An Introduction to Carpet Cleaning 0952861011

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By the sameauthor

FUNDAMENTALS

OF CARPET MAINTENANCE AN

CARPET FAULTS THE IDENTIFICATION OF

INTRODUCTION TO

INVESTIGATION DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR THE COMPLAINTS

OF CARPET CARPET

CLEANING

CASE STUDIES FOR CARPET INSPECTORS implementation. CLEANING SPECIFICATIONS - their preparation and

ERIC M. BROWN A.C.LArb,C.Text,F.T.L, B.Sc.,M.B.A.,M-Phil.,Ph.D., F.BICSc.

Cleaning Research International

Ltd.

icht 1985 EM. Brown 8 EM. Brown Copyns Copyright 199

deoro of trade that it i shallnot, |by way condition iti he su j the publisher's ee This book is sold herwisecirculatedwithout. ot outor hired hee old, rebelent, is it which otherwise, in that of fotinform ¢ binding or cover other than any i n consent imposed prior includingthis condition being a similar ondition publishedandwithout purchaser. onthesubsequent in any form or by any maybe reproducedor transmitted or any No partof thispublication including photocopying,recording the means,electronicoF mechanical, from the prior permissionin writing informationretrievalsystemwithout publisher. as the authorof thiswork has been The right of Eric Brown to be identified Designs and with sections77 and 78 of the Copyright, in accordance asserted PatentsAct 1988. ISBN0 95286101 1 1stimpression 2ndimpression 3rdimpression

1985 1987 1992

2ndedition

1998

by: Published

Limited CleaningResearchInternational 49Boroughgate Otley WestYorkshire,UK LS21 1AG

Printedin GreatBritainby: FMRepro ReproHouse 69LumbLane Liversedge WestYorkshire,UK WF157NB

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION Dr Eric Brown is animportantfigurein theinternationalcleaningindustry. He has establisheda personaland professionalreputationas a ‘practicalacademic’in an industrythattendsto be suspiciousof thosewho havenot ‘workedin thebusiness’. Eric Brown is constantlyin demandasalecturer at nationalandinternational seminarsandthis newbook will attractfurtherinterestin himandin hiswork. Perhapsthe greatestcontributionthat Eric Brown has madeis to establishthat, from an understandingof physicsand chemistryof the soiling of materialsand of cleanlinessemerges. areas,thebasisof a measurement In thisbook hepresents- in a directandlogical way readilyfollowed by thosewho know the practicesof cleaning- the detailof why andhow andwhereand when thecleaningoperationmaybe improvedandits realresultsassessed,quantifiedand costed. Comingat a timewhenthe industryis beginningto be recognisedfor its very real contributionto thechangingeconomyof Britain andits itselfconsciousof the need to improveits trainingandeducatingstructures,thisbook will bevaluableto all of us.

theMANCHESTER METROFOLITAN 10 FEB 198 UNIVERSITYLIBRARY to b6%.1

Gordon, Lord Parry of Neyland 1985

EDITION THE FIRST PREFACE TO responsibility fo, 4. individualswho must bear unwitting of 8 is the man who demanded4a Tefun ‘ Therearea number 1S nameless, remain shall ho Nothing of CarpetMaintenanceDeeauke TO him Jamenals book Thei EnteTPrise Cleaning of Fitchett : ‘Thenthereare Harry » 88 Associatio, arpet Cl Cleaners avout al cape cleaning’. i iti President of the Carpet : of writing time the at (Wroughton) Presidento¢ SteamCarpetCleaningCo. Ltd (a Past andGordonFisherof Patent reagin enjoyed enoughto sayhow much they Cleaning theCCA),bothof whomwerekind of Society the of Matsuzaki,Past President al thatsamebook, Mr Misao Fundament methepleasureof seeingthe text of gave in Japan,who Technicians incomprehensibjg totally andwhosebookin returnI found intoJapanese translated Dick Whittake, school); at neverhavingbeenmybestsubject grammar (Japanese who has intimatedthat he may place anotherbulk in New Castle,Pennsylvania, in Perth,WesternAustralia who hasn't buthere's orderandKieth Waterhouse hoping,andfinallyEnc Rottmeisterof Granville Carpet Cleaners in beautify, Institute of the VancouverB.C. (anda past presidentof the Carpet Cleaners howto useeverythingexcepthis tennis racquetto whodemonstrated Northwest) severalacresofafaultycarpet. restore To those,in additionto the earlierpersonaldedication,this book is dedicated . Pleasefeelfreeto directyourcriticismsandcomplaintsto them! Eric Brown Leeds,August 1985

PREFACE TO THE.SECOND EDITION

1 S ; : i manufactur . techniques andcarpetprotection, ® cleaning machines, chemicals, Eric Brown Otley,January1998

CONTENTS

Page Chapter 1

First principles

Chapter2

Choosinga machine

26

Chapter3

The chemistryof cleaning

63

Chapter4

Techniques

80

Chapter5

The diagnosisof faults

101

CHAPTER

1

FIRST PRINCIPLES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Nature of Soil

whose photographsand illustration, manufacturers o f number & §o, a TheyareGoblinLtd., G E Holloway I amgratefulto permission. their ith with arereproduced Ltd., Von Schrader Company, Ltd., CimexInternational Nilfisk Ltd., (Engineers) Siprotech AG, Stimvak Ltd, CleancareInternationalLtd. C o., Whittaker RE Inc. Prochem,andRacineIndustries

other diagrams,and Pay ‘ Dr M G Islamfor preparingmost f the latter stagesof preparing the second DF 1wouldliketo thank in assistance editorial his Bakkerfor edition.

I amalsogratefulto thoseover theyearswho haveboughtthis book in tojustifya secondedition. quantities

Soil is a complexmaterial. It maybe gritty,like sand,quicklyworkingits way to thebottomof thepile whereit becomestrappedin thebackingor betweenthetufts until the carpetis destroyed;it maybe oily, like grease,adheringtenaciouslyto the fibre surfaces,defyingall simplemechanicalmeansof removal; it may be a dye, like fruit juice, requiring such drastic treatmentto extract it that the intended colour is also strippedfromthefibre; or it maybea mixtureof all three(Figure1).

sufficient

NOTE

Grit

Throughout this bookI haveresistedthe temptationto refer to the customeras beingfemininebyusingthework 'client'instead.Neverthelessfrom time to time it hasbeennecessaryto referto the cleaneras ‘he’. There is no sexist implication intended- it is simplyeasierthanputtinghe/sheon every occasion. By the same tokenI do notreferto sewerentrancesas ‘personholes’.

Dyeand grease Grease

E.MB. ofthreecomponents. FIGURE1: Soiloftenconsists The gritty componentmay consist of large particles, 10 or more microns in diameter(0.01mm)andheavyenoughto migrateto thebottomof thepile where, becauseof their size, theybecometrappedas traffic causesthe tufts to compact. The greaterthe amountof traffic,themorethepile compactsandthelesseasyit is to removethesoil (Figure2).

ry fine particles as small as Q| ist 0ofve nt mayconsist by one, oy compon ry firmlyont he fibre surfaces : heldve' ‘ely thegritty that Often are great s maybe so mm).These Theseforce an Aer (0.001 of detergent action different of several and some form e combination, overcomeby suction theycannotbe necessary. becomes

makingit difficultto asthepileis compacted, trapped FIGURE2: Thesoilmaybecome remove. Althoughin Figure 3 both Fineparticleshavea significanteffecton visible soiling. that with materialof the samesurfacearea,it is obvious fibresarecontaminated simple fact, using onefibrewill appearto be much dirtier than the other. In is equivalentto diameter micronsin particle10 a shownthat it canbe mathematics diameter. in 100particles1.0micron

FIGURE3: Fineparticles contribute moretovisiblesoilingthanlargeparticles. Every practicalcarpet cleanerknowsthat carpetsaffectedby building materials during constructionwork undergo a severe shade change as they become

10

dust, and that carpets particles of cement,brick or plaster contaminatedby minute termsthe weightof absolute soiledin sucha way are very difficultto clean. Yet in small. is soil involved The cross-sectionaloutline of particulatesoil mayalso vary considerably.In one carpet,laid in the lounge of a houseadjacentto a power station,a microscopical examinationof the soil revealedthat the particleswere perfectlyspherical,like minute glass beads. These miniature marbles’were in fact fly-ash from the chimneys. Other particlesmay be highlyirregularin shape. It hasbeenclaimedthat sharp,irregularparticlesacceleratecarpetwear, andthis is often used as justification for frequentcarpet cleaning. In fact there is no real evidenceto supportthis view. Indeedone machinemanufacturerhas conducted experimentsin which carpetswere impregnatedwith groundglass andtheir wear characteristicsstudied. The rate of wear of the carpetswere unaffectedby the presenceof the glass,thus promptingthe conclusionthat grit in the pile will not causerapid wear. This finding must also cast doubt on anotherpopularly held belief that soil particles will scratchthe fibre, causinga generaldulling which persistsevenafter cleaning. The natureof the oily componentof soil will dependuponits origin. In a domestic environmentanimalfats are oftenpresent,transferredto the carpetfrom the coats of pets, particularlydogs (Figure 4). Many speciesof animalsecretegreasesas weatherproofingand there is often a naturalaffinity betweenthese greasesand carpetfibres. Animal fats will also arise from cooking and may condenseonto carpetslaid in kitchensand diningkitchens.

