( L .R . B inford , E d . ) F or T heory B uilding i n A rchaeology . N ew Y ork : A cademic P ress , p p. 2 07-249. S herratt , N eolithic
A .G .
a nd
A rchaeology.
( 1972) .
B ronze
L ondon :
S herratt ,
A ges
S ocio-economic a nd d emographic m odels o f
E urope .
I n
( D . .L .
C lark ,
E d .)
f or t he
Models I n
M ethuen , p p. 4 77-542.
A .G .
( 1976) .
R esources,
t echnology a nd
t rade
i n
e arly
E uropean m etallurgy . I n ( G . d e G . S ieveking , I .H . L ongworth , &K .E . W ilson , E ds . ) P roblems i n E conomic a nd S ocial A rchaeology . L ondon : D uckworth , p p . 5 57-582. S herratt , c ultivation.
A .G .
( 1980a ) .
W ater ,
W orld A rchaeology 1,
S herratt,
A .G .
( 1980b) .
s econdary p roducts r evolution . P atterns o f t he P ast .
s oil
a nd
P lough
a nd
I n ( I . H odder ,
C ambridge :
S terud , E .L . &S terud , A .-K .
s easonality
i n
e arly
c ereal
3 11-330. p astoralism, G .
I saac ,
t he U niversity P ress , ( 1974) .
a spects
o f
& N . H ammond ,
t he E ds . )
p p . 2 61-306 .
Aq uantitative a nalysis o f t he
material r emains. Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen d es B osnischeH erzegowinischen L andesmuseum , S arajevo , 4 A , 1 55-279. T ringham, 6 000-3000 B .C .
R . ( 1971) . H unters , F ishers a nd F armers o f E astern E urope , L ondon : H utchinson U niversity L ibrary .
T ringham, R . , K rstic , D . , V oytek, B . &K aiser , T . a gricultural s ite o f S elevac , Y ugoslavia. V incze, L .
( 1980) .
t echno-environmental 3 87-404. W agley , C .
T he e arly
P easant a nimal h usbandry , ad ialectic model o f
i ntegration
( 1969) .
t wo T upi T ribes . I n G arden C ity , N ew Y ork :
( 1980) .
A rchaeology 3 3, 2 4-32.
i n
a gro-pastoral
s ocieties .
E thnology 1 8 ,
C ultural i nfluences o n p opulations , a c omparison o f V ayda , E d .) E nvironment a nd C ultural B ehavior . N atural H istory P ress, p p. 2 68-280.
5 6
P AI1ERNS I N T HE U SE O F C ATTLE A ND S HEEP / GOAT M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A CE H UNGARY
A lice M . C hoyke 131 B udapest F utar u .
1 7
H ungary
O ver t he l ast t en y ears ,
t here h as b een a c oncentration o f w ork o n h ow
a nimal p roducts w ere a ctually u tilized i n p rehistory. R esearchers h ave e xamined t he t reatment o f t he c arcass f rom p rimary s laughter, t o d isarticulation ,
d efleshing ,
c ooking ,
t he e nd o f t he c onsumption c hain , 1 980;
G uilday,
U erpmann ,
1 971;
1 973).
J ones ,
f racturing f or m arrow a nd f inally,
b one t ool p roduction ( Coy,
1 980;
S adek-Kooros ,
T he l atter t hree a ctivities,
f ound b y a rchaeologists ,
a re u sually m ost
1 975;
1 975;
a t
G ifford ,
N oe-Nygaard ,
1 977;
w hich r esult i n t he a rtifacts
d irectly
m aterial f rom m idden a nd h abitation a reas.
r eflected i n t he f aunal
F rom a c ertain p erspective
t herefore, t he f ield o f s tudy i s a s w ide a s t he n umber o f s pecies p resent a nd t he n umber o f b one p arts p ossessed b y t hose s pecies. T he v arying u ses t o w hich d ifferent
s pecies a re p ut a nd d ifferences
i n t he m orphology
o f
t heir
b ones h ave l ed t o v ariations i n t he t echniques u sed t o e xploit t hem i n p rehistoric t imes. T his p aper w ill f ocus o n t he t reatment o f m etapodial b ones o f c attle a nd s heep o r g oats f rom t he t ime o f d isarticulation f rom t he c arcass t o d eposition i n t he g round a s f ood r emains o r b one t ools. m anufacture o f t ools w ill b e d iscussed a nd t he f unction o f t he m etapodial b ones o f r uminants.
T he
t ools m ade f rom
T HE S ITES T he g arbage a nd w orked b one s amples e xamined h ere c ome f rom n ine e arly a nd m iddle B ronze a ge s ites i n H ungary. T hey w ere o ccupied f rom 1 900 t o 1 400 B C a lthough t he l ife s pan o f a ny y ears.
f rom p lain t o m arshland T ransdanubia , P lain . f or
a nd
e ast
t o h ill o f
c ountry,
t he T isza
r arely m ore t han c irca 2 00
b oth w est o f
r iver
o n
T he s amples v ary i n s ize a nd q uality.
w hich
b ecause
g iven s ite w as
T hese s tratified s ettlements a re l ocated i n av ariety o f e nvironments
t here
t hey
( Domokos,
w ere
w ere
1 908,
b one
t ools
e xcavated
1 912; M arosi,
h ave
i n
t he
1 930).
o r
n ear
G reat
H ungarian
I n a ddition , n ot a ll t he s ites
a c omplementary t ime
t he D anube r iver i n t he
b efore
I t i s
g arbage
b one
s uch b ones w ere
f or t his r eason ,
s ample s aved
t hat o nly
o verall t rends w ill b e e xamined h ere r ather t han t he c ertain i ndividual d ifferences b etween s ites t hat m ay b e r elated a s m uch t o s ampling e rror a s t o t he p rehistoric r eality.
5 7
C HOYKE:
U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY
P ROCESSING I N T HE G ARBAGE B ONE S AMPLE T ypical f or B ronze a ge s ites o f t he a rea a nd p eriod, p redominate i n t he s ample
( Table
1 ;
B ökönyi ,
1 974).
I f
c attle a lways
o ne
l ooks a t
t he
p roportion o f c attle m etapodials c ompared t o t hose o f s heep a nd g oat a t t hese s ites , h owever , t he p icture d iffers s omewhat ( for t his a nalysis o f t ools a ll s mall d omestic r uminant m etapodials w ere t reated a s a s ingle g roup). S heep a nd g oat m etapodials m ake u p
o n m ost
s ites
a s lightly
g reater p ercent
o f
t heir o wn w ithin s pecies b one f requency, t he o ver a ll m etapodial f requency , a nd t otal b one f requency. T hus , r ight a t t he b eginning i t a ppears t hat t hese b ones , d iffering i n s ize b ut s imilar i n f orm t o t hose o f c attle a re a ccorded a nother k ind o f t reatment d uring s econdary b utchering a nd c ooking ( Table 2 ). I n a ddition , t he o verwhelming m ajority o f m etapodial-based t ools c ome f rom s heep a nd g oat. T his s uggests a d eliberate s election f o r t hese b ones w hich m ay h ave r eflected b ack o n t he o riginal m ethods o f d isarticulation a nd p rocessing a llowing t hese b ones t o b e r etained i n r egular w ays. I n t his r egard i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he s urviving p roximal v entral p ortion o f c attle m etapodials a re f requently d amaged b y d eep c ut m arks w hich o ccurred d uring t he d isarticulation o r t he i nitial s tages o f c ooking. A ll m etapodials e xhibit s ome o f t he r eddish b rown m ottling t ypical f or c ontact w ith f ire. F ollowing c ooking a lmost a ll r uminant m etapodials w ere f ractured t o e xtract t he m arrow . O nly a v ery m ajority o f t he f ractures a re f ractures p roduced b y w eathering , 1 979). T he m anner o f f racture e specially i n t he e xtent t o w hich o r t he o ther e piphysis. T he f ew g rooving d own t he m edial l ine.
f ew s uch m etapodials r emain i ntact a nd t he s piral - b ased a s o pposed t o t he k inds o f c arnivore a ctivity, e tc. ( Bonnichsen , d iffers , h owever , b etween t he t wo s pecies al ength o f d iaphysis i s p reserved w ith o ne i ntact s heep o r g oat m etapodials o ften h ave
T his g rooving m ay a lso b e s een o n t he d orsal
o r p lantar s urfaces o f f ractured b ones a s w ell.
