An African Pentecostal Hermeneutics: A Distinctive Contribution to Hermeneutics 1532660863, 9781532660863

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AN A F R I C A N PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS A Distinctive C o n t r ib u t io n to Hermeneutics

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An African Pentecostal Hermeneutics

An African Pentecostal Hermeneutics A Distinctive Contribution to Hermeneutics A

Marius Nel Foreword by Balia Foreword byDary[ Daryl Balia

WIPF W IPF & STOCK STO C K • Eugene, Oregon

AN AFRICAN PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTIC A Distinctive Contribution to Hermeneutics Copyright© Copyright © 2018 Marius Nel. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401. Wipf & & Stock An Imprint ofWipf of W ipf and Stock Publishers 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3 Eugene, OR 97401

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Contents Dary[ Balia | vii Foreword by Daryl Preface I| xi By Way of Introduction: Motivation for Study I| 11 Introduction I| 11 Research Question, Aim, and Objectives I| 8 Argument I| 10 10 Challenging Hermeneutical Concerns in Africa I| 18 Methodology I| 28 Concept Clarification I| 31

Chapter 11 Bible Reading Practices of Pentecostals I| 34 Introduction I| 34 Historical Survey of Pentecostal Hermeneutics I| 47 How Pentecostal Hermeneutics Developed I| 72 Concluding Remarks I| 92 Chapter 22 Defining A Pentecostal Hermeneutics for Africa I| 96 Introduction I| 96 Hermeneutical Problem I| 98 Luke-Acts and Paul: A Different Pneumatology I| 106 106 The Reading Community I| 111 111 116 Canon of the Bible? I| 116 Africa's Contribution I| 119 119 ty I| 146 African Culture of Orali Orality Defining an African Pentecostal Hermeneutics I| 150 150 154 By Way of Conclusion I| 154

Chapter 3 The Centrality of the Holy Spirit in Reading the Bible I| 15 1566 Introduction I| 156 The Holy Spirit is the One Who Realizes the Christ-event 1577 in the Present I| 15 Pentecostal Talk about God I| 165 Pentecostals and God I| 170 The Holy Spirit is the One who Quickens and Animates Scriptures I| 179 The Holy Spirit is Present Among Gods Goďs People, the Community of Faith I| 187 Synthesis I| 194

Chapter 4 The Eschatological Lens that Pentecostals Use When They Read the Bible I| 197 Introduction I| 197 Apocalypticism I| 203 203 205 Where Did Apocalypticism Originate? I| 205 206 Its View of History I| 206 Apocalypticism and the Christian Church I| 207 207 209 Eschatological Identity I| 209 224 Empowerment for Mission I| 224 Chapter 5 The Faith Community as Normative for the Interpretation of the Bible I| 226 226 Introduction I| 226 226 228 The Essence of the Church I| 228 The Charismatic Community as an Interpretive Community I| 230 230 236 Spirit and Community, and the Word I| 236 Chapter 6 239 Synthesis I| 239 Bibliography I| 245 Index I| 245

Foreword PENTECOSTALISM HAS UNDOUBTEDLY Pentecostalism has undoubtedly TAKEN taken the Christian world like a storm, and the scientific contributions of those sharing that tradition to theological studies continue to expand enormously. Hermeneutics might have been a foreign word some decades ago to Pentecostals who, for the most part, regarded the Bible as containing "all 4all the answers to human questions" Goďs gift-simply questions” and-being and—being Gods gift—simply to be read, believed, and obeyed! For Carlos Mesters, therefore, the Bible is read such that texťs a "dislocation" “dislocation” occurs since the "emphasis “emphasis is not placed on the texts meaning in itself but rather on the meaning the text has for the people reading it:' withit.” 11 Enter Marius Nel into this hermeneutical complexity, with­ pastora! in the African context, and, after more than three decades of pastoral practice and serious theological study, we at last have a gem of a book to explain if it is still that way. In my humble view, pedagogically speaking, the imperative to read the Bible can be taken together with the challenge of an intercultural approach, and, if siphoned from transactional theory, one would arrive at a point where learning is not based on the features of a text or the character of the reader but "on “on what happens when both come together:' together.” This is based on the assumption that learners do not read and then form a worldview but that they do so while they are reading. Understanding the nature of such transactions between text and reader is important in a society where a rich variety of textual temptations can serve to influence the behavioural patterns of impressionable adults. Exactly what happens when text and reader come together can be (and often is) influenced by context. Hence the need for the teaching and learning environments to be subjected to careful scrutiny as we do in the university context genergener­ ally. Learning as transaction is obviously a dynamic view at variance with seeing science as the (static) study of pre-existing knowledge. It invites 1. i.

Bible;' 14. Mesters, "Use “Use of the Bible,”

vii v ii

v iii viii

FOREWORD FOREWORD

participation, commitment, and "learning “learning to learn;' learn,” which cannot be sustained within strict theological boundaries. Hence, of course, my pen­ penchant for Pentecostal hermeneutics to be more vigorously interrogated for its utilitarian value, not simply for Christians but for the purposes of learning in general as well. Notwithstanding the above, I cannot help but ask if we are not livliv­ ing through a time when the "death “death of the author" author” has taken place and where reading and interpreting of information occurs predominantly in digital form. Is the burden of interpretation still the same? We know that, traditionally, it was to arrive at the original or intended meaning of a basic text, but that has proved elusive-as elusive—as many would agree. Today, the reader has become the co-author by decreasing the pressure of the author though the intervention of something called "hyperspace;' “hyperspace,” where the user of the text has now become the one to organize its meaning in the absence of a control hierarchy, hegemonic hegemonie indoctrination, or authentic learning method. This equates to a form of personalized knowledge which, in turn, puts scholars and teachers in an awkward situation, as they can no longer play the role of authoritative interpreter. To perform that function, they have stood in authority over the text with the aim of making the text to read the reader or hearer while bringing it under their critical scrutiny, raising questions about its authorship, style, content, and so forth, but deferring commitment or the possibility of making oneself vulnerable to the message of the text. This amounts to a form of "overstanding" “overstanding” as some would say. With this seminal contribution, Marius Nel seems to be moving us in another direction-one direction—one towards appreciating a tradition where the "un“un­ derstanding" derstanding” of a text which must be preceded by a relationship between text and reader and a disposition of submission before the text, to being open to influence (by the Holy Spirit perhaps) under the interpretation of the text. Instead of making demands on the object of our reading, one risks challenge from the text to one's ones moral conduct and belief systems, especially if one's ones positionality and individua! individual agency are not concealed. Put simply, then, my own view would be to welcome this book as a case of old wine being flushed into new wineskins for a generation hungry for new winds of change to our theological imagination. It proves, beyond

FOREWORD FOREWORD

any reasonable doubt, that Africa has something new to offer on how we on the sub-continent read and interpret the Bible-and Bible—and how it reads us! Professor Daryl Balia Executive Dean of Theology North-West University

ix ix

Preface THE The PURPOSE purpose OF of THIS this

book is to describe African pentecostal hermeherme­ neutics in terms of the direction of interpretation of biblical texts, from the reader anointed by the Spirit, experiencing the revelation of the Spirit in the biblical narrative, and leading to a witness about the exex­ perience in terms that remind of the biblical narrative. The experience is formed by the expectation that what people in biblical times experiexperi­ enced with God is to be repeated in the contemporary experience. Most of the academic literature in the field of pentecostal studies in herme­ hermeneutics and exegesis is from American or British-European origin. The African context is fairly absent in this discourse, although it is part of the global South where Pentecostalism is growing at such a rate that it is changing the face of African Christianity. The pentecostalization of Africa has been described as the African Reformation. However, Afri­ African pentecostal theology also presents unique and relevant challenges. This book was written by a theological scholar from Africa, focusing on Africa's need for a well-grounded hermeneutics that will allow Africans Africa’s to avoid some of the challenges concerned with interpretation of the Bible. African Pentecostals’ Pentecostals' interpretation of the Bible provides them with the necessary equipment and motivation to contribute to imporimpor­ tant needed social change because Pentecostals read the Bible with the expectation of life transformation through the Spirit. This book suggests that, in their hermeneutical labors, Pentecostals should consider emphasizing the centrality of the Spirit, their eschatologeschatolog­ ical lens, and the faith community as normative. The book disseminates original research and new developments in this study field, especially as hermeneurelevant to the African context because African pentecostal hermeneu­ tics has not been described. In the process, it also addresses the global need to hear voices from Africa in this academic field. It aims to convey the importance of considering Africa's Africa’s pentecostal voice in theologizing. xi

X xiiii

PREFACE P REFACE

The author's authors varied theological experience-with experience—with doctorates in the field of Old and New Testament literature as well as in practical theotheo­ logical and church historical matters of importance to the Pentecostal movement-contributes to the unique and distinct character of the book. movement—contributes Written from the science of hermeneutics, the book is aimed at scholars across theological sub-disciplines, especially those theological scholars interested in the intersections between theology, pentecostal hermeneutics, and African cultural or social themes. It addresses themes and provides insights that are also relevant for specialist leaders and pro­ professionals in this field. No part of the book was plagiarised from another publication or published elsewhere. Marius Nel Unit for Reformed Theology and Development of the South African Society North-West University

South Africa

By Way of lntroduction: Introduction: Motivation for Study

lntroduction Introduction HERMENEUTICS-THE Hermeneutics—the REFLECTION reflection ON on THE the principles that undergird 1 -is the art of understanding2 understanding 2 that asks correct textual interpretation interpretation1—is critically what one does when one reads, understands, and applies texts and what the conditions or criteria are that operate to try to ensure responsible and appropriate interpretation while the first order discidisci­ plines of exegesis, interpretation, and application concern itself with the actual processes of interpreting texts. texts.33 "Hermeneutics" “Hermeneutics” carries an obvious relation to Hermes, the messenger god of the Greeks, suggestsuggest­ ing that Hermes had to be conversant in the idiom of the gods as well as that of the mortals for whom the message was destined; he had to un­ understand and interpret the message that the gods wanted to convey for himself before he could proceed to translate, articulate, and explicate its 4 intention. intention.4 Hermeneutics implies linguistic competence, communicacommunica­ 5 tion, discourse, understanding, and interpretation. interpretation.5 Biblical hermeneutics applies the art of understanding to the Bible and explores how the Scripture of Christians is read and interpreted as 1. 1.

Oliverio, Theological Iheological Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 3.

2. Gadamer, Truth and Methody Method, 9. 2.

3. Palmer defines "hermeneutics" “hermeneutics” in terms of three basic notions: to express/to say, to explain, and to translate. Hermeneutics begins and aims to establish the principles, methods, and rules which we need to unfold the sense of what is written, and the task of the interpreter is to make something that is unfamiliar, distant, and obscure Hermeneutics, 13. in meaning into something real, near, and intelligible. See Palmer, Hermeneutics, 4. Zwiep is correct in warning against defining the term "hermeneutics" “hermeneutics” in terms of its etymological ancestry. To define a term exclusively in terms of its etymology is Vraagstuk;' 3. methodologically incorrect. See Zwiep, "Het “Het Hermeneutische Vraagstuk,”

5. Mueller-Vollmer, "Introduction," “Introduction,” 1. 1. 1

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AN AFRICAN An A f r i c a n PENTECOSTAL P e n t e c o s t a l HERMENEUTIC H ermeneutic

texts that originated in another time and context of life different from ques­ the contemporary world. Hermeneutics is concerned with biblical questions posed by and to the texts; philosophical questions about how one understands and the basis on which understanding is possible; literary questions about types and genres of questions and processes of reading; social, critical, historical, and sociological questions about how vested interests of class, race, gender, prior belief, and political, social, ar or ecoeco­ nomic ideology may influence what is read; and linguistic questions about the process of communicating content or an effect to readers or communities of readers, especially when the language of the original and 6 differ.6 contemporary communication events differ. In biblical hermeneutics, interpretation draws on biblical studies, including the introduction to the Old and New Testament and its exegesis against the background of the "reception" “reception” of these texts, as well as Christian theology. The purpose is to develop norms or criteria for a responsible ar or valid interpretation of Scripture. theo"Pentecostal" “Pentecostal” hermeneutics shares with hermeneutics of other theo­ logical traditions those emphases that a consensus of scholars agree are essential to the hermeneutical process, like the importance of reading a text in terms of its genre or literary type; respecting the historical and social context in which the text originated; giving attention to the social context that the original listeners or readers found themselves in; allowallow­ ing for the distinctive voices of different authors; affirming the overarchoverarch­ ing narrative, scopus, and fundamental theological unity of the canon 7 to humankind; and identifying as the revelation of the salvation of God God7 ideological elements that protect the powerful in texts. Same Some traditional principles used for reading the Bible are universal: to read a passage in light of its immediate context; to read it for its function as part of a larger book to which it belongs; and to read it in light of the cultural context that its language, assumptions, and allusions take for granted.8 granted. 8 The usual way for reading and writing texts has always been in its context, which is common sense. Most Pentecostals read the Bible with a "higher “higher or a more conservative perspective on the Bible as authoritative view;' view,” 6. Thiselton, Hermeneutics, 1. 1. 7. Biological gender cannot be attributed to the transcendent deity and has become a gender-sensitive issue. To accommodate a non-gender view of the deity, I will use language that may seem redundant, referring to God in a gender-less manner by way of necessary, awkward repetition.

8. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 117. 117 .

FOR BY WAY OP OF IINTRODUCTION: N T R O D U C T I O N : MOTIVATION MOTIVATION F OR STUDY STUDY

and canonical, identifying with a segment of Protestant experience in general.9 general.9 There are some aspects in pentecostal hermeneutics, however, that are distinctive-although distinctive—although not unique-to unique—to the Pentecostal movement. lt It is further suggested that these elements should characterize all truly Spiritled hermeneutics by reading from the vantage of the day of Pentecost and the experience of the Spirit and Spirit baptism, and that all readers of the Bible would benefit to some extent to empower themselves from these perspectives. What is being addressed here is an attempt to articulate the distinctive of pentecostal hermeneutics, how the experience of the Spirit that empowered the church on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2) can, should, and does dynamically shape one's ones reading of Scripture when one is open to the "voice “voice of the Spirit;' Spirit,” who interprets and applies Scripture to the context of contemporary believers by way of insights formed in their minds. "Pentecostal “Pentecostal theology and hermeneutics are different because they arise not primarily out of rational reflection, but rather out of lived 10 experience.”10 experience:' Early Pentecostals thought of the outpouring of the Spirit in the pentecostal revival in ecumenical terms, as a renewal of Christian Christian­ity as a whole-which whole—which justified and defined their origins and existence as a new movement.11 They were not interested in establishing churches or 9. In interpreting the Bible, pentecostal scholars attend to the following in the same translamanner as many Protestants: they determine the text, assessing variants and transla­ tions; they open up the text, investigating overarching structural features of the text, attending to the context, grammatical and linguistic structure, important word mean­ meanings, genre, and comparison with intratextual and extratextual sources; they interpret in a synthetic manner, comparing other revealed texts and the interpretation of previprevi­ ous interpreters, discussing it with the faith community in terms of the challenges of the surrounding world, determining the purpose of the text, and summarizing its theological interpretation and major point (or scopus); and then they communicate their interpretation to the church and world. See Maier, Biblical Hermeneutics, 11 - 1 2 . Hermeneutics, 4411-12. 10. 10. Ellington, "Pentecostals" “Pentecostals” 38. "Theology" “Theology” refers to the second-order affair that proceeds in abstraction from first-hand experience. See Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, 2. 2.

11 . Hollenweger remarks that Pentecostalism started with a self-perception that u. it was an ecumenical renewal movement because the experience of Spirit baptism represented a renewal of the day of Pentecost that established the early church, which Pentecostalism, 34). Robeck in­ infunctioned in unity across boundaries (Hollenweger, Pentecostalismt sists that even "a “a cursory reading of the earliest pentecostal publications is sufficient to validate [the) [the] claim" claim” (Robeck, "Pentecostals “Pentecostals and Ecumenism;' Ecumenism,” 1). Azusa Street was, from the start, an interracial and multidenominational revival movement (Burgess, Christian Peoples, 236), an ecumenical melting pot (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 49) rather than a church. Oliverio calls original Pentecostalism an ecumenically oriented revival

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AN HERMENEUTIC A n AFRICAN A f r i c a n PENTECOSTAL Pentecostal H e r m e n e u t ic

organizations because they viewed themselves as part of the restoration of the early church by the Spirit who is uniting all Christians in a last rain:• 12 outpouring of the Spirit, the "latter “latter rain” 12 The purpose is not to describe the way how some Pentecostal dede­ nominations read and interpret the Bible as such but rather to propose ways of reading the Bible that are faithful to the text-that text—that is, Spirit-inSpirit-in­ spired while the reader or faith community experience the revelation of 13 This is the expectation and experience of the Spirit in their reading act. act.13 Review;' 131). movement (Oliverio, "Book “Book Review,” 13 1). Cox implies that the whites who attended the services were mainly unlettered and unrefined as well as unemployed, qualifying Cox, Fire Pire from them to associate with the blacks that represented the same social dass class ((Cox, Heaven, 46-47). At that time, many American whites would normally not have associ­ associated with African Americans on a voluntary basis. Early Pentecostals were optimistic that the outpouring of the Spirit would lead to church unity because the Spirit would unite Christians across the borders of denominations in a new Pentecost. They were open to cooperation with other Christians. Seymour and other leaders of the early movement believed that their experience of Spirit baptism implied the restoration of what happened on the day of Pentecost in Acts 2, induding including the restoration of the church as the sign that the end of the age has come. The way they interpreted the Bible led many supporters of the Holiness movement to expect that the Spirit would be poured out again like on the day of Pentecost, and they prepared and prayed for it. When this happened on April 9th, 1906, in Los Angeles (Burgess, Christian Peoples of the Spirit, 237), their optimism was followed by confrontation and confusion-as Spirity 237), confusion—as Jacobsen, Karkkainen, Karkkiiinen, and Robeck illustrate (See Jacobsen, "Ambivalent;' “Ambivalent,” 4; Karkkiiinen, 'J\nonymous Ecumenists?," 14; and Robeck, "Pentecostals kainen, “Anonymous Ecumenists?,” “Pentecostals and the Apostolic Faith;' Faith,” 65). lnstead Instead of renewing and uniting existing historical denominations, the new movement and its experience were rejected, reviled, and booed as a sect and became alienated from mainline churches. Established churches provided stinging condemna­ condemnaPire from Heaveny Heaven, 48). tion of the movement as a whole (Cox, Fire 12. See Burgess, Christian Peoples of the Spirit and Barrett, 'J\ppendix" “Appendix” for an extenexten­ sive discussion of the existence of pentecostal spirituality from the early church to the present. Menzies and Menzies states that, from the time of the apostles and the early church, perhaps two dozen renewal episodes having charismatic overtones related to Power, 244). Ali Spirit baptism can be identified (Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Powery All of these prior movements ended dismally, dissolving into fanaticism and/or heresy. 13. Keener, Spirit Hermeneuticst Hermeneutics, 16. While biblical scholarship has vital contribucontribu­ tions to make to global pentecostalism, scholars also have much to learn from humble members of Pentecostal churches who read the Bible in faith, expecting God to move in similar ways in their lives, assemblies and worlds (Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Keeneťss assertion that what Pentecos­ Pentecoslnterpretation;• Interpretation,” 280). I agree with Archer that Keener tals and charismatics need is the best of evangelical exegesis and that a distinctive pentecostal hermeneutic should not be dismissed-although dismissed—although I would add that it is important that its distinctiveness should not stand in the way of ecumenical endeavors to unite the universa! universal church in vision and purpose (See Archer, "Spirited “Spirited ConversaConversa­ tion;' 190-91). tion,”

MOTIVATION FOR BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: M OTIVATION F OR STUDY STUDY

Pentecostal communities in general. lt It is an approach followed by all who read the Bible experientially, hearing Goďs Gods inspired voice for contempocontempo­ Pentecostals. 14 rary people in the Bible, including denomination Pentecostals.14 The fact is, pentecostal readings of the Bible are diverse, includinclud­ 15 ing widely differing views—such views-such as prosperity teaching15 teaching and ascetical injunctions-with injunctions—with both a mainstream tradition and diverse local and 16 cultural applications. There is no magisterium for Pentecostals that can applications.16 17 decide the case of what is pentecostal. There is no synod, no council, pentecostal.17 14. Vondey provocatively states that Pentecostalism at the beginning of the twentyfirst century is entering its adolescent years and represents a movement in transition, characterized by a perplexing variety of tensions often found only in the infancy of similar movements (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 133). It is a learning movement, where extremes of pluralism, charismatic excessiveness, denominationalism, sectarianism, triumphalism, institutionalism, and anti-intellectualism are confronted by a holistic spirituality, ecumenical ethos, orthodoxy, social engagement, egalitarian practices, and scholarship. As a movement in transition, its critical tensions mark the energy of that transition.

15. Many evaluations of the prosperity gospel of African neo-Pentecostal churches are made from a Western theological perspective. For instance, Grady criticizes neo­ neoprophets for their emphasis on prosperity and argues that it fuels greed, feeds pride, works against formation of Christian character, keeps people in poverty (as it takes the little they have in the name of getting rich), and abuses the Bible (see Grady, "Five “Five Ways"). The phenomenon ofthe Ways”). of the health and wealth gospel in African churches should be analysed and evaluated from the perspective of African people and the values deduced from their worldview. The impact of a prosperity message on the emerging oť Africa with a taste for exotic lifestyles is enormous (see Quayeyouthful population of si-Amakye, "'Nativizing' ‘“Nativizing* the Gospel;' Gospel,” 301). Wepener's Wepeners remark that healing is most probably the main motivation why people go to worship in Africa is also important (Wepener, "Liturgical “Liturgical 'Reform,"' ‘Reform,”’ 91). Healing is interpreted in Africa in the holistic sense-that sense—that is, the total well-being of the individua!, individual, including financial success. AnAn­ Pentecostals led to his remark that the neoprophets’ neoprophets' priderson's derson’s observations of neoneo-Pentecostals pri­ mary function is to be healers (see Anderson, "Hermeneutical “Hermeneutical Processes"). Processes”). Omenyo concurs and adds that the teaching of prosperity has two dimensions: the prosperity of the soul and material prosperity (Omenyo, "African “African Pentecostalism:• Pentecostalism,” 140). The first emphasis is not lost in the teaching of prosperity and reflects inner peace, satisfacsatisfac­ tion, contentment, and the maintenance of social networks. Early Pentecostals also emphasized bodily hodily healing and socio-economic upward mobility, with an emphasis on this-worldly rather than exclusively otherworldly sensibilities, which concur with Pentecostals in the Global South (see Yong, "Instead “Instead of a Conclusion;' Conclusion,” 318). 16. Archer emphasizes that Pentecostalism is anything but a monolithic commucommu­ nity (Archer, "Spirited “Spirited Conversation;• Conversation,” 193). 17. See, for instance, the magisterium between Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches about teaching authority in the church, as discussed in Chapman, "Spirit and the Magisterium;' Magisterium,” 268. Magisterium is the authority of the minister of the eucharist in the Lutheran tradition to speak the epiclesis with the confidence that it is accomplished

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and no writings by an important leader figure that are viewed as authoriauthori­ tative. While it is true that consensus definitions of pentecostal hermeherme­ neutics are elusive because the boundaries are fluid, there is, however, a core spiritual identity that can be identified in the contextualized theotheo­ logical hermeneutical activity of listening to the Spirit within a specific faith community that acknowledges the revelatory activity of the Spirit. Spirit.*18 18 There is reasonable consensus among pentecostal hermeneutes about the distinctives of pentecostal spirituality and hermeneutics.19 hermeneutics. 19 A significant part of the contemporary church probably recognizes the importance of a dependence upon the Spirit in daily life, and interinter­ pretation and application of the Bible, and the accompanying spiritual gifts. They may appreciate a discussion of the distinct contribution of pentecostal hermeneutics to the debate of understanding biblical texts20 texts 20 since Christianity has entered a new, fiat flat era, where mutual edification has worlďs cultures and regions become the rule and Christians from all the worlds

in their speaking of it, and the whole reality of God in the world is thereby made pres­ present and knowable. It is the authority to discern and teach to the community what it means to Jive live in such a way that one's ones life is a doxology. The Roman Catholic Church accepts the doctrine of infallibility that decides how dogmatic decisions are made, by whom, with what sort of authority, and in what relation to Scripture and to the receprecep­ tion of doctrine by believers in the church. The pope and ecumenical councils have the power to determine such decisions. Pentecostals would accept as their magisterium the authority of the Holy Spirit as the breath of the Father that speaks the words of the Son which makes the Triune God present in and as the community of faith, the body ofChrist of Christ (Chapman, "Spirit “Spirit and the Magisterium;' Magisterium,” 276). 18. Keener, Spirit Hermeneuticsy Hermeneutics, 305. Yong defines theological hermeneutics as "the “the hermeneutics of the divine" divine” (Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, Spirit-Word-Communityy 2). 19. Neumann makes the important remark that spirituality is most significant for understanding Pentecostalism since it serves as the primary means for differentiating Pentecostals from other Christian traditions and spiritualities (Neumann, "Spiritual“Spiritual­ ity," ity,” 196). It should be added that one cannot understand the pentecostal hermeneutic without considering its spirituality because it interprets the Bible as a function of its spirituality. Pentecostal spirituality can be defined as experiential, biblical-revelatory, holistic, and missional-pragmatic. See Albrecht, Rites in the Spirit, 13, for a definitive description of pentecostal spirituality. 20. 20. Menzies and Menzies register their amazement at the openness concerning gifts of the Spirit in nearly all established churches, something that twenty years ago would have seemed incredible (Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 181). They emphaempha­ size that the hermeneutical climate within evangelicalism (and it should be added, within Roman Catholicism and the high churches) is more conducive now than ever before to the theological contributions of Pentecostals.

