An Archaeometallurgical Survey for Ancient Tin Mines and Smelting Sites in Spain and Portugal: Mid-Central Western Iberian Geographical Region 1990-1995 9780860548928, 9781407350301

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An Archaeometallurgical Survey for Ancient Tin Mines and Smelting Sites in Spain and Portugal Mid-Central Western Iberian Geographical Region 1990-1995

Craig Merideth

BAR International Series 714 1998

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 714 An Archaeometallurgical Survey for Ancient Tin Mines and Smelting Sites in Spain and Portugal © Craig Merideth and the Publisher 1998 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548928 paperback ISBN 9781407350301 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548928 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1998. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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f or

" Z" z e ta 1 987 -1 993

who o f f ered c onv iv ia l i ty a nd e l an t he y ears w e s pen t v i s i t ing a nd e xp lor ing a bandoned m ines , m in ing t own s a nd a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he I ber ian P en insu la

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

I n E x t remadu ra , t hose h e lp ing me w i th a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem sa nd a dv ice w e r eA lon so R od r iguez D ia za nd I gnac io P avon S o ldev ia ( Un ive r s idad d eE x t remadu ra ) a nd J o se L u i s Mosque ra ( A rchaeo logo R eg iona l Merd ia ) . Augus t in V e lazquez J imenez ( Sec re ta r io )a nd J o sef ina Mol ina G a r c ia o f t h e MNAR Museum Me rd ia w e re e x t reme ly h e lpfu l i n l o ca t ing f i nd s f r om L og ro san a nd a l low ing me t oh ave t h em d r awn a nd s amp led .

Iw ou ld l i ke t o t hank P rof . B . R o thenbu rg , D i rec to r o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S tud ie s ( IAMS ) f o r t h e o ppo r tun i ty t oh ave b een a b le t ow o rk w i th h im o ve r many y ea r s o n a rchaeome ta l lurg ica l e xcava t ions a nd p os t e xcava t ion w o rk . Wo rk ing w i th P rof es so r R o thenburg w a s my p r ima ry i n troduc t ion t o t he n ew a nd i n teres t ing f i e ld o f a r chaeome ta l lurgy T he c on t inued w o rk w i th P rof . R o thenbu rg f i na l ly p romp ted m e t o t a ke o n t h e t a sk o f t r y ing t oo rgan ise a nd f i n i sh aP hD p ro jec t .

I nS a lamanca , Iw a sh e lped g ene rou s ly b yD r .A nge lE spa r za A r royo a nd J av ie r L a r razaba l G a la rza ( Un ive r s idad d e S a lamanca ) a nd Manue l S an ton ja Gomez ( Museo d e S a lamanca ) .

Ia m g r a tefu l t o D r . J . F . Me rke l , t h e s upe rv i so ro f my P hD p ro jec t , f o r a l l t he t ime a nd e f fo r t t h a t h e h a s s pen t i n h e lp ing m et oc a r ry t h rough a nd f i n i sh m y P hD p ro jec t .

I n P or tuga l , L u is O os terbeek ( Esco la S upe r ior d e T ecno log ia , T oma r ) w a s c ruc ia l i nh e lp ing m e a cqu i re t h e p r e l im ina ry p e rm is s ion f o rw o rk i nP or tuga l a nd i n ma im ing i n i t ia l c on tac t s . P au lo F e l ix ( E sco la S up e r io rd e T ecno log ia ) h e lped w i th a dv ice o n p o t te ry c o l lec ted a tP or tugue se s i tes . Monge S oa res D epa r tmen t , Qu im inca I cen l ine t i a nd F e rnando C .S . R ea l ( I ns t i tu to P or tuguese d o P a t r imon io A rqu i tec ton ico E A rqueo log ico )w e re h e lpfu l w i th a dv ice a nd f u r the rc on ta c t s .

D rB r in ley R obe r t s o ft h e D epa r tmen to fG eo logy , B i rkbeck C o l lege w a s v ery g enerous w i th h i s t ime a nd a dv ice i n h e lp ing me t o a dd ress a nd s o lve n ume rou s g eo log ica l p rob lem s a r is ing f r om t h e s u rvey . Ia m g ra tefu l f o r a l l t h e h e lp o ve r t h e y ea r s f r om D r . R .F . T y leco te who d ied d u r ing t h e c ou r se my P hD w o rk , b u t w hose l e c tu res a nd d i scu ss ions o n a r chaeome ta l lu rgy h ad made s t rong a nd l a s t ing i mp re s s ion .

R aque l V i la ca ( I n s t i tu to d eA rqueo log ia , C o imb ra ) h a s b een mo s th e lp fu l w i th a r chaeo log ica l a dv ice a nd d a t ing o fs u rvey p o t te ry a nd a l low ing me t o a na lyse h er e xcava ted m e ta l lu rg ica l s amp les a nd t oi n c lude t h e r e su l t s i n my P hD p ape r .

Ia mg r a tefu lf o rt h eh e lp i nt h ef o rm o fl e c tu r e sa nd p e r sona l d i scu s s ion s f r om P rof e sso r H . G . B achmann , P rof e sso rJ .A . C ha r le sa nd D r .P au lC raddock . Iw ou ld l i ke t o t hank S and ra B ond , D ebo rah G lanf ie ld a nd K ev in R eeves , L abo ra to ry T echn ic ian s a tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A r cha eo logy , f o r a l l t h e i r h e lp d u r ing t h e t ime Iw a s d o ing m y l a bo ra tory wo rk .

Ma r ia H e lena S imoe s F rade ( D i re to r ia R eg iona l d o I PPAR C o imb ra , a nd D i rec to r o ft h e E xcava t ion s a tT o r re R omano C en tumce l la s ) h a s b een mos t g rac ious i n g iv ing me h e r e xcava ted s l ag s amp le s f r om T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s t o a na lyse a nd a l low ing m e t oi n c lude t h e r e su l t s i n my P hD w o rk .

A ndy B ea rd , M icroprobe T echn ic ian i n t h e G eo logy D epa r tmen t , B irkbeck C o l lege , w a s mos t h e lpfu l i n a na ly s ing v e ry d i ff icu l tm ine ra la nd m e ta l lu rg ica ls amp le s .

Iw ish t o t h ank t h e C en t ra l R esea rch F und , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon , f or p rov id ing money t owa rds my p re l im ina ry s u rvey t r ip i n 1 992 a nd t he I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S tud ie s ( IA MS ) who a l so h e lped f i nanc ia l ly i ns uppor t ing t h e f i r s t f i e ld s u rvey t r ip i n 1 992 I AMS a l so l a te rp rov ided p a r t ia l f i nanc ia l h e lp i nt h e s u rvey p l ann ing t r ip t oL og ro san d u r ing 1 994 .

A l l s u rvey f i e ld p lann ing w o rk a tt h e L og ro san s i te i n 1 995 a nd 1 996 wa s d one b y B renda C raddock a nd A n thony B r idgeman .T hey w e re h e lped i n1 996 b yJ am ie T ho rbu rn . B renda C raddock h a sd rawn a l t h ef i na lL og ro san s i te s urvey p l ans a nd a l l o f my s u rvey p o t te ry a nd s t one a r t if ac t d r aw ing s .

If e e l t h a t Io we a d eb t o f g ra t i tude t o t h e E x t remadu ra G eo log is t , V icen te S os B ayna t , whose f i e ld w ork a nd w r i t ing s h ave b een i nva luab le t o m e i n l o ca t ing f o rgo t ten m ine ra la nd m ine s i te si nE x t remadu ra .

I n S pa in , Ir ece ived i nva luab le h e lp f r om Ma r co s A . H un t O r i tz a nd V ic to r Hur tado P e rez o f S ev i l le U n ive r s i ty i n h e lp ing t o i n i t ia te p re l im ina ry c on tac t s i nE x t remadu ra . I a l so r e ce ived a dv ice a nd h e lp o n g eo log ica l p rob lem s f r om F e l ix G a rc ia P a lome ro o f R io T in to M ine ra S .A . , R io T in to , S pa in .

V icen te S o s B ayna t d i ed i n 1 994 . In eve r h ad ac hance t o m ee t h im , b u t h i s e n thu s ia sm f o r w o rk a nd h i s n o t ing a nd s av ing o f a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins a tm in ing s i te s , n o tab ly L ogrosan , h ave b een a ma jor c on t r ibu t ion t o t he d eve lopmen to f my P hD w o rk .

I nE x t remadu ra , Ir e ce ived g ene rou s a dv ice a nd w a s g iven i n va luab le g eo log ica l p ub l ica t ion sb yC a r lo sA lca lde Mo le ro a nd A lfonso d e l a s L lande ra s L opez o f t h e D epa r tmen t o f D i recc ion G ene ra l d e I ndus t r ia E ne rg ia y M ina s ( J un ta d e E x t r emadu ra ) Me r ida .

Ia l so r e ce ived i nva luab le h e lp i n t he t r ans la t ion o f my S pan i sh P e rm is s ion A pp l ica t ion s a nd a nnua l s u rvey r epo r t s f r om Ma rcos A . Hun t O r t iz , S ev i l le a nd D av id I guaz H e rmo so d e Mendoza , aS pan ish P hD s t uden ta tt h e I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy .

T oma sP or ro Mayo , t h e c u s tod ian o ft h e Mu seo G eo log ia d e E x t remadu ra , Me r ida h e lped t ol o ca te i n va luab le g eo log ica l p ub l ica t ions o fE x t remadu ra w h ich h e k i nd ly a lowed m e t o c opy .

T he r e ad ing a nd c o r rec t ing o fP hD t h es is w a s u nde rt a ken b y D r .J .F . Me rke l a nd S t ef an L o re t t . 1

ABSTRACT

T he s ub jec to fm y s t i l l o ng o ing a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s u rvey w o rk i n c lude s my P hD t h es is o n t h e a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s u rvey w h ich Iu nde r took i n M id -Cen t ra l We s te rn I be r ia 1 992 -1995 . T he a r ea c ove r b y t h e s u rvey c on s i s ted o f ag eog raph ica l r e g ion i n c lud ing a r ea s i nb o th S pa in a nd P o r tuga l . T he p re h i s to r ica l p e r iod c ove red wa s f r om t he C oppe r P e r iod a pp rox ima te ly 2 000 BC t o t h e l a te R oman P e r iod t h e 4 th C en tu ry AD . T he m a in t h eme o fm y w o rk w a s a nd i st ol o ca te a nd a s ses s s u r f a ce e v idence t h a t t h e c a ss i te r i te o re i nt h e M id -Cen t ra l r e g ion o fI be r ia h ad b een m ined , s me l ted a nd u sed i nb ronze p roduc t ion i na n t iqu i ty . T he f i r s t t a sk w a s t o e va lua te a va i lab le h i s to r ica l a nd g eo log ica l l i t e ra tu re a nd t oc omp i le f r om t h e l i t e ra tu re al i s t o fc a s s i te r i te m in ing s i t e sf o ra c tua l f i e ld s u rvey v i s i t s . T he p r ima ry s e a son o ff i e ld s u rvey w o rk c ons i s ted s o le ly o f t r y ing t ol o ca te p r ec i se ly t h e l i s ted c a s s i ter i te s i te s a nd t h en t od ocumen t i fp o ss ib le a ny a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s u r face e v idence p r e sen ta tt h e se s i te s . A f te r t h e f i r s t f i e ld s urvey s ea son , It hen u nde r took l a bo ra tory a na ly t ica l e xam ina t ion o f i mpo r tan t c o l lec ted s amp le s o f s l ag s , m e ta ls a nd m ine ra ls u s ing p r ima r i ly S EM /EDS a na ly s i s .

T he l a bora to ry w o rk wa s u nder taken t o p rov ide p o s i t ive e l emen t i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e r e levan tc o l lec ted m e ta l lu rg ica l a nd m ine ra l s u r f a ce f i nd s . Du r ing 1 993 a nd 1 994 , f u r ther s urvey f i e ld t r ip s w e re c omp le ted a nd mo re s u r face ma ter ia l w a s c o l lec ted f r om L og ro san , G o lpe ja s ,V a lde f lo rez ,A rea C a t ra ia D oB u ra co a nd T on eR omana C en tumce l la s f o rf u r the rl a bo ra to ry a na ly s i s . I n 1 994 a nd 1 995 , t h e p redom inan t p reh i s to r ic c a ss i te r i te m in ing a nd p roduc t ion s i te a tE l C e r ro d e S an C r is toba l , L og ro san w a sp l aned o n as ca le o f 1 : 500 i nb o th s u r f ace a nd c on tou rd e ta i l s . Du r ing 1 996 a nd 1 997 t h e s i te s o fL og ro san , E lC e r ro S an C r i s toba la nd t h es i te o fM ina d eB en-o ca lw e re a ga in v i s i t ed f o rf u r the rs u r f a ce s t udy a nd p lann ing w o rk . T he A ppend ix I s e c t ion o ft h i sp ape rw a sn o ti n c luded i nm y o r ig ina l P hD p ape ra sn o ta l l o ft h e a na ly t ica l w o rk o nt h e m e ta l s amp le sh ad n o ty e tb een c omp le ted w hen t h eP hD w a sf i n i shed f o rp r e sen ta t ion d u r ing t h e s p r ing o f1 996 . I ti sh oped i n1 998 t os t a r ts ome e xp lo ra to ry e xcava t ion t r ench w o rk a nd f u r the rp lann ing o n C e r ro d eS an C r i s toba l a nd t os t a r tp l ann ing o u t as i te p l an o ft h eM ina d eB e r roca l m ine s i te .

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A cknow ledgemen t s

1

A b s t ra c t

2

T ab le o fC on ten t s

3

L i s to fI lu s t ra t ion s

4

L i s to fP ho tog raph s

6

L i s to fP lan sa nd D raw ing s

8

L i s to fT ab le sa nd G raph s

9

CHAPTER 1

P ro jec tI n ten t ion sa nd E xp lana t ion s

1

CHAPTER 2

E a r ly S u rvey a nd Wr i t ing s

1 5

CHAPTER 3

P reh i s to r ic ,A nc ien ta nd H is to r ic T in

1 8

CHAPTER 4

G eo log ica lF o rma t ion o fT in

2 3

CHAPTER 5

L oca t ion o fT in D epo s i t si nE u rope

2 9

CHAPTER 6

T he G eo logy o f We s t e rn M id I b e r ia

3 4

CHAPTER 7

A r chaeo logy a nd P r eh i s to ry o fC en t ra lM id I b e r ia

3 8

CHAPTER 8

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica lS ur vey

4 5

CHAPTER 9

A na ly t ica l Me thod s

1 32

CHAPTER 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

1 35

CHAPTER 1

D i scu s s ion a nd C onc lu s ion s

1 61

B ib l iog raphy

1 67

A ppend ix I

1 73

A ppend ix I

1 97

3

L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS

CHAPTER 3 F ig 3 . 1

C ompo s i t ion o fT in S lag s T y leco te , R .F . , 1 987 , 3 09

2 0

F ig 3 . 2

T in I ngo t sM id i s tC en tu ry Wreck V ende s , F ranc P enha l lur ick , R .D . ,1986 , 1 07

2 1

CHAPTER 4 F ig 4 . 1

T IN DEPOS ITS OF THE WORLD J un ta d eC a s t i l la yL eon ; 1 988 , 2 6

2 3

F ig 4 . 2

S CHE MAT IC MODELS OF THE MAJOR GROUPS OF PR IMARY T IN ORE DEPOS ITS a f te rT ay lo re ta l1 985 1 )t i n p o rphyr ie s 2 )s ka rn sa nd c a rbona te / su lph ide r ep la cemen t s 3 )v e in sa nd s hee ted v e in s 4 )g r e i sen sa nd p egma t i te s L ehmann , B . , 1 990 , 6 -7

2 4

F ig 4 . 3

ZON ING OF MINERAL DEPOS ITS AROUND AN I GNEOUS I NTRUS ION Wh i t ten , D .G .A . a nd B rook s , J .R .V . ,1972 , 2 31

2 5

F ig 4 . 4

GENERAL ISED PARAGENET IC S EQUENCE OF ORE AND GANGUE MINERALS S ou th - We s tE ng land ( a f te rS tone a nd E x ley 1 985 ) Emb ry , P .G . a nd S yme s , R .F . , 1 987 , 8

2 6

F ig 4 . 5

DOLCOATH MINE S ECT ION -ORE ZONES D o lcoa th M ine No r th o fC ambo rne , C o rnwa l l Emb ry , P .G . & S yme s , R .F . ,1987 , 1 3

2 7

CHAPTER 5 F ig 5 . 1

EUROPE T IN DEPOS ITS P enha l lu r ick , R .D . , 1 986 , 6 3

2 9

F ig 5 . 2

BR ITTANY -PR INC IPAL T IN DEPOS ITS P enha l lu r ick , R .D . , 1 986 , 8 7

3 0

F ig 5 . 3

ERZGEB IRGE o rI CRUSNE HORY ,T in a r ea P enha l lu r ick , R .D . , 1 986 , 7 2

3 1

F ig 5 . 4

G ene ra lT rend so ft h eV a r iscan Ma s s if s o f We s te rn E u rope ( f rom A ge r 1 975 ) A ge r , D .V . , 1 980 , 3 14

3 2

CHAPTER 6 F ig 6 . 1

GEOLOG ICAL T IME S CALE WATER S EARCH -SOUTH AUSTRAL IA

3 4

F ig 6 . 2

EXPOSURES OF p r e -PERM IAN r o ck s w i th in t h e Ibe r ian P en in su la D a l lmeye r , R .D . a nd G a rc ia , M .E . , (ed ) , 1 990 , 2 08

3 5

F ig 6 . 3

GRAN ITE AND METAMORPH IC D ISTR IBUT ION I BER IA D a l lmeye r , R .D . a nd G a r c ia , M .E . , ( e d ) , 1 990 , 2 08

3 6

4

L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS

CHAPTER 7 F ig 7 . 1

REL IEF MAP OF S PA IN L aLaguna J . , 1 990 , 2

3 8

F ig 7 . 2

MEGAL ITHS I NS PA IN J o rda C e rda , F . ; P e l l ice r , C .M . ; A co s ta , P . A lmag ro -Go rbea , M . , 1 989 , 2 40

3 9

F ig 7 . 3

D ISTR IBUT ION o f BEAKER S ITES I ND 3ER IA H a r r ison , R .J . , 1 977 , 1 00

4 0

F ig 7 . 4

D i spe r s ion o fP ro to -O r ien t ia lE lemen t s Mo s ts i gn if i cen ti nt h e I b e r ian P en insu la J o rda C e rda ,F . ;Pe l l ice r ,C M . ;Aco s ta Ma r t inez , P . ; A lmag ro -Go rbea ,M . , 1 989 , 4 32

4 1

F ig 7 . 5

Map o ft h eD ifu s s ion o f Whee l Made P o t te ry i nt h eI b e r ian P en in su la J o rda C e rda , F . ;Pe ll ice r , C , M . ;Aco s ta Ma r t inez , P . ; A lmag ro -Go rbea ,M . , 1 989 , 4 44

4 2

F ig 7 . 6

T ab le o ft h eI be r ian P en in su la d u r ing t h eB ronze F ina l a nd t h eI r on A ge b e tween 1 300 B .C . t o0A .D . J o rda C e rda ,F . ;Pe l l ice r ,C . M . ;Aco s ta Ma r t inez , P . ; A lmag ro -Go rbea , M . , 1 989 , 3 43

4 4

CHAPTER 8 F ig 8 . 1

SURVEY S ITE LOCAT ION MAP EUROPA , M ICHEL IN 9 70 , 1 : 300 .000 ( 1C M :30 KM ) 1 995

F ig 8 . 2

I NVEST IGAT ION LOGROSAN ( CACERES ) , 1 980 B a r rena ,M .A . a nd I s id ro , P .D . . 1 987 , 7 4

4 7

5 2 -

F ig 8 . 3

GEOLOG ICAL M INE P LAN OF THE APOPHYS IS GRAN ITE DE TORREC ILLA DE LOS ANGELES ( NORTH CACERES ) Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 7 4

7 4

F ig 8 . 4

M INA TELBA -SANTA MAR IA -TRES AM IGOS Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 8 6

8 1

F ig 8 . 5

G eo log ica l P lan o ft h e GOLPE JAS S n O re D epo s i t ( IGLES IAS M . yG onza lo F . , 1 981) ; J un ta d e C a s t i l la yL eon , 1 988 , 13

8 5

F ig 8 . 6

G eog raph ic L oca t ion o ft h e Mega l i th ic T omb s K nown i nt h eP rov ince o fS a lamanca D e l ibes , G . a nd S an ton ja , M . , 1 986 , 1 7 -18

8 7

F ig 8 . 7

S ITE P LAN TORRE ROMANA CENTUMCELLAS -1994 a r row ss how l o ca t ion so ft h r ee p i ece so fe xcava ted s l ag F rad e , M . H . S . , D i re to r ia R eg iona l d o I PPAR d e C o imb ra , P o r tuga l .

9 3

F ig 8 . 8

P l acemen ta nd C ha ra c te r i s t ic so ft h e M ine ra l ized V e in so f Amby lgon i te -Ca s s i te r i te VALDEFLOREZ ( CACERES ) S an to s J .A . yMed ina ( 1978 ) ; Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 9 7

1 06

F ig 8 . 9

G eo log ica l P l an o ft h e VALDEFLOREZ V e ins S an to s J .A . yMed ina ( 978 ) ; Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 9 8

I 0 7

F ig 8 . 10

G eo log ica l P l an -of t h e S t ruc tu reof " EL TRANSQU ILON " ( Ga l lego M . 1 992 ) Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 2 03

18

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No r th o fZ ah ino s -O l iva d el aF ron t e rapage

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G ene ra lV iew F rom E a s t -M ina S an N icho la s

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G ene ra lV iew M ina C omoha lH uba rba yH o r r e ra

7 6

P ho to

1 4

G a l le ry E n t rance L aM ina C a r ra sca l

7 8

P ho to

1 5

E n t rance S ha f t /Ga l le ry Mon tehe rmo so M ine

7 9

P ho to

1 6

G ene ra lV iew M ina T e lba A rea

8 0

P ho to

1 7

G ene ra lV iew o fM ina C laud ina A r ea

8 3

P ho to

1 8

V iew o fM ina G o lpe ja s

8 4

P ho to

1 9

R ock wh ich c on ta ined C u -Sn M ine ra l s

8 6

P ho to

2 0

D o lmen E l T o r re jon , 8k i lome te r s We s to fG o lpe ja s

8 8

P ho to

2 1

M ina B a r ruecopa rdo v i ew o fl a rge o pen c a s t

8 9

P ho to

2 2

S i te o fL e s Me r chana s -R io C ama ce s

9 0

P ho to

2 3

M ina I n e spe rada -B a rqu i l la

9 1

P ho to

2 4

T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , 1 992

9 2

P ho to

2 5

L ook ing S ou th f r om t h e Moun ta in o fF ragua s

9 5

P ho to

2 6

T he M ine b y L a je s , l ook ing t oS ou th E a s t

9 6

P ho to

2 7

V iew o ft h eT he G o i s A rea , l o ok ing N o r th

9 7

P ho to

2 8

V iew o ft h eP ana sque i ra M ine

9 8

P ho to

2 9

T he S an ta E u la l ia M ine , g ene ra l v i ew

1 00

P ho to

3 0

S an ta E u la l ia M ine . g ene ra l v i ew

1 02

6

L IST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

P ho to

3 1

L aM ina d eC a sa sd eD on A n ton ia

1 04

P ho to

3 2

M ina V a lde f lo r ez g ene ra lm ine a r ea v i ew

1 05

P ho to

3 3

M ina V a ldef io rez ,v i ew t o We s t

1 08

P ho to

3 4

A rea C a t ra ia d oB u raco , v i ew t o We s t

1 09

P ho to

3 5

C ume 6 49 & 6 48 a bove Q u in ta d eC hande i r inha

13

P ho to

3 6

C a s te lo -Be lmon t e , v i ew t oS ou th We s t

15

P ho to

3 7

M ina d eS nE xped i to , v i ew t oN o r th E a s t

17

P ho to

3 8

M ina L aP e r iza -Mon tanchez

1 20

P ho to

3 9

M ina sD on ino sd eL ede sma

1 22

P ho to

4 0

M ina D eB e r roca l , v i ew t oS ou th We s t

1 23

P ho to

4 1

M ina d eB e r roca l , v i ew t oE a s t

1 24

P ho to

4 2

C o lou red M ic rop robe C onf igu ra t ion S can

1 40

P ho to

4 3

T en P iece so fs u r f ace R oman T in S lag

1 43

P ho to

4 4

M ic rop robe p ho tog raph R oman T in s l ag

1 46

P ho to

4 5

C o lou red M ic rop robe C onf igu ra t ion S can

1 48

P ho to

4 6

A s so r tmen to fC o l lec ted S u r f ace S lag

1 54

P ho to

4 7

R aque lV i la ca -C ruc ib le F ragmen t

1 58

P ho to

4 8

M ic rop robe p ho tog raph

1 59

P ho to

4 9

M ic rop robe p ho tog raph

1 60

7

L IST o f PLANS a nd DRA W INGS

P lan

1

E l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l 1 : 500 L a te B ronze A ge S e t t lemen ta r ea

5 5

P lan

2

E l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l 1 : 500 C on tou r s Map S e t t lemen ta r ea

5 6

D raw ing

No

1

f r agmen ts t one h amme r , S an C r i s toba l

5 7

D raw ing

N o

2

f r agmen t st h r ee m e ta l o b jec t s , S an C r i s toba l

5 7

D raw ing

N o

3

s u rvey p o t te ry , S an C r i s toba l

5 8

D raw ing

N o

4

s urvey p o t te ry , S an C r i s toba l

5 9

D raw ing

N o

5

s t one h amme r , S an C r is toba l

6 0

D raw ing

N o

6

s t one h amme r s , S an C r is toba l

6 1

D raw ing

N o

7

w o rked s t one s , S an C r i s toba l

6 2

D raw ing

N o

8

s t one h amme r , S an C r is toba l

6 3

D raw ing

N o

9

s t one h amme r s , S an C r is toba l

6 4

D raw ing

N o

1 0

s t one h amme r s , S an C r is toba l

6 5

D raw ing

N o

1

s t one a nd f l in t , S an C r is toba l

6 6

D raw ing

N o

1 2

g r ind ing /hamme rs t one f r agmen t M ina C omoha lH uba rba yH o r re ra

7 7

D raw ing

N o

1 3

f r agmen ts t one h amme r , M ina T e lba

8 2

D raw ing

N o

1 4

s ma l l s l ag b un , T he S an ta E u la l ia M ine

1 0 1

D raw ing

N o

1 5

w o rked s t one sf r agmen t s A rea C a t ra ia D oB u ra co

10

D raw ing

N o

1 6

s u rvey p o t te ry , s e t t lemen t s i te M ina D eB e r ro ca l

1 26

D raw ing

N o

1 7

s t one h amme r s , s e t t lemen t s i te M ina D eB e r ro ca l

1 27

D raw ing

N o

1 8

s t one h amme r , s e t t lemen ts i te M ina D eB e r roca l

1 28

D raw ing

N o

1 9

s t one g r ind ing / cru sh ing f r agmen t s M ine a r ea M ina D eB e r roca l

1 29

D raw ing

N o

2 0

s t one h amme ra nd s ma l l g r ind ing s t one M ine a r ea M ina D eB e r roca l

1 30

D raw ing

N o

2 1

s t one h amme ra nd f l in tf r agmen t s M ine a r ea M ina d eB e r roca l

1 3 1

D raw ing

N o

2 2

c ruc ib le f r agmen t s , C a s te le jo , P o r tuga l R aque lV i la ca

1 56

D raw ing

N o

2 3

c ruc ib le f r agmen t ,A leg r io s , P or tuga l

1 58

8

L IST o f TABLES a nd GRAPHS

T ab le N o

1

S EM / EDS A na ly s i s me ta l s a nd m ine ra l s E l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l , S pa in

1 35

T ab le N o

2

S EM /EDS A na ly s is s l ag M ina d eT re sA r royo s , S pa in

1 36

T ab le N o

3

S EM /EDS A na ly s is m ine ra l L aL apa M ine , S pa in

1 36

T ab le No

4

S EM /EDS A na ly s i s m ine ra l M ina D eD e squ i te s , S pa in

1 37

T ab le N o

5

S EM /EDS Ana ly s i s M ina T e lba , S pa in

1 37

T ab le N o

6

XRD Ana lys is m ine ra l M ina Go lpe ja s , S pa in

T ab le N o

7

S EM /EDS Ana lys i s m ine ra l ,f u rnace s me l ted m ine ra l M ina Go lpe ja s , S pa in

T ab le N o

8

E PMA/EDS A na ly s is M ina G o lpe ja s , S pa in

T ab le N o

9

S EM /EDS Ana lys i s s l ag T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

T ab le N o

1 0

S EM /EDS A na ly s i s s l ag , m ine ra l M ina D e S an ta E u la l ia ,Po r tuga l

1 50

T ab le N o

1

S EM /EDS A na ly s i s m ine ra l , s l ag M ina V a l D e F lo re s , S pa in

1 50

T ab le N o

1 2

S EM /EDS Ana ly s i s s l ag C a t ra ia Do B u ra co ,P o r tuga l

1 5 1

T ab le N o

1 3

S EM /EDS A na ly s i s s l ag B e lmon te C a s t le , P o r tuga l

1 52 153

T ab le N o

1 4

S EM /EDS A na ly s i s s l ag B e lmon te C a s t le , P o r tuga l

1 54

T ab le N o

1 5

S EM /EDS A na lys i s m ine ra l C r if tF a rm , C o rnwa l lE ng land

1 55

T ab le N o

1 6

S EM /EDS A na ly s i s m ine ra l P lym ton , D evon E ng land

1 55

T ab le N o

1 7

E PMA /EDS A na ly s i s c ruc ib le f r agmen t s C a s te le jo a nd A leg r io s , P o r tuga l

1 57

T ab le N o

1 8

S EM /EDS a na ly s is , F ragmen td e C o lgan te S amp le No 1 08

1 63

T ab le N o

1 9

S u rvey S i tes -E va lua t ion L i s t

m ine ra

m ine ra l

9

1 38

1 39 140

1 4 1

1 44 145

1 64 165

L IST o f TABLES a nd GRAPHS

G raph

N o

1

S EM /EDS A na ly s i s s l ag T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

1 42

G raph

N o

1

M ic rop robe A na ly s i s s l ag M ic rop robe f i l en o2 5 a r ea 1 T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P or tuga l

1 47

G raph

N o

3

M ic rop robe A na ly s i s s l ag M ic rop robe f i l en o2 6 a r ea 2 T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P or tuga l

1 47

G raph

N o

4

M ic rop robe A na ly s i s s l ag M ic rop robe f i l en o2 7 a r ea 3 T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

1 48

1 0

CHAPTER

PROJECT

1

I NTENTIONS

a nd

EXPLANATIONS

T he p r ima ry a im o ft h i s A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S urvey i nt h e M id Ibe r ian P en in su la w a st od ocumen tw i th s u r f a ce e v idence t h a tt i nm in ing a nd s me l t ing t ook p l ace i na n t iqu i ty .

S ome o ft h e p ub l i shed d e sc r ip t ions a nd l o ca t ions o fm ines a nc ien t a nd mode rn h ave n o t b een v e ry h e lpfu l w i th t h e i r s ome t ime si n accu ra te l o ca t ion d e ta i ls .

T he s t a r t ing o b jec t ive sf o rt h is p ropo sed s u rvey w e re t ov i s i t a nd c o l lec t s amp le s a t mode rn l i s ted t i n m ine s o r k nown c a ss i te r i te m ine ra l a r ea s c u r ren t o ra nc ien t . T he t i n m in ing s i te s w e re i n i t ia l ly i d en t if ied e i the rb y p ub l i shed g eo log ica l i n fo rma t ion o n c u r ren t mode rn t i n m ine l o ca t ion s o r b y e a r l ie r a r chaeo log ica l -me ta l lu rg ica l r epor t s u rvey s t h a t h ad b een u nde r taken w i th in t h eM id Ibe r ian p en in su la r eg ion .

My f i r s t y ea r o f s urvey w o rk i n I be r ia w a s ar a the r s upe rf i c ia l e xp lo ra to ry n a tu re d ue t of und ing l im i ta t ion s a nd t r ave le xpense s .

When If i r s t s t a r ted my s urvey p ro jec t , Iw a s n o t s u re t h a t t he s u rvey w ou ld a c tua l ly p roduce a ny p o s i t ive r e su l t s a nd t h e re e x i s t ed t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha tt h e a c tua l f i e ld w o rk m igh t d i sp rove w ha t Iw a s h op ing i tw ou ld p rove . I tw a s q u i te p os s ib le t h a t t he c a s s i te r i te m ine ra l s i te s Ip lanned t ov i s i t m igh t e nd u p o f f e r ing n o a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l c o l lec t ion p o ss ib i l i t ie s . I fs u r f ace f i nd sw e r ea va i lab le a tt h es i te st h a t Iw a sg o ing t o v i s i t , Iw ou ld c o l lec t s amp les o f s l ag , f u rnace r ema ins , p o t te ry a nd s ome s t one h amme r s , s t one g r ind ing t o o l s a nd m ine ra l s amp le s . Iw a s n o ts u re wha ta moun t o fs u r fa ce ma te r ia l t h a t Iw ou ld e ncoun te r . T he a moun t o f ma te r ia l t ob e c o l lec ted w ou ld b e d e te rm ined o n ly w hen Ih ad a c tua l ly a r r ived a te ach o ft h e s i tes . I n t h e e nd t h e amoun t o f ma te r ia l c o l lec ted d id n o t r ea l ly b ecome ap rob lem d u r ing my s u rvey w o rk d ue t ot h e s ca r c i ty o f ma te r ia l a t t he ma jo r i ty o f t h e s i tes Iv i s i ted . T he r efo re d u r ing t h e s u rvey a t many s i tes Ic o l lec ted a l l s u r f a ce a r tefac t sf ound , wh ich i n mo s tc a se sw e re v e ry f ew . O n ly a f ew o f t h e v i s i ted s i te s p resen ted t h e p rob lem o f d ec id ing w ha tt oc o l lec t .A rchaeome ta l lu rgy r ema in so ccu red i nv e ry s ma l l q uan t i t ies , t he refo r e a l l m e ta l lu rg ica l ly r e la ted ma t e r ia lw a su sua l ly n o ted a nd c o l lec ted d u r ing t h es u rvey . T he f i r s ty ea ro ff i e ld wo rk i nI b e r ia w a s d one i n 1 992 . T he i n i t ia l s urvey s ea son t ook p lace d ur ing Augus t a nd S ep tembe r . Ic ho se t o l im i t my s urvey w o rk t ow i th in t h e C en t ra la nd S ou the rn a r ea s o ft h e I b e r ian Ma s s if g ran i te b e l t w h ich r un sf r om t h eN o r th - We s tS pan i sh p rov ince o fG a lec ia t ot h e S ou th C en t ra l p rov ince s o fJ aen , a nd C o rdoba a bove t h eG ua lada lqu iv i rV a l ley . Twen ty s even s i te s w ere v i s i ted d u r ing t h e f i r s t s u rvey s ea son i n t he s umme r o f 1 992 . I n S pa in t h e p rov ince s o f B ada joz ,C a ce r e sa nd S a lamanca w e re v i s i ted a nd i nP o r tuga l t h eP rov ince so fB e i ra A l ta , B e i ra B a ixa a nd U ppe rA len te jo . N one o ft h ea bove s i x p rov ince sh ave b een t o ta l ly s u rveyed . E ven t oday i n 1 995 w i th f u r the r l i b ra ry w o rk , Ia m s t i l l f i nd ing n ew r e f e rence s t ot i n m ine ra l a r ea s w h ich Id i d n o t k now e x is ted w hen If i r s ts t a r t ed d o ing my f i e ld s u rvey w o rk . A s t h es urvey w o rk p rog re ssed o ve rt h ree y ea r s , Ih ave w i th e xpe r ience b ecome mo re e ff ic ien ta tl o ca t ing t h e a c tua l m ine s i t es .

1 1

T he p r ima ry o b jec t ive d u r ing t h ef i r s ty ea r 's s ur vey w a st ob e a b le t op hy s ica l ly l o ca te t h em ine s i te s .T he s e cond o b jec t ive w a s t od ocumen t a ny e v idence ( no m a t te r h ow d im inu t ive ) o nt h es u r f a ce o ft h ev i s i ted s i te . T he t h i rd o b jec t ive w a st oi d en t if y d a t ing e v idence a sw e l l a s m e ta l lu rg ica l e v idence t ot e s t t h e t h eory t ha t p reh i s to r ic t i n m in ing a nd s me l t ing o ccu red w i th in t h e c en t ra l M id Ibe r ia g eog raph ica l a r ea . T he n ex to b jec t ive w a s t oa s ce r ta in i f my t i n s u rvey p ro jec t w ou ld a c tua l ly b e w o r th t h e t ime a nd t h e e f o r tf o rf u r the rf i e ldwo rk . T he f i r s t y ea r s urvey i n 1 992 s eemed q u i te p rom i s ing , s o I d ec ided t oc on t inue w i th t h ep ro jec tw it hf u r the rs u rvey t r ip s i n 1 993 . I n 1 992 t wen ty s even s i tes w e re v i s i ted ; s ome f o r o n ly a f ew h our s , o the r s f o r o ne o r t wo d ays . S urf ace e v idence s uch a s s u rface s ca t te r o f i d en t ifab le p o t te ry f r agmen t sh ad a ppea red a ts ome s i te s a nd p o in ted t op o s s ib le t i n m in ing o rs me l t ing u se d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze Age a nd R oman P e r iod s . T he s e cond y ea r o f s u rvey t ook p lace d u r ing 1 993 a nd c on s i s t ed o ft wo t r ip s t oI be r ia . T he f i r s t t r ip w a s i n Ma r ch a nd t h es e cond t r ip w a s u nde r taken i nJ une a nd J u ly . T h i r teen n ew s i te s i nt h e M id Ibe r ian a r ea w e r e v i s i ted d u r ing 1 993 . A l so s ome o ft h e e a r l ie rp rom i s ing 1 992 s u rveyed s i te s w e re r e v is i ted t os t udy t h e i rg eo log ica l s e t t ing s i n mo re d e ta i l a nd t os p end mo re t ime l o ok ing f o rf u r the rs u r f ace e v idence . At h i rd y ea r o fp l ann ing a nd s u rvey w a s d one i n 1 994 . T he w o rk i n1 994 a ga in c on s is ted o ft wo s epa ra te t r ip s t oI be r ia . T he f i r s t t r ip w a s d one i nA p r i l - May a nd t h e s e cond t r ip i n D ecemb e r . I nt h e 1 994 s u rvey s ea son t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e t ime s pen t i n I b e r ia w a s a to ne s i te c a l led L og ro san wh ich w a s s t a r t ing t o l o ok v e ry p rom i s ing a s ap o s s ib le L a te B ronze A ge t i n m ine a nd s e t t lemen ts i te . Id ec ided t h e refo re t oh ave av e ry d e ta i led 1 : 500 s ca le p l an d rawn o ft h i s v e ry l a rge s i te ; a pp rox ima te ly e i gh th und red m e te r sl o ng b yf ou rh und red m e te r sw ide . T he s i te p lann ing w o rk a t L og rosan w a s u nder taken b y B renda C raddock a nd An thony B r idgeman . T he ma in i n s t rumen t u sed f o r t h e p lann ing wo rk i n 1 994 w a s a s t anda rd ( non -e lec t ron ic )H i lge r Wa t t s S T 1 56 t h eodo l i te . T he d e ta i led s i te p l an o fL og ro san w a s n o t f i n i shed i n 1 994 d ue t ot h ec omp lex i ty o ft h e s i te i nb o th g eog raph ica l s e t t ing a nd t h e l a rge n umbe ro fs u r f ace f e a tu re s w h ich h ad t ob e p u t o n t h e p l an . Af u r the r p l ann ing s ea son a tt h e L og rosan s i te w a sp r o jec t ed f o r 1 995 .

P ro jec t I n ten t ion s a nd E xp lana t ion s

C hap te r 1

A t s ome s i te s Iv i s i ted , t h e l o ca l p eop le d id n o t h ave a ny k now ledge o f am ine e ve r b e ing i n t h e i r a r ea o r e ven w ha t t ype o fm ine ra lh ad b een m ined i nt h ep a s t .

O n ly t wo n ew a dd i t iona ls i te sw e r es u rveyed i n1 994 ;t hough o nce a ga in s ome o ft h eo r ig ina l s u rveyed s i te sf r om t h e 1 992 a nd 1 993 y ea r sw e re r e v i s i ted t ol o ok f o ra nd c o l lec tp o s s ib le s u r f a ce i n fo rma t ion .

I n 1 995 Ih ave s t a r ted af ou r th y ea r o fs u rvey wo rk . O ne t r ip w a s made d u r ing Ap r i l - May . T he ma in p u rpose o ft h e f i r s t t r ip i n Apr i l - May 1 995 w a s t o f i n ish t he p lan o f t h e L og rosan L a t e B ronze Age T in m ine / se t t lemen t s i te , w h ich h ad b een s t a r t ed , b u tn o tf i n i shed i n 1 994 .

Af ou r w hee l d r ive v eh ic le w a s u sed i na l l t h e s u rvey w o rk . F o r am a jo r i ty o ft h e f i e ld s i te s af ou r whee l d r ive v eh ic le w a s n o t an ece s s i ty ; e xcep t f o rm ak ing a cces s t oa bou t 1 5% o f t h e s i te s e a s ie r t h an i tm igh t n o rma l ly h ave b een .A l l o t he rv i s i ted s i te sc ou ld h ave b een e a s i ly a cce s s ib le w i th a ny s t anda rd t r an spo r t ; p rov ided t h a ti tw a sd r iven w i th c a re . A l l t h e a c tua ls i t es urvey w o rk t h a tw a sd one o nce t h em ine s i te s h ad b een l o ca ted w a sd one e xc lu s ive ly o nf oo t .

T he p lann ing w o rk d u r ing t h e 1 995 s ea son w a s a ga in d one b y B renda C raddock a nd A n thony B r idgeman w i th h e lp f r om J am ie T horbu rn . I n 1 995 i t wa s d ec ided t o u se a E lec t romagne t ic D is tance Mea su remen t ( ED M ) i n s t r umen t . T he i n s t rumen tw ou ld s peed u p p lann ing w o rk o n w ha tw a s p rov ing t ob e av e ry d i ff icu l ts i te t op l an .

T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e a c tua l s i t e s u rvey wo rk w a s c onduc ted u naccompan ied . I n S a lamanca P rov ince a t t h e G o lpe ja s M ine , Iw a s h e lped b y J av ie r L a r razaba l G a la rza a n A rchaeome ta l lurg ica l P hD s t uden t f r om S a lamanca U n ive r s i ty .H eh e lped m ew i th d e ta i led f i e ld i d en t if ica t ion o f p o t t e ry s h e rd s . Id i d g a the rs ome a dd i t iona l i n fo rma t ion o n t h e v i s i ted m ine s i te sf r om l o ca lp eop le ,i ft h e r ew e re a ny p re sen t ,w hen Iw a s s u rvey ing t h e a c tua l s i te s . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e m ine s i tes I v i s i ted a nd s u rveyed w e re d evo id o f a ny h uman a c t iv i ty d u r ing t h em a jo r i ty o f my v i s i t s .

T he ED M u sed i n 1 995 w a s aN ikon T o ta l S ta t ion DTM -20 w i th a 1 0 /20 s e cond d ig i ta l r e adou t . AN ikon DR -2 d a ta c o l lec to r w a s a l so t aken a l ong b u t n o t u sed . A l l s u rvey p o in t s w e re r e co rded i nh and w r i t ten n o tebook s d u r ing t h e 1 995 s u rvey s ea son . T he p r ima ry s u rvey wo rk o n t he C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l s e t t lemen t s i te L og ro san w a s c omp le ted i nt h e 1 995 s p r ing s ea son . T he p lan o f t h e L og rosan s i te w i l l p robab ly n eve r b e s a t isf ac to r i ly d e ta i led , d ue t ot h en eed f o rf u tu re e xcava t ion a s w e l l a s t h e s i ze o ft h e s i te . Ac ons ide rab le a moun t o ff u tu r e s u rvey wo rk s t i l l n eed s t o b e d one s uch a s t he p r ec ise p l ann ing o fg eo log ica l f e a tu re s i n c lud ing m ine a r ea s a sw e l l a sa nc ien ta nd mode rn g a l le r ie sa nd s ha f t s .

A s i tt u rned o u t , t h e a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s ur fa ce f i nd s a t 9 5% o ft h ev i s i ted s i te sw e re o f av e ry s ma l l q uan t i ty o re ven n on -ex i s ten t . T he refo re a l l e v idence t h a t w a s f ound o n t h e s u r fa ce a ta ny o f t h e v i s i ted m ine s i te s w a s c o l lec ted ; a ny i n te re s t ing m ine ra l s amp le s , a ny s t one t oo l s , a ny s haped / r im p o t te ry s h r ed s a nd a ny p o s s ib le s me l t ing r ema in s i n c lud ing s l ag ,m e ta la r t ef a c t sa nd f u rnace r ema in s .

I n 1 995 f u r the rf i e ld v i s i t s a nd w o rk w e r ed one o n t wo o t he r s i tes wh ich If e l tr e p r esen ted ag ood c hance o fb e ing e a r ly t i n m ine / sme l t ing s i te s : E l B e r roca l a nd Va l d e F lo re s . B o th o f t h e se s i tes h ad b een v i s i ted i np r ev ious s u rvey s e a son s .

Mo s t o ft h e mode rn m ine w o rk ing s w h ich Iv i s i ted d u r ing my s u rvey s e em t oh ave c ea sed p roduc t ion i na nd a r ound t h e y ea r s 1 977 -1985 . A f te r 1 985 i ts e em s a st hough mo s t i fn o t a l l t i n m ine sw i th in t h eM id Ibe r ian g eog raph ica l /geo log ica l a r ea h ad c ea sed p roduc t ion . I tw a s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod ( 1985 ) w hen t h ew o r ld p r ice o ft i nd ropped t oi t sp re sen td ay l e ve l .

D u r ing t he A p r i l - May t r ip i n 1 995 Is t a r ted t ou se as ma l l b a t tery o pera ted h and h e ld s a te l l i te G loba l P o s i t ion ing S ys tem p e r sona l N av iga to r f o rb o th f i nd ing g i ven m ine m ap c o -o rd ina tes a nd f o r f i x ing my a c tua l s u rvey p o s i t ion s m o re a ccu ra te ly . T he s ma l l h and h e ld u n i t Iu sed w a s aG am in GPS 4 0 . T he G a rm in u n i t i s a b le t o w o rk w i th b o th L ong i tude /La t i tude o rU n ive r sa lT ransve r se Me rca to r( UTM ) c o -ord ina tes . Mos t c ur ren t S pan ish a nd P or tugue se g eo log ica l map su se UTM c o -o rd ina tes .

B a sed o n c onve r sa t ions w i th m ine o wne r s , i ti sd oub t fu l ; ( e ven i ft h ep r ice o ft i nr i se s o nce a ga in t ot h eh igh l e ve ls o f t h e e a r ly 1 980 's ) t h a t a ny o ft h e M id Iber ian t i n m ine s w i l l e ve rr e open . T he p e r cen tage o fr ema in ing t i n o re i sl ow a nd h i ghe rw age sl e ve l s n ow e x i s ti nI b e r ia . T in o r em ine ra ls a r e m ined a nd p roce ssed much c heape r i no the r r eg ion s o ft h e w o r ld s uch a sB o l iv ia , S ou th E a s tA s ia a nd C h ina ( Lehmann B . , 1 990 , 6 9 ) .

T he a ccu ra cy o ft h e GPS 4 0l o ca t ion r ead ing sa r eb e tween 1 5 m e te r s -1 00 m e te r sd epend ing u pon t he a moun to fd eg rad ing d one b y t h e Ame r ican M i l i ta ry t h es a te l l i te c on t ro l le r sa nd t h ee x ten to ft h ed a i ly s a te l l i te c ove rage i nt h ea r ea . T he G PS 4 0s eem st oh ave w o rked q u i t ef a s ta nd a ccu ra t e ly w i th in t h e r eg ions w he re Iw a ss u rvey ing ;d ue p robab ly t ot h eg ene ra l o pen g eog raph ica l n a tu re o ft h el a nd scape . Ih ave n ow s t a r t ed t oc omp i le w ha ti s amo re a ccu ra te l o ca t ion o f L ong i tude /La t i tude r e ad ing s o fm y s urvey s i t e st h an Iu s ed i n t h e f i r s t y ea r s o fm y s u rvey w o rk .

A s t h e re s hou ld b e n o l a rge s ca le mode rn d e s t ruc t ion b y m in ing o f t h e a nc ien t r ema in s t o t a ke i n to c on s ide ra t ion , f u ture a r chaeo log ica l w o rk i n c lud ing s i te p lann ing a nd e xcava t ion sa ts ome o ft h em ine s i t e s w h ich Ih ave s u rveyed s hou ld b ep o s s ib le . Many o ft h e v i s i ted m ine s i te s s e em t oh ave c ea sed w o rk s o l o ng a go t h a t l o ca l i nhab i tan t s d i d n o t h ave a ny f i r s t h and k now ledge o fp a s tm ine o pe ra t ion s . 1 2

P ro jec t I n ten t ion s a nd E xp lana t ion s

C hap te r 1

D ue t ot h e h igh c o s t o f t h e se m ap s i tw a s o n ly p o ss ib le t o b uy map s f o r t h e m ine a r ea s t h a t h ad s hown s ome p rom i se o fb e ing a nc ien tm ine s o rs me l t ing s i t e s .

D u r ing a l s u rvey s ea sons a l l s i te s w e re p ho tog raphed w i th 3 5mm c o lou r n ega t ive a nd c o lou r t r anspa rency f i lm . A lso s ome o ft h es u rvey s i te s v i s i ted w e r ea l so r e co rded o n e i the r 8 mm o rh i gh r e so lu t ion 8 mm v ideo t a pe s .

As e cond p rob lem w i th t h e se m ap s i st h a tq u i te af ew o ft h e 1 : 25 .000 map s a r e n o t a va i lab le i ns ome a r ea s o r t h a t t h e map s t ha t a r e a va i lab le a r e q u i te o l d w i th 1 930 ' s , 1 940 's , 1 950 's o r 1 960 's p ub l ica t ion d a te s .

T he c o lou rn ega t ive f i lm i su se fu l f o r mak ing p ape r c o lou r c op ies t h a t c an b e u sed w i th w r i t ten r epo r t w o rk . T he t r an spa r enc ie s w i l l b e u sed f o r f u tu re l e c tu re s . T he v ideo s w h ich c an s how amo r e c omp le te v i s ta o fs i te s h ave p roved v e ry u se f u li nt ak ing as e cond l o ok a ts ome o ft h e s i te s w hen w r i t ing u pm ya nnua lS pan i sh a nd P o r tugue se r epo r t s .

I ns ome c a se s i ti st h e o lde rp ub l ica t ion s w h ich h ave p roved mo re h e lpfu l i n my s u rvey w o rk a nd f i nd ing m ine l o ca t ions a st h ey s how t h e a r ea s d u r ing t h e p e r iod s w hen s ome o ft h e m ine s w e re s t i l l w o rk ing .

I ti sa l so h oped i nt h e f u tu re t ou se t h e v ideo t a pe s t o make u p ah a lf h ou r t o h ou r v i deo r epo r t o f my s u rvey w o rk . No b l a ck a nd w h i te f i lm w a s u sed d u r ing t h e s u rvey e xpec t i n o ne o rt wo i n s tance s ; t h i s w a sd ue t oc o s ta nd t h e a moun to f t ime i tw a st a k ing t od ot h ec o lou rp ho tog raphy a nd v i deo s .

T he o lde r p ub l ished 1 : 25 .000 m ap s u se Mad r id a st h e Z e ro l ong i tude a nd n o tt h e P r ime Me r id ian a tG reenw ich E ng land . T h is a noma ly n eeds t o b e n o ted w hen g iv ing map c o o rd ina te sf r om t h eo lde rp ub l i shed m ap s .

I fa ny b l a ck a nd wh i te p ho tog raph sa r er e qu i red o ft h es u rvey s i t e s t h en Iw i l l g ob a ck t ot h es e le c ted s i te s a t al a te rd a te . I t i st hough t t ha t t h e c o lou r n ega t ive f i lms w i l l f u lf i l l a ny f unc t ion s t ha t wou ld h ave r equ ired b lack a nd wh i te p ho tog raph s . T he q ua l i ty a nd s ca le o fg eog raph ica l a nd g eo log ica l map s w i th in t h er e g ion w h ich Iw o rked a r e h i gh ly v a r iab le . Ih ave n o t f ound a ny o ne s e t o f maps e i ther g eo log ica l o r g eog r aph ica l t ha t w ou ld h ave s u i t ed a l l t h e r equ i remen t s o f m y s u rvey w o rk . T he refo re , Ih ave h ad t oo b ta in a nd u se a v a r ie ty o fd i f f e ren tm ap s . F o r g ene ra l t r ave l i nb o th S pa in a nd P o r tuga l Ih ave f ound mo s t u se fu l M iche l in Map s C a r te R ou t ie re E t T ou r is t ique s e r ie s 1 / 400 0 00 N o 4 41 N o r th We s t S pa in , N o 4 44 C en t ra l S pa in a nd N o4 37 P o r tuga l . T he M iche l in Map s h ave t h e m a jo r d i sadvan tage o f t h e i r l a rge s c a le . Howeve r , t h e ma in a dvan tage o ve r t h e S pan ish p rov inc ia l map s i st h a t t h ey s e em much mo re a ccu ra te i n t h e i r c o r r ec t g eog raph ica l s i te p l ac ing o ft h e s ymbo ls u sed f o rm ine l o ca t ion s .

T he i d ea l s o lu t ion i st oh ave b o th t h e o l d a nd n ew map s i n t h e s ca le 1 : 25 .000 , b u t t h is c an b e av e ry e xpen s ive i d ea l o p t ion . I ft h is o p t ion i sn o t p o s s ib le i tt h en s e em s b e s t f r om my e xpe r ience t o g e t t h e o lde s t d a ted p ub l ished map s p os s ib le . A lso a va i lab le i n S pa in a r e t h e C a r tog raf ia M i l i ta r D e E spana E sca la 1 : 50 .000 . T he se map s a r e u p t od a te a nd o f v e ry g ood q ua l i ty a nd c a r ry b o th L a t i tude a nd L ong i tude a nd U 'TM c o -o rd ina te s . T he u s ing o ft h et wo c o -o rd ina te s y s tem s o n o ne map c an make t h e m ap al i t t le d i ff icu l t t op lo t o n a t t ime s . Ih ave o n ly b ough t a nd u sed t h ese map s i n a r ea s w he re t h e 1 : 25 0 00 s e r ie s map sa r e n o ta va i lab le . T he G eo log ica l Map s f o r S pa in a r e a va i lab le a tp re sen ti na s ca le o f 1 : 50 .000 a nd 1 : 200 .000 . T he S pan ish G eo logy s e rv ice a l so p rov ide s e conom ic g eo logy map s i n as ca le o f 1 : 200 .000 . A lso a va i lab le a r e s i ng le m ine ra l e conom ic g eo logy map s f o ra l l o fS pa in o n as c a le o f 1 : 500 .000 . T he 1 : 50 .000 g eo log ica l map s a r e e xce l len t d e ta i led map s b u t e xpen s ive a nd a r e n o t a va i lab le f o r s ome o f t h e m ine a r ea s w h ich Is u rveyed . T o d a te Ih ave o b ta ined s i x o ft h e se map s a nd t h ey h ave p roved v e ry h e lpfu l i n a cqu i r ing a n u nde r s tand ing t h eg eo logy o fc e r ta in m ine a r ea s .

I nS pa in Ih ave a l so u sed t h e Mapa s P rov inc ia le s w h ich a r e p r in t ed i nt h e s ca le o f 1 : 200 .000 .T he p rov inc ia lm ap s h ad t o b e u s ed b ecause t h e s ma l l s c a le S pan i sh maps 1 : 25 .000 f o r mo s t o ft h e a r ea s a r e s t i l l i nt h e p roduc t ion p ha se a nd n o t a va i lab le a tp re sen t . T he p rov inc ia l map s a r e v e ry g ood i n r ende r ing t he t o pog raphy o ft h ep rov ince su nde r s tandab le , b u tv e ry p oo ri n t h e i r m ine l o ca t ion s ymbo l s . I n s ome c a se s , s ymbo ls a r e ma rked o n t h e maps k i lome t re s a way f r om t h e i r a c tua l g round l o ca t ions , o r t h e s ymbo ls e x i s t i n a r ea s w he re n o m ine ss e em t oa c tua l ly e x i s t .

T he 1 : 200 .000 g eo log ica l m ap s d o n o th ave t h e d e ta i l o ft h e s ma l l s ca le maps , b u t h ave p roved v ery h e lpfu l i n u nde r s tand ing t h e l a rge r r eg iona l g eo logy o f t h e a r ea s i n w h ich Ia m w o rk ing . A ga in t h e re a r e c e r ta in a r ea sf o rw h ich t h ese map s a r e n o t a va i lab le a st h ey a r e s t i l l i np roduc t ion . T he 1 : 200 .000 Me ta lgene t ico Maps a re e xce l len t i n p rov id ing g ood a nd f a ir ly e xa c t d e ta i ls o f a l l m ine ra l /o re d epo s i t s w i th in t h er eg ion s Iw a s s u rvey ing .

I nS pa in w hen a va i lab le Ih ave u sed t h e Mapa T opog raf ico N a c iona l 1 : 25 .000 . T he se m ap s a r e t h e b es t f o r d e ta i l a nd h e lp ing t ol o ca te t h e mode rn m ine s i te s . T he p rob lems w i th t h e se m ap s i st h a t w i th t h e s c a le b e ing s o s ma l l o ne mus t n o rma l ly b uy f ou rm ap s t oc ove r ac e r ta in m ine a r ea a nd i t s s u r round ing g eog raph ica lr e g ion .

If ound v e ry h e lpfu l f o r my p re l im ina ry s u rvey w o rk t h e G eo logy Map C a r tag raf ia G eo log ia D e l H esper ico D e l S ude s te D e L a P en insu la I b e r ica -1 : 500 .000 -p ub l ished i n 1 975 ( E l D epa r tmen to D e P e t ro log ia Y G eoqu im ica D e L a U n ive r s idad D e S a lamanca ) . I to f f e r ed a ne x t reme ly e xce l len t o ve rv iew o f mo s to ft h ea r ea t h a t Is u rveyed . 1 3

P ro jec t I n t en t ion s a nd E xp lana t ion s

C hap te r 1

T he g eog raph ica l map s u sed i n P o r tuga l w e re p rov inc ia l m ap s 1 : 200 .000 i ns ca le . T he se map s a r e q u i te g ood , b u tt h e l a rge s ca le h inde red t he ir u sefu lness i n t he f i e ld . Mo re a dvan tageou s i nt h e f i e ld s u rvey w a s t h e 1 : 100 .000 map s i n s c a le a st h ey c on ta ined mo re a r ea d e ta i l , w h ich w a su sefu l i n h e lp ing t ol o ca te m ine s i tes .

F o re a se o ff u tu r e r e f e rence , t h e S pan i sh G eo logy Map s c an b eo b ta ined a t : I n s t i tu to T ecno log ico G eom ine ro D eE spana c /C r is toba l B o rd iu , 3 4 2 8003 Mad r id T e l : ( 9 1) 3 49 5 7 3 0 F ax : ( 9 1) 3 49 5 7 6 2

T he ma in map s t ha t Iu sed , o nce a n a r ea h ad p roven t o c on ta in a p oss ib le a nc ien t m ine , w e re t he P o r tuguese M i l i ta ry map s o f as ca le o f 1 : 25 .000 . T hese maps l i ke t h e S pan ish M i l i ta ry maps c on ta in L ong i tude a nd l a t i tude a nd UTM c o -o rd ina te s . T he d e ta i l o n t h e se 1 : 25 .000 M i l i ta ry m ap si se xce l len t .

S pan ish G eog raph ica l Map sc an b e o b ta ined i no ff ice so ft h e C en t ro N ac iona l d e I n fo rma t ion G eog ra f ica t ob e f ound i n mo s tl a rge S pan i sh P rov in ica lT own c ap i ta l sa nd Mad r id . S pan ish M i l i ta ry Maps c an b e o b ta ined f r om M i l i ta r C om is iones G eog raf icas l o ca ted i n S ev i l la , V a lenc ia , B a r ce lona ,B u rgo s ,V a l lado l id ,L aC o runa ,a nd G ranada .

T he g eo log ica l map s u sed i n my s u rvey w o rk i n P o r tuga l w e r eq u i te s u ff i c ien tf o ra r chaeome ta l lu rg ica ls u rvey u se . A v e ry l a rge s ca le 1 : 1 .000 .000 g eo logy map c over s t h e w ho le o f P or tuga l . T h is map w a s o n ly u sefu l i n g iv ing a v e ry g ood g ene ra lg eo log ica lo ve rv iew o fP o r tuga l . Mo re u sefu l w e re t h eC a r ta G eo log ica d e P or tuga l map s i na s c a le o f 1 : 50 .000 .T he se s ma l le rs ca le g eo logy map sa r e o fa v e ry a dequa te q ua l i ty . T he 1 : 50 .000 g eo logy map s a l l a r e a ccompan ied b y as ma l l p amph le t w r i t ten i n P or tugue se w h ich o f f e r s g ene ra l i n forma t ion o n t h e g eo log ica l g ene s i s a nd m ine ra lo r e sc on ta ined i nt h ea r ea t h a te ach map c ove r s . A ga in b ecau se o f t h e v a s t n umbe r o f g eo logy map s t h a t w ou ld h ave b een n eeded t o c ove r t h e c omp le te a r ea Iw a s s u rvey ing ; t h e 1 : 50 .000 map s c ou ld o n ly b e o b ta ined f o r a r ea s t ha t h ad o f f e red p roof o fa nc ien t m in ing o r s me l t ing a c t iv i t ie s .