T he m ost c ommon f racture i s
t hin , p ointed, i rregular a nd r uns n on-continuously a cross t he d iaphysal s urface ( see S adek+Kooros, 1 975). T he b low w as s truck a round m id-center w ith f requent r etention o f o ne o r t he o ther e piphysis. B ones w ith p roximal o r d istal e piphysis s till a ttached o ccur i n m ore o r l ess e qual n umbers o ver t he w hole s ample ,
i n s pite o f
t he g reater d ensity a nd d urability o f t he d istal
e nd. M ore o f t he s heep a nd g oat m etapodial t ools m ake u se o f t he g raspable d istal e nd , o nce a gain s uggesting s election f or t his p art o f t he b one. T here
a ppears
t o
b e
m etapodials w ere f ractured.
m uch
g reater
v ariability
i n
t he w ay
c attle
T he g reater f orce n eeded t o s plinter t hese b ones
p erhaps r esulted i n ad rop i n p recision , a nd a w ide v ariety i n f orm o f c attle m etapodial f ragments o ccurs i n t he g eneral s amples a t t hese s ites. P ointed e dges o ccur r arely. T he d iaphyses a re e ither b road a nd f lat o r a re b roken s traight a cross.
E vidence o f g rooving d own t he m edial l ine m ay b e f ound o n
o nly t hree e xamples f rom m any h undreds. I t i s n ot s urprising , f racturing ,
g iven t he r aw f orms m ade a vailable t hrough m arrow
t hat t otally d iffering k inds o f t ools s hould b e p roduced o n t he
b ones f rom t he t wo s pecies.
5 8
T able 1 :
S pec ies p roportions b ased o n r aw c ount i n g arbage b one s ample .
W estern S ites
C att le
S heep/Goat
M ezökomirom-A lsöhegy ( earliest B ronze a ge)
5 0 .7%
1 9 .9%
4 0 .0%
2 9 .5%
3 7.8%
2 5.6%
3 7.0%
2 3.7%
3 7.0%
3 5.0%
3 6.5%
3 4.1%
S ärbogärm-Cifrabo lond-vär ( m idd le B ronze a ge) I gar-Vämpuszta ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge) L ovasbereny-M ihi l lyvär ( m idd le B ronze a ge) E astern S ites V idre-Sziget ( m idd le B ronze a ge) T iszaug-Kemenytetö ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge) J äszdözsa-Kgpo lnaha lom* ( ear ly B ronze a ge)
2 9.1%
2 1.5%
( m idd le B ronze a ge)
3 7.9%
2 1.5%
( late B ronze a ge)
2 3.4%
9 .9%
*T hanks a re d ue t o D r . S ändor B ököny i
f or s upply ing m e w ith t hese d ata.
5 9
T ABLE 2 : P ercentage o f m etapod ials o f c att le a nd s heep/goat
W estern S ites
C att le
S heep/Goat
M ez5komärom-A 1s6hegy ( ear liest B ronze a ge)
1 7 .9%
1 .42%
S ärbogärd-Cifrabo londvär ( m idd le B ronze a ge)
1 4.5%
1 7.8%
1 0 .4%
1 7.2%
I gar-Vämpuszta ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge) L oyasbereny-M ihälyygr ( m idd le B ronze a ge)
2 3.0%
2 .40%
E astern S ites V idre-Sziget ( m idd le B ronze a ge)
1 0.8%
1 9.4%
1 0 .0%
1 9 .8%
T iszaug-Kemenytetö ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge)
6 0
i n t he g arbage s amp les.
C HOYKE:
U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY
C ATEGORIES O F B ONE T OOLS O ne o f
t he p roblems
i nvolved i n t he a nalysis o f b one t ools i s s orting
o ut t he s ignificance o f s pecies a nd b one e lement ' in t he g eneration o f a p articular b one t ool t ype . U se o f p lanned v ersus e xpedient c ategories c ross-cuts s pecies a nd b one e lement . p atterns .
t he s ame s elected b one . t hat
T hey c an t hus h elp c larify s election
P lanned t ools a re h ere d efined a s t hose t ools m ade r epeatedly o n T he b one i s u sually f ractured i n a p atterned w ay
c reates a r ough f orm r equiring f inishing r ather t han m ajor r eworking .
E xpedient b ased
o n
t ools
w ere
s piral
o riginally
f ractures .
d efined
T his
b y
J ohnson
( 1974)
d efinition o verlooks
t he
a s f act
b eing
t ools
t hat
t here
m ay b e d eliberate r egularities i n t he way c ertain b ones a re f ractured , p erhaps e ven a s a f eedback r esponse t o t he f ormal r equirements o f c ertain t ools . E xpedient t ools h ave t herefore b een r edefined t o i nclude t ools b ased o n b one t ype .
f ragments
t hat h appen t o c onform t o t he s ize a nd f orm o f t he t ool
T here m ust a lso b e ap lanned v ariant o f t he t ool t ype . F or t he m etapodials u nder d iscussion h ere a n a ssociation i ndex h as b een
u sed t o d emonstrate h ow t he c ategories c an b e u sed t o m ake p rehistoric p references c lear . T hus , p lanned m etapodial-based t ools a re s hown t o b e h ighly a ssociated w ith s heep a djust
f or
t he
l ow
n umber
a nd
o f
g oat .
t ools
Y ates '
i n o ne
o f
c orrection h as
b een u sed
t he c ategories
( n < 5 ) .
t o T he
r elatively h igh , p ositive c orrelation w hich i s s ignificant o n a p 0 .01 l evel a ccording t o t he s ubsequent c hi-square t est , c onfirms t his c onclusion ( Table 3 ) . T he c alculation s hows c learly t hat s heep a nd g oat m etapodials were d eliberately s elected a nd f all l argely i nto t he p lanned t ool c ategory . T he t ools t hus i ncluded a re p erforators ( Figure 1 , 1& 2 ) w ith a nd w ithout e piphyseal h andles , d ouble-pointed f ishing g orges , a nd t wo o bjects o f u nknown f unction . T hese l atter a re m etatarsals t hat a re c ompletely p olished a nd d rilled a t t he p roximal e nd t o a ccommodate a s mall s eparate p rotruding p iece a lso c arved o ut o f b one ( Figure
1 ,
4 ) .
( Figure
S ince t he b ones
1 ,
3 ) .
T here a re a lso n arrow s crapers
c hosen f or t his
t ool w ere t ibiae t hese
f ew
m etapodial t ools a re c onsidered e xpedient . T ools m ade o f c attle m etapodia f all m ore i nto t he c ategory o f e xpedient t ools .
U se w as m ade o f t he b road s traight s urfaces s ometimes p roduced w hen
t he d iaphysis w as s hattered d uring f racturing f or m arrow .