INTRODUCTION: M OTIVATION F OR STUDY STUDY BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION FOR

have much to learn from one another in a global world ("glocalization"). (“glocalization”). 21 Global Christianity has become irreversibly more egalitarian. egalitarian.21 The hermeneutical approach that is described is consistent with key aspects and emphases of early Pentecostals, which, in some instances, they developed from the holiness revivals that fed the Azusa Street and related revivals at the beginning of the twentieth century (although Pentecostalism did not simply borrow the theological categories of its holi­ holiness and Reformed predecessors; it created a new theological tradition as 22 a hybrid between different traditions). Their Bible reading practices distraditions).22 dis­ tinguished them from the widespread and widely accepted cessationism of the surrounding Protestant mainline churches of their day. They were jusbiblically directed because of their restorationist-primitivistic ethos, jus­ tifying their existence as a continuation of the establishment by the Spirit of the early church. They believed that they were living within the larger establishing a metanarrative for Pentecostals narrative world of the Bible ((establishing that they lived in), where the supernatural and eschatological determined the apocalyptic worldview that they believed they shared with Jesus and the apostles. They believed their charismatic experiences were in con con­tinuity with the early church of the first three centuries and used it as a starting point or pre-understanding (Vorverstandnis) (Vorverstdndnis) for engaging with 23 the text. text.23 This is their contribution to hermeneutical wisdom-to wisdom—to read the Bible from the perspective of Pentecost and its accompanying experiexperi­ ence of Spirit baptism in the same way as, for instance, Anabaptists emem­ phasized caring for the poor as their starting point in reading Scripture faith.2244 and many Protestants used justification by faith. 21. 21.

Jacobsen, Global Gospel, Gospel 13. 13.

22. Review;' 376. 22. Studebaker, "Book “Book Review,” 376. Early Pentecostals emerged from a wing of evangelicalism that emphasized holiness, divine healing, missions, and social justice. The new movement was rejected by Evangelicals, a part of whom developed into early twentieth-century fundamentalists who excluded and demonized Pentecostals, iniini­ tially even refusing them entrance into their educational institutions.

23. See Karkkainen's Karkkainen s remark that, in the first two centuries, charismatic, "enthu“enthu­ siastic" siastic” spiritual life was a norm rather than a barely tolerated minority voice in the church (Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 38). The Montanist movement, emerging in 160 160 or 170 170 CE around the Phrygian Pentapolis area, in what is now Turkey, was probably a renewal movement, although it is normally assessed as false and devious. We only know about the Montanists through other people and our assessment is based on the perspective of those opposed to the movement (Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 41).

put• 24. The Anabaptists are frequently contended as to have devalued Scripture by put­ ting in its place a reliance on the Holy Spirit. Their hermeneutics probably had more to do with how the then-new pentecostal hermeneutics viewed the Bible as a function

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Research Question, Question Aim, and Objectives The assumption used here is that there is a distinctly pentecostal way of reading and interpreting Scripture that can have potentially useful, normative implications for all Bible believers and practitioners in the millennium. 25 The way Pentecostals read the Bible is described here third millennium.25 specifically in conversation with African pentecostal perspectives. Deep in the soul of Pentecostalism are its African origins-as origins—as well as, among 26 others, African-American influences -which, in many places, continue influences26—which, ways. 27 After providing to inform the movement in deep and meaningful ways.27 a description of African pentecostal hermeneutics, some prescriptives are developed regarding what can and even ought to be done, partly in

(Karkkainen, Pneumatologyy of the revelation of the Spirit (Karkkli.inen, Pneumatology, 55). The Anabaptists saw an integral relationship between the Spirit and the Word. The Spirit was the ultimate authority that first gave authority to the written word of the Bible. They distinguished between the "outer" “outer” word-which word—which consists of the mere reading and hearing of the word-and word-which consists of the persona! word—and the "inner" “inner” word—which personal appropriation of the word-to word—to emphasize the importance and necessity of the transformative experience of appropriation. The word is broader than the Bible; the word of God can come directly to the heart without an intermediary, for example, through prophecy. 25. See Yong, Hermeneutical Spirit, 44. 26. The Pentecostal movement is rooted in the American black slave culture of the nineteenth century and many of its early manifestations were found in the religious expressions of the slaves. These were themselves a reflection of the African religious culture from which the slaves had been abducted. Black Pentecostalism emerged out of the context of the African holistic view of religion with its roots in African religion (MacRoberts, Black Roots and White Racism, 77-78). 27. Thomas, "What ”What the Spirit is Saying to the Church," Church,” 125. Thomas likens ScripScrip­ ture in a pentecostal hermeneutics to a black gospel choir, where individua! individual notes in rehearsal sound like dissonance but, in its combination, the dissonance sounds beauti­ beautiful, along with the custom that a single voice may take the lead at the appropriate mo­ moment, followed by the choir's choir’s participation. In pentecostal hermeneutics, he concludes, the diversity of Scripture may not be forced into an artificial unity that is illegitimate and does the collection a disservice. The intensity of Scripture can only be heard through allowing the dissonance to be heard, and even the smallest and seemingly most insignificant voice should be allowed to take the lead at the appropriate moment. Acceptance of the canonicity of the Bible implies that the essential unifying factor is faith in Jesus Christ, but also that the early church represented a diversity of ways in which faith was expressed (Dunn, "Role “Role of the Spirit:' Spirit,” 158). It cannot cleny deny legitimacy to other expressions of Christian faith, worship, or order which can demonstrate lele­ gitimacy from the New Testament, nor should it cleny deny the hand of Christian fellowship to such others, strengthening the ecumenical impulse inherent in Pentecostalism (see Nel, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Ecumenical Impulses.") Impulses.”)

BY WAY OP MOTIVATION OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: M O T I V A T I O N FOR F OR STUDY STUDY

response to what is perceived as isolated incidences of abuses and mismis­ 28 uses of the Bible.28 Bible. The research question is: what are the distinctives of a pentecos29 tal hermeneutics hermeneutics29 that characterize the way people interpret the Bible when they have experienced the baptism in the Spirit and the promptings of the Spirit while reading the text? The question is asked against the background of the central problem ofbiblical of biblical hermeneutics: how can the human word of a long-since-vanished time be understood as Gods Goďs word 30 to the present? present?30 In a first chapter, Bible reading practices of Pentecostals will be disdis­ cussed to provide a background for the description of their hermeneutics. In a second chapter, the distinctives of their hermeneutics will be discussed. Three distinctives will be distinguished that summarize the essentials of pentecostal Bible reading practices.

28. Although I am an African, I am not a black African. My theological education was primarily a Western one-as Pentecostals-implying one—as is the case of most African Pentecostals—implying that I am limited by my own Western cultural background and education. However, I have been living in Africa for my whole life and my love for and commitment to Africa, its peoples and their cultural heritage, and my identification with their struggle for liberation are all reasons for considering myself an African. I have been actively involved with Pentecostal churches my whole life, serving for the past thirty-six years as a pastor of the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa, serving as a leader in the unified church that originated in 1996, and training candidates for the ministry for the black. I concur with Anderson that, if "Afpast twenty-six years, most of whom were black “Af­ rican" rican” is meant to signify love for the continent and people of Africa or commitment to an African ideal, then I would certainly include myself in this category (Anderson, Moya, 2). For this reason, I consider myself qualified to write about African pentecosMoya, pentecos­ tal hermeneutics. 29. The use of "a “a pentecostal hermeneutics" hermeneutics” is deliberate, owing to the fact of the diversity of the Pentecostal movement and its hermeneutical practices (see Thomas, "What “What the Spirit is Saying," Saying,” 115). The variety of Pentecostalism can be seen in its main "theologies" “theologies” (Kiirkkainen, (Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 89-90). There are Wesleyan Pentecostals who emphasize the Wesleyan doctrine of"second blessing" instant sanctification, with of “second blessing” Spirit baptism as a "third “third blessing:' blessing.” There are Baptistic Pentecostals who stress gradual sanctification. Oneness Pentecostals teach a Unitarianism of the Son that denies the traditional doctrine of the Trinity and claims that Jesus is Father, Son, and Spirit. The charismatic Pentecostals incorporate aspects of pentecostal practice and theology into the theological frameworks of their own traditions. Independent pentecostalcharismatic theologies and spiritualities have diverse agendas and there are an end.less endless variety of Pentecostal and charismatic movements, especially in the Global South, contributing to the hetereogeneity of Pentecostalism.

30. Maier, Biblical Hermeneutics, 19.

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In the following three chapters, each of these distinctives will be described in more detail and illustrated through pentecostal practice: the experience of the Holy Spirit as the One who inspires and animates Scripture; the eschatological lens that Pentecostals use when they read the Bible; and the faith community as necessary for a normative interpreinterpre­ tation of the Bible.

Argument Argum ent It is argued that Scripture, by virtue of its textual form, requires to be apap­ proached in the same sort of ways in which literary texts are approached due to similarities in, for instance, the occurrence of different genres and the determinative role played by contextualities that influence the origins and interpretations of texts. However, because the biblical text is accorded with authority for the lives ofbelievers, revelaof believers, as the "word “word (or revela­ tion) of God;' God,” Christians expect to find illumination and the potential of appropriating the interpreted text when they read and interpret the Bible.31 Bible. 31 Pentecostals believe that the Spirit already generated meaning through the human agents who wrote in contemporary idiom and style for people living in historical contexts that differ from the world in which people live today. The Spirit, however, is also active in the exegetical task through the clear functioning of the Spirit-filled cognitive faculties of the contemporary reader or listener exploring the text because the Spirit acts as one who teaches us everything, and reminds us of all that Jesus 32 told us (John 14:26), as applicable in contemporary contexts. contexts.32 When reading these texts prayerfully, Pentecostals-like Pentecostals—like the first listeners or readers-also readers—also experience the illumination of the Spirit in their minds, as

31. "Illumination" ofhearing “Illumination” consists of hearing the voice ofthe of the Spirit in the biblical text. Oriunderstandgen, John Chrysostom, and Augustine described the help of the Spirit in understand­ ing the Bible (see Moberly, "Pneumatic Hermeneutics;' 61-62 “Pneumatic Biblical Hermeneutics,” 6 1-6 2 and Wyckoff, Pneuma and Logos, 13-18). 13 -18 ). Origen (183-253 (18 3-253 CE) was the first Christian theologian methwho provided a theoretical grounding of a biblical hermeneutics, consisting of a meth­ odology for understanding the Bible (Pollman, "Einfiihrung;' “Einfuhrung,” 10). In the fifth century CE, the Benedictines developed lectio divina to accommodate illumination, while the Eastern Orthodox church defined it as the practice of hesychasm. See Wansbrough, lectio Use and Abuse of the Bible, 167-77, for a discussion of dei verbum found in lectio, meditation, meditation oratio, and contemplation.

,

,

32. Contexts are defined as what the text and the interpreter(s) bring with them to the conveying and understanding of meaning (Oliverio, "Book “Book Review,” Review;' 135).

MOTIVATION BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION! M O T I V A T I O N FOR F OR STUDY STUDY 33 If the successful conclusion of the speech act or perlocution of the text. text.33 the illocution of the text is a command, the perlocution would be obeobe­ dience. The Spiriťs Spirits involvement in the perlocution leads to the readers' readers recognizing and understanding the truthfulness of the text and what it requires from them, empowering them to take the appropriate steps to actualize the intentions that the Spirit initially delivered to the biblical author and applies in the new situation of the contemporary reader.34 reader. 34 The textu al and revelatory meaning of biblical texts adheres to contextstextual contexts— that is, the original contexts-and contexts—and the fusion of the contexts of historical and contemporary interpreters are then productive of interpretations whose meanings are accountable to the original texts themselves, which 35 In are properly understood only in relation to these original contexts. contexts.35 36 texťs origination. this way, the interpreter is accountable to the texts origination.36 TheunThe un­ derlying assumption is that the Bible has a discernible meaning which Goďs intention as this is expressed in the biblical texts coincides with Gods 37 themselves. themselves.37 The church is competent and obliged to adequately dede­ termine their divinely-intended meaning because God reveals Godself through the instrumentality of scriptural writings and because the Bible is sufficient, perspicuous, and a supremely normative standard for ChrisChris­ 38 tian faith and living. living.38

12. 33. Keener, Mind of the Spirit, 12.