1 4

P o r tugue se G eo log ica l Map sc an b eo b ta ined a t : S e rv ico sG eo log ico s D eP o r tuga l R .A cadem ia D a sC ienc ia s 1 9 -2 1 200 L i sboa T e l : ( 0 1) 3 6 3 9 1 5 P o r tugue se G eog raph ica l Map sc an b e o p t ioned i n mo s tl a rge P o r tugue se p rov inc ia l t own s a sc an t h e P o r tugue se M i l i ta ry Map s .

CHAPTER

EARLY

2

I n t h is c hap te r Iw i l l b e l i s t ing i nc hrono log ica l o rde r a nd w r i t ing b r ief d esc r ip t ions o ft h e ma in b ooks b o th h i s to r ica l a nd c ur ren t w r i t ings w h ich Ih ave u sed f o r i d en t ify ing s i tes f o r my s u rvey v i s i t s .

SURVEYS

a nd

W RITINGS

T he n ex t a r chaeome ta l lurgy s urvey w ork , a f ter O l iver D av ies , w a s d one b e tween 1 974 -1976 b y B eno R o thenbu rg ( I ns t i tu te f o r A rchaeo -me ta l lurg ica l S tud ies ; U n ive rs i ty C o l lege L ondon ) a nd An ton io B lanco -F re i je iro ( Mad r id ) , A nc ien t M in ing a nd Me ta l lurgy i n S ou th - Wes t S pa in p ub l ished ( 198 1) .

T he f i r s tw r i t ten wo rk s w h ich m en t ion a nc ien tm ine sa nd u se o f m ine ra ls i n I be r ia a re t h e w o rk o f t h e R omans : P l iny , D iodo ru s S i cu lus a nd S t rabo . T he i rd escr ip t ions a r e b r ief b u t s peak o f al a nd r i ch i nm ine ra l w ea l th w i th m ines o f l e ad , i r on , c opper , s i lve r , g o ld , t i n a nd c innaba r ( P l iny , 2 5 ; D iodor us 1 9 1-203 ; S t rabo , 3 9 -51) . T he f o l low ing d i rec t ly q uo ted p a ssage b y D iodo ru s S i cu lu si s v ery e mpha t ic i ni t sd escr ip t ion o ft h e amoun ta nd p l acemen t o ft h et i n m ine ra l c a ss i ter i te p r e sen t i nR oman I b e r ia . " T in a l so o ccurs i n many r eg ions o f I ber ia , n o t f ound , h owever , o n t he s urface o f t h e e a r th a s c e r ta in w r i te r s c on t inua l ly r epea t i n t he ir h i s to r ies , b u t d ug o u t o f t h e g round a nd s me l ted i nt h e s ame manner a s s i lve r a nd g o ld " ( D iodo ru s S icu lus , 2 0 1) .

T h is v e ry i n forma t ive a r chaeome ta l lu rgy s u rvey i so f amo re l o ca l ised n a tu re t h an D av ie s ' 1 935 b ook a nd c ove r s o n ly t h e S pan ish p rov ince o f H ue lva . T he m e ta ls w h ich t h is work e xam ines a r e c oppe r , s i lve r , i r on a nd g o ld . T he t i n m ine ra l c a ss i te r i te d oes n o t a ppea r g eo log ica l ly w i th in t h e p rov ince o fH ue lva . I n 1 986 R .D . P enha l lu r ick , a n a s s is tan tC u ra to r a tt h e R oya l I n s t i tu t ion o f C o rnwa l l 's C oun ty Museum i n t h e t own o f T ru ro , p ub l ished T in I n A n t iqu i ty . T h is b ook p ub l ished b y t h e I n s t i tu te o f Me ta ls L ondon c once rns t h e m in ing a nd t r ad ing o ft i n t h roughou t t h e a nc ien t w o r ld c over ing A f r ica , A s ia , E u rope , a nd S ou th / Wes t E ng land ( Co rnwa l l , D evon a nd t h e I s le s o fS c i l ly ) . T he P enha l lur ick b ook c on ta ins a s e c t ion o n T in i n I ber ia ( 95 -105 ) w h ich c ove r s b o th S pa in a nd P or tuga l . T he b ook p roved mos t h e lpfu l i n d ec id ing w h ich t i n s i tes t o v i s i t i n my f i r s t y ea r ' s s u rvey r ou te , t hough t h e v e ry v a s t s cope o f t h e b ook mean t t h a t a ny i n forma t ion p rov ided o n i nd iv idua l t i n s i tes i nI b e r ia w a s v e ry b r ief a nd h ad t ob e s upp lemen ted w i th i n forma t ion f r om o ther p ub l ica t ions .

T he e a r l ies t mode rn b ook o fa n a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s u rvey i n I be r ia i st h e p ioneer ing w o rk o f O l ive r D av ie s , R oman M ines I n E urope . D av ies w a s al e c ture r i n a nc ien t h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy a t Queens U n ive rs i ty , B e lfa s t , No r the rn I r e land . D av ies b ook w a s p ub l ished i n 1 935 . Mos t o f D av ies ' f i e ld a nd r e sea rch work f o r t h e b ook w a s d one i nt h e l a te 1 920 's a nd e a r ly 1 930 's . T he ma in t h eme o f D av ie s s u rvey f i e ld wo rk a nd p ub l ica t ion w a s t op r e sen t a l l t h e k nown R oman m ines a nd m inera l a r ea s t h a t h ad b een w o rked w i th in t h e b ounda r ies o f t h e R oman Emp i re a ti t s g r ea te s te x ten ti nt h es e cond c en tury AD .

T he P enha l lu r ick b ook a l so p roved mo s t u sefu l i np rov id ing i n forma t ion a nd l o ca t ions o n o ther a nc ien t ( Bronze Age ) t i n p roduc t ion a r ea s w i th in E urope a nd t he Med i te r ranean r eg ions .

D av ie s s u rvey b ook c ove r s I t a ly , G au l , S pa in , P o r tuga l , t h e B r i t ish I s les , R h ine land a nd U ppe r D anube P rov inces , t h e I lyr ian P rov ince s , D ac ia , Moes ia , Macedon ia , a nd T h race a nd G reece . T he b ook i sn o l o nge r i np r in t , t h ough i ti ss t i l l h e ld i ns ome l i b ra r ie s .

I n 1 987 t he mos t t horough a nd c omprehens ive a r chaeome ta l lurg ica l s urvey b ook t o d a te o n I be r ia w a s p ub l ished i n F rench b y C laude D ome rgue , C a ta logue d es m ine se td e sf onder ie sa n t iques d e l aP en insu le I b er ique T ome I& T ome I . T h is v e ry s ubs tan t ia l w o rk i nt wo v o lumes o f f i ve h und red a nd n i ne ty s even p ages c ove r s o ve rf i ve h und red a nd s even ty -f ive m in ing a nd s me l t ing s i te s i nb o th P o r tuga l a nd S pa in .

D av ie s w r i t ings o n t i n i n I be r ia c ons is t o f o n ly a b r ief men t ion c ons is t ing o f af ew s en tences a nd a s e cond s ma l l s e c t ion c ons is t ing o f o n ly a f ew p ages ( Dav ies , 1 935 , 9 5 , 1 03 -5 ) . Dav ies q uo tes D iodo rous S icu lus ' w r i t ings a bou t h a rd r o ck t i n m in ing t ak ing p l ace i nI be r ia a nd t h e f a c t t h a t t i n w a s b e ing t r aded f r om T a r sh ish , ( wh ich c ou ld mos t p robab ly b ee qua ted t op re -h i s to r ic T a r tessus ) ,b u ta l so s t a te s t h a tn o o ne s eems t ok now a so fy e te xac t ly f r om w h ich a r ea t h e t i n w a s b e ing m ined ( Dav ie s , 1 935 , 1 04 ) .

T he Dome rgue a r chaeome ta l lurg ica l s urvey c overs t h e C oppe r Age , t h rough t o t he e nd o f t he R oman p e r iod . Dome rgue s t a tes t h a t h e h ad v i s i ted n ine ty p e rcen t o f t h e s i tes d u r ing h i s s u rvey f i e ld wo rk . T he m ine ra ls i n c luded i n t he s urvey a re g o ld , s i lver , c opper , l ead , t i n , i r on , me r cu ry /c innaba ra nd z i nc .

B e tween 1 935 a nd t h e l a te 1 970 's i ts eems a s t hough v e ry l i t t le f u r the ra r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l f i e ld wo rk w a sd one i nt h e I b er ian p en insu la p robab ly d ue t ot h e g ene ra l p o l i t ica l c hao s c au sed b efo re a nd d u r ing t h e S pan ish C iv i l Wa r( 1936 -1939 ) a nd t h e g ene ra l e conom ic d ec l ine wh ich t ook p l ace i nI b e r ia a f te rt h eC iv i l Wa ra nd d u r ing t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r( 1 939 1 945 ) . S pa in d id n o t r ea l ly s t a r t t o r e cove r e conom ica l ly f r om t h e e f f ec t s o ft h e C iv i l Wa ru n t i l t h e m id -1950 ' s .

T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e m ine / sme l t ing m ine ra l s i tes c ove red i n t h eD ome rgue -s u rvey a r es i lve r , l e ad ,g o ld a nd c oppe rm in ing o r s me l t ing . O f t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f s i tes s u rveyed b y Dome rque o n ly s even teen r e la te t o t i n m in ing a nd s me l t ing . T he t o ta l n umbe r o f t i n m ine / sme l t ing m ine ra l s i tes a c tua l ly v i s i ted a nd s u rveyed i nS pa in i st e n s i tes ; s even o ft h e t e n s i tes a r e l o ca ted i n No r th Wes t S pa in w i th in t h e p rov inces o f L a C oruna ( 4 ) , P on teved ra ( 1 ) ,a nd O rense ( 2 ) .

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C hap te r2

T he o the r t h ree t i n m ine / sme l t ing s i te s a r e l o ca ted i nt h e p rov ince s o f Mu rc ia ( 1 ) , B ada joz ( 1 ) a nd S a lamanca ( 1 ) . T he re a r e af u r the r s even t i n / sme l t ing s i tes Dome rgue s u rveyed i nP o r tuga l ; i n t h e n or the rn p rov ince s o f M inho ( 4 ) , T ra s -O -Mon te s ( 1 ) ,and i nt h e m id e a s te rn p rov ince s o f B e i ra A l ta ( 1 ) ,and B e i ra B ax ia ( 1 ) . I n 1 987 t h e re a l so a ppea red ap ub l ica t ion b yJ .C . E dmond son i nE ng l i sh Two I ndu s t r ie s i nR oman L u s i tan ia -M in ing a nd G a rum P roduc t ion . T h is B .A .R . p ub l ica t ion Ib e l ieve i s b a sed t o ta l ly o n l i b ra ry a nd mu seum i nve s t iga t ion s . T h i s v e ry i n te re s t ing w o rk c ove r s u n ique ly t h e R oman I be r ian S ou th We s te rn p rov ince o fL u s i tan ia w h ich i n c lude s a bou t t wo t h i rd s o f mode rn d ay P o r tuga l f r om t h e D ue ro r i ve r s ou thwa rd s a nd p a r t s o f mode rn d ay S pa in p rov ince s o f B ada joz ,C a ce re sa nd S a lamanca a nd p a r to fZ amo ra . T he p ub l ica t ion c on s is t s o fr e sea rch i n to t wo v e ry d i f f e ren t s ub jec t s ; t h e f i r s t s ub jec t b e ing t he i n f ra s t ruc tu re a nd p roduc t ion t e chn ique s b o th s oc ia l a nd i ndus t r ia l o f t h e R oman L u s i t an ian m ine ra l m ine s . T he s e cond s ub jec t o f t h e E dmond son 's p ub l ica t ion i st h e p roduc t ion f o re xpo r t o fG a rum . G a rum i s ar i ch f i sh s auce m ade f r om s ma l lf i sh a nd w a sp roduced ma in ly i nt h eR oman p rov ince s o fG reece , No r th A f r ica a nd I be r ia a nd w a s t h en t r aded i nc e ram ic a mpho ra e t h roughou t t h e R oman Emp i re (Wh i tehou se , 1 983 , 1 82 ) . E dmond son e xam ined R oman m in ing a nd m e ta l p roduc t ion o fc oppe r ,l e ad , s i lve r , g o ld , i r on , mangane se , a nd t i n a mong o the r s . E dmond son 's w r i t ing i si n te re s t ing i nt ha t , b e s ide s t h e t e chn ica la spec t s o fm in ing i nt h e R oman p e r iod , h e a l so i n c luded t h e s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l a spec t s o f t he R oman m in ing a r ea sw i th in L u s i tan ia . E dmond son w a sa b le t op r e sen tt h i s a spec to fR oman m in ing l i fe d ue t o t he t horough a nd v ery i nforma t ive a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l e xcava t ion s w h ich h ave t a ken p l ace a t A l jus t re l , l o ca ted i nt h e S ou the rn p a r t o fP o r tuga l w i th in t h e S ou th I b e r ian c oppe r b e l t . E dmond son 's p ub l ica t ion l i s t s a t o ta l o fo ne h und red a nd t wen ty s i x R oman m in ing s i te s . O f t h is t o ta l , t wen ty th ree a r e l i s ted a st i nm in ing s i te s . D u r ing my s u rvey wo rk If ound o ne o r t wo s i tes ( w i th in v i s i ted a r ea s )m en t ioned b yE dmond son v e ry d i ff icu l tt of i nd p rec ise ly . T h is c ou ld b e p u t d own t o t wo r e a sons . E i the r E dmond son ' sl i t e ra ry s ou r ce sa r es oo l dt h a tt h ea c tua l s u r f a ce e v idence m en t ioned h a s s i nce d i sappea red o r t ha t Ih ave v i s i ted a d i f f e ren t a r ea t han t h a t wh ich E dmond son h ad w r i t ten a bou t . I n 1 988 J .d e A la rcao P rof essor o f A rchaeo logy a t t h e I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , C o imb ra U n ive r s i ty p ub l ished i n E ng l i sh as e t o ft wo v o lume s i nf ou r b ook s c a l led R oman P o r tuga l . T h i s w o rk b y A la rcao i s av e ry c omp rehens ive s u rvey o fa l k nown R oman s i tes w i th in t h e b o rde r s o f t h e mode rn s t a te o fP o r tuga l .

T he A la r cao p ub l ica t ion c on s is t s o f aG aze t tee ro fo ve rt h ree t hou sand R oman s i tes w i th as ho r t d e sc r ip t ion o fe ach a nd e i gh ta ccompany ing map s . T he s u rvey c ove r s mo s t ly R oman t own s a nd v i l la s , b u t a l so i nc ludes R oman m ine s a nd s me l t ing s i te s o fc oppe r , l e ad , s i lve r , g o ld , t i na nd i r on . I n 1 990 C laude D ome rgue p ub l ished , i nF rench , as e cond m ine s u rvey b ook , L es M ine s D e L a P en insu le I be r ique D an s L 'An t ique R oma ine . T h i s v e ry s ub s tan t ia l p ub l ica t ion ( s ix h und red a nd t wen ty t h ree p ages ) d ea l s c h ief ly w i th t h e R oman p e r iod w i th in t h e I ber ian P en in su la . Dome rgue w r i te s o n p ro spec t ing , m in ing ( bo th o pen c a s t a nd g a l lery s ys tem s ) , m ine ra l p repa ra t ion , sme l t ing a c t iv i t ie s a nd a dm in i s t ra t ion o ft h em in ing a r ea s . T he m ine ra l s /me ta l s e xam ined a r e g o ld , s i lve r , l e ad , c oppe r , t i n , i r on a nd m e rcu ry . A l o t o f t he i n forma t ion i n t h e Dome rgue 1 990 m ine s u rvey p ub l ica t ion h ad a l so a ppea red i nh i s 1 987 p ub l ica t ion , wh ich Imen t ioned e a r l ie r . T he 1 990 b ook a l so c on ta ins a v a s t amoun t o f n ew i nfo rma t ion c ove r ing t h ep ro spec t ing a nd t e chn ica l s i de o fR oman m in ing a c t iv i t ie s w i th in I be r ia d u r ing t h e R oman s ' s i x c en tu ry r u le o fI b e r ia . S ince 1 976 c on s ide rab le p o l i t ica l p owe r h a s b een d evo lved f r om Mad r id t o t he a u tonomous c ommun i t ies o f S pa in . S ince 1 976 t h e a u tonomou s r eg ion o fE x t remadu ra , w h ich i s c ompo sed o f t h e p rov inces o f B ada joz a nd C ace re s h a s p roduced t h ree p ub l ica t ion s o n m ine ra l s a nd m ine s l o ca ted w i th in E x t remadu ra . T he ma in j u s t if ica t ion f o rt h ep ub l ica t ion s w a s t ot r y a nd g e t c omme rc ia l m in ing c ompan ies , S pan ish o r E u ropean i n te re s ted i ne xp lo i t ing t h e m ine ra l w ea l th o fE x t remadu ra a nd t h e refo re c r ea t ing emp loymen t i no ne o fS pa in 's p oo re s t r eg ion s . T he f i r s t p ub l ica t ion i n t h is s e r ies i s i n S pan ish , b y t h e D i recc ion G ene ra l d eI ndu s t r ia , E ne rg ia yM ina so ft h eJ un ta D e E x t remadu ra , Ma rzo 1 987 a nd t i t led L a M ine ra E n E x t remadu ra . T h is p ub l ica t ion i n c luded a s e cond v o lume c a l led Mapa G eo log ico -M ine ro D eE x t remadu ra . T he s e cond v o lume w a sa ccompan ied b yt wo maps b o th o na s ca le o f1 : 300 .000 t i t led IM ine ra le s Me ta l ico sy E ne rge t ico s , a nd I M ine ra le s yR oca s I ndu s t r ia le s . T h i sv e ry u sefu lp ub l ica t ion i sn ow o u to fp r in ta nd h a sb een r ep la ced b y t h e May 1 990 p ub l ica t ion l i s ted b e low . T he ma in v o lume o fL aM ine ra E nE x t remadu ra h a s as ma l l s e c t ion c ove r ing t h eh i s to ry o fm ine ra l e xp lo i ta t ion a nd h i s to r ica lm ine st h a ta r ek nown w i th i nE x t r emadu ra ( pp 1 2 1 8 ) . T he p ub l ica t ion c ove r sa l le conom ic m e ta l /m ine ra l s ( Pb ,Zn ,Cu ,Au ,Ag ,Hg ,Sn ,W , Mo ,B i ,Cr ,Fe , Mn ,Sb ,P ,U ,Ba ) a nd c oa l ( Hu l la -An t ra c i ta )f ound i nE x t remadu ra a nd a ny k nown w o rk ing a nd n on w o rk ing m ine s w i th in E x t remadu ra . T he l i s t ing s a nd m ap l o ca t ions o ft h e m ine ra l a nd m ine s o f t i n i nt h e t wo v o lume s o f L a M inera E n E x t remadu ra a nd a ccompany ing m aps h a s p roved t o b e i n va luab le f o r m y s u rvey w o rk .

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E a r ly S u rveys a nd Wr i t ing s

C hap te r2

A s econd e d i t ion o f L a M ine ra E n E x t remadu ra w a s p ub l ished i n S pan ish b y E l C onse jero d e I ndus t r ia y T u r i smo ; J un ta d e E x t remadu ra i n May 1 990 . T h i s e d i t ion c on s is t ed o n ly o f as i ng le v o lume a nd t wo m ap s o n as ca le o f 1 : 800 .000 b ound w i th in as i ng le v o lume .

A s econd e d i t ion o f L a M inera E n E x t remadu ra w a s p ub l ished i n S pan ish b y E l C onse je ro d e I ndu s t r ia y T u r ismo ; J un ta d e E x t remadu ra i n May 1 990 . T h i s e d i t ion c ons is ted o n ly o f as i ng le v o lume a nd t wo map s o n as ca le o f 1 : 800 .000 b ound w i th in as i ng le v o lume .

T he 1 990 e d i t ion c on ta in s a n i n te r e s t ing s e c t ion l i s t ing a l l t h ep ub l i shed P hD r e sea rch p ape r sc once rn ing t h eg eo log ica l f o rma t ion a nd m ine ra l si nE x t remadu ra f r om 1 94 1-1992 . T he h i s to r ica l s e c t ion r ema in s a lmo s t ad up l ica te o f t h e 1 987 e d i t ion . F rom a a r chaeo lme ta l lu rg i s t s v i ewpo in t t h e 1 987 p ub l ica t ion w i th i t s a ccompany ing map s i s amo re u sefu l p ub l ica t ion .

T he b ook No 2 E s tano a l so c on ta ins a d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e g eo log ica l f o rma t ion o f t he ma jo r l i s ted m ine s i te s . T h is b ook h a s p roved v e ry h e lpfu l l o ca t ing t i n m ine p roduc t ion a r ea s w i th in S a lamanca p rov ince . My s u rvey w o rk d i d n o t i n c lude a ny v i s i t st oZ amo ra , S egov ia o rA v i la p rov ince s .

M ine ra le s G emo log ico s D e E x remadu ra ( 1993 ) b y t h e C on se je r ia d e I ndu s t r ia yT u r i smo ; J un ta d e E x t remadu ra i s t he t h i rd p ub l ica t ion . T h is s i ng le v o lume w ork i s a ccompan ied b y aMapa G emo log ico s D e E x t remadu ra i na s c a le 1 : 400 .000 a nd c ove r sa l lo fE x t remadu ra . T h i s b ook i so n as ma l le r s ca le t h an t h e 1 987 a nd 1 993 p ub l ica t ions . I tl i s t s a nd d e sc r ibe s s ome m ines t h a t Ih ad v i s i ted d u r ing my s u rvey . T he re w a s s ome n ew u sefu l i n fo rma t ion f r om t h is g eo log ica l s u rvey w h ich h ad n o t a ppea r ed i na ny o t he rp ub l ica t ion s .

I n 1 992 t h eD i reccao -Ge ra l d e G eo log ia eM ina s -Se rv ico D e F omen to M ine i ro o f P o r tuga l p ub l ished ap amph le t c a l led P or tuga l E xp lo ra t ion A nd M in ing ; A n I n t e re s t ing C ha l lenge e xam in ing a spec t s o f a dm in is t ra t ion a nd i n f ra s t ruc tu re , c omp i led b y L ou renco , Go inha s , Ma r t ins , V iega s , a nd Gonza lez . T h is i n te re s t ing b u t b r ief p amph le t ( 29 p age s ) l i s t s a l l t h e m ine ra l s a nd g eo log ica l l o ca t ion o ft h e m ine ra l s w i th in t h e b ounda r ie s o f moder nd ay P o r tuga l . I ta l so s how s t h e l o ca t ion o f a l l ma jo r mode rn m ine s g o ing b ack t o t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry , b o th w o rk ing a nd n on w o rk ing . T he s e c t ion o n t i n w a s v e ry h e lpfu lf o rp l an ing my s u rvey r ou te s .

A l l t h ree o f t he g eo log ica l -m inera l p ub l ica t ions o n E x t r emadu ra w e re g i ven t om e b y t h e D i recc ion G ene ra l d e I ndu s t r ia , E ne rg ia y M ina s , Me r ida d u r ing my P hD wo rk v i s i t si nE x t remadu ra .

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PREH ISTOR IC , ANCIENT a nd H ISTOR IC T IN

CHAPTER 3

T he a im o ft h is c hap te r w i l l b e t oo f f e rt ot h e r eade r av e ry b r ie fb a ckg round o ft i ni na n t iqu i ty a nd i t su se s . T in w a s o ne o ft h e i mpo r tan t me ta ls man h a s u sed i nb o th p r e -h i s to r ica l a nd h i s to r ica l t ime s . T he o the r ma in i mpor tan t m e ta l s u sed i n p reh is to ry w e re ; g o ld , s i lve r , c oppe r , l e ad , a nd i r on . Me ta l l ic t i n w a s n orma l ly a l loyed w i th c oppe r t o f o rm b ronze a nd s ome wha tl a te ri nc e r ta in a r ea s d u r ing a n t iqu i ty l e ad w a s a l so a dded t ot h et i nc oppe rm ix tu re st oa l low b e t t e r f l ow ing c apab i l i t ie sf o rc a s t ing o b jec t s( Sco t t , 1 991 ,2 6 ) . I ti sp robab le t h a t t h e f i r s t me ta l l ic m ine ra l s u sed b y e a r ly Man w e re a l l n a t ive me ta l s ; n a t ive g o ld , n a t ive s i lve r a nd n a t ive c opper . Na t ive me ta ls d id n o t r equ ire a ny m e ta l lu rg ica l p rocesses t o make t h em u sefu l , o the r t han p o s s ib le a nnea l ing a nd c o ld h amme r ing . A l l mo s t a l l o ft h e a bove s u r f ace r i ch n a t ive m ine ra l s h ave b y n ow d i sappea red d ue t ot wo f a c to r s : t h e i re a s i ly v i s ib le g eo log ica l p l acemen t a nd t h e i rv e ry p u re m ine ra lc on ten t . T he s e cond mo s tp robab le s t ep i nm e ta l lu rg ica ld eve lopmen t a f te r t h e u se o f n a t ive m ine ra ls w a s t h e s me l t ing o fo x ide c oppe r o r e s a nd l e ad s u lph ide o re s a nd f u r the r r ef in ing a nd w o rk ing o rc a s t ing o ft h ep u r if ied c oppe r .L ead w a sp robab ly t h ef i r s tm e ta lw h ich man u sed a nd a l te red b y am e ta l lu rg ica l r educ t ion p roce s s . I na n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t , c oppe ri sf i r s t d a ted t oa round 7 000 BC -6 000 BC . I ti sp robab le t ha t o n ly n a t ive c oppe r w a s u sed t op roduce mo s to ft h e se r a re e a r ly c oppe ra r tef a c t s t h a th ave a ppea red i ns t ra t if ied a r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion s . B y 3 500 BC c oppe r s t a r ted a ppea r ing r egu la r ly w i th in a r chaeo log ica l e xcava ted s i te s i n t h e a nc ien t n ea r E a s t ( Ty leco te , 1 976 ,5 ) . A l l o ft h e e a r ly c oppe r a r tefac t s w ou ld c er ta in ly h ave c ome f r om e i ther n a t ive c oppe r o r c opper c a rbona te o res , m a lach i te ( CU2 [ (OH )2 1CO3 ] a nd a zu r i te ( Cu3 (CO3 )2 (OH )2 b e ing t h e mo s tp robab le f i r s t c oppe rc a rbona te o re s u sed b y e a r ly man . P u r e c oppe rw o rked o n i t s o wn e i the ra s an a t ive o rs me l ted m e ta l c an p roduce a h a rd e dge , i ft he r i gh t amoun t o f w o rk ing a nd a nnea l ing i sa pp l ied . T he i n termed ia te s t age b e tween man 's u se o f c oppe r a nd b ronze w a s t h e u se o f a r sen ica l c oppe r a l loys . T he ma in q ue s t ion s t i l l o pen t od i scu s s ion o n a r sen ica l c oppe r i s" wa s t h ea r sen ic b e ing m ined s epa ra te ly o rw a st h ea r sen ic c om ing f r om c oppe ro re d epo s i t s w h ich h ad av a ry ing p e rcen tage o f a r sen ica l m ine ra l a l ready p resen t i n t h e c oppe r d epo s i t " ( Ty leco te , 1 992 , 1 0 ) . I ti sp robab le t ha t b o th o f t h e a bove c on jec tu re sa pp ly t ot h ee a r ly m e ta l lu rg ica l u se o fa r sen ic . T y leco te 1 992 t e nded t ob e l ieve t h a tt h e a r sen ic m ine ra l w a s p r e sen tw i th t h ec oppe ro re b y n a tu ra l s e conda ry e n r ichmen t o f c oppe r d epo s i t s a nd n o t s ough t o r m ined s epa ra te ly b y e a r ly man .

1 8

T he a moun t o f a r sen ic f ound i n c oppe r a r t efa c t s c an v a ry f r om 2% t o 7% . A r tef ac t s w i th a n a r sen ic c on ten tb e low 2% c ou ld b e c on s ide red t oh ave o ccu r red a s ar e su l t o f an a tu ra l i mpu r i ty i nt h ec oppe ro r eu sed a nd a r tef a c t s w i th aa r sen ica l c on ten t a bove 2% c ou ld b e c ons ide red a s aa r sen ic o r e a dd i t ion a dded t o h e lp b enef i t t he h a rdne s s o f t h e f i na l c oppe rp roduc t( Ty leco te , 1 992 , 1 8 , 2 6 ) . T he u se o f a r sen ic w i th c oppe r f r om a na ly t ica l e v idence s eem s t oh ave b een t i ed t ot h e u se o fo x ide c oppe r o r e s f o r s me l t ing w i th c ha rcoa l u nde rr educ ing c ond i t ion s . L i t t le o ft h e v o la t i le a r sen ic m ine ra l u p t o a7% l im i tw ou ld b e l o s t i nt h e s me l t ing a nd c a s t ing o fo x ide o r e s c on ta in ing a r sen ic . I ft h e s me l ted c oppe r /a r sen ic c a s to b jec t s w e r e t h en h o t w o rked t oi n duce h a rdne s s t h e a r sen ic a nd t h e h a rdne s s e f f ec ti tb rough tt ot h ec oppe rw ou ld b el o s t( Ty leco te , 1 992 , 1 0 ) . T he s ame c anno t b e s a id o f c oppe r s u lph ide o re s w h ich c on ta in a r sen ic , a s t h ey w ou ld h ave t o f i r s t b e r oa s ted t o l owe r t h e s u lph ide c on ten t wh ich w ou ld h ave p re sen ted p rob lems o f a r sen ic r e ten t ion i n t h e c oppe r d ur ing t h e s me l t ing p roce s s ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 4 ) . T he v o la t i l i ty o fa r sen ic p l u st h eh ea l th h aza rd p r e sen ted b y t h ep o i sonou sa r sen ic f ume sd u r ing s me l t ing a nd t h e s h i f tt o s u lph i t ic o r e sa l p robab ly h e lped t og ene ra t et h es ea r ch f o r a n a l t e rna t ive h a rden ing e l emen t , w h ich c ou ld b eu sed i n c oppe rs me l t ing i np l ace o fa r sen ic . A r sen ica lc oppe rw i th t h ep e rcen tage o fa r sen ic i nt h er e g ion o f 5% -7% w i l l c a s t a lmo s t t ot h e s ame h a rdne s s a s p u re c a s t c oppe r . H oweve r a s s t a ted a bove a c o ld w o rked a r sen ica l -coppe r m ix tu re w i l l make a much h a rde r a nd u sab le e dge t h an a c a s t w o rked p u re c oppe r t oo l . T he h a rden ing e f f ec t o f a r sen ic o n c oppe r w i l l h appen q u icke r d u r ing t h ew o rk ing p roce s st h an w hen h a rden ing p u re c oppe r o n ly . I tw a s m o re p ref e rab le t o w o rk t h e a r sen ica l -coppe r c o ld a st h e p e r cen tage o fa r sen ic r e ta ined w i th in t h e w o rked o b jec tw ou ld r ema in c on s tan t( Ty leco te , 1 992 , 1 0 ) . " The o p t imum t empe ra tu re f o r h o t wo rk ing o f a r sen ica l c oppe r w a s 3 00 0C ; i ft h e t empe ra tu re d u r ing h o t w o rk ing g oes h ighe r a ny a r sen ic i n ao x ide a r rangemen t w i th in t h e c oppe r w i l l b ecame v ery v o la t i le a nd s t a r t t od ec rea se i n c oncen t ra t ion sa tt h es u r f ace " ( C lay ton , 1 974 ,7 9 ) . B o th a r sen ic a nd t i nh ave ad e -ox id is ing e f f ec to nc oppe ra nd b e s ide sm ak ing i tah a rde rm e ta l a l so a l low f o ri tt ob ee a s i ly c a s ta nd e a s i ly h amme red i n to au sab le h a rdne s s . How e a r ly m an d i scove r ed t h a tt h ea r sen ica l -coppe rm ix tu re w as s upe r io r t o p u re w orked c oppe r a nd t hen l a te r d i scove r ed t h a t t h e a dd i t ion o ft i n t oc oppe rc ou ld make a n e ven a mo re d u rab le a nd u sab le me ta l t h an p u re w o rked c oppe ra r es t i l l n o ts a t isf a c to r i ly k nown . T he re a l so a ppea r s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l c i rcums tances d ur ing t h e e a r ly p a r t o f t h e c oppe r / t in p e r iod c oppe r / t in a r tefac t s w i th t r a ce s o fa r sen ic . T he t r ace s o ft h e a r sen ic a r e n o th i gh ,o n ly 1 % -3% .

C hap te r3

P reh i s to r ic , A nc ien ta nd H i s to r ic T in

T he re a r et wo p o ss ib i l i t ie s why t h i si sh appen ing .F i r s t ly i ti s p robab le t h a t c oppe r -a r sen ica l a r te f ac t s w e re b e ing b roken u p a nd r eme l ted a nd r e ca s t i n to c oppe r / t in b ronze a r tefac t s w i th t h ef u r the ra l loy ing a dd i t ion o ft i n . T he t r ace so fa r sen ic p re sen ti nt h e f i n ished b ronze a r te f ac t c ou ld b e w ha t i sl e f t o ve rf r om t h ee a r l ie rc oppe r -a r sen ic a r tef a c t s . T he s e cond p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t c oppe r /a r sen ic o re s w e re s t i l l b e ing m ined a nd s me l ted , b u tt i n w a s b e ing a dded d u r ing t h e c a s t ing p roce ss t o make t r ue t i n /b ronze . A na s sump t ion c ou ld a l so b e m ade t ha t e a r ly man d id n o t r e a l ly u nde r s tand t h e m ine ra logy o f a r sen ica l -coppe r o res , b u t t hough t t he a r sen i ca l /o r em ine ra lh ee ncoun te r ed t ob e at r ue c oppe ro re . T he t e chno log ica l a ch ievemen t o fa l loy ing t i n o x ide ( Sn0 2 ) w i th c oppe r e i ther a s a n o re o r i n as me l ted p u re me ta l l ic f orm t o make b ronze w a s o ne o f t h e ma jo r d eve lopmen t s t ep sm ade b yp reh i s to r ic man i nh i su se o f me ta l s . T he s me l t ing o f h igh p u r i ty c a s s i te r i te w i th c ha rcoa l c an r equ i r et empe ra tu re sa sh igh a s 1 000°C . T he s me l t ing o fh igh p u r i ty c a s s i t e r i te w ou ld p roduce av e ry p u re t i ni ngo tw i thou t p rodu c ing much s l ag i nt h e p roce s s . I fa ny t i n s l ag h ad b een p roduced i na n t iqu i ty i ti sa l so p robab le t h a t i tw ou ld h ave b een s ub sequen t ly f i ne ly c ru shed a nd r e sme l ted t or e cove r a ny m e ta l l ic t i np r i l l ss t i l lp re sen t( Ty leco te , 1 987 , 1 4 1) . P u re t i nh a s am e l t ing p o in t o f2 32°C a nd when m ixed w i th c oppe r t h e me l t ing /ca s t ing t empera tu re o f t h e c oppe r t i n /b ronze w ou ld b ei nt h er eg ion o f 9 50°C -9 80 °C . B ronze , t h e m ix tu re o f c oppe r a nd t i n , s t a r ted a ppea r ing r egu la r ly a r ound 3 000 BC w i th in t h e a r chaeo logy c on tex t o f t h e M idd le E a s t , b u t l a rge n umbe r s o f b ronze t oo ls a nd a r te f a c t s d id n o t b ecome w ide s p read i n a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s i nt h e M idd le E a s t u nt i l ! a bou t 2 000 BC ( Ben T o r , 1 992 ,2 06 ) . T he g r adua l i n t roduc t ion o f b ronze t ook p lace a tv a ry ing d a t e si nd i f f e ren tp a r t s o ft h ea nc ien tw o r ld ( Ty leco te , 1 976 , 1 4 -15 ) . A s w i th a l l t h ings t ha t h ave a ppea red i n a r cha eo log ica l e xcava t ion s ; a b so lu te d a te s a r e a lways n o t s o " ab so lu te " a nd o ne mus t c on s ide r t h e g radua l p rog re s s ion t ha t n o rma l ly t ook p lace i n p reh is to ry . T he g radua l p rog re s s ion w a s i nf luenced b y e i the r o ne o r a l l o f t he f o l low ing f a c to r s : e conom ic t r ade ,c u l tu re e xchange a nd w a r . Af u ndamen ta lq ue s t ion i nt h es t udy o fa nc ien tt i nm e ta l lu rgy i sw he the r t h e t i n o x ide c a s s i te r i te w a s s me l ted w i th C u m ine ra l s m ine ra ls o r whe the r t h e c a s s i te r i te o re f i r s t w a s s m e l t ed o ni t so wn w i th c ha r coa lt op roduce ap u re t i n me ta l i n go t .T he t i ni ngo t wou ld b ea l loyed w i th p u re c oppe r , mo s t p robab ly i n ac r uc ib le t oc a s tB ronze o b jec t s . B o th o ft h e a bove me thod s w e r e p robab ly u sed t op roduce b ronze i na n t iqu i ty . I ti sp robab le t h a t t h e p u re c a ss i te r i te m ine ra l w a s s me l ted d i rec t ly w i th c oppe r o re o r m e ta l n ea r t h et i nm ine a r ea sa nd a tt h e s ame t ime t h a tt h e t i n m ine ra l i n as e pa ra te p roce s s w a s a l so b e ing s me l ted i n to t i n i n go t s t o b eu s ed f o rt r ad ing p u rpo se s .

1 9

E v idence o ft i n s me l t ing f r om a n t iqu i ty a r e v e ry r a re t od a t e . T he re h ave o n ly b een t wo i n s tance s o ft i n s l ag s b e ing f ound w i th in a n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t o r e xcava ted a r ea . S lag i s n o rma l ly aw a s te p roduc t o ft h e p roce s s o fs me l t ing m ine ra l o res i n to me ta l ; s l ag i s ab y -p roduc t a nd c o l lec to r o f t h e i mpu r i t ie s f ue l a sh a nd g angue w h ich o ccu r when s me l t ing m ine ra lo r e st om e ta l . U sua l ly ab enef ac t ion c rush ing / sor t ing p roce s s o f t h e o re w a s u sed t or emove mos t o f t h e e xce s s g angue b efo re s me l t ing ( Bachmann , 1 982 , 9 ) . A nc ien t s l ag w e re f o rmed f r om f l uxes w h ich w e re a dded t o t he s me l t ing p rocess t o h e lp t h e g angue ma ter ia l t o c hem ica l ly a nd p hy s ica l ly s epa ra te mo re e ff ic ien t ly f r om t h e m ine ra l o r e w h ich w a s b e ing s me l ted . T he ma in f l uxe s u sed i na n t iqu i ty w e re i r on a nd mangane se o x ide s , l ime , s i l ica a nd p e rhap sf l uo r spa r( Bachmann , 1 982 , 1 0 ) . A no the rp o in ti st h a ta ny n a t ive m ine ra l o rv e ry r i ch o r eu sed i n a n t iqu i ty g o ld , s i lve r , c oppe r , i r on , l ead o r t i n w hen s me l ted w i l l p roduce a lmo s t n o s l ag ( Ty leco te , 1 987 , 3 07 ) . P rope r ly s o r ted c a s s i te r i te o re s f r om a l luv ia l , e l luv ia l o rv e in w o rk ing s i na n t iqu i ty w ou ld h ave b een v e ry r i ch , ( p robab ly s omewhe re i n t h e r eg ion o f 7 0% p u re ) . T he refo re i fa nd when c a ss i te r i te w a s s me l ted w i th c ha rcoa l i n a n t iqu i ty , i t w ou ld mo s tl i ke ly h ave l ef tl i t t le o rn ot r ace o fs l ag . C a s s i te r i te o r ei ns ome i n s tance sc an b ef ound v e ry p u re o ri s e a s i ly s or ted t o ap u re s t a te b y c ru sh ing a nd f u r the r h and o r w ind s or t ing . T h i s p u re t i n o re c ou ld t h en h ave t h en b een a dded d i rec t ly t o a n a l ready s me l t / ref ined c oppe r i n a c ruc ib le s me l t ing p rocess t o p roduce a g ood c a s t ing t i n /b ronze ( F rank l in ,e ta l , 1 978 , 2 9 ) . O f t h e t wo a nc ien t t i n s l ag s r e co rded , t h e f i r s t s l ag c ome s f r om w ha t i st hough t t ob e aE a r ly B ronze Age r i tua l b u r ia l ( da ted b y p o t te ry t o1 500 BC ) a tC ae r logga s , n ea r S tA u s te l l i n C o rnwa l l , S ou th - We s t E ng land . A cco rd ing t o T y leco te , t h eC o rnwa l l s l ag w a s c ompo sed o f ag l a s s p ha se w i th s ma l l p r i l ls o f m e ta l l ic t i n m ea su r ing a pp rox ima te ly 0 .65 um i n d i ame t e r . T y leco te d id n o tm en t ion t h e a moun to fs l ag f ound ( Ty leco te , 1 987 , 3 07 -9 ) . T he t i n c on ten t o ft h e C o rnwa l l s l ag i s4 0 .4% a ccompan ied b y 4% i r on o x ide , 3 1 .6% s i l ica , 1 3 .1 % a l um in ium o x ide , 1 . 5% t i tan ium o x ide , 0 .7% magnes ium o x ide , 0 .2% p ho spho ru s p en tox ide a nd 3 .0% t u ngs ten o x ide ( s ee F igu re 3 . 1) . T he s e cond s amp le o ft i n s l ag c ome s f r om a n e xcava ted h i l l f o r t ( da ted b e tween t h e s econd t o e i gh th c en tu ry AD ) a t C a rva lhe lhos i n No r the rn P or tuga l ( abou t 2 3 k i lome t re s t o t h e S ou th - We s t o f t h e t own o f C haves ) . T he e xcava to r s b e l ieve t h a t t h e s l ag i sf r om t h e s e cond c en tu ry AD R oman l e ve l so ft h es i te . T he s i te o fC a rva lhe lho s p roduced t i n s l ag c l a s s if ied i nt wo d i f f e ren ts i ze s : t h ef i r s tb e ing f i ne ly c r ushed f r agmen t sw i th a t o ta l w e igh to f 1 570 k g ; t h e s e cond s i ze b e ing p i eces o fs l ag w e igh ing 0 . 3 k g -0 . 4 k g e ach . I ti sn o t k nown h ow much t o ta l w e igh to rp i ece s o ft h es e cond s i ze o ft i n s l ag w a sf o und ( Beag r ie , 1 985 , 1 67 ) . T he c ompo s i t ion o f t h e C a rva lhe lho s s l ag i sa s f o l lows 1 . 8% S n ; 2 1 .5% S iO 2 ; 9 .3 A 120 3;5 7 .5% F e0 ; 1 0 .4% Mn0 2;0 . 96% T i0 2;0 . 3% P b0 ( Co s ta a nd S an to s 1 965 -1966 ) .

P r eh i s to r ic , A nc ien ta nd H i s to r ic T in

C hap te r3

% S nO 2 F eO S iO 2 A 1 203 Mn0 2 T iO 2 MgO P203 WO 3 C aO K20 N a2O

C a e r l ogga s ( C o rnw a l l ) 1 600 B c* ( S n0 )40 .37 3 . 97 3 1 .56 1 3 .15 1 34 0 . 74 0 . 23 3 . 08

C ava lh e lho s ( P o r tug a l ) 8 t h c e n t . B C 2 nd c e n t . AD I r on A g e ( C o s t a a nd S amo s 1 965-66 ) ( S n ) 1 . 6 2 1 .46 9 . 34 ( Mn0 )10 .40 0 .96

R e t a l l a ck ( C o rnw a l l ) Med i ev a l ?

H exw o r thy ( D ev on ) Med i ev a l ?

2 6 .5 1 9 . 35 4 0 .25 1 3 .66 0 . 69 1 . 42 1 . 07

( Sn0 )10 .15 1 0 .33 4 8 .6 1 1 7 .13

1 . 53

0 . 05

4 . 24 0 .0 9

0 . 50 2 . 03

1 . 6

( S n ) 7 . 9 3 2 .6 3 0 .0 1 .1 ( MnO )0 .2

3 . 50

0 .30

0 .005 6 4 .43

F e2O3 C u P b S b A s

C a l en i ck ( C o rnw a l l ) 1 8 th-19 th c e n t . ( T y l e c o t e 1 976 )

S t ab l e H ob b a ( C o rnw a l l )

Mod . t i n s l a g ( B r ay 1 9 47 : 4 3 )

2 2 .0 2 7 .79 3 1 .29 1 0 .26 0 . 37 0 . 97 0 . 50 0 . 76 5 . 55 0 . 87 0 . 73

( S n ) 2 . 5 1 8 .0 3 5 .0 1 6 .5

1 7 .0

2 8 .0

3 . 9 1 . 48 0 . 02 < 0 .0 1 < 0 .0 1

*T h i s s l ag w a s a na ly sed b y D r C . S a l te r o f Oxf o rd Un ive r s i ty a nd Ia m g r a tef u l t o h im f o r a low ing m e t ou s e i tp r io r t oh i s . p ub l ic a t ion . T ho se f r om R e ta l lack , H exwor thy a nd S t ab le H obba w e re a na ly sed b y M i s s E . P ho to s t ow hom 1am a l so g r a t ef u l . -

n o t s o ugh t .

F ig 3 . 1

C ompo s i t ion o fT in S lag s ,T y leco te , R .F . , 1 987 , 3 09

T y leco te ( 1987 ) t h ough tt ha t t h e t i n s l ag f r om C a rva lhe lho s w i th i t s v e ry l ow t i n c on ten t , w a s av er y a dvanced t i n s l ag f o r i t s d a ted p e r iod ; t h ough i fi t s d a ted p e r iod i st h e e i gh th c en tu ry AD a nd n o tt h e s econd c en tu ry AD t h en i tw ou ld f i t i t se l emen ta na lys i se a s ie r . T y leco te ( i b id ) f e l t t ha t t h e C ava lhe lho s t i n s l ag i n i t s a na ly s i s r e semb led v e ry c l o se ly t h e a na lysed t i n s l ag s f r om t h ee xcava ted r ema in so ft h e Med ieva l t i n b low ing h ou se s i n C o rnwa l l ( Ty leco te , 1 987 , 3 08 -10 ) . S ome o ft h e se Med ieva l s l ag a na lyses a r e i n c luded i n T y leco te 's a na ly t ica l t a b le a l ong w i th t h et wo t i ns l ags f r om a n t iqu i ty . As e cond p o ss ib le e xp lana t ion e x i s t s f o rt h e l ow t i n c on ten t o f t h e C a rvahe lhos t i n s l ag . T he s l ag may h ave b een p roduced b y i r on s me l t ing a nd t h e i r on o re c on ta ined s ome t i n m ine ra l s a nd t h e s l ag w a s l a te r b e ing c ru shed t or emove t h e t i n c on ten t ( Ty leco te p e r sona l l e t te r t o Ma r ia eC os ta , 1 988 ) . "When a dd ing s or ted h igh g rade c a ss i te r i te o re s d i rec t ly t o mo l ten c oppe r , i tw ou ld h ave b een n ece ssa ry t of i r s t c ove r t h e mo l ten c oppe rw i th c ha rcoa l a nd t h en a dd t h ec a s s i te r i te . T h is w ou ld a l low t h e mo l ten c oppe rt oa ccep t mo re t h an t h e n orma l 1 % o fc a s s i te r i te ( Sn0 2) "( C leuz iou a nd B e r thoud t , 1 982 , 1 5 -16 ) . T he a moun t o f c a s s i te r i te b e ing a dded mo s t p robab ly w a s d e te rm ined b y w e igh t o r v o lume . T he c a s s i te r i te o re w ou ld t h en b e c ove red w i th as e cond l a ye r o f c ha r coa l. 2 0

T h is t e chn ique o f mak ing b ronze w ou ld m ean t ha t t h e c a s s i te r i te o re w a s b e ing f i r s t r educed b ef o r e i tw ou ld f l ow d own a s mo l ten t i n me ta l i n to t h e l owe rp a r to ft h e c r uc ib le a nd m ix w i th t h ep u re mo l ten c oppe rt o make b ronze . A l te rna t ive ly t o make t i n i n go t s c a ss i te r i te c ou ld h ave b een s me l ted i n af u rnace w i th c ha r coa l . T he r e cove r ed t i n m e ta l wou ld b e r e f ined a nd c a s t a sp u re t i n i n go t s . T h is p roce s s w ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace n ea r t h e a rea s w he r e t h e c a s s i t e r i t e h ad b een m ined . I tw ou ld h ave b een e a s ie rt ot r an spo r t t h e s me l ted t i n i ngo t s t h an t h e u n sme l ted m ine r a l o r e o ve r a ny g rea t d i s tance . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t r i ch r ef ined u nsme l ted c a s s i te r i te o re s w e re a l so t r aded , b u t p robab ly o ve r s ho r te r d i s tances t h an r ef ined m e ta l l ic c a s tt i n i n go t s . I nt h e L a te B ronze A ge i ti sp robab le t h a tt h em a jo rt r ade o f t i n w a s d one u s ing t i n i n go t s . T he t r ade o ft i n i nc a s t i n go t f o rm i na n t iqu i ty i sb acked u p b y t he r ema in s o ft i n i n go t s a l ong w i th a l a rge a moun t o f c oppe r o xh ide i n go t s i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge u nde rwa te r s h ip w reck o f ft h e s ou th c oa t s o fT u rkey a tU lu B u run ( 1200 BC -1 300 BC ) ( Ba s s , 1 987 , 6 93 -733 ) . T he o ccur rence o fp u re t i n o b jec t s a nd i n go t s i ne xcava t ed a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s i s v e ry r a re . T he f o l low ing l i s t i n c lude s e xamp le sb u t n o ta l o ft h e u na l loyed t i n i n go tf i nd s f r om a r ound t h e Med i te r ranean a nd E u rope .

C hap te r3

P reh i s to r ic ,A nc ien ta nd H is to r ica lT in

f )p o s s ib le b ad ly c o r roded r ema ins o f at i ni n go t( ? ) s h ipw reck [ Cape G e l idonya ,C oa s to f S ou thwe s tT u rkey : c i ra 1 200 BC ] . ( F rank l in ,e ta l . , 1 978 ,2 6 )

a )b ang le m ade f r om t wo t w is ted s t rand so ft h in w i re ; [ f ound a tT henn i -I s land o fL e sbo s ,G reece :c i ra 1 800 BC ] ( F rank l in ,e ta l . , 1 978 , 2 5 ) . b ) ac a s tt i nb o t t le ( w i th s i xp e rc en tl e ad p re sen t )a nd at i n r i ng ; [ f ound i n ag rave a t Abydo s ,E gyp t : c i ra 1 500 BC ] ( F rank l in ,e ta l . , 1 978 , 2 6 ) .

g ) t i nb ead sf ound a tS u t ton V eney i nW i l t sh i re E ng land [ e nd o ft h eE ng l i sh B ronze A ge : c i ra 8 00 BC ] ( F rank l in ,e ta l . , 1 978 ,2 6 ) .

c )t wo t i ni n go t si n sc r ibed , w i th C yp ro -M inoan s c r ip t ; [ f ound o f ft h ec oa s to f No r the rn I s rae l : c i r ca 1 500 BC -1100 BC ] ( F rank l in ,e ta l . , 1 978 , 4 5 ) .

h )t i nb ead si na na mbe ra nd f a ience n eck la ce ; O doo rn N eck lace [ f ound a tD ren the , H o l land : c i r ca B ronze A ge ] ( F rank l in ,e ta l . , 1 978 , 2 6 ) .

d )c l ay f une ra ry v a se sf r om t h eA egean ; e x te rna l ly c ove r ed i nt i n ;p re sumab ly a s as ub s t i tu te f o rs i lve r ; [ M inoan a nd Mycenean : c i rca 1 400 BC -1 350 BC ] ( F rank l in ,e ta l . , 1 978 ,2 6 ) .

i ) at o ta lo ft h i r ty t wo t h in r ound s haped t i ni ngo t s ; t h ei ngo t sw e ighed a pp rox ima te ly f o r ty s i xg ram se ach ; [ as h ipw reck o f ft h es ou the rn c oa s to fF rance n ea rN a rbonne ;c i ra 8 00 BC ( ? ) ] ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 1 06 ) .

e ) amug , ap i lg r im f l a sk a nd ab en tp la te a nd r ound b un i n go ta nd f ou rt i n i ngo t s ; s h ipw reck [ U lu B u run ,C oa s to fS ou thwe s tT u rkey ;c i ra 1 300 BC ] ( Ba s s , 1 987 , 7 02 -13 ) .

1 3

F ig 3 . 2

S e lec t ion o ft i ni ngo t ss how ing t he v ar ie ty o ff orms r ecovered f rom t he m id -i s tc en tur y AD w reck i nt he o u te t h arbour o fP or tV endre s( r edrawn f rom G a l l ia , 1 975 ,3 3 ,6 4 )

T in I ngo t sM id i s tC en tu ry Wreck ,V ende s , F rance , P annha l lu r ick ,R .D . , 1 986 , 1 07 2 1

C hap te r3

P reh i s to r ic , A nc ien ta nd H i s to r ica lT in

j)f ou r teen v e ry p u re c a s tt i ni ngo t s , ( F IG 3 . 2 )t h e h eav ie s to ne w e igh ing 8 . 75 k g ; a l lo ft h ei n go t s c a r ry v a ry ing s t amps ; [ s h ipw reck b yP o r tV ende s , S ou th Med i te r ranean c oa s t o fF rance ,n ea rS pan i sh f r on t ie r : c i ra f i r s tc en tu ry AD ] ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 1 07 -9 ) .

A no the r r e a son f o r t h e r a r i ty o ft i n i na r chaeo lme ta l lu rg ica l s me l t ing s i te s a nd e xcava t ions c ou ld b e t h e b a s ic u n s tab le n a tu re o ft i n . T he f ew p u re t i n o b jec t sa nd i ngo t s w h ich h ave b een f ound a lways h ave af a i r ly h igh l e ve l o ft i n c o r ro s ion p re sen t . C o r ro s ion o fp u re t i n c an c omp le te ly d e s t roy t h e o b jec ta nd a ny o r ig ina l s hape o f t ha t o b jec t a nd r e duce i tt o at o ta l ly u n recogn i sab le p owde r . T he ma in c o r ro s ion p roduc t o ft i n w i th in ama r ine e nv i ronmen t i st i n o x ide ( Sn0 2)w h ich i s

k )t h i r ty t wo t i ni ngo t sw e igh ing f ou r -f ive k g e a ch , s t amped w i th aL a t in i n sc r ip t ion ; [ s h ipw reck o f ft h ee a s tc oa s to fS a rd in ia C apo B e l lav i s ta -P un ta N e ra : c i r ca f i r s tc en tu ry AD ] ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 1 09 ) .

r ep re sen ted a f te r c omp le te c o r ro s ion b y awh i te p a s te type s t a in i nt h es o i l .

I t maybe s e en f r om t h e a bove l i s t t h a t t h e e xamp les o fp u r e t i n o b jec t sa nd i ngo t s f ound i na na r chaeo log ica l c on tex ta r e ar a re o ccu r rence . T he l a ck o fp u re t i n o b jec t s w a s p robab ly d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t mo s t t i n i n a n t iqu i ty w a s u sed i n t h e p roduc t ion o fb ronze . A lso t h ea bove l i s ts how st h a tt h eb u lk o ft i nf ound f r om a n t iqu i ty h a sb een f ound i ni n go tf o rm . T in b e ing c on s ide red ar a re a nd v e ry v a luab le c ommod i ty i n a n t iqu i ty , m ean tt h a ti th ad ah igh t r ade v a lue a nd w ou ld n o t h ave b een w a s ted . T he r a r i ty o ft i n p re sen ted t h ep rob lem o f s upp ly n o t m ee t ing t he d emand ; a nd t h i s n ecess i ta ted a s ea rch f o r a n a l te rna t ive t o b ronze , w h ich i r on a nd s t ee l f i na l ly b ecame . T in w a s u sed i nb ronze b ody a rmou r b y c e r ta in s ec t ion s o f t h e R oman L eg ions , i n e ve ryday h ou seho ld i t ems s uch a s p ew te r t a b le w a re w h ich h ad ah i gh c on ten t o ft i n ( 50% P b a nd 5 0% S n ) a nd i n t h e c a s t ing o f b ronze s cu lp tu re s ( Ty leco te , 1 992 ,7 2 ) .

2 2

P u re s me l ted m e ta l l ic t i n i so n ly s t ab le a bove 1 3 0C a nd i st h e o n ly c ommon s me l ted m e ta l wh ich u nde rgoes s uch a c rys ta l l ine c hange a s a n a l lo t rop ic t r an sforma t ion f r om a me ta l ( be ta ) t o a n on -me ta l ( a lpha ) f orm a t n o rma l t empe ra tu re s ( Ty leco te , 1 986 , 4 9 -70 ) . T h is l e ads t o t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t a ny b u r ied t i n me ta l f r om a n t iqu i ty e xpo sed t ot empe ra tu r e s b e low 1 3 0C f o r l ong p e r iod s o ft ime w ou ld " d isappea r " a nd f u r the r w a te r l e ach ing o f t he c o r roded p roduc tt i n o x ide w ou ld a lmo s tl e ave n ot r ace o ft h eo r ig ina l t i n o b jec t o r t h e c o r ro s ion w h ich i th ad p roduced ( C ronyn , 1 990 ,2 12 ) . T he t r an sfo rma t ion o r c o r ro s ion o f t i n c an t hough i ns ome c a se s b e s l owed d own b y s ma l l a moun t s o f i mpu r i t ies p re sen ti nt h e t i no rb y t h e a dd i t ion o fo t he rm ine ra l st of o rm ac ompo s i te m e ta l d u r ing t h e s me l t ing p roces s ( i .e . l e ad w h ich w i th t i n f o rm s t h em e ta lp ew te r )( C ronyn , 1 990 , 2 11) .

CHAPTER

GEOLOGICAL

4

FOR MATION

o f T IN

00 PEN INSULA SE WARD

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LADOGA-KAREL IA TRANSBA IKAL ERZGEB IRGE

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PR I MAR IOS SECUNDAR IOS

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F ig 4 . 1

I MPORTANC IA

P r inc ipa les z onas E STANN IFERAS d e l MUNDO . ( Mod i f icado d e T ay lor , 1 979 ) .

T IN DEPOS ITS OF THE WORLD , J un ta d e C a s t i l la yL eon ; 1 988 , 2 6

T h i s c hap ter w i l l o f f e r ab r ief i n t roduc t ion t ot h e f o rma t ion , g eo logy a nd t ypes o f t i n m ine ra ls a nd o f t i n 's r e la t ionsh ip w i th g r an i te . T in d oe s n o t a ppea ri nl a rge q uan t i t ies o n t h e e a r th 's s u r face . I ti sp r e sen t i n t h e E a r th 's c r us t a to n ly 3p a r t s p e r m i l l ion . U ran ium a ppea r s a t2 . 5 p a r t s p e rm i l l ion . C oppe r a ppea r s a s 7 0 p a r t s p er m i l l ion a nd z i nc a t8 0 p a r t s p e r m i l l ion . S i lve r a ppea r s a t. 0 8 p a r t s p e r m i l l ion ; Go ld a ppea r s a t. 0 04 p a r t s p e rm i l l ion ( S la te r , 1 974 , 3 ) . T he m inera l c a ss i te r i te S nO2 h a s b een a nd s t i l l i st h e ma in s ou r ce o f t i n . I n t h e p as t c a ss i ter i te h a s b een m ined f r om b o th v e in a nd a l luv ia l d epos i t s . C o rnwa l l a nd D evon i n E ng land a r e o ne o ft h e f ew s ou r ce s o fm ined " ve in t i n" i nt h e w o r ld . T he o n ly o the rc oun t ry t om ine v e in t i n i sB o l iv ia i n S ou th Ame r ica . A l l o the r t i n p roduc ing c oun t r ies h ave p roduced a nd a r ep roduc ing a l luv ia l t i n wh ich a ccoun ts f or a pprox ima te ly 8 0% o f t he t o ta l wo r ld p r oduc t ion ( Rober t son , 1 982 , 1 ) .

2 3

C a ss i ter i te , wh ich i s as t ab le t i n o x ide , t h a t i sb o th v e ry d ense ( s pec if ic g rav i ty 6 .6 -7 .1) a nd h a rd ( ha rdne ss 6 -7 u s ing Moh s ' h a rdness s t anda rd ) ( A tk inson , 1 985 , 3 ) . T he c o lou r s o f c a ss i te r i te a r e p r ima r i ly b rown o r b l ack b u t i n s ome c a ses c an b e ay e l low ish b rown o r r edd ish b l ack . T he c a ss i te r i te c rys ta l s y s tem i st e t ragona l , n orma l ly a ppea r ing s ho r t a nd s qua re i ns e c t ion . I ns ome c a se s , t h ec r ys ta ls a ppea rl o ng a nd t h in . I nt h is a ppea rance c a ss i te r i te i ss ome t ime c a l led " need le t i n" . E l luv ia l t i n i sw ea the red f r om v e in c a ss i te r i te a nd i sf ound e i the r l y ing j us t b e low t h e o r ig ina l v e in d epo s i t a r ea o r h a s b een moved d ownh i l l b y w ea the r ing o rw a te re ro s ion ( Ba tes a nd J ack son , 1 990 , 2 11) . E l luv ia l t i n i st i n o r e f ound i na ny l o ca t ion o t he rt h an t i n v e ins o rs t ream b ed s . S t ream t i n o r a l luv ia l t i n w a s o rg ina l ly v e in c a ss i ter i te o r e wh ich h a s w ea the red o u t o f i t s g ran i te o r q ua r tz h os t r o ck o ver g eo log ica l t ime a nd b een d epo s i ted i ns t ream a nd r i ve r b ed g rave ls . Mos t s t ream c a ss i te r i te h a s b een w o rn i n to r ounded s t ream p ebb les o f v a ry ing s i zes . S t ream t i n i s p r ima r i ly i d en t if ied b y i t s h eavy w e igh t , h igh d ens i ty a nd b l ack o rb rown c o lou r s .