S uch b one
t ools
o ccur i n s mall n umbers o n a lmost a ll t he s ites b ut s ince t he b one e lements c hosen f or s uch s crapers w ere r ibs i n t he w estern p art o f t he c ountry a nd m andibles
o r
t he
d orsal
d iaphyses
o f
f irst
p halanges
i n t he
e astern a reas
t hey a lmost a ll f all i nto t he e xpedient t ool c ategory ( Figures 1 , 6 & 7 ) . T he i nterpretation o f t hese t ools a s c eramic s crapers i s b ased o n t he f orm a nd o n t he p resence,
o n t he working e nd,
o f
t he u neven c riss-crossing
s triations p roduced w hen t he t ool r an a cross t he h ard b its o f t emper i n t he c lay s urfaces .
O nly t wo o f
t he m etapodial-based t ools
c onsidered p lanned ( Figure 1 , 5 ) . T hey h ave b een f rom t heir s hape , b ut t heir a ctual u se i s u ncertain .
6 1
f rom c attle m ay b e
l abelled
" chisel-like"
T able 3 :
A ssoc iation
i ndex f or p lanned a nd e xpedient t ools.
T ype S pecies
P lanned
s heep/goat
4 2
T otal 4 0
1 3 Y -
4 0 2
c att le
4 2
E xped ient
H
r e jected
T ota l
1 3
5 3
1 4
1 6
2 7
6 9
I=0 .9 1126
2 7
C oefficient o f ( with Y ates'
c orre lat ion c orrection)
T ype S pec ies
s heep/goat c att le
T otal r=0 .50937
P lanned
E xpedient
T ota l
3 9 .5
1 3.5
5 3
2 .5
1 3.5
1 6
2 7
6 9
4 2 c hi-square = 1 7.90238
6 2
d .f.
= 1
2 .
5cr n
F IGURE
1 :
P lanned, E xped ient ,
M etapod ia l-based s heep/goat.
4 .
b one
t oo ls
E xpedient,
f rom B ronze s heep/goat.
c att le .
6 3
A ge 5 .
s ites
i n
P lanned,
H ungary . c attle.
1 -3 6 -7
C HOYKE:
U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY
C ONCLUSIONS P laced i n ap roduction-consumption c ontext , t ools m ade o n b oth k inds o f m etapodials s uch a s s mall p erforators a nd b road c eramic s crapers , w ere m ade f rom b utchered b one t hat h ad b een d isarticulated , m arrow .
c ooked a nd s plit f or
S ince t he t ool u ser h ad a s pecific i dea o f
s uitable
f or
a p articular
a ctivity ,
w hat
r egular f racture
f orm o f
p atterns
t ool w as
o n b ones
o f
a ppropriate s ize n aturally a llowed p roduction o f p articular t ools . O ther b ones w ere u sed l ess o pportunistically when t hey o ccurred i n a f orm u sable w ith m inimal m odification . T he f inal t ool f orm w as d ependent o n w hich a nimals w ere a vailable ,
o r f racturing t raditions a nd o n f inal r efining
a nd s haping t echniques .
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S .
( 1974).
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i n C entral
A kademia K iado .
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J .
( 1975).
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( A.T.
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Ed.)
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P aleo-Indian B one E xpediency T ools-Lubbock L ake
P aper
p resented
a t
t he
4 2nd
A nnual
M eeting
o f
t he
t ools
a nd
S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology , N ew O rleans . J ones ,
P .
( 1980) .
E xperimental
b utchery w ith m odern s tone
i ts r elevance f or P aleolithic a rcheology . M arosi , A . ( 1930) .
W orld A rchaeology 1 2 ,
A P akozdvari ö stelep .
2 , 1 53-165 .
A rchaologiai E rtesitä 4 4,
5 3-73. N oe-Nygaard,
N .
( 1977).
B utchering
t aphonomic f actor i n a rchaeological d eposits.
6 4
a nd
marrow
f racturing
P aleobiology 3 ,
2 18-237.
a s
a
C HOYKE: S adek-Kooros, o f c riteria.
H .
U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY ( 1975).
I ntentional f racturing o f b one :
I n ( A.T. C lason , E d
)A rchaeozoological S tudies.
N orth H olland P ublishing C ompany, p p. U erpmann ,
H .P.
( 1973).
d escription A msterdam :
1 39-150.
A nimal
W orld A rchaeology 4 (3), 3 08-309.
6 5
b one f inds
a nd
e conomic a rchaeology.
R ECONSTRUCTION O F P REHISTORIC C ATTLE R EPRESENTED B Y A STRAGALI I N A B RONZE A GE " SACRIFICIAL P IT"
L aszlö B artosiewicz I nstitute o f A rchaeology H ungarian A cademy o f S ciences , B udapest 1 250, U ri u tca 4 9, H ungary
I NTRODUCTION T his F ourth
a rticle c ontinues t he w ork o utlined i n t he p aper d elivered a t t he
I nternational
( Bartosiewicz,
C onference
u npublished) .
i n
W hile
A rchaeozoology
t hat
p aper w as
i n
L ondon
c hiefly
i n
1 982
c oncerned w ith
t he m ethodological a spects o f e stablishing r elationships w ithin a p articular b one
a ssemblage
t his
a rticle
a ttempts
t o
p rovide
a more
z oological
i nterpretation.
M ATERIAL A ND M ETHODS T he b asic d ata u sed i n t his s tudy a re t en m easurements t aken o n e ach o f 4 4 c attle a stragali
f rom o ne o f
t he p its
( rm .
5 5) a t
h ill-fortress a t L ovasber& ly - M ihglyvgr ( Tables l a ,
t he M iddle B ronze A ge l b a nd l c) .
T his s ite
i s l ocated i n t he e astern s ection o f c entral T ransdanubia i n H ungary a nd w as i nhabited b y p eople o f t he V atya c ulture w ho o ccupied m uch o f n orth e astern T ransdanubia a round 1 400 b .c. P it
5 5
c ontained 3 37
( Bgndi & P etres,
a nimal
b ones ,
p halanges a nd l ong b one f ragments w hich
1 969).
t he m ajority o f w hich w ere c attle w ere n ot
s o
s uitable
f or m etrical
a nalysis . T he 4 4 c attle a stragal' w ere e xceptional f rom t his p oint o f v iew a s t heir r elative a bundance a nd g ood p reservation o ffered a c ompromise b etween m easurability a nd s ample s ize .
O ther s pecies r epresented b y o nly a
f ew b ones w ere h orse , w ild p ig a nd s mall r uminants . A s hort s ummary o f t he m ajority o f t he m ultivariate m ethods u sed i n t he p reliminary s tudy o f t his m aterial ( Bartosiewicz & C hoyke , 1 983) i s n ecessary t o u nderstand t he b asic c oncepts o f t he p resent w ork . 1 .
T he t en m easurements w ere f irst s ubjected t o af actor a nalysis w hich w as s upposed t o o utline t he s tructure o f t heir c orrelations . t he t en p otential f actors h ad a l atent r oot e xceeding 1 . r epresented p redominantly t he " SIZE" o f t he b ones .
O nly o ne o f T his f actor
A r ank o f v ariables
w as e stablished o n t he b asis o f f actor l oadings. 2 .
I ndividual a stragali w ere c lustered a ccording t o t he E ucledian d istances b etween t heir s tandard s cores a nd f ormed t hree g roups u nder a c ritical
6 7
T ABLE c att le
l a :
A stra lagus
i n P it 5 5
a s p resented
m easurements
( in
mm)
a t L ovasbereny-Mihä lyvgr .
o f
t he
T he
" small"
l ast c o lumn
s ize
g roup
c ontains
o f
B ronze
a ge
w eight e st imates
i n t his p aper .