34. See Arrington’s Arrington's remarks on the importance of the Spirit’s Spiriťs participation in the act of reading and interpreting the Bible, consisting of: the Spirit-filled believer’s believer's submissubmis­ sion of the mind to God so that the critical and analytical abilities are exercised under the guidance of the Spirit, a genuine openness to the witness of the Spirit through personal experience of faith as mediating principie principle insights as the text is examined, the persona! of the entire interpretive process that turns human words into the voice of God, and an appropriate response to the transforming call of God’s Goďs word (Arrington, "Use “Use of the Bible by Pentecostals,” Pentecostals;' 105). 35. "Meaning" “Meaning” can be defined as the incorporation of real understanding into one's one’s own interpretation of ultimate reality, which influences the way one lives one's one’s life (Archer, "Hermeneutics;' “Hermeneutics,” 110). Keener mentions that most Christians use Bible verses like sound bites (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, Hermeneuticsy 113). Rather than reading the Bible meditatively, giving account of the context, they use verses the way they have heard others use them, without relating it to its historka! historical context. 36. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 85. 37. Venema, "Interpreting “Interpreting the Bible," Bible,” 45. 38. N. T. Wright argues that God exercises authority in the Bible through human agents anointed and equipped by the Holy Spirit (see Wright, "How “How Can the Bible Be Authoritative? Authoritative?,”;' 16). God wants to reveal Godself meaningfully within the space/time universe, not just passing it by tangentially, but in judgment and mercy in a way which will save people. It implies that the church can only be the people of God for the world,

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Pentecostal hermeneutics is diverse, reflecting the different back­ backBible. 39 grounds and theological training of pentecostal readers of the Bible.* 39 Some pentecostal scholars embrace postmodern approaches in a qualiquali­ Same fied sense while others contend for more traditional approaches. While recognizing these differences, it is the contention of this book that it is possible to distinguish a pentecostal hermeneutics by way of certain Pentecostalism's primary focus, also fundamental distinctives, based on Pentecostalisrns representing its contribution to the larger church, which is the present 40 Spirit.4 0 The Spirit also equips Goďs Gods people for their activity of the Holy Spirit. being and mission in the world through their reading and interpreting of Scripture. Pentecostals view Acts 28 as open-ended, implying the mission's future and requiring the Spirits Spiriťs power to fulfill it (Acts 1:8) in missions story—a living the same way as they view the Bible as a still unfinished story-a record of an open-ended history in which they have a part.41 part. 41 They view themselves as part of the continuing, postcanonical narrative of salvation 42 points.4 2 history, to which Acts points. It is true that the Pentecostal movement is diverse, consisting of various parts that are historically related. Half a century ago, David BarBar­ rett perceived that African Christianity is transforming "Christianity “Christianity religion:' 433 permanently into a primarily non-Western religion.”4 Although any classification of Pentecostalism is risky because of its 44 diverse branches, it is customary to speak of three waves. waves.4 4 The first is of a city set on a hill that cannot be hidden, when she is constantly being recalled to the worlďs story and message of the Bible, without which she will herself lapse into the world’s way ofthinking of thinking (Wright, "How “How Can the Bible Be Authoritative?," Authoritative?,” 28). 39. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation," Interpretation,” 270. Thomas is correct when he modem occupation with "readers;' emphasizes that, despite our modern “readers,” whether "actual;' “actual,” "in“in­ tended;' tended,” or "implied;' “ implied,” for the most part, our attention should be focused on hearers of the Bible (Thomas, "What “What the Spirit is Saying;' Saying,” 115). 40. Karkkiiinen Karkkainen describes one of the most exciting developments in theology in recent years as an unprecedented interest in the Holy Spirit, shown by both various traditions and mainline denominations (Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 11). Karl Barth already called the theology of the Spirit the fu ture of Christian theology (Barth, quoted future in Karkkainen, Pneumatology, 13).

41. Cox, How to Read the Bible, 8. 42. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation,” Interpretation;' 276. 2000," 50. 43. Barrett, ''.AD “AD 2000,” 50.

44. Due to its diverse nature, there is also a diversity of categorizations of PentecosPentecos­ waves" is used the most and is probably also talism, but Barrett's Barrett’s proposal for "three “three waves” the most useful typology of the movement as a whole (see Barrett, "Worldwide “Worldwide Holy Spirit Renewal"). Renewal”).

INTRODUCTION: M OTIVATION F OR STUDY STUDY BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION FOR

classical Pentecostalism, which looks back for its origins to the beginbegin­ Bible Schools, ning of the twentieth century, including Charles Parham's Parhams William Seymour's Seymour s Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, and similar inciinci­ dents45 dents45 (not all agree that pentecostal origins in other countries go back to Los Angeles46—sometimes Angeles46-sometimes it might have been the result of indigenous revivals). Today, there is an estimated 200 million people belonging to these first-wave, classical Pentecostal churches. Secondly, since the 1960s and 1970s is the charismatic renewal of mainline churches with its openopen­ 47 ness to the gifts of the Spirit, Spirit,47 consisting of a loose worldwide "network;' “network,” Episwhich began in California in 1960, i960, started by Dennis J. Bennett, an Epis­ copalian priest, and eventually influencing the Protestant, Roman CathoCatho­ 488 The movement includes lic, and Eastern Orthodox mainline churches. churches.4 499 Thirdly, an estimated 100 million believers in Latin America alone. alone.4 there is an independent movement since the 1970s with its synthesis be­ between pentecostal theology and practice, and several other theological

move45. Jacobsen calls Azusa Street the Grand Central Station for the Pentecostal move­ Thinking in the Spirit, 57). Menzies and Menzies mention that epiepi­ ment (Jacobsen, 1hinking sodes of isolated outpourings of the Spirit have been chronicled in various parts of the world, including the United States, as early as the 1850s (Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 125). Many Evangelicals also employed the language of "baptism “baptism in the Spirit" Spirit” as part of their drive for sanctification. 46. See Anderson, Spreading Fires. Elsewhere, Anderson also remarks that, in many parts of Africa, indigenous movements arose independently and often prior to classical Pentecostalism (Anderson, '~frican Pentecostalism:' 28). Something ak.in “African Pentecostalism,” akin to Pentecostalism emerged in Africa several decades before the Azusa Street meetings, although it has not been publicized at al!, all, in contrast to the Azusa Street Revival (Ja(Ja­ Gospel 37). cobsen, Global Gospel, lnterpretation;' 271. Some 150 million Catholics are part 47. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Interpretation,” of the renewal movement (see Keener, "Pentecostal Interpretation;' 272). For instance, “Pentecostal Interpretation,” in South Africa, the Vineyard churches quickly grew into a popular independent charchar­ ismatic church, while St. Charles Catholic Church in Victory Park in Johannesburg was a leading light in the charismatic movement in the 1970s and 1980s (Frahm-Arp, bap"Rise “Rise of the Megachurches;' Megachurches,” 263). Most charismatic theologians view the Spirit bap­ tism in an organic way by identifying it with water baptism, though it is not actualactual­ ized through spiritual gifts until much Jater. later. For charismatics, this view avoids the problems of the "initial “ initial evidence" evidence” doctrine, the idea of two baptisms and the dividing of Christians into two classes-those classes—those baptized by the Spirit and those who are not Pneumatology, 95). (Karkkainen, Pneumatologyy 48. Paas, Christanity in Eurafricat Eurafrica, 490. 49. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, Gospel 38.

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A n A f r i c a n PENTECOSTAL Pentecostal H e r m e n e u t ic AN AFRICAN HERMENEUTIC 50 traditions. This last wave is sometimes denoted as neo-Pentecostalism51 neo-Pentecostalism51 traditions.50 and it concurs with the pentecostalization of Christian churches, espeespe­ 52 cially in the French-speaking parts of Africa. Africa.52 Barrett53 reckons that there are 740 classical Pentecostal denomiBarrett53 denomi­ nations, 6,530 non-Pentecostal "mainline" “mainline” denominations with large organized internal charismatic movements, and 18,810 independent neo-charismatic denominations and networks. Charismatics are found across the entire spectrum of Christianity, within all 150 150 traditional nonPentecostal ecclesiastical confessions, families, and traditions. The thirdwave phenomenon is found in 9,000 ethnolinguistic cultures, speaking 8,000 languages, and covering 9 955 percent of the worlds 8,000 worlďs total population. In 2000, 2000, there were 523 million Pentecostals in total, and in 2025 2025 this total is likely to grow to 811 8 11 million. Of these, 93 million will be classiclassi­ cal Pentecostals, 274 million will be charismatics, and 460 million will be neo-Pentecostals. Of all Pentecostals worldwide, 27 percent are white and 71 percent are non-white. Members are more urban than rural, more female than male, more children under 18 than adults, more Third World (66 percent) than Western (32 percent), more living in poverty (87 per­ percent) than in affluence (13 percent), and more family-related than indiindi­ vidualist. "The “The growing churches in the non-Western world are mostly

50. Pretorius, "Toronto Blessing," 66-67. Oliverio describes the adherents of the “Toronto Blessing,” second group-charismatic-Pentecostals-as confugroup—charismatic-Pentecostals—as renewal Christians, adding to the confu­ sion in the terminology surrounding Pentecostalism (Oliverio, "Introduction;' “Introduction,” 4). 51. Neo-Pentecostals are also referred to as neo-charismatics, Third Wavers, In­ Independents, Postdenominationalists, and neo-Apostolics (Barrett, "Worldwide “Worldwide Holy Spirit Renewal," Renewal,” 404). 52. Ngong, Holy Spirit and Salvation, 141. 14 1. Independent churches are expanding faster than Islam in Africa, at about twice the rate of the Roman Catholic Church, and at roughly three times the rate of other non-Catholic groups. There are now all born in the last approximately 5,000 independent Christian denominations, al! forty years, al! all bearing the familiar marks of pentecostal spirituality, and with each church displaying its own distinctive qualities. In South Africa, they embrace about 40 percent of the black population, while in Zimbabwe, 50 percent of al! all Christians belong to these independent churches (Cox, Fire Pire from Heaveny Heaven, 246-47). In Southern ofChristian Africa, neo-Pentecostal churches established the International Fellowship of Christian Churches (IFCC) in 1985 under the leadership of Edmund Roepert of the Hatfield Christian Church (Pretoria) and Ray McCauley of the Rhema Bible Church (Johan(Johan­ nesburg). There are other associations for neo-Pentecostal churches as well, such as Fred Roberts's "Christian “Christian Centres" Centres” called Christian Fellowships International, Derek Crumpton's Crumptons Foundation Ministries, and Dudley Daniels's Daniels’s New Covenant Ministries (Anderson and Pillay, "Segregated “Segregated Spirit," Spirit,” 237).