C hap te r 4

G eo log ica l F orma t ion o fT in

4

r

.V E IN

s ysTE .

METASED IMENTS

MASS IVE G RE ISEN AND

V EI NS

S TOGKSCHE IDER

I rc Ip E•N T; GRE ISEN

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P EGMAT ITES

• A LB IT ISAT ION .M IGROCL IN ISAT.I ON

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F ig 4 . 2

S chema t ic Mode ls o ft h e Ma jo rG roup s o fP r ima ry T in O re D epo s i t sa f te rT ay lo re ta l1 985 1 ) t i np o rphy r ie s 2 ) s ka rn sa nd c a rbona t e / su lph ide r e p la cemen t s 3 ) v e in sa nd s hee ted v e in s 4 ) g r e i sen sa nd p egma t i te s L ehmann , B . , 1 990 , 6 -7

2 4

C hap te r4

G eo log ica l F o rma t ion o fT in

C a ss i te r i te a l so s ome t ime s o ccu r s i n af o rm c a l led " wood t i n " . Wood t i n i s ab rown ish c o lou red f o rm o f c a s s i te r i te w h ich c ome s n o rma l ly i nn odu la r f o rm a nd h a s a n i n te rna l c oncen t r ic s t ruc tu re o fr ad ia t ing c r ys ta l s wh ich r e semb le t h in f i b re s a nd l o ok s l i ke d ry w ood ( Ba te s a nd J ack son , 1 990 , 7 14 ) .

T h is w ou ld h ave o ccu r red w i th t h e w ea the r ing o u t o f t i n v e in s wh ich c on ta ined s ome w ood t i n . T he refo re w ood t i n c ou ld h ave b een e a s i ly a va i lab le t oa nc ien t man , b u t i td id n o t a ppea r i nl a rge a moun t s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e e a s i ly a va i lab le w ood t i n h ad b een c o l lec ted a nd u sed b y a nc ien t man .

T in a l so a ppea r s a s s t ann i te ( Cu 2F eSnS4 ) . S tann i te i sa l so s o me t ime s c a l led " be l l me ta l o re " . T h is i s ac omp lex s u lph ide t i n -coppe r iron o re w h ich i sf ound a td eep l e ve ls w i th in c oppe r t i n v e in m ine s i n C o rnwa l l . T he l e ve ls a t w h ich t h es t ann i te a ppea r s a r e b e low t h e w a te rt a b le a nd t h e m ine s n eed g ood p ump ing e qu ipmen tb efo re t h es t ann i te c an b em ined e conom ica l ly ( D ine s , 1 988 , 2 0 ) .

Ic u t a nd moun ted a w ood t i n m ine ra l s amp le a nd t h en a na ly sed i to n aS cann ing E lec t ron M icro scope ( Samp le N o 7 2 ) . I tc on ta ined f r om 5 0 -76% t i n ( depend ing o n t h e a r ea a na ly sed )a nd s ma l lt r a ce so fi r on 0 . 48% -1 . 3% . D ue t o t h e d ep th a nd c omp lex i ty o f s t ann i te o re i ti sv e ry d oub tfu l i fi tw a s u sed a s as ou rce o f t i n o r b ronze i n p r eh i s to r ic t ime s . I ti st hough t b y s ome g eo log is t s b ecau se o f s t ann i te ' s p l acemen t b e low t h e t i n d epos i t s i nC o rnwa l l t h a ti sh a s b een f o rmed t h rough al e ach ing o u tp roce s so ft h e h i ghe rc a ss i te r i te m ine ra l ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 1 ) .

Wood t i n i sa l so c a l led " t oad s e ye " w hen i th a s b een f o rmed o n as ma l l s ca le ( Cook & K i rk , 1 991 , 5 7 ) . I ti st hough t b y s ome p eop le t ha t wood t i n i s af o rm o fd i s in teg ra ted s t ann i te C u2FeSnS4 ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 1 ) .

T in i sa lmo s t a lway s f ound i no r n ea r g ran i te a nd i ti sa l so c apab le o f a ppea r ing i n s ome c on tac t m e tamo rph ic r ock s s u r round ing g ran i te i n t ru s ion s ( Pe l lan t , 1 992 , 8 1) . T in d oe s n o ts e em t oa ppea ri na ny o t he rf o rma t ion c on tex t .

Wood t i n i s n o t a s c ommon a s t h e o the r t wo f o rm s o f c a ss i te r i te a nd wou ld p robab ly n o t h ave b een u sed i n a n t iqu i ty ( D ines , 1 988 , 2 0 ) . I ts eem s t h a t i td id a ppea r n ea r t h e s u r f a ce i nC o rnwa l l .

P b

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F ig 4 . 3

Z on ing o fM ine ra l D epo s i t sa r ound a n I gmeou sI n t ru s ion Wh i t te , D .G .A . a nd B rook s , J .R .V . , 1 972 , 2 31

2 5

G eo log ica l F orma t ion o fT in

C hap te r4

GRE ISEN VE INS T empe ra tu re f ' 1o ff l u id i n c lus ions A rsenopyn te C ass i te r i te -H ema t i te

HYPOTHER MAL

MESOTHER MAL

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. m ine ra ls

B i smu th in i te.

-A rgen t i te

G a lena -B ournon i te -S t ibn i te -H ema t i te

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I n t h e e a r l ie r y ea r s o ft h e s t udy o f g eo logy , i t wa s t hough t t h a ta l lg ran i te w a sf o rmed f r om magma c om ing t ot h ee a r th s c rus t f r om t h e i n te r io r o f t h e e ar th i n av a r ie ty o fd i f f e ren t p lace s a nd u nde rd i f f e ren tp hys ica l a nd c hem ica l i nf luence s . T h i s t h eo ry i ss t i l l a ccep ted a s b a s ica l ly t r ue , b u t w i th t h e f o l low ing q ua l i f ica t ion s .

T he g ran i te f am i ly o fr ock s a r e v e ry w ide s p read r o ck a nd f ound u nde r many d i f f e ren tc ond i t ion s o nt h eE a r th ' ss u r f ace . I ti sd i ff icu l t t o g ive a g ene ra l a nd s imp le d ef in i t ion o f g r an i te t ha t w i l l c onfo rm t oa l l t h e v a ry ing g ran i te s o f t h e e a r th ' ss u r f a ce . T he n ame o fg ran i te c ome s f r om t h eL a t in w o rd ( " g ranum " = g r a in ) a nd p e r ta in st ot h e g ranu la rt e x tu re o fg ran i te . G ran i te i s ap lu ton ic i gneous r ock wh ich i s c oa r se g ra ined a nd c on s i s t s o fq ua r tz f e ld spa r a nd b io t i te . T he c omp le te g r an i te r o ck f am i ly i st h e mos t c ommon o f a l l i n t rus ive i gneou s r o ck s (Wa t t , 1 982 , 7 6 ) .

I ti sn ow t hough t t h a t g ran i te c an a l so h ave d eve loped f r om t h e r eme l t ing a nd r e fo rm ing o fe x is t ing c r u s ta l r ock w h ich h a s b een i nvo lved i n p la te t e c ton ics a nd me tamo rph ism ( P i tche r , 1 993 , 2 9 -40 ) . T he c u r ren t t h eo r ie s o n t h e n a tu re a nd o r ig in o fg ran i te a r e s t i l l b e ing d eba ted . I ti sd i ff icu l tt or e con s t ruc tt h e f o rma t ion o f g ran i te i n al a bo ra to ry e nv i ronmen t d ue t ot h e s uppo sed v e ry h i gh p re ssu re s a nd t empe ra tu re s u nde rw h ich g ran i te i s f o rmed . T o t r y t od up l ica te t h e se p re ssu re s a nd t empe ra tu re s i nt h e l a bo ra to ry i sa tp r esen t v e ry d i f f icu l t ( P i tche r , 1 993 , 3 9 -40 ) .

G ran i te i sg ene ra l ly al i gh t c o lou red r ock ; t h i s i sd ue t oi t s g ene ra l c ompo s i t ion o f wh ich t h e l i gh t c o lou red m ine ra l s q ua r tz a nd f e ld spa r make u p b e tween 8 0 -100% . T he l i gh t c o lou red f e ld spa r s i n c lude t h e f o l low ing , a l ka l i f e ld spa r3 5 1 00% a nd p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r0 -65% . T he d a rke r ma te r ia ls w h ich g ene ra l ly make u pg ran i te a ccoun tf o ro n ly 0 -20% a nd c ons is t g ene ra l ly o f t h e f o l low ing c omponen t s b io t i te , a ug i te , h o rnb lende , mu scov i te , a pa t i te , z i rcon a nd magne t i te . T he se d a rke r m ine ra ls w h ich a r e i n c luded i ng ran i te n eve r m ake u p mo re t h an 2 0% o f t h e t o ta l ( Schumann , 1 992 , 2 00 ) .

G ran i te a ppea r s i nt h e f o l low ing m an ife s ta t ion s : d ike s , s i l l s , p lug s , b o s se s , r i ng c omp lexe s a nd w hen i ni t sl a rges t s i ze a s b a tho l i th s (Wh i t ten a nd B rook s , 1 972 , 2 13 ) . A l l c a ss i te r i te c ou ld h ave b een f o rmed i na s soc ia t ion w i th a ny o ne o ft h e a bove g r an i te s t ruc tu r e s . 2 6

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C as s i ter i te s e ems o n ly t o a ppea r i n t h e u ppermos t g ran i te b od ie s wh ich d eve lop o u t o fl owe ra nd l a rge rb a tho l i th s . T he g ran i tes w h ich g i ve r i se t ot h e t i n m ine ra ls a r e n orma l ly r i ch i n q ua r tz , t ourma l ine a nd f l uo r ine b ea r ing ma ter ia ls ( Lehmann , 1 990 , 4 -6 ) . O ne t h eory o n t h e f o rma t ion o fc a s s i te r i te p roposes t h a t b o th c a ss i te r i te a nd w o lf ram i te ( Fe Mn ) W04 a r e c oncen t ra ted a nd f o rmed a s ar e su l t o fp neuma to ly t ic a c t ion ( " a l te ra t ion o f a r o ck o r c r ys ta l l isa t ion o f m ine ra ls b y g a seous emana t ions d e r ived f r om s o l id if y ing magma " ) ( Ba te s a nd J ack son , 1 990 , 5 13 ) . " The t h eory s t a te s t h a tt h e c a s s i te r i te a nd w o lf ram a r e moved a s f l u id f l uo r ides ( SnF4 a nd WF6 ) a nd r e ac t a tt imes w i th w a te r t o f o rm t h e o x ides c a ss i te r i te ( Sn02 ) a nd w o lf ram (W03 ) . T he Wo lf ram w i l l a l so e i the r r e ac t w i th F e a nd Mn t o p roduce Wo lf ram i te ( Fe , Mn ) W04 o r w i th C a t o f o rm s chee l i te ( Ca W04 ) " (Wh i t ten a nd B rook s , 1 972 , 3 54 ) .

27

C a ss i te r i te v e ins a r e f o rmed i nh igh ly f r ac tured a c id g ran i te t h rough h yd ro therma l o rp neuma to ly t ic a c t ion . I ti st hough t t ha t t h e c a ss i ter i te i sf o rmed b y f l u id e vo lu t ion d ur ing t h e t ime t h a t t h e g ran i te magma i si n i t s f i na l c oo l ing p ha se a f te rr i s ing u p t h rough t h e e a r th 's c r us t . T he l o ca l g eo log ica l c ond i t ions p lay a v ery i mpo r tan t p a r t i n t i n 's m inera l d eve lopmen ta nd p l acemen t( F ig 4 . 2 ) . P egma t i te s a r e v ery c oa r se g ra ined i n t rus ive i gneous r ock s . T hey n orma l ly a ppea r a s d eformed d ikes , l e nses o r v e ins . P egma t i te v e ins r i se f r om t h e u ppe r s u rfaces o f l ower a nd l a rge r g ran i te b od ies s uch a s b a tho l i ths a nd a r e o ne o f t h e ma in c a r r ie r s o f t i n m ine ra ls . P egma t i tes d o n o t n orma l ly r each t h e e a r th ' s s u rface , b u t a r e e xposed b y t h e p rocess o f e ros ion ( F ig 4 . 2 ) . P egma t i tes r epresen t t he f i na l h igh t empera ture f l u id c rys ta l l isa t ion o f a magma b ody . T hey t h e refo re n o rma l ly c on ta in much h ighe r a moun t s o f me ta l if erous m ine ra ls t h an t h e l ower g ran i te b ody i t se lf , w h ich c oo led a t l owe r t empe ra tu res ( Ba te s a nd J a ck son , 1 990 , 4 88 ) .

C hap te r4

C a ss i te r i t e a ppea r s s ome t ime s w i th Wo lf ram i te , S chee l i te , a nd A r senopyr i te . T he se m ine ra ls a r e n o t n orma l ly i n t h e s ame l o ca l i ty a st i n , b u tc an e i the rb e i n ad i f f e ren tl a te ra l o r h o r izon ta lp l acemen t ; e i the rh ighe ro rl owe r o rf u r the ra way f r om t h e c a s s i te r i te d epend ing o n t h e t empe ra tu re a tw h ich t h ey c r y s ta l l ized f r om t h e magma m ine ra l f l u id . Wo lf ram i te t h em ine ra l wh ich mo s tc ommon ly a ppea r s w i th t i n i sn o rma l ly f ound a th ighe r l e ve l s i nt h e h o s t r ock t h an c a s s i te r i te . I n C o rnwa l l , c oppe r m ine ra l s a ppea r a l so w i th c a s s i te r i te b u t much c l o se rt ot h e s u r f ace , (F IG 4 . 5 ) w h i le t h e c a s s i te r i t e r ema in s i nt h e l owe r p a r t o ft h e o re b ody ( D ine s , 1 988 , 8 ) .

G eo log ica l F o rma t ion o fT in

C a ss i te r i te i sn o rma l ly f ound i nq ua r tz v e ins l o ca ted w i th in t h e g ran i te h o s t T he c a s s i te r i te v e in s w i th in t h e q ua r tz v a ry i nw id th a nd l e ng th d epend ing u pon t h e c ond i t ion s i nw h ich t h e v e in w a s f o rmed . T he s i ze s o ft h e c a s s i te r i te c on ta in ing v e ins c an v a ry c ons ide rab le f r om 2 5mm t oo ve r am e te r i n w id th . T he c a s s i te r i te v e in s c an i ns ome c a se s r e ach l e ng th s o fu p t o8 00 m e te r s ( A tk in son , 1 985 , 3 ) . T he g angue m a te r ia l n o rma l ly a ccompany ing c a s s i te r i t e i s q ua r tz a nd t o u rma l ine ( D ine s , 1 988 ,2 0 ) .

C a ss i te r i te d eve lop s a nd c rys ta l l ises f r om i t s f l u id magma h o s t b e tween 6 00 a nd 5 00 c en t ig rade ( Sos B ayna t , 1 967 , 4 26 ) . I ti st h e d i f f e ren t t empe ra tu re s a t wh ich t h e o the r m ine ra l s a ccompany ing t i n a l so c ry s ta l l i se s t ha t d ef ine t h e i r g eo log ica l a nd p lacemen t r e la t ion sh ip t o e ach o the r ( F IG 4 .4 ) .

2 8

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T in d oe s n o t a ppea r g eo log ica l ly w i th in many a r ea s o f E u rope , b u t whe re i td oes a ppea r i n c omme rc ia l ly v iab le d epo s i t s i ti s o n ly f ound w i th in H e rcyn ian g ran i te . T he H e r cyn ian O rogeny w a s ag eo log ica l t ime o f moun ta in b u i ld ing wh ich t ook p lace i n E urope d u r ing t h e l a te P a leozo ic E ra l a s t ing t h rough b o th t he C a rbon if e rous a nd P erm ian p e r iod s ( F ig 6 . 1) a pp rox ima te ly 3 60 -245 m i l l ion y ea r s a go ( Ba tes a nd J ack son , 1 990 , 3 04 ) . T he H e rcyn ian m oun ta in b u i ld ing p e r iod i s a l so r ef e r red t o i n s ome G eo log ica lp ub l ica t ion sa st h eV a r iscan O rogeny ( F ig 5 . 4 ) . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t a ny g ran i tes f o rmed i n t h e l a te r A lp ine O rogeny d ur ing t h e mo re r e cen t T er t ia ry e ra 6 5 -3 m i l l ion y ea r s a go , h ave n o t p roduced t od a te a ny g eo log ica l e v idence o fl a rge c omme rc ia l ly v i ab le c a s s i te r i t ed epo s i t s . T he re a r e f ou r ma in t i n b ea r ing a r ea s i nE u rope w h ich h ave b een w o rked i nt h e p a s t o r a r e s t i l l b e ing w o rked a tp resen t b u t o n v e ry r educed l e ve ls ( F ig 5 . 1) . T he re a r e a l so t wo s ma l le rt i nm ine ra l iza t ion a r ea s i nE u rope : T he T u scany a r ea o fI t a ly a nd t h e i s land o fS a rd in ia whe re t i n m igh t p o s s ib ly h ave b een m ined i na n t iqu i ty ( P enha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 7 9 -80 ) . 29

T he mo s t n o r the r ly o f t h e f ou r ma in E u ropean t i n m ine ra l a r ea s i st h e g ran i te a r ea o f C o rnwa l l a nd D evon i n t h e S ou thwe s tp en in su la o fE ng land ( Embu ry a nd S yme s , 1 987 , 2 14 ) . T h i s r a the rc ompac tr i ch t i n a r ea i sa pp rox ima te ly 3 0 k i lome t re s w ide b y 1 50 k i lome t re s l o ng . I ti sb e l ieved a nd much q uo ted t h a t t h e t i n d epos i t s o f C o rnwa l l a nd D evon w e re w o rked i n p reh is to ry , b u t t o d a te a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s uppor t ing t h is t h eo ry i sa lmo s tn on -ex is ten t( Age r , 1 980 , 1 67 ) . I n F rance t h e re a r e t wo t i n a r ea s . T he g ran i te a r ea o f t h e A rmo r ica Ma s s if w h ich c ove r s a l l o ft h e B r i t tany p en insu la ( F ig 5 .2 ) . T he t i n a ppea r s mos t ly i n t he Wes te rn ( Depa r tmen to fF in i s te r e )a nd S ou ther na r ea s( Depa r tmen t so f Mo rb ihan a nd L o i re A t lan t ique ) o f B r i t tany ; w i th o n ly a s ma l l s ca t te r ing o f t i n m ine ra l iza t ion a r ea s i nt h e n or the rn a nd e a s te rn a r ea so fB r i t tany ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 8 5 -94 ) . T he s e cond a r ea w i th in F rance i st h e t i n d epo s i t s l o ca ted o n t h eN or the rn e dge o ft h eC en t ra l Ma s s if i nt h ed epa r tmen t so f H au te V ienne ,C reu se a nd A l l ie r .

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T he t i n a r ea s o ft h e C en t ra l Ma s s if h ave n o t t od a te o f f e red a ny a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t y ing t h e t i n d epo s i t s t ou se b y a nc ien t man ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 8 5 -6 ) . I nt h e s ou th /ea s ta r ea o fG e rmany a nd t h en o r th /we s ta r ea o f C zecho s lovak ia t h e re i s at h i rd ma jo r c a s s i te r i te a r ea ( F ig 5 . 3 ) . T h i sa r ea i sc a l led t h eE rzgeb i rge ( O re Moun ta in s ) . T he E rzgeb i rge a r ea i sl o ca ted w i th in t h e B ohem ian Ma ss if i nt h e b o rde r r eg ion b e tween t he G e rman l a nd o f S axony i n t h e S ou thea s tc o rne ro fG e rmany a nd t h e N or th We s te rn a r ea o f B ohem ia i nt h eC zechos lovak ia R epub l ic . T he E rzgeb irge h ave a v ery l ong a nd r i ch h i s to ry a s a m in ing r eg ion a nd r i gh t i n to t h e M idd le A ge s t h e r eg ion w a s s t i l l a ma jo r t i n p roduce r . I ti st h i s m in ing a r ea o n wh ich G eo rg iu s Ag r ico la w ro te h i s c l a s s ica l w o rk D e R e Me ta l l ica i n1 556 ( Penha l l ruck ,1986 , 7 1-83 ) . T o d a te f i rm , a r chaeo log ica l e v idence l i nk ing t i n p roduc t ion i n t h e E rzgeb i rge w i th a n t iqu i ty a nd e a r ly m e ta l lu rg ica l p e r iod s , is s t i l l l a ck ing .

I tw a s a pp rox ima te ly 1 25 k i lome t re s t ot h e S ou thea s to ft h e E rzegb i rge i n t h e r eg ion o f modern d ay P rague t h a t t h e B ronze A ge U ne t ice c u l tu re ( 1900 BC - 1 500 BC ) w a s c en t red w i th i t s l a rge s ca le b ronze me ta l w o rk ing i ndu s t ry . T he E r zgeb i rge t i n a r ea r ep re sen t s t h e o n ly p l au s ib le m ine ra l l o ca t ion f o r t h e t i n u sed t o p roduce t h e U ne t ice b ronze a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s . I ti sp o ss ib le t ha t a ny e v idence o f a nc ien t t i n m in ing w i th in t h e E rzgeb i rge r eg ion h a s b een d e s t royed b yl a te rm in ing a c t iv i ty b o th Med ieva la nd mode rn , o rh a sj u s tb een g ene ra l ly o ve r looked a nd i g no red ;p o s s ib ly a b i t o fb o th . T he f ou r th a nd f i na l ma jo r a r ea w i th in E u rope w he re t i n a ppea r s i n n o tab le a moun t s i sw i th in t h e g ran i te s o f t h e I be r ian Ma ss if w h ich g eog raph ica l ly c ove r s p a r t s o f b o th S pa in a nd P o r tuga l . T he I be r ian Ma ss if c ove r s a bou t t wo t h i rd s o ft h e I be r ian P en insu la , r unn ing f r om t h ep rov ince o f G a l ic ia i nt h e N o r thwes t c o rne r o ft he I be r ian P en in su la t o t h eG uada lqu iv i rR ive rv a l ley f a u l ti nA nda lu s ia .

3 0

C hap te r5

L oca t ion o fT in D epos i t s i nE u rope

T he g ran i te so ft h eI b e r ian Ma s s if c on ta in t h em a jo r i ty o ft h e t i nd epo s i t sb o th ' m ined o u t ' a nd i nc u r ren tp roduc t ion w i th in t h eI be r ian P en in su la .

T he ma in m ine ra l iza t ion i sq u i te s im i la r i na l l t h ree g ran i te a r ea s . T he s i ng le d i f f e rence b e ing t ha t N iob ium , T an ta lum a nd T i tan ium s how u p r egu la r ly w i th t i n ( o r i nv e ry c l ose p rox im i ty ) i n t h e I be r ian Ma ss if , b u t d o n o t s eem s o p rom inen ti nC o rnwa l l o rB r i t tany ( D ine s , 1 988 , 2 0 -32 )

T he re a r eo rw e re af ew s ma l lm ine ra ld epo s i t so ft i n o u t s ide t h e Ma ss if ; S an I s odo ro b y C a r tagena a nd Ma r ine ra n ea r A lme r ia i nt h eB e t ic C o rd i l le ra ( Dav ie s , 1 919 , 8 4 ) .T he B e t ic C o rd i l le ra f o rm s t h e mo s t We s te rn e nd o f t h e A lp ine O rogen ic b e l t , wh ich w a sf o rmed d u r ing t h eT e r t ia ry E ra ( 6 5 3m i l l ion y ea r s a go ) .

T he f i na l t wo m ine ra l t i n a r ea s w h ich n eed t ob ea s se s sed a r e t h e Med i te r ranean a r ea s o fT u scany i nI t a ly a nd t h ei s land o f S a rd in ia T he v ery f e r t i le a nd m e ta l r i ch r eg ion o fT u scany , I t a ly , i s c en t red i nt h eA n t i -Apenn ine s moun ta in s o nt h e We s te rn s i de o f t h e I t a l ian P en insu la ; b o rde red b y t h e A rno r i ve r t o t h e No r th a nd t h eT ibe rr i ve rt ot h eE a s ta nd S ou th ( G ran t , 1 980 , 9 16 ) . T he T u scany r eg ion w a s t h ec o re a r ea o ft h e E t ru scan c i ty s t a te c onf ede ra t ion 8 th t o5 t h c en tu ry BC . ; w h ich h ad a ma jo r i n f luence o n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e R oman c u l tu re (Wh i tehou se , 1 983 , 1 66 -7 ) .

T he a bove m en t ioned a r ea sw h ich a r el o ca ted i nt h ep rov ince s o f Mu rc ia a nd Am le r ia h ave n o r e a l c omme r c ia l v a lue f o r mode rn m in ing e n te rp r i se s . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a t b o th o ft h ese a r ea s m igh th ave b een w o rked i na n t iqu i ty . A tp r e sen tt h e re i sn o a r chaeo log ica l p roof t o s uppor t t h i s h ypo the s i s . T he a bove t wo a r ea sc ou ld s ome t ime i nt h ef u tu re b es u rveyed f o r a nc ien tm in ing a nd m e ta l lu rg ica le v idence . I ti sa s sumed d ue t og eo log ica l s im i la r i t ie s t h a tt h e a r ea s o f C o rnwa l l , D evon , B r i t tany a nd t h e I be r ian Ma s s if w e re i n v e ry c l ose p rox im i ty d ur ing s ome o f t h e ir g eo log ica l f o rma t ion t ime . T hey h ave moved t ot h e i rp re sen tp o s i t ions d ue t ot h ef o r ce so fp l a t et e c ton ics ( Age r , 1 980 , 2 22 ) .

A tp re sen tt h e o n ly k nown t i n d epo s i t o ft h eT u scany r eg ion i s a t Mon te V a le r io c lo se t o t he v i l lage o f C amp ig l ia Ma ro t t ima , a bou t 1 0 k i lome t res f r om t h e c oas t . T he m ine ra l iza t ion o ft h e Mon te V a le r io t i n d epo s i t c on s is t s o f c a ss i te r i te s ca t te red t h roughou t al a rge rb rown h ema t i te i r on b ea r ing d epos i t . A lso p resen t a re s ma l l a moun t s o f s pha le r i te ,g a lena , a nd c ha lcopy r i te .

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T he g eo log ica l f orma t ion o f t h e Mon te V a le r io t i n d epos i t c on s is t s o f al ow t empe ra tu re g ran i te p lu ton i n t ruded i n l ime s tone i nt h e P l iocene E poch a pp rox ima te ly 4 5 m i l l ion y ea r s a go ; m ak ing i to ne o ft h e mo s t r e cen t t i n d epo s i t s i n E u rope ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 8 0 ) . P o s s ib le a nc ien t wo rk ings h ave b een f ound a t Mon te V a le r io , b u t i tc an n o t b e p roven w ha t p e r iod o f a n t iqu i ty t h ey r ep re sen t a nd i ft h ey w e re c en t red a round t h e t i n o re d epo s i t so rt h e much l a rge ri r on o r ed epo s i t so ft h er eg ion . I n a ny c a se t h e t i n d epos i t s o f Mon te Va le r ia w e re n o t c on s ide red t oh ave b een v e ry e x ten s ive a nd c ou ld h ave o n ly p rov ided s ma l l amoun t s o f t i n i n a n t iqu i ty ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 8 0 ) .

L oca t ion o fT in D epo s i t s i nE u rope

One t i n m ine ra l a r ea i sl o ca ted i n t h e N or th/We s t o f t h e i s land n ea r t h e t own o fA lghe ro . T h i s d epo s i t c on s i s t s o fa c omp lex o r e c on ta in ing c a s s i te r i te , s pha le r i te , c ha lcopy r i te , i r on p yr i te , a nd g a lena . As e cond t i n m ine ra l a r ea i sl o ca t ed i n t he S ou th / Wes t o f t h e i s land i n t h e d i s t r ic t o f I g le s ia s . T h is s econd d epo s i t o ccu r s i n q ua r tz v e ins ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 7 9 -8 ) . I ti sb e l ieved d ue t ol a ck o fa ny e a r l ie re v idence t ha t t h e a bove t wo c a s s i t e r i te d epo s i t s h ad n o t b een w o rked b efo re t h e P hoen ic ian a nd R oman p e r iods 5 00 BC ( Gu ido , 1 963 , 2 8 ) . A t p resen t i ti s b e l ieved t h a t a ny t i n u sed i n b ronze p roduc t ion o n S a rd in ia i na n t iqu i ty w a s b rough t i nb y s h ip f r om e i the r T u scany i nI t a ly o rf r om t h e i b e r ian t i n m ine ra l r eg ion s ( Penha l lu r ick , 1 986 , 8 ) .

T he o the rt i n a r ea i si n" Sa rd in ia w h ich h a s h ad av e ry r i ch a r chaeo log ica l h i s to ry f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t he t h i rd t o s e cond m i l lenn ium BC" ( Gu ido , 1 963 , 2 8 ) . D epos i t s o f c a s s i te r i te a r e t o b e f ound i n s ma l l a moun t s o n S a rd in ia . S a rd ina h oweve ri s ar i ch ly m ine ra l ized Med i te r ranean i s land w h ich h a s m a jo rm ine ra ld epo s i t s o fC u , P b , Ag , F e , Z n a nd N i .

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G eo log ica l M ine P lan o ft h e Apophys i s G ran i te D e T o r rec i l la D eL o s A ng les ( No r th C a ce r e s ) Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 7 4

T he m ine o fD e squ i te sj u s t t ot h e n or th e a s to ft h e v i l lage o f T o r rec i l la d e L o s Ang les i sl i s ted a s b e ing a t i n m ine i n mode rn m ine p ub l ica t ion s ( Guzman , 1 983 ,4 7 ) .

T he C a ss i t e r i te a ppea r s i n s ma l l s t ockwo rk v e ins i n t h e g ran i te , k ao l in ised g ran i te a nd s u r round ing g rave ls a nd c ong lome ra t er o ck .

T he D esqu i te s m ine a r ea i sf o rmed g eo log ica l ly b y t h ree i g neou s o f fs hoo t s o ra pophyses o f as uppo sed l a rge rd eepe r i g neou s b ody . T he t h ree a pophyse s c on s t i tu te t h e D e squ i te s M ine a rea . T he g ran i te i s a l i gh t c o loured g ran i te ( l eucog ran i te ) w i th m ica a nd f ormed b y a l b i t isa t ion a nd m u scov i t iza t ion ( Mo le ro , 1 993 , 7 3 ) .

T he k ao l in i sed g r an i te a r ea s a r e v e ry s of t a nd c ou ld e a s i ly h ave b een w ork ed w i thou t e i the r e xp lo s ive s o ro r e c r u sh ing m i l l s ( Mo le ro , 1 993 , 7 3 ) .

T he m ine ra l sa ppea r ing a tt h e D esqu i tes M ine a r ec a s s i te r i te , w o lf ram i te a nd a r senopyr i te .

7 4

Ad ay a nd ah a lf w e re s pen t a tt h e D e squ i te s M ine w h ich d oe s n o t c ove r av e ry l a rge a r ea . T he l a rge s t o f t h e t h ree a pophyse s g r an i t e a r ea s w h ich c ons t i tu te t h eD esqu i te sM ine b e ing o n ly 5 00 m e t res b y 3 00 me t re s a nd h av ing a k ao l in ised m ine ra l z one o f o n ly 3 00 m e t re s b y 2 0 m e t re s ( Mo le ro , 1 993 , 7 3 ) .

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

P ho to 1 2

G ene ra l V iew o fM ina D e D e squ i te s l o ok ing t ot h e S ou th , s how ing t h e d i s tu rbed n a tu re o ft h e m ine a r ea

W i th a l t h ea bove p o in t st a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion o ne wou ld e xpec tt of i nd s ome e v idence a tt h i s m ine o fa nc ien tm in ing , o re p repa ra t ion a nd e ven p o ss ib ly s me l t ing a c t iv i t ies . U nfo r tuna te ly t he w o rk o ft h e mode rn m in ing a c t iv i ty t h is c en tu ry s eem s t oh ave d e s t royed o r o b l i te ra t ed a ny a nc ien t r ema in si ft h ey d id e x is t( Pho to 1 2 ) . T he D e squ i tes M ine r ep re sen t s at i n m ine ra l a r ea t ha tf u lf i ls a l l t h e p o s s ib le c r i te r ia f o r b e ing a n a nc ien t m ine a r ea . I ti s n o t al a rge m ine ra l a r ea a nd a l l t h e m ine ra l o ccu r ed n ea rt h e s u r f a ce a nd t h ek ao l in i sed g ran i te a r ea sw i th in w h ich s ome o f t h ec a s s i t e r i te a ppea red w a se a sy t om ine .

T h is s i te p roduced af ew s he rd s o f p o t te ry o ne o r t wo o f wh ich may b e o f B ronze A ge o r ig in . A lso f ound o n t h e s u r f ace w e re t wo s uppo sed f r agmen t s o fs t one q ue rn s wh ich a r e i mpo ss ib le t o d a te . A lso f ound w a s af r agmen t o f a p oss ib le s t one h amme r . Mo re t ime s hou ld b e s pen t s u rvey ing a tt h i s m ine . T hough t h e D e squ i te sM ine d i d n o tp roduce g ood r e su l t s o nm y f i r s t v i s i t , t h e n on -a l luv ia l n a tu r e o ft h e a r ea a nd t h ee a sy t ow o rk m ine ra l iza t ion o f t h e c a s s i te r i te p o in t t o at i n m ine ra l ized a r ea t h a tc ou ld h ave b een w o rked i na n t iqu i ty .

75

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

MINA CO MOHAL HUBARBA Y HORRERA

V IS IT NO 1 MUN IC IPAL ITY :

POZUELO DE ZARCON

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 ° 2 4 ' 0 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 0 9 ' 2 0 " P rov inc ia l Map CACERES 1 : 200 .000 1 989 2 a e d

P ho to 1 3

G ene ra lV iew M ina C omoha l H uba rba yH o r re r a l o ok ing t ot h e Nor th E a s t i nf o reg round s ma l l m ach ine e xp lo ra t ion t r enche s

T h i s m ine d i d n o t a ppea r i na ny o ft h e r e f e rence s t ha t Ih ad o n mode rn t i n m ine l o ca t ion s i nE x t remadu ra . Iwa s t o ld o f t h e l o ca t ion b y a man f r om t he p ueb lo o f P ozue lo D e Z a r con . Ia m s t i l l n o t s u re i fi tw a s a n a c tua l m ine s i te o r j u s ta n a r ea o fq ua r tz w i th al o t o ft ou rma l ine p re sen t . T he re i s am ine i n t h i s a r ea l i s ted i n t he Mapa G eo log ico D e E x t remadu ra ( Ochoa , 1 987 , 9 2 ) . O n t h is map a nd t h e a ccompany ing g u ide t h e m ine l o ca t ion i sp u ti nt h e T e rm ino Mun ic ipa l , S an ta C ruz d e P an iagua . T h is m ine i sl i s ted a sa v e in m ine c on ta in ing q ua r tz , c a ss i ter i te , a r senopyr i te a nd m ica s , b u t w i th t h e v e in d i rec t ion u nknown . I t i s v e ry p o s s ib le t h a tt h i s i st h e m ine t h a t Iv i s i ted .

T he m ine w a s l o ca ted a bou t f i ve k i lome t re s t ot h e N o r th E a s t o ft h e P ueb lo o fP ozue lo D e Z a rcon o n t h e r oad N o r th t o t he p ueb lo o f S an ta C ruz d e P an iagua . T he m ine w a s l o ca ted t ot h ee a s ts i de o ft h er oad . T he mode rn m ine a r ea l i es i n t h e s l a te a r ea a d jo in ing t h e n o r th /we s te rn e dge o f av ery l a rge p o rphy ry g r an i t eb e l t / f ie ld o f a bou t t wo h und red k i lome te r s i n l e ng th ( a pp rox ima te ly E a s t - Wes t ) a nd a bou t e i gh ty t o n ine ty k i lome te r s i nw id th ( app rox ima te ly N or th -Sou th ) . T h is l a rge g ran i te b e l t r un s f r om t h e r eg ion o f P ozue lo d e Z a rzon i n t h e p rov ince o f C ace res t o t h e n o r th o f Mad r id i n t h e p rov ince o f N ew C a s t i le a nd r e p re sen t s mos t o ft h e moun ta in s o ft h e C en t ra l C o rd i l le ra .

7 6

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r8

D raw ing N o 1 2

g r ind ing /h amme r s t one f r agmen t M ina C omoha l H uba rba yH o r re ra

T he r ew e re al o to fs ha l low t r enche s a bou th a lf am e te rd eep wh ich l o oked l i ke t h ey h ad b een r e cen t ly m ade b y an a r row s hove lo f am echan ica ld igge ri nt h eq ua r t zf i e ld a r ea . Is pen t ad ay w a lk ing a round t h e a r ea b u t f ound o n ly o ne d ef in i te a r cha eo log ica l f i nd : a n a lmo s tc omp le te f r agmen to f af i ne ly s haped s ma l lr ound c ru sh ing s t one , a bou tf i ve c en t ime t re s i n d iame t e r( D raw ing N o 1 2 ) . I ta ppea red to h ave b een u sed f o r c ru sh ing /g r ind ing o n o ne c en t re f a ce a nd a round i t s o u te r d iame te r . I ti sn o t c l ea r i ft h is s t one t o o l w a s u sed f o r o r e p repa ra t ion o ro the ra c t iv i t ie s .

s ca le 1 / 2 -1

D ue t o t h e l a rge a r ea o f t h is s i te a no the r v i s i t a nd mo re s u rvey t ime i sn eeded , b u t Ia m n o t s u re t h a t mo re t ime s pen t a tt h i s s uppo sed m ine s i te w i l l p roduce a ny p os t ive e v idence o fa nc ien tm in ing o rs me l t ing .

77

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C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 1 2

LA MINA CARRASCAL

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

V ILLA DEL CAMPO

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 °2 6 ' 0 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 0 8 ' 0 0 " P rov inc ia l Map CACERES 1 : 200 .000 1 989 2 a e d

P ho to 1 4

G a l le ry E n t rance L aM ina C a r ra sca l -l o ok ing t oE a s t

A ga in t h i sm ine l o ca t ion a nd n ame w a st o ld t om eb y aman i nt h e V i l lage o f P ozue lo D e Z a rcon . L is ted i nt h is M ine a r ea i n t h e Mapa G eo log ico D e E x t remadu ra a r e t wo t i n m ine s , t h e o ne t h a t Iv i s i ted i s mo s tp robab ly t h e o ne l i s ted a sN o 4 8 . T h i s v e in m ine l i e s i n" f leck sh ief e r " s po t ted s l a te a nd c ons is t s o f q ua r tz , c a ss i te r i te a nd t ou rma l ine l y ing t oge the r i n v e ins t r end ing i n aN o r th /Ea s t -Sou th / Wes t d i rec t ion ( Ochoa , 1 987 ,9 5 ) . I tt o ok al o ng t ime t of i nd t h i s m ine a si ti sn o t av ery l a rge a f fa i ra nd m o s tp eop le t h a t Ia sked a bou t i t s l o ca t ion d id n o t s e em t o k now a ny th ing a bou t i t .T h is s ugge s t s t h a t i tw a s w o rked s ome t ime a go , p e rhap s n o mo re r e cen t ly t h an t h e e a r ly p a r to ft h is c en tu ry . 7 8

When I f i na l ly l o ca ted t h e m ine I c ou ld o n ly n o te i t s p o s i t ion a nd s t a te t h a t i ti s ag a l le ry m ine s y s tem p robab ly o f n o t t oo g rea t al e ng th o r d ep th . T he re h ad b een a s ub s tan t ia l r oof r ock f a l l a tt h e e n t rance o ft h e g a l le ry s o I d ec ided t ha t i tw ou ld n o t b e t oo w ise t ov en tu re i n( Pho to 1 4 ) . T he m ine g a l le ry h e igh ta nd p rof i le s eemed t or ep re sen t al a t e 1 9 th o r e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry m ine wo rk ing a nd If ound n o p o t te ry a round t h e m ine e n t rance o r i nt h e a d jo in ing w a s t e h eap a r ea . T he w a s te h eap s w e re n o t l a rge s o Id o n o t t h ink t h a t t h e m ine g a l le ry i sv e ry e x tens ive . T h i s w a s n o t av e ry i n te re s t ing s i te f o r e a r ly a r chaeome ta l lu rgy s urvey w o rk . I w i l l p robab ly n o tr e tu rn t ot h is m ine f o ra ny f u tu re w o rk .

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 1 3

M ONTEHER MOSO

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

MONTEHERMOSO

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 ° 2 0 ' 1 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 0 6 ' 0 0 " P rov inc ia l Map CACERES 1 : 20 .000 1 989 2 a e d

P ho to 1 5

E n t rance S ha f t /Ga l le ry Mon tehe rmo so M ine - l ook ing t oN o r th E a s t

T h i s m ine i sl o ca ted t ot h e S ou th We s to f Mon tehe rmo so o f f t h e r ou te C -204 t o P la senca . T h i s Mon tehe rmo so m ine i s m en t ioned i n ac oup le o fp ub l ica t ion s a s b e ing at i n m ine ( Gume l , 1 981 , 9 ) .

T he t wo s ha f t s t h a t Is aw w e re q u i te l a rge a tl e a s t ( 5m e te r s i nd i ame te r ) a nd b o th f i l led w i th w a t e r( Pho to 1 5 ) . S o i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t os e et h e s hape sa nd s i ze so ft h e g a l le r ie s l e ad ing o f ff r om t h es ha f t s . T he w a s te h eap sb yt h em ine s haf t s w e r e n o tv e ry e x ten s ive . Iw a st o ld t h a tt h em ine h ad b een w o rk ed f o r Wo lf ram i te a nd T in f o r a bou t 4 0 -55 y ea r s ( 1920 ' s 1 960 's ) ; t o my m ind t h e v i s ib le e x t e rna l w a s te h eap s d id n o t s eem t o r ep resen t s uch a l ong p e r iod o f m in ing . I ti s p o s s ib le t h a t s ome o ft h e m ine w a s te h eap s h ave b een u sed f o rr oad b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty s i nce t h em ine c l o su re .

Ia ga in h ad al o to ft r oub le l o ca t ing t h e Mon tehermo so m ine a s mo s t p eop le Ia sked d id n o t s e em s eem t o k now o f i t s e x i s tence o r l o ca t ion a nd d id n o t k now w h ich m ine ra ls h ad b een m ined i nt h ea r ea . T he m ine i s av e in m ine r unn ing i n a NE -S W t o E -W d i rec t ion a nd i sl o ca ted i n s po t ted s l a te a nd g ran i te . T he c ompo s i t ion o f t h e v e in i sq ua r tz , w o lf ram i te , c a s s i te r i te , p y r i t e ,a r senopy r i te a nd t o urma l ine ( Ochoa , 1 987 ,9 4 ) . When Id id l o ca te t h e m ine i tw a s as haf t /ga l le ry m ine s y s t em a nd q u i te d eep ( 20 -25 m e t e r s ) .

Is e a r ched t h ew a s te h eap sa nd t h es u r round ing a r ea b u tf o und n o e v idence o fe a r ly p o t tery o rc r u sh ing t oo l r ema ins . Id i d n o t s pend much t ime a tt h i s s i te , a s If e l t t h a t t h e m ine w a s t oo d eep t oh ave b een aa nc ien tm ine ,a nd t h a ta ny mo r et i me s pen ta tt h i s s i te w ou ld b e w a s ted t i me . 79

T he T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 1 4

MINA TELBA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

CASAS DE M ILLAN

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 ° 1 5 ' 0 0 " -NORTH : 4 9° 4 7 ' 0 0 " P rov inc ia l Map CACERES 1 : 200 .000 1 989 2 a e d

P ho to 1 6

G ene ra l v i ew M ina T e lba a r ea , l o ok ing E a s t

T h i s m ine i sl o ca ted s ou th o f t he r oad b e tween C a sa s d e M i l Ian a nd S e r rad i l la a bou t 1 0 k i lome t re s t o t h e E a s t o f C a sa s d eM ilan . I ti sn o td i ff icu l tt of i nd a si tw a s am ed ium s i zed o pen c a s tm in ing o pe ra t ion 2 0 -30 m e te r s i nd ep th a nd a pp rox ima te ly 1 00 me te r s i n d iame te r . T he m ine c l o sed d own i n t h e m id -80 's d ue t o f a l l ing p r ice s o f t i n a f te r w o rk ing f o ra bou t 2 0y ea r s . T he o wne r s a id t h e m ine s i te a t T e lba w i l l b eo pened u p a ga in i ft h e p r ice o ft i ne ve rr e a che s t h el e ve ls a ch ieved i nt h ee a r ly t om id -80 ' s .

T he g eo logy o ft h i s m ine i sv e ry d i f f e ren t f r om mo s t o ft h e t i nm ines f ound i nt h e P rov ince o fE x t remadu ra . T he re i sn o g ran i te v i s ib le o rk nown w i th in t h e m ine a r ea . T he c l o se s t g ran i te i s as ma l l o u tc rop o f g ran i te ( 3 k i lome t re s l o ng b y 1 k i lome t r e s w ide ) l o ca ted a pp rox ima te ly 1 2k i lome t re s t o t h e N o r th We s to fT e lba b y t h e v i l lage o fP ed ro so d e A c im ( F ig 8 . 4 ) .

8 0

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r8

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M ina T e lba - S an ta Ma r ia - T re s Am igo s Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 8 6

T he m ine ra l isa t ion a tT e lba c on s i s t s o fq ua r tz , c a ss i te r i te , t o u rma l ine a nd m ica s i ni r regu la r s t ockwo rk v e in s w i th t h e t h ree p r inc ipa l v e in d i rec t ion sb e ing N -S ,N 25 -E ,a nd E -W ( Ochoa , 1 987 ,9 8 ) .T he h o s tr o ck si sa r enaceou s ( g raywacke ) r o ck s( b a s ica l ly ah a rd d ra rk g r ey c oa r se g ra imed s ed imen ta ry s and s tone ) ( Ba te s a nd J a ck son , 1 987 , 2 89 ) s l a te r ock s a l so f o rm p a r to ft h eh o s tr o ck c omp lex . Is u rveyed a round t h e o pen c a s t m ine , s pend ing a lmo s t a c omp le t e d ay a tt h e s i te . T ot h e S ou th We s to ft h e o pen c a s t a r ea If o und w ha t c ou ld p o ss ib ly b e t h e f r agmen t o f as t one h amme r( D raw ing N o 1 3 ) a nd s ome v e ry f r agmen ted p o t te ry s h r ed s w h ich m igh t d e r ive f r om t h e B ronze A ge o r R oman p e r iod .

Is howed t h ep o t te ry t oA lon so R od r iguez D iaz a tC a ce re s U n ive r s i ty a nd h e s a id t ha t t h e p o t te ry s h red s w e re t oo f r agmen ted a nd u n iden t if iab le t o u se f o r a b so lu te p o s t ive d a t ing . I tw ou ld b ed i f f icu l tt oa s soc ia te t h ep o t te ry w i th a ny m in ing a c t iv i t ie s a s t h e s t one h amme r a nd p o t te ry f r agmen t s c ou ld r ep re sen t as ma l l p re -h i s to r ic h un t ing s i te o rs e t t lemen t s i te . T he m ine a r ea o fT e lba w i l l r equ i re a no the r v i s i t a nd mo re s u r f ace s u rvey e f fo r t .

8 1

C hap te r 8

T he A rcha eom e ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

D raw ing No 1 3

f r agmen t s t one h amme r , M ina T e lba

Ia l so c o l lec ted as ma l lm ine ra l s amp le f r om as ur f ace q ua r tz v e in i nt h e S ou th We s t u ppe r a r ea o ft h e o pen c a s t w h ich I t hough t m igh t b e c a s s i te r i te . Ia na lysed t h i s s amp le o n t h e S EM a nd i tp roved t o b e c a ss i te r i te w i th 6 5% -75% S n p re sen t( Samp le No 4 ,p age 1 37 ) . T he c a s s i te r i te m ine ra l i sa t ion a tt h is s i te w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le a nd u sab le i n t h e B ronze Age d ue t o i t s s u r face l o ca t ion i nv i s ib le q ua r tz v e in s .

8 2

s ca le 1 / 2 -1

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V i s i t N o 1 5

MINA CLAUDINA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

MOR ILLE

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 5 ° 4 2 ' 0 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 4 8 ' 0 5" P rov inc ia l Map SALAMANCA 1 : 200 .000 1 984 2 nd e d

P ho to 1 7

G ene ra l v i ew o fM ina C laud ina a r ea -l o ok ing t oE a s t

L oca ted i nt h is a r ea t o t h e N o r th a nd We s t o f Mo r i l le a r e t h ree m ine s t h e S an A nd re s , t h e Mundaca a nd t h e C laud ina c on ta in ing t h e m ine ra ls c a ss i te r i te a nd w o lf ram i te . T he m ine s w e re o pen c a s t p i t a nd v e in w o rk ing s ( J un ta D e C a s t i l la Y L eon , 1 988 , 1 03 ) . Iv i s i ted t h e M ina C laud ina w h ich p roduced t h e m ine ra ls S chee l i t e a nd c a s s i ter i te . T he M ina C laud ina s t oped w o rk ing i n 1 983 ; i th ad s t a r ted w o rk ing i n 1 942 -1943 . Is pen t mo s t o f ad ay a tt h is s i te d o ing af a i r ly t h o rough s u r f ace w a lk ing s u rvey . N o e v idence o fe a r ly m in ing o rm ine ra l p repa ra t ion o rs me l t ing w a so b se rved . T he re w e re l a rge a moun t so fg ood s u rf a ce t o u rma l ine m ine ra l s i nt h e m ine a r ea s t h a t Il o oked a t . A f te rl e av ing t h e M ina C laud ina It r i ed t of i nd t h e m ines o f P i l i n ea r S an P ed ro d e R ozado s a nd E l C ub i to n ea r E l V ec ino . T he S an P ed ro d e R ozado s m ine a r ea h ad b een m en t ioned a s b e ing w o rked i nR oman t ime s ( Edmond son , 1 987 , 2 28 ) . 8 3

T he E lC ub i to m ine i sd e sc r ibed a s al a rge mode rn o penca s t w o rk ing f o r t i n w h ich i sn o l o nge r i np roduc t ion ( J un ta D e C a s t i l la yL eon , 1 988 , 16 -20 ) . Ih ad n o l u ck i nl o ca t ing e i the rm ine , o n ly ac oup le o fs ha f t s o fa bou t 2 0 -30 m e te r s d ep th w h ich s e emed t oh ave n o s i de g a l le r ie so f ft h em a nd c ou ld h ave b een d i su sed m ine s haf t s o r mo re l i ke ly o l dd i su sed w e l l s haf t s . Mo s t o ft h e m a jo r r oad s g o o u t f r om S a lamanca i nt h e f o rm o f s pokes f r om ac ent ra l h ub o f aw hee l . T he l a nd b e tween t h e se h ub sc on s is t s o fe x t reme ly l a rge f ann ing e s ta te s . T he se l a rge r anch ing / f a rm ing e s ta te s a r e f e nced o f fa nd i mpo s s ib le t oe n te r a nd i ti so n t h e r a nch l a nd t h a t t h e c a ss i te r i te m ine a r ea s w e r e l o ca ted w h ich Iw a s t r y ing t ov i s i t . Af u r the r p rob lem w h ich m ade t h e s ea rch d i ff icu l t w a s t h a t s ome o ft h e e s ta te s w he re If e l t t h e m ines m igh t b e l o ca ted w e re f a rm s f o rr a is ing f i gh t ing b u l l s f o rt h e r i ng . F aced w i th t h e se o b s tac le s If i na l ly h ad t og i ve u p t h e t h is p a r t o f t h e s e a r ch .

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 1 6

MINA GOLPEJAS

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

GOLPE JAS

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 5 ° 5 4 ' 4 2 " -NORTH : 4 1° 0 0 ' 0 3" P rov inc ia l Map SALAMANCA 1 : 200 .000 1 984 2 nd e d

P ho to 1 8

V iew o fM ina G o lpe ja s m ine c ru sh ing -wa sh ing a r ea w i th w a s te h eap s -l ook ing t oN o r th

G o lpe ja s i sa no the r m ine t h a t i sm en t ioned a sh av ing b een w o rked i n t h e B ronze Age a nd p o ss ib ly R oman t ime s ( Domerque , 1 990 , 1 29 -30 ) . However n o f i rm a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s u rface e v idence o f t h is w a s f ound d u r ing my s u rvey w o rk a tG o lpe ja s .

T he p roduc t ion o f t h e mode rn m ine w a s l a rge e nough t o k eep t h ir ty s i x s hake r t a b les wo rk ing a f te r t h e g ran i te h ad b een c ru shed b y t h ree l a rge r o ta ry b a l l m i l l c ru she r s . T he m ine w a s al a rge o pen c a s t o pe ra t ion c on s i s t ing o ft wo p i t s c a l led t h e " T i ta " a nd " Be l l i ta " wh ich p roduced t i n a nd t a n ta lum ( J un ta D eC a s t i l la Y L eon , 1 988 , 12 -14 ) .

G o lpe ja s w a s av e ry e a sy m ine t o f i nd a s i tw a s av e ry e x tens ive moder no pen c a s tm in ing o pe ra t ion w h ich h a s l e f t e x t r eme ly l a rge w h i te w a s te h eap s ( Pho to 1 8 ) . T he Go lpe ja s m ine s t opped w o rk ing i n 1 985 . T he m ine h ad b een wo rked f o r a bou t 3 0 y ea r s . I tw a s o ne o f t h e m a jo r t i n p roduc ing m ines i nS pa in d u r ing i t s w o rk ing l i f e .

I n G o lpe ja s t h e C a s s i te r i te o re a ppea r s i nt h e f o rm o f v ery f i ne g ra in s a ccompan ied b y t h e m ine ra l C o lumbo -Tan ta lum ( wh ich c on ta in s N iob ium a nd T an ta lum ) a nd s ma l l a moun t s o fs u lph ide .

8 4

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

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GRANITO DE DOS M ICAS

G eo log ica l P lan o ft h e G o lpe ja s S n o r e d epo s i t ( I g le s ia s M . yC onza lo F . , 1 981) J un ta d e C a s t i l la yL eon , 1 988 , 13

T he se a r e s ca t te red t h rough a s i l l o f l i gh t c o lou red f i ne g ra ined g ran i te wh ich i sh eav i ly f o lded . T he g ran i te s i l l i s a pp rox ima te ly 2 400 m e te r s l ong , h a s as em i -e l l ip t ica l s hape a nd i sa pp rox ima te ly 3 0 m e t re s d eep ( F ig 8 . 5 ) . T he g ran i te s i l l i se mp laced i n am e tamo rpho sed s l a te f o rmed d u r ing t h e O rdov ic ian -S i lu r ian P e r iods 5 00 -3 95 m i l l ion y ea r s a go ( J un t ad eC a s t i l la yL eon , 1 988 , 12 -14 ) .

I t i s t hough t t ha t t h e g ran i te h a s b een a l te red b y h yd ro the rma l k ao l in iza t ion a nd g re isena t ion ( a p roce s s i n wh ich f e ld spa ra nd mu scov i te a r ec onve r t ed t oa na gg rega te o f q ua r tz ,t o paz , t o u rma l ine a nd l e p ido l i te b yt h ea c t ion o fw a te r v apou rc on ta in ing f l uo r ine ) ( Ba te s a nd J a ck son , 1 990 , 2 90 ) . T he r i che s t t i n a r ea s w e re l o ca ted i n t h e t op a r ea o f t h e g ran i te w h ich h ad b een k ao l in ized ( c on ta in ing a pp rox ima te ly 2 . 5 k g o fS n p e rt o n o fm a te r ia l m ined ) . 8 5

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R ock w h ich c on ta ined C u -Sn M ine ra l s , M ina Go lpe ja s , 2 0 cm m ea su re r od

T he G o lpe ja s o re d epos i t c ons t i tu te s a mode l o f t i n a nd t a n ta lum d e spo s i t ion wh ich i sa lmo s t u n ique a nd a ppea r s i n o n ly o ne o the r p lace i nt h e w o r ld : i nt h e m ine ra l d epo s i t o f D a j ishan i n Ch ina ( Conse jer ia d e E conom ia y H a c ienda /Ca s t i l la yL eon , 1 988 , 12 ) .

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S ince 1 992 Ih ave s pen t at o ta lo f 5d ay ss u r f ace s u rvey ing a t t h e G o lpe ja s M ine t r y ing t of i nd e v idence o fe a r ly s u r f ace a r cha eome ta l lu rg ica l r ema in sb u tn o tw i th much s ucce s s . D u r ing m y s u rvey t h e re w e re t h ree l o ca t ion s t h a t If ound o f i n te re s tw i th in t h eG o lpe ja s m ine a r ea . Ig ave t h e se l o ca t ion s l e t te r s P o in t A , P o in t B , a nd P o in t C .

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A t P o in t A , If ound am ine ra l wh ich c on ta ined i n v a r ious p e rcen tage s c oppe ra nd t i n . T h is m ine ra l a ppea red i nq ua r tz b ou lde r sw h ich h ad b een c l ea red a nd d umped o nw a s te h eap s a sp a r t o ft h e c l ea rance o ft h e o ve rbu rden o ft h e o pen c a s t p i t s . I nt h e a na ly s is s ec t ion ( Page s 1 38 -142 ) Iw i l l p re sen t t h e g eo logy a nd a na lys is o f t h is m ine ra l ( s ix s epa ra te s amp le s ) w i th wh ich o ne may h ave b een a b le t o make " na tu ra lb ronze " d i rec t ly f r om s me l t ing . A tP o in t Bc a l led i nS pan ish T ie r ra sV ie ja s( The O ld E a r th ) , If ound q u i t e ab i to fs u r face p o t te ry mo s to fi tp robab ly 1 9 t h o r 2 0 th c en tu ry b u t a l so w i th t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t ha t af ew s he rd s m igh t b e R oman a nd L a te B ronze Age . When If i r s t s u rveyed P o in t Bi tw a sj u s ta f te rt h e s umme rc rop o fw hea t h ad b een h a r ve s ted . Iw a s t h e refo re a b le t ow a lk t h ef i e ld s o f t h i sa r ea q u i te f r ee ly . D u r ing t wo r e tu rn v i s i t st o Go lpe ja s Iw a s n o ta b le t os u rvey t h e T ie r ra s V ie ja s a ga in d ue t o f a c t t ha t b o th v i s i t s w e re m ade d u r ing t h e p l an t ing a nd g row ing s ea son s . T he T ie r ra s V ie ja sa r ea s hou ld b e s u rveyed a ga in a si ts e em s t oh o ld t h e b e s t p rom i se o f y i e ld ing f u r the r a r chaeo log ica l s u rf ace p o t t e ry s h e rd s .

F ig 8 . 6

A t P o in t C , a bou t 2 50 m e te r s S ou th o f R oad C 5 17 , d i rec t ion Go lpe ja s -V i t igud ino k i lome t re 2 4 .5 , t h e re w a s a ga in a n a r ea t ha t p rov ided q u i te ab i t o f s u r f ace p o t te ry . Mo s t o ft h i s p o t te ry w a s c l a s s if ied a s 1 9 th a nd 2 0 th c en tu ry ( D r A nge l E spa rza A r royo -U n ive r s idad d e S a lamanca D epa r tamen to d eP reh is to r ia ) .

T he G o lpe ja s a r ea h a s n o tt od a te p rov ided a ny f i rm e v idence o f e a r ly m in ing o r o re p repa ra t ion . T he c a s s i te r i te o r e t h a t h ad b een m ined i nt h e mode rn o pen c a s t p i t o pe ra t ion s w a s mo s tp robab ly t oo d eep t oh ave b een w o rked d u r ing t h eL a t e B ronze A ge o rt h eR oman p e r iod . H oweve r t h e c oppe r / t in m ine ra l w h ich If ound i nt h e w a s te h eaps a t P o in t A c ou ld h ave b een u sed d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze A ge o r R oman p e r iod , b u t n o e v idence t os uppo r t t h i s t h eo ry h a s b een f ound t od a te d u r ing my s u rvey w o rk i n t h eG o lpe ja sa r ea .

G eog raph ic L oca t ion o ft h e Mega l i th ic T omb s k nown i nt h e p rov ince o fS a lamanca D e l ibe s G . a nd S an ton ja M . , 1 986 , 1 7 -18

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If ound o ne p o s s ib le n eck la ce b ead w h ich c ou ld c on s is to ft h e G o lpe ja sc oppe r / t in m ine ra l .

T o t h e Wes t a nd S ou th o f Go lpe ja s , b e tween f i ve t oe i gh t k i lome t res a r e t h e r ema ins o f f i ve d o lmen s ( De l ibe s a nd S an ton ja , 1 982 , 1 7 -19 ) . Mos t o f t h e Do lmen s a r e w i th in s i gh to ft h e Go lpe ja sm ine a r ea .

In ow h ave r e ce ived p e rm i s s ion f r om t h eS a lamanca Mu seum t o b r ing t h e b ead t o t h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy f o r n on d e s t ruc t ive S EM s u r f a ce e xam ina t ion .

O ne o ft h e Do lmen s E l T o r re jon h a s b een e xcava ted b y t h e Mu seum o fS a lamanca . Iw a s a l lowed t oe xam ine t h e f i nd s f r om t h e E l T o r re jon D o lmen e xcava t ions i n t h e h ope o f p e rhap s f i nd ing t h a t s ome o f t h e t i n /coppe r m ine ra l m igh t h ave b een p re sen ta mong s tt h ef i nd s .

P ho to 2 0

D o lmen E l T o r re jon , 8k i lome t e r s We s to fM ina G o lpe ja s , s how ing d i f f e ren t t y pe s o fr o ck s u sed i nc on s t ruc t ion , l o ok ing We s t

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T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 1 7

MINA BARRUECOPARDO

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

BARRUECOPARDO

CO -ORD INATES :

We s t : 6 °4 0 ' 3 0 " -Nor th : 4 1° 0 3 ' 1 5 " P rov inc ia l Map SALAMANCA 1 : 200 .000 1 984 2 nd e d .