4 -
. c
_C
l e a
0
l eft
f a t f r e c a r c a s ,
a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e
L a t e r a l d e p t h
C h o r d o f t h e
l a t e r a l t
C h o r d o f t h e
D i s t a l b r e a d t h
C O
P r o x i m a l b r e a d t h
G r e a t e s t l a t e r a l
( 1 )
r ight
o f t h e p l a n t a r
r o c h
S m a l e s t l e n g t h
5 4.4
5 2.2
4 3.4
3 5.1
3 4.0
3 3.1
3 3.5
3 1.1
2 4.0
2 9.2
1 63.9
5 5.8
5 7.9
4 3.6
3 5.9
3 5.2
3 7.5
3 5.4
3 0.4
2 8.9
3 1.4
1 93.1
6 1.2
5 6.5
4 6.1
3 9.5
3 8.6
4 0.3
3 6.8
3 5.0
3 1.8
3 4.9
2 26.6
6 0.0
5 6.1
4 7.7
4 0.0
4 1.1
4 3.6
4 0.4
3 3.2
3 0.2
3 6.1
2 34.9
5 9.0
5 4.9
4 5.1
4 0.0
3 7.4
4 1.3
3 8.6
3 3.1
2 9.2
3 5.8
2 05.6
6 1.2
5 6.2
4 8.0
4 1.9
4 0.6
4 4.8
3 9.2
3 2.2
3 3.0
3 5.9
2 37.2
6 3.2
5 8.1
4 9.3
4 2.1
4 1.0
4 5.5
3 8.8
3 6.0
3 1.6
3 6.9
2 55.5
5 8.1
5 4.0
4 4.0
4 0.2
3 5.7
4 0.6
3 7.2
3 2.4
2 9.6
3 2.4
1 90.1
5 8.2
5 3.9
4 4.3
4 1.9
3 6.5
4 1.1
3 8.3
3 2.9
3 0.7
3 4.9
1 94.3
5 8.1
5 5.1
4 4.8
4 0.3
3 6.9
4 2.7
3 9.0
3 2.8
2 9.1
3 5.2
2 00.5
5 9.9
5 4.0
4 4.1
3 9.8
4 0.4
4 2.0
3 7.3
3 3.2
2 8.1
3 4.9
2 2 1.8
6 1.2
5 5.2
4 5.1
4 2.1
4 0.0
4 1.9
3 8.4
3 4.2
3 0.9
3 6.1
2 29 .4
6 1.6
5 8.1
4 7.0
4 3.8
3 9.5
4 3.8
4 1.8
3 4.3
3 1.6
3 7.2
2 40 .0
6 1.7
5 5.5
4 6.2
4 2.7
3 8.5
4 4.0
3 8.5
3 4.0
2 9.6
3 4.6
2 23.8
6 0.0
5 4.9
4 5.0
4 1.7
3 8.0
4 0.8
3 8.9
3 4.1
3 0.1
3 5.0
2 12.5
5 9.4
5 5.4
4 5.0
3 8.6
3 8.0
4 2.4
3 8.7
3 4.6
2 8.7
3 2.9
2 12.3
68
A stra lagus
m easurements
o f
t he
T he
" med ium"
l ast c o lumn
s ize
g roup
o f
B ronze
a ge
c ontains w eight e stimates
f a t f r e c a r c a s ,
B r e a d t h o f t h e p l a n t a r
5 9 .0
4 9 .3
4 1.7
4 0.6
4 7.0
4 0.2
3 5.2
3 3.0
3 6.1
2 55.5
6 5.0
6 0.3
5 0.3
4 1.9
4 0.0
4 5.2
4 1.1
3 5.6
3 2.3
3 7.3
2 60.1
6 4.3
5 7.1
5 0.6
4 4.0
4 0.0
4 7.4
4 0.0
3 5.8
3 0.4
3 5.5
2 43.7
6 5.2
6 0.7
4 8.2
4 5.1
4 2.5
4 6.9
4 2.1
3 7.0
3 2.6
4 0.0
2 79.1
6 3.3
5 9.3
4 8.2
4 5.0
4 2.0
4 4.8
4 1.7
3 4.7
3 3.0
3 7.5
2 6 1.6
6 5.0
5 9.6
5 0.0
4 2.1
4 0.9
4 6.0
4 2 .0
3 5.6
3 1.8
3 5.2
2 62.9
6 5.2
6 0.1
5 0.7
4 6.1
4 2.2
4 8.3
4 1.4
3 6.4
3 2.3
3 9 .1
2 74.4
6 4.1
5 9 .3
4 8 .2
4 3.9
4 1.1
4 3.2
4 0.1
3 5.0
3 1.7
3 6.9
2 59.2
6 2.0
5 4.3
4 6.1
4 5.2
4 1.9
4 4.2
4 0.6
3 4.4
3 1.9
3 8.1
2 34.0
6 2.2
5 8.4
4 7.9
4 4.6
4 2.0
4 4.5
4 0.8
3 4.8
3 0.7
3 7.1
2 53.1
6 4.6
5 7.5
4 7.1
4 6.5
4 3.2
4 6.8
4 1.7
3 4.9
3 2.9
3 9 .1
2 66.2
6 4.2
5 6.0
4 8 .0
4 6.8
4 4.1
4 6.7
4 3.5
3 5.0
3 4.8
3 9 .4
2 63.1
6 4.4
5 9.8
4 9 .8
4 4.3
4 1.2
4 6.8
4 1.0
3 7.0
3 4.3
3 7.2
2 63.2
6 4.8
5 9 .0
4 9 .9
4 3.2
4 1.0
4 7.1
4 1.0
3 6.2
3 1.8
3 8 .2
2 60.1
6 7.2
6 1.2
5 0.7
4 5.0
4 1.4
4 7.1
4 2.2
3 6.0
3 4.7
3 6.1
2 82.5
6 4.2
5 8.9
4 9 .0
4 4.9
4 0.1
4 6.2
4 0.1
3 6.0
3 2.7
3 4.1
2 51.6
6 4.9
6 0.3
4 8.2
4 2.3
4 1.0
4 3.0
3 9 .7
3 5.7
3 3.5
3 7.1
2 66.2
6 5.6
6 0.4
4 9 .4
4 3.0
4 1.8
4 6.0
4 2.2
3 5.2
3 3.1
3 7.8
2 74.8
C h o r d o f t h e
6 9
C h o r d o f t h e
6 4.3
D i s t a l b r e a d t h
a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e
l eft
mm )
i n t his p aper .
G r e a t e s t l a t e r a l
a s p resented
r ight
( in
i n P it 5 5 a t L ovasbereny-Mihg lyvän
l a t e r a l t r o c h l e
l b :
P r o x i m a l b r e a d t h
c att le
S m a l e s t l e n g t h
T ABLE
T ABLE 1 c :
A stra lagus m easurements ( in mm) o f t he " large" s ize g roup o f B ronze a ge c att le
I n P it 5 5 a t L ovasbergny-Mihg lyvgr .
T he l ast c o lumn c ontains w eight e stimates a s
p resented i n t his p aper .