Tho fromthecoatsofpets. FIGURE 4: Greasysoilsmayoriginate

11

present.Vegetable wever,it is not only animalfats that are In suchlocations,ho of airborneBreas king and,althougha largeproportion coo for used also are ils on the carpey lings, some will also be deposited condenseon walls and cei commercia| s ince in restaurants fromcookingisle ss commonplace Contamination d with efficientextractionhoods. equippe kitchensarenormallywell traffic especiallythose that originate from Someoils are mineralin character, shopsand affectthe carpetsof urbanhouses, pollution.Suchoily materialsmay but by being carried in op offices,not so much by airbornecontamination fine particulate footwear. Soils arisingfrom traffic pollutionalso often include material. spillagesand A farmoreimportantsourceof mineraloil, however,resultsfrom oil is at carpark a from access leaksthatoccurin carparks. Any buildingwithdirect accommodation office of thistype,andthe trendtowards riskfromcontamination garagesresultsin oil markingat all levelswithin the immediate withbasement vicinityof thelift exits. Laterwe shallseethatthenatureof the oily component thebestcleaningtechnique. hassomebearingondetermining Soilswhicharedyesmaybepresentasnaturallyoccurringpigmentswhichcolour or they may react chemicallywith the fibre in the mannerof by absorption, naturaldyes. Moisture is a necessaryprerequisiteif some syntheticand to act as dyes. By far the most commonsource of are of soil components of suchmaterialsasfruitjuices,redwineand fromspillages colourarises unwanted andmanyof thoseoccurringin soil are coloured coffee.Not all dyesarebrightly nevertheless. dull;theyaredyes SoilRetention Fromtheforegoingit is clearthatthecharacter of thevariouscomponents of soil plays somepartin determining thewayin whichthesoilis retainedby thecarpet. Itisworthconsidering thesemechanisms of soilretention in somedetail. Someparticlesaretrappedwithinthecarpetstructur e andaresaii i bymacro-occlusion (seeFigure5). “10 beretained thatonlylargeparticleswill be thisway,ai s thenamemightsuggest, ee oftheple bottom » N ough" Snes particlesthatmigratemosteasilyto the . i ofth €r to a soilparticles in thestructureasbeinglarge, ofanySon Spaces ofretaining capable

12

inthestructure in largespaces FIGURE5: Soilmaybetrapped the carpetistrafficked, As we have alreadyseen,furthermattingtakes placeas thepile. This consolidation causingthesoil to be trappedevenmoretightlywithin The vacuummaybe highly alsoactsasa barrierto cleaning,especiallyvacuuming. butthe soil at efficientat removingthesoil thatis locatednearthe top of thetuft, the bottom of thepile, thebase or in the backingmaynot be ableto passfrom this reason, severely For cleaner. vacuum throughthe compactedtip, to the someform of require locations, contact in flattenedcarpets,particularlythoselaid One of the vacuuming. pre-clean the of, pileopeningoperationbefore,or aspart preferred the vacuums,is motor twin so-calledpile lifters or power brushes,i.e. machineto use. Thefineparticles,whichcontributemostto visiblesoiling,areretainedin a number of differentways. Figure 1,which showsthe threeprincipalcomponentsof soil, how particulatematerialmayadhereto the surfacebecauseof also demonstrates the presenceof oily substances.This mechanismof adhesionis known as oil beingpresentas a constituentof soil, the fibre Apart fromthe oily contamination itself may be oily. There are a numberof reasonswhy this may be so. For example,oils areusedas lubricantsat severalstagesof yarnmanufactureandthe traceswhichremain,evenafterthecarpetis finished,maybe sufficientto causethe adhesionof dry soils. In some cases, excessiveoil remainingbecause of inadequateremoval during textile processingmay present real problems in subsequentend-use; problemswhich ultimatelythe carpetcleanermay well be calleduponto tackle. Soil retentionby oil bondingmay also ariseaftercleaningif the chemicalsused becomestickywhentheydry. The professionalcleaneris well awareof the need to use chemicalsthat dry to a hard, crystallineresidue. Nevertheless,he may encountersticky residuesfollowing an earlier do-it-yourselfattempt,or after

13

the mechanismsby ‘aoby anincompetent.Figure6, whichsummarises cleaningby i soil i may dhere to ad TYWhich , that: (a) an oily adhe fibre oil bonding may ork font (b)a dry soil mayadhereto anoily fibre,formin re/oil> are neededto remove ond. As we havealreadynoted,chemicals re/oil-- oil/soilbond. fibre/oil soilsretainedin thisway.

FIGURE7: Fineparticlesmaybetrapped infibreirregularities. (a) bond Fibre—oil/soil

(b) Fibre/oil—soil bond

(c) Fibre/oil—oil/soil bond

FIGURE6: Soilmayberetained byoilbonding.

Fine particlescan also becomeattachedto the fibre becausethereis a chemical attractionbetweenthe moleculesof thefibreandthemolecules of thesoil. Under certaincircumstances,the chemicalconstituentsof the soil andthe fibre maybe mutuallycompatible,and soil will thereforeadhereto thefibre becausethereis a chemicalbondbetweenthem. Therearea numberof scientificnamesto describe this type of phenomenon- for exampleVan der Waal'sforces and hydrogen bonding- each slightly differentin character.Although the forcesare normally weak,they are sufficientneverthelessto causefine particlesto be retainedon the surfacethuscontributingto thevisiblesoilingof thefibre. Staticelectricitymayplay somepartin theretentionof fineparticles.Thefamiliar, when thehumidity sometimespainful,electricaldischargethatmaybe encountered is low is the result of the generationof staticelectricity inthepile. Depending upon the conditions,the chargegeneratedmay be either positiveor negative. Certainsoil particlesmay alsobe electostaticallycharged.If the particleshavean oppositechargeto that of the fibretherewill be anattractionbetweenthem. This attraction,like the chemicalforces describedabove,will result in soil particles adheringto the surfaceof thefibre,asshownin Figure8.

Fine particlesmay also be retainedin the irregularitiesthat are presenton the surfaceof many fibres. For example,wool fibres are covered in overlapping scales; man-madefibreshavesuperficial‘craters’,indentations, or cross-sectional irregularities; damagedfibres provide cracks or crevices in which soil may accumulate(Figure 7). This mechanismof soil retentionis known as microocclusion.

charge. tofibresofopposite soilareattracted particlesofairborne FIGURE 8:Charged

14

15

of , of the chemicalstructure ‘ferent mechanism.Parts crystalline regions. Othe, known as dered. Theseare textilefibrearehighlyot eredand are known as amorphousregions, Dyeing herby reactingthemwith the fibreo, eit d compounds, by being ples of dyes that colour aryt necessa t this it is usually ieve achieve to by trapping a nd housregions, additives. veithi mevente cess theswellingis assistedby chemical tn thefibre. swell of water. is thepresence requirement primary the but This means naturally occurringpigments. soilscontain many into n, see absorbed have As we pigmentscan be into a building,these tracked is il so wet discolouration.This that,when fibreandwill causepermanent Fthe © regions reactionmay take theamorphous 9. In othercasesa chemical Figure in schematically componentfitting is shown soil,the moleculesin each thefibreandthedye-sol the soil placebetween bond(see Figure 10). Salt in like a jigsawto forma chemical together thechancesthatdyeingwill occur. mayincrease (fromroadgrittingfor example)

fe

find FIGURE9:Somesoilswhicharedyes regions amorphous inthe space ofthefibreandareabsorbed.