P ho to 2 1

M ina B a r ruecopa rdo v i ew o fl a rge o pen c a s tr unn ing N o r th t oS ou th -l ook ing S ou th

T he B a r ruecopa rdo M ine i sn ow c lo sed d own . I tp robab ly c l o sed 5 10 y ea r sa go f r om t h e l o ok o ft h er u s t ing m a ch ine ry l e f tl y ing a round a nd t h e emp ty o ff ice s a nd s t o re h ou se s .

T he m ine i sn o l o nge r w o rked a nd mo s t o f t h e a bandoned o pen c a s tp i t sa r en ow p a r t ia l ly f i l led w i th w a te r . S chee l i te , C a WO4 a t ung s ten o re a nd a r senopy r i te w e re m ined a t B a r ruecopa rdo w i th t ungs ten b e ing t h e ma in p roduc t . Sma l l a moun t s o fT in ( Ca ss i te r i te ) w e re a l so f ound ( Guzman , 1 983 , 5 5 -7 ) . T he m ine a r ea i sl a rge . A p rope r a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s u r f ace s urvey w ou ld t a ke w eek s a nd w ou ld p robab ly n o tb ew o r th t h et ime a nd e fo r tn ece s sa ry .

Is pen th a lf ad ay a tt h eB a r ruecopa rado m ine t r y ing t oc ome t o g r ip s w i th t h e t h is v ery l a rge m ine a r ea a nd t o l o ca te e v idence o f e a r ly me ta l lu rgy . No e v idence o f a nc ien t m e ta l lu rgy w a sf ound w i th in t h e a r ea s wh ich Iv i s i ted . T he B a r ruecopa rdo M ine c on s is t ed o fs eve ra l o pen c a s tp i t s ( Pho to 2 1) s ome o f t hem e x t reme ly l a rge r unn ing i n a g ene ra l No r th S ou th d i rec t ion .

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V IS IT NO 1 8

S ITE OF LES MERCHANAS - R IO CA MACES

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

LUMB RALES

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 ° 4 0 ' 0 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 1 2 ' 5 5 " P rov inc ia l Map S ALAMANCA 1 : 200 .000 1 984 2 nd e d

P ho to 2 2

S i te o fL e s Me rchana s -R io C amace s -l ook ing t oS ou th We s t

T h is l o ca t ion h a s b een w r i t ten u p a sb e ing am i l i ta ry c en t r e f r om wh ich t h e R omans c on t ro l led t h e t i n m in ing o f t h e r eg ion i n t h e 3 rd c en tu ry AD ( Edmond son , 1 987 , 2 30 ) . I v i s i ted t h i s s i te t h e r efo re w i th h i gh h ope s o f f i nd ing s ome s l ag s amp le so rm e ta l lu rg ica l w o rk ing r ema in s .

I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t Iv i s i ted t h e w rong s i te o rt h a tE dmond son ( 1987 ) h a s m is in te rp re ted h i s s ou rce s w hen w r i t ing a bou t t he L es Me rchana s s i te a nd g o t h i s n ame a nd l o ca t ion c onf u sed . Two p eop le w hom Ime td u r ing my v i s i tt ot h e s i te s a id t h a t i tw a s n o ta n a r ea whe re t h e R oman s h ad b een k nown t ob e . T he c omp le te l a ck o fa ny s i gn if ican ts u r f a ce p o t t e ry s e em st o b ea r t h i s o u t .

If ound t h e s uppo sed s i te o f L es Me rchana s a bou t s i x k i lome t re s t o t h e N o r th /Ea s t o f L umb ra le s . T he s i te i s n amed a nd ma rked o n t h e S a lamanca P rov inc ia l Map . T he o n ly v i s ib le r ema in s a tt h e s i te w e re t wo s e t s o fr u in s o ne t h e p robab le r ema in so f aR oman D am a nd t h e o t he rr u in so f aw a te r m i l l w i th a f i na l b u i ld ing p ha se mos t p robab ly d a teab le t o t h e 1 8 th o r 1 9 th c en tu ry ( Pho to 2 2 ) . N o s i gn if ican t a moun t o fs u r face p o t te ry w a s f ound a tt h e L e s Me r chana ss i te a nd n om e ta l lu rg ica lr ema in so rs l ag .

A l l i na l l , i tw a s n o t av ery u sefu l v i s i t . F rom i n fo rma t ion t h a t Ig a the red l a te r t h e o ld R oman a r ea i sl o ca ted n ea r o r a round t h e o ld t r a in s t a t ion i nL umb ra le s , w h ich i sn ea r a s ma l l mode rn t i n m ine s t i l l i np roduc t ion . Ia l so made aq u ick v i s i t t ot h is a r ea , b u t c ame u p w i th n o f u r the r e v idence . I tw a s n o t p oss ib le t o g a in e n t ry t o t h e w o rk ing t i n m ine a r ea . 9 0

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V IS IT NO 1 9

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

MINA I NESPERADA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

BARQU ILLA

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 °4 4 ' 3 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 4 1 ' 1 0 " P rov inc ia l Map SALAMANCA 1 : 200 .000 1 984 2 nd e d .

P ho to 2 3

M ina I n sepe rada -B a rqu i l la , g ene ra l v i ew o fM ine a r ea -l o ok ing We s t

T he o n ly i n forma t ion t h a t Ih ad o n t h e M ina I n espe rada i s t h a t i tw a s l i s ted a s at i n p roduc ing m ine ( Guzman , 1 983 , 4 7 ) . T he m ine w a s o wned a nd w o rked b y aG e rman M in ing C ompany t h i s c en tu ry . T he m ine i sn o l o nge r i np roduc t ion a nd l o ok sl i ke i th a sb een a bandoned f o rs ome t ime .

If ound n op o t te ry , n oa nc ien tm in ing e v idence o ra ny a r chaeo lo -me ta l lu rg ica l r ema in sa tt h is s i te .T he o r e s w e r e mo s tp robab ly l o ca ted t o od eep t ob ew o rked i np r eh i s to ry .

T he m ine a r ea i t se lf s e em s t oh ave b een as ma l lo pe ra t ion c ons i s t ing o f au nde rg round s ha f ta nd g a l le ry m in ing s y s tem a nd a c company ing s u r f ace w a s te h eap s .T he m ine ra l iza t ion c ons i s ted o fq ua r t z ,c a s s i te r i te ,a mb lygon i te a nd s u lph ide s e nc lo sed i nq ua r tz v e in sr unn ing i n aN o r the r ly d i r ec t ion ( J un ta D eC a s t i l la Y L eon , 1 988 , 8 4 -6 ) . T he q ua r tz v e ins a r e s i t t ing i ni n t rus ive g r an i te s s u r rounded mo s t ly b y ac omp lex o fm e tamo rph ic s l a t e( G rauvaqu ico ) .

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V IS IT NO 2 0

TORRE RO MANA CENTU MCELLAS

P ROV INCE :

BE IRA BAX IA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

BEL MONTE

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 ° 2 0 ' 2 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 2 2 ' 4 0 " BEL MONTE n o 2 25 1 : 25 .000 S ER IE M888 E d icao 1 970

P ho to 2 4

T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , 1 992 -l o ok ing S ou th We s t t h e a r ea b y t h e c a ri s whe re t h e s u r f a ce t i n s l ag w a s c o l lec ted

T he s i t e o fT o r re R omana C en tumce l la s r ema ins t od a te t h e o ne s i te f r om a l l my s u rvey wo rk i n I be r ia w he re Ih ave e ncoun te r ed t i ns l ag b o th s u r f a ce a nd e xcava ted .

I t i s t h is a d ja cen t c l ea r a r ea wh ich i s a t p re sen t b e ing e xcava ted b y t h e P o r tugue se A rchaeo log ica l D epa r tmen t ( s ta r t 1 993 - 1 997 p roposed f i n ished d a te , a n a nnua l e xcava t ion s ea son o ff ou rw eek s ) .

T he s i t e o fT o r re R omana i sl o ca ted o n t h eb ounda r ie so ft h e P o r tugue se p rov inces o f B e i ra A l ta a nd B e ira B ax ia j u s t w i th in t h eN or the rn b ounda r ie so fB e i ra B ax ia a nd a bou tt wo k i lome t re s d i rec t ly N or th o f t h e t own o f B e lmon te a nd a pp rox ima te ly 4 49 me ter s a bove s ea l e ve l . T he s i te i s s u r rounded b yv i neya rd so n t h ree s i de sa nd as u r f aced r oad t o t h e N o r th /Ea s t . T he T o r re R omana h a s a tp re sen t ac l ea r u ncu l t iva ted a rea a round t he t owe r v a ry ing f r om a pp rox ima te ly f i ve t of i f ty m e te r s ( Pho to 2 4 ) .

T he A rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion o ft h e s i t e w a s s t a r ted i nt h e s u mmer o f 1 993 b y t h e P or tuguese r eg iona l R oman a r chaeo log is tb a sed i nC o imb ra , Ma r ia H e lena S imoe sF rade . Ma r ia F rade e xcava ted a ga in i n 1 994 a nd w i l l c on t inue t o e xcava te a nnua l ly f o r af u r the rt wo th ree y ea rp e r iod o ru n t i l a l l t h e s u r round ing u ncu l t iva t ed a r ea h a s b een e xcava t ed a nd p l anned . T he s i t ew i l lt h en b ef e nced a nd p ro t ec ted .

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T he d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e T o r re R omana t ook p l ace s ome t ime i nt h e l a t e T h i rd o r e a r ly F ou r th C en tu ry AD ( Ma r ia F rade , 1 994 p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion ) .

If i r s t v i s i ted t h e s i te o f T o r re R omana i n 1 992 a nd h ave r ev is i ted t h e s i te a ga in i n 1 993 a nd 1 994 . Ia l so p l an f u tu re a nnua l v i s i t sw h i le t h ea r chaeo log ica le xcava t ions c on t inue .

T he h e igh to ft h e T o r re R omana r u ins a nd l o ca t ion g ive i ta h igh ly v i s ib le p resence i n t h e Z eze re V a l ley r eg ion . D ome rque t h ink s t ha t t h e t owe r m igh t p o s s ib ly h ave b een p a r to f aR oman c on t ro l managemen t -o rgan i sa t ion c en t r e , f o r t h e v e ry e x ten s ive a l luv ia l t i n o pe ra t ions w h ich t h e R oman s c a r r ied o u t i n t he Z eze re R ive r a nd t h e Maca inha s R ive r v a l ley r e g ion s ( Dome rque , 1 990 ,2 08 -10 ) .

D u r ing m y f i r s t v i s i t i n 1 992 If ound t e n s ma l l p i eces o f s l ag o n t h e s u r face j u s t d i rec t ly t o t he No r th /Ea s t o f t h e s t one t owe r . A t t h e t ime o fc o l lec t ion ( Pho to 4 3 , p age 1 43 ) . Id id n o tk now w ha tm e ta lp roduc t ion h ad p roduced t h e s l ag , b u t h ad h ope s t h a t t h e p i ece s m igh t b e t i n s l ag . T he T o r re R omana s i t ew a s n o tb e ing e xcava ted d u r ing my f i r s tv i s i t .

J .d e A la r cao b e l ieve s t ha tt h e t owe ra tC en tum C e la s wh ich w a s u sed a s aw a tch t owe r i n t h e M idd le A ge s c ou ld h ave f o rmed p a r t o f amuch l a rge r , n ow d e s t royed , R oman v i l la c omp lex ( A la rcao , 1 988 ,7 0 ) .

I nt h e w in te r o f 1 992 -1993 Iw a s a b le t os t a r t a na ly s ing t h e s l ag s amp le s w h ich Ih ad c o l lec ted i nt h e s umme r o f 1 992 f r om T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s . T he a na ly t ica l w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t i nt h e Wo lf son L abo ra to r ie s a tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon .

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S i t e P lan T one R omana C en tumce l la s -1994 , a r row s s how l o ca t ion s o ft h ree p i ece s o fe xcava ted s l ag F rade M . H . S . , D i rec to r ia R eg iona l d o I PPAR d e C o imb ra , P o r tuga l

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C hap te r 8

Ih ave d one a na ly t ica l wo rk u s ing b o th a n S EM a nd M ic rop robe o n t h e s l ag s amp le s a nd t h e d e ta i led r e su l t s o f t h i s w o rk a r ep re sen ted i nt h eA na ly s i s s e c t ion o ft h i sr epo r t . T he s l ag h a s p roven t ob e at i n s me l t ing s l ag ( Samp le N o ' s 1, 2, 7, 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 3 ,p age 1 44 ) . T he g eo logy o ft h eZ eze re v a l ley a nd B e lmon te r eg ion i sp a r t o f t h e C en t ra l Iber ian z one o f t h e I be r ian P en insu la , c on s is t ing mo s t ly o fH e rcyn ian g ran i te s f o rmed a round 2 80 m i l l ion y ea r s a go a nd s ch is t s o f t h e S ch is t -G raywacke C omp lex ( Lou renco e ta l . , 1 992 , 1 ) . T he a r ea o f G ua rda , B e lmon te a nd t h eZ eze r eV a l ley c on ta in sm a jo ra nd v e ry w ide s p read d epo s i t s o fa l luv ia l a nd v e in C a s s i te r i te a ccompan ied w i th lmen i te F eT iO3 a nd c o lumb i te .a c omb ina t ion o f n i ob i te ( Mn ,Fe )Nb206 a nd t a n ta l i te ( Mn ,Fe )Ta2 0 6m ine ra l s . I ti sp robab le t ha t t h e t i n s l ag w a s f o rmed f r om s me l t ing e i the rv e in o ra l luv ia l t i nf r om w h ich t h e ( T i ) T i tan ium , ( Ta ) T an ta lum a nd ( Nb )N iob ium h ad n o tb een p rope r ly s epa ra ted o u t d u r ing t h e o re p repa ra t ion p roce s s . I ti sv e ry p robab le t h a t t h e R oman t i n s l ag f r agmen t s f r om T o r re R omana s i te w e re p roduced f r om t h e a l luv ia l o r v e in o re s o ft h e Z eze re V a l ley r eg ion .

D u r ing my s e cond v i s i t t oT o r re R omana i nt h e s umme r o f 1 994 Im e ta nd t a lked w i th Ma r ia H e lena S imoe sF rade w ho w a sj u s ts t a r t ing h e re xcava t ion s o ft h es i te . Ma r ia H e lena F rade g ave m et h ea pp rox ima te d a te so ft h es i te a nd a l so g ave m e t h ree mo r e p i ece s o fs ma l l s l ag w h ich s he h ad j u s t e xcava ted ( Samp le No 's 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 ,p age 1 44 1 45 ) . O ne ( 1 )p i ece c ame f r om i n s ide t h ef ounda t ion w a l l so n t h e S ou th s i de o f t h e s i te a nd t he s econd ( 2 ) a nd t h i rd ( 3 ) p i ece sc ame f r om t h ee xcava ted a r ea b e low w he re Ih ad f ound mo s to f my s u r f ace s l ag i n 1 992 ( F ig 8 . 7 ) . S amp le s c u t f r om t h e t h ree p i ece s o f e xcava ted s l ag w e r e a na ly sed a tt h e I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy a nd s hown t oh ave t h ee xa c t ly t h es ame c hem ica l make u pa st h e 1 992 c o l lec ted s u r f a ce s l ag f r om T o r re R omana . T he re i sn od oub tt h a tt h e se t h ree s ma l l s l ag f r agmen t s a r e f r om t h e s ame t i n s me l t ing p roce s sa st h es u r f a ce s l ag . Ma r ia H e lena F rade a l so s a id i n 1 995 t h a t s he f e l t a tt h i s s t age o f h e r e xcava t ions t h e T or re R omana C en tumce l la s r ep re sen t s mo s t p robab ly t h e r ema ins o f aR oman V i l la c omp lex .

9 4

C hap te r 8

V IS IT N o 2 1

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S ur vey

M OUNTAIN OF FRAGUAS

PROV INCE :

BE IRA ALTA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

GUARDA

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 ° 1 3 ' 2 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 2 2 ' 4 0 " GUARDA n o 2 14 1 : 25 .000 S ER IE M888 E d icao 1 970

P ho to 2 5

L ook ing S ou th f r om t h e Moun ta in o fF ragua s

T he v i s i tt ot h ea bove s i te c ame a bou tb ecau se o f my l a ck o f s ucce s s i n l o ca t ing a nc ien t a l luv ia l t i n w o rk ing s i te s o r r ema in s o n t h e Z eze re a nd Maca inha s R ive r s i nt h e Z eze r e V a l ley a r ea a r ound B e lmon te . Iw a s o n ly a b le t of i nd p i ece s o f w e l l w a shed a nd w ea the r ed p o t tery s he rd s , w h ich w e re u nda teab le , i nt h e s and a nd g r ave l o ft h e Z eze re R ive r n ea r B e lmon t e .

I tw a s n o t e a sy t of i nd t h e Moun ta in o fF ragua s d ue t ot h e p oo r map s Ih ad i n 1 992 , a nd t h e d eep r u t ted u nma rk ed d i r t t r a ck s w h ich w e re t h er oad si nt h eF raugua sa r ea . If i na l ly d id l o ca te t h e Moun ta in o fF ragua s , b u t h ad n o l u ck i ns i gh t ing o rl o ca t ing a ny m in ing a c t iv i ty o n o rn ea rt h e Moun ta in . Id ec ided t og e to u to ft h ec a ra nd d o af oo ts u rvey o nt h ea r ea o f t h e moun ta in wh ich l ooked t he mos t p rom is ing f o r p o ss ib le m in ing a c t iv i t ie s ; t h is w a s t h e M id -No r the rn s l ope o ft h e moun ta in . If ound n o e v idence o fm in ing a c t iv i ty i n t h is a r ea , o n ly af ew s ma l l s he rd s o fp o t te ry wh ich b ecau se o ft h e i r s ma l l s i ze a nd f r ag i le n a tu re w e re n o t r e a l ly u sefu l f o r d a t ing . I ti sp o ss ib le f r om t h e ma t r ix t h a t t h e p o t te ry c ou ld h ave b een B ronze A ge o r e a r l ie r ( Lu i s O o s te rbeek ; p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 994 ) , b u t i ft h e p o t te ry w a s o l d , i t mo s t p robab ly o n ly r ep re sen ted t h e r ema in s o f a n e a r ly h un t ing c amp . T he s uppo sed m in ing l o ca t ion i n fo rma t ion p rov ided b y t h e l o ca ls o f Maca inha s w a s n o t c onf i rmed b y my v i s i t t ot h e s i te .

Iw a s t o ld t ha t a n Ame r ican C ompany h ad b rough t i nl a rge d r edge r s i nt h em id 7 0 's a nd h ad w o rked o u ta ny r ema in ing t i n i nt h e Maca inha s a nd Z eze re R ive r s n ea r C o lmea l d a T on ea nd B e lmon te . I tw ou ld s e em mo s tl i ke ly ( i ft h e r eh ad b een a ny a nc ien t r ema in s o fa l luv ia l t i n w o rk ing s ) t h a t t h e b i gd r edg ing o pe ra t ion so ft h em id 7 0 's w ou ld c e r ta in ly h ave d e s t royed mo s to ft h ee v idence . • It h en e nqu i red o f s ome l o ca l p eop le i n t h e t own o f Ma ca inha s i ft h ey k new o fa ny a r ea s c l o se b y w he re t h e re m igh t b e o ld t i n w o rk ing s t h a t w e re n o t a l luv ia l . Two p eop le t o ld m e t h a t t h ey k new o ft i n m in ing i nt h e r e g ion o f t h e m oun ta in o f F ragua s , a bou t e i gh t k i lome t re s t o t h e N o r th E a s to f Ma ca inha s . 9 5

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 2 2

THE MINE BY LAJES

P ROV INCE :

BE IRA ALTA

ADM IN ISTRAT IVE D ISTR ICT :

GUARDA

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 ° 4 2 ' 0 3" . .NORTH : 4 0° 2 8 ' 4 0 " BE IRAS FOLHA 4 1 : 200 .000 ; CARTA DE PORTUGAL 1 986 I NSTUTUTO GEOGRAF ICO E CADASTRAL

P ho to 2 6 T he M ine b y L a je s -l ook ing t oS ou th E a s t T h i s m ine s i te a ppea r s o n am e ta l /m ine ra l m ap o fP or tuga l a sa n i n ac t ive w o lf ram i te c a s s i te r i te m ine ( Lou renco e ta l . , 1 992 , 1 5 -6 ) .T he L a je sm ine a r ea h a sb een c omp le te ly m ined o u ta nd i sn ow c l o sed . G eo log ica l ly t h e L a jes s i te i sl o ca ted i nt h e P or tugue se p a r t o f t h e C en t ra l I be r ian Z one . T he C en t ra l I be r ian Z one c on s i s t s mo s t ly o fH e rcyn ian f o rmed g ran i te s a pp rox ima te ly 2 50 m i l l ion y ea r s o ld . T he L a je s m ine wh ich i sl o ca ted o n t h ee dge o fp a r to ft h eH e rcyn ian b a tho l i th w a s al e n sd epo s i t o fc a s s i te r i te -bea r ing p egma t i te ( Dunn ing e ta l . , 1 989 , 2 09 ) . P egma t i te i s ac oa r se g ra ined i gneou s r ock a nd i sf o rmed f r om t h ef i na lp o r t ion o fg ran i te magma . P egma t i te n o rma l ly c on ta in s q u i te h igh l e ve l s o f m e ta l l if e rou s m ine ra ls . T he m e ta l s a r e n orma l ly o n ly p re sen t i n t r ace a moun t s i n t h e g r an i t e b ody f r om w h ich t h ep egma t i te o r ig ina ted ( Ba te s a nd J a ck son , 1 990 , 4 88 -9 ) . I tt ook a l ong t ime t o f i nd a nyone i n L a jes t ha t k new a ny th ing a bou t t h e m ine l o ca t ion a nd o pe ra t ion . T he s uppo sed o ld m ine w o rk ing s w e re s i tua ted t wo k i lome t re s s l igh t ly S ou thea s t o fL age s o n t h e e a s t s i de o f t h e r oad t o L apa . 9 6

T he m ine w a s w o rked b y as ha l low s t r ip m in ing t e chn ique , u s ing ad redge r , t o ad ep th o f a pp rox ima t e ly t h ree m e t re s . T he r ema ins o f t he m ine work ings t o day l e ave t h e i mp re ss ion t h a t i tw a s n o t av ery l a rge o pe ra t ion . I ti s p o ss ib le t h a t s ome o f t h e m ined l a nd h a s b een r e tu rned t o a g r icu l tu re u se . T he m ine s t opped w o rk ing i n1 977 . Is pen ta bou ts i xh ou r s d o ing as u r f ace w a lk ing s u rvey a tt h e s i te a nd c ame u p w i th an o th ing o fs i gn if i cance o nce a ga in ; n o p o t tery a nd n o e v idence o f a ny a nc ien t m in ing o r me ta l lu rg ica l w o rk ing s . T he s i te d id s eem r i gh tf o r p o s s ib le a nc ien tw o rk ing d ue t ot h e f a c tt ha tt h et i n w a s l o ca ted a tn o g rea t d ep th . T he n a tu re o ft h e modern s ha l low s t r ip me thod o f m in ing u sed a t t h is s i te i sv e ry d e s t ruc t ive a nd mo s t p robab ly w ou ld h ave d es t royed o r r ebu r ied a ny a nc ien t e v idence , i fi th ad e x i s ted . Id o n o tt h ink t h a tr e tu rn ing t ot h e L a je s m ine a r ea i nt h e f u tu re w ou ld b e a ny m o r e s ucce s sfu l t h an my f i r s t v i s i t .

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 2 3

THE GOIS MINE

PROV INCE :

BE IRA L ITORAL

AD MIN ISTRAT IVE D ISTR ICT :

CO IMBRA

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 8 ° 0 5 ' 5 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 0 9 ' 4 0 " CARTA DE PORTUGAL 1 986 I NST ITUTO GEOGRAF ICO E CADASTRDAL

P ho to 2 7

V iew o ft h e G o i s a r ea - l o ok ing t ot h e N o r th

T he G o i sm ine i sd e sc r ibed a s ame ta soma t ic o r eb ody wh ich i ss u r rounded b y g raph i t ic s l a te a nd c on s i s t ing o fv e ry f i ne ly d i s sem ina ted wo lf ram i te a nd c a ss i te r i te w i th c a s s i te r i t eb e ing t h e d om inan t m ined m ine ra l ( Dunn ing e ta l . , 1 989 , 2 10 ) . T he re a l so a ppea r s q ua r tz , i r on -r ich s pha le r i te , p y r i te , a nd c ha lcopy r i te .

Id ec ided n o t t os pend a ny mo re t ime l ook ing f o r t h e m ine , b u t Iw i l l g o b ack f o r af u tu re v i s i t i f meanwh i le Ia m a b le t of i nd mo r e w r i t ten i n forma t ion o n t h e e xac t l o ca t ion a nd t ype o fm ine .

Ih ad n o s ucces s i nf i nd ing t h e m ine . T he p eop le t ow hom I s poke a tG o is d id n o t k now a ny th ing a bou t at i n m ine i nt h e G o is a r ea . Id rove a r ound t h e moun ta in sd i r ec t ly t ot h eN o r th o f G o is t r y ing t ol o ca te m ine s po i l h eap s b u t h ad n o l u ck . T he G o is t i n m ine mu s t h ave b een a v e ry s ma l l a f fa i r o r p e rhap s a n u nde rg round m ine . I t mu s t a l so h ave s t oped w o rk ing s ome t ime a go i f t he l o ca l p eop le h ave n o r e co l lec t ion o ft h em ine . 9 7

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 2 4

THE PANASQUEIRA MINE

P ROV INCE :

BE IRA BAX IA

ADM IN ISTRAT IVE D ISTR ICT :

CASTELO BRANCO

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 ° 4 5" 0 2 " -NORTH : 4 0° 0 9 ' 5 0 " CARTA DE PORTUGAL 1 986 I NST ITUTO GEOGRAF ICO E CADASTRDAL

P ho to 2 8

V iew o ft h eP ana sque i ra M ine a nd w a s te h eap s -l ook ing t ot h e N o r th E a s t

T he P ana sque i ra M ine a r ea l i e s i n av e ry h igh moun ta inous r e g ion , a pp rox ima te ly 8 00 -1000 m e te r s a bove s ea l e ve l , n o t f a r f r om t h e R io Z eze re r i ve r v a l ley , a bou t t wen ty f ou r k i lome te r s t o t h e Wes t o f t h e t own o f F undao a nd a bou t e i gh t k i lome te r s t ot h e We s t o ft h e N2 38 r oad ( Pho to 2 8 ) . T he m in ing o pe ra t ions a tP ana sque i ra s t a r ted i n t h e m id 1 930 's . T he P ana sque i ra M ine l i e s n ea r t h e s ou the rn e dge o f t h e C en t ra l I b e r ian G eo log ica l Z one a nd w i th in a n a r ea o f a S ch is t -G r eywa cke C omp lex . 9 8

T he P ana sque i ra m ine i sf o remos t aw o lf ram i te m ine ra l m ine , w i th c a ss i te r i te a s as econda ry m ined m ine ra l ( r a t io 1 5 / 1 ( Fe , Mn ) W04 /Sn02 ) A rgen t if e rou s c ha lcopy r i te i sa l so m ined f o r s ome c oppe ra nd s ma l l amoun t s o fg o ld ( 8 00ppm A g ) ( Dunn ing e ta l . , 1 989 , 2 10 -12 ) . Mo s t o f t h e m ine ra l iza t ion i sf ound i n t h e c on ta c t z one b e tween a l a rge b ur ied g ran i te b ody a nd i t s s u r round ing c on tac tm e tamo rph ic a u reo le . T he g ran i te i sc on s ide r ed t ob e p o s tH e rcyn ian d ue t oi t sn on d i s to r ted n a tu r e .

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

T he m ine ra l w o lf ram i te WO4 a nd c a ss i te r i te S nO2 v e ins a r e c en t red a r ound t he a pex a nd a bove t h e a r ea o f t h e b u r ied g ran i te ; a pp rox ima te ly a t ad ep th o f6 20 me te r s a nd q u ick ly d i e o u t t owa rds t he l owe r ma in g ran i te b ody a nd t h e s u r round ing c oun t ry r ock . T he m ine ra l v e ins h ave a v a r ied m ine ra logy ( a r senopy r i te , p yr i te ,p y r rho t i te , i r on r i ch s pha le r i te a nd c ha lcopy r i te ) . T he m ine ra ls chee l i te a l so a ppea r sa tP ana sque i ra . T he c a ss i te r i te i sg ene ra l ly c oncen t ra ted i nt h el owe rm ine ra l ised v e ins w i th t h e Wo lf ram i te a ppea r ing i n t h e u pper p a r t s o f t he v e in s ( Dunn ing e ta l l , 1 989 , 2 10 -12 ) . T he P ana sque i ra m ine o pe ra t ion w a s c l o sed i n 1 984 d ue t o f a l l ing w o lf ram i te a nd t i n m ine ra l p r ice s o n t he wo r ld ma rke t . O n ly ma in tenance w o rk i sn ow b e ing d one a tt h e m ine a bove a nd b e low g round .T he m ine m igh tr eopen i nt h e n ea rf u tu r ei fw o lf ram i te m ine ra lp r ice sr e cove r .

Is p en t af u l ld ay a tt h eP ana sque i ra m ine a r ea d r iv ing a round , a nd o nf oo t , i ns ome a r ea s t h a t It hough tm igh ty i e ld a nc ien t m e ta l lu rg ica l a c t iv i ty . T he a r ea s s u rveyed y i e ld n o th ing i n t h e w ay o f e v idence f o r a nc ien t m e ta l lu rg ica l o pera t ion s e i the r m in ing o r s me l t ing . O ne o f t h e l o ca l p eop le f r om P ana sque i ra ( wh ich i s ad y ing m in ing t own ) s a id t ha t a a r chaeo log ica l d ig h ad b een d one i nt h e a r ea t ot h e No r th We s t o f t h e ma in s ha f t a bou t t h ree y ea r s a go a nd n o th ing i mpo r tan th ad b een e xcava ted . L ook ing a tt h e P ana sque i ra M ine a r ea i tw ou ld s e em t h a tt h e b u lk o ft h e c a s s i te r i te m ine ra l i sl o ca ted a tt oo g r ea t ad ep th t oh ave b een w o rked b y a nc ien t man . Iw i l l p robab ly n o t r e tu rn t ot h i sm ine f o ra ny f u tu r e s u rvey w o rk .

T he mode rn P ana sque ira m ine w a s av e ry d eep a nd e x ten s ive s haf ta nd g a l le ry o pe ra t ion a nd t h es u r fa ce a r ea o ft h em ine i s mo s t ly c ove red w i th mode rn w a s t eh eap s f r om c rush ing a nd c oncen t ra t ion o pe ra t ion s d u r ing i t s f i f ty y ea r s o fo pe ra t ion . T he se w a s t eh eap sc ove rv a s ta r ea sa nd c ou ld p o ss ib ly c ove r a nc ien tm ine w o rk ing s , h ad t h ey e x is ted .

9 9

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 2 5

THE SANTA EULALIA MINE

P ROV INCE :

ALTO ALENTEJO

ADM IN ISTRAT IVE D ISTR ICT :

PORTALEGRE WEST : 7 ° 2 0 ' 1 5 " -NORTH : 3 9° l '1 0 "

CO -ORD INATES :

ALTO ALENTEN JO FOLHA 6 1 : 200 .000 CARTA DE PORTUGAL 1 970 I NST ITUTO GEOGRAF ICO E CADASTRAL

P ho to 2 9

T he S an ta E u la l ia M ine , g ene ra l v i ew -l ook ing t oN o r th Wes t s how ing s ha l low d ep th o f modern w o rk ing s

T he S an ta E u la l ia m ine i st h e mo s t s ou the r ly o f t i n m ine w o rk ings t ha t Iv i s i ted d u r ing my s u rvey . T he m ine a r ea i s l o ca ted i n a No r th /Wes t d i rec t ion f r om t h e t own o f S an ta E u la l ia ; f r om f i ve t os even k i lome t re s a l ong b o th t h e n o r th a nd s ou th s i de so ft h e N2 43 r o ad . G eo log ica l ly t h eS an ta E u la l ia m ine i sl o ca ted o n o rn ea rt h e b o rde r a r ea o ft h e S ou the rn e dge o ft h eC en t ro I b e r ian Z one a nd t h e Nor thern e dge o ft h e O s sa Mo rena Z one . S ee F ig 6 . 2 , p age 3 5 . T he ma in o r eb ody o ft h e S an ta E u la l ia m ine a r ea i sm ade u p o f m e ta soma t ized , g r e isen ized g ran i te w h ich c on ta ins t h e m ine ra l s c a ss i te r i te a nd s chee l i te . T he g r e i sen iza t ion o ft h e g ran i te d eve loped s pace s w i th in w h ich s ma l l e uhed ra l c a s s i ter i te a nd s ma l l a l lo t r iomo rph ic s chee l i te g ra ins d eve loped ( Dunn ing e ta l , 1 989 ,2 09 -10 ) . 1 00

T he S an ta E u la l ia m ine w a s worked f o r c a ss i te r i te a nd s chee l i te . T he m ine w o rked f o ro n ly f i ve y ea r s ( 1976 -1981 ) . T he d ep th o f t h e m ine ra l w a s o n ly a bou t o ne m e t re a nd c ons is ted o f ar i ch s eam o f t i n / schee l i te wh ich w as a pp rox ima te ly t e n c en t ime t re s i nd ep th . T h i s i n fo rma t ion i s b a sed o n c onve r sa t ion s w i th l o ca l p eop le f r om S an ta E u la l ia i n 1 992 . T he m ine c ons i s ted o fv e ry l a rge s ca le s t r ip m in ing w o rk ing s a t ad ep th o fo n ly o ne t ot wo m e t re s . Iw a s t o ld b y t h e l o ca l p eop le t h a t t h e t o ta l a r ea o ft h e wo rk ing s w a s 8 90 h ec ta re s . I ts eem s t h a t mo s t o ft h e s t r ip m in ing w o rk w a s d one b y a m echan ica ld igge ro rs im i la rp i ece o fe qu ipmen t .

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

T he m ine w o rk ing sc on s i s ted o ft h re e ma in a r ea ;t wo l o ca ted t ot h e n o r th o fN2 43 a nd o ne t ot h e s ou th o ft h e t wo m ine s t ot h e n or th , t h e e a s te r ly o ne w a sc a l led H e rdade D oM igue l a nd t h em ine a r ea t ot h e We s tB a ld io D o Monfo r te .T he m ine t ot h e S ou th o ft h er oad w a s a l so c a l led H e rdade D oM igue l a nd i tw a s t h e re t ha t t h e ma in c r ush ing / p roce s s ing w a s c a r r ied o u t . Iw a s o n ly a b le t od o as u rf ace s u rvey o f af ew v e ry s ma l l a r ea s i nt h ed ay a nd ah a lf wh ich Iw a s a tt h e m ine . Mo s to f t h e a r ea sw h ich Is u rveyed p roduced n oe v idence o fa nc ien t m in ing o rm e ta l lu rgy w o rk ing . I tw a st h e B a ld io D o Mon tefor t e m ine a r ea w h ich p roduced t h e o n ly f i nd s .

imm

D raw ing N o 1 4

I tw a s i nt h is a r ea t h a t If ound s u r f ace p o t te ry s ha rd s b u t n o r im s o r b a se s , o n ly p o t te ry v esse l b ody f r agmen t s , a nd p o s s ib le R oman t e gu la ( r oof t i l es ) f r agmen t s . T he c o l lec ted s u rface p o t te ry s he rd s w e re n o t g ood e nough t o u se f o r d a t ing . N ex t t o , a nd w i th t h e p o t te ry a nd r oof t i l e s Ia l so f ound o ne r ound b un -shaped p i ece o f s l ag a pp rox ima te ly 8 c m i n d iame te r a nd 2 c m t h ick ( D raw ing N o 1 4 ) . T h i s s upposed s l ag c ake r e semb le s t h e n ega t ive o f t h e i n te r io r o f as ma l l s me l t ing f u rnace b o t tom . Ia na ly sed amoun ted s amp le o ft h e s l ag b un o nt h e S EM a nd i tt u rned o u t t or e semb le i r on s m i th ing s l ag . T he r e w a s n o t i np resen t ,j u s t av e ry s ma l l a moun to fT i tan ium ( 0 .21% ) i n o ne s amp le a r ea ( Samp le N o 1 8 /B ,p age 1 50 ) .

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1 01

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

P ho to 3 0

S an ta E u la l ia M ine , g ene ra l v i ew s how ing A rea w he re b un s haped s l ag a nd R oman t e gu la f r agmen t s f ound b y 2 0 c m m ea su rung r od

T he S an ta E u la l ia M ine s i te i sc e r ta in ly a n i n t r igu ing t i n a r ea d ue t o t he s ha l low n a ture o f t he c ass i ter i te m ine ra l iza t ion . T he E u la l ia t i n d epo s i t s c ou ld h ave e a s i ly b een a va i lab le t oa nc ien t man . T he p rob lem i nl o ca t ing t h e e v idence f o ra nc ien tm in ing a nd m e ta l lu rgy i st h e v a s ts i ze o f t h em ine ra l d epo s i ta nd t h e d e s t ruc t ive n a tu re o ft h e moder n s t r ip m in ing t e chn ique s . Iw ou ld l i ke t o v i s i t t h e S an ta E u la l ia s i te a ga in , b u t t h e p rob lem r ema in s , t h e g a rgan tuan s ca le o ft h e s u rvey w o rk a nd t h e t i me n eeded t oc omp le te s uch al a rge s u r f ace s u rvey , w h ich c ou ld o n ly b ed one o nf oo t .

1 02

Ia l so c o l lec ted w ha t It hough t m igh t b e s ome c a s s i te r i te m ine ra l s amp le sf r om t h e S an ta E u la l ia m ine a r ea . Ia na ly sed o ne o ft h e se s amp le s ( Samp le N o 1 0 , p age 1 50 ) i nt h eS EM . T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t s s howed t ha t 7 4% o f t i n o x ide w a s p re sen t . A nc ien t m e ta l lu rg is t s w ou ld h ave h ad n o p rob lem s w hen w o rk ing w i th a ca s s i te r i te m ine ra l w h ich w a s a sr i ch a s t h is s amp le .

C hap te r 8

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT N o 2 6

RUINAS RO MANAS d e SAO CUCUFATE

V IS IT N o 2 7

THE MINES OF AJUSTREL

SOUTH PORTUGUESE ZONE -COPPER M INE AREAS

T he a bove t wo v i s i ted s i te s w e re l o ca ted i n t h e c oppe r m ine ra l a r ea w i th in t h e S ou th P or tugue se G eo log ica l Z one . T he se v i s i t s w ere c onnec ted w i th my p a s t s t ud ie s o f t h e S ou th I b e r ian C oppe r B e l t w h ich c ove r s b o th S pa in a nd P o r tuga l a nd w i l l n o tb e b rough ti n to my t i n s urvey w o rk .

1 03

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 2 8

LA MINA DE CASAS d e DON ANTONIA

P ROV INCE :

CACERES

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

CASAS d e DON ANTON IA

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 ° 1 5 ' 0 0 " -NORTH : 3 9° 1 3 ' 4 0 " P rov inc ia l Map CACERES 1 : 200 .000 1 989 2 a e d

P ho to 3 1

L aM ina d eC a sa sd e D on A n ton ia -l o ok ing N o r th E a s t

T he m ine a tC a sa s d e Don A n ton ia i sl i s ted a s ac a s s i te r i te w o lf ram i te m ine a r ea ( Ochoa , 1 987 , 1 04 ) . T he l i s t ing h a s t wo m ine s i nt h e a r ea , o ne w o lf ram i te a nd o ne c a ss i te r i te . T he t i n m ine i s av e in m ine , t h e v e in s r unn ing i n aN -S d i rec t ion . T he v e in s c ons is t o f q ua r tz , c a ss i te r i te a nd m ica e nca sed i ng r an i te a nd h o rnf e l sr ock . I tt ook m e s ome t ime t of i nd t h e s uppo sed t i n m ine a r ea . I a m s t i l l n o t s u re i f If ound t h e t i n m ine o r t h e w o lf ram i te m ine . T he m ine w h ich Id id f i nd w a s av e ry s ma l l a f fa i r w h ich c ons is ted o f v e ry s ma l l s u rface w a s te h eap s a nd a n ea rby s ha f t( Pho to 3 1) .

1 04

T he s haf t w a s n o t t oo d eep a nd d id n o t s e em t o h ave a ny g a l le r ie s r unn ing f r om i t . It e nd t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e g a l le r ie s h ad b een c l o sed o f fa nd t h e s haf t p a r t ly f i l led i nw hen t h e m ine c ea sed w o rk ing . Id id af ew h ou r so fs u r f ace s ur vey i nt h ea r ea o ft h es haf ta nd w a s te h eap s , b u t c ame u p w i th n o e v idence o f a nc ien t a c t iv i ty p o t te ry , m in ing r ema ins o r s me l t ing a c t iv i ty . I fI c an g e ta ny mo re i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h ee xa c tl o ca t ion o ft h e c a s s i te r i te m ine ra l s Im igh tr e tu rn .

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 2 9

MINAS VALDEFLOREZ

P ROV INCE :

CACERES

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

CACERES

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 ° 2 0 ' 1 0 " -NORTH : 3 9° 2 7 ' 4 0 " HOJA 7 04 CACERES 1 : 50 .000 1 975 2 ac d

P ho to 3 2

M ina V a ldef lo rez g ene ra l m ine a r ea v i ew -l ook ing t o Nor th E a s t

T he m ine o f V a ldeF lo res i sl i s ted a s at i n m ine , h av ing p rodu ced e v idence f o rb e ing w o rked d u r ing t h eR oman p e r iod ( Edmond son , 1 987 , 2 26 ) . I n h i s b ook " Two I ndu s t r ies i n R oman L us i tan ia " E dmondson when r ef e r r ing t o t he a n t iqu i ty o ft h eV a ld eF lo re sM ine u ses t h ef o l low ing s i ng le r e f e r ence s ou rce ( Mon teagudo L . ,1954 ,9 0 ;C ae sa raugu s ta -4 ) . T he V a ldeF lo re s m ine i sl o ca ted a bou t t h ree k i lome t res t o t h e S ou th /Ea s t o f t h e c en t re o f C ace re s ( F ig 8 . 8 ) . I n t h e b o t tom o f as ma l l v a l ley ( a t4 50 m e te r s a l t i tude )b e tween t h e S i e r r ad e P or tanch i to ( 644 m e te r s ) a nd t h e C e r ro d e l M i lano ( 566 m e te r s ) ( Pho to 3 2 ) . T he m ine w o rk s s e em t o h ave b een a bandoned s ome t ime a go a nd n ow c ons is t o f r u ined m ine b u i ld ing s a nd s ome s ma l ls u r f a ce w a s te h eap s .

1 05

T he modern m in ing m e thod u sed a tV a ldeF lo re s w a s s ha f t a nd g a l le r ie st of o l low t h e i r regu la rs t ockwo rk t i nv e in s . T he f i na l p ha se o f t h e mode rn m ine a c t iv i ty s e em t oh ave b een t h e d igg ing o f e xp lo ra t ion s u r f a ce t r enche s mo s t ly i n No r th /Sou th d i rec t ion a nd a pp rox ima te ly 2 -3 m e te r s d eep r unn ing q u i te h igh u pb o th s i de s o ft h ev a l ley . G eo log ica l ly t h e c a s s i te r i te o f t h e V a ldeF lo re s d epos i t i s u n ique i nt h a t i th a s n o k nown c onnec t ion w i th as ub jacen t g ran i te . I ti sa s sumed t h ough t h a tt h eV a ldeF lo re s c a s s i te r i te v e ins mus t h ave s ome d eep c onnec t ion t h rough t h e s u r round ing s l a te w i th e i the r t h e g r ea t g ran i te b a tho l i th o f C abeza d e A raya to t ot h e S ou th /Ea s t o rt h e C ace r e s g ran i te b a tho l i th t ot h e No r th /We s t .

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P lacemen ta nd C ha rac te r is t ics o ft h e M ine ra l ized V e in s o f Amby lgon i te - C a ss i te r i t e Va ldef lo rez ( Caceres ) S an tos J .A . yMed ina ( 1978 ) ; Mo le ro , C .A . ,

T he ma in me ta ls o ft h e Va ldeF lo res m ine a r e t i n a nd l i th ium f r om t he o res o f C ass i ter i te S nO2 a nd L ep ido l i te I (L i2A 1RF ,OH )2 /S i4010 1 a ccompan ied b y s ca t te red d epo s i t s o fT u rquo ise , S chee l i te a nd Apa t i te ( J un ta d e E x t remadu ra , 1 993 , 5 2 ) . T he V a ldeF lo res t i n v e in s a r e a n i r regu la rs t ock wo rk a nd a r e e nca sed i nO rdov ic ian ( Lowe r P a laeozo ic 5 00 -435 m i l l ion y ea r s o ld ) s l a te a nd s ha le . T he v e ins a ppea ri nt wo s ys tem s N6 5° s ub v er t ica l a nd Nor th 3 0° Wes t /40° S ou th . T he v e ins r a nged i nw id th f r om 1 0 cm t o 1 20 cm w i th t h e a verage v e in w id th b e ing 2 0 cm . T he m inera ls a ppea r ing w i th t he c ass i ter ite i n t he v e ins a re q uar tz , amb lygon i te ( Li, Na) A1[(F,O H)/ P 04 ] a nd l ep ido lite KL i2A 1 [ (F ,OH )2 /S i40 10 ] ( Ba r rena a nd I s id ro , 1 987 , 6 5 -7 ) .

1 06

T he t i n v e ins mus t h ave b een v i s ib le i n t h e s ma l l v a l ley f l oo r f r om av e ry e a r ly t ime a nd v ery e a s i ly a ccess ib le f o r t r ench m in ing a sa ny r a in mo s tc er ta in ly w ou ld h ave w a shed a way a ny c ove r ing o fo ve r -bu rden f r om av e ry e a r ly p e r iod . T he V a l d e F lo res m ine w a s q u i te e a sy t ol o ca te a st h e re i sa d i r t t r ack t h a t g oes d i rec t ly f r om t he E a s t s i de o fC ace res t o t h e a bandoned m ine s i te . O n my f i r s t v i s i t t o t he V a l d e F lo res M ine If ound a s i ng le p iece o f s l ag i n t h e r oad e mbankmen t . Ik ep t l o ok ing f o r a no the r h ou rh op ing t of i nd mo re s l ag , b u th ad n o s uccess . Ic u t t h e s l ag a nd s amp led t wo d i f f eren t a r ea s . T he t wo moun ted s amp le s w e re a na lysed o n t h e S EM a tt h e I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ( Samp le N o 3 9 &S amp le N o7 1 , p age 1 50 ) . U nfor tuna te ly t h e re w e re n o t r aces o ft i n p r esen t i ne i the r o f t h e s l ag s amp le s .

C hap te r 8

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

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G eo log ica l P lan o ft h e V a lde f lo rez v e in s , S an to s , J .A . yMed ina ( 1978 ) Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 9 8

B o th o ft h e s amp le s a r e i n te rp re t ed a si r on s l ag w i th as ma l l amoun t o f T i tan ium p re sen t i n mo s t o f t h e a r ea s s amp led a ve rag ing 0 .40% -0 .45% . T h i s w a s a ga in ad i sappo in tmen t : t i n s l ag h a sn o tt od a t eb een f ound a tV a ldeF lo re s . Va ldeF lo res i s am ine a r ea t h a t Iq u i te f i rm ly b e l ieve mus t h ave b een wo rked i na nc ien tt ime s , b u t s of a r , e xcep tf o rt h e o ne p i e ce o fs l ag , n o o the r s i gn s o fa nc ien tm e ta l lu rgy h ave y e t a ppea red . T he p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h e mode rn m in ing o ft h e a r ea h a sd es t royed o rc ove red a ny e v idence mu s tb et a ken i n to a ccoun t . T he re i sa t l e a s t o ne k nown L a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t c l o se b y t he Va ldeF lo re s m ine , t h e s e t t lemen t o fE l R i scoa o n t o p o f S ie r ra d e F uen te s (We s t : 0 60 1 7 ' 1 0 " N or th : 3 90 2 6 ' 0 0 " ) , a pp rox ima te ly 5 . 5 k i lome t re s t ot h e S ou th /Ea s t o f t h eV a ldeF lo re sm ine s i te . T h i s s i t eh a s b een e xcava ted 1 989 b y A lon so R od r igvez D iaz o fC a ce re sU n ive r s i ty . H ed i d n o t f i nd a ny s i gns o f m e ta l lu rg ica l a c t iv i ty e i the r s me l t ing o r c a s t ing a tt he E l R isco s i te ( D iaz , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 992 ) . 1 07

Iv i s i ted t h e V a ldeF lo res m ine a ga in i n A p r i l /May 1 995 , s pend ing s i x h ou r s a tt h e s i te s t i l l t r y ing t of i nd e v idence o f a nc ien tm in ing o rs me l t ing . T he o n ly s u r f ace f i nd w a s av e ry s ma l lp i ece o fp robab le s l agged f u rnace l i n ing l o ca ted i nt h e a r ea w he re If ound t h e f i r s t p i ece o f s l ag . No p o t te ry w a s f o und . If ound d u r ing my s e cond 1 995 t r ip t ha t t he Va ldeF lo re s M ine a r ea h ad b een i n ve s t iga ted b yt h eM in ing f i rm o fT o l sa S .A . , b e tween 1 985 -1988 , w i th t h e o b jec t ive o fs ee ing i ft h e r ema in ing m ine ra l c on ten to ft h e s t ock w o rk v e in s w a s g r ea t e nough t oa l low ing t h e r e -open ing o f t he m ine . F o r ty t wo b o re h o les w e re s unk b y T o lsa S .A . a nd a l l t h e o ld u nde rg round w o rk ing g a l le r ie sw e r eo pened a nd e xp lo r ed a nd t he r ema in ing m ine ra l v e ins s amp led a nd mapped ( unpub l ished T o lsa S .A . e xp lo ra t ion r epo r t , S e rv ico d e M ina s , Me r ida ) .

C hap te r 8

T he A rcha eome ta l lu rg ica l S urvey

P ho to 3 3

M ina V a ldef lo rez , a r ea b y 2 0 cm m ea su r ing r od w he re s l ag f ound -v i ew t o We s t

T he r ema in ing u nde rg round s t ock w o rk t i n v e in s a r e q u i te s ma l l r ang ing f r om 1cm t o2 0 c m i nw id th . I ts eem s t h a t t h e a n swe ro ft h e i n ve s t iga t ion w a s n ega t ive a nd t h a ta l l t h e o r ig ina l l a rge v e in so ft i n h ad b een m ined o u ti na n t iqu i ty o r d u r ing mode rn m in ing o pe ra t ions i nt h e 1 9 th -20 th c en tu ry ( J un ta d eE x t remadu ra , 1 993 , 5 2 -6 ) . Iw i l l r e tu rn t oV a ldeF lo re s f o rf u r the r s u r f ace s u rvey w o rk , a s Is t i l l h ave af i rm b e l ief t h a t t h e s u r f ace a nd u nde rg round v e in t i nd epo s i t so fV a ldeF lo re sw e r ew o rked i na n t iqu i ty .

1 08

C hap t e r8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

AREA CATRAIA DO BURACO

V IS IT NO 3 0 PROV INCE :

BE IRA BA IXA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

BEL MOMTE

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 ° 2 0 ' 2 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 2 2 ' 4 0 " BEL MONTE n o 2 25 1 : 25 .000 1 970

P ho to 3 4

a r ea C a t ra ia d o B u raco -v i ew t o We s t , s i te a r ea i nf o reg round t ol e f to fd i r tt r ack i nb a ckg round T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s

T h i ss i t ew a s f ound w h i le Iw a sd o ing f u r the rs u rvey w o rk i n t h e s ma l lh i l l a r ea d i rec t ly t ot h eN o r th o ft h eT o r r e R omana C en tumce l la s . Iw a s l ook ing a t am ine w h ich w a s i nd ica ted o n t h e g eo logy map w h ich Ih ad f o rt h e B e lmon te a r ea map 2 1A . T he map i nd ica ted t h a t t h em ine w a s i n aN b , S n , T a , T i m ine ra l a r ea . When If ound t h e m ine i tw a s am ed ium s e iz ed o pen c a s tp i tp a r t ia l ly f i l led w i th w a te ra nd l o oked l i ke i th ad n o tb een w o rked f o rs ome t i me . I tw a sn o t av e ry l a rge m in ing a f fa i r . Id id a bou t a n h ou ro fs u rvey w o rk a round t h e o pen c a s tm ine a r ea a nd d i d n o tf i nd a ny e v idence o fa nc ien t m in ing . O n t h e w ay b ack d own t h e h i l l t o T o r re R omana Ic ame a cro s s t h e s i te w h ich In ow c a l l A rea C a t ra ia D o B u raco w h ich i st h e n ame g i ven t ot h i s a r ea o n map 2 25 . 1 09

T he s i te i sl o ca ted o nt h eS ou th s i de o f aE a s t / We s td i r tt r a ck wh ich r un s a bou t 1 00 m e te r s t ot h eN o r th o f al i ne o fh ou se s l o ca ted j u s t n or th o ft h e T o r re R omana s i te ( Pho to 3 4 ) . I n t h e a r ea c a l led C a t ra ia d o B u raco If ound v e ry f r agmen t ed s u r face p o t te ry , c ru sh ing /g r ind ing a nd h amme r ing t oo l s , a s add le q ue rn , as ma l l l oom w e igh t ( D raw ing N o 1 5 , p age 10 ) , a nd t wo s ma l l p i ece s o f s l ag . I n af u r the r v i s i t t ot h e s i te d u r ing 1 994 , If ound t wo mo re s ma l l p i ece s o fs u r f a ce s l ag . T he s u r f ace f i nd s s ugge s tt h is a r ea w a s as ma l l s e t t lemen to r am ine ra l /me ta l w o rk ing a r ea o rp o s s ib ly am ix tu re o fb o th .

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lurg ica l S u rvey

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1 10

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r8

T he f r agmen t s o fp o t te ry f ound a tt h e s i te a r e s o s ma l l a nd i n conc lu s ive t ha t a tp r e sen t i ti sd i ff icu l t t os ay e xac t ly t o wh ich a r chaeo log ica l p e r iod t h e s i te b e long s . T he p o t te ry w a s e xam ined b y R aque l V i la ca , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ( Un ive r s i ty o fC o imb ra , P or tuga l ) . P iece s o ft h e f ou r s ma l l s l ag ( Samp le N o ' s 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 9 9 , p age 1 5 1 )w e re c u tm oun ted a nd a na ly sed u s ing S EM /EDS a t t he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy . T he s l ag a na lys is w a s i n te rpe r e ted a s i r on s l ag w i th t h e i r on c on ten t v a ry ing f r om 2 8% t o5 4% d epend ing o n t h e a r ea a na lysed . N o S n , T a o r Nb w a s d e tec ted b y S EM /EDS i na ny o f t h e a na lyse s . O n s ome a r ea s t h e re w e re s ma l l p e r cen tage s o f T i . F rom t h e a na ly s i s r e su l t s , i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t oc a l l t h e s l ag f r om A rea C a t ra ia D oB u raco t i ns me l t ing s l ag . No t f a rf r om t he s upo sed s e t t lemen t s i te , a bou t 2 00 m e te r s t ot h eN o r th / We s t ,j u s tt o No r th o ft h e s ame d i r tt r ack w h ich r un s b yt h eA rea C a t ra ia d oB u raco s i te , Ic ame a c ros s av e ry w e l lc u tg a l le ry wh ich s e emed t oh ead d ue N o r th .T he g a l le ry i s c u t i n to t h e l o ca l r ock g ran i te p o rphyry . T he g a l le ry mea su r ed a ti t se n t rance a bou t 21 / 2m e te r s i nh e igh ta nd 1 / 2 ame t e ri nw id th . T he l owe r6 0c mo ft h e g a l le ry w a s f u l l o f w a te r . P a r to ft h e c e i l ing o ft h e o r ig ina l e n t rance a r ea o ft h e g a l le r y h ad c o l lap sed f o r ad i s tance o fa bou t 1 0 -15 me te r s . I d id n o ta c tua l ly e n te ra nd e xp lo r et h eg a l le ry .

L ook ing i n to t h e g a l le ry f r om t h e e n t rance i ts e emed t og e t w ide r a nd t h en n a r row d own f u r the r o n . It a lked t os ome o f t h e l o ca l p eop le t r y ing t of i nd o u t i ft h e g a l le ry w a s am ine o r aw a te r s upp ly . Ir e ce ived c on f l ic t ing a nswe r s t o my q ues t ion , o ne p e r son s a id t h a t i tw a s at i n m ine a nd a no the r s a id t ha t i tw a s aw a te r s upp ly g a l le ry . F ur the r f u tu re i nve s t iga t ion i n s ide t h e g a l le ry m igh t g i ve amo re p o s i t ive a n swe ra st oi t s u se . Ih ave af e e l ing t h a t t h e g a l lery p robab ly i sp a r t o f aw a te r s upp ly s y s tem f o r t h eT o r re R omana C en tumce l la s c omp lex o f b u i ld ing s . Ma r ia H e lena S imoe s F rade , t h e P o r tugue se a r chaeo log is t d igg ing a tT one R omano , s ays t ha t i ti sa w a te r s ys tem g a l le ry . S he h a s a l so s a id t o m e t ha t t h e g ene ra l a r ea t o t h e No r th o f T one R omana C en tumce l la s s eem s t oa l so h ave e x ten s ive r u in s u nde rt h e mode rn h ou se s . I ti sw i th in t h i s a r ea t h a tt h eg a l le ry i sl o ca ted .

1 11

T he A rcha eome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 3 1

SANTA MARIA MINE a nd

S EARCH FOR MINERAL SA MPLES

P ROV INCE :

BE IRA BAD CA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

BE LM ONTE

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 ° 1 9 ' 3 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 2 2 ' 1 5 " BEL MONTE n o 2 25 1 : 25 .000 1 970

A f te r l e av ing t h e T o r re R omana a r ea Id ec ided t o s ee i fI c ou ld f i nd s ome o ft h e n ume rou s l i s ted S n , Nb , T i , T am ine s l o ca ted i nt h e a r ea a round t h e Z eze re V a l ley a nd B e lmon te a r ea s . T he C a r ta G eo log ica d eP o r tuga l( 2 1-A S abuga l )o ft h e Z eze re /Be lmon te a r ea s hows t h e r eg ion b lanke ted w i th s uppo sed S n , N b , T i , T a m ine /m ine ra l s i te s . It hough t t h a t i tw ou ld b e ag ood i d ea t o c o l lec t s ome l oca l m ine ra l s amp le s ( i fp o s s ib le ) f o rl a bo ra to ry a na ly s is . T he s amp le s i f f ound w ou ld h e lp t os how t h em e ta l c on ten to ft h et i n o r e . Is pen t a lmo s t aw ho le a f te rnoon w a lk ing a round t h e S an ta Ma r ia h i l la r ea , b u th ad n o s ucce s s i nf i nd ing a ny a pp rop ia te m ine ra l s amp les . Id id l o ca te o ne m ine b u t i tw a s v e ry s im i la rt ot h em ine a bove T o r re R omana w h ich Ih ad l ooked a tt h e d ay b efo re . I tw a s am ed ium s e ized o pen c a s t p i t ; c u t o u t o ft h e N o r th s i te o ft h e S an ta Ma r ia H i l l . Ih ad n o l u ck i nf i nd ing d ecen tm ine ra l s amp le s o ra ny e v idence o fa nc ien t m in ing o rs me l t ing a tt h i s m ino rm ine s i te .

1 12

T he n ex td ay Id rove t oo the ra r ea s i nt h eZ eze re v a l ley a r ea a r ound B e lmon t ew h ich w e r el i s ted o nt h eG eo log ica lm ap a s b e ing m ine ra l i sed S n , N b , T i , T a a r ea s . T hese f u r the r s u rveyed a r ea sd i dn o ty i e ld a ny m ine ra ls amp le s . I tw ou ld s eem t h a t mo s t o f t h e S n , N b , T i , T a m ine ra l s o f t h eZ eze re V a l ley a r e v e ry f i ne ly d i spe r sed m ine ra l p a r t ic le s w i th in t h e g ran i te p orphy ry o r h ave b een w ea the red a nd e roded o u t f r om t h e g ran i te o ve r t he y ea r s a nd a r e p r e sen t o n ly i nd eep a l luv ia l d epo s i t s i n mo s to ft h el o ca lr i ve r s . I ti st hough t t h a t i tw a s mo s t ly t he a l luv ia l r i ve r t i n w h ich t h e R oman sm ined i nt h eZ eze re Va l ley ( A la rcao , 1 988 , 7 9 ) . Id id c o l lec ts ome a luv ia l s amp le s f r om t h eZ eze re R ive rb y B e lmon te a nd t h e R io I ngu ia s b y t he t own o fI ngu ia s . T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t s o f t h ese t wo s amp le s w e re n ega t ive ( n o t r aces o ft i n w e r e p r e sen t ) . Ih ope t ha t i nf u tu re t r ip s t ot h e Z eze re V a l ley Iw i l l b e a b le t ol o ca te s ome l o ca l t i nm ine ra l s amp le s f o rf u tu r ea na lys is .