: 1 7 )
l eft
l a t e r a l t r o c h l e a
3
4 4.0
3 9.9
4 6.8
4 1.9
3 5.7
3 3.0
3 6 .1
2 97.6
6 7.9
6 3.0
5 0.8
4 4.9
4 2.9
5 1.1
4 3.0
3 6.2
3 5.0
3 8 .5
3 34.5
6 7.2
6 1.6
4 7.9
4 5.7
4 2.1
4 7.1
4 3.0
3 8.2
3 4.5
3 8 .8
3 17.7
6 7.0
6 2.1
5 2.1
4 5.9
4 1.6
4 9 .2
4 5.5
3 6.9
3 4.6
3 9 .0
3 15.5
6 5.7
6 0.0
5 1.1
4 7.2
4 3.2
4 8.3
4 3.0
3 7.0
3 9.2
4 0 .0
3 10.4
6 7.2
6 1.4
4 9 .9
4 5.1
4 3.2
4 4.5
4 3.2
3 8 .1
3 3.9
3 6.5
3 24.9
6 6.6
6 1.8
4 9.8
4 5.1
4 2.1
4 8.2
4 3.8
3 7.9
3 6.4
3 7.7
3 15.9
6 8.2
6 1.8
5 1.9
4 6.9
4 3.2
4 7.2
4 2.6
3 6.8
3 5.0
3 9 .8
3 31.9
6 8.1
6 3.2
5 0.2
4 7.8
4 4.0
4 7.7
4 3.4
3 8.2
3 2.0
4 0 .7
3 45.2
6 9 .1
6 0.7
5 1.2
4 9 .2
4 5.2
4 8.0
4 2.1
3 7.4
3 4.4
3 8 .8
3 45.6
70
f a t f r e c a r c a s ,
5 0.7
2
L a t e r a l d e p t h
6 1.8
C h o r d o f t h e
6 6.2
C D
C h o r d o f t h e
D i s t a l b r e a d t h
r ight
4 -
0 P r o x i m a l b r e a d t h
G r e a t e s t l a t e r a l
0
B ARTOSIEWICZ: v alue
2 .
I n
t his
R ECONSTRUCTION O F P REHISTORIC C AI1LE
c alculation a ll
t he
t en
m easurements
w ere
e qually
i nvolved d isregarding t he r ank d etermined b y t he f actor a nalysis. T hus, t he r esults a re i nfluenced b y t he p roportions o f t he b ones a s w ell. 3 .
R esults o f
t he d iscriminant a nalysis which a lso s elected t he most
i mportant v ariables a ccording t o t he d istinctive p ower b etween t he t hree g roups
c ompiled
ap riori
o n t he
b asis
o f
t he c luster a nalysis .
T his
c alculation a gain d irected a ttention t o " SIZE" a s a d istinguishing c riterion . T hese
c alculations
w ere u sed
t o
t est t he h ypothesis t hat
t he v ariance
r evealed b y t he t otal o f 4 40 m easurements d id n ot s imply e xpress c ontinuity w ithin t he s ample b ut r ather r eflected v ariability d ue t o t he d ifference b etween
" large" ,
" medium
s ize"
a nd
" small"
c attle
r epresented
i n
t he
p it .
T he r esults w ere s ignificant o n a p l n C V . . .
0
-
c o
4 , , 4 0 4 _
t I A .
r -
. 0 + 1
O D O' N
a )
0 • 4 O •
• 0 0 )
-
-. ° 0
0 ) c 4 -
L . — 0 0 0 0- 0
n u m b e r o f
4 3
. a u )
a n d o c u p a t i o n
U ) u ) + c
a t a v e r a g e 1 0 .
i d e n t i f a b l e b o n e s
t a p h o n m i c l o s ;
B c e s n e 6 & D r i e s c h
G AUTIER :
P ROBLEMS O F A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL Q UANTIFICATION
I n t he l atest d ecades s cientists h ave b egun t o r ealize m ore a nd m ore t hat a rchaeozoological a ssemblages a re n ot r adically d ifferent f rom p urely p alaeontological a nd g enerally o lder a ssemblages . T able 1 s ummarizes s ome e stimates o f p reservation ( or r ecovery) r ates o f i dentifiable ( or p erhaps , b etter , i dentified ) b one f ragments ( or s pecimens) . T hey a re b ased o n d ata , t hemselves a lso e stimates , f ound i n t he l iterature , w hich I m odified i n s ome c ases a ccording t o m y o wn v iews , t hus i ntroducing s ome m ore e stimates . T he r esults a re h ence e stimates , a nd e stimates b ased o n e stimates , p roviding u s w ith s ome i dea o f t he q uantitative r elation i n v arious c ontexts b etween f aunal s amples a nd t he t hanatocoenoses f rom w hich t hey a re d erived . O ther d ata c an b e f ound i n t he l iterature , b ut m ay n ot b e q uantifiable a s i n T able 1 . V on d en D riesch ( 1972) f or e xample r efers t o t he f act t hat a t C erro d e l a V irgen I I ( Spain ) t he o ccupation l asted f or a pproximately 4 00 y ears ( 2 000 1 600 B C ) , w hile t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals o f s laughtered c attle i s o nly 4 0 . U erpmann & F rey ( 1981) h ad 5 00 b ones f or s tudy r epresenting a p eriod o f a bout 2 000 y ears i n ' A li T appe ( northern I ran ; 1 0 ,500 - 8 ,000 B C ) . T hey c omment o n t he m arked t aphonomic l oss a nd c onclude t hat t he a ssociation c ollected i s v ery l ikely a r epresentative s ample r esulting f rom r andom s elective p rocesses ( " zmfällsgesteuerten A uswahlverfahren , p . 1 66) . T he p reservation o r r ecovery r ates i n T able 1 c an a lso b e r ead a s p arameters d efining t he c hances o f p reservation o r r ecovery . O n t he b asis f or e xample o f t he E ketorp e stimates , t he c hance t hat a t a nimal o f a p articular a rchaeozoological t hanatocoenosis w ill b e r epresented b y o ne f ragment i n a n a ssemblage s ubmitted f or s tudy , i s 0 .5 . C hances t hat a n a nimal w ill b e r epresented b y nb ones w ould b e l ess t han 0 .5 t o t he n th d egree , i .e . 0 .25 f or t wo b ones , 0 . 125 f or t hree b ones , 0 .0626 f or f our b ones e tc . F rom t he f oregoing w e c an d educe t hat t he d egree o f i nterdependence i .e . t he f act t hat a n a nimal i s r epresented b y s everal b ones a nd h ence c ounted s everal t imes i s m uch l ess t han m any a nalysts f ear . I t i s a lso c lear f rom T able 1 t hat a rchaeozoological a ssemblages a re g enerally q uantitatively v ery m uch r educed s amples o f t he t hanatocoenoses t hat t hey a re d erived f rom . F urthermore w e k now t hat t he b ias i n o ur s amples i s n ot o nly q uantitative , b ut a lso q ualitative ( differential d estruction o f j uvenile , f emale , s enile b ones e tc . ) . H ence , i n g eneral a ny p arameter w e c alculate w ithout c onsiderable m anipulation o f o ur r aw d ata b ears o nly a r estricted o r a t entative r elation t o t he r eal q uantitative c omposition o f t he o riginal t hanatocoenoses . H ence i t s eems r idiculous t o m e t o a ttempt p recise r econstructions o f t hese t hanatocoenoses a nd , b y e xtension , o f p ast e conomies . S uch p recise r econstructions a re a t t heir b est h euristic m odels . U nfortunately t hey a re e asily m istaken b y u nwary . a rchaeologists a nd b y o urselves f or m anifestations o f s cience w ith a c apital S. W hat c an w e d o i f p recise r econstructions a re i ndeed i mpossible? I t hink t hat r esearch s trategies i n a rchaeozoology s hould c oncentrate o n e xtensive i ntra-site a nd i nter-site c omparison o n t he b asis o f r elative p arameters . S uch c omparison h as y ielded a nd w ill y ield p atterns o f s imilarities a nd d issimilarities , w hich i n t he e nd c an g enerally b e c orrelated w ith p alaeoecological , p alaeoeconomical, c ultural, t aphonomic f actors o r s ampling o r o ther a rchaeological r esearch p rocedures i n t he f ield o r t he l aboratory .