53. "Worldwide Renewal," 383. “Worldwide Holy Spirit Renewal,”

OF IINTRODUCTION: NTRODUCTION: M O T I V A T I O N POR F O R STUDY STUDY BY WAY OP MOTIVATION

Pentecostal-Charismatic, as seen in the Pentecostal movements in Latin America, Independent Churches in Africa,54 Africa, 54 and Charismatic movemove­ 55 ments in Asia:' Asia”55 And while 16.7 16.7 percent of Christians lived in Africa, 2010. By 2025, 2025, it Asia, and Latin America in 1900, 1900, it was 63.2 63.2 percent by 2010. 56 percent. The pentecostalization of African Christianity will be nearly 70 70 percent.56 lt has can be called the African Reformation of the twentieth century. It 54. Pentecostal-type Indigenous Churches (that is, African Indigenous Churches, African Independent Churches, or AICs) account for more than 40 percent of the “Segregated Spirit," Spirit,” 227, 233). South African black population (Anderson and Pillay, "Segregated The phenomenon of AICs is notoriously complex; various attempts have been made to classify the phenomenon along diverse lines. Anderson's Anderson’s (African Reformation, 15-18) 15 -18 ) and Oosthuizen's Oosthuizen’s (Healer-Prophet, 1-2) 1-2 ) classification makes the most sense, with AICs classified as Ethiopian, Zionist, Prophet/healing, and charismatic/Pentecostal or SpirSpir­ it-churches. In some parts of Africa, Spirit-churches constitute up to 40 percent of the total population (Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited, 306). The African expression of the worldwide Pentecostal movement is the Spirit (or spiritual) churches, which forms the pentecostalization of African Christianity. The Spirit AICs, however, are not paradigmatic of African Pentecostalism any longer; they have been overshadowed by the enormous new and independent churches representing the neo-Pentecostal movement which have sprung up in African cities more recently (Anderson, "African “African Pentecostalism,” 29). AICs exist in 60 African countries with 9,300 denominations, Pentecostalism;' 65 million members, and 92 national councils. The continent-wide Organization of African Instituted (formerly Independent) Churches is based in Nairobi, Kenya. The AICs originated in 1864. Previously they were normally classified as "unafli.liated" “unaffiliated” Christians; today they are described as "independent neo-charismatics" (Barrett, “independent neo-charismatics” "Worldwide;' “Worldwide,” 405). In southern Africa, the majority of the "churches “churches of the Spirif Spirit” are known as Zionists and Apostolics, betraying their respective associations with the Chicago movement of John Alexander Dowie and the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa and the Apostolic Azusa Street Revival. AQ NOTE Omenyo and Arthur ascribe the growth of African Pentecostalism to neoprophetism and the popularity of the prophetic movement to the relevance of the phenomenon to the religious context, religious pragmatism, and its compatibility with most sectors of people, the use of a predominantly oral form of communication, providing the youth with the opportuopportu­ nity to exercise their gifts and talents, and phenomena such as dreams and visions in persona! and public forms of religion (Omenyo and Arthur, "Bible personal “Bible Says!;' Says!,” 51). 55. Lee, "Future “Future ofGlobal of Global Christianity;' Christianity,” 105. 56. Keener and Carroll, "Introduction;• “Introduction,” 1. 1. Maxwell calls contemporary African Pentecostalism a broad river with currents flowing in different directions, creating contradictions that are continually being worked out (Maxwell, "Social “Social Mobility and KePolitics;• Politics,” 91). If the so-called African "Spirit" “Spirit” churches are added-in added—in Zimbabwe, Ke­ nya, and Ghana-in Ghana—in 2010, an estimated quarter to a fifth of the population were Pentecostals. In Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Zambia, and South Africa, about a tenth of the population are Pentecostals. More than half of Zimbabwe's Zimbabwe’s Africa's, over population belongs to African Pentecostal churches, 40 percent of South Africa’s, a third of Kenya's, Kenya’s, followed by the DRC, Nigeria, Ghana, and Zambia, all over a quarter of the population (Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 114).

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fundamentally altered the character of African Christianity. The center 57 of world Christianity has shifted to the Global South, and the dominant South,57 58 theological perspectives have shifted with it. it.58 The global church is not invested exclusively in mid-twentieth-century Western biblical scholarscholar­ ship as in the past; the church mushrooming in the Majority World World5599 60 where two-thirds of the worlďs worlds Christians live live60 is developing its own biblical scholarship in touch with those issues that relate to the global 61 and Pentecostalism as a global phenomenon is influencing the church, church,61

57. When the era of Western colonization carne came to an end in the middle of the twentieth century, Western Christians began using a new vocabulary, speaking of "older" “older” and "younger" “younger” churches. In this rhetorical frarnework, framework, "older “older churches" churches” refer to the older established churches in the West, while "younger “younger churches" churches” referred to the Asia-such as the mission recently formed communities and churches in Africa and Asia—such churches and the African Indigenous Churches. The term "older;' “older,” however, carried connotations of"wiser," of “wiser,” and "younger" “younger” implied that these churches still needed supersuper­ vision and instruction from the more mature Western believers. Now it is fashionable to speak of the Christian movement as consisting of the global Christian North and a global Christian South. North and South do not correspond to the equator but instead to a slanted line that runs from Centra! Central America to Siberia, separating Europe and North America from Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Now South enjoys the positive association of being vibrant, growing, alive, and devout, while churches in the ChrisChris­ tian North are perceived as soft, fiabby, flabby, and spiritually stagnant or dying (Jacobsen, Global Gospel, Gospel 9-10). In 1900, 80 percent of Christians lived in the global Christian North, and only 20 percent in the South. Now, the South is the home of two-thirds of 355 percent live in the global North. A the world’s worlďs Christians and 3 A better description of the Christian church would be that it is fiat-in flat—in imitation ofThomas of Thomas Friedman, who describes the world as fiat flat in the sense that, due to the Internet, everyone everywhere competes economically on Jeve! level ground. Christianity has also entered a fiat flat era, and no single region of the Christian world can claim to be the dominant center (Jacobsen, Global Gospel, Gospel 12).

58. Laing, "Changing “Changing Face ofMission;' of Mission,” 165.

59. "Majority Af“Majority World" World” is the self-designated term that non-Western nations of A f­ rica, Asia, and Latin America prefer. Churches in the Majority World are more symsym­ pathetic towards reports about healings and deliverances from evil spirits or demons than Western Christianity in general (Keener, "Pentecostal “ Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 279. 279 . Gospel xv. 60. Jacobsen, Global Gospel,

61. See Castelo's Castelo’s perceptive remark that non-majority voices have a way of acac­ counting for things that majority voices would rather not or, in some cases, cannot account for (Castelo, "Diakrisis;' “Diakrisis,” 202). 202). Keener emphasizes that Majority World biblical scholars should continue to forge their own ways based on their own convictions and communities of interpretation, not beholden to anyone else’s elsťs consensus, including that of Western academia (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 294). ofWestern

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62 scholarship. scholarship.6 2 Questions posed to the Bible in the North differ from the 63 liberation questions of the people of the South. South.6 3 The median Christian today is a young woman with limited education from the Global South; her interest is with understanding biblical narrative rather than doctrinal 64 issues, and she is poor. poor.6 4 By the end of the twentieth century, there were already more PenProtestants, 655 accounting for sometecostals worldwide than mainline Protestants,6 some­ 66 thing like 80 percent of evangelical Protestantisms growth.6 6 Protestantism's worldwide growth. 67 Some estimate nearly half a billion charismatics worldwide.6 worldwide. 7 One report states that there are 614 million adherents, meaning that the charismatic branch is now second in size in Christianity only to Roman Catholicism 68 charismatics).6 8By 2050, Charismat­ 2050, Charismat(with many Roman Catholics being charismatics). ks ics and Pentecostals will likely constitute one-third of Christians and 11 11 69 percent of the global population. population.69

62. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;· Interpretation,” 274. That the Christian church one’s own, sectarian tradition as now exists globally warns of the tendency to regard one's the only correct way to understand the Bible. The fact is, most Christians function with a de facto canon within a canon, prioritizing some texts and teachings above othoth­ ers. Messianic Jewish believers, for instance, emphasize texts about the Torah and the Jewish people; Chinese and Korean believers highlight the scriptural values of honor and respect due to their exposure to traditional Confucian values; and Latin Ameri­ American Christians may emphasize the justice and liberation that prophetically challenge power structures. Christians need all of these perspectives, requiring them to listen to the global church (as Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 77-97, correctly indicates, referring to valuable Majority World insights surrounding spirits and miracles that challenge Western skepticism arnong among Christians). Valuing global readings does not equalize all readings; rather, reading texts together with Christians from other cultures and eras Hermeneutics, can help us to surmount some of our cultural blinders (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics

,

279). 279 ).

63. Bartholomew, Introducing Biblical Hermeutics, Hermeutics, 544. 64. Harrison, Introduction, Introduction, 21. 21.

2 11. 65. Mullin, History, 211.

66. Berger, "Faces;• “Faces,” 425. 67. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 83. The topic of pentecostal growth, however, is dependent on who is counting and why, with many demographic sources defining the relevant terms in different ways because there is no consensus about definitional issues of the Pentecostal movement (Yong, "Instead “Instead of a Conclusion;' Conclusion,” 313).

68. Johnson, Barrett, and Crossing, "Christianity Re“Christianity 2010;• 2010,” 36; Oliverio, "Book “Book Re­ Keener;• 130; Wilkinson, "Pentecostals view: Reading Craig Keener,” “Pentecostals and the World;' World,” 373-93. 69. Charismatics share a number of characteristics with their pentecostal friends: a focus on Jesus, an emphasis on praise and worship, a high view of and value for the Bible, belief that God speaks today and reveals Godself in a mediate way, interest in charismata, and so forth. Nevertheless, the self-perception of the movement differs

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Challenging Hermeneutical Concerns in Africa pneuAsamoah-Gyadu remarks that Africans generally have opted for pneu­ matic forms in making choices about their expression of the Christian faith. faith.*70 70 Pneumatic Christianity enjoys the most support and popularity of all traditions in Africa. Anderson groups together various African 71 -distinguished movements that he refers to as "Spirit-type “Spirit-type churches" churches”71—distinguished by their emphasis on a pneumatologically-centered liturgy, proclamaproclama­ tion, and ministry and doing a certain type of African theology which is not primarily concerned with clarifying doctrine but rather with helping the African faithful to live Christianity, making the gospel message and 72 Christian doctrines more meaningful to their life situations. situations.72 African theology comes to life in music and song, prayers and sacramental acts of healing and exorcism, art forms and architecture, liturgy and dress, and church structures and community life. Although they do not place much emphasis on an explicit theology, they have a praxis and a spirituality in which a pneumatologically-centered theology is profoundly implicit.73 implicit. 73 That they do not have a formal theology does not mean that they have no theology at all; the rituals and manifestations of their worship is their 74 theology.74 enacting of theology. Their interpretation of the working of the Spirit is emphasized in their daily life and practices of spirituality, which reflects their pneumatology. After all, the acting of theology is at least as imporimpor­ 75 tant as taking it in at a theological seminary or college. college.75

from classical restorationist Pentecostals. Charismatics do not view the outpouring of the Spirit so much as a divine restoring of the primitively pure church but rather as a berenewal of elements of spirituality present in the church throughout history. They be­ lieve that healings, tongues, prophetic utterances, and such had been present at various times and places throughout church history and they were not alone in their sense of living in the Spirit in tension with the surrounding community (Albrecht and Howard, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Spirituality," Spirituality,” 247-48). 70. Asamoah-Gyadu, Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity, 179.

71. Anderson, Moya, 26. 72. Ukpong, "Current “Current Theology," Theology,” 512. 73. Hastings, African Christianity, Christianityy 54. 74. Charismatic manifestations are described in various ways, with some elements repeating themselves, such as the experience of shocks of power, shaking of the body, involuntary movements, release of extraordinary power, the tangible experience of the presence of God, weeping, joy, words dissolving, the utterance of an unknown language, dancing, and even trances (Anderson, Moyay Moya, 41-43). 75. Anderson, Moyay Moya, 33.

BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION INTRODUCTION: M O T I V A T I O N FOR F OR STUDY STUDY

Many of the AICs—especially AICs-especially the Zionist and Apostolic types, as well as the three waves of Pentecostalism-belong Pentecostalism—belong to these Spirit-type churches. By way of pentecostalization, charismatic manifestations in established or mainline churches qualify these churches to be included as Spirit-type churches. Some large, independent churches in Africa that have arisen independently from the Pentecostal movement—such movement-such as the Kimbanguist movement in Zaire, the Harrist churches in the !vory Ivory Coast, and the Maranke church in Zimbabwe—may Zimbabwe-may be considered "Spirit-type" “Spirit-type” churches in their own right.76 right. 76 They share a pneumatological view of the God of Scriptures, envisaged as present through the Holy Spirit. What is important to note is the predominance of religious factors in accounting for the appeal and rapid proliferation of these movements. These factors 77 shows, with the adaptation are largely pneumatological, as Anderson Anderson77 to traditional rituals and customs, the prophetic practices in detecting of healing and removing malignant medicines and wizardry, and the role ofhealing and exorcism. ln In Africa, the message that the power of the Holy Spirit can conquer sickness and the oppression of evil spirits impacts on the psyche of indigenous people because they experience the very problems that Spirit-type churches offer a solution to. Their worship satisfies both spiritually and emotionally while the churches established by Western missionaries make them feel "uncomfortable" “uncomfortable” because of the apparent 78 lack of the Spirit in these churches. Missionaries failed to understand churches.78 the African worldview and tried to impose Western Christianity on Af­ AfAfricans' concrete physirican converts without providing an answer to Africans physi­ cal needs—such needs-such as daily misfortunes, illness, encounters with evil and witchcraft, had bad luck, poverty, and barrenness. On the contrary, Spirittype churches provide Africans with more divine involvement than even their traditional religion did with its African God that was predominantly transcendent rather than immanent, a God who did not interfere with or 79 harass humans, and was regarded as "good:' “good.”79 Pentecostalism allows the 80 Holy Spirit to work in a particularly African way among Africans. Africans.8 0 76. Anderson, Moya, 29. 30 -31. 77. Anderson, Moyat Moya, 30-31. 78. As verbalized in Institute for Contextual Theology, Speaking Speakingfor for Ourselves, 27.

79. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 43-45. 80. Anderson, Moyat Moya, 46. Anderson emphasizes that the Holy Spirit has a specifically '½.frican" “African” way of revealing the Spirit to Africans, implying that the encounter with the Spirit will necessarily be colored and influenced by the receiver receiver'ss cul ture. This African culture. way of working by the Spirit has often been misunderstood by the missionaries who

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The reasons indigenous Christians rejected historie historic mission ChrisChris­ tianity were mainly that the missionaries' missionaries’ religion did not have pneumatpneumat­ 81 ie Historie ic elements and was not biblical enough. enough.81 Historic mission Christians were perceived as neglecting or diluting biblical teachings to suit their liberal lifestyles and their indifference to such truths as the experiences of Spirit baptism and the practiee practice of the charismata. Their religion did not attract Africans Afrieans because it did not solve their daily existential challenges. In Afriean African Pentecostalism, the Bible speaks to everyday, real-world isis­ sues of poverty and debt, famine and displacedness, racial and gender oppression, state brutality and persecution. In the words of David Wesley Myland, an early Pentecostal, when the Spirit enters one's ones life, it is like 82 swallowing "God “God liquidized:' liquidized.”8 2 The Bible is also used in ritualistic ritualistie ways, as a book of supernatural power. lt It is holy because it is the vehicle through whieh which the gospel of Christ is communieated. communicated. As a rule, Afriean African Christians handle the Bible with care and reverence because of its supernatural import. The words of the King James Version are considered more powerful by many Afriean African Pentecostals in countries where English is one of the languages being usused; the archaie archaic English and weighty words of the KJV carry for us­ ers a certain supernatural import that is not found in modem modern English 83 versions.8 3 versions. South Afriea Africa has at least 6,000 6,000 Pentecostal churches, comprising pracsome 10 10 million people, that emphasize the Holy Spirit and the prac­ tiees of divine healing, exorcism, prophecy, revelation, and speaking in tices 84 tongues.8 4 In the past few years, the press in South Africa tongues. Afriea has repeatedly reported stories of "Pentecostal" “Pentecostal” pastors ordering their church members to do things that the pastors seemingly derive from the Bible but endanger their members' members’ lives. These pastors are representative of neo-Pentecostal (independent) churches, some of whieh which are growing phenomenally in

brand these manifestations as excesses, manifestations of demons or of the "flesh;' “flesh,” and a groping back to traditional religion. Africans' Africans’ ecstatic experiences are by no means confided to Africa, although they may differ in different contexts. 81.

In the opinion of Asamoah-Gyadu, Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity, 161. 16 1.

82. 82.

Myland, quoted in Jacobsen, Thinking in the Spirit Spirit, 1. 1.

,

83. Asamoah-Gyadu, Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity, 162. 162. 84. Anderson & Pillay, "Segregated “Segregated Spirit," Spirit,” 227. 227. LeMarquand states that South AfA f­ rica may be the most biblically literate society on earth (LeMarquand, "New “New Testament Exegesis in (Modem) (Modern) Africa;' Africa,” 13).

BY WAY OF OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION FOR STUDY STUDY BY WAY MOTIVATION FOR Africa, at the same time influencing churches from the classical Pente­ Pente85 costal and charismatic fold. fold.8 5 To give a few example of these stories, in May 2015 it was reported that Pastor Lesego Daniel of Rabboni Centre Ministries in Garankuwa, north of Pretoria, made his congregation eat grass to "be “be doser closer to God." God” He asserted that the Bible taught human beings that they could eat anyany­ thing to feed their bodies; their faith would change the natural substances of what they eat into solid and healthy food. He told his congregation that by eating grass they would rid themselves of their sins and heal them of any ailments they might have had. Photos on the Rabboni Centre MinisMinis­ Pas­ tries Facebook page showed the followers eating the grass as well as Pastor Daniel walking across them as they lay spread out on the floor. Under the instruction of the pastor, dozens of followers dropped to the floor to eat the grass provided in the church. "Yes, we're proud “Yes, we eat grass and were of it because it demonstrates that, with Gods Goďs power, we can do anything,” anything;' one of the members, Rosemary Phetha, told journalists. The 221-year-old 1 -year-old law student said she had been battling with a sore throat for more than a year, but it was healed after she had eaten the grass. Doreen Kgatle, 27 years old, of Garankuwa suffered a stroke two years ago. "I “I could not walk but soon after eating the grass, as the pastor had ordered, I started gaining strength, and an hour later, I could walk again;' again,” Kgatle testified. Photos showed dozens of people getting sick in the toilets; an image of the bathrooms showed women clutching their stomachs, while the men were vomiting in the sink. A few days later, it was revealed that dozens of 86 church members were now ill as an aftermath of the experiment. experiment.8 6 The Times Live reports that during a service of at least 1,000 people in a marquee, Daniel screamed, "Sleep!" “Sleep!” and six people went to sleep. He ordered other congregants to slap those that were asleep and trample on them, but the sleepers did not react and remained rigid and unresponsive until he ordered them to wake up. "You “You can leave them like this for six months. I love this, I don't don’t want to be bored. You can even make police go you;' he is alleged to have said. Daniel to sleep when they come to arrest you,” 85. These independent churches are expanding in Africa faster than Islam, at about twice the rate of the Roman Catholic Church, and at roughly three times that of the other non-Catholic groups. There were over 5,000 5,000 independent Christian denominadenomina­ tions and groups in South Africa that bore the familiar marks of pentecostal spiritualispirituali­ Pire from Heaven, Heaven, 245-46). In South Africa, ty when Cox wrote his book in 1995 (Cox, Fire al! they embraced 40 percent of the black population, and in Zimbabwe, 50 50 percent of all Christians belonged to such independent churches. 86. Banjo, "Aftermath:' “Aftermath.”

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did not respond to the negative publicity his behavior caused except for flatly stating on Facebook, "God “God is at work and His people are testifying right now at the farm. TO GOD BE THE GLORY:' pastor's actions GLORY.” The pastors 87 during the service prompted a series of online complaints. complaints.8 7 tell­ Next, the same pastor made his congregation drink petrol, telling them that it tasted sweet, like pineapple juice. In YouTube footage, members of his congregation were seen clamoring desperately to have a drink of the petrol as the pastor instructed and encouraged them. The members exclaimed how "sweet" “sweet” and "nice" “nice” it tasted, comparing it to "Iron juice:' Some of them even begged the pastor “Iron Brew" Brew” and "pineapple “pineapple juice.” to "please more:' A few of the followers who consumed “please give us some more.” the petrol ended up collapsing on the floor, displaying symptoms such as breathing difficulties, throat pain, burning in the esophagus, abdominal pain, vision loss, vomiting with blood, bloody stools, dizziness, extreme fatigue, convulsions, body weakness, and unconsciousness. The video clearly showed how several members of the congregation displayed some 88 of these symptoms. symptoms.8 8 Daniel also reportedly fed members of the church flowers, and one happy flower eater declared, "They “They tasted like mint chocolate:' chocolate.” "I “I felt fresh and good;' good,” testified another. The different kinds of flowers had different tastes and they were nothing short of delicious, said some members. In pictures published by a newspaper, one man eating the yellow chrysanthemums looked a bit anxious, but he did not defy the pastor. He bit the flower, ended up with petals in his mouth, and then swallowed. It was not immediately clear from the pictures whether eating the flowers gave him a surge of spiritual power. The pastor motivated his unusual practices to treat his members with several kinds of dangerous and poisonous media by explaining that it was necessary for their healing process. It was the only way that memmem­ bers could be helped with their problems. He had also been captured on video praying in tongues and he interpreted it as the authoritative source for his controversial demands. In 2015, 2015, he told the South African Commission for the PromoPromo­ tion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious, and Linguistic Communities Rights Commission (CRL), a legal commission set up by the South African Parliament after it had received several complaints of

87. Reilly, "Lawn “Lawn again Christians:• Christians.” 88. Sethusa and Mathebula, "Pastor's “Pastors Supporter Drinks Petro!." Petrol.”

BY WAY BY WAY OF OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION MOTIVATION FOR FOR STUDY STUDY

religious abuses, "When “When I do things, it is no longer me, but me and my 89 Master. I was led by the Holy Spirit:' Spirit”8 9 Other examples abound. In May 2015, a pastor of the Soshanguve branch north of Pretoria of End Times Disciples Ministries, Penuel Mnguni, allegedly suggested that his congregation members stripped and then he stepped on them when he preached. His sermon was-approwas—appro­ priately-about priately—about Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden walking around naked and enjoying communion with God. On the following night, May 21st, 2015, Mnguni commanded the "temperature “temperature to decrease into snow atmosphere;' atmosphere,” according to the church's church’s Facebook page. "The “The congregacongrega­ tion started to feel coldness in their [bodies] and covered themselves with blankets;' blankets,” the post stated. According to the paper, Mnguni is the menunderstudy of Rabboni Ministries leader, Prophet Lesego Daniel, men­ tioned above, who made headlines for making his congregation eat grass and drink petrol. Later, he also encouraged churchgoers to drink petrol, pouring some of the petrol into a bucket before dropping a match into it and setting it alight to prove that it really was petrol. He then told them that it had been turned into pineapple juice and persuaded people to 90 sip from a bottle of the liquid. liquid.9 0 He also encouraged church members to strip themselves of their clothes in order to enjoy communion with God. Images that were posted to the church's church’s Facebook page in the course of 2016 went viral on social media and across the Internet. In the images, members of the church can be seen stripped down to their underwear and the pastor is seen stepping on some. There is an image of a church member licking the pastor's pastor’s boots and a picture of the pastor allegedly jumping on members of the congregation without them getting hurt. In a caption for the image of the pastor jumping on members, it is implied the congregants felt no pain as God was with them. The caption reads, "Total “Total Demonstration of God’s Goďs Power. No Pain felt in them, meaning God is with us. To God be the GlorY:' Glory.” The page has since deleted some of the picpic­ 91 tures and the pastor could not be reached by journalists for comment. comment.9 1 Mnguni was reported to have been beaten up by some angry South African youths in Mmakaunyane Village in the North-West Province. In the course of the attack, the youths—led youths-led by the far-left political party, Malema-burnt the Economic Freedom Front (EFF) and its leader, Julius Malema—burnt 89. Molobi, "Pastor: “Pastor: Grass to Flowers!" Flowers!” 90. Craven, "Beware Ali Prophets of Doom:' “Beware All Doom.” 91. CNS Reporter, "Pastor “Pastor Penuel Mnguni Makes Congregation Strip." Strip”

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down his church and tied him and a member of his church up with ropes. 922 Police officers, however, came to their rescue. The controversial ropes.9 pastor had reportedly been lying low for some time before he set up his church inside a bush in Mmakaunyane community. Members of the community eventually caught him in the act and did not allow him to continue with the building. A resident, who identified himself as Johanna Baloyi, said the pastor and his congregation were not welcome wekome in their area any more, asking, "How “How can a person eat a rat and claim it tastes like chocolate? Thaťs A lady who reportedly spoke on condition of anoThat’s eviI:' evil.” A ano­ nymity said, "I “I am one of the church members;' members,” insisting that, "We “We have want:' According to her, "The the right to attend any church we want.” “The rats have healed and saved them (members) from suffering:' suffering.” These controversial methods have drawn criticism from thousands of people, but members of the congregation swear by their pastors' methods-he is said to have pastors’ methods—he claimed that humans can eat anything to feed their bodies and survive on 93 whatever they chaose choose to eat. eat.9 3 Meanwhile, in Tanzania, police authorities arrested a pastor after two people he was baptizing in a river drowned on July 16th 2017. The local deputy police commandant, Hamisi Selemani Issa, told the BBC that the two drowned in the River Ungwasi after being overwhelmed by strong currents while being immersed in the water as part of the baptism ceremony conducted by the pastor of the Shalom Church in the Rombo 94 area. area.9 4The irresponsible act ofbaptizing of baptizing people in a flooded river reputed for its currents has been widely criticized. A Kenyan pastor, Reverend Njohi of the Lord’s Lorďs Propeller RedempRedemp­ tion Church in Dandora Phase 2, an eastern suburb in Nairobi, ordered all his female congregants to attend church services without panties 95 and bras to allow Christ to enter their lives. lives.9 5 Another incident that was publicized widely is Pastor Lethebo Rabalago of Mount Zion Christian Assembly (MZCA) in Zebediela in Mpumalanga, South Africa. He is no stranger to controversy as he had claimed to have been elected alal­ mother's womb to become a great prophet of God. He also ready in his mother’s claimed that thousands of people received healing through his ministry. In November 2017, he sprayed a toxic pesticide, Doom, on people seek92. "Notorious “Notorious Pastor Penuel Mnguni." Mnguni.”