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 3 2

CU ME 6 49 & 6 48 ABOVE QUINTA DE CHANDEIRINHA

PROV INCE :

BE IRA BA IXA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

BEL MONTE

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 °2 1 ' 5 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 1 9 ' 4 5 " BELMONTE n o 2 25 1 : 25 .000 1 970

P ho to 3 5

C ume 6 49 & 6 48 a bove Q u in ta d e C hande i r inha -v i ew t oS ou th We s t

T h i s s i t e w a s b rough t t o my a t ten t ion b y A n ton io A ugu s to d a C unhz Ma rgue s who w a s w o rk ing w i th Ma r ia H e lena S imo e s F rade o n t h e T o r re R omana e xcava t ion . H e t o ld m e t h a t i tw a s t h e b e s t k nown L a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t s i te i n t h e Z ezere R ive r /Be lmon te a r ea w h ich h ad n o t b een c ove red o ve r b y a ny l a te r s e t t lemen t d eb r is . T h i s i so ne o f t h e t wo s i te s t ha t Iv i s i ted d u r ing my s u rvey t h a t w a s n o t a m ine a r ea , b u ts o le ly k nown a s as e t t lemen ts i te . T he s i t e i sl o ca ted a pp rox ima te ly f ou r k i lome te re s t o t h e S ou th /Ea s t o fB e lmon te o n t wo s ma l l a d jo in ing h i l l t o p s a t t h e a l t i tudes o f 6 48 a nd 6 49 m e te r s . T he s i te s i t s o n t h e S ou th /Ea s te rn e nd o ft h e S i e r ra d aE spe ranca wh ich i s av e ry d om inan t moun ta in i nt h e Z eze r e V a l ley a pp rox ima te ly t wo k i lome t re s i nl e ng th . I ti s as i te t h a t i s al i t t le d i ff icu l tt og e tt oa s mo s t o ft h e o l d e x i s t ing d i r tt r ack s t ot h e s i te h ave b een c l o sed o f f . T he o n ly w ay u p i s t he r oad t ha t g oe s t h rough t he s ma l l f a rm s e t t lemen to fQ u in ta d eC hande i r inha , l o ca ted o n t h eE a s te rn s i de o ft h eS i e r ra d oE spe ranca . I ti s aL a te B ronze Age s i te t y p ica l f o r t h is a r ea o f t h e We s t e r ns i de o fM id Ibe r ia . 1 13

T he s e t t lemen ts i te i si n av e ry p rom inen tp o s i t ion a nd o f f e r s amagn if icen t p ano ram ic v i s ta o ft h e Z eze re a nd Maca inha s R ive rv a l leys ( Pho to 3 5 ) . T he r ea r e s t i l lt r ace so f af o r t if ica t ion o rr e ta in ing w a l l o n t h e N o r th /Ea s te rn s i de o ft h e s e t t lemen t . S omeone q u i te r e cen t ly h a s b u l ldozed a d i r t t r ack t h rough t h e w a l l a nd Ih ave a f e e l ing t ha t p e rhap s i nt h e n ea r f u tu re s omeone i sp l ann ing t ob u i ld ah ou se r i gh to n t o p o ft h e B ronze Age S i te . T he s i te h ad p l en ty o fs u r f ace p o t te ry c ove r ing q u i te al a rge a r ea . S tone q ue rns w e re a l so s ca t te red a bou t . Is pen t t h e g r ea te r p a r t o f ad ay a tt h e s i te . If e l t t h a t as e t t lemen t s i te w h ich w a s l o ca ted i nt h e m idd le o f ama jo r t i n m ine ra l a r ea j u s t m igh t y i e ld s ome s u rface s l ag o r o the r e v idence o f m e ta l lu rg ica l a c t iv i t ie s . Is u rveyed w ha t Ic ons ide red t ob e mo s t o ft h e s i te g o ing b y p o t te ry c ove rage . N o s l ag a ppea red e ven i n a r ea s wh ich I s u rveyed o n my h and s a nd k nees f o r c ons ide rab le p e r iods o f t ime . I ft h e re i ss l ag a nd e v idence o fm e ta l lu rg ica l a c t iv i t ie s a t t h is s i te t h e e v idence w i l l h ave t o w a i t f o r ap rope r a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion u n less t h e s i te i s c omp le te ly d e s t royed b efo r et h en .

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS ITS NO - 3 3 , N o -3 4 , N o -3 5 ZEZERE VALLEY :

BEL MONTE REGION

T he s u rveyed a r ea s o f V is i t 's No 3 3 , No 3 4 a nd N o 3 5 s hou ld p rope r ly n o th ave b een g iven s epa ra te V i s i t n umbe r s a nd i nf a c ts hou ld b ec on s ide red a s ac on t inua t ion o fV is i tN o 3 1 . T he t h ree v i s i t sw e re af u r the rs ea rch ing f o rl o ca l t i n m ine ra l w i th in t h eZ eze r e , Ma ca inha sa nd I ngu ia sR ive ra r ea s . T he t h ree v i s i t s w e re made t o l o ca t ions wh ich A n ton io A ugu s to d a C unhz Ma rgue s ( r e s iden t l o ca l a r chaeo log is t , B e lmon te )s a id m igh th ave s u r f a ce s l ag e v idence . N one o f t h e v i s i ted s i te s p roduced a ny s u r face s l ag o r t i n m ine ra l s amp le s .

1 14

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S urvey

C hap te r8

V IS IT NO 3 6

CASTELO -BEL MONTE

PROV INCE :

BE IRA BA IXA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

BELMONTE

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 7 ° 1 9 ' 5 0 " -NORTH : 4 0° 2 1 ' 2 0 " BEL MONTE n o 2 25 1 : 25 .000 1 970

P ho to 3 6

C a s te lo -Be lmon t e , a r ea t o No r th o fc a s t le k eep w he re s ome s l ag f r agmen t s f ound -v i ew t oS ou th We s t

T he Med ieva l C a s t le a r ea o f t h e t own o f B e lmon te w a s a no the r l o ca t ion m en t ioned b y A n ton io A ugus to d a C unhz Ma rgue s ( r e s iden t l o ca l a r chaeo log i s t ,Be lmon te , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 994 )a sh av ing s u r f ace a nd e xcava ted s l ag . H es a id t h a th ek new t h a ts l ag h ad b een f ound t h e re d u r ing a n a r cha eo log ica l e xcava t ion w h ich h ad t a ken p lace w i th in t h e C a s t le w a l ls . I n t h is e xcava t ion o n ly s ma l l amoun t s o f R oman p o t te ry h ad b een f ound . No B ronze a ge p o t te ry a ppea r ed d u r ing t h ee xcava t ion . Id i dn o tf i nd a ny s l ag i n s ide t h e C a s t le w a l ls b u ti nt h e a r ea d i r ec t ly t ot h e No r th /Ea s t , j u s t o u t s ide t h e w a l ls , Id id f i nd s ome s u r f a ce s l ag . Ia l so f ound s u r face s l ag b o th o n t h e N o r th /We s t s l ope a nd o n S ou th /Ea s t s l ope o f t h e h i l l o n w h ich t h eC a s t le w a sc on s t ruc ted ( Pho to 3 6 ) . Ic o l lec t ed a bou t 6 5 p i ece s o fs u r f ace s l ag f r om a round t h e B e lmon t e C a s t le a r ea ( Pho to 4 6 ) . I tw ou ld b e i mpo s s ib le t o p u t a ny d a te o n a ny o f t h is s u rf a ce s l ag a s i tc ame f r om a u rban a r ea t h a t h ad b een c on t inuous ly i nhab i ted s i nce t h e Med ieva lp e r iod a nd p e rhap se ven e a r l ie r .

1 15

Iw a s h op ing t h a t a tl e a s t s ome o ft h e c o l lec ted s l ag w ou ld p rove t ob e t i n s l ag a s t h e t own o fB e lmon te i sr i gh t i nt h e c en t re o f av e ry r i ch c a s s i te r i te m ine ra lr e g ion . Ic u t , moun ted a nd a na lysed o n t h e S EM a tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy t wen ty f ou r s amp le s o ft h e s ur fa ce s l ag f r om B e lmon te w i th v e ry d i sappo in t ing r e su l t s ( Samp le N o 's 3 13 6 a nd S amp le N o ' s 5 3 -70 , p age s 1 52 -154 ) . N o t i n o re ven t r ace s o f t i n w e re p re sen t i n a ny o f t h e a na lysed s amp les . O nce a ga in t h e r e su l t s o ft h e S EM a na lys i sp o in ted t oa l l t h e s l ag b e ing t h e p roduc t o f i r on s me l t ing o r s m i th ing . Ih ad h oped t h a t a tl e a s t o ne o rt wo p iece s o ft h e t wen ty f ou rs l ag s amp le s f r om B e lmon te m igh tc on ta in s ome t r a ce s o ft i n . T he r e su l t s o f a l l t h e a na lyse o f t h e B e lmon te s l ag a r e p re sen ted i nt h e A na ly s i s c hap te r . I ts t i l l d oe s s e em s t range t h a t i n at i n m ine ra l r eg ion a s r i ch a nd a sw e l l k now a s t h e Z eze re V a l ley t h a t a ny r ea l e v idence o f t i n s me l t ing i s l a ck ing , e xcep tf o rt h e s u r face a nd e xcava ted R oman t i n s l ag f r om t h e T o r re R omana a r ea . Is ha l l k eep l o ok ing f o rf u r the r e v idence o f t i n s l ag o n my n ex t v i s i t t ot h e Z eze r e v a l ley a r ea i nt h e l a te s p r ing o f 1 995 .

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 3 7

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

POVADO DA MISERICORDIA S ERPA /PORTUGAL

T h is v i s i t t o as uppo sed c oppe r s me l t ing f u rnace s wh ich Monge S oa re s o ft h e Qu im inca I c en l ine t i , L i sbon h ad f ound w i th in t h e S ou th P o r tugue se P yr i te B e l tg eo log ica l r eg ion . T herefo re t h is v i s i t s i te w i l l n o t b e d i scussed i n t h is d i s se r ta t ion o nt h et i n s u rvey .

1 16

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 3 8

MINA d e S an EXPEDITO

P ROV INCE :

CACERES

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

CACERES

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 °2 1 ' 5 0 " -NORTH : 3 9° 2 3 ' 5 8" HOJA 7 04 CACERES 1 : 50 .000 1 975 2 A e d

P ho to 3 7

M ina d e S an E xped i to , t r ench m ine c u t t ing v e in i nf o reg round -v i ew t oN o r th E a s t

T h e M ina d e S an E xped i to i sl o ca ted a bou te i gh tk i lome t re s t ot h e S ou th /Ea s to fC a ce re s a tk i lome t res 2 22 o n t h e N6 30 r oad t r ave l l ing i n t h e d i rec t ion o f Mer ida . T he re a r e t wo m ine s l o ca ted w i th in ak i lome t re o fe ach o the r i nt h i s a r ea . T he M ina d e l aU n ion i sa ta bou tk i lome t re 2 21 .5 o n t h e N 6 30 a nd a bou t ak i lome t re t ot h e N o r th / We s to ft h e M ina d e S n E xped i to ( wh ich i n s ome b ook s i sr e f e red t oa s t h e E l T ra squ i l ion M ine ) . T he k i lome t r e s 2 22 a nd 2 21 .5 o ft h e N 6 30 a r et h ed i s tance f r om Mad r id .T he se k i lome t re r e f e rence s f r om Mad r id a r ep o s ted o n a l l n a t iona l r oad s a nd ma rked o n s ome m ap s . B o th o ft h e t wo m ine s s eem t oh ave b een c l o sed d own f o r s ome t ime . T he re i sn o t r a ce l e f t o f t he M ina d e l aU n ion w h ich i sl o ca ted o n t h e No r th /Ea s tern e dge o f ag ran i te c upo la , [ i n ac on tac t m e tamo rpho sed s ha le a r ea w h ich w a s i n jec t ed w i th m ine ra l ised q ua r tz c a r ry ing v e ins ( Dunn ing e t a l . , 1 989 , 1 37 ) ]

1 17

Ic ou ld n o te ven s e e e xac t ly w he re t h eU n ion m ine h ad b een , e ven w hen a cco rd ing t o my m ap sa nd r e f e rence s Iw a sa lmo s t d i rec t ly o n t op o fi t . J us t t o t h e No r th /Ea s t o f t h e M ina E xped i to i s as ma l l d ammed l a ke ( p robab ly b u i l t t o s t o re w a te r f o r t h e m ine w a sh ing o pe ra t ions ) . T he m ine ra l s m ined c on ta ined S n , N b , T aa nd w e re c ompo sed o fi r regu la rs t ock w o rk v e in ss c a t t e r ed t h rough o u t t h e g ran i te ( Ochoa , 1 987 , 1 00 ) . T he m in ing p roces s a t M ina E xped i to a l so i n c luded t he w o rk ing o f s e conda ry a l luv ia l a nd e l uv ia l d epo s i t s i nt h e a r ea ( Dunn ing e ta l . , 1 989 , 1 37 ) . T he o n ly r emnan t s a tt h e M ina d e S an E xped i to , ( c lo sed d own i n 1 984 ) a r e s ome s ma l l /med ium t r ench m in ing c u t s r unn ing N o r th /Ea s t t oS ou th / Wes t a nd s ome m ed ium s i zed w a s t e h eap s b e low t h e d am a r ea ( Pho to 3 7 ) . I tw a s n o t e a sy t oi d en t if y t h eE xped i to m ine a r ea a tf i r s td ue t ot h ec omp le te l a ck o f modern m in ing e v idence , n o r u ined b u i ld ing s o ro l d r u s t ing m in ing m ach ine ry .

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

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S OO.

G eo log ica l P lan o ft h e s t ruc tu re o fE l T ransqu i lon , ( Ga l lego M . 1 992 ) Mo le ro , C .A . , 1 993 , 2 03

G eo log ica l ly t h e m ine ra l ised a r ea o f t h e M ina d e S an E xped i to M ine i s ac upo la g ran i te e x t rus ion , w h ich i sa s u r f ace p ro jec t ion f r om al a rge ra nd d eepe rg ran i te b ody . T he E xped i to M ine g ran i te i s g re isen ized ( a p rocess o f h yd ro the rma l a l te ra t ion ) a nd i s made u p o fq ua r tz , m ica a nd t o paz a ccompan ied b y t ou rma l ine , f l uo r i te , n i t i le c a ss i te r i te a nd w o lf ram i te ( F ig 8 . 10 ) . P a r t s o f t h e g ran i te b ody o f E xped i to h ad a l so b een k ao l in ized ( Mo le ro , 1 993 ,9 4 -5 ) . Is pen t h a lf ad ay s u rvey ing t h e E xped i to m ine a r ea a nd t h e o n ly s u r fa ce f i nd w a s o ne p i ece o fp o t te ry . If ound t h ep i ece o fp o t te ry a bou t 1 00 me te r s t ot h e S ou th / We s t o ft h e C a sa d e lT ran squ i l ion .

A lonso R od r igv ez D ia zo ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fC a ce re sb e l ieve s t ha tt h ep i ece o fp o t te ry c ou ld r e p re sen t ap er iod e a r l ie rt h an t he L a te B ronz e A ge , b u t mo re p o t tery s h e rd s n eed t o b e l o ca ted b efo re a ny th ing d ef in i te a bou t d a te s c an b e d ec ided a bou tt h eC a s s i t e r i t eE xped i to s i t ea r ea . T he M ina d e S a n E xped i to i s ai n t e re s t ing s i t e d ue t ot h e t i n m ine ra l b e ing a lmo s t o n t h e s u r fa ce a nd t h e r ef o re v e ry e a sy t o m ine . Unfo r tuna te ly n o s u r face e v idence o f a nc ien t m in ing o r s me l t ing w a s f o und a tt h e s i te . Iw i l l v i s i tt h i s s i te a ga in a nd d of u r the rs u r f a c es u rvey w o rk i nt h en ea rf u tu re .

1 18

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 3 9

EL MINA TERRUCO

PROV INCE :

CACERES

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

TRU J ILLO

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 2 ° 1 4 ' 0 0 " -NORTH: 3 9° 2 8 ' 5 0 " HOJA 7 05 TRUJ ILLO 1 : 50 .000 l ae d 1 958

E lM ina T e r r uco i sl i s ted a s av e in a nd a l luv ia l t i nm ine w i th t h e v e in sr unn ing i n aNo r th /Ea s t -Sou th/We s td i rec t ion . T he v e in sa r ec ompo sed o fq ua r tz a nd c a s s i te r i te a nd e nca sed i na t wo m ica g ran i te r ock ( Ocha , 1 987 , 1 01) .

T he d i r t t r ack a l ong t h e R io Maga sea w a s b locked b y a l o cked g a te a nd ak eep o u t s i gn . It h en t r i ed u n suce s sfu l ly t o d r ive t ot h e m ine s i te u s ing s ome d i r t t r ack s t ot h e e a s t o f t h e s i te .

Id ec ided t ov i s i t t h is m ine a si tw a s l i s ted i nL aM ine ra E n E x t remadu ra a s b e ing b o th a n a l luv ia l a nd a v e in d epo s i t M ine . I ts e emed t o me t ha t t h e q ua r tz a nd c a ss i te r i te v e in s m ine ra l iza t ion wou ld h ave b een o nt h e s u r f ace a nd t h e refo re w ou ld h ave b een v i s ib le a nd a va i lab le t oa nc ien t man .

Id id a sk s ome l o ca l f a rme r s i nt h e a r ea i ft h ey k new w he re t h e m ine w a s o r a ny th ing a bou t i t .T hey s a id t h a t i tb een a s ha f t a nd g a l le ry m ine t ha t h ad b een a bandoned f o r s ome y ea r s . T he g a l le ry i sn ow b locked a nd t h e o n ly t h ing t h a t d i s t ingu ishes t h e s i te a r e t he r u ins o f af ew o ld m ine b u i ld ing s . Iw i l l t r y t ov i s i t t h e E l T e r ruco s i te a ga in , i ti s mo s t p robab le t h a t Ic an o n ly f i nd i tb y w a lk ing t o t h e s uppo sed a r ea w he re i ti sl o ca t ed .

U nfo r tuna te ly Ih ad n o s ucce s s i nf i nd ing t h e f o rme r m ine s i te a ta l l . T he a bandoned m ine s i te i ss upposed t ol i e 21 / 2 k i lome t re s t ot h e No r th o ft h e N5 21 o n t h e E a s t s i de o ft h e R io Maga sea .

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T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 4 0

MINA LA PERIZA - MONTANCHEZ

PROV INCE :

CACERES

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

MONTANCHEZ

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 2 ° 2 8 '00 " -NORTH : 3 9° 1 2 ' 2 0 ' HOJA 7 30 MONTANCHEZ 1 : 50 .000 l ae d 1 948

P ho to 3 8

M ina L aP e r iza , Mon tanchez -v i ew t oS ou th We s t

Ih ad b een l ook ing f o r t h e c a ss i te r i te m ine ra l m ine s i nt h e Mon tanchez a r ea f r om t h e s t a r t o f my s u rvey w o rk , b u t h ad n o s ucce s si nf i nd ing a ny r e f e rence st h a tw ou ld l e dm et ot h e e xa c tl o ca t ion o ft h ea bandoned Mon tanchez m ine s .

T he Mon tanchez g r an i te i sl o ca ted i no ne o ft h e t h e s ou the rn b ounda ry a r ea s o f amuch l a rge r s t ock g ran i te f i e ld w h ich i s a pp rox ima te ly 5 0 k i lome t res E a s t / Wes t a nd 2 0 k i lome t re s N or th /Sou th .

T he m ine ra l sf r om t h e Mon tanchez a r ea M ine sa r eo nd i sp lay a tt h e G eo logy Mu seum i n Me rd ia . D u r ing my 1 994 s u rvey t r ip t h ec u s tod ian o ft h eG eo logy Mu seum i n Me rd ia ,T oma s P or ro Mayo w a s a b le t o f i na l ly o b ta in a nd g ive t o m e , a p ho tocopy o fS o s B ayna t ' s w o rk o n t h eM ine s , M ine ra ls a nd G eo logy o f t h e S ier ra D e Mon tanchez ( 1981) . T h is s ma l l p ub l ica t ion o f o n ly t e n p ages h e lped me t o l o ca te t h e c a ss i te r i te m ine ra la r ea s , w h ich Ih ad b een l o ok ing f o ro n t h e S i e r ra D e Mon tanchez .

A lmo s ta l l o ft h ec a s s i te r i te m ine s o n S ie r ra D e Mon tanchez w e re w o rked b y t h e d igg ing o f s ma l l o pen c a s t p i t s f o l low ing t h e s u r f ace m ine ra l ised v e ins ( So s B ayna t , 1 981 , 9 ) .

T he c a s s i te r i te a nd w o lf ram i te o ft h e Mon tanchez a r ea a r e f ound o n ly i n t h in q ua r tz v e ins r unn ing i n aN o r th /Ea s t d i rec t ion a nd o r ig ina te f r om p egma t i te f o rmed g r an i te r o ck ( So s B ayna t , 1 981 , 5 ) . 1 20

A l l t h e m ine s i nt h e S i e r ra D e Mon tanchez h ave n ow b een a bandoned a nd h ave n o tb een w o rked f o rs ome y ea r s . S o s B ayna t m en t ions t e n m ine a rea s i n t h e S ier ra D e Mon tanchez w h ich h ave b een w o rked i nt h e p a s t f o r e i the r c a s s i te r i te o rw o lf ra rn i te .

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

Id ec ided t ot r y a nd f i nd t h e L a P e r iza m ine a r ea a si ts e em s t oh ave b een t he l a rge s t . I tt ook af ew h ou r s t of i nd w ha t I b e l ieved t ob e t he L a P er iza m ine a r ea . T h is m ine a r ea i s l o ca ted a pp rox ima te ly 2a nd 1 / 2k i lome t re sd i rec t ly S ou th o f t h et own o f Mon tanchez .

Id ec ided t h a t Iw ou ld make a no the r v i s i t t ot h e L a P e r iza M ine w hen Ih ad mo re t ime a nd i n ad i f f e ren t s ea son o ft h e y ea r , p e rhap s l a te s umme r e a r ly a u tumn , a tt h i s t ime o ft h e y ea rt h es h rub a nd g round v ege ta t ion s hou ld h opefu l ly n o tb e s od en se .

O nce f i nd ing t he m ine a r ea Iw a s n o t a b le t od o as u r f ace s u rvey d ue t ot h ev e ry d ange rou sc i r cum s tance s wh ich e x i s ted a tt h e L aP e r iza m ine . T he m ine a r ea c on s i s ted o fn ume rou s u ncove r ed m ine a nd m ine ra l e xp lo ra t ion p i t s ; s ome q u i te d eep . A lmo s t a l l o f t h e m ine p i t s w ere c ove red o r e ven c oncea led b y v e ry d en se Med i te r ranean s h rub a nd g round v ege ta t ion . Wande r ing a round am ine a r ea o f t h is n a tu re c ou ld b e a n e x t reme ly d ange rou s a c t iv i ty ( Pho to 3 8 ) . A ny s u rvey w o rk d one mu s t b e d one w i th t h e u tmos t c au t ion , w h ich Id i dn o th ave t h et ime f o rd u r ing my s ho r tv i s i t .

If ound n oe v idence o fa nc ien tm e ta l lu rgy e i the ro n my w a lk t o t h e L a P e r iza m ine o r i n a ny o f t h e g ran i te r ock a r ea s u r round ing t h e m ine , t ot h e Nor th a nd We s t . If e e l t h a tt h is i s ac a ss i te r i te m ine s i te t ha t c ou ld y i e ld a nc ien t m in ing r ema ins i ft he se r ema ins h ave n o t b een c ove red u p o r d e s t royed b y l a te rm in ing a c t iv i t ie s . T he a r ea o ft h e t own o f Mon tanchez h a s y i e lded s ome e v idence o fh uman a c t iv i ty i n t h e L a te B ronze Age ( I gnac io P avon S o ldev i la , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , U n ive r s i ty C ace re s , 1 994 ) .

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T he A rcha eome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

C hap te r 8

V IS IT NO 4 1

MINAS DONINOS d e LEDES MA

P ROV INCE :

SALAMANCA

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

DON INOS d e LEDES MA

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 6 ° 0 1 ' 3 5" -NORTH : 4 0° 5 9 '35" HO JA 4 77 -1 SANDO 1 : 25 .000 l ae d 1 990

P ho to 3 9

M ina s D on ino s d e L ede sma -v i ew t oS ou th Wes t

T he M ina s D on ino s d e L edesma m ine a r ea i sl i s ted a s a s ma l l c a ss i te r i te /wo lf ram i te m ine n o t f a r f r om t h e G o lpe ja s M ine ( Con se je r ia d eE conom ina yH a c ienda -Ca s t i l la Y L eon , 1 988 , 8 4 ) . T he a bandoned m ine a rea i s l o ca ted t wo k i lome t re s t o t he S ou th / Wes t o f t he s ma l l v i l lage o f D on inos d e L edesma ( t en k i lome t res d i rec t ly Wes t o f G o lpe ja s) . G eo log ica l ly t h e M ina s D on ino s d eL ede sma i sc l o se t ot h e e dge o f av e ry l a rge g r an i te c ons i s t ing o fb io t i te p o rphy ry , a c oa r se g ra ined g ran i te w h ich i si n ten se ly f o lded . T he m ine i t se lf c ove r s q u i te a l a rge a r ea a nd c ons is t s o f n ume rou s s ma l l m ine w o rk ing s o f v e in s o fq ua r tz l y ing v e r t ica l ly i n t h e g ran i te . T he t h in q ua r tz v e ins r un i n ag ene ra l E a s t /We s t d i rec t ion a nd a r e m ine ra l ised w i th c a s s i te r i te , w o lf ram i te , p y r i te , a r senopy r i te , m a lach i te a nd a zu r i te ( Conse je r ia d e E conom ina yH a c ienda -Ca s t i l la Y L eon , 1 988 ; 8 4 ) .

1 22

T he a bove d esc r ip t ion makes M ina s D on inos a v e ry i n te re s t ing m ine a r ea . Mo s to ft h eq ua r tz v e in sw e re p robab ly v i s ib le o n t h e s u r fa ce a nd c ou ld e a s i ly h ave b een s e en a nd w o rked b y a nc ien t man . T he m ine ra ls p r e sen t a tt h i s m ine c a s s i te r i t e , p y r i te , ma lach i te a nd a zur i te c ou ld h ave a l l b een u sed b y a nc ien tm an . My v i s i t t o t h i s m ine a nd t h e d ay s pen t d o ing a w a lk ing s u r fa ce s u rvey p roduced n o s u r f a ce p o t te ry o ra ny e v idence o f a nc ien t m in ing o rs me l t ing a c t iv i t ies . O nce a ga in w ha t h ad s e emed i nt h ep ub l i shed l i t e ra tu re l i ke ag ood a nc ien tm in ing a nd m e ta l lu rg ica l s i te h ad p roduced n o r e su l t s . P e rhap s t h e q ua r tz m ine ra l ised v e ins w e re t o o t h in a nd d i spe r sed t oh ave b een n o t iced a nd u s ed b ya nc ien t man . A no the r v i s i t t ot h i s s i te i sn ece s sa ry i nt h e f u tu re .

C hap te r 8

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

V IS IT NO 4 2

MINA DE BERROCAL

PROV INCE :

BADA JOZ

MUN IC IPAL ITY :

MERD IA

CO -ORD INATES :

WEST : 2 ° 3 8 ' 2 0 " -NORTH : 3 8° 5 2 ' 2 0 " HOJA 7 77 MERD IA 1 : 50 .000 l ae d 1 94 1

P ho to 4 0

M ina d e B e r roca l , n o r the rn s i de o fg r an i te m ine a r ea -v i ew t oS ou th We s t

T he M ina d e B e r roca l i sa no the r m ine w h ich Ih ad h ea rd a bou t b u t c ou ld n o t f i nd u n t i l , a s men t ioned e a r l ie r t h e c us tod ian T oma s P o r ro Mayo o f t h e G eo logy Museum i n Me rd ia g ave me ap ho tocopy o f aS o s B ayna t b ook wh ich c on ta ined more d e ta i led i n forma t ion o n t he a c tua l s i te l o ca t ion ( So s B ayna t , 1 965 , 2 19 & 2 24 ) . I ts eem s t ha t t h e B er roca l M ine h a s n o t wo rked f o r s ome t ime . I ti s n o t men t ioned i n a ny o the r mo re r e cen t m ine ra l /geo log ica l p ub l ica t ion st ha t Ih ave o nE x t remadu ra . T he B e r roca lM ine i sl o ca ted e xa c t ly a tk i lome t re f i ve o n t h e r oad b e tween Me r ida t oA lange . T h i s r oad f o l low s t h e We s t b ank o ft h e G uad iana . T he s i te f r om w h ich Ic o l lec ted t h e s u r f a ce f i nds ( po t te ry a nd s t one t o o ls ) ( D raw ing No 's 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 , p age s 1 26 -128 ) i sl o ca ted b e tween t h e G uad iana a nd t h e E a s t s i de o ft h e r o ad ( Pho to 4 1) . J u s tt ot h e s ou th o ft h e s i te a r e ac omp lex o f r u ined m ine b u i ld ings ; l a s t u sed i n t h e 1 950 ' sa nd 1 960 ' s . 1 23

Mo s t o ft h e modern m in ing a c t iv i ty p robab ly t ook p la ce t o t h e We s t o ft h e r oad i nt h e ma in g ran i te a pp rox ima te ly o ne k i lome t re b y o ne k i lome t re i na r ea . G eo log ica l ly t h e B er roca l m ine a r ea i s o ne o f t h ree a pophy ses o f g ran i te , l o ca ted a l ong t h e G uad iana t o t h e S ou th o f Me r ida . I ti sl i ke ly t h a tt h e se g ran i te s a r ec onnec ted t ot h e b a tho l i th o f Me rd ia . T ot h eN o r th o fB e r roca la tk i lome t re t h ree a l ong t h e Me r ida A lange r oad i st h e F ernand ina -Can ta r rana s a pophy s i s w h ich i st h e l a rges t o ft h e t h r ee . T h is g ran i te a r ea r uns u nde r t h e G uad iana a nd s u r f ace s d i rec t ly o ppo s i te o n t h e E a s t s i de o f t h e r i ve r . I ti sa pp rox ima te ly f i ve k i lome t re s l o ng a nd a bou t o ne k i lome t r ew ide .

C hap te r 8

T he A rchaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

P ho to 4 1

M ina d eB e r roca l , l ook ing a ts e t t lemen ta r ea b y G uad iana R ive r t ol e f th and s i de o f 1 950 ' s m ine b u i ld ing s -v i ew t oE a s t

Two k i lome t re s S ou th o f B e r roca l a l so t o t h e We s t o f t h e Me r ida -A lange r oad i st h et h i rd a pophy s i sc a l led C o sco ja ; t h e s ma l le s to ft h et h ree a pp rox ima te ly 1 / 2 b y 1 / 2 ak i lome t re i n a r ea .

I s o la ted G o ld n ugge t sw e re r e po r ted b yt h em ine r sw o rk ing a t B e r roca l M ine i nt h e 1 960 ' s , b u t S os B ayna tw a s n o ta b le t o c onf irm i n h i s g eo log ica l s u rveys o f t h e a r ea i fg o ld d id a c tua l ly e x i s tt h e re .

T he f o rma t ion o ft h e B e r roca l g ran i te i sH e rcyn ian i no r ig in ( a pp rox ima te ly 2 80 m i l l ion y ea r s o ld ) a nd i sa l igned i n a N o r th /We s td i rec t ion . C o sco ja , t h e mo s t s ou the rn a pophys i s i s ad i or i te . B e r roca l a nd F e rnand ina -Can ta r rana s a r en o rma l g ran i te , a nd g ran i te w i th t wo m ica s . L oca ted w i th in t h e g ran i te o fB e r roca l a r e v e in s w h ich c on ta in q ua r tz a nd o the r m ine ra ls . T hese v e ins r un i n N o r th / We s t a nd N o r th /Ea s t d i rec t ions . P egma t i te s a r e a l so p r e sen ta nd c a r ry s ome o ft h e m ine ra l i sa t ion ( So s B ayna t , 1 965 , 9& 2 29 & 2 86 ) .

C e r ta in ly t h em ine ra logy o ft h eB e r roca lm ine a r ea i su n ique . I n te re s t ing ly i tc on ta ins v a r iou s m ine ra l s t h a t a nc ien t m an w ou ld h ave b een a b le t or e cogn ise a nd w o rk . Mo s t o f t h e m ine ra l sa ppea r ed i ns u r f ace q ua r tz v e in si nt h eg ran i t ew h ich w ou ld h ave e a s i ly b een v i s ib le t oa nc ien tm an .

T he m ine ra l isa t ion p resen ta tB e r roca lw a s mo s t ly c a s s i te r i te , w h ich a ppea r s i n b o th v e ins a nd a l luv ia l d epos i t s , a nd w o lf ram i te w h ich a ppea r si nv e in d epo s i t so n ly .A lso p re sen t i n v a ry ing amoun t s i s s chee l i te , c ha lcopyr i te , c i nnaba r , p y r i te , a zur i te a nd ma la ch i te . Me rcu ry a ppea r s i nl i qu id f o rm i n t h e a l luv ia l s o i ls i n t h e a r ea a s d oes a r que r i te ( Ag ,Hg ) w i th H g ( So s B ayna t , 1 965 , 3 05 -8 ) .

1 24

Ih ave s o f a r s p en t a bou t t wo d ays d o ing s u r fa ce s u rvey a t B e r roca l . T he s ma l l s i te a r ea b e tween t h er oad a nd G uad iana R ive r ( No r th o ft h e r u in s o ft h e m ine c r u sh ing a nd w a sh ing b u i ld ings ) h a s b een t h e mo s t f r u i tfu l a r ea w i th s u r f ace p o t te ry a nd s t one t o o l s . T he s t one t oo l s a r e v a r ied a nd i n c lude af l a t s t one h amme r , b u tc ou ld r ep re sen tu se f r om m any d i f f e ren ta nc ien tp e r iod s . I ti sa l so i mpo s s ib le a tt h is s t age o f t h e s u rvey t o t i e t h e p o t te ry a r ea s i te t om in ing a nd m e ta l lu rgy , t h e p o t te ry c ou ld p e rhap s o n ly r e p re sen t ah un t ing c amp o r s ma l l e a r ly a r g icu l tu re s e t t lemen ts i te .

C hap te r 8

T he A r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l S u rvey

T he m a in g r an i te a r ea t ot h e E a s t o ft he r oad i sq u i te l a rge a nd Ih ave s of a ro n ly s pen t ad ay s u rvey ing t h is a r ea . Ih ave p robab ly o n ly w a lked a nd l o oked a tl e ss t h an aq ua r te ro ft h e t o ta l a r ea . Much mo r e s u rvey t ime w i l l n eed t ob e s pen t i n t h eB e r ro ca lg ran i te m ine a r ea ( Pho to 4 0 ) . W i th in t h e ma in B e r roca l g ran i te t h e r ed oe sn o ts e em t oh ave b een as i ng le l a rge m in ing a r ea , r a the r as e r ie s o fs ma l l a nd med ium o pen c a s t c u t s a nd t r enche s . S ome o f t h e se w e re p robab ly o n ly m ine ra le xp lo ra t ion t r enche s . A lso p r e sen ta r e s ome a r ea s wh ich h ave b een u sed a sg ran i t e s t one q ua r r ie s , mos t p robab ly f o r b u i ld ing s t one u se i n Me rd ia . I ti sp robab le t h a t s ome o ft h e g ran i te q ua r r ie s a r e a s econda ry u se a f te rt h e a r ea w a sm ined o u t . S o f a rv e ry f ew f r agmen t so fs u r f ace p o t t e ry h ave b een f ound w i th in t h em ine a r ea a nd t h ep o t te ry o ft h em ine a r ea i sn o to f ag ood e nough q ua l i ty t ou s ef o rd ef in i te a r chaeo log ica ld a t ing e v idence . T he n o r the rn a r ea o f t h e g ran i te p roduced a f ew p robab le s u r f ace s t ones c lo se b y p i t / t rench c u t m ine s w h ich m igh t h ave b een u sed a s m in ing h amme r s . H oweve r a no the r p rob lem a r ise s w i th in t h e ma in m ine g ran i te a r ea . Moder n m ine r s w o rk ing a tB e r roca l l i nt h e 1 960 's w ou ld p robab ly h ave e xpanded a ny a nc ien t o pen c a s t p i t s a nd t r enche s t h ey w ou ld h av ee ncoun t e r ed . B e r roca l d ue t o i t s m ine ra l a bundance a nd v a r ia t ion a nd l o ca t ion b yt h e Gu iad iana s hou ld b e ap r ime s i te f o re v idence o f a nc ien t m in ing a nd m e ta l lu rgy . T he p rob lem s t i l l r ema in ing w i th t h e B e r roca l s i te i s f i nd ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd m e ta l lu rg ica l s u r f ace e v idence t h a t w i l l t i e a nc ien t man t ot h eB e r roca lg ran i t em ine a r ea . Mo re s u rvey wo rk s t i l l n eeds t o b e d one a tt h i s s i te . A lso mo re e f f o r tn eed st ob em ade t ol e a rn mo re a bou tt h e moder n m in ing o pe ra t ions t h a tt o ok p l a ce a tB e r roca l . Im ad e t h ree f u r the r v i s i t s t o t h e B e r roca l s e t t lemen t a nd m ine a r ea s i n Ap r i l /May 1 995 . Du r ing my f i r s t v i s i t I c o l le c t ed mo re s ur fa ce p o t tery a tt h e s e t t lemen t s i te b y t h e G u iad iana R ive r .

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I n my s econd a nd t h i rd v i s i t Ic oncen t ra ted mo re o n t h e g ran i te m ine a r ea t r y ing t of i nd e v idence f o ra nc ien tm in ing . T hese v i s i t s t ot h e l owe r No r the rn a r ea o ft h e B e r roca l m ine s i te y i e lded t wo s t one h amme r s f r om w ha t c ou ld h ave b een h eap s o f e a r ly m in ing w a s te d eb r is ( D raw ing N o ' s 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 1 , p age s 1 29 -131) . P o t te ry a nd f l in t w a s a l so f ound h i ghe r u pi nt h e No r the rn p a r to ft h eg ran i te m ine a r ea . A lonso R od r iguez D iaz a nd I gnac io P avon S o ldev i la ( Depa r tmen t° d eH i s to r ia -A rea D eP r eh is to r ia ,U n ive r s idad d e E x t remadu ra , C acere s ) h ave n ow h ad a g ood l o ok a tt h e s ur f ace p o t te ry c o l lec ted i n 1 994 a tt h e B e r roca l l s e t t lemen t s i te . T hey b o th , a t t h is t ime b e l ieve t ha t t h e p o t te ry r epresen t s t he t r ans i t iona l p ha se f r om N eo l i th ic t o C ha lco l i th ic ( Coppe r Age ) w i th in t h e m id G uad iana r eg ion f r om a pp rox ima te ly 2 000 BC t oa bou t 1 800 BC . T he e a r ly p o t te ry f r om t h eB e r roca ls e t t lemen ti fc onnec ted t o t h em ine a r ea ( unp roven t od a te )c ou ld o f f e rt h ep o s s ib ly t h a t g o ld a nd c oppe rw e re b e ing m ined d u r ing t h eC oppe rA ge a t t h eB e r roca lm ine . T he s e t t lemen t a nd g ran i te m ine ra l ized a r ea o fB e r roca l h a s n ow b ecome a much mo re i n te res t ing s i te . T he ma jo r p rob lem f a c ing t h is s i te i s ma t ch ing u p t he m ine a r ea w i th t h e s e t t lemen t s i te . Mo re s u rvey w o rk a nd t ime i sd ef in i te ly n ece s sa ry o nt h eB e r roca ls i te . Iw a s a l so a b le t of i na l ly l o ca te b l a ck a nd w h i te p ho tog raph s a tt h e Me r ida G eo log ica l Mu seum t h a tS os B ayna th ad t a ken d u r ing h i s v i s i t s t ot h e B e r roca l M ine a r ea i nt h e 1 950 's a nd 1 960 's . T hey c l ea r ly s how t h e g ran i te m ine a r ea s b e ing wo rked . Ih ope t ob e a b le t oc opy s ome t h e se p ho tog raph s d u r ing av i s i t t o Me r ida i nt h e l a te A u tumn o re a r ly S p r ing o f 1 995 / 1996 .

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CHAPTER

ANALYTICAL

9

O ne h und red a nd t h ree s amp le s w e re c o l lec ted i n my f i e ld w o rk . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e s amp le s c ame f r om t e n s u rvey s i tes . N o t a l l o ft h e c o l lec ted s amp le s h ave b een a na ly sed . T he s amp le st h a th ad p r io r i ty f o rl a bo ra to ry wo rk w e re s l ag s a sw e l la sf r agmen t so fm e ta l a nd s e lec ted m ine ra l s . Ih ad d ec ided a tt h eb eg inn ing o f my f i e ld s u rvey w o rk t od o av e ry s upe rf i c ia l i d en t i f ica t ion o fm e ta l lu rg ica l a nd m ine ra l s amp le si nt h ef i e ld a nd t h en t ou se l a bo ra to ry a na ly s i sa tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy L ondon a s t h e f i na l a rb i te r f o r i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e c o l lec ted c omp lex a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s amp le s . I ti sd i ff icu l tt ot e l l o ne m e ta l l ic p roce s se x t rac t ive s l ag f r om a no the r i n t h e f i e ld u n le ss u pon b reak ing t he s l ag v i s ib le m e ta l l ic p r i l ls a re p re sen t . I f t h e me ta l l ic p r i l ls a r e n o t v i s ib le i n ab roken p i ece o fs l ag t h en l a bo ra to ry a na lys i s i s a n a bso lu te n ecess i ty f o r e xac t me ta l lurg ica l p roce ss i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h es l ag . Ia l so h ad af u r the r p rob lem d u r ing my s u rvey w o rk . T he a moun t o f s l ag s w h ich If ound i n t h e s u rvey c ons i s ted o f o n ly af ew s ma l l p i ece s [ T re s A r royo s ( 3 ) , T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s ( 12 ) , S an ta E u la l ia ( 1 ) a nd V a ldeF lo res ( 2 ) ] e xcep t a tC a s t le B e lmon te i nP o r tuga l . T he refo re Id i d n o t w an t t ob reak t h e s l ag s pec imens o pen i nt h e f i e ld a s If e l t t h is wou ld b e v e ry w a s tefu l o ft h e s ma l l a moun t a va i lab le f o rl a bo ra to ry s amp l ing . C u t t ing t h e s amp le sw i th ad i amond s aw i nt h el a bo ra to ry w ou ld p rov ide amo re e ff ic ien tw ay f o r f i na l s l ag i d en t if ica t ion s . B y i n c lud ing b o th f i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry w o rk i n my r e sea r ch my l abo ra to ry t ime w a s s omewha t l im i ted , d ue t o t h e a moun t o ft ime t h a t Ih ad a l ready s pen t d o ing f i e ld w o rk . I t h e refo re c ho se S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scopy w i th e ne rgy d i spe r s ive s pec t rome t ry ( SEM /EDS ) f o r m ic roana ly s i s a sa g ene ra l a na ly t ica l i d en t if ica t ion t e chn ique t ha t w a s b o th q u ick a nd e xa c tt ot h ed eg r ee o fi d en t if i ca t ion t h a t In eeded f o r my f i e ld s amp le s . T he m ine ra l s amp le s w h ich Ic o l lec ted i n t h e f i e ld u s ing d ens i ty a nd c r ys ta l i d en t if ica t ion ( i fp o s s ib le ) p re sen ted t h e s ame p rob lem s a s t h e s l ag i . e . l im i ted a moun t o f ma te r ia l . F o r t h is r e a son S EM /EDS l a bo ra to ry i d en t if ica t ion w a s a l so u sed t o c onf i rm o r d i sp rove my f i e ld j udgemen t s o f t h e c o l lec ted m ine ra l s amp les a nd t o p rov ide a mo re p r ec i se e s t ima te o ft h e o r e s 'p u r i ty . B y t h e s e cond a nd t h i rd y ea ro ft h e s u rvey my u nde r s tand ing a nd j udgemen t o f t h e m ine ra ls i n t h e f i e ld h ad i mp roved c ons ide rab ly , b u t l a bo ra to ry a na ly s is S EM /EDS w a s s t i l l n eeded t o g auge t h e o re g rade o f t h e c o l lec ted m ine ra l s amp le s . T he ma jo r i ty o f my a na ly t ica l l a bo ra to ry wo rk t h a t w a s u nde r taken o n my f i e ld c o l lec ted s u rvey s amp le s w a s d one u s ing a q uan t i ta t ive L ink AN 1 0 ( Ene rgy D isper s ive S pec t roscopy ) EDS o n a n ( Scann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scope ) S EM , H i ta ch i Mode l S -570 . T he l a bo ra to ry w o rk w a s d one a tt h e Wo lf son A rchaeo log ica l S c ience sL abo ra to ry ,I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , L ondon d u r ing 1 993 a nd 1 994 . 1 32

METHODS

T he S EM a nd e l ec t ron p robe m ic roana lys is ( EPMA ) a r e s im i la r i nt h a t ab eam o fe l ec t rons i n te ra c t s w i th t h e s u r fa ce o f t he s amp le i n t he s amp le c hambe r , f o r i mag ing a nd s pec t ro scop ic m ic roana lys is . T he u se o f e l ec t ron s o f f e r s much h ighe rm agn if ica t ion c apab i l i t ie s ( o ve r 5 0 ,000 X ) b u t t h i s c onf igu ra t ion f o rh ighe s tr e so lu t ion g i ve s s ha l low d ep th o ff ocu s ; l e s st h an 1 0u M ( Pa rkes , 1 986 , 1 85 -6 ) . T he i mage i sp roduced o n a SE M b y c o l lec t ion o f e i the r b ack sca t te red e l ec t rons o r t h e s econda ry e l ec t rons b e ing e m i t ted f r om t h e s amp le . Wh ich s ys tem o f c o l lec t ion a nd v i ew ing i sb e t t e rd epend so n t h e ma te r ia lo ft h e s amp le b e ing s canned ,t h eq ua l i ty o ft h es amp le s u r f a ce p r epa ra t ion a nd t h e t ype o fi n fo rma t ion b e ing s ough t . T he S EM /EDS o f f e red aq u ick way o fa cqu i r ing t h e b a s ic q ua l i ta t ive e l emen ta l c ompo s i t ion o fe a ch s amp le . T he S EM d oe s n o t d e te c t t r ace e l emen t s , b u t a s ap r ima ry a na ly t ica l me thod i to f f e red a lmo s t a l l t h e i mmed ia t e i n fo rma t ion t h a t w a sr e qu i red . B o th t h e S EM a nd m ic rop robe o f f e r t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o p ho tog raph t h es c anned s amp le . P repa ra t ion o ft h es amp le si n c luded c u t t ing , moun t ing ,a nd a v e ry b r ief o p t ica l m ic ro scope i n terp re ta t ion o f moun ted a nd p o l ished m e ta l lu rg ica l s amp le s b efo re c a rbon c oa t ing a nd f i na l S EM a na ly s i s . A l l t h e s amp les t aken f o r a na lys is w e re c u t f r om t h e c o l lec ted me ta l a r tef ac t s , s l ag s a nd m ine ra l f r agmen t s u s ing e i the r ae l ec t r ic d i amond c i r cu la r s aw o r aj ewe l le r 's h and s aw . T he se s ma l l c u t s amp le s w e re t h en m oun ted i n c l ea r " Epo -Kw ick " E poxy r e s in , w h ich wa s a lowed t oh a rden f o r a tl e a s t 8h ou r s ; n o rma l ly o ve rn igh t . T he moun ted s amp le r e s in b lock s a r e 1 2 mm i nd iame t e ra nd v a ry f r om l Omm -15mm i nh e igh t . T he a c tua l c u t moun t ed s amp le ma te r ia l w i th in t h e r e s in b lock s r a nged i ns i ze f r om 1 2 c m i nt h e c a se o f s l ag s amp les t o 3mm i n s i ze i nt h e c a se o fm ine ra ls amp le s , a nd i n af ew i n s tance s , s amp le s i ze s e ven s ma l le r t h an 1mm w e re a l so moun t ed a nd u sed f o r a na lys is . T he s hape a nd s i ze o ft h e o r ig ina l c o l lec ted s amp le s s l ag s , m ine ra ls a nd m e ta l lu rg ica l f r agmen t s , d e te rm ined h ow much o ft h e s amp le w ou ld b e c u t f o r a na lys i s . I ns ome c a se s t h e o r ig ina l c u t f r agmen t s f r om t h e s amp le s s e emed t oc on ta in n om ean ingfu l i n fo rma t ion , s o as econd o rt h i rd s ec t ion w e re c u to f fu n t i l e i the r av i s ib le m e ta l l ic p r i l l w a se xposed o rt h e i n te rna l s amp le s t ruc tu re u s ing a o p t ica l m ic ro scope h ad a d ef in i te v i s ib le s t ruc tu re . S ome o f t h e c o l lec ted f i e ld s amp les , m e ta l f r agmen t s a nd s l ags h ad a d eep l a ye r o f s ur face c or ro s ion . S ome m e ta l s amp les ' s ub -su rface a r ea s h ad i n te rna l i n terg ranu la r c o r ro s ion . T h i sm ean tt h a tq u i te ad eep c u th ad t ob em ade o n t h e se s amp les i no rde r t ot r y t os amp le a r ea s t h a t wou ld n o t b e c on tam ina ted b y c o r ro s ion p roduc t s , ( wh ich a ga in w a s a d i ff icu l td ec is ion a tt ime s g i ven t h e s ma l l s amp le s ) .

C hap t e r9

A na ly t ica l Me thod s

A l l t h e c i r cu la r moun ted s amp le r e s in b lock s w e re h and g round d own a nd t h en p o l i shed .

T in h a s am ic roha rdne s s o f6 10 H v , b u tm ea su red v a lue s o f m e ta ls a r es ome t ime sh ighe rd ue t oi mpu r i t ie sb e ing p r esen t .

T he s amp le b l ock sw e r ef i r s tg round d own o nv a ry ing g rade s o fw e ta b ra s ive p ape r s ( 120 g r i tt o1 200 g r i t ) t or emove a ny s u r f ace d i s to r t ion o ft h e s amp le s w h ich m igh th ave o ccu r red d u r ing c u t t ing .

T he o ne f a c to r wh ich mu s tr ea l ly l im i tt h eu se o ft h eV icke r s me ta l h a rdnes s t e s t ing o n p r i l ls i n s l ag i sn o t a b so lu te ly k now ing t h e t h ickne ss o f t h e me ta l p r i l l o nce i th a s b een e xpo sed i nt h ec u tp o l ished s ec t ion s . I ti s mo s tp robab le t h a t s ome o ft h e i nden t ion s Imade w e re b e ing r e s i s ted mo re b y t h es l ag b eh ind t h es e c t ioned p r i l lr a the rt h an t h ea c tua lm e ta l mak ing u p t h e p r i l l .

T he s amp le s w e re t h en f u r the r f i ne ly p o l ished o n t wo s epa ra te c i r cu la r Me ta se ry U n ive r sa l t w in g r inde r /po l ishe r s , u s ing p o l i sh ing p ad s a nd d i amond c ompound s a s p o l ish ing a gen t s . T he g r ade so ft h ep o l i sh ing c ompound s u sed w e re 3 0 -um ; 6 um , 1 um a nd 1 / 4 -um . Al i qu id e x tende r f o r t h e d iamond p a s te sw a sa l so u sed d u r ing t h ep o l i sh ing p roce s s . T he p o l ished s ur face o f a l l r e s in s amp les b lock s w e re i n sc r ib ed w i th as c r ibe rt or e co rd t o p( T ) ,b o t tom ( B ) , l e f t( L ) a nd r i gh t ( R ) s ymbo l s n ex t t ot h e embedded c u t /po l ished s amp le . T h i s w a s d one t oe n su re t h a t t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e o r ig ina l s amp le w a s ma in ta ined w i th in t h e S EM s pec imen c hambe r o rw hen e xam ined w i th ao p t ica l m ic ro scope a nd t ha t s amp le s c ou ld a lways b e v i ewed i n t h e a pp rop r ia te p o s i t ion . T he s amp le s w e re t h en v i sua l ly e xam ined i nd e ta i l u nde r a s t e reo o p t ica l m ic roscope . O rd ina ry r e f lec ted l i gh t a nd p o la r ized l i gh t w e re u sed d u r ing t h ese v i sua l m ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion s . T he o p t ica l m icro scope w a s u sed t o a s ses s t h e g ene ra l s t ruc tu r e a nd t o i d en t if y a ny i n c lu s ion s o f s l ag , o x ide s , o r s u lph id e s . A ny p o ro s i ty w i th in t h em e ta l s amp le s w a s n o ted . I d en t if i ca t ion o fa ny m e ta l lu rg ica l s l ag p ha se s w a s b a sed o n o p t ica lp r ope r t ie s . T he o p t ica l m ic ro scope w a s a l so u sed t o l o ca te a nd t o p o ss ib ly i d en t ify a ny me ta l p r i l l s p re sen t w i th in t h e s l ag s t ruc tu r e s . Me ta l l ic p r i l ls f ound w i th in t h e s l ag w e re t h en s t ud ied t ot r y t od e te rm ine v i sua l ly , i fp o s s ib le , w ha t m e ta l w a sb e ing s me l ted . When m e ta l l ic p r i l ls w e re f ound a nd i ft h ey w e re l a rge e nough am icroha rdne s s t e s t w a s c a r r ied o u t u s ing as ma l l V ick e r sO p t ica lM ic ro scope t e s t ing u n i t . H a rdne s s t e s t ing o f m e ta l d oe s n o t g i ve a c omp le te ly a ccu ra te p i c tu re o f t h e m e ta l p r e sen t , i ti so n ly at e s t o ft h e m e ta l 's r e s is tance t o p e r fo ra t ion o r i nden t ing ( Brown , 1 981 , 8 9 ) . T he V icke r s o p t ica l h a rdne ss t e s t a l so h e lped b y g iv ing a p re l im ina ry q u ick i d en t if ica t ion o fm e ta lp r i l l s . I n t h e V icke r s m ic roha rdne s s t e s t , at ime a nd p re ssu re ( 30 s e cond s , 1t o 2 0 K i log ram s ) c on t ro l led p y ram id s haped d i amond i n den ta t ion i s made o nt h e m e ta l p r i l l s u r f ace ; t h en t h e m ea su red l e ng th o r w id th o f t h e p yram id s haped i n den ta t ion i sl o ca ted o n ai d en t if ica t ion c ha r tw h ich a s s ign s as e tm e ta lh a rdne s sv a lue t ot h ei n den ta t ion l e ng th s( Brown , 1 98 1 , 9 1 ) . 1 33

I tw a s a l so a tt h is s t age o ft h e l a bo ra to ry s equence o fw o rk t h a ts ome o ft h ep o l i shed s amp le sw e r ep ho tog raphed u s ing a 3 5mm c ame ra a t ta ched t ot h e o p t ica l m ic ro scope . T ung s ten c o lou r t r an spa rency f i lm w a s u sed f o rt h ep ho tog raph s . T he p ho tog raphy c oncen t ra ted o n p r i l l s a nd s l ag p ha se s t ruc tu re . A l l t h e s amp le b lock s s e lec ted f o r e xam ina t ion i nt h e S EM w e re c a rbon -coa ted i n av acuum c oa t ing u n i t . O n ly o ne s amp le b lock a t at ime w a s i n se r ted i n to t h e S EM /EDS s pec imen c hamber . Two t o f i ve a r ea s w e re a na ly sed o n e ach s amp le . I tw a s n ece s sa ry o n s ome s amp le s t oa na ly se mo re t h an o ne a r ea t oc he ck t h e h e te rogene i ty o f t h em e ta l log raph ic p ha se s . T he a ve rage w a sa bou tt h ree a r ea s a na lysed p e r s amp le . S amp les w h ich w e re u nusua l o r s how ing av e ry d ive r se e l emen t c on ten t n eeded mo re a r ea a na ly s is . T hese s amp les h ad f i ve t os i x a r ea s a na lysed . A l l a na lyse s w e re d one o n a r ea s a tX 8 00 m agn if i ca t ion u s ing a e l ec t ron b eam a pp rox ima te ly < 2 u m i nd i ame te r . T he S EM /EDS l i nked c ompu te rp rog ramme w a s n o t u sed t o n o rma l i se t h e f i na l a na ly t ica l r e su l t s t oo ne h und red p e rcen t . I n s tead t h e b a s ic a na ly t ica l i n fo rma t ion i sp re sen ted e xac t ly a s i tw a s r e co rded f r om t h e S EM c ompu te r p rog ram a f te r ZAP c o r rec t ion s o n ly . T he f i na l r e su l t s i na l l s amp le s a r e a l l p re sen ted i nw e igh tp e rcen t o n ly . Id i d n o tr ound d own f r om t wo d ec ima lp l ace so n a ny o ft h e EDS a na ly s i s . T he EDS d oe s n o t d e tec t o xygen , c a rbon a nd h yd rogen . T he se e l emen t s w e re p re sen t i n mo s t i fn o t a l l t h e s amp les a na lysed b u t o xygen a nd c a rbon v a r ied c ons iderab ly d epend ing o nt h el e ve l o fc o r ros ion w i th in t h es amp le . T he d i f f e rence t oo ne h und red p e rc en t o n t h e f i na l a na ly s is s hee t s a r e a s sumed t or ep re sen t t h e b a lance o f u nde tec ted o xygen o r h yd rogen e l emen t s p re sen t i ne ach s amp le . T he p e rcen tage t o ta ls d of l uc tua te , a nd m ino r amoun t s o fs u lphu r w e re p re sen ti ns ome o ft h e me ta l f r agmen t s . T he f ew b ronze m e ta l s amp le s t h a t h ave s ma l l a moun t s o f a r sen ic p re sen t i n t h e a na lys is ( unde r 2% ) c ou ld p o ss ib ly r ep re sen tt h ep r e sence o fe a r l ie ra r te f a c tf r agmen t sw h ich h ad b een m ixed b y r e sme l t ing . T he se e a r l ie r a r tef ac t s may h ave b een b roken u p a nd r eme l ted a nd r e ca s t a s p a r t o f al a rge r b ronze o b jec tp roduc t ion d u r ing t h eL BA . L ead b ecame g ene ra l ly u sed i nt h eL a t e B ronze A ge t o make c oppe ra nd b ronze e a s ie rt oc a s t ,a nd i ns ome r e g ion sr e ached l e ve l sb e tween 5% -10% ( Ty leco te , 1 992 , 3 5 ) .

A na ly t ica l Me thod s

C hap te r9

T he c oppe r / t in s amp le s a r e c ons ide red w i th in t h e f o l low ing g ene ra lg roup s : Al ow t i n -coppe r m ix tu re 6 12 % t i n r ep re sen t ing o b jec t s w i th av e ry g ood m ix f o r wo rk ing t oo ls o rp o in ted a nd e dged w eapon s . T he se b ronze a r tefac t s w ou ld h ave b een c a s t a nd t h en work h a rdened b y f ur the r s m i th ing u s ing a h amme r ing /annea l ing p roce s s . Ah igh t i n -coppe r m ix tu re 1 2 -17% t i n r ep re sen t ing o b jec t s w h ich w ou ld c omb ine f unc t ion w i th a do rnmen t ( i . e . h o r se t r app ing s , b e l t b uck le s ) o r v e ry h a rd b r i t t le w o rk t oo ls ( i .e . a w l s , n eed le s ) . I ti s mo s tl i k e ly t h a tt h e se h igh t i n a r tef ac t s w ou ld h ave b een c a s to n ly a nd n o tw o rked b y ah ammer ing /annea l ing p roce s s a f te rwa rd s , d ue t ot h e b r i t t le n a tu re t h a tl a rge a moun t s o ft i n b e s tow t ob ronze . T he h igh t i n /coppe rb ronze a r tefac t s wh ich w e re t ob e u sed f o r a do rnmen t w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een p o l ished t o ah igh r e f lec t ive m i r ro r l ike s u r face f i n ish . I n my s ma l l a moun t o f c o l lec ted s u r f ace m e ta l s amp le s , n o h igh t i n -coppe rm ix tu re s s e em t oh ave e x is ted . I n t h e n ea r f u tu re Ip lan t od r i l l w i th ( 0 .6mm a nd 0 . 8 mm d r i l l b i t s ) a l l o f my me ta l s amp les . T he d r i l led m e ta l l ic t u rn ings wou ld t hen b e u sed f o r A tom ic Abso rp t ion S pec t ro scopy a na ly s i s ,t od e tec tm ino rt r ace e l emen t sp re sen t w i th in t h e a r tefac t s a nd p roduce b e t te r a nd mo re e xac t q uan t i ta t ive r e su l t s . A s s t a ted e a r l ie r i ti sa l so h oped i n t h e n ea r f u tu re t o d o f u r the rm e ta l log raph ic a nd m ic ro s t ruc tu re a na ly s is o fs ome o f m y moun t ed m e ta l s amp les . I tw a s d ec ided t h a t t h e A tom ic A bsorp t ion s pec t ro scopy a nd me ta l log raphy w o rk w ere b eyond t h es cope o ft h ep re sen tP hD r e sea r ch . S eve ra l s amp le s( t in / coppe rm ine ra l )f r om t h eG o lpe ja sm ine i nt h e S pan ish p rov ince o f S a lamanca a nd ( t in s l ag ) f r om T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s i nt h e P o r tugue se p rov ince o f B e i ra B a ixa p roved t ob e v e ry u nu sua l . T he refo re t h e se t wo s amp le s r equ i red f u r ther d e ta i led a na lys is . T o c heck a nd c onf i rm t h er e su l t so ft h e p r ima ry ( SE M /EDS ) a na ly s i s . T he s econd a na ly t ica l t e chn ique u sed o n t h ese t wo s amp les w a s aE lec t ron P robe M ic ro -Ana lyse r( EPMA ) . Two d if e ren t M ic rop robe s w e re u sed : o ne i nt h e Wo lf son A rchaeo log ica l S c ience L abo ra to ry ( J eo l S uperp robe ) a nd o ne i n t he B irkbeck G eo logy D epa r tmen t ( J eo l S upe rprobe 7 33 e qu ipped w i th aL ink AM 1 0 ,000 /555 ZAF /4 ) .