2 40
L . J . J
D i a g n o s t i c e l e m n t c o u n t s
F r a g m e n t o r s p e c i m e n c o u n t s
S u m a r y c l a s i f i c a t i o n o f q u a n t i f c a t i o n
a )
0 _
U " )
s e a l s o L i e ,
S t e i n f e l d ,
1 9 7 6 a ; 1 9 7 6 b ;
( a s u m e d p a i r s ,
C o r e c t e d r e l a t i v e
_ c
( G i l b e r t &
: M N I c o u n t s
i n a r c h a e o z o l g y .
0
• _ 0
« 3
•
4 0
1 9 7 ; F i e l e r & T u r n e r ,
• •
G AUTIER :
P ROBLEMS O F A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL Q UANTIFICATION
L ei u s n ow t urn t o t he r elative p arameters t hat c an b e u sed i n o ur c omparisons a nd t he q uantification t echniques i n v ogue . T he t wo p arameters m ost f requently u sed h ave b een l abelled b y C haplin ( 1965) s pecific r atio ( i .e . t he r elative a bundance o f t he a nimal g roups p resent) a nd d ietary r atio ( i .e . t he r elative a bundance o f m eat p rovided b y e ach a nimal g roup) . F or s pecific r atio I w ould l ike t o s ubstitute a nimal g roup r atio , s ince n ons pecific i dentification c ategories c an b e u seful . T able 2 l ists t he m ethods u sed t o o btain t hese p arameters i n what , Ih ope , i s ac oherent s ystem. F ragment ( or s pecimen) c ounts a nd d iagnostic e lement c ounts a re m ost f requently u sed . I n f act t he m ajor s chism i n a rchaeozoological r esearch m ay w ell b etween t he m any a dherents o f m inimum n umber o f i ndividual ( MNI) c ounts a nd a n u ntil n ow m uch s maller g roup o f a postates p referring f ragments ( NT ) , o r s pecimen , c ounts . T he w eight m ethod i s n ot u sed v ery r egularly a nd m any c riticisms, w ell-founded o r n ot , h ave b een a imed a t i t . Moreover t he r elationship b etween b one w eight r atios a nd a nimal g roup o r d ietary r atios i s n ot c lear ( Chaplin 1 971; C asteel 1 978 ) . P robabilistic m ethods a re a lso n ot v ery m uch u sed , b ut a s hort d iscussion o f t hem i s a ppropriate. P robabilistic m ethods f ocus o n q uantification m ainly o n t he b asis o f t he p robabilities o f o btaining p aired b ones . A f ormula w as f irst p ublished b y K rantz ( 1968) . T his e ffort a ttracted l ittle a ttention , s ince t wo d ecades a go m uch c onfusion s till e xists c oncerning t he r elations b etween M NI , t he r eal n umber o f a nimals p resent i n a n a ssemblage ( NRI = n ombre r eel d 'individus s ensu P oplin ( 1976a & 1 976b) ; t he n umber o f a nimals i n t he e xcavated t aphocoenosis) a nd t he i nitial n umber o f a nimals ( NI : n ombre i nitial s ensu P oplin ( ibid . ) ; t he t hanatocoenoses) . M oreover K rantz d id n ot e xplain r igorously h ow h e o btained h is f ormula ; i n f act i t a ppears t o b e e stablished e mpirically . R ecently a ttention i s a gain f ocussing o n p robabilistic m ethods ( Poplin 1 981;
F ieller & T urner 1 982 ;
D ucos 1 984 ;
s ee
a lso L ie 1 980 ; T urner 1 981) . T hese a pproaches c ertainly b ear o ut t he f act t hat MNI h as l ittle v alue a s ap arameter f or e stimating t he s ize o f o ur o riginal t hanatocoenoses a nd n o d oubt t he s tatistical m ethods y ield f ar m ore a cceptable r esults . H owever I m aintain t hat o ur i nability t o r ecognize r eal p airs , e specially i n l arge c ollections , r emains a s erious s ource o f n egative q uantitative b ias , s keletal e lements .
which i s n ot s olved b y c onsidering p airs o f v arious
T urning t o t he m ethods m ost u sed u ntil n ow , w e f ind t hat m any s cholars a re p uzzled w ith t he n on-linear r elation b etween t he r esults o btained . T hose w ho i nvestigated i t e xpressed t his n on-linear r elation i n a s imilar f ashion :
M NI = b . N Fa M NI = 1 /3 N FM M NI = M NI =
N FP+ 1 0 L -N F
( a
1 )
( Ducos 1 968 & 1 975).
( Poplin 1 976 a & b ). ( 0
m >
E
t he p roportiona l
s heep a nd/or g oats a t f our s ites , ( 1969 ) .
a
a m
o m
S t .
K ilda
r epresentat ions
a
. 0
o f
a . c
e lements o f
c alculated u sing t he method o f B rain h as
n ot b een a ffected b y s caveng ing o r
T hat f rom S heffie ld h as b een a ffected b y s cavengers ,
b ut n ot b y
B oth t he Hottentot a nd C ast l eford c o llect ions h ave b een a ffected b y
b oth s cavengers a nd h umans .
S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES T he s tudy a rea c ontained t hree m ain t ypes o f r emains: 1 ) f irst
S cavenged c arcasses ,
r ecording
a s
e ntire
f ound ( due t o r emoval , r eference m aterial. 2 )
w hich w ere m onitored f rom t he t ime o f t heir
c arcasses
u ntil
c onsumption
o r
e ither
b urial) ,
t hey
o r
c ould
t hey
n o
w ere
l onger
b e
c ollected
a s
A g eneral s catter o f d isarticulated b ones c ollected f rom t he
s urface o f t he m oor. 3 )
A s catter o f d isarticulated b ones i n a nd a round t he e ntrances t o a
c luster o f f ox d ens. T hree m ajor a spects w ere s tudied: 1 )
T he
s equence
o f
d isarticulation
a nd
r emoval
o f
e lements
f rom
e ntire
c arcasses. E ach c arcass w as v isited a t a pproximately t wo m onthly i ntervals t o b egin w ith ,
a nd
l ater
a t
f our
t o
s ix m onthly
i ntervals .
O n e ach o ccasion ,
t he
p osition o f t he c arcass a nd o f a ny d isplaced e lements w as r ecorded o n s ketch p lans a t a s cale o f 1 :20 , t he c arcass d eemed
h ad
b een
' removed
o r
a fter a n a rea o f a pproximately 3 0 m r adius
s earched . l ost ' .
E lements T his
p art
n ot o f
f ound
t he
w ithin
s tudy
, his
h as
a round
a rea w ere
n ot
y et
b een
c ompleted , b ut t he i nitial i mpression i s t hat t he s equence o f d isarticulation i s r emarkably s imilar t o t hat r ecorded b y H ill A frica .