Fibres knowledgeof mechanicsto be ableto drivea Just as there is no needto haveany anythingof fibre scienceor carpet understand care, neitheris it necessaryto problemariseswhenthecarbreaks carpet.The a clean manufactureto be ableto will notonlyassistin carpettechnology fibreand of down.A betterunderstanding cleaning)butwill during or the diagnosisof faults(whetherarisingin manufacture and aboveall c onfidence to speakwith authority, also allow the carpetcleaner the professionalism.Thereforeto completethisfirst chapter,whichhaslookedat basicprinciples of soilingandsoil retention,certainaspectsof textiletechnology will be considered.Commonfaultsarediscussedatgreaterlengthin Chapter5. man-madefibres. Textile technologistsclassifyfibresas eithernatural fibresor fibresmay natural example Withinthesetwo categoriesaresmallergroupings:for regenerated maybe fibres be animal,vegetable,or mineralin origin; man-made all of thefibreswithin Not synthetic. entirely maybe or materials cellulosic from on a thesegroupingsare suitablefor carpetproduction. Some are used only of carpetsthatare jimitedscale.For instance,thereis nowonlya smallproportion facefibre,butnot a usedas i s p olyester derivatives; madefromviscoseor viscose applicationlimited very cottonhas used; seldom extensively;acrylicfibreis now jute pile mat; entrance of varieties some in principallyfor bathroomrugs and Asia. carpetsarequiteuncommonoutside mostcommonly It is intendedhereto considerin detailonly thosefibresthatare wool and nylon, usedin carpetmanufacture.For pile yarnsor facefibretheyare mind bornein polypropylene,andfor backing,jute or polypropylene.It mustbe in nationaltrends,bothin choiceof pile however,thattherearemarkeddifferences will bemade fibreandin carpetconstruction,andfor thatreasonpassingreference to othermaterialsas appropriate. technologyhas The popularityof nylonasa facefibrehasgrownsteadilyas nylon difficultto andwere soiledeasily developed.Early criticismsthatnylon carpets of the because walkon to uncomfortable cleanwerefullyjustified. Theywerealso had andthey thetouch, tendencyto generatehighstaticcharges,theyfelt harshto blending for nylonwas poor resiliency.Duringthis periodthemostvaluableuseof reasonthat in with otherfibresto obtainbetterwear characteristics.It is for this still more the UK today, wherewool remainsan importantcarpetfibre, it is commonto findwool blendedwith20%nylon.

FIGURE10: Other soilswhich aredyes may reactchemically withthefibre.

16

17

With te nylons were born. genera tion' ‘advanced “called now enjoys the benen® ; beenovercomeand the fibre he soe requirement fibre. There ar@ ey, one carpetaaa d's number mostof thepro nu les, the world's ; °n solutiondyedproducts,that will: withstand bleachas a by volume ead being, py somevari manythat will not. But beware,thereare treatment. removal stainT y rfo ning |performance ma a: and olleaning ; the soiling s which In ways twovolvingphysical andtheotherchemicalmodificationof the fibre Stee areae , mo ‘itstrated by Figure 11 has been to modify the fibre ,

hollow been aimed that the introduction of tha an aC re reduce the and fibre the within light scatterthe channelsthroughthe fibre will that, when is basedupon the assumption development This visibilityof the soil. magnifying glass fibre,thefibrewill act aSa t ransparent normal a t o adheres soil meansof thanit actually1s.An alternative makingtheparticleof soil appearlarger the fibre in place of thehollow thesameobjectiveis to adddelustrantto obtaining fibre look chalky and unattractive channels,Too much delustrantwill makethe however.

: ‘ theiidea that,by increasin facturersalso favoured ouredthe the early years, some manutac’ a diameterof thefibres, therewill befewerfibresin a tuft whichmeansthereval be lesssurfaceon which the soil maycollect. This is shownin Figure 12.

Tuft cross-section

Fibresoflarge diameter FIGURE12: Fewerfibrespertuftmeansthatthereis lesssurfacetocollectsoil. The second approach, which has become increasinglypopular, is based upon chemicalmodificationto the fibre. Two routeshavebeenfollowed, oneinvolvingtheapplicationof astain blocker- a type of dye which is colourlessandwill occupydye sitesthatwould otherwisebe available to accept staining compounds; and the other using fluorochemical protectors appliedby the carpet manufacturerto modifythe surfaceenergyof the fibre, therebyincreasing its oil and water repellency. Figure 13 illustratesthis,

(a) channels withhollow Fibres

schematically.

fibreincorporating, Modified with,fluorochemical orcoated Fibreswithdelustrant

DS

holdoilysoilslesstenaciously. FIGURE13: Fibresmodifiedusingfluorochemicals The durabilityof surfacetreatmentsis often questioned.

Fl

. ee : GURE11: Modification ofthe‘Sibre cross-section willincrease internallightscattering and impart soilhidingproperties, .

18

With these developmentsand other tricks of fibre engineeringthere can be no doubtthat thepresentdaynylonsarefar superiorto theirpredecessors.

19

and isused extensiva always beenan importantcarpetfibre In theUK, wool has ct locations. It has also gained popularity in Canada contra’ in bothdomesticand although the Marke especially in the hospitality industry andthe United States low. in thesecountriesremains penetration an tion. Many, particularly Australi for carpetproduc only suitable i are Js preferteq are fibres coarser the Nota vetoo finefor usein carpetyarnsas with other producers carpetwools is New Zealand, Themajor world producerof AmericaandAsia. includingtheUnitedKingdom,South make it particularly desirable for use in Wool possessescertainpropertiesthat man-madefibres, carpets.So farthesehavenot beenfully matchedbyany of the moisturefrom the absorbs it heating costs; to reduced It is warmer,contributing a assistingin the control of humidity in environmentsthat have atmosphere, most other fibres,and so ismuch to bedamp;it burnslessreadilythan tendency andrecovers moreeasily moreresilient lessproneto damageby cigarettes;it is easily. Its flammability cleansmore fromcompression;it soilsless readilyand havebeenfurtherimprovedin recentyearsby the introductionof the properties whichimpartsflameretardancyto thefibre. Zirproprocess,achemicaltreatment however,it mustnot be overlookedthat construction In listingtheseadvantages, of a carpet. It would theperformance alsoplaysanimportantrolein determining be wrongto assumethat becausea carpetis madefrom wool it will always outperforma syntheticcarpetwith respectto eachof the abovecharacteristics. Easeof compression andabilityto recoverfromcompression, for example,will be influencedbypiledensity.Appearance retentioncanbeunsatisfactory if yarntwist is easily lost. Visible soiling is highly dependentupon colour. These considerations are independent of fibre type. Furthermore,as we have already seenin thecaseof nylon,man-made fibretechnologyhasdevelopedconsiderably in recentyearsandthisdevelopment continues. Like manyotherfibreswoolwill generatehighstaticchargeswhenthehumidityis low. It alsotendsto beusedmoreextensivelyin expensiveWilton andAxminster constructions, resultingin a highinitial cost. Unprotectedwool is proneto attack bymothsandtheabrasionresistanceis lessthanthatof nylon. The useof polypropylene as a carpetfibre is now widespreaddespitethe fact that it has some major disadvantages:poor performancewith respect to flame retardancy,with an associatedtendencyto melt and char as a consequenceof cigarettedamage;limitationsin colour rangebecausethe fibre is difficult todye and only successfullycoloured by adding pigment to the polymer melt before

20

arehowevercounterbalanced Thesedisadvantages : rusio n:? andpoor resiliency. static. generate notto tendency anda extgood abrasionresistance by Another characteristicofparticular interestis thatpolypropyleneis very resistant to moisture.Althoughthis is one reasonwhy thefibre is difficultto dye,it also eansthataqueousstainingis not a problem.If colouredmaterialssuchasorange m theyareonlyevidentfor aslongasthe juiceare sp:illed onto polypropylenecarpets ontaminantis allowedto remainin the carpet. Simplecleaningwill usuallyflush Cct the residueand, becausethe fibre is resistantto liquids,no stainingoccurs. Polypropylene does have an affinity for oil howeverand oily basedstainsare difficultto remove. particularly in mixtureswith wool. Polypropylene is also used in blends, andin theUK. Considerablemarketingefforthas beenput intothis development, product is at least some success has been enjoyed,not least becausethe Belgian construction same the nylonin considerablycheaperthanan 80/20wool popularity. some alsoenjoyed Wiltonshave -to-face polypropyleneface when coated with animpervious Because of the ease of cleaning, especially more frequentlyfor usein specified backing, polypropylenecarpets arebeing nylon. More rapid solution-dyed hospitalscompetingwith nylon and especially Thefibre locations. these dryingaftercleaningpolypropyleneis anaddedbonusin toindoor pitches hockey hasalso beenused for sportspitchesfrom footballand specificationsfor bowling greens,and in the U.K. thereare now Sports Council syntheticturfsfor usein a numberof games. materialfor carpetbackings. In yarn or tape form polypropyleneis an important woven carpetbackingsor For this end-usethe fibre maybe spuninto a yarnfor also in syntheticbagging extrudedas a sheetand slit into the ‘split film’ (familiar in tuftedcarpets).Nonmaterial backing materialsand sacksfor use as a primary or secondarycarpet primary a usedas woven bondedpolypropylenemay alsobe backingmaterial.