1 34

T he M ic rop robe a tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy w a s a l so u sed t os can a nd m ap t h e e l emen t s ( Sn , N b , T i , T a , A l , S i , F e , a nd Mn )p r e sen ti n( Samp le No 2 6 )R oman t i n s l ag f r om T or re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l . T he m ic rop robe s can /mapp ing p roce s st ook a lmos t 3 6h ou r s ; d ue t ot h e l a rge n umbe r o fe l emen t s b e ing s canned . T he r e su l t s w e r e s t o red o n am emo ry d i sc a st h es amp le w a sb e ing s c anned . L a te rt h es t o r ed r e su l t so ft h em ic rop robe m app ing / scan w e re b rough t u p o n t h e m ic rop robe 's c o lou r ed mon i to r s c reen . I t w a s t h en p o s s ib le u s ing , ac ompu te r p rog ram , t op roduce a map o f t h e s l ag c ons is t ing o f a ny s i ng le , d oub le o r t h ree s canned e l emen t si na ny c omb ina t ion . S ing le a nd v a r iou s c omb ina t ions o f t h e mapped e l emen t s w e re t h en p ho tog raphed o f f t he mon i to r s c reen i n c o lou r n ega t ive a nd t r an spa rency f i lm u s ing a3 5mm s t i l l c ame ra . T hese p ho tog raph ic r e su l t s o f f e r ap e rmanen t r e co rd a nd a g ood s t a r t ing p o in t i nt h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e make u p a nd p l acemen tp o s i t ion s o ft h e e l emen t si nt h eu n ique R oman t i n s l ag . T he a bove m ic rop robe s cann ing p roce ss w a s a l so u sed o n S amp le No 8 9 t h e c opper / t in m ine ra l c o l lec ted a t t h e G o lpe ja sm ine , S a lamanca p rov ince , S pa in . XRD ( X ray d i f f rac t ion ) a na lys is w a su sed o nt h e t i n / coppe r m ine ra l s amp le f r om G o lpe ja s a si tw a s d i ff icu l tt oi n te rp re t t h e m ine ra l c ompo s i t ion a nd c oncen t ra t ion u s ing o n ly t h e S EM /EDS a na lys is . XRD e qu ipmen t i n t he B i rkbeck G eo logy D epa r tmen t w a s u sed t o a na ly se t h e t i n / coppe r m ine ra l s amp le f r om t h e G o lpe ja s m ine . XRD ( X -ray d i f f rac t ion ) a na lys is i s p r ima r i ly u sed i n i d en t ify ing t h e c r ys ta l l ine m ine ra ls w h ich a r e p re sen t i n g eo log ica l s amp le s . XRD a na lys is i so rd ina r i ly d one u s ing a p owde r d i f f rac t ion m e thod . A s ma l l s amp le ( be tween 5 1 0mg ) b e ing a na lysed i n t h i s me thod i sc r ushed t o af i ne p owde r . T h i s s ma l l s amp le i st h en p o s i t ioned i nt h ec en t re o f ac y l ind r ica l X -Ray c ame ra . T he c ame ra m onoch roma t ic X r a y b eam sa r er e f lec ted ( no ts ca t te red )b a ck f r om t h ec r y s ta l s i nt h e p owde red s amp le a nd c ap tu r ed o n ad e tec to r o rX -ray f i lm n ega t ive . T he e xpo sed X r ay f i lm i st h en c ompa red t o o the r f i lm s o f l i ke c r ys ta l s o r XRD s t anda rd t a b le s . T he se s t anda rd t a b le sh e lp t oi d en t if yt h ev a r iou sd e t ec ted m ine ra l s . XRD a na lys is i sa b le t od e tec t m in imum c oncen t ra t ion s o f c ry s ta l v a lue s a sl ow a s 1 % t o 1 0% o f t h e w ho le ( Pa rke s , 1 986 , 1 88 -9 1) .

CHAPTER

1 0

ANALYTICAL

RESULTS

EL CERRO DE SAN CRISTOBAL LOGROSAN -V is i t No 4( Pages 5 1-66 ) F ive s amp le s w e re a na lysed . F ragmen t s o ft h ree me ta l o b jec ts ( as pea rpo in t , a c h ise l a nd a f i bu la ) a nd t wo p ieces o f c o l lec ted m ine ra l s amp le s .

( Samp le N o 9 8 ) Two a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is p o ss ib le f i bu la f r agmen t . B o th a na lysed a r ea s w e re a lmos t i d en t ica l a nd r ep re sen ted ab ronze o fa pp rox ima te ly 9% t i n w i th 8 0% c oppe r . A ga in o n b o th a r ea s t he re a ppea red s ma l l t r aces o f s u lphu r .

( Samp le No 4 4 ) F ou r a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is s pea r p o in t me ta l . A l l f ou r a na lys is w e re a lmos t i den t ica l a nd s howed t ha t t h e s pea r p o in t me ta l f r agmen t wa s ab ronze m ix tu re o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 0% t i n w i th 9 0% c oppe r a nd s ome s ma l l t r aces o f s u lphu r a nd c h lor ine wh ich p oss ib ly r e p r esen tc o r ro s ion p roduc t s .

( Samp le N o 1 02 ) S ix a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is m ine ra l s amp le . T he r e su l t s s howed t ha t t h is m ine ra l s amp le i sa p i ece o f A r senopy r i te . T he a r senopyr i te m ine ra l ( FeAsS ) wh ich h ad ah i gh a r sen ic c on ten t2 4% -40% i nf ou ro ft h e s i x a r ea sa na ly sed . ( Samp le N o 1 03 ) Two a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is m ine ra l s amp le . T h is s amp le w a s c a ss i ter i te w i th 6 9% t i n p resen t .

( Samp le No 9 7 ) T h ree a r eas w e re a na lysed o n t h i s m e ta l c h i se l . A l l t h e a r ea s w e re s im i la r a nd r ep resen t ab ronze m ix o fa pp rox ima te ly 8 -9% t i n w i th 7 7% c oppe r . O n t wo o ft h e a na lysed p o in t ss ma l lt r ace s o fs u lphu rw e re a l so d e tec ted .

EL CERRO DE

I

% . % As

, % Cu

SAN CRISTOBAL

Sn

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Pb

S

F e

S i

Ca

Al

C l

K

TOTAL

LOGROSAN

,

V is i t 4

-

METAL

11 .51 A rea 1 7 5 .92 _

S amp le N o 4 4

7 .62 , 1.70 A rea 2 8 ,

0 .59

S PEARPO INT

A rea 3 8 9 .95 1.62

0 .55 '

2 0 .2 .93

A rea 4 9 6 .77

'

-0 .49

-

8 .89

,

-

0 .22

.

0 .15 0 .12 ,

,

CH ISEL -

METAL S am p le N o 9 8 F IBULA

7 .26 9 .11 , rea 1-7 .A A rea 2 7 7 .10 7 .96 A rea 3 7 1• 6 4. 8 .09 ,

,

V

-

.

8 8 .15 1 00 1 02 1 06

.

,

METAL S amp le N o 9 7

-

0 .23

,

0 .21 „ -

•

,

-

-0 .26

0 .40

8 6 .64 '8 5 .47 „

,

7 9 .73 -

, -

rea 1 l 8 3 .66 -A A rea 2 7 9 .41

8 .71

M INERAL

A rea 1

S amp le N o 1 02

A rea 2

ARSENOPYR ITE

A rea 3 A rea 4 rea 5 , -A A rea 6

,

9 .09

0 .59

9 2 .97

0 .50

8 9 .00

-

2 4 .05 5 .22 '

-

0 .76

2 0 .22

0 .39

0 .17

5 . 10

-2 1.53

4 0 .08

1 0 .81 3 1 .25

2 9 .51

3 .25

-2 2 .71 ,4 .49

8 .37

.53 4 1.14 .0 2 9 .11 0 .68

0 .71 ' 3 6 .71

0 .56 '

. , -1 6 .12

-

6 .73

-

4 5 .43 5 5 .09 8 2 .75

-

6 0 .15 4 2 .42 7 4 .86

, MINERAL

-

A real

6 9 .21

A rea 2

6 9 .02

S amp le N o 1 03

,

6 9 .21 6 9 .02

CASSTTER ITE

T ab le N o

I

S EM /EDS a na lys is , w t% , m e ta ls a nd m inera ls , E l C er ro d e S an C r is toba l , S pa in

1 35

'

C hap ter 1 0

Ana ly t ica l R e su l t s

MINA TRES ARROYOS -V is i t No 6 ( Page s 6 9 -70 ) E igh ta r ea s o n t h ree s epe ra te s u r face c o l lec ted s l ag s amp le s w e re a na lysed . A l l t h ree s amp les ( No 's 1 3 , 1 4 , a nd 1 5 ) a na lysed a ss l ag w e re i n terp re ted a sh av ing c ome f r om i r on s me l t ing . T he i r on c on ten t o fa l l t h e p o in t s a na lysed w a s 4 8% a nd h igher . Two a na lysed a r ea s d id h ave v e ry s ma l l t r aces o fT i ( 0 .1 % ) . N o S n , Nb , o rT a w ere p re sen t i na ny o ft h e a na lys i s .

%

MINA DE I TRES ARROYOS

o %

%

, .Sn ,Cu Nb

T i

%

%

%

%

%

,T a 'Al

S i

F e

Mn

%

%

%

%

S , K

P

Ca

%

%

M g ' Na

% TOTAL

V is i t 6 , ,

A rea 1,

S amp le N o 1 3 S LAG . 2 .3 .93

3 .03

. 0 .79 ,

8 . 16 5 2 .25 0 .34 ,

0 .39

6 5 .01

,

„

S a mp le N o14

A rea 1

S LAG

' A rea 2

-

0 .11

3 .38

9 .54 4 7 .26

0 .11

3 .20

1 0 .97 4 7 .07-

,

0 .39 ' , 0 .54

'0 .42 0 .59

1 . 13 1 .62

6 2 .24 6 4 .14

2 .3 .95 I

I'

I/

• ••

•

S amp le N o 1 5

I

,

,

I

A rea 1

-4 .51

1 2 .01 4 8 .25 0 .22

1 .01

0 .36

6 6 .39

S LAG 1 7 .2 .93

S amp le N o 1 5

A rea 2

S LAG

A rea 3

5 . 1.93

-

_

1 . 94

4 8 .88-

0 .14

0 .17

0 .52

3 .75

9 4 .62

0 .27

0 .33

1 .01

1 00

A rea 4

2 .16

1 7 .80 7 8 .34

0 .25

0 .38

1 .04

9 9 .99

A rea 5

1 . 34

1 .07 4 8 .73

0 .15

' 0 .23

0 .65

6 2 .20

_

,

T ab le No 2

5 1.66

S EM /EDS A na lys is , w t% , s l ag , M ina d e T res A r royo s , S pa in

LA LAPA MINE - V is i t No 9 ( Page 7 3 ) ( Samp le N o 5 ) As i ng le m ine ra l s amp le w a s c o l lec ted f r om t h e L a L apa m ine . A t t h e t ime o f s amp le c o l lec t ion Iw a s n o t s u re i fL a L apa w a s at i n o r wo lf ram i te m ine . T he S EM a na lys is s howed t h a t i nf a c t i tw a s aw o lf ram i te m ine ra l s amp le ( 43% W) w i th n o m ino rt r ace o ft i np resen t .

LA LAPA MINA

I %

V is i t 9

Sn

S amp le N o 5 A rea 1

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

W

Nb

T i

T a

A l

S i

F e

Mn

S

K

P

Ca

Mg

%

%

As TOTAL

4 5 .23

1 .48 2 .43

M INERAL

A rea 2

4 1.45

1 0 .16 2 .73

5 4 .35

5 .2 .93

A rea 3

4 2 .95

1 0 .70 1 .97

5 5 .63

T ab le No 3

S EM /EDS A na lys is , w t% , m ine ra l , L a L apa M ine , S pa in

1 36

5 9 .15

C hap te r 1 0

Ana ly t ica l R e su l t s

MINA DE DESQUITES -V is i t No 1 0 ( Pages 7 4 -75 ) Two m ine ra l s amp les w e re c o l lec ted a nd a na lysed i n t h e S EM f r om t h i s s u rvey s i te . O ne m ine ra l ( Samp le No 8 ) w a s ar i ch wo lf ram i te s amp le ( 55% W) a nd t he o the r m ine ra l ( Samp le No 9 ) p robab ly c ou ld b e c on s ide red ai r on o re ( 30% F e ) . Ih ad h oped t of i nd s amp le s o fc a ss i ter i te o re a tt h is s i te ; t h e a na lys is o ft h e t wo c o l lec ted m ine ra l s c onf irmed t h a t Ih ad n o t .

. % ,Sn

MINA DE I DESQUITES

% W

% .% Nb T i

.

%

%

%

%

%

T a

A l

S i

F e

Mn

.% S

% K

% P

7 0 7 0 Ca Mg

% As

% TOTAL

V is i t 1 0 1

r

S amp le N o 8

A r ea 1 A rea 2

5 8 .23

rea 3 'A

5 3 .46

M INERAL 9 .2 .93

-

r

5 7 .40

A rea 2

5 .2 .93

A rea 3

6 .39 11 .30 0 .34 6 .92

.

.

,

8 .98

4

0 .29

3 3 .49

1 2 .15

2 9 .87

0 .90 9 .34

2 6 .37

T ab le N o

-

1 0 .23 0 .21

'7 .40

-

'S amp le N o 9 -A rea 1 M INERAL

-

-

.

0 .20 -

' -

'

0 .20

7 6 .27 7 4 .77 7 0 .14

3 7 .48 ' 3 4 .80

7 5 .33 :

3 0 .69

6 6 .62

8 3 .35

S EM /EDS Ana lys is , w t% , m ine ra l , M ina d e D e squ i te s , S pa in

MINA TELBA -V is i t No 1 4 ( Pages 8 0 -82 ) ( Samp le No 4 ) T he S amp le c o l lec ted a tT e lba w a s ac a ss i ter i te o re s amp le . I tw as a na lysed o n t h e S EM s o le ly t o s ee t h e p e rcen tage o f t i n c on ta ined w i th in t h e o re . A rea a na lys is s howed ( 7 0% t i n ) .

MINA TELBA V is i t 1 4

I % _ I % I% I% I Sn W Nb T i T a 'A l

% S i

%

% ,%

F e Mn .

.

%

%

S ,K

P

% Ca

% % Mg As

M INERAL

A rea 2 6 5 .95

4 .2 .93

A rea 371.65

T ab le No

% TOTAL

,

rea 1 7 5 .83 ' S amp le N o 4 A

7 5 .83 6 5 .95 _

5

_

1 .75

1 .92

-

S EM /EDS Ana lys is , w t% , m ine ra l , M ina T e lba , S pa in

1 37

'

7 5 .32

C hap te r 1 0

Ana ly t ica l R e su l t s

MINA GOLPEJAS -V is i t No 1 6 ( Pages 8 4 -88 )

T he ma in ly g r een ma te r ia l f r om t h e t i n /coppe r m ine ra l c on ta ined : Mon teb ra s i te L iAL (PO4 ) (OH )

Ap a r to fo ne o ft h e Go lpe ja sM ine ra l s amp le s w a s g round d own a nd a na lysed u s ing XRD . T he m ine ra l c on s is ted o f t h ree d i s t inc t d i f f e ren t c o lou red c ons t i tuen t s . T he XRD a na lys is w a s d one i n t he G eo log ica l L abo ra tory a t B i rkbeck C o l lege . Am ix tu r eo fw h i te ,g reen a nd d a rk a r ea sc on s i s ted o f : C a ss i te r i te S nO2 Mon teb ra s i te L iA l (PO4 ) (OH )

C a s s i te r i te

S nO2

Wa rd i te

N aA 13 (PO4 )2 (OH )4 .2H20

K ao l in i te

A l2S i205 (0F 1 )4

T he ma in ly d a rk ma te r ia l f r om t h e t i n /coppe r m ine ra l c on ta ined : Mon teb ra s i t e L iA l (PO4 ) (OH )

Wa rd i te N aA 13 (PO4 )2 (0F1) 4 . 2H 20 F luo rapa t i te C a5 (PO4 )3F K ino i te C a2Cu2S i3010 .2H20

C a ss i te r i t e Wa rd i te

S nO2 N aA 13 (PO4 )2 (0} 1 )4 .2H20 )

T he ma in ly w h i te ma te r ia l f r om t h e t i n /coppe r m ine ra l c on ta ined : Mon teb ra s i t e L iA l (PO4 ) (OH ) Wa rd i te

N aAL3 (PO4 )2 (01 1 )4 .2H20

T ab le N o 6 XRD a na ly s i s , m ine ra l , M ina G o lpe ja s , S pa in

MINA GOLPEJAS -V is i t N o 1 6 ( Pages 8 4 -88 ) F o r ty o ne a r ea s w e re a na lysed S EM /EDS o n s i x s epa ra te m ine ra l s amp les . F ive a rea s w e re a l so a na lysed o n t wo m ine ra l s amp le s w h ich h ad b een h ea ted w i th s ome c ha rcoa l ( g raph i te ) i n s ma l l c ruc ib les i n ac e ram ic f u rnace ( Samp le 7 4 a nd S amp le 8 2 ) . ( Samp le N o 3 ) T he t h ree a r ea s a na ly sed o n t h is s amp le s howed i tt ob e ap i ece o f i r on o r e w i th a i r on c on ten t o f ( 36% -4 7% ) . ( Samp le No 6 ) F ive a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is s amp le . T he m ine ra l c on ta ined v a r iou s p e rcen tage s o fC u> (8 .9% 2 5 .3% ) a nd S n> (20% -3 4 .5% ) i na l l f i ve a r ea s p lu s t r ace p e rcen tage s o f A l> (0 .4% -0 . 6% ) , S i> (0 .4% -0 . 6% ) a nd F e> (1 .3% -2 . 3% ) , a l so p re sen tw a s P >i nm ino rp e r cen tage s ( 5 .7% -7 . 4% ) . ( Samp le No 2 0 ) S ix a rea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is h e terogeneous m inera l s amp le . A l l a reas h ad s ome p e rcen tage s o fC u p resen t . S n w a s m is s ing i n t h ree o f t h e a r ea s . T he e l emen t s A l , S i , F e , S ,P , C a , N a , a nd C l w e re a l so p re sen ti nv a ry ing p e rcen tage s . ( Samp le No 8 6 ) E leven a r ea s w e re a na ly sed o n t h i s s amp le . T he s amp le a r ea c ons is ted o f t wo s ma l l n a t ive s i lve r i n c lus ion s w i th in t h e g ene ra l m ine ra l . N o S n a ppea red i n a ny o ft h e a na lysed a r ea s , s ma l lt r ace so fC u ( 0 .12% -0 . 2% ) d id a ppea r i na l l b u t t wo a r ea s . S even o ft h e a na lysed a r ea s c on ta ined A g i nv e ry h igh p e r cen tage s ( 47 .0% -8 2 .9% ) a nd a no the r t wo a r ea s c on ta ined A g i ns ma l l p e rcen tage s ( 0 .2% a nd 1 . 4% ) .

1 38

( Samp le N o 8 7 ) S ix a r ea s w e re a na ly sed o n t h i s m ine ra l s amp le . S n ( 0 .6% -3 4 .2% ) a nd C u ( 0 .7% -1 6 .8% ) a ppea r ed i na l ls i x a r ea sa na ly sed . ( Samp le N o8 8 ) T en a r ea sw e re a na ly sed o nt h i s s amp le a nd p roduced v ery d ive r se e l emen t a na lys i s . S n , C u , a nd A g , w e re a l l p re sen t i nt h e s amp led a rea s , b u t t h e p e r cen tage s v a r ied a nd o n ly i nA rea 5d i da l l t h ree a ppea rt oge the r .A rea s 1 ,2 ,7 ,a nd 8 ,a r e s im i la r a na lyses o f w ha t a re t wo n a t ive c oppe r i n c lu s ions w i th in t h e g ene ra l t i n /coppe r m ine ra l m a t r ix . A rea 3i s an a t ive s i lve r i nc lu s ion . A rea s 4 ,9 ,a nd 1 0 c ou ld b e c ons ide red s t anda rd a na lys i s f o r t h e g ene ra l G o lpe ja s t i n / coppe rm ine ra l ( Sn , C u , A l , S i , F e , P ,C a ) . ( Samp le N o 7 4 ) Sme l ted M ine ra l O ne a r ea i n s ide am e ta l p r i l l w a s a na ly sed o n t h is c a rbon c ruc ib le s me l ted m ine ra l s amp le . T h i sa r ea a na lysed a s an a tu ra l ly f o rmed b ronze w i th 6 . 25% S n a nd 9 0 .27% o fc oppe r . ( Samp le N o 8 2 ) Sme l ted M inera l F ou r a rea s , o n t h is s e cond p i ece o fc a rbon c ruc ib le s me l ted m ine ra l , l o ca ted o n s ma l l v i s ib le p r i l l s w e re a na lysed o n t h eS EM . A l l f ou ra r ea s w e re v ery h omogeneou s i n t h e ir e l emen t c on ten t , w i th a a ve rage o f3 5% S n a nd 6 6% C u a nd t r a ce so fS i ,F e ,a nd S . ( Samp le No 's 6 ,N o 2 0 , N o 8 6 a nd No 8 9 ) w e re a na ly sed o n t h e M icrop robe a t t he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy . T he m icrop robe w a s u sed t o c heck a nd c onf irm t h e S EM a na lys is , o n ly g r aph s s how ing t he e l emen t s p resen t w e re p roduced . S amp le N o ' s 2 0 , N o 8 6 a nd N o 8 9 c onf i rmed t h a t T in a nd C oppe rw e r e p re sen tt h roughou tt h em ine ra l s amp le . S amp le N o 8 6 c onf irmed t h a t A g i n c lu s ion s w e re p r e sen ti n t h e t i n / coppe rm ine ra l .

Chap te r 1 0

Ana ly t ica l R esu l ts

MINA

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

GOLPEJAS

Sn

Cu

Ag

B r

A l

S i

F e

Mn

° / c _ %

%

%

%

%

%

S

P

Ca

Na

C I

TOTAL

I

V is i t 1 6

S amp le N o 3

A rea 1

M INERAL

A rea 2

9 .2 .93

A rea 3

S amp le N o 6 M INERAL 2 8 .1.93

1 .20

,

1 . 19

A real

2 4 .5 2 3 .7

'A rea 2 3 4 .6 8 .95 1 3 .4

A rea 3 3 1.4

1 . 14 4 7 .2

0 .94 8 .01

A rea 4 2 0 .0 , 25 .3 A rea 5 2 3 .9 2 2 .1

5 8 .73

0 .38 0 .59

1 .78

7 .01

0 .46 2 .31

6 .53

-

1 .25 0 .60 2 .09

5 .67

. r

5 8 .03 ,

1 . 32 '

7 .38 '

5 5 .18

0 .45 0 .41

1 . 72

6 .61 ,

5 5 .27

A rea 1

1 0 .1

2 .45 2 4 .8

0 .28

7 .93 9 . 11

M INERAL

A rea 2

6 .52

0 .62 2 .42 -

0 .07

0 .55 4 .83

1 7 .2 .93

A rea 3

0 .86

1 3 .5

0 . 11

1 6 .3

1 .91 1.6

1 . 93

0 .31

8 .07

2 .66 2 5 .6 0 .26

0 .23

7 .95 9 .36

0 . 16

5 7 .6

1.3 3 . 11 A rea 6 3

1 .46 0 .75 2 .31

.49 . ,0

8 .99

0 . 12

6 4 .27

A rea 2

1 . 79 8 2 .9 0 .82

2 2 .12 .93

A rea 3

6 8 .3

A rea 4

0 .50 8 2 .1

A rea 5

0 .53 6 0 .8 2 0 .9

-

,

0 .49

1 5 .7

8 1.98

-

8 5 .71 6 8 .31

0 .56

8 3 .62

4 .83

8 7 .13 _

-

A rea 1 0 8 .4 .29 6 A rea 2

6 9 .7

0 .26 4 7 .0 9 .01 '2 . 19

A rea 3

1 .42

1 . 88 6 .43 '

A rea 4

0 .24 0 .22 7 .00 3 .37

A rea 5

5 .65 2 .62

A rea 6

0 . 15

8 . 16 0 .84 9 . 10 0 .47 0 .82 _ 9 .68 0 .12 0 .14

4 .78 2 .62

8 .05

A rea 1 2 9 .8

1 4 .0

1 . 79

1 .42 4 .72

1 . 35

2 . 16

M INERAL

A rea 2 2 7 .2

1 6 .5

0 .59

1 .06 5 .22

1 . 20

1 . 20

1 2 .1

0 .13

0 .11

1 7 .1

2 .40 0 .49 '3 .26

' 1 .08 '

4 .87

1 .5

0 .70 0 .74 4 .42

0 .64

1 . 86

A rea 1

8 0 .5 0 .37

0 .57 0 .40

A r ea 2 ' 0 .31

8 9 .8 '

.64 0 .71 -A rea 3 0 A rea 4 2 4 .5 1 6 .9 ' A rea 5 3 3 .5 ar

3 5 .3

1 . 81 1 0 .7

0 .73

4 7 .8 1 .64

6 .02 0 .35 0 .15 0 .38 .

‚0 .40 , 0 .41

2 1.26 1 8 .32

0 . 14

1 6 .89

5 5 .29 5 3 .01 0 .57

3 1.45

,

5 3 .46 5 3 .41

8 2 .39

,

9 1.37 8 3 .95 5 3 .36 4 2 .47

1 6 .4

2 .07 5 .57

0 .37

A rea 9 3 6 .2 2 .43

0 .48 0 .43 2 .55

A rea 1 0 1 .9 0 .99

1 .60 0 .45 0 .78

T ab le No 7

1 . 11

0 .32 0 .42 -

3 .85 2 .8 , 8 .79 1 1 4 .0

7 .43 0 .28 0 .41

9 5 .2

k

0 .18 0 .26

.37 2 2 .2 '0

A rea 7 8 3 .4 A rea 8

0 .68

1 7 .1

A rea 5 1 .63 0 .68 A rea 6

.

2 1.11

-.

A rea 3 A rea 4 2 8 .2

1

5 8 .52

S amp le N o 8 7

6 . 1.94

6 2 .69

.

0 .36

-

-

M INERAL

3 4 .76

4 .05 0 .96

M INERAL

S amp le N o 8 8

1 5 .04 1 . 93

1 0 .0

0 .34 8 0 .7 0 .59

6 . 1.94

5 4 .97

A rea 5 1 . 31

. A rea 1

7 .1 . 94

0 . 19

A rea 4 2 7 .5 8 . 17

S amp le N o 8 6

M INERAL

5 3 .57 5 4 .43 '

0 .64 0 .44

S amp le N o 2 0

S amp le N o 8 6

3 9 .50

1 . 19 4 6 .3

,

0 .71

4 9 .50

,

3 6 .9

9 0 .7 9 5 .95

8 . 10

1 3 .16 3 .42 1 4 .0 2 4 .3

SE M/EDS a na lys is , Wt % , m inera l , f urnace s me l ted m inera l ; Mina Go lpe ja s , S pa in

1 39

6 1 .64

5 4 .20

Ana ly t ica l R esu l ts

Chap te r 1 0

MINA

9 ö

9 ö

GOLPEJAS

Sn

Cu

9 ö

%

6 k

Ag

B r

A l

1

9 ö - 9 ö _Fe

S i

c k

%

Mn

S

V i s i t 1 6

S amp le N o 7 4 M INERAL

M INERAL FURNACE SMELTED .

6 7 0

c k

%

9 ö

%

9 ö

I

P

Ca

Na

C l

' TOTAL

.

.25 9 0 .3 A r ea 1 6

F URNACE _ SMELTED 9 . 12 .93

S amp le N o 8 2

I

-0 . 13

.

,

:

-

.

-

. 9 6 .65 -

.

6 .8 A rea l 3 5 .4 6 7 .0 5 .9 6 A r ea 2 3 7 .0_ A r ea 3 3 5 .8 6 6 .1 'A r ea 4 3

_ -

_

0 .13 0 .30 ' ' 0 .32

'0 .24

, 0 . 1 3

.07 . ,0

6 7 .1 _

0 . 18 -

_ -

n

1 02 .8 1 03 .5 1 03 .0 1 03 .5

_

1 6 .12 .93

T ab le N o 7

S EM /EDS a na lys is , W t% , m ine ra l , f u rnace s me l ted m ine ra l ; M ina Go lpe ja s , S pa in

T he m ic rop robe a tt h eI n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy w a s a l so u sed o n S amp le N o 8 9 f o r t h e s ame s can /mapp ing p rocedu re w h ich Iu sed o nt h eT o r re R omana s l ag ( Samp le N o2 6 ) . T he T in /Coppe r m ine ra l w a s s canned f o r s even e l emen t s S n , C u , F e , A l , S i , C a a nd P .

C o loured p ho tog raph s w e re p roduced s how ing s uppo sed s i ng le a nd m ixed e l emen tc ompos i t ion s . T he c o lou red P ho to 4 2 b e low s hou ld b e v i ewed m o re a s ac on f igu ra t ion m ap o fa p o l ished s e c t ion o f t h e G o lpe ja s m ine ra l t h an a a b so lu te c o r rec tp l acemen t o ft h e S n w i th in t h es amp le .

A rea 0 .00 0 .00 0 .00 0 .00 0 .31 6 .73 3 0 .90 2 4.10

C ounts

5 60

1 3 .08 9 .66 1 3 .03

2 46

2 .19 0 .00 0 .00 0 .00 0 .00 A ve. 4 79 S amp. S AMPLE N O 9 9 G OLPEJA D ate 2 7-JANHS4 E lem . S n S can S tage X 5 50 2 .00 u m Y 8 00 2 .00 u m D . T Ime 7 0 m a AC C. U. 2 0 .0 k U F .Cur 5 .21E-08 A 4 401

P ho to 4 2

C o lou red M ic rop robe C onf igu ra t ion S can G o lpe ja s C u -Sn M ine ra l , S amp le N o 8 9

1 40

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

T he M icrop robe r e su l t s ma tched t h e a na lys is t h a t h ad b een d one a tt h e I ns t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy i ns how ing t h a t n a t ive c oppe r a nd s i lve r i n c lus ion s w e re d ef ina te ly p r e sen t w i th in t h e g ene ra l t i n /coppe r m ine ra l ma t r ix . T hough t h e s ame s amp le s w e re d one o n t h e S EM a nd M ic rop robe s ome o ft h e a r ea sa na lysed w e re d i f f e ren tl o ca t ions w i th in t h es amp le s .

T he M icrop robe a t t h e G eo logy D epa r tmen t o f B irkbeck C o l lege w a s u sed t o c heck t h e r e su l ts o f t he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy S EM a nd M icrop robe w o rk . S amp le No 6 ,N o 2 0 , N o 8 6 a nd No 8 8 w e re a l l a na lysed u s ing aq uan t i ta t ive p rog ram .

MINA

%

%

%

GOLPEJAS

Sn

Cu

Ag

V is i t16

%

%

%

T i

A l

S i

%

%

-

%

Fe _Mg' -

-

MICROPROBE

S

% B r _ '

%

%

%

%

%

P

Ca

Na

C l

TOTAL

-

.

,

B IRKBEC K

S amp le N o 6

A rea 1

M INERAL

A rea 3

3 1 .1.94

A rea 4

S am _ p le N o 2 0

r

7 9 .5 1 .89

A rea 1 7 5 .53

5 .85

7 9 .4

,3 .64

8 8 .4

-

-

7 9 .49

,

2 .10

.0 .26 0 .18 -

1 .39

0 .60

-

M INERAL 3 1 .1 .94

8 7 .38

_

9 4 .97

_

,

7 6 .89

,

.09 0 .17 0

S amp le N o 8 6

A rea 6

9 7 .16

M INERAL

A rea 7

8 2 .10

3 1 .1.93

A rea 9

7 6 .01

0 .21

A rea 1 0

7 5 .10

0 .18

A rea 1

1 . 15 7 5 .25

0 .18

A rea 1 2

1 .25 f2 1 .67

1 2 .59

A real5

1 . 36 2 2 .20

1 3 .73

S amp le N o 8 8

A rea 1

8 9 .54

M INERAL

A rea 4

3 7 .10 2 9 .18

5 .32

,

9 7 .42

0 .24 0 .40 0 .26

5 .35 -3 .71 3 .74

8 8 .06

0 .22

0 .39

0 .22

0 .40 1 0 .01

0 .27 .

. .

,1 0 .12

r

0 .12 2 .69

0 .74

8 7 .76

5 .28

8 4 .91

5 .30 -8 6 .25

2 .04 0 .24 2 .04 2 .07

-

1 . 57

5 .93

0 .55

4 7 .63 5 1.85

1 .11 -9 7 0 .38

3 1 .1.93

T ab le No 8

E P MA /EDS Ana lys is , w t% , m ine ra l , M ina G o lpe ja s , S pa in

T he s e r ies o f f u rnace e xpe r imen t s w a s u nder taken t os ee i f t h e c omp lex , m ixed m ine ra l c o l lec ted f r om t h e Go lpe ja s m ine w ou ld p roduce an a tu ra l b ronze . G raph i te c r uc ib le sw e re u s ed a nd t h e t i n /coppe rm ine ra l w a s a l so c ove red w i th al a ye r o f( c a rbon ) g raph i te . T empe ra tu res i nt h e r eg ion o f 1 000°C t o1 200°C w e re u sed o n t h is e xpe r imen t . ( Samp le No 7 4 ) T h is o re s amp le w e ighed 1 . 46 g ram s . T he s amp le w a s p laced i n ag raph i te c ruc ib le a nd c omp le te ly c ove red w i th g raph i te . T he s amp le w a sp u ti nt h e f u rnace a ta t empe ra ture s e t t ing o f 5 00°C . T he s amp le w as v i s ib ly c hecked e very h a lf h ou ra st h et empe ra tu re w a s i n c rea sed , b u t n o v i s ib le c hange w as n o ted . A t t wo h our s a nd t wen ty m inu te s t h e t empera ture r e ached 1 200°C a nd t h is t empe ra tu re w a s h e ld t i l l t h ree h ou r s a nd t h ir ty m inu te s .

1 41

T he s amp le w a s t h en r emoved f r om t h e f u rnace . T he s amp le w e ighed 0 .90 g ram s w hen r emoved f r om t h ef u rnace . Me ta l l ic p r i l ls w e re v i s ib le i n c lud ing al a rge o ne ( Samp le N o 7 4 ) w hen i tw a s l a te re xam ined w i th ao p t ica l m ic ro scope . A s i ng le a r ea i n s ide t h is p r i l l w a s a na lysed o n t h e S EM a nd i t p roved t ob e an a tu ra l b ronze 6 . 25% S na nd 9 0 .27% C u . ( Samp le No 8 2 ) T h is o re s amp le w e ighed 1 . 00 g . T he s amp le w as p laced i n ag raph i te c r uc ib le a nd c ove red w i th g raph i te . T he E u ro therm f u rnace w a s p r e -hea ted t o 100°C . T h is t empe ra ture w a s h e ld f o r t h ree h our s T he s amp le w a s t h en p u t i n to t h e f ur na ce . T he s amp le w a s k ep ti nt h ef u rnace f o r o ne h our a nd t wen ty m inu tes a nd t h en r emoved a nd v i s ib ly e xam ined . Me ta l l ic P r i l ls w e re v i s ib le i ns ome a r ea s o ft h e c omp lex m ine ra l .

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

( Samp le No 8 2 ) C on t inued T he f urnace t empe ra tu re w a s

T h i s s amp le w a s n o t a na ly sed o n t h e S EM a s If e l t i tw ou ld o n ly m i r ro rt h e S EM r e su l t s o f( Samp le N o 8 2 ) .

t h en i n c rea sed t o 1 250°C . A t o ne h ou r a nd t h i r ty m inu te s t h e s amp le w a s p u t b ack i n to t he f urnace . T he s amp le w a s f i na l ly r emoved f r om t he f u rnace a f te r 2h ou r s a nd t e n m inu te s . T he w e igh t o f t h e s amp le wa s 0 .80 g ram s . F ou r s ma l l m e ta l l ic p r i l l s a r ea s w e re a na lysed i n t h e S EM . A l l f ou r a r ea s c on ta ined am ix tu re o fS n ( 35% ) a nd C u ( 66% ) w i th t r ace s o fS i ,F ea nd S a l so b e ing p re sen t .

( Samp le N o 8 3 ) T h i s o r e s amp le w e ighed 1 . 63 g ram sw hen p u ti nt h ef u rna ce .T he f u rnace p rocedu r eu sed o nt h i ss amp le w a sa ga in ae xa c td up l ica te o f( Samp le N o8 2 & No 8 3 ) . T he s amp le w a si nt h ef u rnace f o r 11 / 2h ou r sa t at empe ra tu r e o f 100°C a nd t h e i nt h e f u rnace f o r af u r the r 1 / 2 h ou r a ta t empe ra tu re o f 1 250°C . Id id n o t w e igh t h e s amp le a f te r r emov ing i tf r om t h e f u rnace . Sma l l v i s ib le p r i l ls h ad d eve loped o nv a r iou sa r ea so ft h es amp le .

( Samp le No 8 3 ) T h i s o re s amp le w e ighed 0 . 47 g ram s . T he s amp le w a s p laced i n ag raph i te c ruc ib le a nd c ove red w i th g r aph i te . T he E u ro the rm f u rnace w a s u sed . T he s amp le w a s

T he C e ls iu s m e l t ing t empe ra tu res o f t h e ma jo r e l emen t s c on ta ined i nt h ec omp lex t i n / coppe rm ine ra l :

p u ti nt h ef u rnace a ta t at empe ra tu re o f 100°C .T he f u rna ce p rocedu re t ime a nd t empe ra tu res u sed o n t h is s amp le w a s e xa c t ly t h e s ame a sf o r( Samp le No 8 2 ) .T he s amp le w e ighed 0 . 53 g ram s when t a ken o u t o f t he f urnace . Sma l l m e ta l l ic p r i l l s w e re v i s ib le o ns ome s u r f aces o ft h em ine ra l s amp le .

X —RAY

L ive: R eal:

T in

( Sn )

0 231 .96 ( °C)

C oppe r

( Cu )

1 083 .45 ( °C )

1 00s P reset : 1 001 R ema inin9: 1 32s 2 4% D ead

9 .140 k e0 < . 0 c h c z te— F S= S K 5 T OC93 S ALA II M EM1:SAMPLE N O 2

G raph N o 1

1 0.3 > 2 89 c ts 9 14

S EM /EDS a na ly s is s l ag T o r r e R omanan C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

1 42

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

TORRE RO MANA CENTU MCELLAS V is i tN o2 0 ( Page s9 2 -94 ) S EM , a nd E PMA w e re u sed t oa na lys i s t h e T o r r e R omana C en tumce l la s s l ag s amp le s . T en s amp le s o f s u r f a ce a nd e xcava t ed s l ag w e r e a na ly sed o n t h e S EM . S even o f t h e a na lysed s l ag s p roved t ob e t i n s l ag ( Roman ) a nd t h e o t he r t h ree p i ece s o f s l ag w e re i n te rp re ted a s i r on s l ag a l so ( Roman ) . A l l t h et i ns l ag s amp le s c on ta ined n ume rou s s ma l l t i n p r i l l s .

P ho to 4 3

T h i r ty g ene ra l a r ea s w e re a na ly sed i n t h e s even t i n s l ag s amp le s . T he g ene ra l t i n c on ten t o f e ach o f t h e t h i r ty a na ly sed a r ea sm ea su r ed v a r ied c on s id e rab ly f r om ( 2 .2% S n 2 0% S n ) . Mo s t o ft h e a r ea s mea su red i nt h e t i n s l ag s a l so c on ta ined v a ry ing p e r cen tage so ft h ee l emen t sN iob ium ( Nb ) , T i t an ium ( T i )a nd T an ta lum ( Ta ) .

T en p i ece s o fs u r f a ce R oman T in s l ag , T o r r eR omana C en tumce l la s

1 43

Ana ly t ica l R esu l t s

Chap te r 1 0

TORRE MANA

RO

%

_

% Nb

Sn

%

% T i

T a

CENTU MCELLAS

o A l

%

%

S i

F e

%

% Mn

% _% K P

S

%

%

%

Mg

Na

TOTAL

„

-

V i s i t 2 0

% Ca

r

S amp le N o 1 S LAG 2 5 .2 .93

A rea 1 1.0 0 .8 A r ea 2 _ 1 xea 3.1.0 ,A

5 .76 5 .12

1 2 .5

5 .59

1.8 ,5 .87

1 2 .3

5 .30 1 . 80 5 .72 _ 1 .76 r1 . 92

9 .29

` I

9 .28

1 3 .5

2 .16 , .31 1 3 .6 ,2

9 .88

1 3 .6 ,2 .29 ,

, ,

, 5 .73 S amp le N o 2 A rea 1 1 4 .8 6 .24 7 .1 ' A rea 2 1 S LAG

,

,

.

.

1 0 .31

5 .65

, 0 .9 2 .39 ,1

9 .38

6 .16

2 .56

1.7

1 .7

2 .11 2 .07

9 .64

5 .16

2 .39 '1 2 .3

1 3 .2

2 .23

5 . 13 '7 .45 ' 3 .5

2 .77

1 3

1 0 .5

1 .92

.26 '1 . 32 2 .74 '4 7 .75 2 .7 4 .05

3 .7

1 4 .5

1 . 92

1 3 .0

,

6 1 .23

_

,

6 0 .97 ' 6 2 .09 '

.

„

.

,

. 6 4 .91 6 6 .88

2 5 .2 .93

S amp le N o 7 S LAG 2 5 .2 .93

6 .22

.85 A rea 1 5 .95 A rea 2 5 .1 rea 3 7 'A

.73 rea 4 6 ,A 4 .3 '1 A rea 5 1 2 . 2 2 . 2 4 A r e a 6 ,

S amp le N o 2 1 S LAG 1 .5 .93

A rea 1 A rea 2 rA rea 3

A rea 1

1 .5 .93

A rea 3

A rea 1 A rea 2

1 .5 .93

A rea 3

0 .3

1 8 .9

1 2 .3

1.2

1 .41

0 . 16 ' 0 .19

9 0 .5

1 2 .7

0 .28, 6 .81 _5 .11

. 13 A rea 4 2 -

S LAG

2 .18

3 .98

.

A rea 2 8 .09 '3 . 14

S amp le N o 2 3

1 6 .4

9 .12

-

A rea 4

S amp le N o 2 2 S LAG

5 .51

2 .27

-

A rea 4

0 .87

' 2 .60

1.0

4 3 .4

.05 ,3 , 1 .45

1 0 .3

3 0 .2

4 .38

5 8 .5

9 .48

2 4 .7

6 .99

2 .79

6 . 19 4 .37 , 0 .63 8 .73

.

,

0 .08 -0 . 11

1 .06 0 .27 0 .30 1 .22 0 .54 0 .36 , .09 0 .54 0 .15 0 .20 ,0

1 5 .7

3 4 .9

0 . 12

1 8 .8

2 1 .3

-0 . 10

_4 .49

0 . 11

2 4

4 .93

3 .06

1 . 08 ,4 .27 5 .51

-5 7 .3

'A rea 3

1 . 62

9 .63 '3 7 .6

1 .79

0 .08 2 .53

,

4 9 .0

.

1 .4 „

2 .23

'0 . 15 0 .08

r

0 . 19

1.4

3 6 .2

0 .07 0 .61

A rea 1 1 8 .8

5 .72

1 .4

6 .20

1 . 79

9 .45

S LAG

A rea 2 2 1 .6

5 .75

9 .96

5 .69

2 . 18

1 0 .29 1 2 .07 2 .00

'A rea 3 4 0 .3

1 . 98

0 .51

0 .90

4 . 15

1 3 .71 -5 . 10

1 . 18

A sea 4 1 .65

1 9 .4

1 7 .6

2 2 .3

9 .94

0 .50

A rea 5 1 06 .0

0 .20

0 .20

A rea 6 6 3 .7

0 .23

0 . 17

0 .27

,9 .35 0 .29

1 .5

T ab le No 9

2 3 .9

1 6 .94

0 .39 '

1 2 .9

0 .49 1 .85

5 4 .59

0 .42

4 5 .58

'0 .07

7 .90

.

0 .07

5 3 .56 . -

. ,

0 .22

6 9 .58 6 7 .83 7 9 .36 1 07 .2

,

0 .59

, 6 8 .37

.

.

SE M /EDS Ana lys is , w t c 7 o , s l ag , T or re Romana C en tumce l la s , P or tuga l

1 44

5 1 .13

0 .13 ,

. 2 .92

2 .95 .6 5 6 .98 ,5 0 .89

.

,

5 8 .3

6 2 .91

,0 .95 0 .18 '

2 . 12 '

6 1 .19

0 .09

S amp le N o 2 5

4 9 .88 _

0 .56

,

/

5 0 .4

1 .05

.61 _ 0 .27 0

,

.10 -0 .47 -0 0 . 16 0 .59

0 .21

1 . 13

5 8 .84 4 5 .83 5 8 .46

5 1 .62 5 3 .17

3 .47 0 .34 ,

5 3 .6 ,

1 . 27

A rea 7 1 .20 A rea 8 1 04 .7

.

1 . 15 0 .09 3 .42

A rea 2

1 6 .12 .93

9 0 .98

1 .6

'1 2 .4

5 .00

. 0 .06

.4 8 .09 .7 1 .92 7 1 .87

2 1.2

.58 , ,0 .68 , ,0

-

-

0 .30 0 .75 0 .70 0 .39 1 .28 0 .53

S LAG

,

, ,

0 .53

A rea 1

rea 5 , ,A

5 0 .17 . 4 6 .70

-

1 .42 0 . 11

5• 2 6 , 8 .70

A rea 4'

-

0 .14 0 .07 5 .21

S amp le N o 2 4 2 2 .11 .93

,

2 .5 1 6 .5 '1 2 1 .3 1 5 .9

0 .31 .54 ' '0

.

-5 7 .03

.

,

1 0 .8 '2 .23

6 .7 ' 2 7 .5 ,1

,

,

6 4 .45 6 6 .10 . 1 06 .8

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

TORRE RO MANA CENTUMCELLAS V i s i t 2 0

% S n

% A l

% % S i ,F e

% % S ,K

/

% P

% C a

% Mg

•

.94 . 04 1 2 .15 '6 ' A r e al 9 . 67 7 . 53 '6 . 24 ' 4 .72 A r e a2 1 2 .4 '6

2 . 50 1 2 .0 4 .25 _1 6 .0

1 4 .4 2 . 49 1 3 .6 -, 2 .65

% N a

% TOTAL

K

. , .

. S amp l eN o2 7 S LAG 1 6 .12 .93

% Mn ,

/

S amp l eN o2 6 S LAG 2 8 .9 .93

% T a

% % i ,Nb , T

. 25 6 . 15 1 0 .0 A r e a 17 . 52 1 0 .8 . 77 6 A r e a2 6 6 .2 1 3 .30 2 A r ea 3 3 .5 1 . 97 1 . 16 A r ea 4 1 A r e a51 02 .6 , .

T ab le N o 9

5 . 59 : 2 .06_10 .7 '1 2 .1 7 .00 2 .05 1 .0 1 2 .2 1 7 .8 . 71 4 . 12 ,7 1 . 02 4 .46 .1 0 .4 6 .0 1 0 . 32 0 . 31 0 . 53

2 . 30 _ 2 . 33 0 . 27 2 . 66 ,

6 7 .16 6 6 .80

_ .

.

_ ,

, _ _ ,

.

. 5 6 .23 5 8 .66 6 9 .43 5 1 .17 1 04 .2 .

_

S EM /EDS Ana lys is , w t% , s l ag , T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

( Samp le N o 1 ) T h ree a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is h omog eneou ss u r f a ce s amp le . T he v a r ia t ion i nt h et h ree a r ea s a na ly sed w a s n eg l ig ib le , a l l e l emen t s p re sen tS n , Nb , T i , T a , A l , S i , F e , a nd Mn d id n o t v a ry mo re t h an o ne p e rcen t . Me ta l l ic t i np r i l l sw e re p re sen ti nt h e s l ag .

A rea 3 r ep resen ts a n i r on s l ag b u t w i th a s i gn if ican t p e r cen tage o fT i ( 5 .1 % )p re sen t .

( Samp le N o2 ) Two a r ea sw e r ea na ly sed o nt h i s s u r f a ce s l ag s amp le a nd t he a na lyses i s a lmo s t ae xac t d up l ica te o f ( Samp le N o 1 )i nt h ee l emen t sa nd p e rcen tage sp re sen t .

( Samp le N o 2 3 ) F ou r a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h i s s u r f ace s l ag s amp le a nd t h e a na ly t ica l r e su l t s a si n( Samp le N o 2 1) s howed t h i s s l ag t ob e ap roduc to f ai r on p roduc ing p ro ce s s , b u t w i th am ino r v a r ia t ion t r a ce a moun t s o fT i w e re p r e sen t i na l lf ou ra r ea s .

( Samp le N o7 ) S i xa r ea sw e re a na ly sed o nt h i s s u r f ace s l ag ; f ou ra r ea sh ad aa ve rage o fs i xp e rc en tt i np r e sen t .

A rea 4 a na lys i s r ep re sen t s at i n s l ag b u t w i th n o N b p r e sen t a nd s ma l l a moun t so fT i ( 2 .3% )a nd T a( 0 .6% )p r e sen t .

A rea 1t oA rea 4 w e re s im i la rt o( Samp le s N o 2a nd N o 2 7 ) .

( Samp le N o 2 4 ) F ive a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is p i ece o f e xcava ted s l ag . T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t s ma tch a lmo s t e xac t ly w i th S amp le N o 2 1 .

A rea 5 w a s d i f f e ren t i n t h a t i th ad n o t i n o r a l um in ium p r e sen ta nd h igh p e r cen tage so fN b ( 14 .3% ) ,T i ( 27 .5% ) , a nd T a ( 1 6 .7% ) p re sen t a nd l ow p e r cen tage 's o fF e ( 3 .9% ) a nd Mn ( 0 .03% )p re sen t .

( Samp le N o 2 5 ) e xcava t ed s l ag .

P o in t 6h ad as ma l l p e rcen tage o fS n ( 2 .2% ) a nd A l ( 0 .8% ) a nd h i gh p e rcen tages o f N b ( 1 2 .2% ) , T i ( 18 .8% ) a nd T a ( 12 .9% )p r e sen t .

E igh t a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h i s p i ece o f

A rea 1a nd A rea 2 a na lys i s c an b e w ha t Iwou ld c on s ide ra t p re sen tt ob et h es t anda rd a na lys i sf o rt h e R oman t i n s l ag s . A rea 3 a nd A rea 6 a r e a l so t i n p r i l ls , b u t c on ta in ing a ccompany ing e l emen t s .

( Samp le N o 2 1) F ou rp o in t s w e re a na ly sed o n t h i s s u r f ace s amp le a nd t h e a na ly t ica l r e su l t s s howed t h is s l ag a s a p roduc to fa ni r on p roduc ing p r oce s s .

A rea 4a nd A rea 7 a na lys i s a s at i n s l ag b u tw i th as ma l l p e r cen tage o fS np r e sen ta nd l a rge p e rcen tage so f ,T ia nd T a .

( Samp le No 2 2 ) F ou r a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h i s v e ry h e t e rog eneou ss u r f ace s l ag s amp le .

A rea 5 a nd A rea 8 a r e a na lyse s o f v e ry p u re t i n p r i l ls e mbedded i nt h es l ag s amp le s .

A r ea 1 a na ly s i sc ou ld r ep r e sen ta n i r on s l ag w i th at r ace o f T i( 0 .3% )p re sen t .

( Samp le N o 2 6 ) Two a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h i s p i ece o f e xcava ted s l ag a nd b o th r e su l t s c onf irmed w ha t c an b e c ons ide red a t yp ica l a na lys is o f t he T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s t i n s l ag s . T he a na ly s is h ad ag ood p e r cen tage o f S n 1 0% o r h ighe r a nd p e rcen tage s o f Nb , T i , T a , i nt h e r eg ion o f 5% o r h ighe r w i th v a ry ing p e rcen tage s f o r t h e a ccompany ing e l emen t s A l , S i , F e a nd Mn .

A r ea 2 a na ly s i s r e p re sen t s at i n s l ag a s i n( Samp le s N o 1 , N o 2a nd N o7 ) .

1 45

C hap te r 1 0

( Samp le N o2 7 ) s l ag s amp le .

Ana ly t ica l R e su l t s

F ive a r ea sw e re a na lysed o n t h i se xcava ted

A rea s 1a nd 2 r ep re sen tt h es t anda rd a na lys is f o rt h i sR oman t i n s l ag .

T he T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s s l ag w a s a l so a na ly sed o n t h e E lec t ron M ic rop robe a tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A r cha eo logy t o c heck a nd c on f i rm t h e r e su l t s o ft h e S EM a na ly s i s . ( S amp le No 2 6 ) w a st h es amp le a na ly sed o nt h eM ic rop robe .

A rea s 3 a na lys is h a s n o t i n p resen t b u t c on ta ins h igh p e r cen tage so fN b ( 13 .3% ) ,T i ( 26 .2% ) a nd T a ( 17 .8% ) w i th t h ea ccompany ing e l emen t s S i ,F ea nd Mn .

( Samp le N o 2 6 ) N ume r ica l p e rcen tage s w e re n o t a cqu i red : o n ly g raph s w e re p roduced ; s how ing t he p re sence a nd i n ten s i ty o ft h ec ha ra c te r is t ic X r ay so ft h ee l emen t s . A s er ies o f p ho tog raph s s how ing t h e d if f e ren t p ha se c ompo s i t ion sa nd t h ea r ea sa na lysed w a sa l so p roduced .

A rea 4 a l so r ep re sen t s t h e s t anda rd a na lys is b u tw i th ah igh p ercen tage o f S n ( 13 .5% ) a nd F e ( 10 .4% ) a nd s ma l l p e rcan tage so ft h eo t he ra ccompany ing e l emen t s .

F i le No 2 5 [ 1 s ts can ] , 5m ic ron a r ea ,T i ,T a , F e , a nd A l .

A rea 5 i st i n p r i l l w i th s ma l l t r ace e l emen t s o fA l , S i , a nd F ep r e sen t .

F i le No 2 6 [ 2 nd s can ] , 5m ic ron a r ea , Mn , S n , K , N b , F e , S i ,and A l . F i le n o 2 7 a nd Mg .

P ho to 4 4

[ 3 rd s can ] , 5m ic ron a r ea , Mn , T i , T a , F e , A l ,

M ic rop robe p ho tog raph R oman T in S lag , T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s

1 46

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

1 8-JAN-94

I NTENS/TY

F ill n o. C omment

( Count. )

4 200 .

683. 84 0 1 .

2 ,7 7.

A ce.

QUALITATI VE : 25 :SAMPLE NO 26 ROMA N C. DI G JUNE 9 :3

v ol.

2 0.0

b on

ANA L YSI S

TI N

SLAG

1 .0

4 ) 3 ) 2 )

Smoothing Y es

t 1 1-3 CM-2 C H-1 0H-t

PET L IP T AP Ni n

MAX 4 010 3 28. 1 010. One.

T..•••• ,

Tf.e. 1 1

M IN 0 . 0 . 1 . 0 .

,Ce .

T i

T o

L inger S cale

L i

F ie

1 8402. 8 10.

74. 1 170.

A1

F e F e

•i

4 1 3 ) 2 )

-

T I T I

-17072. -61i. 1216. -tit. S PECT. N v e (

1 0 .000 m m

85.000

G raph N o 2

I NTENSITY

( c ounts ) 896 5 732

621 t

1 45.000

1 05.000

2 25.000

M ic rop robe a na ly s is s l ag , M ic rop robe f i l e n o 2 5 , a r ea 1 , T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

1 6-JAM-94

QUAL/ TA T/V E

P ule n o. : 26 C omment :SAMPL E NO 26 SCAN 15. 1. 93 A cc. , -

1 65.000

v ol.

2 0.0

( IV )

ROMAN

ANAL YSI S

TI N

SL AG

2ND

4 )

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N b

N b

CH-2 PET L IP C H-I T AP CH-1 NITE

3 ) c m -2

N b

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MAX 660. 3 29. 2 725. 002.

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M n

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M n M n

4 ) ----- --- 2 ) 1 3

2785 .

759.

S PEC1 . ( mm )

1 0 0 00 m m 8 5.000

1 05.000

1 45 .000

1 80.000

2 25 .000

G raph N o 3 M ic rop robe a na ly s i s s l ag , M ic rop robe f i l e n o 2 6 , a r ea 2 T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

1 47

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

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M ic rop robe a na lys is s l ag , M ic rop robe f i l e n o 2 7 , a r ea 3 T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , P o r tuga l

T he M ic rop robe a tt h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy w a s a l so u sed t os c an a nd m ap t h e e l emen t s ( Sn , N b , T i , T a , A l , S i , F e , a nd Mn ) p r e sen ti n( Samp le N o2 6 ) . A t al a te rd a te v a r ied e l emen t s a nd e l emen t c omb ina t ions o f t h e s t o red r e su l t s o f t h e m ic rop robe m app ing / scan w e re b rough t u p o n t h e m ic rop robe c o lou red mon i to rs c r een a nd p ho tog raphed .

Sc a r s ( Y 5 00 1 .00 u m D . T ime 7 5 m e A ce. U . 20 .0 1 , U P . Cur 5 .73E-08 T hreehold L evel S r , 1 93 .00 P e 1 90 .00 1 98 .00

T d e lu m

P ho to 4 5

C o lou red M ic rop robe C onf igu ra t ion S can , R oman T in S l ag , S amp le N o 2 6 , T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s

1 48

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

As e r ie s o ff u rna ce e xpe r imen t s w a s d one u s ing t h e R oman T in s l ag ; a nd w a s u nde r taken t ot r y t oe s tab l i sh t h e m e l t ing p o in t o f t h e c omb ina t ion o f e l emen t s S n , Nb , T i , T a , F e , A l , S i a nd Mn wh ich make u p t h e R oman T in S lag . T he I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy l a bo ra to ry f u rnace sw e r eu sed f o ra l l t h e e xpe r imen t s . T he s amp le n umbe r s r ep re sen t my P hD l a bo ra to ry w o rk s equence o ft h es amp le s . A l l t h e s even s ma l l p i ece s o ff u rna ce e xpe r imen t s l ag w e re c u t o r b roken f r om b igge r s amp le s o f t he a na lysed T o r re R omana t i n s l ag . A l l t h e c u t s amp les w e re p u t i n s ma l l g raph i te c ruc ib les a nd c omp le te ly c ove red w i th al a ye r o f g r aph i t e .T he c r uc ib le sw e re t h en p l a ced i ne i the r aA nde rman o rE u ro the rm c e ram ic f u rna ce a tv a r iou st empe ra tu re sa nd f o r v a r iou sp e r iod so ft ime . T he t empe ra tu re s u sed i nt h e s l ag e xpe r imen t w e re w ha t i s t hough t w e re t h e g ene ra l t empe ra tu res t ha t me ta l lu rg i s t s c ou ld h ave b een c apab le o fa ch iev ing i na n t iqu i ty . T he u sua l a n t iqu i ty s me l t ing a nd s m i th ing t empe ra tu res w ou ld h ave

( Samp le N o 7 9 ) T he w e igh t o f t h is s amp le w a s 0 . 39 g ram s . T he s amp le w a s p u t i n to t h e f u rna ce w hen i th ad r eached at empe ra tu re o f 1 420°C . T he s amp le w a sl e f ti nt h e f u rnace f o r o n ly ( 32 m inu te s ) . T he s amp le w e ighed 0 . 34 g ram s when r emoved . V isua l ly t h e s amp le h ad c hanged c on s ide rab ly , i th ad g one v e ry p l a s t ic a nd h ad s t a r ted m e l t ing b efo r ei tw a sr emoved f r om t h ef u rnace . G iven l o ng e rt ime i n t h e f u rnace a tt h is h i gh t empe ra tu re t h e r e c an b e n o d oub t t ha tt h eR oman T in s l ag w ou ld h ave c omp le te ly m e l ted . ( Samp le No 8 5 ) T h is S amp le w e ighed 0 .44 g ram s when p u t i n to t h e f u rnace . T he E u ro the rm f u rnace h ad b een r unn ing f o rt h ree h ou r s a t ac on s tan tt empe ra tu re o f 100°C when t h es amp le w a sp u ti n to t h ef u rnace . A f te ro ne h ou rt h e f u rnace w a s s e t t o 1 250°C a nd a to ne h ou r a nd t h ir ty f i ve m inu te st h et empe ra tu re w a s a ga in r a i sed t o as e t t ing o f1 285 ° C . T he s amp le w a s r emoved f r om t h e f u rnace a f te r t wo h ou r s . No v i sua l c hange h ad t a ken p l ace , t h e s amp le h ad n o t t u rned p l a s t ic a nd s t i l lr e ta ined i t ss ha rp ,j agged e dge s .

b een i nt h er ange o f1 000°C t o 1 200°C ( Ty leco te , 1 992 , 4 8 9 ) . H an s -Ge r t B achmann s t a te s , " The t empe ra tu re s i ne a r ly s me l t ing f u rnaces a nd h ea r th s r a re ly e xceeded 1 300 0C1 400°C ; i n mo s t c a se s t h ey w e re l owe r " ( Bachman , 1 982 , 1 0 ) .