T his
p robably
r eflects
j oints i n a n u ngulate 's b ody , ( in
r elation
t o
t he
s ize
o f
t he
( 1975) f or u ngulates i n E ast
r elative s trengths o f t he d ifferent
a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat t heir p rey)
may
c arcass 's i nherent s equence o f d isarticulation .
b e
a ble
W hilst
l arge c arnivores
t o o ver-ride
t he
a c omparative s tudy
o f t he e ffects o f d ifferent s cavengers ( human a nd n on-human ) o n c omplete c arcasses o f d ifferent p rey s pecies a nd s izes w ould b e o f g reat h elp i n t he i nterpretation o f s cavenged c arcass r emains t hought t o b e a ssociated w ith e arly h umans ,
i t i s o f l ess r elevance t o t he s tudy o f m ost l ater s ites ,
w hen
l arge c arnivores h ad b ecame l ocally s carce o r e xtinct. 2 )
T he r elative s urvival ( recovery) r ates o f d ifferent e lements. I n
t he
s pring o f
v isibility a t i ts b est ,
1 982,
when t he v egetation was a t i ts l owest a nd
s ystematic c ollections w ere m ade o f t he t hree t ypes
o f b one ( carcasses , s urface s catters a nd f ox d en s catters) v isible w ithin t he s tudy a rea ( Figure , 1 ) . A lthough v isibility w as n ot p erfect , a nd s maller b ones m ust h ave b een m issed i n p laces , t hat
o n
a rchaeological
s ites
w here
t he r ecovery w as p robably s imilar t o
p ick
a nd
s hovel,
r ather
t han
s ieving ,
t echniques a re u sed. T he
p roportional
r epresentation w as
c alculated
f ollowing
B rain ( 1969) :
t he M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals ( MNI) w as t aken a s t he g reatest n umber o f o ne e lement
o f
o ne
s ide
( e .g .
1 8 r ight
t ibiae) ,
a nd t he e xpected n umber o f
e lements w as t hen c alculated u sing t he M NI m ultiplied b y t he n umber o f t hat e lement i n t he b ody : e .g . 1 8 x 2 t ibiae = 3 6 ; 1 8 x 1 3 t horacic v ertebrae = 2 34 . T he p roportional r epresentation i s t he o bserved f requency e xpressed a s a p ercentage o f t he e xpected f requency : e .g . d istal t ibiae : 2 9 o bserved 3 6 e xpected = a p roportional r epresentation o f 8 1% ; t horacic v ertebrae : 5 7 o bserved 2 34 e xpected = 2 4% r epresentation . L oose u nfused e piphyses
2 61
S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES w ere n ot i ncluded , t o a void d ouble-counting . N ot a ll e lements w ere u sed : v ery s mall b ones s uch a s s esamoids , c arpals a nd t he s maller t arsals w ere n ot c ounted ( since t hey h ad l ow c hances o f r ecovery o n t he m oorland s urface) , c audal v ertebrae w ere i gnored ( since m ost l ambs a re d ocked s oon a fter b irth ) , a nd p halanges w ere g rouped t ogether i n o rder t o b e c omparable w ith B rain 's d ata . T his l ast p oint i s r egrettable , s ince t here w ere m arked d ifferences b etween t he n umbers r ecovered : p roximal p halanges w ere b y f ar t he c ommonest , a nd m iddle p halanges w ere s carcer t han d istal p halanges . S kulls w ere a lso i gnored , f or t wo r easons : ( i) b ecause i n a rchaeological c ontexts t hey a re o ften s o c omminuted t hat e stimates o f M NIs a nd p roportional r epresentations a re n ot f easible , a nd ( ii) b ecause t heir r ates o f b urial a ppear t o b e v ery d ifferent f rom t hose o f p ost-cranial e lements ( see t he n ote o n b urial r ates b elow ). D ata f rom o ther a reas w ere s ought t o t est s ome o f t he a ssumptions m ade i n t he a nalysis o f t he S heffield s heep m aterial . P rof . P eter J ewell a nd D r . P hilip A rmitage h ave b een s tudying t he S oay s heep o n t he i sland o f S t . K ilda , w hich a re a lmost t otally u naffected b y h umans . I n a ddition , S t . K ilda h as n o t errestrial p redators . T he c arcasses a re o nly l ikely t o b e a ffected b y c orvids, g ulls a nd b irds o f p rey a nd , p ossibly , b y s mall r odents s uch a s f ield m ice . D ifferences b etween c ollections i n t he t wo a reas , t herefore , s hould m ainly b e d ue t o t he p resence o r a bsence o f s cavenging f oxes . O ther f actors , s uch a s s urface v isibility, o bserver b ias , r ates o f b urial a nd w eathering a re p robably o f
f ar l ess
s ignificance .
I n 1 978 a nd
1 979 P rof .
J ewell a nd D r . A rmitage s ystematically c ollected a ll s urface-visible b ones f rom a n a rea o f r ough g razing i n a nd a round t he d eserted v illage o n S t. K ilda , a nd t hey h ave v ery k indly m ade t heir r ecords a vailable t o m e. F urther c omparisons w ere m ade w ith d ata f rom g oat r emains c ollected i n H ottentot v illages b y B rain ( 1969) , a nd w ith a c ollection f rom a R omanoB ritish f ort a nnexe a t C astleford , W est Y orkshire . T he material f rom C astleford was n ot s ieved . I n a ll f our r epresentations w ere c alculated i n t he s ame w ay .
c ases t he p roportional T he m ain c haracteristics
o f t he c ollections c an b e s ummarised a s : S t. K ilda o riginally e ntire c arcasses , n o h uman i nfluence , n o t errestrial s cavengers , b ird s cavengers. S heffield
s heep
o riginally e ntire c arcasses , n o h uman i nfluence, f ox s cavenging , b ird s cavengers. H ottentot g oats o riginally e ntire c arcasses , h uman i nfluence ( butchery a nd c onsumption ; n o t rade), d og s cavenging , p robably b ird s cavengers.
2 62
S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES C astleford s heep/goats n ot k nown i f c arcasses o riginally e ntire o r n ot , h uman i nfluence ( butchery a nd c onsumption ; t rade p ossible), d og s cavenging , b ird s cavengers ( corvid r emains i dentified a t t he s ite).
F igure 1 s hows t he p roportional r epresentations o f e lements i n t he f our c ollections , f ollowing t he r ank o rder s hown b y t he S t . K ilda m aterial , w hich s hows a s low a nd s teady f all-off f rom t he l arger , d enser b ones s uch a s t he t ibia , p elvis a nd h umerus , t owards t he s maller o r m ore v ascular b ones s uch a s t he c alcaneum , r ibs a nd v ertebrae . T his f all-off c an p robably b e e xplained a lmost t otally b y t wo f actors : ( i ) t he g reater v isibility o f l arge b ones a nd ( ii) t he g reater r esistance o f d ense b one t o c hemical w eathering a nd t o t rampling . S ince t hes b ones w ere n ot f ragmented , t he n umbers o f p roximal a nd d istal e nds o f l ong b ones a re e qual, d espite t he v ery u nequal d istribution o f d ense a nd v ascular b one ( such a s t he d istal v ersus t he p roximal h umerus) t hat u sually o ccurs o n a rchaeological s ites. T he S heffield s heep b ones s how a b roadly s imilar t rend , b ut w ith n otable e xceptions . I n t his c ase f ragmentation h as o ften s eparated p roximal f rom d istal a rticular e nds , a nd t here a re n oticeably f ewer p roximal t han d istal h umeri . O ther l ong b ones w hich w ould b e e xpected t o s how d ifferences a re t he t ibia , r adius a nd m etapodia . T he t ibia d oes , i n f act , h ave a r educed n umber o f ( vascular) p roximal e nds i n r elation t o t he n umber o f ( dense) d istal e nds. T he m etapodia a nd r adius , h owever , a ll s how v ery s imilar p roportions o f p roximal a nd d istal e nds , a nd t his i s f urther c ommented o n i n S ection 3 , w here f ragmentation p atterns a re d iscussed . T he m ain s urprise i n t he S heffield s heep d ata c omes f rom t he n umber o f r adii r ecovered , w hich s eem d istinctly o verrepresented c ompared t o t he S t . K ilda r esults . I c annot e xplain t his p henomenon a t p resent . T he t hird g roup - t he H ottentot g oat r emains , c ontrasts s harply w ith t he t wo p revious s ets o f d ata a nd , p resumably , t his i s m ainly d ue t o t he e ffect o f b utchery , c ooking a nd c onsumption a ctivities o f h umans . A ll t he v ascular b one p arts - p roximal t ibia , p roximal h umerus , p roximal a nd d istal f emur , s acrum , d istal r adius a nd v ertebrae a re g rossly u nder-represented . T he e lements t hat s urvived b est a re t he d ense d istal t ibia , d istal h umerus, m andible a nd p roximal r adius . T he m andible , i n t his c ase , a ppears g reatly o ver-represented c ompared t o t he ' non-human ' a ssemblages . A p artial e xplanation c ould b e t hat i t w as e x tracted a nd d iscarded e arly o n i n t he b utchery p rocess , a nd s o w as l ittle a ffected b y h uman i nfluence , b ut i ts h igher s urvival r ate w hen s cavenged b y d ogs r ather t han f oxes s eems o dd . T wo p ossibilities a re ( i ) t hat a ll t he o ther e lements w ere p referentially r educed b y h umans b efore d ogs h ad a c hance t o a lter t hem , a nd ( ii) t hat f lat o r d isarticulated m andibles w ere q uickly b uried b y s oil o r v egetation o r b oth i n t he t emperate B ritish s ites a nd , t herefore , w ere l ess e asily s een t han t hose i n t he s cant v egetation a long t he K uiseb R iver , w here t he H ottentot s tudy w as m ade . T he f ourth g roup , f rom R omano-British C astleford , s hows a d istribution t hat i s r emarkably s imilar t o t hat o f t he H ottentot g oats . I t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat , a t t his s ite , e ntire c arcasses o f s heep/goats w ere a vailable ( probably s laughtered i nside t he m ilitary a rea ) a nd t hat n o j oints o f m eat
2 63
F I G U R E 2 :
n e a r S h e f i e l d . ( p u n c t u r e , m o u t h i n g a n d
4 0
C )
0 0 .