because sweatersand cardigans, Acrylic fibres are popular for apparel,especially with the developed acrylicswere theirtextureis similarto thatof wool. Indeedthe to alternative ( be a cheap object of producing a syntheticmaterial which could andit carpets in progressionto usethe fibre wool. It was thereforean obvious wasalwaysthesong ane wasusedas suchfor manyyears. A majordisadvantage cleaningperformance. Acrylic pile carpetshavea tendencyto showso! ako less s the past moreeasilythanwool or othersynthetics,andtheresponsetoinate inthe p satisfactory.Another disadvantagesufferedby acrylicsis thatthey have

21

the cheaperend of structionsin orderto satisfy c on carpet retention anq beenusedin poorer exhibitedinferiorappearance engineered,‘ Only carpets Such into well domesticmarket. 00d, Whenacrylicsare put resistance. abrasion acceptably. moderate more much qualities,theybehave heavydutycontract susceptiblet but, unlike wool, are nylon and | staticthanwoo : Acrylicscreate less Theywereoftenblende d with nylon and were Once | bums. by cigarette damage carpetsaswool alternatives. opal in Berberstyle anysignificantquantity. Acrylicsarenolongerusedin in the popularfibres for carpet production Polyesterandviscoserayonare not pile atteningand someyearsagobut at thattime wasintroduced UK. Polyester effectively killed the market, werea majorproblemthat retention poorappearance fibre cross. hasbeenimprovedby modificationof the Sincethentheperformance and polyesterisagain construction, sectionandby morecarefulchoiceof carpet bedrooms. Advanced generation beingsold for domesticuse, especiallyfor ! are also now hemicalsfor stain repellency fluoroc! polyestersincorporating where Polyestercarpetsarealittle morecommonin theUnited States available. areavailable. qualities contract Oncepopularas a cheappile fibrefor thelower end of the domesticmarket, viscoserayonis nowalmostneverused,evenin blendswith otherfibres. Major propensityto soilingflammability areits poorabrasionresistance, disadvantages andpoorresilience.Howeverit is capableof retainingmoisture,andbecauseof staticandwill controlstaticbuildupwhenusedin blends. thisit doesnotgenerate in contractcarpeting. Viscoserayonwillneverbeencountered Theremaining fibreto bediscussed of anyrealsignificance in carpetmanufacture is jute. This is obtainedfrom the fibrousstemsof plants which grow to approximately tenfeetin height.Afterharvesting, theplantsarerotted(a process knownas‘retting’), andthenflailed,andthefibreis removed.(Thinkof thefibrous characterof uncookedrhubarb).Productionis centredaroundIndia,Pakistan Bangladesh andThailand. Jute is usedas a backingmaterial,both as primary and secondarybacking. although is now largelyreplaced by polypropylenewhich is stronger and less susceptible toproblemscausedbywater. Overwettingduringcleaningjute backed carpetsmayresultin thephenomenon of cellulosicbrowningwhichmaywell mean : ons . wri thatthecarpethasto be written Chaptersl off. This aspectis discussedin greaterdetailin

22

carpets carpet It is notwith in the scopeof this book to discussin detailthe principlesof cleaner. thecarpet by notrequired is information suchdepthof ufacture,since me ufficient simplyto havea working knowledgeof thetypesof construction somethingof the effectof in sre likely to be encounteredand to understand nothavea groundingin thal rructionon cleaningperformance.For thosewho do technology, detailed diagrams showing the various constructional ele mponents areof little meaning,andfor thatreasonarenotreproduced here. It is appropriateto think of carpettypesas fallingintothree categories:woven, underthe general tuftedand others. (The groupingof a numberof constructions types.It lessimportant theseare inferthat to betaken ategory ‘others’shouldnot simplicity). a nd convenience of has beendonesimplyfor reasons backing and the pile are assembled Woven carpets are those in which the familiarAxminstersandWiltons. T heyarethe during manufacture. simultaneously of coloursin thedesign.They AxminstersareUsuallytypifiedby thelargenumber a noticeablyribbed cut pile varietiesand sometypeshave arealwaysproduced as limp andmay well be backback. Often the backing also has a tendencyto be Becauseof thelargenumberof colours coatedwith latexto giveit morestability. or 80% wool/20%nylon may present in the design,Axminsters in 100%wool cleanershouldbe aware. problems with colour fastnessof which the professional This is discussedat lengthlater. colours. Theyareparticularlysuitablefor Wilton carpetsareavailablein up to five thatcanbeachieved contractinstallationbecauseof the dense,heavypile weights smallproduction relatively for andbecausethis methodof manufactureis suitable optionsto colour limited of lots, giving the opportunitywithin the constraints livery. designs- for examplein company ‘customise! of retainingvery largeamounts It hasbeenshownthat Wilton carpetsare capable weight of pile >and that in of soil - at least the same weight of soil as the 69%of this soil maybe multicolouredWiltons (multi-frameWiltons) as muchas multicolouredWiltons,wheneverone trappedin the backing. This is becausein which makeup the designare yarn is visible on the surface,the other colours sites formacro-occlusion. Simple hiddenin the backing, thus presentingmany multiframeWiltonsthat contract vacuumingis completelyinadequatein thecaseof 1sdesirablebeforewet opening pile areheavilysoiledin thisway and someformof cleaningis undertaken.

23

, Je constructions,Wilton carpets anbe afre alwayscutpi which ton)andcut-and-looppiles, UnlikeAxminsters pile (Brusselswil loop pile, cut in produced througha woven or non-w, thepileyarn!5needled et production allymadefromjute or polypropylene= Thisbacking1susu nedtaki backcoatof latex is applied to anchorth primarybacking. A f wovenjute,woven polypropylene,See backingnormally0 tuftsanda secondary or foamis added. and hence are cheaper than woven Tuftedcarpetsare producedmore quickly years flexibility than weaving. In recent carpetsbut the processoffersless ct the allowed have machinery tufting in improvements offered by however,very significant design of versatility designs,althoughthe of patterned are introduction Wiltons,densepile, tufted carpets, stillcannotbe achieved.Like Axminsters of form some ts of soil by macro-occlusionand largeweigh’ capableof retaining the for contracttuftedin heavytraffic areas. At pile openingis recommended water of penetration allow rangesomecheapfoams bottomendof thedomestic dryingtimes,the risk of mildew and in unacceptable resulting duringwetcleaning, odours. ofunpleasant thedevelopment to anchorthetufts,andare usuallycut into Sometuftedcarpetsarebitumenised difficultto cleanif thechemicalsoftensany of the tiles. Theymaybeparticularly bitumenandcausesit to dissolvein thecleaningagent.Whenthe carpetdries, a darkstainis visibleonthesurfaceof thecarpet. Thereis a higherrisk that this mightoccur if thecleaningchemicalcontainsanysolvent,or if a solventbased spotteris used.