T he C e ls iu s m e l t ing t empe ra tu re s o ft h e e l emen t s c on ta ined i nt h e R oman T in s l ag a r e a sf o l low s :

( Samp le N o 7 5 ) T he w e igh t o ft h e s l ag s amp le w a s 1 . 30 g r am s w hen t h e s amp le w a s p u t i n to t h e f u rnace w h ich h ad

A lum in ium

b een p r ehea ted t o 5 00°C . T he f ur nace t empe ra tu re w a s i n c rea sed s l ow ly b y 1 00°C i n te rva l su n t i li tr eached 1 200°C a t 2h ou r s 2 0 m inu tes . T he c ruc ib le s amp le w a s c hecked e very h a lf h ou r t o s ee i fp la s t ic i ty o r me l t ing h ad t a ken p l ace . T he t empe ra tu re o f 1 200°C w a s h e ld t i l l 3h ou r s 3 0 m inu t e s , a f te rt h e s t a r t , a tt h i s t ime n o p la s t ic i ty o rm e l t ing o ft h e s l ag s amp le w a s v i s ib le . When t h e s amp le w a s t a ken f r om t h ef ur nace i tw e ighed 1 . 2 1 g ram s . ( Samp le N o 7 6 ) T he w e igh t o ft h e s l ag s amp le w a s 2 . 07 g ram s w hen t he s amp le w a s p u t i n to t he f u rnace . T he p r ima ry e xpe r imen ta lp rocedu r ew a st h es ame a s( Samp le N o 7 5 ) . A t 2h ou r s 1 0 m inu te s h ou r s t h e f u rnace t empe ra tu re r e ached 100°C . A tt h i s t ime t h e r e w a s n o v i s ib le c hange i n t h e s amp le . T he f u rna ce r eached at empe ra tu re o f 1 200°C a t 2h ou r s 2 0 m inu te s . T h is t empe ra tu re w a s h e ld t i l l 3h ou r s 1 0m inu te s h ad p a s sed . T he s amp le b y t h is t ime h ad s t a r ted t ob ecome v i s ib ly p l a s t ic a nd s of t , b u t w a s s t i l l n o t f u l ly mo l ten . T he s amp le w e ighed 1 . 99 g ram s when t a ken f r om t h ef u rna ce a t 3h ou r sa nd 1 0m inu te s . ( Samp le No 7 8 ) T he w e igh t o f t h i s s amp le w a s 0 .44 g ram s . T he s amp le w a s p u t i n to t he f urnace a t t h e t empe ra tu re o f 1 335°C . T he s amp le w a s r emoved f r om t h e f u rnace a t2 4 m inu te s . T he w e igh t o ft h e s amp le w a s 0 . 40 g r am s .N op hy s ica lc hange o ft h es amp le h ad t a ken p l ace d ue t ot h e s hor t t ime t h e s amp le w a s l e f t i nt h e i nt h e f u rnace , 2 3 m inu te s .

1 49

( A l )

6 60 .37°C

I r on

( F e )

1 534 .85°C

Mangane se

( Mn )

1 243 .85°C

N iob ium

( Nb )

2 467 .85°C

T an ta lum

( T a )

2 995 .85°C

T in

( Sn )

2 31 .96°C

T i tan ium

( T i )

1 659 .85°C

S i l icon

( S i )

1 409 .85°C

MINA DE SANTA EUL IA -V i s i tN o 2 5 ( Page s 1 00 -102 ) Two s amp le s w e re a na lysed f r om t h is s i te : o ne m ine ra l a nd o ne s l ag . ( Samp le No 1 0 ) T h i s m ine ra l s amp le a na lysed a s av e ry r i ch p i ece o fc a s s i te r i t e( 75% S n ) . ( Samp le No 1 8 /B ) T h is s l ag s amp le w a s a na ly sed o n t h e S EM i nt h e h ope o ff i nd ing t r a ce s o fm e ta l l ic t i n w i th in t h e s l ag . T he a na ly se s w e re n ega t ive a nd i ts e em s t ob e ai r on s l ag ( a ve rage 2 0% F e ) . T h is s amp le i sp o s s ib ly t h e r ema in s o f ai r on f o rg ing / sm i th ing p roces s ; p o ss ib ly R oman . A s p o ss ib le R oman T egu la r oof t i l e s w e r e f ound i nt h e s ame a r ea t h es l ag .

Ana ly t ica l R esu l t s

Chap te r 1 0

%

MINA DE SANTA '

EULALIA V is i t 2 5

%

Sn

%

Cu Nb

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

T i

T a

A l

S i

F e

Mn

S

K

P

Ca

C l

Na

TOTAL ,

. ,

.

7 .07 S amp le N o 1 0 _A rea l 7 A r ea 2 7 4 .74 ' M INERAL 5 .2 .93

-

,

. . .

. 75 .71 -2 3 .74 1 ,8 8 .16 , 5 .34 1 4 .06 1 .

0 .21 .

_ 0 .09

1 .02

0 . 15

1 . 54

.

'

4 .75 13 .34.4 2 .81 0 .23

„

_2 .97 0 .53

0 .18

0 . 11 '

3 8 .90 0 .32

-0 .08

A rea 5

'2 .79

0 .74

-0 . 12'

0 .95 _ 51 .05

4 1 .16

1 .09 0 .47

4 1 .57 . 4 0 .22

1 . 09

6 5 .86 5 2 .94

.

.

1 0

2 .73

0 .10

,

_

T ab le No

7 7 .07 . 7 4 .74

,

.

,A rea 2 A r ea 3. A rea 4.

.

_

,

,

rea 1 S amp le N o 18 /B A S LAG 1 0 .2 .93

.

.

, .

-

-

SE M /EDS a na lys is , w t% , s l ag , m inera l , M ina d e S an ta E u la l ia , P or tuga l

MINA VAL

%

%

% I

%

DE FLORES

Sn

Cu

Nb

T i

g o- % T a

A l

%

%

S i

F e

, % Mn

%

%

%

%

%

S

K

P

Ca

Mg

%

%

Na TOTAL

V is i t 2 9 , S amp le N o 4 0

A rea 1 A rea 2

M INERAL (? ) .

2 . 12 .93

S amp le N o 4 1

.

.

3 .61 ,2 .71

4 .01 4 .61

4 0 .22

.51 -0 0 .64

3 8 .31

0 .22 , 0 .15 ,

4 8 .59 4 6 .44

. .

,

A rea 1 -

2 .0 ' § .

0 .19

-1 2 .64

1 .69

0 .11

1 .23

M INERAL ( . 1 J A rea 2.

. 0 .11

,

2 . 12 .93

S amp le N o 4 2 M INERAL

A rea 1 6 9 .17 A rea 2 7 0 .38

1 . 12 .93

A rea 3 6 8 .06

1 4 .67

3 .48

0 .41

3 3 .59

1 3 .03

2 .86

0 .72

2 9 .81

.

0 .32 ' ,

0 .19

.

.

6 9 .50 7 0 .57

.

0 .11

6 8 .17 ,

, S amp le N o 4 3

A rea 1

M INERAL

A rea 2

2 . 12 .93

A rea 3

S amp le N o 3 9

A rea 1

- 1 . 52 .

1 . 83

5 4 .51

.79 3 0 .92 1 .85 1 9 .57 0 .31 0 .93 5

0 . 10 ( 0 .28 1 ,

0 .45

- 7 .93

2 3 .84

9 .71'

1 .00

0 .76

7 .78

1 6 .41

6 .65

0 .48

0 . 14 ' 2 . 19 . 13 0 . 14 0

S amp le N o 7 1

A rea 1 .

0 .41

8 .04

2 1 .34

7 .84

1 .00

S LAG

A rea 2

0 .46

7 .55

2 1 .00 1 0 .35

0 .74

2 0 .1 .94

A rea 3

.50_ .0

2 2 .69 2 4 .26

7 .94 8 .65

2 4 .13

5 .35

2 9 .9 .93

A r ea 4

,

_ .

.

A rea 5

0 .44 0 .26

.

.30 _ 8 8 .58 4 .48

5 4 .58 '6 0 .91

.

A rea 2,

S LAG

5 8 .26 _

3 .18

2 .38

5 0 .85

1 0 .36

7 .36

4 7 .71

0 .82

4 .47

3 .80

4 7 .76

2 .27

3 .28

2 .41

4 8 .09

0 .79 0 .91

'0 .49

9 .84

5 .99

5 6 .57

1 . 36

4 .42

3 .29

0 .49

2 .05

0 .67

0 .56 -

5 1 .94 3 8 .02

1 '

-

_ T ab le No

1

SE M/EDS a na lys is w t% , m inera l , s l ag , M ina Va l d e F lores , S pa in

1 50

C hap te r 1 0

MINA

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

VALDEFLORES

V is i tN o2 9 ( Pages 1 05 -108 ) S ix s amp le s w e re a na ly sed f r om t h eM ina V a l d eF lo res ; f ou r o ft h e se s amp les w e re p oss ib le m ine ra l s amp le s a nd t wo s ub s amp le sw e re c u tf r om as i ng le s ma l lp i ece o fs l ag . ( Samp le No 4 0 ) T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t s p roved t h i s s amp le w a sp o s s ib ly i r on o r e . ( Samp le No 4 1) T h is s amp le h ad a s ma l l p e rcen tage o f c oppe r p r esen t ( 1 .8% C u ) a nd t r ace s o ft i tan ium ( 0 .1 % T i ) . T he a na lys is o f t h is s amp le s hows t ha t s ma l l a moun t s o f c oppe ra r ep resen ta tV a ld eF lo re s . ( Samp le No 4 2 ) S n ) .

T h is s amp le i s ar i ch c a ss i ter i te o r e ( 69%

% I% I % 1% I%

CATRAIA DO

Sn

BURAC O

W

Nb

T i

T a

( Samp le No 4 3 )

T h is s amp le i s ai r on o r e m ine ra l .

( Samp le No 3 9 ) T h is s amp le a na lysed o n t h e S EM i sa s l ag , b u t mos t p robab ly f r om i r on s me l t ing . T he i r on c on ten t i sl ow ( 8 .0% F e ) w i th a s ma l l t r ace o f T i tan ium ( 0 .5% ) a l so p re sen t . Ih ad h oped t of i nd s ome t i n i nt h is s l ag wh ich wou ld h ave o f f e red p roof t ha t t i n s me l t ing h ad b een t ak ing p lace a tV a l D eF lo res . ( Samp le No 7 1) T h is s amp le i s f r om t h e s ame s l ag a s ( Samp le No 3 9 ) . Ia na lysed f i ve a r ea s o n t h is s amp le i nt h e h ope o f l o ca t ing s ome s ma l l t r ace o f t i n w i th in t h e s l ag s t ruc tu re , b u t t h e r e su l t s w e re n ega t ive . T he a na lys is o ft h is s amp le i s i n te rpe ted a s ai r on s l ag , b u t w i th a l ow i r on c on ten ta ve rag ing a r ound ( 8 .0% F e ) .

%

%

%

%

A l

S i

F e

Mn

: %

%

%

%

S

K

P

Ca

% ,% Mg

%

Na

TOTAL :

V is i t 3 0 2

_

S amp le No 2 8

A rea 1

S LAG

A rea 2

2 7 .1.94

A rea 3

I

.

_

A rea 4

'

A rea 5

,

A rea 6-

,

A rea 7

0 ,

I

A rea 8 '

S amp le No 2 9

A rea 1

S LAG

A rea 2

2 3 .9 .93

A rea 1

S LAG

A rea 2

2 7 .10 .93

A rea 3

_

_ .

A rea 4 _A rea 5„

0 .57

0 .28

0 .23

0 .52

0 .10

1 .05

0 .33

0 .49

_ 0 .56 0 .75

6 5 .12 6 9 .79

6 .40

1 3 .33

0 .22

4 .17

1 .74

0 .88

1 .57

6 6 .81

6 .25

.23 3 8 .23 0 1 3 .34 4 1.2 0 .49

0 .16

1 .86

1 . 10 '1 .53

2 .56

6 8 .52

5 .23

1 .16 3 3 .68 0 .36

0 .12

1 . 86

0 .96

1 . 19

3 . 17

1.19 3 9 .12 0 .34

0 .07

0 .86

0 .53

0 .83

0 .52

1.33 4 4 .04 0 .61

5 3 .8

-

_

8 .62 4 7 .75 0 .45 _ 0 .10

2 .83 . 4 1.23 0 .38 6 .45 .

4. 3 7 . , . .

..-

.

,

-

_

•

2

T ab le No 1 2

.. .

-

2 .11 . 1 .21

5 6 .99 _ 5 7 .49

0 .51

0 .19 _

0 .68

5 8 .01 -

0 .52

0 .33

0 .50

6 3 .04

-

0 .85

0 .35

0 .35

0 .09 _ 0 .63 0 .17 0 .92

0 .18

0 .30

6 1 .63

0 .19

0 .40

5 2 .62

1 7 .36 3 4. 3 8 0.1 9 ,0.1 3 , 2. 0 6

6 1.36

0 ,83

0 .87

0 .21

0 .06

1 .79

0 .90

0 .97

9 6 ,4 .27 4 5 .95 -1• 4 .01 1.93 4 9 .39 0 .21

0 .21

0 .44

' 0 .08

0 .23

5 3 .54 _

1 .67

0 .51

1 .00

6 8 .86

1 . 52

0 .50

1 . 18

6 9 .33

0 .59

4 9 .81

3 .66

, ,

-

. 2 .87

real ' S amp le No 9 9 'A rea 2 ,A A rea 3

0 .08

9 .28

1 .70 ' 8 .85 4 9 .34 0 .52

A rea 4 A rea 5 ,

S LAG 1 5 .11.94

1 0 .07 5 1 .25 0 .42

, 1 .02 ,_ 1 . 71 , 5 8 .13 0 .18

A rea 3 -

S amp le No 3 0

1 .62 3 .43

1 2 .95 _46 .97

3 .29

1.4350 .99 0 .23 _ 0 .07

8 . 19

1 3 .2 -2 2 .02

1 . 72

7 .42 5 1.58

0 .13

0 .35 0 .43

1 . 38 '6 .12 -5 3 .58

0 .46

0 .20

0 .60

0 .14 6 6 .28

0 .70

0 .33 2 8 .44

,

,

-5 .45

,

0 .40

6 1 .70

0 .43

6 2 .18 '6 7 .77

. ,

0 .37

,

S EM /EDS a na lys is , w t% , s l ag , C a t ra ia d o B u raco , P or tuga l

1 51

6 0 .29 _ 6 7 .66

9 .95 -2

A na lys is R e su l t s

C hap te r 1 0

CATRAIA DO BURACO V is i t No 3 0 ( Pages 1 09 -111) T h is s i te p roduced p o t tery , c rush ing s t ones , h ammer s t one s ,and s l ag s . A t p resen t af i rm a r chaeo log ica l d a te h a s n o t b een g iven t ot h e s i te d ue t ot h e f r agmen ta ry n a tu re a nd t h ep os s ib le mu l t ipe r iod u se t h a tt h e s u r face f i nd sr ep re sen t .

Mo s t o ft h e m ine ra lzed t i n d epos i t s i nt h e l o ca l i ty o fC a t ra ia Do B u raco a r e k nown t o c on ta in a t l e a s t o ne o f t h e t h ree a ccompany ing e l emen t s ( Nb , T i , T a ) a nd i n am a jo r i ty o ft h e t i n d epos i t s a l l t h ree o f t h e e l emen t s ( Ca r ta G eo log ica D e P or tuga l , SABUGAL 2 1-A , 1 : 50 .000 , 1 964 ) .

F ou rs l ag s amp le s w e re a na lysed f r om t h is s i te :

I tc ou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t t he C a t ra ia D o B uraco s me l t ing s l ags w ou ld c on ta in a tl e a s t s ome t r ace o f t i n a nd o ne o r mo re o ft h e e l emen t s ( Nb , T i , T a ) r eg re t tab ly n one a ppea r . T he i r on s l ag b e ing p roduced o n wha t l o ok s l i ke ap o s s ib le L a te B ronze A ge s i te p o ses ap rob lem .

T he f ou r s l ag s amp les w ere a na lysed o n t he S EM /EDS ( Samp le No 2 8 , S amp le N o 2 9 , S amp le No 3 0 a nd S amp le No 9 9 ) i nt h e h ope o ff i nd ing t r aces o ft i n w i th in t h e s l ags . At o ta l o ft wen ty o ne a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n a l l f ou r s l ags , a l t h e a na lys i sp o in ted t oi r on p roduc t ion s l ags ( a ve rage i r on c on ten t4 5% -50% ) . No t r ace s o ft i n , wo lf ram i t te , t i t an ium o r t a n ta lum w e re f ound i na ny o ft h e t wen ty -one a r ea sa na lysed . T he C a t ra ia D o B uraco s i te i sl o ca ted o n ly a f ew h und red me ter s t o t h e N or th -Ea s t o fT or re R omana C en tumce l las a s i te wh ich p roduced R oman t i n s l ags c on ta in ing p e rcen tages o fS n , T i , T a , a nd Nb .

% % % % % i ,T a 'S n Nb W , T

BEL MONTE CASTLE V i s i t 3 6

c A l

T h is p rob lem c ou ld b e r e so lved b y an umbe r o fa rgumen t s . I r on p roduc t ion may i nc er ta in l o ca t ion si nM id Ibe r ia s t a r ted e a r l ie r t han p rev ious ly t hough t o r t h e p e r iod o f t r ans i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on may h ave l a s ted l o nge r t h an p r evou s ly t hough t . Un t i l af i rm d a te f o r t h e C a t ra ia Do B u ra co s i te i so b ta ined t he a bove a rgumen t s a r e mean ing less . O bv ious ly i n t h e f u tu re as ma l l e xcava t ion f o ro b ta in ing s t ra t ig raphy n eed s t o b e d one . T he s i te i s b e ing t h rea tened d ue t o ab u i ld ing e x tens ion o f an ea rby f a c tory .

% % S i F e

% Mn

% % S _ K

% P

% C a

% % Mg' N a

% TOTAL

-

S amp le N o 3 1 S LAG 2 8 .9 .95

A rea l A rea 2

S amp le N o 3 2 S LAG 2 0 .1 .94

A rea 1

S amp le N o 3 S LAG 2 2 .11 .93

A rea 1 A r ea 2 A rea 3

S amp le N o 3 4 S LAG 2 0 .1 .94

A r ea 1

S amp le N o 3 5 S LAG 2 0 .1 .94

A rea 1

S amp le N o 3 6 S LAG 2 0 .1 .94

A rea 1

S amp le N o 5 3 S LAG 2 0 .1 .94

A r eal A rea 2 A rea 3

.

-

-

_

. 37 0 . 09 .2 '0 . 05 1 . 70 ' -

1 .98 4 2 .57 1 .2642 .49

5 .59 3 . 88 1 0 .13 3

0 .46 0 . 71

. 07 ,0

1 . 69

0 . 54

0 . 16 0 . 26 0 . 25

-0 . 63

1 . 06 2 . 18 1 . 53

0 .28 -

5 7 .76 5 6 .24

,0 . 4 1

5 2 ,39

,

0 .42 3 . 08 4 .72 6 5 . 3 4 1 . 8 9 4 7 .61 , 7 . 0 4 9 . 4 9 4 9 . 35 -

0 . 20

, 5 . 08

1 3 .47 2 9 .94 ,0 .46

1 . 32 ' 0 . 83

0 .35 0 .53 0 .79 .

_ 3 .89

0 . 33

1 . 99 , ,0 .38 , 1 .02

1 . 22

0 . 17

0 . 35

7 0 .44 6 9 .16 ' 6 9 .32 5 6 .8

, 3 . 47 1 0 .38 4 2 .8

-

0 . 79

2 .68 4 .61 1 4 .83 3

-

0 . 15

2 . 50 -

5 9 .35

_

,

0 . 79

5 5 .56 ,

-

-

2 . 02 9 .28 4 7 .79 4 .23 9 .81 4 . 39 2 . 11 9 .60 4 . 51 7 .31 4 2 . 13 9 .78 4

0 . 62 0 . 69 0 . 63

0 .45 0 . 50 0 .48 .

,

' T ab le No

1 3

S EM /EDS a na lys is , w t% , s l ag , B e lmon te C a s t le , P o r tuga l

1 52

-

'6 4 .42 6 7 .12 6 4 .86

Ana ly t ica l R esu l ts

Chap ter 1 0

BEL MONTE

%

%

CASTLE

Sn

Nb

-

%

% _ % T i

W

Ta

% S i

A l

-

%

%

F e

Mn

%

%

%

S ' K

%

P

Ca

% 'M g

%

%

Na

TOTAL

V is i t 3 6

S amp le N o 5 4 S LAG

-

A rea 1

3 .29

9 .07 3 8 .53 0 .54

1 .50

1 0 .08 4 1.59

1 .22

0 .23

0 .53

1 .20 0 .13 0 .86

0 .60

0 .34

5 3 .42

0 .37

A rea 2

1 3 .1 .94 S amp le N o 5 5

A rea 1

S LAG .

-3 .57

0 .69

5 7 .94

1 3 .1 .94

S amp le N o 5 6 '

,

,

A rea 1

.

S LAG

A rea 1 A rea 2

1 3 .1 .94 S amp le N o 5 8

-

_

0 .68

1 .26 6 7 .23

,0 .79

1 .86 5 8 .86

-

5 7 .63 .

-

6 9 .18 _ 6 1 .51

.

.

.

• 4 .39

0 .29

A rea 1

S LAG

-

1 3 .1 .94 S amp le N o 5 9

44 .0 8 .08 _

,

1 3 .1 .94 amp le N o 5 7 _S S LAG

2 .39

A rea 1

,

1 2 .14 4 1 .75

.

-

1 .60 -

0 .34 -

6 0 .65 ,

.

,

1 .49 , 9 .68 -4 7 .51,2 .50

,

4 .04 1 2 .41 3 3 .71 0 .17

.

.34 , 0 .37 ,0

6 1 .91 .

S LAG 1 3 .1 .94 _ S amp le N o 6 0 S LAG 1 3 .1 .94 S amp le N o 6 1 S LAG 1 3 .1 .94 S amp le No 6 2

A rea 1 .

,

A rea 1_

0 .12, _ 0 .08

A rea 2

3 .6 3 _ 5 .93 1 1 .93, 3 .85_ 11.97 3 6 .72

1 .62 , 0 .55

0 .41

0 .24

5 4 .55

1 .03

0 .37

0 .28

5 4 .32 -

. _

A rea 1

3 .50 1 0 .04 4 1 .98 _

0 .12 , 0 .54 '

0 .30

5 6 .57

, A rea

1,

-

S LAG

5 . 19 , A

1.4929 .97 0 .35

0 .33

2 .73

0 .94

5 .47

0 .25

5 6 .82 •

,

1 3 .1 .94 S amp le No 6 4

r2 .30

.

S LAG 2 0 .1 .94 S amp le No 6 3

5 2 .52

,

A rea 1 -

S LAG

A rea 2

2 2 .11.93

A rea 3

S amp le No 6 5

A rea 1

-

.

,

-

S LAG

4 .75

1 0 .9947 .19 0 .63

'3 .33

1.08 4 8 .82 0 .81

7 .67

1.66 3 8 .42 0 .56

, .60 , 8 .92 , 3 4 .64 0 .45 0 .17 ,2 ,I .

2 .96

1 .09

2 .06 1 .03 , 4 .30 _ 1.74 1 .21

0 .61

6 8 .25 0 .82

6 7 .98

1 .29

5 .67 .6

0 .36

4 8 .57

0 .43 ,0 .29

.4 8 .85

0 .20

1 3 .1 .94 S amp le No 6 6 S LAG

A rea 1

2 .75

. -

1 3 .1 .94

T ab le No

1 3

.74 7 .64 3 6 .13 0

-0 .84

-

SE M/EDS a na lys is , w t% , s l ag , B e l mon te Cas t le , P or tuga l

1 53

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

C hap te r 1 0

BEL MONTE _

%

%

%

Sn ' Nb- W

CASTLE

r

% T i

%

%

%

%

T a

A l

S i

Fe

% Mn

% S

% K

%

%

%

%

%

P

Ca

Mg

Na

TOTAL

V i s i t 3 6

S amp le N o 6 7 S LAG

3 .70

A rea 1 '

.

0 .39

0 .32 0 .98 8 .42 4 0 .97,0 .28 ,

,

0 .20

5 5 .3 .

2 0 .1 .94 S amp le N o 6 8

A rea 1 -

6 .68 1.09 ' 1 0 .2 4

2 .14

,0 .34

6 .91 0 .16 1 4 .02 3

2 .35

1 .28

3 .50 -

S LAG

0 .10 '

0 .29

6 4 .37 :

-

2 0 .1 .94 S amp le N o 6 9 S LAG

5 .47

A rea 1

0 .65

2 0 .1 .94 S amp le N o 7 0 S LAG

6 0 .95

0 .08 A rea 1

2 0 .1 .94

-

-

0 .23

-

,

3 .98

.21 1 .43 3 6 .08 0

2 .67

1 .08

_

6 .91

,

0 .33 _ -

6 2 .94-

-

'

T ab le N o 1 4

S EM /EDS a na lys is , w t% , s l ag , B e lmon te C a s t le , P or tuga l

BEL MONTE CASTLE V is i t No 3 6 ( Page 15 ) T h ir ty th ree a r ea s o n t wen ty -fou rs epa ra te s l ag s amp les w e re a na lysed o n t h e S EM /EDS . T he r e a son f o r c o l lec t ing a nd s amp l ing s u ch a l a rge c o l lec t ion o f s l ag w a s t h e h ope o f f i nd ing s ome t r aces o fS n o rt h e e l emen t s T i , T a , N b .

P ho to 4 6

Unfor tuna te ly a l o f t h e t h i r ty t h ree a na ly sed a r ea s o f t h e B e lmon te s l ag s amp le s a na lysed a s i r on s me l t ing s l ag s w i th aa ve rage i r on c on ten to fa r ound 4 0% . N ine a r ea s i ne i gh t o f t h e s amp les h ad s ma l l t r aces o ft ian ium , w h ich c ou ld p o in t t o al o ca l i r on o r e b e ing u sed . No t r ace s o ft i n a ppea red i n a ny o ft h e s l ag s amp les .

a s so r tmen t o fc o l lec ted s u r face s l ag , B e lmon te C a s t le

1 54

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

C hap te r 1 0

CR IFT FAR M , CORN WALL ( Samp le N o 1) T h is s amp le a s ma l l p i ece o f a l luv ia l c a s s i te r i te f r om C o rnwa l l , E ng land w h ich w a s c o l lec ted a nd g i ven t om e b y J ohn Me rke l , wh ich w a s a na ly sed t oc heck t h e p e r cen tage o ft i np resen t . T he a luv ia l c a s s i te r i te s amp le p roved t ob er i ch i nt i n ( 82% S n ) .

CRIFT FAR M

%

CORN WALL

Sn

S amp le N o 1 M INERAL

,% Cu

% ,%

% I% ,%

%

%

S i

F e

Mn

i .Ta IAl Nb .T

% % I% [% S 1 KI P Ca

%

%

%

Mg Na TOTAL

,

A rea 1 8 2 .70 3 .03 A rea 2 8

.

, .

ALLUV IAL T IN

8 2 .70

.

8 3 .03

,

9 .2 .93

, _

T ab le No 1 5

PYL MTON ,

S EM /EDS a na ly s i s , w t% , m ine ra l , C r if tF a rm , C o rnwa l l , E ng land

DEVON

( Samp le N o 7 2 ) T h is s amp le o f " wood t i n " f r om D evon , E ng land , w h ich w a s p u rcha sed a t am ine ra l f a i r i nL ondon w a s a na ly sed t od e t e rm ine t h ep e r cen tage o ft i np re sen t . T he w ood t i ns amp le p roved t ob er i ch i nt i n ( a ve rage 6 0% S n ) .

PLY MTON DEVON

%

%

Sn , Cu

% Nb

%

%

%

A l

S i

F e

% _% T i

Ta

% _% Mn

S

%

%

K

P ' Ca Mg Na TOTAL

. S amp le N o 7 2 MINERAL WOOD T IN '

A rea 1 7 6 .32 0 .93 , A rea 2 5 A rea 3 0 .28

9 .12 .93

T ab le N o 1 6

%

%

%

.

.

.

0 .23 1 . 30 2 3 .02 0 .48

, .

%

r

'

4 0 .56

. .

7 7 .85 7 4 .44 4 0 .90

S EM /EDS a na ly s i s , w t% , m ine ra l , P lym ton , D evoon E ng land

E xcava ted L a te B ronze Age c ruc ib le f r agmen t s h ave b een g iven t o me b y R aque l V i laca o f t he I ns t i tu to d e A rqueo log ia , C o imb ra Un ive r s i ty , P or tuga l a nd s he h a s g i ven m e h e r p e rm i ss ion t o i n c lude t h e c ruc ib le f r agmen t a na ly t ica lr e su l t s i n my P hD . T he c r uc ib le f r agmen t sc ome f r om t wo L a te B ronze A ge s i te s C a s te le jo a nd A leg r ios , wh ich R aque l V i laca h a s b een e xcava t ing s ea s iona l ly o ve rt h el a s tf i ve y ea r s . T he V i la ca s i te o fC a s te le jo i si nt h eM id -Ea s te rn P o r tugue se p r ov ince o fB e i ra B ax ia , A dm in i s t ra t ive D i s t r ic to fS abuga l , a t 1 008 me te r s a l t i tude , j us t a bove t h e s ma l l v i l lage o f Q ua r ta -F e i ra .

1 55

N o r th : 4 0° 2 0 ' 0 6 " -E a s t o fL i sboa : 0 1° 2 0 ' 5 4 " C a r ta d e P o r tuga l ; B e i ra s F o lha 4 , 1 : 200 .000 I n s t i tu to G eog raf ico eC ada s t ra l , 9 88 A l l t h e a na ly s is w o rk o n t h e c r uc ib le f r agmen t s w a s d one u s ing ( EP MA /EDS ) a na lys is o n t h e m ic rop robe i n t h e G eo logy D epa r tmen t , B i rkbeck C o l lege . T he m ic rop robe t e chn ic ian w a sA ndy B ea rd . Aq uan t i ta t ive c ompu te rp rog ram w a s u sed t oa cqu i re t h e a na ly t ica l r e su l t s . B la ck a nd Wh i te p ho tog raph s w e re a l so t a ken o fa l t h ea na ly sed a r ea s .

C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

5 cm

D raw ing No 2 2

c ruc ib le f r agmen t s , C a s te le jo , P o r tuga l , R aque l V i laca , s c a le u n i t s 1c m

T he c r uc ib le s amp le s w e re s e c t ioned , moun ted a nd p o l i shed . A t o ta l o f s even s epa ra te s amp les w e re c u t f r om t h e C a s te le jo c ruc ib le s . A f te r v i sua l e xam ina t ion o f t h e s even moun ted /po l i shed s amp le s u s ing a n o p t ica l m ic roscope , t wo o ft h es even w e re c ho sen f o rr n ic rob robe EDS a na ly s i s . ( Samp le C a s t No 1 0 ) A rea 1 a nd A rea 2 Two m ic ro t e t ragona ls haped f r agmen t sl o ca ted j u s tb e low t h er im o ft h e i nne r w a l l o f t h e c ruc ib le s w e re a na lysed . B o th y i e lded a lmos t i d en t ica l a na lys is . T he m icro p o in t s a na lysed t o a lmo s t p u re t i n ( 73 .3% a nd 7 0 .4% ) w i th s ma l l p e rcen tage s o fc oppe rp r e sen t ( 1 .3% a nd 0 . 8% ) . T he o t he re l emen t s p re sen ta r e A l ( m ino r 1 5% ) , S i( m ino r 1 5% ) , C a ( m ino r 1 5% ) , F e ( t race , l e s s t h an 1% ) ,and P ( t ra ce , l e s st h an 1 % )a nd .T he t r ace e l emen t sp robab ly c ome f r om t h e p o t te ry o r c e ram ic ma te r ia l u sed t o make t h e c r uc ib le . ( Samp le C a s t No 1) c r uc ib le s amp le .

e a s T E L tIO

S ix a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h is

A rea 1 A t e t ragona l s haped f r agmen t l o ca ted j u s tb e low t h e r im o ft h ec r uc ib le a nd b e low t h ei n s ide s u r f ace ( one o f many s im i l ia r f r agmen t s ) , c on ta ined ( 80 .2% ) S n . T h is p o in t i sa f r agmen t o fc a s s i te r i te o re . T he m i ss ing p e rcen tage t o 1 00% w ou ld c on s is t o f o xygen w h ich t h e m ic rop robe d oe s n o t d e tec t . I ti sn o ts me l ted t i n . Iw ou ld c on s ide rt h e f r agmen t t o b e an a tu ra l c a s s i te r i te m ine ra lt h a th a sb een c r u shed a nd p u t i n to t h e c r uc ib le .

1 56

T he c r u shed c a s s i te r i te f r agmen tb ecome e mbedded i ni n ne r a r ea o ft h e u pp e rc r uc ib le w a l l , w h ich s e em st oh ave b ecome v e ry p o rou s a nd f r agmen ted d u r ing t h e b ronze mak ing p roce s s . A rea 2 T h i s a r ea i s as im i l ia rt oA rea 1e xp ec tf o r as l igh t ly h i ghe rt i nc on t en t( 82 .7% ) S n a nd at r ace o f( 0 .1 % ) S i . A rea 3 T h is a r ea i sa l so s im i l ia r t oA rea 1S n ( 79 .9% ) a nd t r ace so fA l ( 0 .2% )a nd S i( 0 .2% ) . A rea 4 T h is a r ea i sa l so s im i l ia r t oA rea 1S n ( 8 1 .2% ) a nd S i( 0 .1 % ) . A r ea 5 T h i s a r ea i s am e ta l l ic p r i l l . T he l o ca t ion o ft h ep r i l l i sj u s t b e low t h e r im a nd o n t h e i n s ide w a l l o ft h e c ruc ib le , i nt h es ame g ene ra l a r ea a st h ec a s s i te r i te f r agmen t sA rea N o 1-A rea N o 4 .T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t s o ft h i s p r i l l s howed i t t ob e 9 9% c oppe r w i th at r ace o f S i ( 0 .1% ) . T h i s a na ly s i s s how st h a tm e ta l l ic c oppe rw a sp re sen t i nt h ec ruc ib le a l ong w i th c a s s i te r i te o r e . A rea 6 T h is a r ea i si d en t ica l t o A rea 5 a nd c on ta in s C u ( 94% )w i th at r a ce o f S( 0 .5% ) . T he a bove a na ly t ica l r e su l t s a l ong w i th t h e B lack a nd Wh i te p ho tog raph s p o in t t o av e ry s t rong p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t t h e C a s te le jo C ruc ib le ( Ca s t N o 1) w a s u sed f o r ab ronze a loy ing p roce s s .

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

C hap te r 1 0

T he s e cond e xcava ted V i laca s i te o fA legr ios i si nt h e M id E a s te rn P or tuguese p rov ince o fB e ira B a ixa , Adm in is t ra t ive D is t r ic t o f I danha -a -Nova , l o ca ted a t a pprox ima te ly 6 00 me te r sa l t i tude i nt he S e r ra d os A legr io s ,a pp rox ima te ly t h ree k i lome t re s t ot h e n o r th /wes t o f t h e t own o f Monsan to . T he s econd s i te i sl oca ted a pp rox ima te ly t e n k i lome te r s t o t h e S ou th o fC a s te le jo .

% ,% RAQUEL V ILACA u ' . Sn , C , S A MPLES ,

a

% N 1 3'

r

,

C a s t N o 1 0 C RUC IBLE F RAGMENT 1 4 .9 .94

. 28: 3 .29 1 A rea l 7 .79 A rea 2 7 0 .39 0

C a s t N o 1 C RUC IBLE F RAGMENT 1 4 .9 .94

' A r ea 1' 8 0 .23 ' . 2 .75 A rea 2 8 A rea 3 7 9 .90 ' A rea 4 8 1 .20 „

•

T h is s i te p roduced o ne c ruc ib le r im f r agmen t , wh ich w a s s e c t ioned moun ted a nd p o l ished t o make t wo s amp les f r om t h is s i ng le f r agmen t .

% _% % % % T i I r a' A l ,S i ,F e

I .,

,

-

,

- M,

I

,

% Mn

% % % S ,K , P 1

,

1 . 46 3 . 55 2 . 07 4 .46

•

/

N o r th : 4 0° 0 0 ' 2 4 " -E a s t o fL i sboa : 0 1° 5 9 ' 5 7 " C a r ta P or tuga l ; B e ira s F o lha 4 1 : 200 .000 I n s t i tu to G eog ra f ico eC ada s t ra l ; 1 988

% % % Mg Na TOTAL .

.•

.

0 . 42 0 . 31

% C a

r

' -

0 . 24 0 . 21

1 , 00 1 . 22

8 1 .26 7 9 .43 -

.

A rea 5 rea 6 .A

0 . 12 0 . 16 0 . 21 0 . 17

-

'

1 00: 9 4 .0 .

,

8 0 .23 ' 8 2 .75 8 0 .27 8 0 .37

-

0 . 14

1 00 .1 0 . 48 ,

.

A l eN o 3 7 /A C RUC IBLE F RAGMENT 1 4 .9 .94

9 .90 A r ea 1 2

1 . 13 0 . 37

4 . 73

A le N o 3 7 /B C RUC IBLE F RAGMENT 1 4 .9 .94

A rea 1 1 9 .54 -4 4 .0 1 . 13 6 .0 A rea 2 2 9 .89 4 . 73- 1 9 .45 . , 2 8 . 7 2 . 49 A rea 3 0 . 32 ' , . 53 . , 8 . 83 1 3 .1 2 9 .3 0 . 12 2 . 97 A rea 4 0

8 . 07

1 5 .7

,

9 4 .55 '

,

1 . 77

,

6 2 .00

, .

T ab le No 1 7

' V I

i

•

1•'

_

,

0 . 26 '1 . 77 , . 6 . 49 1 . 03 . 17 6 . 18 1 0 . 62

-8 . 07

,

1

,

• ••

/

I'

6 4 .43 6 1 .42 4 8 .70 6 2 .90

EPMA/EDS a na lys is , w t% , c r uc ib le f r agmen t s , C a s te le jo a nd A leg r io s , P or tuga l

( Samp le A le 3 7 /A ) One a r ea wa s a na lysed o n t h is s amp le . T he a na lysed a r ea c on ta ined S n ( 29 .9% ) , Nb ( 1 .1 % ) , T i ( 0 .4%) a nd t h e a ccompany ing e l emen ts A l ( 4 .7%) , S i ( 15 .7% ) , F e ( 8 .1 % ) a nd Mn ( 1 .8 % ) . T he a r ea a na lysed o n S amp le A le 3 7 /A w a s p oss ib ly t o o l a rge a nd i n c luded n o to n ly ac a ss i te r i te f r agmen t b u ta n a r ea o f t he c ruc ib le w a l l s t ruc tu re , wh ich mus t a ccoun t f o r t h e e l emen t s A l , S i , F e , a nd Mn . Wha t i s i n teres t ing i st h e a ppea rance o f t he e l emen ts Nb a nd T i wh ich a ppea r g eo log ica l ly a l ong w i th c a ss i te r i te i ns ome a r ea s o ft h e M id I b er ian r e g ion .

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( Samp le A le 3 7 /B ) s amp le .

F ive a rea s w ere a na lysed o n t h is

A rea 1 T he a r ea a na lysed w a s ame ta l l ic p r i l l l o ca ted o n t h e i n ne r w a l l o ft h e c r uc ib le . T he a na lys is f r om A rea 1o f f e red p roof t ha t b ronze w a s b e ing p roduced i n t h e A legr ios c r uc ib le . P resen t w a s S n ( 19 .5% ) a nd C u ( 44 .% ) a nd t r aces o fF e ( 0 .6% ) a nd S( 0 .3% ) . A rea 2 T h is a r ea i si d en t ica l w i th t h e a r ea a na lysed o n ( Samp le A le 3 7 /A ) .

Ana ly t ica l R e su l t s

C hap te r 1 0

P ho to 4 7

C ruc ib le F ragmen t , A leg ro s e xcava ted 1 988 , R aque l V i laca

( Samp le A le 3 7B ) A rea 3 T he a r ea a na ly sed a tt h i s p o in tw a s as ma l l i r regu la r i n c lu s ion l o ca ted o n t h e l owe r i nne r w a l l o f t h e c ruc ib le s amp le . T he a na ly s i s s howed a s ma l l t r a ce o f S n ( 0 .3% ) p resen t ,w i th ma jo r p e r cen tages o f Nb ( 9 .4% ) , T a ( 28 .7% ) a nd F e ( 6 .5% ) p re sen ta nd m ino rp e r cen tage s o fS i( 2 .5 ) a nd Mn ( 1 .0% ) . T he a na lys i sc l ea r ly s how st h a tt h ef r agmen ti sa p i ece o f Nb , T i a nd T a m ine ra l w i th a ccompany ing F e , w h ich h a s b een m is taken ly c o l lec ted , c ru shed a nd p u ti nt h e c ruc ib le a l ong w i th t h ec a s s i t e r i te o r e .

A rea 4 T he a r ea a na lysed i n t h is p o in t w a s a no the r a r ea w i th in t h e s ame f r agmen ted p i ece o fm ine ra l w he re A rea 3 w a s a na lysed . T he r e su l t s w e re s im i la r t oA rea 3e xpec t f o r t h e a ppea rance o f ama jo r p e rcen tage o f T i ( 1 3 .1 % ) . T h i s s e cond a na lys i s a l ong w i th t h e b l ack a nd w h i te p ho tog raph s l e ave s n o d oub t t h a t l o ca l I ber ian c a ss i te r i te o r e w a s b e ing a dded t oc oppe ri nt h eA leg r io sc r uc ib le t op roduce b r onze f o r c a s t ing .

0

D raw ing N o 2 3

S cm

c r uc ib le f r agmen t , A leg r io s , P or tuga l , s ca le u n i t s 1c m

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C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

P ho to 4 8

M ic rop robe p ho tog raph s e c t ion o fR aque l V i laca c ruc ib le ( A ) c r ushed c a ss i te r i te f r agmen t s , C a s t No 1 , a r ea s 1 4 ,p age 1 57 ( B ) i n ne ru ppe rw a l l o fc r uc ib le ( C ) c oppe rp r i l ls , C a s t No 1 , A rea s 5 -6 , p age 1 57

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C hap te r 1 0

A na ly t ica l R e su l t s

P ho to 4 9

M ic rop robe p ho tog raph s ec t ion o fR aque l V i laca c ruc ib le ( A ) c r u shed c a s s i te r i te f r agmen t s ( B ) i n ne ru ppe rw a l l o fc ruc ib le

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CHAPTER

I I

D ISCUSSION

a nd

CONCLUSIONS

D iscuss ion : T he P hD s u rvey p ro jec tw a su nde r taken t ot e s ta nd h opefu l ly c onf i rm t h e p reh i s to r ic u se o f c a s s i te r i te o re a ts i tes i n t h e M id -Cen t ra l I be r ian r eg ion . R ef e rence s t ot h e M id -Cen t ra l I b e r ian c a s s i te r i te o re a r ea s a r e n o t w e l l d ocumen ted o r e x ten s ive ly u sed i n c u r ren t h i s to r ica l o r a rchaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e . Mode rn g eo log ica l l i te ra tu re ( mo s t ly o f S pan ish o r ig in ) d ocumen t s t h a t c a ss i te r i te o re l o ca t ion s a r e q u i te e x ten s ive , b u t t h e l i t e ra tu re l e ave s o u t many o ft h e o lde r a nd s ma l le r w o rked c a s s i te r i te o r es i te s . T h eM id C en t ra lI be r ian t i nr e sea rch p ro jec tc on s i s ted o ff i e ld s u r f a ce s u rvey wo rk a nd l a bo ra to ry a na lys is o f s e lec ted c o l lec t ed s u rvey s amp le s ( m ine ra l , m e ta l a nd s l ag ) , p lu s t h e d a t ing w heneve rp o s s ib le o fa ny s u r f ace c o l lec ted p o t te ry a nd f l in t . T he l a bo ra to ry a na lyses h e lped c onf i rm t h ei d en t if ica t ion o f c o l le c ted m ine ra l , s l ag a nd me ta ls amp le s . O ne p rob lem wh ich b ecame a ppa ren t d u r ing t h e e a r ly f i e ld s u rvey w o rk wa s t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion 's g ene ra l i gno rance o f f o rme r m ine a rea s : l o ca l p eop le g ene ra l ly h ad l i t t le o r n o k now ledge o fm ine l o ca t ion s , o re sm ined a nd w o rk ing d a te s o fn e ighbou r ing m ine s . T he ma jor ity o f t he l a rger c ass i ter i te a nd c a s s i t e r i te /wo lf ram i te m ine s i n M id -Cen t ra l I be r ia c ea sed w o rk ing q u i te r e cen t ly , s ome a s l a te a s t h e m id 1 980 ' s . A m a jo r i ty o ft h eo lde ra nd s ma l le rm ine sc ea sed p roduc t ion i n t h ee a r ly t om idd le p a r to ft h i sc en tu ry . A st i me p a s se sa ny u ndocumen t ed o ru n loca ted c a s s i te r i t eo r e s i te s w i l l b e e ven h a rde r t oi d en t ify a s g radua l e ro s ion a nd v ege ta t ion c ove r st h ec a s s i te r i t eo r ea r ea s . I tw a s s oon a ppa ren t t ha t t h e s u rvey w o rk w ou ld h ave t o b ecome l o ng t e rm i fi tw a s t ob e s ucce s sfu l i ng a the r ing a l l a va i lab le f i e ld s i te i n fo rma t ion . I tw a s i mpor tan t f i r s t a nd f o remos t t ol o ca te a nd d ocumen t m ode rn c a s s i te r i te o r es i te s , n o te t h e g eog raphy a nd g eo logy o ft h es i te a nd d e te rm ine w he the rt h es i te sw ou ld s uppo r tt h e c r i te r ia f o rb e ing ap o s s ib le ,p reh is to r ic a r chaeome ta l lu rg ica l s i te . T he m a jo rc r i te r ia w e re c ons ide red t ob e am ine ra l s i te t h a tw ou ld h ave b een v i s ib le a nd a cce s s ib le i na n t iqu i ty a nd e a s i ly m ined u s ing p reh i s to r ic m in ing t e chn ique s f o r e i the r v e in o ra l luv ia lo re w o rk ing s . T o d a te my s u rvey w o rk i n Wes tern M id -Cen t ra l I be r ia s ugge s t s t h a t a tl e a s t o ne c a s s i te r i te s i te ( E l C e r ro D e S an C r i s toba l ,V i s i t No 4 ,L og ro san , p age s 5 1-66 ) w a sp rov id ing l o ca l c a s s i te r i te o re s f o r u se i n b ronze p roduc t ion a nd f o r p o s s ib le e xpo r td u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge . A ny e a r l ie rd a te s t h an t h e L a te B ronze A ge f o r t he m in ing a nd u se t h e o f c a s s i te r i te o res a tE l C e r ro D e S an C r is toba l w i l l h ave t o w a i tf o rf u tu re a r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion s .

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A t p re sen t E l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l h a s b een d a ted s o le ly b y t h e s u r face c o l lec ted p o t te ry , t h e ma jo r i ty o f w h ich i s L a t eB ronze Age . T he c o l lec t ed s t one h amme r sa tt h es i t ec an n o ta tp re sen tb eu sed f o rd a t ing . I tw i l lb en ece s sa ry t oh ave e xcava ted s t ra t if ied s t one h amme r s p resen t w i th d a tab le p o t te ry o rc ha r coa l b efo re t h e S an C r i s toba l s t one h amme r s a nd c r u she r sc an b eu sed f o rd ef in i te d a t ing p u rpo se s . T he a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s , s t one , f l in t , m e ta l a nd p o t te ry c o l lec ted b y S o s B ayna t a tE l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l p o in t t o a n e a r l ie r a r chaeo log ica l d a te , p o s s ib ly C oppe r A ge ( Append ix I & I ) . T he a r tefac t s S o s B ayna t c o l lec ted f r om E l C e r ro D e S an C r i s toba l p os s ib ly i nd ica te a n e a r l ie r s e t t lemen t s i t e , w h ich w a s n o ti nvo lved w i th c a s s i te r i te o r e p roduc t ion . T he re d oe s e x is tt h e p o ss ib i l i ty t ha tg o ld o rc oppe rw e re b e ing m ined o r w o rked a t E l C e r ro d e S an C r is toba l d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r C oppe r Age p e r iod . T o d a te n o s ur face s l ag , f u rnace o r c ruc ib le r ema in s h ave b een e i the r f ound o r i d en t if ied a tE l C e r ro d e S an C r is toba l d u r ing t h es u rvey wo rk . T he t h ree me ta l a r tefac t s f r om E l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l h ave a na ly sed a sB ronze ( Samp le N o ' s4 4 ,N o9 7a nd N o9 8 , p age 1 35 ) .T od a te n op u r ec oppe ra r tef a c t sh ave b een f ound . T he s i te a tE l B er roca l ( V is i t N o 4 2 , p age 1 23 -131) , b o th s e t t lemen t a nd m ine a r ea s h ave p roduced p o t tery , f l in t a nd s t one t oo ls . No f urnace , c ruc ib le o r s l ag r ema ins h ave y e t b een f ound a tE l B e r roca l . E l B e r roca l i sa tp re sen td a ted b y t h ep o t te ry f r om t h e s e t t lemen ts i t e t ot h eC oppe rA ge . I nt h e C oppe r Age E l B e r roca l c ou ld h ave b een as e t t lemen t s i te o n ly w i thou t m in ing t ak ing p l ace t hough i ti sp os s ib le t h a t t h e m in ing o r wo rk ing o f g o ld o r c oppe r c ou ld h ave b een u nde r taken d u r ing t h eC oppe rA ge . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e C a ss i te r i te o r e o ft h e B e r roca l s i te w a s m ined d u r ing t he L a te B ronze a ge , b u t t o d a te n o a r chaeo log ica l .e v idence h a sb een f ound d ef in i te ly l i nk ing t h e E lB e r roca l s i te t oc a ss i te r i te o r ep roduc t ion . T he B e r roca l s i te m ine a r ea n eeds mo re s u rvey w o rk a nd s ome s ma l l e xcava t ion t r enche s w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea a nd i nt h em ine a r ea whe re t h es t one h amme r sw e re f ound i n 1 995 . T he s l ag s wh ich w e re f ound a tt h e s i te s o fL aM ina D eT re s A r royo s ( page s 6 9 -70 ) , T he M ine a tS an ta E u la l ia ( p age s 1 00 -122 ) , M ina s V a lde f lo rez ( p age s 1 05 -108 ) , A rea C a t ra ia D oB u ra co ( page s 1 09 -111) a nd C a s te lo B e lmon te ( p age 15 ) w e re a l i d en t if ied a si r on s me l t ing o rf o rg ing s l ag s . T he l a ck o fa ny q uan t i ty o fe a r ly t i n s l ag e xpec tf o rt h es ma l l a moun t o f u n ique R oman t i n s l ag f r om T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , a t B e lmon te , P o r tuga l , ( page s 9 2 -94 ) s t i l l l e aves u nanswe red t h e q ue s t ion o f e a r l ie r c a s s i te r i te o r e p roduc t ion a nd i t s u se i nt h eM id -Cen t ra l I b e r ian r e g ion .

C hap te r 1

D i scu s s ion a nd C onc lu s ion s

T he R oman t i n s l ag f r om T or re R omana C en tumce l la s , Z eze re v a l ley , P o r tuga l w i th t h e i n c lu s ion o ft h e e l emen t s o f T i ( t i tan ium ) , T a ( t an ta lum ) a nd Nb ( n iob ium ) , ( a na lys i s r e su l t s , ( pages 1 44 -145 ) , c l ea r ly i nd ica tes t ha t t h e s l ag w a s mo s t p robab ly d e r ived f r om t h e u se o fl o ca l c a s s i te r i te o r e s o ft h eZ eze re Va l ley r eg ion . T he Z eze re v a l ley s l ag a ppea red i n as ma l l amoun t .N o rma l ly w hen s l ag i sb e ing p roduced d u r ing ame ta l lu rg ica l p roce s s s uch a ss me l t ing t h e amoun t g ene ra ted e x is t s i na bundance . Wha t i sl a ck ing a tT o r re R omana C en tumce l la s i se ven t h e e v idence o fc ru shed s l ag f r agmen t s , whe re t h e r ema in ing t i n p r i l ls i n t h e s l ag w ou ld h ave b een r emoved a nd f u r the r r ef ined . T he d i rec t a dd i t ion m e thod o fc a ss i te r i te m ine ra l t or ef ined c oppe r w ou ld h ave b een t h e mo s t s t ra igh tforwa rd w ay t o p roduce b ronze i np re h i s to ry . T he g ene ra l l a ck o f t i n s l ag d u r ing my f i e ld s u rvey w o rk mu s t h e lp t os uppo r t t h e a rgumen t t h a t o n ly r i ch c a s s i te r i te m ine ra l w a s b e ing s me l ted i n to t i n i ngo t s o r a l te rna t ive ly t h a ts o r t ed r i ch c a s s i te r i te m ine ra lw a sb e ing a dded d i r ec t ly t o r ef ined me l ted c oppe r t o make b ronze . Ne i the r o ft h e se t wo m e ta l lu rg ica lp roce s sw ou ld p roduce l a rge amoun t so fs l ag ,i f a ny a ta l l . T he V i laca c ruc ib le f r agmen t s a r e r im f r agmen t s o n ly . I ti s p robab le t ha tt h e b o t tom p a r t s o ft h e c ruc ib le s w h ich w ou ld n o t h ave b een a s v i t r if ied o r s l agged a s t h e u ppe r r im a r ea , w e re b roken u p a nd d es t royed d u r ing o r a f te r t h e b ronze mak ing p roce s s . T he m ic rop robe a na ly t ica l r e su l t s f r om R aque l V i la ca 's P o r tugue se c ruc ib le f r agmen t s( page s 1 55 -160 ) s e em t os how t h a tt wo o fh e re xcava ted L a te B ronze Age s e t t lemen ts i t e si n t h e C en t ra l M id Ibe r ian r eg ion w e re u s ing p rocessed c a s s i te r i te o re d i rec t ly f o r t h e b ronze mak ing p roce s s , a f te r c ru sh ing t he c a s s i te r i te a nd s o r t ing o u t t he a ccompany ing g angue ma ter ia l . T he f i ne ly c rushed c a ss i te r i te w i th a ccompany ing c ove r ing c ha rcoa l w a s t hen b e ing a dded d i rec t ly t op re me l t ed r ef ined c oppe ri n ac ruc ib le o pe ra t ion t o p roduce b ronze f o rc a s t ing p u rpo se s . T he a ppea rance o fm e ta l l ic p r i l l s o fp u re c oppe r a nd b ronze p r i l l s c on ta in ing v a ry ing p e rcen tage s o ft i n w i th in t h e i n ne r w a l l o ft h e c ruc ib le f r agmen t s a l ong w i th wha t s e em s t ob e e mbedded c ru shed c a s s i te r i te o r ef r agmen t s , s eem st os ugge s t t h a tt h ec ruc ib le sw e re b e ing u sed f o rb ronze p roduc t ion . T he e mbedded c a ss i te r i t e f r agmen t s a r e o n ly t o b e f ound i nt h e i n ne rt op a r ea wa l lo ft h er im c ruc ib le f r agmen t s ,f r agmen ted c a s s i te r i te o re w a sn o tf ound i nt h eg ene ra l c e ram ic m a t r ix o r o u te rw a l ls o ft h ec r uc ib le . G e r ry McDonne l lo ft h e Un ive r s i ty o fB radfo rd h a ss ugge s ted i n au sefu l d i scus s ion t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t ha t t h e e mbedded c a s s i ter i te f r agmen t s m igh t b e t he r esu l t o f t i n m e ta l d i f fus ion a s v apou r i n to t h e c ruc ib le wa l ls a nd t h en r e o x ida t ion o ft h et i n m e ta l t o at i n o x ide .

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I ts hou ld b e n o ted h oweve r t ha t t h e b o i l ing p o in t o f t i n i s 2 269 .85 C e ls ius ( °C ) , a nd t ha t t i n w ou ld p robab ly s ub l ime a t at empe ra tu re i nt h er e g ion o f 1 800 C e l s ius ( °C ) , t h i sq u i te h igh t empe ra tu re r ange wou ld p robab ly n o t h ave b een a ch ievab le i n ap re -h i s to r ic c ruc ib le p ro ce s s . T he e x i s t ence o fw ha ts e em t ob e v e ry f i ne s l ende rp r i sma t ic s haped c a s s i te r i te c r y s ta l s embedded i n t h e i nne r c r uc ib le w a l l s s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t he c a s s i te r i te p resen t i n t h e c r acked , f r agmen ted , v i t r if ied c ruc ib le u ppe r i nne r w a l l s i s s t i l l i ni t sn a tu ra l u na l t e r ed f o rm . T he m ic rop robe a na ly s i s o f t h ese c a s s i te r i te c rys ta l s f r agmen t s s eem t o s uppo r t t h is c onc lu s ion ( Samp le , C a s tN o 1 , A rea s 1 4 , p age 1 57 ) . A no the r q ue s t ion w h ich a r ise s i sj u s t h ow d id t h e u na l te red v e ry f i ne ly c ru shed c a ss i te r i te o re f r agmen t s g e t i n to t h e c ruc ib le w a l ls . O ne p o ss ib le a nswe r c ou ld b e t ha t t h e c r uc ib le w a l l s i nt h e a r ea j u s t b e low t h e c r uc ib le r im w he re t h e c a s s i te r i t e w ou ld h ave b een p laced o n t o p o ft h e mo l t en c oppe rh ad b een b ad ly f r ac tu red o rf r agmen ted e i the rd u r ing a p rehea t ing p roce s s o ft h e c ruc ib le o r d ur ing t h e p re l im ina ry p roce ss o f p resme l t ing o f t h e r ef ined c oppe r , when t h e c rushed c a ss i ter i te o re w a s p u t i n to t h e c ruc ib le t h e f r agmen ted o rf r ac tu red c r uc ib le w a l l s a l lowed f o rt h ei n f lux o re mbedd ing o fs ome o ft h ef i ne rf r agmen t so ft h ec a s s i te r i t e o r e b e fo r e i tw a s a b le t os me l t i n to t i n m e ta l a nd m ix w i th t h e mo l ten c oppe r . I ft h e V i la ca c r uc ib le s w e re b e ing u sed e xc lu s ive ly t os me l t c ru shed c a s s i te r i te i n to t i n , t h en t h e c oope r p r i l l s ( Samp le , C a s t N o 1 , A rea s 5& 6 , p age 1 57 ) .and b ronze p r i l ls ( Samp le , A le N o 3 7 /B , A rea 1 ,p age 1 57 ) w ou ld n o t h ave b een p r e sen ti nt h ec r uc ib le w a l l s m ixed w i th a nd b e low t h e f i ne ly e mbedd ed c r u shed c a s s i te r i t ef r agmen t s S imon T imber lake i n a b ow l f u rnace t i n s me l t ing e xpe r imen tc a r r ied o u ta tF lag F en , May 1 994 s e em st oh ave h ad a l so t h ee mbedd ing o re n t rapmen to ft i n p r i l l s i nf u rna ce c l inke ra nd a dhe r ing c l ay f u rnace l i n ing . I nh i sr e po r tS imon T imbe r lake d id n o t g o i n to d e ta i l o f t he c au ses o f t h e a l te ra t ion o f t he b ow l f u rnace l i n ing a nd t h e s ub sequen t e n t rapmen to ft h et i nw i th in t h ef u rnace w a l l c l inke ra nd c l ay ( T imbe r lake , 1 994 ,p p 1 2 1 -128 ) . I tc ou ld b e n o ted t h a ti ti sp o ss ib le t h e V i laca c r uc ib le s h ad b een r e -u sed f o rc a s s i t e r i t e o re s me l t ing a f te r t h ey h ad b een u sed f i r s t i nb ronze p roduc t ion o r i nt h e r eve r se o rde r , b u t t h is s ugge s t ion w ou ld b e d i ff icu l t t o p rove . I ti sd oub tfu l t h a tt h e c r uc ib les u sed i np r eh is to r ic m e ta l lu rgy w o rk w ou ld h ave b een u sed mo re t h an o nce d ue t ot h e d e s t ruc t ive n a tu re o ft h ec r uc ib le me ta l lu rg ica lp roce s s . T he a lmo s t c omp le te l a ck o f t i n s l ag i n t h e a nc ien t w o r ld s ugge s t s t h a t t h e a dd i t ion o fu n sme l ted c a s s i te r i te t or ef ined c oppe rs e em s t oh ave b een t h e p r ima ry p roce ss f o ru s ing t i n t o make b ronze . E v idence t hough f r om o n ly t wo c ruc ib le f r agmen t s i sn o te nough t o make a ny f i na lj udgemen to nt h i s i mpo r tan tp r eh i s to r ica lm e ta l lu rg ica lq ue s t ion .

C hap te r 1

D i scu s s ion a nd C onc lu s ion s

F u r the r a na ly t ica l wo rk n eed s t o b e d one o n t h e V i la ca c r uc ib le f r agmen t s t o t r y a nd a n swe r a l t h e q ue s t ion s t h a t h ave a r i sen f r om t h e o r ig ina l a na ly s i sr e su l t s ; a na ly s i so ft h e c e ram ic m a t r ix a nd f u r the ra na ly s i si nt h ea r ea sa r ound w he r e t h ec r u shed c a s s i te r i te o r ef r agmen t sa r el o ca ted .

T he a r ea s u r round ing t h e s me l ted c oppe rt i n b ronze p r i l l s i n t h e G o lpe ja s c oppe r t i n f u rna ce s me l ted m ine ra l s amp le s ( Samp le N o ' s 7 4 & 8 2 , p age 1 40 ) c ou ld d o w i th f u r the r a na ly s i s t oh e lp g i ve amo r e c omp le te u nde r s tand ing o ft h e s me l t ing p r oce s st h a tt o ok p l a ce i nt h ec oppe rt i nm ine ra l .

I ti sn ece s sa ry i n t h e f u tu r e t o d o as e t o f b ack s ca t te r ed e l ec t ron p ho tog raph s t h rough t h e c r uc ib le w a l l , f r om t h e i n ne r w a l l t ot h e o u te r w a l l . T he b a ck s c a t t e r p ho tog raph s w i th a c company ing a na ly s i s s hou ld c l a r if y i fc a s s i te r i te o r e i sp r e sen t t h rough o u t t h e f a b r ic o ft h e c r uc ib le o ro n ly o n t h eu pp e ri n ne rs u r f a ce a r ea .

Ih ad h oped t h a t t h e g r een b ead f r agmen t , v e ry s im i la r i n v i sua l c o lou ra nd t e x tu r e t ot h e G o lpe ja sc oppe rt i nm ine ra l , w h ich h ad b een e xcava t ed f r om t h e E l T o r re jon m ega l i th ic monumen t n ea r G o lpe ja s w ou ld p rove t o b e o f t h e s ame e l emen ta l m akeup a st h e G o lpe ja s c oppe rt i n m ine ra l . I ft h e b ead w a so ft h es ame e l emen ta lm ak eu pt h is w ou ld i n d ica t e t h a tp r eh i s to r ic m an d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod w a s a tl e a s t a wa re o ft h ev e ry b eau t ifu lg r een c o lou red c oppe rf i nm ine ra l w h ich w a s t ob e f ound i nt h e G o lpe ja s a r ea a nd t h a th e h ad u sed i tt of a b r ica te o b jec t so fa do rnmen t .