93. Ogbeche, "Youths “Youths Bum Burn Down Church:' Church.” “Tanzanian Pastor Arrested.” 94. Adeseun, "Tanzanian Arrested."

95. Banjo, "Pastor “Pastor Orders:' Orders.”

BY W WAY BY AY OF OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION MOTIVATION FOR FOR STUDY STUDY

ing miraculous healing during a church service. The pastor asserted that, in his experience, Doom was extremely useful for driving out demons. A woman by the He called upon members of the church who were ill. A name of Mrs. Mitala was one of those who came forward. "She “She went to the forth and told the Prophet that she suffers from ulcer. The Prophet sprayed doom (sic) on her and she received her healing and deliverance. We give God the glory;' glory,” stated the post on the church's church’s Facebook page. Pastor Rabalago told a broadcaster that those who believe in Jesus's Jesuss name were given the authority to pick up snakes and be sprayed with Doom 96 and it would not do anything to them, according to Mark 16. 16.9 6 Rabalago's Rabalago’s practice of spraying pesticide on his congregants, claimclaim­ ing to heal them from a variety of illnesses, received the attention of several South African government departments and other organizations, including the South African Council of Churches, which stated publicly that the pastor was being abusive. He was warned from several quarters that his actions were not only criminal and could lead to prosecution but that he was causing damage to the reputation of Christianity in South Africa. The company that produces Doom also warned of the risks of spraying the substance on or near people, while a government commiscommis­ sion (Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious, and Linguistic Communities) urged anyone affected to lodge complaints. However, church members of other controversial South African neo-Pentecostal churches said they were standing behind the pastor who sprayed the toxic pesticide on people seeking miraculous healing during church services. One of them stated that he (the pastor) 97 "stands “stands tall before the Goliath of this world, the media:' media.”9 7 Later, the Limpopo High Court granted an interdict against the controversial pastor, effectively barring him from using hazardous purposes:'988 Department of Health materials for so-called "healing “healing purposes.”9 Member of the Executive Committee of the Limpopo Province, Phophi Ramathuba, welcomed the Limpopo High Court ruling of the presid96. The reference is to the so-called longer ending of the Gospel that, accordaccord­ ing to scholars' scholars* consensus, was not part of the original manuscript. The pentecostal Wirkungsgeschichte of Mark 16:9-20 takes a more holistic view of the passage, concon­ cluding that, while this text may be clearly non-Markan, it is, at the same time, part of the canonical witness confessed by the church (Thomas, "What “What the Spirit is Saying to the Church;' Church,** 119).

97. "Church “Church Members Defend Pastor:' Pastor.*’ 98. Zaimov, "Doom-Spraying “Doom-Spraying Pastor:' Pastor.”

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ing Judge, George Phatudi in March 2017, 2017, extending an earlier ruling, made at the end of 2016, 2016, that Rabalago may not spray any congregant or visitor to his church with the insecticide Doom, use any form of harmful substance, administer orally any harmful liquid, or give instructions that such an act must be performed. Pastor Blessing Selepe, President of the Limpopo Ministers Ministers' Fraternal (LMF), said the organization was delighted about the verdict issued by the judge and said it had campaigned since 1999 for a system to be created to hold religious leaders and their entire membership accountable for weird and dangerous doctrinal practices. He referred to various examples of religious extremism and expressed his appreciation for the Department of ofHealth Health for taking the matter to court. The Department of Health asked for an interdict against Rabalago and other congregants towards the end of 2016 2016 after photos of him spraying media. 99 his congregants with Doom went viral on the Internet and in the media." The Limpopo Health Department also warned that the practice posed a serious health risk. They have since recommended that Rabalago's Rabalago’s mental 100 state be evaluated. evaluated.9 100 9 Rather than just attacking the users of snakes and oil, it is time to re-open the important debate on the way neo-Pentecostal (and other) 101 churches abuse the Bible to justify some of their practices. Detached practices.101 from scholars' popuscholars’ safeguards and attention to historical context, some popu­ lar charismatic interpretation of the Bible is undisciplined and badly in 102 need of correction. correction.102 Keener provides several examples where popular interpreters link biblical interpretations without regard for context, for instance, in producing phrases like, "We “We are the will of God, and because 103 Jesus is Goďs Gods righteousness and so are we, resulting in us being Jesus:• Jesus.”103 99. Erasmus, "Judge “Judge Extends Ruling on 'D001n' ‘Doom* Pastor:• Pastor.” 100. Faeza, "Pastor “Pastor Sprays Congregants with Doom:• Doom,” and Kimmie, "Court “Court Orders Pastor to Stop Spraying Doom.” Doom." 101. For an instance of such abuse, see Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 13, who relates the true story of a woman who explained to her therapist that God had told her to divorce her husband and marry another man with whom she was romantically inin­ volved. God had told her to "put “put on the new man" man” (Eph 4:24) as the key to her "divine “divine guidance"! guidance”! 102. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 269. 103. This observation leads to Keener’s Keener's generalizing remark that, on average, one will get a better exposition of the Bible from traditional evangelical media preachers than from many charismatic media preachers. This is true when the former focus on Bible exposition while the latter often focus on instant cures for felt needs. Appealing to felt needs is a proven way to gain a hearing for the gospel in an overcrowded, secular

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The problem is that these figures sometimes achieve success; they are folfol­ lowed and financially supported by many people, including young believ­ believers and biblically illiterate persons who thrive on a few proof-texts as the content of their beliefs. Keener refers to two more examples of influential contemporary teachings that qualify as malpractices because it does not regard the context of biblical texts when these texts are used: the move­ movement that promotes the breaking of generational curses, and the teaching of popular Word of Faith teachers like Kenneth and Gloria Copeland, 104 Charles Capps, and Kenneth Hagin. Hagin.10 4 These malpractices and abuses in South Africa led to the establishestablish­ ment of the Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious, and Linguistic Communities (CRL), a Chapter Nine Institution of Parliament, to investigate "fake “fake pastors" pastors” feeding on the superstitious beliefs of some believers and allegations that certain Christian churches use religion to make money illegally, with religion 105 being commercialized. CRL Chairperson Thoko Mkhwanazi-Xalavus Mkhwanazi-Xalavu's commercialized.105 remark has often been quoted, that "Churches “Churches cannot be spaza shops selling holy water and prayers for a profit,” profit:' echoing sixteenth-century Luther's criticism of the church of his day's Martin Luthers days sale of "relics" “relics” and "indulgences:' In responding to criticism by commission members, “indulgences.” some church leaders told the CRL that they were acting in accordance ofhis market. While it is true that Jesus provided in the needs of his listeners by healing and delivering them, he also demonstrated his character by what he taught and the way he treated the needy. Jesus knew and used Scripture in context and his message was in 70. keeping with the heart of the Bible. See Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 2270. 104. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 270-73.

105. See also the problem raised by Christian Action, an organization that, since difference in 1991, has been mobilizing and equipping Christians to make a positive ditference society from an evangelical Protestant perspective. They refer to the Hate Speech Bill of the South African Parliament, particularly its extremely broad definition of hate speech under section 4, which "includes “includes in its scope any communication which is considered 'abusive ridicule' a ‘abusive or insulting' insulting* and intended to 'bring ‘bring into contempt or ridicule’ person or group of persons on the basis of their gender, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, etc. This includes email or social media communications as well as teachings from a pulpit or in a Bible study:' study.” Most religions have a Jong long history of intolerance and Ishate speech, mostly against each other, from the brutal Christian crusades up to the Is­ lamic State of today. In football matches between "Protestant" “Protestant” Rangers and "Catholic" “Catholic” Celtics, for instance, tens of thousands offans of fans utter hate speech in the name of "reli“reli­ gion:' gion.” Christian Action is clearly worried that their members could be dragged before the courts for only repeating what they have been saying for years about heathens, infidels, and other religions (See Christian Action, "Threats “Threats to Freedom of Speech in South Africa"). Africa”).

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with their religious beliefs, that they did nothing illegal since their concon­ gregants participated willingly, and that they based their controversial practices on "the “the Bible;' Bible,” posing hermeneutical challenges that need to be 106 faced. faced.106 For the moment, the South African Parliament is of the view that religious freedom ensconced in the Constitution allows churches to act independently although they are also required to act within the bounds of the law, but the behavior of some neo-Pentecostal church leaders might eventually compel the government to regulate and oversee church 107 bodies. bodies.107

Methodology In discussing distinctive pentecostal hermeneutical aspects and prin­ principles, the discussion will be descriptive, based on intra-biblical or Spirit-inspired readings as discussed in publications of early PentecosJater pentecostal scholarship in order to define what is tals as well as later distinctive in pentecostal hermeneutics. Many Pentecostals of the past sixty years borrowed and utilized the hermeneutical models provided 106.

Craven, "Beware “Beware Ali All Prophets of Doom:• Doom.”

A tragic example that underlines the reality that the State might deem it nec­ necA essary to regulate churches is the Ngcobo Killings of 21 21 February 2018, 2018, where five policemen and an off-duty soldier were shot during an attack on a police station in Ngcobo, between Mthatha and Komani (previously Queenstown) in the Eastern Cape. During the attack, ten firearms and a police van were stolen from the police station bebe­ fore an ATM a short distance from the police station was robbed (See "Five “Five Policemen Dead"). Seven suspects were eventually k.illed Dead”). killed and ten others arrested after a shootout with police at the town's towns Mancoba church, including one of the church's church’s leaders. His brother confirmed his involvement with the gang who k.illed killed the policemen. Their motive was presumably to access funds because of the dire financial straits that the church found itself in. The South African Council of Churches responded by stating that it had lodged a complaint with government over the Seven Angels Church but was Reignored. Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Re­ ligious, and Linguistic Communities (CRL) chairwoman Thoko Mkhwanazi-Xaluva reacted to the events at eNgcobo by stating that the church was probed already in 2016 and authorities were alerted to children living at the church and not attending school. The committee suggested that the government should regulate church leadership by way of registration. The co-operative governance and traditional affairs portfolio committee of Parliament responded to the committee's committees report by stating that the state could not prescribe when it came to beliefs and religious convictions because of the value of religious liberty ensconched in the Constitution of the Republic but it unaniunani­ mously condemned the abuse of vulnerability by religious leaders. See "Parliament “Parliament slamsCRL:' slams CRL.” 107. 107.

BY WAY OF OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION FOR STUDY STUDY BY WAY MOTIVATION FOR by conservative evangelicalism with some smaller modifications. This is especially the case in the United States, where Evangelicals strongly outnumber Pentecostals. The tenor of pentecostal theology is different in Europe, Africa (including South Africa), Asia, and, to some extent, Latin America; historically, the movement in the rest of the world has 108 not been so strongly influenced by conservative evangelical concerns. concerns.10 8 Other Pentecostals utilized socio-political contextual theologies while, within the movement, there also developed certain distinct pentecostal models, such as the Kenyon-Hagin-Copeland group and (post-)modern literary theory, while a few pentecostal academicians also developed herher­ meneutical models, such as Arden C. Autry, John C. Thomas, Gerald T. 109 Sheppard, Rickie D. Moore, Larry R. McQueen, and Mark J. Cartledge. Cartledge.10 9 Early Pentecostals read the Bible not merely in terms of understand­ understanding a text that originated in an ancient culture but as a faith community that are today living in the biblical experience-that experience—that is, living by the same Bible—while using language dede­ Spirit who guided Gods Goďs people in the Bible-while rived from the Bible when they witness about the encounters with God generated by their reading of the Bible with the help of the Spirit, bringbring­ ing together the ancient and contemporary horizons of understanding in a unique manner.110 manner. 110 Their narrative world coincided with that ofbiblical of biblical figures. This noncessationist or continuationist approach to the Bible is based on the Pentecostal community's community s identity founded on their experiexperi­ ence of Spirit baptism that formed them into a prophetic-eschatological 111 people of God (Joel 2:28-32; Acts 2:21). Being pentecostal means that 2:21).111 one is committed to a Spirit-centered, miracle-affi.rming, miracle-affirming, praise-oriented 112 They read the Bible not primarily to gain version of Christian faith. faith.112 knowledge about ancient history or ideas, but because they expected to share the same kind of experiences and the same kind of relationship with God that the Bible witnessed to. This implies that they read and un108. Clark, "Investigation;' “Investigation,” 54.

“Investigation,” 53-90 and 166-78, for a fuller discussion. 109. See Clark, "Investigation;' 110. 110 . Gadamer states that the peculiar function (eigentliche Leistung) oflanguage of language is to bring about the fusion of the horizons of the interpreter and of the historical object, which characterizes the act of understanding (Mueller-Vollrner, (Mueller-Vollmer, "Introduction;' “Introduction,” 39). 111. 1 1 1 . Keener, Mind oj of the Spirit, 231. 231. Martin explains that the outpouring of the Goďs pian, Spirit gave Pentecostals an alternative vision of God’s plan, which was supported by a new understanding ofScripture of Scripture (Martin, "Introduction “Introduction to Pentecostal Biblical HermeHerme­ neutics;' 1). neutics,” 112. 112 .