. fre bonded(needlepunch)carpets,groupedhereas‘others’,aremanufactured by ayeringseveralsheets of randomlyarrangedentangledfibres on top of one another,andpunchingbarbedneedlesthroughtheassembly.The barbedneedles causetres fromonelayerto penetrateanotherlayerwhichresultsin interlocking eets Im ae . a ofthesh pregnationwitha resin,whichis subsequently cured,securesthe onen theporousassemblyis supportedona looselywovenfabricwhichresembles arsecheeseclothandis knownas a scrim. Somelimitedvariationsin texture

24

» possible for examplesimulatedloop pile, andthe materialmaywell be ae Is and cut into tiles. ar ge-coated Fibre bonded carpets may cause problemsduring cleaningif they havebeen allowed to get particularlydirty. If this has occurredthereis a tendencyfor sireakingt©appear,especially duringsprayextraction.Someearlyvarietiesma alsobe unstabledimensionallyand,if theyare not stuckfirmlyto thefloor may whenwet. bubbleor shrink In additionto non-wovenfibrebonded,a numberof bondedpile carpetsarealso available. Manufactureinvolves ‘gluing’the pile to the backingand in many they superficiallyresembletuftedcarpets.Theymaybeof cutor looppile respects construction. to abnormalstaining,suchasgeriatric Onceextremelypopularin areassusceptible domestickitchens,areflocked soldfor commonly now and psychiatric wardsand Flotex. Flockedcarpetsare being UK the carpets,the only commonvarietyin onto a non-wovenbacking fibres charged electrically producedby projecting compound. adhesive withan coated materialwhichhasbeenpreviously Whendry, the assemblymay be printedusing eitherengravedrollersor, more flexibilityof design. recently,screenprintingtechniqueswhichgivegreater sprayextractionandwill withstand Flocked carpetsrespondwell to cleaningby hanically assisted stain removal proceduressuch as scraping. vigorous mec. aremoredifficult techniques Becausethe pile is short and dense,bonnetcleaning frictionalforces high suitableif to carry out and only certaintypesof bonnetare avoided. betweenthe machineandthe carpetareto be from timeto time. The constructions The carpet cleanerwill encounterother fibresincludingcoarsewoolsandother familiarhair tile, madefrom a mixtureof in somecontractlocations. Knitted animalhairs (pig for example),1s popular carpetsmayalsobe found. special materials,usually orientals,present A wide range of hand produced that, mind bearin d later, Thecleanershouldalso problemswhichwill be considere being morestablecarpetsarenow althoughmoderntechnologymeansthatbetter, particulartype. certainproblemsinherentin each produced,thereare nevertheless somecarpets especiallyin domesticsituations, It must also be rememberedthat, Someof the typicalof presentday production. be not will and old very be may thisbook. to atvarioustimesthroughout problemsthatmaybe metarereferred 25

CHAPTER

2 MAINTENANCE

REGULAR

CHOOSING A MACHINE

VACUUM CLEANING

as his tools - tells us thata workmanis . 3only as good “os Awel knownoral koe but in total contradiction,says that it is a poo, Another,equ : evercoinedeitherof thesepopular sayings workman who ee "s 00 tap as a carpetcleaner. Otherwisehe might clearlyhad ae oo workmantryingto choosehis tools in the firstplace. Visit haveaie hibitionandyou will at oncebe overwhelmedby the variety of thatis available.But, asif choosingequipmentis not difficult enough, ecuipment tis alsonecessary to decidewhichsystemto use. Figure 14 summarisesthe options.

INTERIM CLEANING a

withoutfirst being to choosea system theparadoxit is impossible To complete equipmentis selectionof chapterthe this equipment.In the with familiar indetail. considered

Bonnet Cleaning ’

VacuumCleaning*

Let usfirstconsiderthesituationthatprevailsfor contractcarpeting.Thevacuum cleaningof a contractcarpetis usuallya daily procedure. Yet despite regular vacuuming thecarpethasreacheda statewherewet cleaningis required. From this,it canbe deducedthatthereis somescopefor improvement in the vacuum cleaningroutine.Therearea numberof reasonswhythismaybe so:

’ _

_y

Effectivevacuumcleaningis a vitalpartof thecarpetcleaningoperation.Aswe havealreadyseen,a proportion ofthedirtin thecarpetis dry,particulatematerial, someofwhichcanberemoved by drymechanical cleaningtechniques.It mustbe remembered, however,thatanycarpetaboutto bewetcleanedwill havealready beenmaintained byvacuumcleaningonaregularbasis.

PERIODIC CLEANING Y SPRAY EXTRACTION

i SHAMPOOING ’

1

Cylindrical Brush

Rotary Brush

!

! REGULAR

>

j

Y :

y

Portable Unit

Truck Mount y

' MAINTENANCE

* Purists haveargued thatthecorrect termshould besuction cleaning sincenovacuum is involved intheProcess.Others thinkthatit is aspedantic tocall it suction cleaning asit is to ae hotdog'akindofsausage ina bread roll’. Today, thankfully, thepuristsseemtohavelost e battle.

26

Dry Foam Shampooing

27

Absorbent Powders ’

to be in Chapter1 aretoo great described hanisms mecha n 10 acuuming. Theretent V byordinary overcome ily basisis in a poorstateof : ona daily theclient . Theequipment pane ofcleaners’ cupboardswill oftenreveal withdamagedhoses,'repaireq' repatt. Aclose €vletely fll dustbags, 8 adwithnozzlesandskirtsthatarecrackedand eran » witha chipped.

2,

metreduringdaily persquare allocated dirt,which could,with the right amountof timehasbeenthat Insufficient withtheresult vacuuming left behindin d by thevacuumcleaner,has been effort,havebeenremove thecarpet.

3.

4

tion indirectlyby listing the vacuumand air flow characteristics.If theinfo‘ina therightway, theseallow suctionpowerto becalculated. presented1 braically,the formula may seemoff puttingto all exceptthosewho with mathematics: wate eb fee P, = 9.81 (Hy/2)x Q107

e€ wher

P, H0 Q0

is thesuctionpowerin watts. . . . . is the suctionpressure(inmmwater(gauge))withtheinlet sealed whenthesuction is therateof air flow (inlitres/second) pressureequalsH,/2

in dailyuseis notgoodenough. Themachine

thereislesssoilinthecarpet,thevacuumcleaner although situation, Inadomestic model,could well be in an usedbytheclientis morelikelyto be a lightweight

'vacuum!whilst Q, is often Inmanyspecificationsthe valueH, is describedasthe quotedasthe maximumair flow, i.e.whentheinletis fullyopen.

beinggivento simplelitterpick-upusingamechanicalsweeper. in somehomes soiling,whichwill notrespondto vacuumcleaning, andgreasy staining Superficial carpet. a domestic forwetcleaning aremorelikelytobereasons

of the For the less technicallymindedthis allows an approximatesimplification to: aboveformula

Forthesereasons, it is notacceptable thatthecarpetcleanershouldrelyuponthe machines ofhisclient.Noris it acceptable to assume - if sprayextractionis to be used - thatthevacuum ontheextractor willbeadequate. Thesoilis nolongerdry by thetimethesprayextraction wandis passedoverthecarpet. By the same argument it followsthatequipment belonging to thecarpetcleanershouldbe in a stateof goodrepair,thatthedustbags shouldbe emptyandthatsufficienttime shouldbeallocated tothevacuuming operation. Therearea number ofimportant factorswhichinfluencetheselectionof a vacuum cleanerand,althoughmanyspecifications do not provide all the information necessary to allow a final selectionto bemade,an understanding of the technical datathatis givenwillaidselection. ris of all is theabilityof the cleanerto remove particulatesoil. Its ellectiveness ; in thisrespectwill dependuponthe suction ower of th hi Few technicalspecifica tionsindicatetheactualsuctionpower , but many tn will toregive

28

SuctionPower = 0.01x 'vacuum'x 'maximumairflow' If the wherethevacuumis measuredin mmH,0) andtheair flow in litres/second. specificationis not metricthe simplificationbecomes: , . . SuctionPower = 0.12x ‘vacuum!x 'maximumairflow wherethevacuumis measuredin inchesHO andtheair flow in cuft/min. manipulationto theperson choosing Whatis the significanceof this mathematical thevacuumcleaner?In practicalterms,andwith certainlimitations,it meansthat the higher the suction power of the machine,the better is the cleaning thatmust performance.As alwayshoweverthereare a numberof considerations alsobetakeninto account.