O n t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e movemen t o f t i n a s av apou r ( a s s ugge s t ed b y G e r ry McDonne l l ) , s ome f u tu re l a bo ra to ry e xpe r imen ta t ion n eed s t ob e d one t os e e i ft h e d i f fu s ion o f t h e t i n m e ta l a sv apou r a nd t h e r e su l t ing r e -ox ida t ion o ft h e m e ta lt ot i ni sp o s s ib le w i th in ac e ram ic c r uc ib le ma t r ix . T he t i n / coppe r m ine ra l w h ich If o und a tt h e G o lpe ja s m ine s i te a nd w h ich Iw a s a b le t os me l ti n to an a tu ra l b ronze i na s ma l l c e ram ic f u rna ce a dd s a no th e ri n te re s t ing a spec tt ot h e d eve lopmen t o fe a r ly b ronze u s e b y p r eh i s to r ic m an . Ih ave b een t o ld t h a td i f f e ren tv a r ia t ion so ft i n / coppe rm ine ra l sw e re p r e sen ti nq u i te al a rge a r ea o fC en t ra l I b e r ia , b u tt h a t mo s t o ft h e se m ine ra l sh ave b y n ow b e en m ined o u t( Fe l ix G a r c ia P a lomero a nd I gnac io Mon tero R u iz , p er sona l c ommun ica t ion s , 1 993 & 1 994 ) . B e ing a b le t o p rove t h a t p r eh i s to r ic m an u sed t h i s c omp lex m ine ra l t o p roduce a n a tu ra l b ronze r ema in sa lmo s ti mpo s s ib le .

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L ITERARY REFERENCE

SURVEY RESULTS

n one

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V is i t 1 M ina Ma r i J u l i YM ina V i rg in D e G a rc ia

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V i s i t 1 0 L a M ina D e squ i te s

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V i s i t 1 5 M ina C laud ina

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V is i t 1 6 M ina G o lpe ja s

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1 64

f ur ther work n o t r ecommended

C hap te r 1

D iscuss ion a nd C onc lus ions

S ITE

L ITtRARY REFERENCE

S URVEY RESULTS

n one

n o e v idence

V i s i t 2 2 T he L a je s M ine V i s i t2 3 T he G o i s M ine V i s i t2 4 T he P ana sque i ra M ine V i s i t2 5 T he S an ta E u la l ia M ine

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,

V i s i t3 1 S ea r ch f o r S an ta Ma r ia m ine V i s i t3 2 B ronze A ge S i te H i l l6 49 & H i l l6 48 a bove Q u in ta d a C hande ir inha V i s i t3 3 R ibe ra B endada -s ou th o fv i l lage O la s V i s i t3 4 A rea S ou th E a s t o fB e lmon te -G a re

,

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V i s i t3 8 M ina d e S an E xped i to

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V i s i t3 9 M ina E l T e r r uco

n one

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S u rvey S i te s -E va lua t ion L i s t

1 65

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C hap te r 1

D i scu s s ion a nd C onc lu s ion s

F ur ther Work : Conc lus ions : O f t h e m ine s l i s ted a bove f o r f u r the r s u rvey w o rk t h e f o l low ing o b se rva t ions a pp ly : M ina S an N icho la s , V is i t 2 , c a ss i te r i te m inera l iza t ion p robab ly v i s ib le o ns u r fa ce d u r ing a n t iqu i ty . E l C e r ro d e S an C r is toba l , L og rosan , V is i t 4 , f u r the r p lann ing o fs i te a nd w o rked o u t c a ss i te r i te v e ins a nd s ma l l e xcava t ion t r enche s . L aM ina d eT re sM ina s ,V i s i t6 ,r ema in s o fR oman f u rnace s , p o s s ib ly t i n s me l t ing ( ? )p o s s ib le R oman p o t te ry f ound , ( Fe ) i r on s l ag f ound . LM ina D e squ i te s , V i s i t 1 0 , e a s i ly a cce s s ib le c a ss i te r i te i n a n t iqu i ty d ue t o t h e k ao l ina sa t ion o f p a r t o f t h e g ran i te m ine ra lb ea r ing d epo s i t . M ina T e lba ,V i s i t 1 4 ,e a s i ly a cce s s ib le c a ss i te r i t e s u r f a ce o r e i n s ome s ma l l a r ea s o fm ine , p o s s ib le p re -h is to r ic p o t te ry a nd s t one t o o lf r agmen tf ound . M ina G o lpe ja s , V is i t 1 6 , l o ca t ion o f c oppe r / t in o r e a nd men t ion i ns ome l i t e ra tu re s ou rce s a sp o s s ib le L a te B ronze a ge m ine s i te . T o r re R omana C en tumce l la s , V i s i t 2 0 , o n ly s i te w he re t i n s l ag w a s f ound . T he S an ta E u la l ia M ine , V is i t 2 5 , e a s i ly a ccess ib le c a ss i te r i te o r e ,p o s s ib le R oman p o t te ry f ound .

T he s u rvey r e sea rch p ro jec t h a s g ene ra ted many n ew q ue s t ion sf o r amo re a dvanced l e ve lo fi n ve s t iga t ion . E xa c t ly h ow many t i n m in ing a r ea s h ad b een w o rked i n t h e M id C en t ra l I b e r ian r eg ion? W i l l i tb e p o s s ib le i n t h e f u tu r e t o g e t s ome i d ea o f t h e a moun t o f t i n t h a t h a s b een m ined d u r ing a n t iqu i ty w i th in t h e M id -Cen t ra l I be r ian g eo log ica l r eg ion? W i l l t h e re b e p roof f o r thcom ing t ha t t i n w a s n o t o n ly m ined a nd u sed l o ca l ly , b u t a l so t r aded o u t t o t h e We s ter nA t lan t ic c oa s t land sa nd t ot h e S ou thern A t lan t ic a nd Med i te r ranean c oa s t s? Sma l l a r cha eo log ica le xcava t ion t r enche sw i l lb en eeded a tE l C e r ro d e S an C r is toba l a nd E l B e r roca l t op rov ide p r ec i se a r chaeo log ica l s t ra t ig raphy o f t h e m in ing a nd s e t t lemen t a r ea sa nd t od ef in i te ly c onf i rm t h eu se o fl o ca lc a s s i te r i te o r e s i nt h eL a t eB ronze A ge a nd p o s s ib le e a r l ie ru se . T he m ined o u tc a s s i te r i te v e in s a tE l C e r ro D e S an C r i s toba l w h ich a r e q u i t e e x ten s ive w i l l n eed t ob e p rope r ly s u rveyed a nd p lanned t og e ts ome s o r to fu nde r s tand ing a st ot h ea c tua l a moun to fc a s s i te r i te o r em ined i nt h ep reh i s to r ic p e r iod . T h i s s u rvey h a s n o t p roved c onc lus ive e v idence o f L a te B ronze a ge t i n m in ing a nd s me l t ing , b u t h a s o f f e red s ome v e ry s t rong p re l im ina ry p roof t h a t l oca l c a s s i te r i te o re w a s b e ing m ined a nd s me l ted a tt h i sd a te . Ir ema in c onv inced t h a t w i th f u r the r f i e ld s u rvey w o rk more e v idence o f o the r p reh is to r ic c a s s i t e r i te m ine ra l s i te si nt h eM id -Cen t ra l I b e r ian r eg ion w i l l e me rge .

M ina s V a ldef lo rez , V i s i t 2 9 , c a s s i te r i te o r e v e in s v i s ib le o n s u r f ace i na n t iqu i ty a nd m en t ion i nl i t e ra tu re s ou r ce a s as i te o fR oman t i n w o rk ing s . A rea C a t ra ia d o B u raco , V is i t 3 0 , i r on s l ag f ound w i th p o ss ib le L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry a nd s t one t oo l s . M ina d e S an E xped i to , V is i t 3 8 , c a ss i ter i te o re v i s ib le s u rface i n a n t iqu i ty a nd e a s i ly a cce ss ib le , p oss ib le p re h i s to r ic p o t te ry f ound . M ina E l T e r ruco , V is i t 3 9 , a c tua l m ine s t i l l n eed s t o b e l o ca t ed . M ina L a P e r iza -Mon tanchez , V is i t 4 0 , f u r the r p re l im ina ry s u rvey w o rk o ft h is a r ea s t i l lr ema in st ob ed one . M ina s Don ino s d e L ede sma , V is i t 4 1 , f u r the r p re l im ina ry s urvey w o rk n eed st ob ed one i nt h i sa r ea . M ina E l B e r roca l , V i s i t 4 2 , p reh is to r ic p o t tery a nd s t one h amme r s a nd g r inde r s f ound a t t h is s i te , c a s s i te r i te o re v i s ib le a nd e a s i ly a cces s ib le i n a n t iqu i ty , mo r e s u rvey o f m ine a rea n eeded a nd s ma l l e xcava t ion t r enches f o r s t ra t ig raphy n eeded .

1 66

B IBL IOGRAPHY A l so i n c lud ing s e lec ted r e f e r ence sn o tc i t ed i nt h et e x t .

A ge r ,D .V . , 1 980 T he G eo logy o fE u rope L ondon :E ng land : McG raw H i l l

B en-o ca l -Range l , L . ; E n r iquez N ava scues , J . J . ; C e le s t ino P e rez , S . ;V a lde sF e rnandez ,F . , ( Coo rd inac ion ) , 1 995 E x t remadu ra A rqueo log ica I V A rqueo log ia E nE x t remadu ra :10 Anno sD eD e scub r i tn ien to s Me rd ia : S pa in ,J un ta D eE x t remadu ra .

A g r ico la ,G . D eR e Me ta l l ica ( t ran s la t ed f r om t he f i r s te d i t ion o f1 556 b yH oov e rH .C . ;Hoove rL .H . , 1 950 ) N ew Y o rk :D ove rP ub l ica t ion s .

B ou sf ie ld ,B . , 1 992 S u r face P repa ra t ion a nd M ic ro scopy o f Ma te r ia l s C h iche s te r : J ohn W i ley & S on s .

A la r cao ,J . de . , 1 988 R oman P o r tuga l , Vo lume I& V o lume I F a sc icu le 1 3 Wa rm in s te r :E ng land : A ns & P h i l l ip s .

B owman , S . , ( e d ) 1 991 S c ience a nd T he P a s t L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum P re s s .

A r r iba s ,A . , 1 963 T he I b e r ian s L ondon :E ng land : T hame s a nd H ud son .

B ran t , D . , 1 985 Me ta l lu rgy f undamen ta l s S ou th Ho l land ,I l ino is : G oodhea r t -W i l lcox .

A t ienza ,F .B . , 1 988 N uevo D icc iona r io P o l i tecn ico D eL a sL engua sE spano l EI ng le s N uevo D iccopna r io P o l i tecn ico D eL a sL engua sI ng le s EE spano l V o lumen P r ime ro -Vo lumen S egundo Mad r id : S pa in : D IAZ DE SANTOS ,S .A .

B r i t ton ,D . , 1 963 T rad i t ion s o fE a r ly Me ta l - Wo rk ing i nt h el a te rN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge o fB r i t ian P a r t 1 T he P reh is to r ic S oc ie ty N o 1 0 L ondon : T he P r eh is to r ic S oc ie ty . B rooke ,J . , 1 994 T he T in S t ream so f Wendon T u ro : C or nwa l l : Twe lvehead sP re s s .

A tk in son ,R .L . , 1 985 T in a nd T in M in ing S h i re A lbum 1 39 A y le sbu ry : E ng land : S h i re P ub l ica t ion s .

B rown , DV . , 1 981 B a s ic Me ta l lu rgy A lbany : N ew Y o rk : D e lma rP ub l i she r s .

A ub e t ,M .E . , 1 993 T he P hoen ic ian sa nd t h e We s t C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss .

B ygo t t ,J . , 1 938 A n I n t roduc t ion T o Mapwo rk a nd P rac t ica l G eog raphy L ondon : U n ive r s i ty T u to r ia lP re s sl t d .

B a chmann , H .G . , 1 982 T he I d en t if ica t ion o fS lags F rom A r chaeo log ica lS i te s I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy -O cca s iona l P ub l ica t ion n o6 L ondon : Un ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon .

C hapman ,R . , 1 990 Eme rg ing c omp lex i ty -T he l a te r p reh is tory o f s ou th -ea s t S pa in , I be r ia a nd t h ew e s t Med i te r ranean C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

B a r r ena ,M .A . &I s id ro ,P .D . , 1 987 L aM ine ra E nE x t remadu ra Me r ida : S pa in : J un ta D eE x t remadu ra .

C la rk , J .G .D . , 1 952 P reh i s to r ic E u rope L ondon : Me thuen & C oL td .

B a s s , G .F . , 1 987 O lde s t Known S h ipw reck N a t iona lG eog raph ic Vo l 1 72 N o6 Wa sh ing ton D .C . , Na t iona lG eog raph ic S oc ie ty .

C lay ton , B . , 1 974 Me ta l A na lyy se s the i rl im i ta t ion sa nd a pp l ica t ion st o t h eE a r ly B ronze A ge i nI r e land -B u l le t in N o 1 L ondon : I n s t i tu t eo fA rchaeo logy .

B a t e s ,R .L . a nd J ack son ,J .A . , 1 990 G lo s sa ry O fG eo logy T h i rd E d i t ion A lexande r : V i rg in ia : Ame r ican G eo log ica lI n s t i tu te .

C leuz iou , S . , a nd B er thoud t ,T . , 1 982 E a r ly T in i nT he N ea rE a s t ; E xped i t ion , 2 5 : 9 1 p p 1 4 -25 .

B eag r ie ,N . , 1 985 S ome e a r ly t i ni n go t s ,o r e sa nd s l ag s f r om We s te rn E u rope T he J ourna lo ft h eH i s to r ica l Me ta l lu rgy S oc ie ty , V o lume 1 9n o2 L ondon : I n s t i tu te o f Me ta l s .

C o le s ,J .M . a nd H a rd ing ,A .F . , 1 979 T he B ronze A ge i nE u rope ; L ondon : Me thuen a nd C o . C onse je r ia d eE conom ia yH ac ienda /C a s t i l la Y L eon 1 988 L o s R ecu r so sM ine ra le sd eC a s t i l la yL eon NO 2E s tano V a l lado l id : S pa in : J un ta d eC a s t i l la yL eon .

B en -To r ,A . , 1 992 T he A rchaeo logy o fA nc ien tI s rae l L ondon : Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . 1 67

B IBL IOGRAPHY A l so i n c lud ing s e lec ted r e f e rence s n o tc i ted i nt h et e x t .

D iodo ru s ,S i cu lu s D iodo ru sS i cu lu sI IB ook sI V , 5 9 -V I I I T he L eob C la ss ica l L ib ra ry t ran s la ted b y C .H . O ldf a the r , 1 939 ;L ondon : W i l l iam H e inemann l t d .

C ook ,D . a nd K i rk ,W . , 1 991 F i e ld G u ide t oR ock sa nd M ine ra l so ft h e Wo r ld L ondon ; K ingf i she rB ook s , G r isewood a nd D emp sey . C o s ta , EH .M . , D o sS an to s ,J .R . , 1 965 -1966 D ua sC ampanha sd eE xcavacoe s No C a s t ro d eC a rva lhe lho s T raba lho sd eA n th ropo log ie eE tno log ia V o lume XX ,F ace s 1 2 p p 1 81-190 : P or to ; P o r tuga l . C raddock ,P .T . ,( ed ) . , 1 980 S c ien t if i cS tud ie si nE a r ly M in ing a nd E x t rac t ive Me ta l lu rgy B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona lP ape rN o2 0 L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum . C raddock ,P .T . a nd H ughe s , M .J . , (ed ) , 1 985 F ur nace sa nd Sme l t ing T echno logy i nA n t iqu i ty B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona l P ape r No 4 8 L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum .

D ome rque , .C . , 1 987 C a ta logue D e sM ine s E tD e sF onde r ie sA n t ique s D eL aP en in su le I b e r ique -Tome IyT ome I Mad r id : S pa in : P ub l ica t ion sd e l aC a sa d eV e lazquez S e r ie A r ch eo log ie V I I I -D if f u s ion d eB occa rd . D ome rque ,C . , 1 990 L e s M ines D e L a P en in su le I be r ique D ans L 'An t ique R oma ine C o l lec t ion D eL 'Eco le f r anca i se d eR oma ine 127 R oma , I t a l ie : S cuo la T ipog ra f ica S .P io X . D o sS an to s ,J . R . , 1 965 -1966 T raba lho sd eA n t ropopog ia eE tno lg ia 1 965 -1966 T in C on ta in ing S l ag s a tC a rva lhe lho sP o r tuga l P o r to : P o r tuga l , S oc iedade d eP o r tuge se A n t ropo log ia eE tno log ia .

C raddo ck ,P .T . , ( ed ) , 1 990 2 000 Y ea r so fZ inc a nd B ra s s B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona l P ape rN o5 0 L ondon ,E ng land ;B r i t i sh Mu seum P ub l ica t ion s .

D unn ing , F .W . ;G a r ra rd , P . ;H a l sam , H .W . ;I x e r , R .A . , 1 989 M ine ra lD epo s i t so fE u rope V o lume 4 / 5 ; S ou thwe s ta nd E a s te rn E u rope w i th I c e land L ondon : t h eI n s t i tu t ion o fM in ing a nd Me ta l lu rgy .

C raddo ck ,P .T . , 1 995 E a r ly Me ta la nd M in ing P roduc t ion E d inbu rgh ,S c to land ;E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

D uque ,A .M . a nd Ma r t inez ,J .M .B . , 1 982 E spana R omana ( 2 18 ad eJ .C . -4 14 d eJ .C . )V o lumen 1 L aC onnqu i s ta yL aE xp lo ta c ion E conom ica Mad r id : E spana ,E spa sa -Ca lpe S .A .

C ronyn ,J .M . , 1 990 T he E lemen t sO fA r chaeo log ica l C on serva t ion L ondon : R ou t ledge . C unc l if f e ,B .a nd K eay ,S . , (ed ) , 1 995 S oc ia l C omp lex i ty a nd t h eD eve lopmen to fT owns i nI b e r ia F rom T he C oppe rA ge T oT he S evcond C en tu ry A .D . O xfo rd : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . D a l lmeye r ,R .D .and G a rc ia , M .E . , ( e d ) , 1 990 P re - Me sozo ic G eo logy o fI be r ia B e r l in : S p r inge rVe r lag . D av ie s , G .M . , 1 919 T in O re s ;L ondon :J ohn Mu r ry -A lbema r le S t ree t , We s t .

E dmond son ,J . C . , 1 987 Two I ndus t r ie s i n R oman L u s i tan ia /M in ing a nd G a rum P roduc t ion ; O x fo rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 62 . E lph ick , G . , 1 9 88 T he C ra f tO fT he B e l lF ounde r C h ische s te r : P h i l l imo re & C o . Emb le ton ,C . , ( e d ) , 1 984 G eomo rpho logy o fE u rope L ondon : Ma cm i l lan P ub l ishe r s .

D av ie s , 0 . , 1 935 R oman M ine si nE u rope ;O xfo rd : C la redon P res s .

Emb ry ,P .G . a nd S yme s , R .F . , 1 987 M ine ra l so fC o r nwa l la nd D evon L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum .

D ay ,J .a nd T y leco te ,R .F . , ( ed ) , 1 991 T he I ndu s t r ia lR evo lu t ion I n Me ta ls L ondon : T he I n s t i tu te o f Me ta l s .

Em s ley ,J . , 1 989 T he E lemen t s ;O xfo rd : C la rendon P re s s .

D e l ibe s , Ga nd S an ton ja ,M . , 1 986 E lF enomeno Mega l i t ico E nL aP rov inc ia D eS a lamanca S a lamanca , S pa in : E d ic ione sd el aD ipu ta c ion d e S a lamanca . D ine s , H .G . , 1 988 T he m e ta l l if e rou sm in ing r eg ion o fs ou th -we s tE ng land V o l I& I :L ondon : B r i t ish G eo log ica l S u rvey .

1 68

F o rbe s , R . J . , 1 972 S tud ie s i nA nc ien tT e chno logy -Vo lume I X L e iden : N e the r land s ,E . J .B r i l l . F rank l in ,A .D . ; O l ion ,J . S . ; We r t ime ,T .A . , 1 978 T he S ea rch F o rA nc ien tT in Wa sh ing ton D .C . : G ove rnmen tP r in t ing O ff ice .

B IBL IOGRAPHY A l so i n c lud ing s e lec ted r e f e rence sn o tc i t ed i nt h et e x t .

H odge s , H . , 1 964 A r tef ac t s ;L ondon : J ohn B ake rP ub l i she r s .

G a lan ,M .B . ,( Cood inado r ) , 1 99 1 H i s to r ia G ene ra lD eE spana Y Ame r ica D eL aP ro toh i s to r ia A L aC onqu i s ta R omana T omo 1 2 ;S egunda E d ic ion Mad r id : E spana ,E d ic ione sR ia lp S .A .

I n s t i tu to G eo log ico yM ine ro d eE spana , 1 988 Monog ra f ia sD eS u s tanc ia sM ine ra le s -E s tano Mad r id : S e rv ic io D eP ub l ica c ione sM in i s te r io D eI ndu s t r ia .

G a l lo ,N .G . ,( Coo rd inado r ) , 1 985 H i s to r ia G ene ra lD eE spana Y Ame r ica L o sO r igene sD eE spana -Tomo I 1 Mad r id :E spana ,E d ic ione sR ia lp S .A .

J imenez , A .V . a nd d el aB a r re ra A n ton ,J . L . , ( Coo rd inac ion ) , 1 993 E lP roce so H i s to r ico D eL aL u s i tan ia O r ien ta l E nE poca P re romana Y R omana C uader no s Eme r i ten se s -7 Me rd ia : E spana , Mu seo N ac iona lD eA r te R omano .

G oodhew ,P . J . , 1 975 E lec t ron M ic ro scopy a nd A na ly s i s L ondon : Wykeham P ub l ica t ion s .

J o rda C e rda ,F . ; P e l l ice rC a ta lan , M . ; A co s ta Ma r t inez ,P . ; A lmag ro -Go rbea ,M . , 1 989 H is to r ia D eE spana P reh i s to r ia 1 Mad r id : E spana ,E d i to r ia lG redo s S .A .

G raham -Campbe l l ,J . ,( ed ) , 1 988 988 Wo r ld A r chaeo logy V o lume 2 0 ;N o .1 ;J une 1 L ondon :R ou t ledge . G ran t ,M . , 1 980 T he E t ru scan s ;L ondon : We idenf ie ld a nd N ico l son .

J un ta D eE x t remadu ra , 1 993 M ine ra le sG emo log ico s D eE x t remadu ra Me r ida : E spana ,C on se je r ia d eI ndu s t r ia yT u r i smo .

G reeve s ,T . , 1 986 T in M ine sa nd M ine r so fD a r tmoo r -A P ho tog raph ic R eco rd D evon : D evon B ook s .

J un ta d eC a s t i l la Y L eon , 1 988 L o sR ecu r so sM ine ra le sd eC a s t i l la yL eon N o 2E s tano V a l lado l id : E spana ,C on se je r ia d eE conom ia yH a c ienda .

G u ido ,M . , 1 963 S a rd ina ;L ondon :T hame sa nd H ud son .

K eay , S . J . , 1 988 R oman S pa in L ondon : B r i t i sh Museum P ub l ica t ion sL im i ted .

G ume l ,P . , Novemb re -Decemb re 1 981 C h ron ique D eL aR eche rche M in ie re E s sa i s ur l a C la s s if ica t ion T ypo log ique d e s P r inc ipaux G i semen t sd eS n -W E s t remadu r e( E spange ) P a r i s ,F rance ,C en t re D 'E tude sG eo log ique s . G uzman ,F .V . 1 983 D epo s i to sM ine ra le sd eE spana Mad r id : E spana :I n s t i tu to G eo log ico yM ine ro d eE spana H a rden , D . , 1 962 T he P hoen ic ian s ;L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son . H a r r i s ,D . , ( c d ) , 1 989 C o rn i sh A rchaeo logy No .28 C o rnwa l l : C o rnwa l lA rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty .

L aLaguna , J . , 1 990 AT rave l le r ' sH i s to ry o fS pa in Mo re ton in - Ma r sh : U .K . ,T he W ind ru shp re s s . L ehmann , B . , 1 990 Me ta l logeny o fT in /Lec tu re N o te si nE a r th S c ience s3 2 B e r l in : S p r inge rVe r lag . L ou renco , C . ;Go inha s , J . ; Ma r t in s , L . ;V iega s , L . ;Gonza lez , V . , 1 992 P o r tuga l -Exp lo ra t ion A nd M in ing : A nI n te re s t ing C ha l lenge L i sbon : P o r tuga l , S e rv ico D eF omen to M ine ro . Madd in , R . ,( cd ) , 1 988 T he B eg inn ing o ft h eU se o f Me ta l sa nd A l loy s L ondon : T he Ma s sachu se t t sI n s t i tu te o fT echno logy .

H a r r i son ,R .J . 1 977 T he B e l lB eak e rC u l tu re sO fS pa in And P o r tuga l C amb r idge : Ma s sachu se t t s : P eabody Mu seum .

Mad rone ro D eL aC a l ,A . , 1 994 U na P os ib i l idad D e R a s t reo D e L os O r igene s D e L a Me ta lu rg ia D e l E s tano E nE spana C oruna ,E spana : E d ic io s Do C a s t ro .

H a r r i son , R .J . , 1 980 T he B eake rF o lk -Coppe rA ge A rchaeo logy i n We s te rn E u rope ;L ondon : T hames a nd H ud son .

M in i s t ry o fD ef ence , 1 988 Manua lO f Map R ead ing A nd L and N av iga t ion L ondon : HMSO .

H a r r ison ,R . J . , 1 988 S pa in a tt h eD awn o fH i s to ry Ibe r ians ,P hoen ic ian s a nd G reek s ;L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son .

Mo le ro ,C .A . , 1 993 L aM ine ra E n E x t r emadu ra Me r ida : S pa in ,J un ta D eE x t remadu ra . 1 69

B IBLIOGRAPHY A l so i n c lud ing s e lec ted r e f e rence sn o tc i ted i nt h et e x t .

Mon teneg ro , A . , B lazquez , J .M . , Ma ta , D .R . ,G a rc ia , C . J .M . ,I n ie s ta ,A . ,F a ta s , G . , S a l ina s ,M . , P a s to r ,Y .M . , 1 989 H i s to r ia D eE spana C o lon izac ione s YF o rma t ion D e L o sP ueb lo sP re romano s ( 1200 -218 a .C . ) 2 Mad r id ,E spana : E d i to r ia l G redo sS .A . Mon teneg ro D uque ,A . ;B lazquez Ma r t inez ,J .M . ; S o lana S a inz J ose , Ma . , 1 986 H i s to r ia D eE spana E spana R omana 3 Mad r id : E spana , E d i to r ia l G redo s S .A .

P iggo t t , S . , 1 983 T he E a r l ie s t Whee led T ran spo r t F rom t h eA t lan t ic C oa s tt ot h eC a sp ian S ea L ondon : T hame sa nd H ud son . P i tche r , W .S . ,1993 T he N a tu r ea nd O r ig in o fG ran i te L ondon : Ma ck ie A cadem ic a nd P rof e s s iona l . P l iny , P l iny N a tu ra lH i s to ry I B ook sI I -V I I L eob C la s s ica lL ib ra ry t ran s la ted b y H .R a c ld iam , 1 942 L ondon : H a r va rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss .

Muh ly ,J .D . 1 973 C oppe ra nd T in ;H amden : C onnec t icu t ,A rchon B ook s .

P o lun in , 0 . a nd Wa l te r s ,M . , 1 985 Ag u ide t ot h ev ege ta t ion o fB r i t ian a nd E u rope O xfo rd : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss .

Muh ly ,J .D . 1 976 S upp lemen tT oC oppe ra nd T in H amden ,C onnec t icu t : A rchon B ook s . N ava scue s ,J . J .E . a nd D iaz , AR . ,( Ed ic ion ) , 1 991 E x t remadu r aA rqueo log ica I 1 991 IJ o rnada sD eP reh i s to r ia Y A rqueo log ia E e E x t r emadu ra ( 1986 -1990 ) Me rd ia : E spana ,C on se je r ia d eE ducac ion Y C u l tu ra D e L aJ un ta D eE x t remadu ra , U n ive r s idad D eE x t remadu ra .

R obe r t son , W . , 1 982 T in : I t sP roduc t ion a nd Ma rke t ing ;L ondon :C room H e lm . R o so D eL una ,M . , 1 898 , ( 1982 r ep r in t ) L og ro san ( Lega jo H i s to r ico ) C ace re s : S pa in : I n s t i tuc ion C u l tu ra l " EL BROCENSE " . R o thenbu rg ,B .a nd B lanco -F re i je i ro ,A . , 1 98 1 A nc ien tM in ing a nd Me ta l lu rgy i nS ou th - We s tS pa in L ondon : I n s t i tu te f o rA r chaeo - Me ta l lu rg ica lS tud ie s .

N iche l ,E .H .a nd N icho ls ,M .C . , 1 991 M ine ra l R ef e r ence Manua l N ew Y o rk : V an No s t rand R e inho ld .

R o thenbe rg , B . , ( c d ) , 1 990 T he A nc ien t Me ta l lu rgy o fC oppe r L ondon : I n s t i tu te f o rA r chaeo - Me ta l lu rg ica lS t ud ie s .

N ico l in i ,G . , 1 973 T he A nc ien tS pa ina rd s F a rnbo rough : E ng land , S axon H ou se .

R u iz , IM . , 1 994 E l O r igen D eL a Me ta lu rg ia E nE lS u re s te P en in su la r A lme r ia : E spana ,I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sA lme r ien se s .

O choa , C .Q . , 1 987 Mapa G eo log ico D eE x t remadu ra Me r ida : S pa in ,J un ta D eE x t remadu ra .

S avo ry , H .N . , 1 968 S pa in a nd P o r tuga l -The p r eh is to ry O fT he I b e r ian P en in su la N ew Y o rk : F rede r ick P raege r .

O ddy ,W .A . ,( c d ) , 1 991 A spec t s o fE a r ly Me ta l lu rgy B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona l P ape r 1 7 L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona lP ape r s . O r t iz , A .D . , ( d i r ig ida ) , 1 990 H i s to r ia D eE spana d e sde l ap r eh i s to r ia h a s ta l ac onqu is ta r omana ( s ig lo I Ia .C . ) B a r ce lon ia : E spana ,E d i to r ia lP lane ta S .A .

S chuman ,W . , 1 992 M ine ra l so ft h e Wo r ld ;N ew Yo rk : S t e r l ing P ub l i sh ing . S chumann ,W . , 1 992 R ock sM ine ra ls a nd G em s tone s ;L ondon : H a rpe rC o l l in s .

P a rdo ,A . , 1 976 T he Wo r ld O fA nc ien tS pa in G eneve : S w i tze r land ,E d i t ion sM ine rva .

S co t t ,D .A . , 1 991 Me ta l log raphy a nd M ic ro s truc tu r eo fA nc ien t a nd H is to r ic Me ta l s C a l ifo rn ia : T he G e t ty C onse rva t ion I n s t i tu te .

P a rke s ,P .A . , 1 986 C u r ren tS c ien t if ic T echn ique s i nA rchaeo logy L ondon : C room H e lm .

S la te r ,D . , 1 974 T in -M ine ra l d o s s ie rN o9 L ondon : H e r Ma je s ty ' sS t a t ione ry O ff i ce .

P e l lan t ,C . , 1 992 R ock sA nd M ine ra l s ;L ondon : D o r l ing K inde r s ley .

S o s B ayna t ,V . 1 965 G eo log ia d e l a si nmed ia c iones d e Me r ida ( BADA JOZ ) Mad r id : E x t rac to d e l " Bo le t in d e l I n s t i tu to G eo log ico yM ine ro d eE spana " T omo LXXV ( 1964 ) .

P enha l lu r ick , R .D . , 1 986 T in i nA n t iqu i ty ;L ondon : I n s t i tu te o f Me ta ls . 1 70

B IBLIOGRAPHY A l so i n c lud ing s e lec ted r e f e rence s n o tc i ted i nt h et e x t .

T yko t , R .H . a nd A nd rew s , T .K . , (ed ) , 1 992 S a rd ina I nT he Med i te r ranean : AF oo tp r in tI nT he S ea S hef f ie ld : S chef f ie ld A cadem ic P re s s .

S o sB ayna t ,V . , 1 967 G eo log ia ,M ine ra log ia yM ine ra logen ia d el aS i e r ra d e S an C r i s toba l ,L og ro san ( Cace re s ) Mad r id : R ea lA cadem ia D eC ienc ia s -Exac ta s , F i s ica s yN a tu ra le s .

T imbe r lake , S . , 1 994 . A nE xpe r imen ta lT in Sme l t a tF lag F en . T he J ou rna lo ft h eH i s to r ica l Me ta l lu rgy S oc ie ty , 2 8N o2 :1 22 -128

S o sB ayna t ,V . , 1 977 L o sh a l lazgo sp reh is to r ic io sd eL og ro san ( Cace re s ) B ada joz ,S pa in : D ipu tac ion P rov inc ia lD eB ada joz . S o sB ayan t ,V . , 1 977 G eo log ia D eL os A l rededo re sD eC a sa r D eC a ce r e s( Cace re .S ) S a lamanca : S epa ra ta d eS tvd ia G eo log ica X I I ,p p 1 69 -193 . S o sB ayan t ,V . , 1 980 -1981 S ob r eL aE dad G eo log ica D eL a sC a s i te r i ta s D eE x t r emadu ra ,E spana L i sboa : S oc iedade G eo log ica D eP o r tuga lB o le t im V o lume XX II

T y leco t e ,R .F . , 1 962 Me ta l lu rgy i nA rchaeo logy L ondon : E ng land ,E dwa rd A rno ld ( Pub l i she r s )l t d . T y leco te ,R .F . , 1 987 T he e a r ly h i s to ry o f me ta l lu rgy i nE u rope L ondon : L ongman A rchaeo logy S e r ie s . T y leco t e , R .F . , P ho to s ,E . ,E a r l , B . , 1 988 T he c ompo s i t ion o ft i n s l ag sf r om t h es ou th -we s to fE ng land Wo r ld A r chaeo logy Vo lume 2 0n o 1J une 1 988 L ondon : R ou t ledge .

S o sB ayan t ,V , 1 981 L o sY a c im ien to s D eC a s i te r i ta s Y Wo lf ram i ta sD eL aS i e r ra D e Mon tanchez , C ace re s Mad r id : B o l . S oc .E sp . , M ine ra log ia 3( 1981) , p5 14 .

T y leco te , R .F . , 1 992 AH i s to ry o f Me ta l lu rgy L ondon : I n s t i tu te o f Ma t e r ia l s .

S o sB ayna t ,V . , 1 981 Mu seo D eG eo log ia D eE x t remadu ra Me r ida : E xcmo A yun tam ien to d e Me r ida .

V e lazquez ,A . ,D eL aB a r re ra ,J . L . ,E n r iquez ,J . J . , ( e d ic ion ) , 1 990 L aC u l tu ra T a r te s ica Y E x t remadu ra Me rd ia : Mu seo N ac iona lD eA r te R omano .

S t ambo lov ,T . , 1 985 T he C o r ro s ion A nd C onse rva t ion O f Me ta l l ic A n t ique s A nd Wo rk sO fA r t Am s t e rdam : C en t ra l R e sea rch L abo ra to ty f o rO b jec t s o fA r t a nd S c ience S t an ie r , R .P . , 1 988 C o rnwa l ls M in ing H e r i tage C o rnwa l l : Twe lvehead P re s s .

Wa t t , A . , 1 982 L ongman I lu s t ra ted D ic t iona ry o fG eo logy H a r low : E ng land , L ongman G roup . Wh i tehou se , R . , ( e d ) , 1 983 Macm i l lan D ic t iona ry o fA r chaeo logy L ondon : T he Macm i l lan P r e s s . Wh i t ten ,D .G .A . a nd B rook s ,J .R .V . , 1 972 T he P engu in D ic t iona ry o fG eo logy L ondon : P engu in B ook s .

S t rabo , T he G eog raphy O fS t rabo I L eob C la s s ica lL ib ra ry -T ran s la ted b yH .L .Jone s , 1 923 L ondon : Wi l l iam H e inemann .

1 71

APPENDIX I

APPEND IX I

DRA W INGS OF SURFACE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL F INDS

f r om LOGROSAN E lC e r ro D e S an C r is toba l

c o l lec ted b yV ICENTE SOS BAYNAT d u r ing t h e 1 950 ' sa nd 1 960 ' s

d rawn b yJ OSEF 1NA MOL INA GARC IA Mu seo N a c iona ld eA r te R omano , Me rd ia

1 73

A ppend ix I

T he f o l low ing t wen ty t h ree p ages o f d raw ing s s how t h e a r tef a c t s f r om L og ro san , w h ich w e re a l lc o l lec ted b yV icen te S o sB ayna td u r ing t h e 1 950 ' sa nd 1 960 ' s . T hese a r tefac t s a r e n ow s t o red i nt h e Mu seo N ac iona l D e A r te R omano , Me rd ia , E x t remadu ra , S pa in . None o f t he a r cha eo log ica la r tef a c t sf r om L og ro san a r eo np ub l ic d i sp lay . Iw a sa b le t ov i ew a nd p ho tog raph t h eL og ro san a r tef ac t sa nd h ave t h em d rawn i n1 994 . T he a r te f a c t sf r om L og ro san s e em t oi nd ica te al o ng p e r iod o f p r eh i s to ry a tE l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l . T he f i nd s a r e b o th s u r fa ce a nd e xcava ted . T he m ine r s w o rk ing a tL og rosan i n t h e 1 950 ' s a nd 1 960 's f ound q u i te al a rge p e rcen tage o ft h e f i nd s d u r ing t h e i re l luv ia l m ine w o rk ing o n b o th t h e s umm i t a nd s l ope s o fE l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l ( So s B ayna t , 1 977 , 2 61-62 ) . N o s t ra t if ied r e co rd e x i s t s o f t he m ine w o rk ing e xcava ted a r tef ac t s o t he rt han ag ene ra ld e sc r ip t ion o ft h ef i nd a r ea a nd g ene ra l d ep th a nd i n mo s tc a se n o te ven t h a t . Qu i te af ew o f t h e a r tefac t s s howed u p d u r ing t h e w a sh ing o u t o f t h e c a s s i te r i te o r ed u r ing t h e b enefac t ion s hak ing t a b le o pe ra t ion ( So s B ayna t , 1 977 , 2 64 -72 ) . T he v e ry r i ch v a r ie ty o f a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s f l in t , s t one , p o t te ry a nd m e ta lp o in tt o al o ng t e rm p reh is to r ic p re sence i n t h eL og ro san a r ea . I n c luded i nt h ef i nd s a r e e a r ly s t one t oo ls a nd t wo d ef in i te B eake r a r tef ac t s as t one w r is t g ua rd a nd a m e ta l P a lme la p o in t ( Savory , 1 968 , 1 83 ) . T he re a r e a l so p r e sen to ne o rt wo a r tef ac t sw h ich c ou ld r ep r e sen tt h eR oman p e r iod ( A lon so R od r igvez D iaz , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 994 ) . T he S os B ayna t a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ion f r om L og rosan s e em s t o d i f f e r s s omewha t i n d a te s f r om t h e b u lk o f t h e s u r f ace p o t te ry f r om t h e s u rvey w o rk d one o n E l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l , wh ich r ep re sen tt h eL a te B ronze Age ( A lonso R od r igvez D iaz ,p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion ) .

T he S o s B ayna t a r t ic le o n t he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s o f L og rosan a l so men t ions n eck lace s a nd s ome s ma l l g o ld a r tef ac t sa nd f r agmen t sb e ing p re sen t . T he t o ta lw e igh to ft h e g o ld b e ing 2 0 g rams ( So s B ayna t , 1 977 , 2 74 ) . B o th t h e n eck la ce sa nd g o ld s e em t oh ave b een m i sp laced , a st h ey a r e n o t i n c luded w i th t h e L og rosan c o l lec t ion a t t h e Mu seo N a c iona lA r t eR omano , Me rd ia ; p e rhap st h ey m igh tr e appea r a ga in s ome t ime i nt h ef u tu re . S o s B ayna t a l so s t a te s i nh i s a r t ic le t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s c ame f r om t wo l o ca t ion s o ne o n t h e w e s te rn s umm i t a r ea o f E l C er ro d e S an C r is toba l a nd a s econd o n t h e l owe r N or the rn s l ope c a l led H ue r to s d e S an Ma r t in . Ih ave ma rked b o th t hese a r ea s i nb lue o n a1 898 l i gh t s ke tch o f t h e L og rosan a rea f r om t h e p ub l ica t ion b y R o so D eL una ( Ro so d eL una , 1 898 , 4 0 -1) . Iw a s a l lowed b y t h e N a t iona l R oman Museum , Me rd ia t o c u t a nd d r i l l s ma l l m e ta l lu rg ica l s amp le s f r om t h e t e n m e ta l o b jec t s f r om t h e L og ro san c o l lec t ion i nt h e s umme ro f1 995 . Ih ope t oa na lys i s t h e se me ta l lu rg ica l s amp le s i nt h e w in te r o f 1 995 -1996 . I tw i l l b e i n te re s t ing t os e e t h e ma ta l lu rg ica l make u p o ft h e t e n m e ta l a r tef ac t s , whe the rt h ey a r ec oppe r , a r sen ica lc oppe ro rb ronze a nd i fl e ad i sp r e sen ti na ny o ft h e s amp le s . T he r e su l t s o f t h e L ogro san me ta l lu rg ica l a na lys is a r e p re sen ted i nA ppend ix I p age s 1 94 -203 . T he d raw ing o ft h eb ronze c h ise l /d r i l l ( Samp le N o9 7 )f o und b y A n thony B r idgeman i nt he s e t t lemen ta r ea o fE l C e r ro d e S an C r i s toba l d u r ing t h e 1 994 p lann ing s ea son h a s b een p laced b e s ide t h ed raw ing o ft h ec a s t ing mou ld f r om t h e S o s B ayna t c o l lec t ion ( page 1 94 ) . T he c h i se l f i t s p rec i se ly i n to t h ec a s t ing mou ld . T he s ca le o fa l l t h e d raw ings b y J osef ina Mo l ina G a r c ia a r e e i the ro ne t oo ne o ro ne h a lf o ft h ea c tua la r te f a c ts i ze .

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APPENDIX

APPEND IX I

LABORATORY ANALYS IS a nd DRA W INGS OF METAL ARTEFACTS Mu seo N ac iona ld eA r te R omano , Me rd ia

f r om LOGROSAN E lC e r ro d eS an C r i s toba l

c o l lec ted b y SOS BAYNAT 1 950 -1960

d rawn b yJ OSEF INA MOL INA GARC IA 1 994 -1995

s amp led a nd a na ly sed b y CRA IG MER IDETH 1 995

1 97

I

A ppend ix I

D e sc r ip t ion a nd A na lys i s o f Me ta lA r tef ac t sL og ro san T he t e n c u t s amp le s w ere t aken f r om t h e S os B ayna t c o l lec ted L og ro san a r tefa c t ss t o red a tt h e Mu seo N ac iona lD e A r t e R omano , Me rd ia , E x t remadu ra , E spana ( Spa in ) . Iw ish t ot h ank t h e S ec re ta ry o ft h e Mu seum Augu s t in V e lezquez J imenez f o r h i s h e lp i n mak ing i tp o ss ib le f o r me t o s amp le t h e L og ro san m e ta la r tef a c t s . A l l c u t s amp les w e re moun ted i nr e s in a nd f i ne ly p o l ished a nd c a rbon c oa ted b efo re b e ing p u t i n to t h e S EM s pec imen c hambe r . S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scopy u s ing E ne rgy -D ispe r s ive X r ay a s aq ua l i ta t ive t e chn ique w a s u sed t o a na lys is t h ee lemen t s p resen t i nt h e t e n me ta l s amp le s . T he l e ss t h an 1 00% a na ly t ica lr e su l t sr ep re sen ta ny o xygen o rc a rbon t h a t w a s p resen t i n t he s amp les a nd wh ich t he S EM /EDS a na ly t ica l m e thod d oe n o td e tec t . Am in imum o ft h ree a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n e ach s amp le t o e n su re t ha t t h e i n i t ia l a na lys i s w a sc o r rec t . T he S EM /EDS a na ly t ica l wo rk w a s d one i n t h e Wo lf san L abo ra to r ie s , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon . C hoo s ing t h e a r ea i n wh ich t ot a ke t h e s amp le a nd t h e s i ze o f t h e s amp le t o b e c u t w a s d i c ta ted b y h av ing t o c hoo se a r ea s wh ich w e re n o th eav i ly c o r roded a nd w h ich w ou ld n o t i na ny w ay d i s to r tt h eo r ig ina la ppea rance o ft h ea r tef ac t . A no the ri mpo r tan tc on s ide ra t ion i nc hoo s ing t h es amp le a r ea w a s t ot r y a nd c hoo se al o ca t ion wh ich w ou ld a l so o f f e r a a ccep tab le c r o s s s e c t ion f o r ame ta l log raphy -m ic ro s t ruc tu re e xam ina t ion s t udy . When c u t t ing t h et e nL og roa san s amp le s Iw e ighed t h e t o ta l w e igh to ft h ea r tef ac t s a nd a l so i ns ome c a se s i fp o ss ib le t h e w e igh to ft h ec u ts amp le s .

S amp le No 10

AB ronze F la t Axe ; t o ta l s amp le w e igh t 6 90 .9 g ram s c u ts amp le w e igh t 0 4 .5 g ram s

T h ree a r ea s a na lysed ( A rea 3 ,A rea 4 ,a nd A rea 9 )p robab ly r ep re sen t a r ea s o f c o r ro s ion w h ich a c coun t s f o r t h e l a rge a moun t s o f T in ( Sn ) i n A rea 4 a nd A rea 9 a nd t h e l a rge amoun t o f L ead ( Pb ) i n A rea 3 . I n t h ese t h ree a r ea s t h e c oppe r h a s c o r roded a way a nd l e f t e n r iched d epo s i t s o fT in a nd L ead ( C ronyn , 1 990 , 1 66 , 2 18 ) .

S amp le N o 11

T he u ncommon s hape o fS amp le N o 11 p o s s ib ly r ep re sen t s ac a s tc u l to b jec t ? At o ta l o ft h r ee a r ea s w e re a na ly sed i nt h e c u t a nd moun ted s amp le . T he a na lys is o n a l l t h ree a r ea s w a sf a i r ly c on s i s ten t . T h i ss amp le a na ly sed a s av e ry w e l lp roduced b ronze ( Cu -Sn ) m ix tu re .

S amp le N o 12 A c a s tB ronze ( ? ) Monkey /Dog ( ? ) t o ta l s amp le w e igh t 2 6 .7 g ram s T he u ncommon s hape o fS amp le N o 12 w h ich w a s p o ss ib ly a t ta ched t o aw ooden r od , a l so p o s s ib ly r e p re sen t s ac a s tc u l to b jec t . At o ta l o ft h r ee a r ea sw e re a na ly sed i nt h ec u ta nd moun t ed s amp le . T he a na ly s i so fA rea 1a nd A rea 2w e re v e ry c on s i s ten ta nd r e p r e sen t aa lmo s ti d ea lC u -Sn b ronze m ix tu re . A rea 3w i th i t s h igh c on ten t o f 1 3 .48% S n m igh t r e p re sen t ac o r roded T in e n r iched a r ea o ft h eb ronze s amp le .

S amp le N o 13

At o ta l o fn ine a r ea s w e re a na lysed i nt h e c u t a nd moun ted s amp le . T he s t y le o ft h e f l a t a xe s hou ld r ep re sen t aE a r ly t o M idd le B ronze a ge a r tefac t ( Savo ry , 1 980 , 4 4 ) ; b u t t h e p r e sence o f1 . 38% -12 .51 % L ead ( Pb )i na l l o ft h ea r ea s a na lysed a t t r ibu te t h e F la t Axe p robab ly b e ing o f L a te B ronze Age o r ig in ( Ty leco te , 1 962 , 4 3 -45 ) . T he l e ad w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een a dded t oh e lp p roduce ab e t te r r unn ing c a s t ing ( Ty leco te , 1 992 , 3 5 ) .

A na r sen ica l / coppe rB eake rP a lme la P o in t t o ta l s amp le w e igh t 5 . 8 g ram s

A l l t h ree a r ea sa na ly sed w e re v e ry u n ifo rm i nt h er e su l t s .T h e a r sen ic p r esen t o n ly v a r ied f r om 1 . 78% t o 2 . 45% . T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t s o fS amp le N o 13 d up l ica te o t he ra na lysed B eake rP e r iod P a lme la P o in t s( Oddy , 1 991 , 5 2 -62 ) .

S amp le N o 14

T he s amp le w a sc u tf r om o ne o ft h ee dge s o ft h ef l a ta xe a sI f e l tt h a tb o th t h eb u t ta nd s p layed b lade o ft h ea xe h ad b een h eav i ly d amaged b y s e conda ry u se o r m i su se a nd m igh t n o t g i ve at r ue r e p re sen ta t ive s amp le .

Ac a s tB ronze ( ? )D o lph in ( ? ) s haped o b jec t ; t o ta l s amp le w e igh t 1 38 .5 g ram s

A c a s t( ? ) ( I be r ian /Roman )( ? ) S haped Sma l l F igu re t o ta l s amp le w e igh t 1 7 .5 g ram s

S amp le n o 14 w a sv e ry c o r roded o na l s u r f ace a r ea s .T h ree a r ea sw e r ea na ly sed a nd a l t h ree r e su l t sv a r ied c on s ide rab ly . T he l e ad ( Pb )2 0 .38% a nd T in ( Sn )6 . 69% p r e sen ti nA rea 1 mo s tp robab ly r ep r e sen t s t h e n o rm f o rt h es amp le N o 14 . A r ea 2 p r obab ly r e p r e sen t s ac o r roded a r ea wh ich h a sg i ven r i se t ot h eh i gh t i n ( SN ) 1 2 .81 % c on ten tb e ing p r e sen t . A rea 3i s al e ad ( Pb ) 8 8 .15% r i ch a r ea w h ich h a sb een a na ly sed . T he l e ad e n r ichmen ta r ea sa r e ar e su l to ft h ei n so lub i l i ty e f f ec to fs me l t ing l e ad w i th c oppe r( Sco t t , 1 99 1 , 2 3 ) . T he C oppe r( Cu ) ,T in ( Sn ) a nd L ead ( Pb )m ix tu r eo fS amp le N o 14 p o in tt o aL a t eB ronze A ge o rR oman o r ig in .

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A ppend ix I

S amp le N o 15

AB ronze c a s t ( ? ) I be r ian/Roman ( ? ) o b jec t t o ta l s amp le w e igh t 1 7 .7 g ram s

T h ree a r ea s w e re a na lysed o n t h i s s amp le . A rea 1w i th i t s h i gh p e rcen tage o f T in ( Sn ) 3 0 .39% h a s t o r ep re sen t a c o r roded a r ea wh ich i sT in e n r iched d ue t o C oppe r l o s s d u r ing t h ec o r ro s ion p roce ss ( C ronyn , 1 990 , 2 18 ) . A rea 3a nd A r ea 4wh ich a r ev e ry s im i la ri na na ly t ica lr e su l t s r e p re sen tt h et r ue e l emen ta l makeup o ft h ea r tef ac t . T he h igh T in c on ten t wou ld t e nd t oi nd ica te t ha t t h e c a s t o b jec tw a sm ean tt ob eh igh ly p o l i shed a nd t op re sen t ah i gh l u s t re s u r f ace i ni t s f i n ished p ha se ( S co t t , 1 991 , 2 5 -27 )

S amp le N o 16

AB ronze A r row P o in t - o r ig in u nknown s amp le t o ta l w e igh t0 4 .9 g ram s

S amp le N o 19

As ma l l C opp e r( ? ) R oman ( ? ) O rnamen t /w i th Z n , S n , P b , F e p resen t t o ta l s amp le w e igh t0 1 .7 g rams

F ou ra r ea s w e re a na ly sed o n S amp le No 19 . T he a na ly t ica l r e su l t sf r om A rea 3w e re r e jec ted a st h ey w e re w e l li ne xce s s o f 1 00% t o ta l . S amp le N o 19 w a s d i f f e ren t f r om a ny o f t h e o the r n i ne s amp le s f r om L og rosan i n t h a t i tc on ta ined C oppe r ( Cu ) , T in ( Sn ) ,L ead ( Pb ) , s ma l lt r a ce s o fI r on ( Fe ) a nd Z inc ( Zn ) . T he t i n c on ten t w a s n o t h igh 1 . 72% -3 .19% . T he L ead c on ten tw a s a l so n o th igh 1 . 75% -3 . 91% . T he t r ace s o fl i on p resen t i n a l l t h ree a r ea s b e ing u nde r 0 .50% . T he Z inc c on ten tw a s8 . 08% -8 . 77% i nt h et h ree a r ea sa na ly sed .

F ive a r ea sw e re a na ly sed o nt h i sc u ts amp le .A rea 1a nd A r ea 2a na ly t ica lr e su l t sw e re e i the rt o oh i gh o ve r 1 00% o rt ol ow u nde r6 5% a nd t h e r e f o r er e je c t ed .

I th a sb een v e ry r a r et of i nd Z inc a l loyed w i th C oppe rb efo re t h eR oman p e r iod I tw a s i nt h eR oman p e r iod t h a tZ inc w a s w ide ly u sed a nd a l loyed w i th C opper L ead a nd T in i n d eco ra t ive j ewe l le ry a nd f i gu ra t ive o b jec t s (Wa ldbaum ,1983 , 1 74 ) , ( Ty leco te , 1 962 , 5 3 -56 )

A rea 3 ,A r ea 4 a nd A rea 5a r e u n if o rm i nt h e i rC oppe r( Cu ) c on ten t a nd v a ry s l igh t ly i n t h e T in ( Sn ) c on ten t 4 . 29 % , 6 . 11% a nd 8 . 56% .

T he r e r ema in s t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t S amp le No 19 w i th i t s C oppe r , Z inc , L ead , T in a nd t r ace s o f I r on m igh t b e Med ieva l i no r ig in ( Ty leco te , 1 962 , 5 7 ) .

S amp le n o 16 i s av e ry w e l l p roduced b ronze A r row p o in t . T he a r chaeo logy p e r iod i tr ep r e sen t si sn o tk nown a tp r e sen t . I tc ou ld b eL a te B ronze Age o rR oman f r om t h ep e r cen t age s o ft h eC u -Sn m ix tu re p re sen t .

S amp le N o 17 A s ma l lB ronze ( ? )a w l /need le ( ? ) t o ta l s amp le w e igh t0 1 .8 g ram s c u ts amp le w e igh t 0 . 2 g ram s S i xa r ea sw e re a na ly sed o nt h i s s amp le T he a na ly t ica lr e su l t s f r om A rea s 1 ,2 ,a nd 3w e re r e jec ted a st h ey w e re i ne xce s s o f 1 00% . A rea 4 ,A rea 5 a nd A rea 6 w e re v e ry u n if o rm i n t h e a na ly t ica l r e su l t s w i th c oppe r c on ten t v a ry ing o n ly 2 . 36% a nd t i nc on ten t v a ry ing o n ly 0 . 55% . I ti s n o t e xac t ly c l ea r /obv iou s i f S amp le No 17 i s a p u rpo se made a r tef ac to ro n ly ac a s t ing w a s te d rop le t .

S amp le No 18

Av e ry s ma l lB ronze ( ? )d rop le t( ? ) t o ta l s amp le w e igh t0 2 .2 g ram s c u t s amp le w e igh t 0 . 1 g ram s

T h r ee a r ea sw e re a na ly sed o nt h i sv e ry s ma l lc u ts amp le .T he v a r ia t ion i na l l t h ree r e su l t s w a s n eg l ig ib le a nd r ep re sen t s a g ood b ronze m ix tu re . S amp le No 18 mus t s u re ly b e aw a s te d rop le t f r om a r ef in ing o rc a s t ing p roce s s .

1 99

Append ix I

EL CERRO DE

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

SAN CRISTOBAL

C u

S n

s .A

P b

S

F e

S i

C a

A l

Z n

N a

1 0 1 AL

LOGROSAN Museo Nac iona l d e A r te Romano

_

„

Me rd ia /Bada joz S amp le N o 10

A rea 1

A xe

A rea 2

4 .12 .95

.

,

_

7 2 .69 -1 0 .53 7 3 .78 . 9 .44 _

.48 3 .49 , 4 -A rea 3 '2

3 .26

0 .41

• • •

1 .-

2 .86 ' r0 .18 .40 1 2 .51 2 7 .99

4 .17

5 .41

1 . 38

8 2 .44

1 2 .73

1 . 82

1 3 .12 , 0 .31

-

A rea 7

8 2 .06

1 4 .62

1 . 55

0 .23

rea 8 ,A A rea 9 .

7 7 .13

1 4 .38

3 .84

0 .65

-

4 7 .43

2 2 .66

9 .06

0 .94

.

A real , 8 3 .58

1 0 .13 ,

-

.39 .4

8 6 .91

. -

'

8 6 .47

4 .29 .

, F

4 7 .18 6 .94 '6 7 8 .84 '9 7 .30 9 8 .47 9 6 .01

_

8 0 .10 ,e

S amp le N o I ll

r

_

,

5 8 .92

2 1 .86 _ 36 .13 -

1 r

_

rea 5 -A A rea 6

-A rea4

I

e

e

I r •

.

9 3 .72

-

D o lph in S hape (? )

A rea 2

1 . 12 .95

A rea 3

8 .95 . .61 8 5 .37 .6

S amp leNo 12

A rea 1

9 1 .55

_ 7 .23

Monkey /Dog ( ? )

A rea 2

9 5 .19

7 .33

1 . 12 .95

rea 3 'A

8 8 .61

1 3 .48

S amp le N o 13

A real

9 1.58

2 .29

P a lme la P o in t

A rea 2

9 2 .50

1 .78

1 . 12 .95

A rea 3

9 2 .7

2 .45

S amp le N o 14

A rea 1

6 5 .31

6 .69

2 0 .38

9 2 .39

I b er ian /Roman ( ? )

A rea 2

8 3 .25

1 2 .81

1 .69

9 7 .46

,A rea 3

0 .56

1 . 12 .95

7 9 .65

. .

.

.

,

.

A rea 1

6 9 .71

3 0 .39

R oman ( ? )

A rea 3

8 7 .75

1 3 .92

1 . 12 .95

A rea 4

8 6 .41

1 5 .39

S amp le N o 16

A rea 3

8 9 .96

4 .29

A r row P o in t

A rea 4

8 7 .78

6 . 11

1 . 12 .95

A rea 5

8 6 .11

8 .56

S amp le N o 17

A rea 4

8 3 .22

8 .64

Sma l l Aw l

A rea5

8 1 .65

9 .35

A rea 6 '8 4 .01

9 . 19 '

S amp le N o 18

A rea 1

8 1.58

1.68

Sma l l Me ta l D rop le t 2 9 .11 .95

A rea 2

8 7 .06

1 .27

A rea 3

8 1.52

1 .34

1 02 .09 . 9 3 .82

-

-

8 8 .15

S amp le N o 15

8 .79 .9 1 02 . 5 3

4 .29 ,9 9 5 .15 _

-

8 9 .15 I .

1 . 12 .95

. ,

.

9 3 .00 . 9 1 .99

-

r

1 00 .16 1 01 .69 ,

1 01 .86

,

9 4 .37

0 .10 ••

I

I r

‚ , .

9 3 .94 9 4 .67

,

9 1 .87

f l

'9 1 .03 0 .38

9 3 .59 9 3 .26 9 8 .33

,

9 2 .86

.

S amp le N o 19

A rea 1

8 5 .73

3 .52

3 .82

0 .48

8 .77 '

Sma l l O rnamen t

A rea 2

8 4 .7

1 . 72

1 . 75

' 8 .31

Med ieva l ( ? )

A rea 4

8 1.49

3 . 19

3 .91

0 .44 . 0 .42 -

1 . 12 .95

2 00

-

8 .08

1 02 .34 ' 9 6 .94 ' -9 7 .11

A ppend ix I

EL CERRO DE S AN CR ISTOBAL L OGROSAN V is i t 4 May -95 METAL S amp le N o 1 09 S ma l l F ragmen t 2 9 .11 .95

S amp le N o 1 09

A r ea A r ea A r ea A r ea

% C u

1 2 3 4

% S n

% % _A s _P b

8 6 .86 '9 .31 0 .11_ 8 4 .51 1 8 2 .29 9 .73 8 1 .07 9 .96 -

% S

-

-

Av e ry s ma l l c oppe r f r agmen t .

T h is f r agmen t was f ound o n t he s urface 1 . 5 .1995 , a pprox ima te ly f i f ty me ters d i rec t ly Wes t o f t he 6 77 g eo log ica l s urvey p os t . Due t o i t s s ma l l s e ize t he c omp le te s amp le wa s moun ted . F ou ra r ea s w ere a na lysed o n S amp le No 1 09 . A l l f ou r a rea s r ep re sen t ap er fec t b ronze me ta l m ix c ons is t ing o f 9% -10% t i n a nd 8 1% -87% c oppe r . T h is s amp le mus t r ep resen t a f r agmen tf r om ab ronze c a s t ing p roce ss .

2 01

0 .25 0 . 23

% F e

% S i

% % C a _A l

% % Z n _N a

% REAL

9 6 .18 9 4 .62 9 2 .28 9 1 .27

Append ix I

S ample N o

1 13

S ample N o 1 16

2 02