2 64
S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES w ere s ubsequently e xported . O n o ther a rchaeological s ites , d eviations f rom t his p attern c ould b e t aken t o i mply t he p referential i mport o r e xport o f c ertain p arts o f t he b ody. O ne f actor t hat c ould n ot b e c ontrolled f or i n t he c ollections c ompared i n t his s tudy w as t he a ge d istribution o f t he c arcasses . T he r esistance o f a b one t o w eathering , c onsumption , e tc" i s p artly r elated t o i ts s tructure a nd d ensity , a nd y ounger b ones , w ith t heir v ascular u nfused e piphyses , a re m ore s usceptible t o d estruction t han a re t heir f used c outerparts . T his m ight a ccount f or s ome o f t he d ifferences b etween t he f our c ollections s hown i n F igure 1 . H owever , t he a ges a t d eath o f t he S t . K ilda a nd S heffield s heep a re v ery s imilar - b oth g roups o f c arcasses c ontained m ainly y earlings a nd m ature a dults . T he H ottentot g oats w ere m ainly e ither 6 12 m onths o ld o r a dult , w hilst m ost o f t he C astleford s heep/goats w ere y earlings a nd s uba dults . I t i s p ossible , t herefore , t hat t he u nder-representation o f m ore v ascular b ones a t C astleford m ay b e p artly d ue t o t his p henomenon . F urther s tudy o f t he S heffield d ata w ill i nvestigate t his p ossibility . 3 )
F ragmentation p atterns o f e lements.
T he o ther m ajor a spect o f t his s tudy i s a n a nalysis o f f ragmentation p atterns o f t he f ox-scavenged s heep b ones . T hese d ata c re s till b eing p rocessed , b ut p reliminary r esults i ndicate t hat t here a re c onsistent p atterns o f b reakage a nd d amage f or e ach e lement . E very f ragment h as b een r ecorded o n a s heet p rinted w ith d rawings o f t he e lement s een f rom v arious a spects , e .g . l ateral, a nterior , d istal . T he s hape a nd p osition o f a ny b reaks a re m arked o n t he r elevant d rawings a s w ell a s t he p ositions o f a ll f lake s cars , p unctures , a nd m outhing a nd g rooving m arks . F igure 2 s hows a t ypical h umerus f ragment w hich h as h ad t he p rox imal e piphysis c ompletely r emoved b y af ox , w ith c onsequent f lake s cars a nd a s piral f racture a round t he b roken e nd o f t he s haft , a nd w ith m outhing , g rooving a nd p uncture m arks a round t he m uscle i nsertions. T o c heck t hat t hese p atterns w ere n ot d ue t o i diosyncracies o f t he l ocal f ox p opulations , n or r estricted t o s heep c arcasses , as imilar s tudy w as u ndertaken w ith r oe a nd r ed d eer c arcasses s cavenged b y f oxes ( and p ossibly a lso b y b adgers) i n G rizedale F orest , C umbria . T he p atterns t here s eem r emarkably s imilar t o t hose i n t he S heffield c ollection , a nd m ay b e t ypical f or s mall - t o m edium-sized u ngulates s cavenged b y s mall ( i .e . d og-sized ) c arnivores . U nfortunately , t he d ense n ature o f m uch o f t he u ndergrowth i n t he f orest p recluded a s urface c ollection s imilar t o t hose o n S t . K ilda a nd t he P ennines . H owever , i n b oth g roups i t w as n oticeable t hat c ertain e lements , e .g . m etacarpus , m etatarsus a nd r adius , w ere h ardly e ver d amaged a part f rom a n o ccasional p uncture m ark ( see F igure 3 ) . T his e xplains t he s urprisingly e qual r epresentation o f p roximal a nd d istal e nds o f e ach o f t hese e lements i n t he o ther c ollections ( see F igure 1 ) r emarked o n a bove . M etapodia a re n ot c overed b y v ery m uch m eat , n or d o t hey c ontain v ery m any b lood - o r m arrow-filled c avities a nd , t herefore , a re p robably o f l ow a ttraction t o s cavengers w hen m eatier p arts o f ac arcass a re a vailable . O n ar adius , m ost o f t he m eat i s a t t he p roximal e nd w hich , u nusually , i s o ne o f t he d enser b one p arts . T he m ore e asily-consumed , v ascular b one i s a t t he d istal e nd , w hich h as c omparatively l ittle m eat o n i t a nd , t herefore , i s p robably a lso o f l ow a ttraction . A lthough t hese s tructural f actors r egarding t he b ones t hemselves a nd t heir c overing t issues m ay g o s ome w ay t owards e xplaining t he l ow d egree o f d amage s uffered b y t hese e lements i n t he
F IGURE 3 : S heffie ld . b een
h eavily
T wo t ypically a ltered s heep r adio-ulnae f rom t he s tudy a rea n ear N ote
h ow
t he
r adii
a re
i ntact ,
a ttacked .
2 66
w hilst
t he p roximal
u lnae
h ave
STALLIBRASS: EFFECTS OF SMALL CARNIVORES
Sheffield sheep and Grizedal e deer studies, they do not explain the differences in frequencies of these bones: many more radii seem to survive than do metapodia. This last fact may be linked with patterns of disarticulation and removal of limbs and partial limbs by predators; aspects which have not yet been investigated for these collections. Whilst the shallow markings of mouthing and tooth grooves are unlikely to survive on archaeological remains that have been weathered or eroded, the presence of puncture marks, and of typical breakage and flake scar patterns, should alert an analyst to the fact that the assemblage has been altered by scavengers, and warn him or her that the more susceptible elements such as the proximal humerus, and the proximal and distal femur, are likely to be under-represented . FURTHER C