29

maximum air flow and suction pressure (‘vacuum!' e Firstly, the valuesfor be in differentunitsto those suitablefor Substitutionvt alwaysgiven. Or theymay In theaboveformulae. st methodsused to determinethe values shown in the More important,the te en cone in the areaop arenot alwaysthesame.ates machinespecification 8roups to otheraul various and standardisation, and fication spect disetest methodsand rationalisespecifications,as 1salso the case jn the Sande wee andWesternEurope. Neverthelessthere remains, and NO doub vill remain,a numberof manufacturerswho do pot subscribe to these ‘lw andpreferto usetheir own methodof measurement,or basis procedures standard of calculation. thatthe air flow characteristicsof the machinewill It mustalsobe remembered changewhencleaningtoolsof differenthosediameter,cross-sectionaloutline and slotwidthare introduced.inevitablythis will affectthe suction achieved at the pointofcleaning. Also relatedto suctionpoweris machineefficiency. This is the ratio of suction powerto theinputpower(alsoratedin watts)andis expressedas a percentage: Efficiency(%)= 100x P,/P, whereP} is theinputpowerandP. is thesuctionpower. In a typicalspecification theinputpowermaybegivenin wattsor horsepower(1 hp= 746watts)- andthe efficiencyoftencalculatesasonly25%. Do not confusethis calculatedmechanicalefficiencywith cleaning efficiency however. Cleaningefficiency,i.e.the effectiveness of themachinein removingdirt fromthe carpet,will dependuponmanyotherexternalfactorsincludingthetypeof soil and the natureof the carpet. At the two extremesof performance,cleaning efficiencymay varyfrom 5%to 50%. The importanceof input power in terms of cost of electricity consumption is insignificant.In anycasemost contractcleanersusepowerthatis paid for by their clients. Another aspectto considerwhenchoosinga vacuumcleaneris the usable capacity of the dust receptaclewhich may eitherbe by someform of bag, or else a metal canister. A usable capacity which is too small will mean frequent emptying to

30

satisfactorysuction power. However, the largerthe usablecapacity, the maintain bersomethe machineis likely to be. ciatedwithusable capacity isfilter area. If the filter area is too small it is Asso to clog too quickly, air flow will be reduced,suction power will be lost, Tike ical efficiencywill fall and cleaning efficiencywill deteriorate.Whilst many Oe ce specifications give details of usable capacity, there is seldom any mac tion of filter area. The filter itself shouldnot emit dust into the atmosphere, ee ise this will result in the redistribution of dust from the carpet to the endings. In a domestic situation the client will be dissatisfiedbecausethe a dow ledges,mantleshelf andother horizontalsurfaceswill be coveredin dust. . a contract situation the effects could be even more unwelcomeif dust from cleaningis depositedon merchandisein a departmentstore,or on furnitureand fittingsin hotelsandoffices. In someenvironmentseventhe finestdust deposits arenot acceptable.Typical examplesof such environmentsare hospitals,where the spreadof bacteria cannot betolerated, and computerrooms which may be affectedby the most minutedust particles. In thesecasesvacuumswith special filtration systems are required. Consequently they should be consideredas specialistmachinesandthis maybe reflectedin theprice. Anotherfactor to be taken into accountis noise. Noise may be importantif the machineis to beusedin certainsensitiveareassuchashospitals.In theUK a noise levelnot exceeding70 decibels(dBa)is acceptablefor thisuse.If thenoiseoutput is greaterthan80 dBa, it maybe necessaryto useeardefendersin locationswhere thereis poor soundabsorptionby the surroundings. In anindustryused to handlingheavycumbersomemachines,weightis not likely to bea significantfactorwhen choosinga vacuumcleaner.Neverthelessit should be noted. Consider too the length of power cable providedwith the machine. Additionalconsiderationsare: a low resistanceto motion,oftena functionof the sizeof the wheels; nozzles,brushesand hosesthatwill withstandcasualimpact dueto carelesshandling;andnozzlesthatcancleanrightup to thewall. If in doubtaboutthe effectiveworking width of the machinesprinklesometalc overan areaof the floor and passthe machineacrossit. It is a matterof simple to relatethe effectivewidth of thecleaningheadto theactualwidth measurement of thecleaninghead. Bear in mindtoo thatthegreaterthewidthof thenozzle,the Shorterthe time that is requiredto clean the carpet. However theremay be a greaterloss of suction across a wide nozzle thanthereis acrossa narrowerone and,aswe notedfrom the outset,sincethe objectiveis to removeas muchsoil as possibleusingthevacuumcleaner,performanceis moreimportantthanspeed.

31

cleanerjs the ¢ @particularvacuum selecting for eason i t1 : OSt The le nen be shownthat for any machinethe cost of the equi 7 themy a smallpercentageof the total cost of using the . Mach; represen! * element. biggest farthe by Labouris l ife. itsuseful rroughout throug! d, machinetype shouldaext5 eat cificationhasbeenassesse\7 i spehenmaking thisselectionit is easyto becomeconfuse : Once thetechnical Cn oe definition w However considered. ; of de non-uniformity and thevagueterminology with machinesor machineaccessoriesincludes associated Thetypicalvocabulary power sweeper,carpet power nozzle, suchwordsa powerbrush,powerhead, eee rons eavy duty, turbohead,turbobrush,pile brush,pile lifter, sweeper, escribe a principle etc. Someofthesearegeneraltermsuseue lightcommercial, or a suitableend-use,w Istin 0 e oe the a typeof accessory of operation, particularmodel without sametermmaybe usedas a tradenameto denotea theactualend-use. indicating necessarily mayalsovary. Some machinesdrawtheair anddirt Theprincipleof operation a paperor clothbagin whichthedirtis trapped.Theexhaustair,filtered through inthiswayis thentakenpastthemotorto coolit. ThisprincipleisKnown asthe usinga motorsaidto beprimarycooled. Inothers,employingthe directsystem themotorandthe dirt is depositedin airby-passes theexhaust indirectsystem, eithera container or someformof sack. In thistypeof machinethe motoris cooledby an independent air intake(secondary cooling). This arrangement is suitable forwetpick-upmachines. Withbothsystems theexhaustair oftenpasses througha secondary filter. Thereareotherdesignvariations,thesebeingmoreeasilyrecognisedby simple observation. In thisrespectmachines fallintothreebasiccategories:canister(or tub)machines, cylindermachines, anduprightmachines.Cylindermachines, which areusuallyintendedfor householduse ratherthanby the professional cleaner, normallyoperateonthedirectprinciple.A typicalcommercial cylindermachineis showninFigure15. Back-vacs,portableunits carriedon the operative'sback, are usually cylinder cleaners as aresometypesof uprightmachineespecially thosewherethe motor unitis detachable foruseasa handheld'portable' device.

32

anduprightsmay operateby eitherthe director indirectsystem.In the ei ts, somemachinesuse two motors,one to powerthe brushand Cams caseof uprgh at whilst othersuseone motorto achievebothfunctions.Those another10 vers are often consideredto be far more effectivefor heavyduty opening’ wathw °nd form the basis of machinesused to provide some‘pile Holloway the vA specialistmachinewhich works on this principleis eon motorsare clearly ve Brushand is shownin Figure 16. The two separate " ow visible. icularobjectiveof pileopeningin mind, i the particu with inei manufactured hineis i overthe carpetto allowthe backwards set stented to be used by drawingit mechanicaleffect. fastrotatingbrushto operatewith maximumavailable Two-motormachinesareof courseheavierandlesseasilytransported. i a brushto openthe pile andpick up litter,a beaterbar Uprightsmaybe fittedwith nozzle thepile and dislodgethegrit, or both. Somehavean adjustable drat arefixed. w hilstothers heightto copewith differentpile depths, Canistercleanerscan be small, highly portableunitswith avariety Oey designedfor differenttypes of floor coveringsand Hoonngs, attachments maybelarge,heavyunits incorporatingtwo or threemotors. a cylindricalbrushis also A powerednozzle with an independentmotordriving . i ick-u availablefrom a number of manufacturers to givebetterthread andcan ae cane, andbetterpile openingthan can be achievedwith conventional

33

offer a rotatingbrush attachmentpowereg nozzles. . Somemanufacturers theair flow.

only»

US

hasa porous Ifthecarpet aircanbesucked backing, the thepileandthrough through backing.

Qe

a

7

y * s

Figure16:TheHolloway PowerBrushfulfilsaspecialist pileopening function.

OP (b) Ifthecarpet hasanimpervious backing, aircanonlybesucked through thepile.

FIGURE17:Effectofcarpetconstruction. This meansthat the efficiencyof cleaningwill be highly dependentupon the also be of the carpetirrespectiveof themachinebeingused. Ttmust construction practical resistance.In l east of thepath willfollow flow thatthe air remembered termsthis meansthat if an uprightcleaneris not adjustedso thatthe headis in intimatecontactwith the carpet,the air will be drawnover the pile ratherthan throughit (seeFigure 18).

Canistercleanersusing primarycooled motorsare now usuallyfitted with an electroniccut-outwhichswitchesthemotoroff to preventover-heating if thefilter becomesblocked,or thedustcontainerneedsemptying. One final consideration,over which the carpet cleanerhas no control, is the influenceof the carpetconstructionon the performanceof the vacuumcleaner. For example,if thecarpethasa backingwhichwill allow air to passthrough,air will be drawn from beneaththe carpet as well as through the pileduring vacuuming.In a glueddown carpet,or carpetwith animperviousbacking,theair canonly bedrawnthroughthepile adjacentto theworkingarea. If thecarpethas no pile, suchas is thecasewith a fibre-bonded(non-woven),theair is drawnonly overthesurface. Thesevariationsareillustratedin Figure 17.

34

willbemuchreduced. machine upright ofabadlyadjusted FIGURE18: Theefficiency that thefirst objectiveis Inconclusion,whenchoosinga vacuumcleanerremember in mindthatie cape b earing to removeas muchdry particulatesoil as possible, To acveve t in i tslife. hasprobablybeen inadequatelyvacuumedthroughout throughthe pile air of selecta machinethatis capableof movinga largevolume

35

to ge pile openingeffect. Be Prepared andgivesthemaximumpossible client'smachineto vacuum beforeMe anddo notrely uponusingthe vacuuming et cleaning.

Shampooing ‘ttledoubtthattherehasbeena markeddeclinein the Popular beet to understand.Carpetsthathave thisis difficult Se ene ‘suet cleane d tage be can unobstructed if and arebrighterandless wet, shampooed more mechanicalaction which results in more generates quickly. Shampooing less dependentupon an accessipy effectiveremovalof fineparticulatesoil andis it is possibleto Offerthe watersupply.However,for manyofthese statements it choosinga cleaningsystem, B efore conviction. same withthe v iewpoint opposite d etail. in some is aswelltothinkthroughthesearguments are brighter. This is undeniably true. Carpetsthathavebeenshampooed 1. particles of soil thatare moreefficientatlooseningthefine Not onlyis shampooing forcausingvisiblesoilingbutit is alsoa veryeffectiveway ofdealing responsible thecrystalsof shampoothatremain behind withgreasymaterials.Furthermore, whenthecarpetis dryarenormallywhite. Becausetheyare white they reflect morelightwhichmakesthecarpetappearbrighter.However,if theshampoodoes notdryto acrystallineresiduebutformsa stickysheathwhichcoatsthe fibres, thereis a muchgreaterlikelihoodthat rapid resoilingwill occur following allof thecleaningagentis left in the unlikesprayextraction, because, shampooing carpetuntilit is dry. 2. Carpetsthathavebeenshampooed are lesswet. It is possibleto use far lessliquidwhenshampooing a carpetthanit is whencleaningby sprayextraction. Dry foammethodsuseevenlesswater. However,whateverthetechniqueused, wettingis very muchdependentuponthe operativeand the way he usesthe machine.It is wrong,therefore, to thinkthata carpetcannotbeoverwetted bythis method.

3. Unobstructed carpetscanbecleanedmorequickly. Thecleaningheadof a rotarymachineis largerthana conventional sprayextractiontool. Thismeansthat themachineis capableof coveringa largerareaof floor in a giventime thanis possibleusinga sprayextractionmachine.However,becausethecleaningheadis larger,it is also more cumbersomeand thereforemore difficult to manoeuvre

36

Itais not ableto cleaninto cornersor up to the edgesof a pstructions s aroun 4 jstotallyunsuitablefor cleaningstaircases. n ooma ooing generatesmore mechanicalaction which results in more Shamp val offine particulatesoil. Thegreatermechanicalforcesthatresult effectiverer"rampooillgmayalso causeanunacceptable amountof pile distortion mrotary. of thepile, or severepilling or fuzzingin thecaseof Berbercarpets r untwistne ile constructionsmadefrom staple*yarns. After cleaningwith a andother ae it is essentialto usea pile brushto reorientatethepile andrectify rotaryeieition thatmayhaveoccurred. However,if untwistingor pilling has a ac thereis no satisfactoryremedy. t , Shampooingis less dependentuponanaccessiblewater supply.Because e of waterutilisationis less duringshampooingthan in sprayextraction ; it is possibleto cleana greaterareaof carpetper litreofwaterby anyof i S cleaning, thebrushtechniques. er much the disadvantagesmay outweighthe advantagesor whatever fashionmay be, therecan be no doubtthat, if the carpetis visuallyvery oa maybe restored. is theonlyway thata satisfactoryappearance ons dhempocing with a sprayextractionrinse casesmanyoperativesfollow theshampooing OT remains. that shampoo to removetheexcess of the Therearetwo shampooingtechniques,similarexceptfor the characteristics a produces w hich chemical usesa chemical.One,knownasdry foamshampooing would otherwiseit stablefoamwhich of coursecannotbe trulydry, voluminous, function. The otherusesa chemicalwhich generatesa anycleaning notperform lessvoluminousfoamwhich 'collapses'more quickly,and this makesthe carpet wetter. For apparentlyno better reasonthan that it is not a dry foam, the is sometimesknown as wet shampooing.However,since this is the technique morepopularof thetwo methods(andalsothe older)it isoftenknown simply as Thus,whereverin thistextthe termshampooingoccurswithoutthe shampooing. 'dryfoam’,thenthe'wet'techniqueis implied. qualification

into fibreswhichhavebeenchopped silk)andsomeman-made fibres(except All natural * of man-made areknownasstaplefibresandmakestapleyarns.Uncutlengths lengths short fibres arespunintocontinuous filament yarns.

37

the rotary brush« ‘ Twobasictypesof machineareused: thosethat employ wherethe driveis abouta perpendicularaxis with the full face of thecireun shapedbrushin contactwith the carpet, andthose that use cylindricalbrug* wherethedriveis. about2 horizontalaxis,similarin principleto aCylinder lay m mower. cylindricalbrush techniquesaretoo Superfici Therearemanywhobelievethat al to as anythingmorethan an interimmaintenancetechnique.. i be considered is alsoappliedto dryfoamshampoos.However,in a domesticSituation argument cosmeticcleaningis oftenthebestthat1srequiredand ina contract locationthe to achievecosmetic cleaninghas become valueof frequentinterimmaintenance moreaccepted.Withthesereasonsin mind, andfor convenience,all conventionay in thissection. will bediscussed machines shampooing makesuseof a singlebrush(seeFigure 19). Someof these Mostrotarymachine are dualpurpose machineswhich, after removalof the shampootank anq ofthebrushwithadriveplateandfloorpad,canalsobe usedfor hard replacement if alsocapableof operatingat differentspeeds, Suchmachines, floormaintenance give@versatilitywhichwouldotherwiseinvolvea highcapitaloutlay. However, theoperating speedfor carpetcleaningis lowerthanthepreferredspeedfor hard flooruseand,to achievethedualrolewithoutvariablespeed,it maybe necessary to sacrificesomespeedat theexpenseof thehardfloor routineand to operate fasterthanisrecommended forcarpetsMostcarpetmachines operatein therange 150-250 rpm.A typicalmulti-purpose machine is shownin Figure20.

19: FIGURE 3 :

forrotaryshampooing, Typicalsinglebrushmachine

Themostpopularbrushdiameters are 380-430mm althoughsomemanufacturers offer320mm machines for workingin restricted areas.Obviouslya largerbrush is preferredif timeis theonly consideration, sincethebiggerthebrushdiameter, the less the timetakento clean@given area But biggermachinesare more difficultto control(i.€ restrain)andare lesseasyto manoeuvre.Theyare also heavier- 34kg is typical Therearea smallnumberof hybridmachinesfittedwitha detachable wetpick-up vacuumto removetheshampooimmediately afterapplication.No doubtintended to minimisedryingtimesand reducethe extentof post-cleanvacuuming,the technique is notwidespread

FIGURE20;

38

Typicalmultipurpose machine suitable forbothshampooing and har dfloor for dustcontrol. Thismodelmayalsobefittedwithacanister maintenance.

39

into rotary machines Amongstthe otherfeaturesthat maybe incorporated the machinesto aTethe makes ‘deadman'shandle’principleof operationwhich ON position; an automaticout. the triggerswitchis not purposefullyheldin the device which preventsthemachine if the motorbeginsto overheat, a safety upright position; and a brush me operatingwhen the handle is in the directioneachfine | whichcausesthebrushto rotatein the opposite mechanism €the distortionandwear. machineis started,therebyminimisingbrush It is alsopossibleto obtainrotarymachineswhich employtwo brushes,but hese for us are more commonlymadefor the do-it-yourselfmarket rather than cleaners. professional machinewith anoveralldiameterlargerthanthe a three-brush Cimexmanufacture singlebrushmachines.Thetorquewhichthe operatornormallyencounterswhey startingup,andwhichwouldotherwisebeverygreatwith a machineof this size,jg by designreducedto zero. This is doneby mountingthe three brusheson q tableso thattherotationalforcesgeneratedby the action of the counter-rotating brushesare completelybalancedby the oppositerotation of the table. The machineis both heavyand wide and is thereforebest suitedto use in large, siteswhere,becauseof the width of the head, a good rate of unobstructed coveragecanbeachieved.Thismachinealsoincorporatesa brushreversingon/off switchto minimisewearaswell asincludingalltheusualfeaturesof a singlebrush machine(SeeFigure21). E

machineshownin Figure 20 is also suitablefor theapplicationof a dry he rotary oo. This is achievedusing a blower unit which, by meansof an foam$ a sneratesthe foam which is thenworked into the carpetby the brush. some ofthe few dry foamrotarymachinesystemsthatis available. This! sicalbrushmachinesmay employeitherone brushor two contra-rotating cyjindricThe speedof rotationis usuallymuchhigherthancanbe acceptedusing prushes: achines,principallybecausethe total areaof bristlein contactwith the rotaryt anyonetimeis muchlessthanis thecasewhena rotarymachineis used. 1et as thatthemechanicalforcesactingon thecarpetat thepointof cleaning Thiset thanin rotary shampooing. This resultsin less pile distortion,and aed somemanufacturers claim thattreatmentwith a cylindricalbrush‘dresses’ ihepileduringcleaning,therebyobviatingtheneedto us apile brush. foam, Althoughmostmachinesare fittedwith someform of aeratorto createthe generation. foam to thehigherbrushspeedalso contributes quickly - not to coveringlarge areas suited particularly are Cylindricalmachines a reasonable essentiallycosmetic. Indeed,it is forgettingthat the cleaning is resultsin the removal of less dirt to assumethat faster cleaning eneralisation alwaysthe discussed,actual dirt removal is not been already has as hougt e in carpetcleaning. objective dry before Somemachineslay a blanketof foam over the carpetwhichis left to Extractor, Carpet Schrader knownVon well whilstothers,suchasthe vacuuming, (See application after arefittedwitha wet pick-upunitto removethefoamdirectly Figures22 and23). pliable soft 150,000 Over his oftassure bristles nylon brush cylindrical deep-down thorough, penetration.

vacuum built-in \©Powerful, dirtextracts imuttansously AD)sladen foam.

in foam Dry, dry evenly dtgenerated eposited Isof machine Just ahead he brush. ©

FIGURE21:

Cimexthree-brush machines forrotaryshampooing.

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FIGURE22:

Extractor. Carpet principleoftheVonSchrader Operating

4]

ce

a: ro)

FIGURE24: FIGURE23:

TheVonSchrader CarpetExtractor for 'dry'foamshampooing.

One interestingvariantof cylindrical brush cleaningusesthe GLS machinefrom R E Whittaker& Co. Whittakerhas developeda highly crystallisingcleaning agentwhichis presprayedonto thecarpetand workedinto thepile with thetwin brushmachine. Like most shampooingtechniquesthereis no wet extractionbut becauseof the high crystallinityof the product, excellentresultsare obtained following post vacuuming. The techniqueis fast and ideally suitedto interim maintenance routines. The machineis illustratedin Figure24.

TheGLSmachine.

SprayExtraction established as the mostcommonof a cleaning Sprayextractionhasnow become techniques,Whenfirst introducedthe term 'steamcleaning’was p : a one theUK andin North America,and eventodaythere are someon the - wn to usetheexpression.However,consumerwatchdoggroupsue Horne continue ty thevalidityof the word 'steam'havebroughtpressureto bear,ae ma havebeenobliged to find another description eventhough it s 7 eed tobe te scientificargumentto showtheword theword ‘steam! convoluted acceptable. 3; ter Althoughthe techniqueis now widely known as hotwater extraction \rendin the UK, supportedby terminologyset out in a me a nee 5415:Part2:Section 2.3:1990 - Specificationfor safety of electrica ey eperatedindustrial cleaning appliances), to refer to the process as sp extraction, andthisconventionhasbeenadoptedthroughoutthisbook.

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The rangeof equipmentthatis availableis wide andvaried,yet thebasic »arevery similar. Cleaningagentis pumpedinto the carpetthrougha § PrINCip| ag seriesof sprayjets,anddirtywateris extracted through a suctio Nslot intoi 4. % . . os . recoverytank. A typicalsystemis illustratedin Figure25. Wag te

y temperaturefalls shortof the notionallypreferred ere are two possibilities. Either the cleanermay i power emperature, te the bestthatcanbe achieved,in whichcasehe ope thesupplytem?in the machine, or he can usea machineheaterandwait in the solutiontank to the desiredvalue. In this eeda Se erat 5 o it raises th rememberedthatthesmallerthecapacityof thesolution tank, peelit shouldfly it hasto berefilled,andmore time is spent waiting. This is not te mo emotion becausethe moretime that is spentwaiting,the less cost accepta! : becomes. thejob affective per squaremetrebasis cleaningis normallycostedon a price pecause : ec SO js15 perhour. ne thana price for heatlosses compensate ealitythebestthatthe heatermayachieveis to temperature. water the to maintain simply ‘4¢ simply rea" Soin ‘14 thusacting cooling, by

WATER PUMP WASTE

MUFFLER

FIGURE25:A typicalsprayextraction system. Let us considerin somedetailtherangeof choicesthatareavailable. 1, Somemachineshavea heatingelement;othersdo not. Theimportance of temperaturehaslongbeenargued.Therearethreeschoolsof thought:hotwater is not necessary;hot wateris necessary;hot wateris necessary but canequally well be providedfrom theclient'ssupply.Machinesthatincludeheatingelements areof coursemoreexpensiveto buyandsothereis someattractionin thefirstand thirdobservationswhichsuggestthata heatingelementis superfluous.

1 resuItspublishedsomeyearsagoby the hatis relevantis shownin that even though a very high Anothei a 00| Secretariatwhich suggest way be usedin the solutiontank, suchare the heatlossesthatthe international tempera within one secondof thewandpassingoverit. Isto roomtemperature tthe case,andthe evidenceseemsto be sound,it isunlikely thatwool carpet areusedin thesolutiontank. evenif hightemperatures ves eanbedamaged rcarpe will alsohavesomebearing.Most work bestin hot water. Thetype0f detergent speciallydesignedforuse Somearemoresolublein cold water. Somehave been launderingand dish withcold water,althoughthesearemainlyavailable for if the applications.Othersare notparticularlysensitiveto temperature. washing carpetis soiledwith greasysoils, or thefibre is hydrophobic(hasnoaffinity for Wool water),a hot cleaningagentis preferred. But if} as the International this quickly,does so falls thecarpet i n temperature the hassuggested, Secretariat thenmakeanydifference?

The argumentsare complicated.For example,supposethatwateris requiredfor cleaningat a notional 70°C. This is not usuallyobtainablefrom most supply sources,and from a domesticsupplythe maximumtemperature is not likely to exceed 50°C. Furthermore,during cleaning,considerableheat is lost first in heatingup theequipmentandthenby coolingas thewaterpassesthroughpumps, hosesandjets, which havea largesurfaceareacomparedwith thevolumeof the water.

andweight for anagainstusinghotwater, Ifyou setoutthearguments Confused? But if water. favourusinghot thebiaswill themaccordingto theirimportance, good several tankthereare solution youareusinga machinewitha smallcapacity rely and withoutheater, m achine cheaper selecta whyyoumaypreferto reasons b oilerunitto separate carrya fewcleaners of thesupply.A uponthetemperature of thecleaning waterif the supplyis cold and,as this is independent pre-heat therebyreducingthe heatingup, is it is alwaysa ‘refill’ solutionthat machine, If youintendto buyamachinewitha largevolumesolution ofdown-time. amount tank,anintegralheateris desirable.

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2. Differentsystemsofferdifferentsolutionpressures. The pring; thataremadein relationto solutionpressureconcernthedegreeofviet Claim in tum influencesthedryingtime)andthe mechanicalflushing(whic ing(hie, hs dislodgetheparticlesof soil). Somemanufacturers favo: ur low Pressure, VESty rangeof 2.1- 4.2bar,onthegroundsthathigherpressure S will causeovert the Machinesusinglow pressures arethemostcommon.OtherModels are