Jacobsen, 1hinking Thinking in the Spirit, 12. 12.

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derstood texts according to their purposed function but also as "sources" “sources” 113 by which one addresses other questions, revquestions,113 allowing for the unique rev­ elation of the Spirit, the "voice “voice of God;' God,” who applies a specific passage to a new situation as well.114 well.11 4 In the Bible, people heard from God, they spoke Goďs Gods words and experienced miracles of deliverance and healing, establishing patterns that lead contemporary Pentecostals to expect that God would repeat similar interventions in their lives and circumstances, including supernatural wonders and miracles, so that the "supernatural" “supernatural” element within the community forms the essence of Pentecostalism.115 Pentecostalism.11 5 Pentecostals' Pentecostals* worldview is more holistic than the average Westerner's, Westerner’s, incorporating "natural" “natural” and "supernatural" “supernatural” without any qualms. They operate their worship gatherings on the assumption that God can, and will, do exactly what God wants, and reject formal liturgical structure to 116 provide God that opportunity. Their worship services need to keep the opportunity.116 spontaneity where the Spirit may at any time intervene as the Spirit wills. They read the Bible dynamically, as a description of how God acts in the world and age they are living in. It is posed that the entire church must be experiential in the same sense if it wishes to be biblical. While some conservative interpreters might study the Bible to satisfy their historical curiosity about events of salvation history or liberal scholars might read it to assess historical ideas, Spirit-filled people read the Bible in the power of the Spirit in service of their relationship with God, to verbalize their expectation of how God might intervene in their lives based on biblical examples, and in order to implement moral virtues proposed in the Bible. In this way, a descriptive approach toward pentecostal hermeneutics flows into a prescriptive approach. Historical information ofScripture's of Scriptures narrative world, socio-economsocio-econom­ ic and cultural context, and languages enriches one's ones reading of the Bible and is necessary for a full understanding of the text. Biblical texts need to be heard first in their own cultural setting before translating them into 113. 113 . Bultmann, "Problem “ Problem ofHermeneutics:• of Hermeneutics,” 79. 114. Van der Geest remarks that the two main ingredients of participant observa­ observation are that one sees a person's persons life and tak.es takes part in it, and it only makes sense when it is accompanied by speaking and listening (Van der Geest, "Participant “Participant ObservaObserva­ tion;• tion,” 40). When one speaks of the "revelation “revelation of God," God,” such participant observation is involved, with a reciprocal relationship consisting of give and take by the two parties. In a cere bral reading of the Bible-with cerebral Bible—with accompanying rational evaluation of "truth" “truth”— such a relationship seems to be impossible. 115. 1. 115 . Archer, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Hermeneutics;• Hermeneutics,” 13 1. 116. Davies, "What “What Does it Mean to Read?," Read?,” 253.

BY WAY OF OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION FOR STUDY STUDY BY WAY MOTIVATION FOR 117 fresh contexts that reflect the contemporary situation. In their desire situation.117 to hear from God, Pentecostals might forget the importance of reading the ancient text in terms of its historical horizon. However, although they texťs grammar is important, they also acknow that understanding a texts ac­ knowledge that it differs from understanding, welcoming, and embracing its message with faith. Pentecostals have been subjected to the criticism 118 spirituality,118 of drowning in a sea of excessive subjectivity in their spirituality, and 119 with right. right.119 While serious study of the Bible can help them counter such unbridled subjectivism, however, their study must always also lead to livliv­ ing out (and living out of) biblical experience in the era of the Spirit who animates the words of the Bible. lt It may never degenerate into a Spirit-less 120 rationalism. Word or lifeless rationalism.120

Concept Clarification lt beIt has become the custom in many academic circles to distinguish be­ tween "Pentecostal;' “Pentecostal,” which refers to pentecostal scholars, members, and denominations (including charismatics in mainline churches, members of neo-Pentecostal churches, and others who share similar spiritual exex­ periences) and "pentecostal;' “pentecostal,” referring to a basic pentecostal experience, theology, and hermeneutics. Pentecostal is uncapitalized here except when used as a noun or when it occurs within proper names; "pentecos“pentecos­ tal" tal” is thus used adjectivally, referring to the work of the Spirit and a basic pentecostal experience or ethos more than it does to a specific denomidenomi­ 121 national and traditional theological undertaking. undertaking.121 The same also applies to the terms "Evangelical/evangelical" “Evangelical/evangelical” and "Holiness/holiness:' “Holiness/holiness.”

117. 117 . Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;• Interpretation” 281. 118. 118 . Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 233. Keener argues that the individua) individual spiritual experience is necessarily subjective, but it can and must be balanced with Goďs something objective-that objective—that is, by tested past revelation, corporately aflirmed affirmed by God’s people in all times and places since the Bible's Bibles acceptance (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 112). 112 ). See cliscussion discussion in chapter 5. 119. 119 . For a sympathetic cliscussion discussion of the challenges of subjectivity in charismatic experience with positive suggestions for interpreting it, see Middlemiss, Interpreting

Charismatic Experience, 194-236. 120. Moore, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Approach;' Approach,” 29-30. 121. 12 1. There are widespread differences in the custom to un/capitalize "pentecostal" “pentecostal” and I follow two of the most prominent pentecostal theologians, Yong and Keener, in Hermeneutics, 7-8). this regard (see Yong, Hermeneutical Spirit, xii and Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics,

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Definitions of terms pose several problems. In the Western context, charismatic movements are normally renewal groups operating within 122 older and more firmly established historie In historic mainline denominations. denominations.122 sub-Saharan Africa, however, the expression "charismatic" “charismatic” is used more in reference to the new wave of independent Pentecostal movements, indicated in Western Christianity as "neo-Pentecostat:' “neo-Pentecostal.” These churches in Africa are also mostly inspired by North American, neo-Pentecostal, televangelistic movements with their high-profile leaders, mega-church philosophies, world-dominating agenda for Christianity, and religious 123 entrepreneurial (and capital-generating) ambitions. The use of these ambitions.123 terms are not consistent in Africa, with many variations. For this reason, and with the eye on international readers, the terms will be employed as follows: "Classical “Classical Pentecostal" Pentecostal” refers to the movements and churches which take their origins back to the events around the beginning of the 124 "charismatic" withtwentieth century, century,124 “charismatic” refers to the renewal movement with­ in established churches that originated around the 1960s and 1970s, and "neo-Pentecostal" “neo-Pentecostal” refers to the concept of independent churches with charismatic features that originated in the 1980s and 1990s. Charismatic Christianity has turned into a global culture and it can be predicted that eventually the result would be a blurring of categories to such an extent that it may become necessary to refer to the movement as a whole, without trying to impose any typologies. At the same time, (especially in-but to-the African continent) many estabin—but not limited to—the estab­ lished "mainline" “mainline” churches are applying pentecostalizing recipes to their practices, such as accepting a pentecostal way of worshiping, singing the same type of culture-friendly songs as among Pentecostals, and even usus­ ing pentecostal language such as "outpouring, “outpouring, baptism, and fulfilment with the Spirit:' Spirit.”

122. Menzies and Menzies distinguish between three distinct phases in the charchar­ ismatic renewal movement: The first phase, which began in 1955, was impacted by high-church Protestantism and influenced by South African David du Plessis, who led many of his World Council of Churches friends into a pentecostal experience; a second phase started in 1967 with Roman Catholic laypeople seeking charismatic renewal; and a third wave, starting in 1985, with some Evangelicals experiencing their Power, 447-82). "own Pentecost" (Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Powery “own Pentecost” 123. Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 1. 1. 124. In parts of Africa as well as Asia, the classical Pentecostal movement is not causally linked to the origins of North American Pentecostalism, which began in the early years of the last century (Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 1-2).

BY WAY WAY OF OF INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION: MOTIVATION MOTIVATION FOR STUDY BY FOR STUDY

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"Pentecostal “Pentecostal experience" experience” or "charismatic “charismatic experience" experience” refers to an encounter with God modeled and based on the description of Spirit bapbap­ tism in Acts 22 and also references the functioning of the charismata in 11 125 Corinthians 12-14, 4:10. 12 -14 , Romans 12:6, 12:6, and 11 Peter 4:io.125

125. Pentecostalism presupposes a point of contact between the the divine andand the the hu-hu­ Pentecostalism presupposes a point of contact between divine man. The mediating key is pneumatological and the foundational events are pneumatic encounters between the divine pneuma and human pneuma, resulting in a blurring of the boundaries between divine and human spirit throughout the Bible (Yong, SpiritWord-Community, Keener's remark that spiritual experience can seem insane to Word-Community, 41). Keener’s Hermeneutics, 174). Those those who do not share it is relevant here (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, with worldviews that rule out some sorts of divine action will question even their own spiritual experiences. Only believers look at the cross and see the resurrection; faith is necessary as a precondition for understanding the testimony of someone who witnesses a spiritual experience. Faith is a worldview, a perspective that allows access to its truth, provided it is directed toward divine truth. This worldview accommodates belief in divine intervention in a continuationist sense as in biblical times.

CHAPTER C hapter

1

Bible Reading Practices of Pentecostals

Introduction IN RESEARCH about ABOUT MEMBERs' In research members* Bible reading practices, completed by the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa (AFM of SA) SA)11 in 2016, 2016, it was found that 96 percent of respondents have a Bible: 72 percent read device.22 A A total of 98 it in printed form and 24 percent on an electronic device. percent indicated that they read the Bible: 7744 percent of them on a daily basis, 41 percent read more than one chapter a day, and 30 percent read a chapter a day. The implication is that 70 percent of participants spend time with the Bible on a regular basis, while 3355 percent indicate that they read the Bible on a daily basis together. While 33 percent of respondents use a commentary along with the Bible and 23 percent a devotional, no less than 47 percent read only the Bible. Approximately 33 percent indicate that they have read all of the New Testament and 3355 percent that they have read all of the Old TesTes­ tament while 30 percent indicate that they attend a weekly Bible study group and 30 percent indicate that they are not part of any formalized Bible study.

1. The Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa is the first and largest classical PenPen­ tecostal denomination in South Africa, with 1.4 million members. 2. AFM:' 2. Nel, "Bible “Bible Reading Practices in the A FM ” In the research, samples of rere­ spondents from inner-city, suburban, rural, and far rural areas of al! all nine provinces (Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Northern Northem Cape, North West, Free State, Kwazulu Natal, used Gauteng, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga) were used.

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BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OF PENTECOSTALS BIBLE OF PENTECOSTALS

Of those involved in the research, 7755 percent indicated that they are Spirit-filled and the sarne same percentage indicate that they pray more than once during the day. When asked about the historical situatedness of the Bible, only 30 percent believe it is important that the Bible is interpreted in terms of the context and culture of its time, 66 percent believe everything that the Bible says is true, and 67 percent believe that the entire Bible is the inspired Word of God. lt It seems that many members use the Bible in a biblicist-literalist or concordist way that differs from the way early Pentecostals read the Bible. Bible.33 To understand the discrepancy between Biblereading practices of early and contemporary Pentecostals, it is necessary to discuss the history of hermeneutical development within the PentePente­ costal movement. There are many researchers that identify Pentecostalism as a variant 4 of fundarnentalism in terms of its hermeneutics although fundarnentalfundamentalism4 fundamental­ ism is younger than the Pentecostal movement and was and is its most bitter opponent. opponent.55 In this view, Pentecostalism is an expression of concon­ servative Christian protest against modem modern theological trends that deny inter alia the divinity of Christ and the authority of Scriptures to define 6 doctrine and ethics for contemporary Christians, in conjunction with Christians,6 similar groups like the Association of Fundarnental Fundamental Baptist Churches, parts of the Presbyterian church, the Association of Independent MethMeth­ odists, Conservative Grace Brethren Churches, and the Fellowship of Fundarnental Fundamental Bible Churches. Churches.77 The success of the Pentecostal movement 3. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, Pentecosta/ism, 223.

4. This chapter is partly based on Nel, "Fundarnentalism “Fundamentalism and Pentecostalism." Pentecostalism.” The fact is, pentecostal diversity allows some to be fundarnentalists, fundamentalists, others rationalists or liberals, and others every shade of opinion in between (see McKay, "When “When the Veil is Taken Away,” Away;' 62). The fact that Pentecostal denominations are not normative, expectexpect­ ing believers to read and understand in a prescribed way, accommodates the postmod postmod­ern need for a persona! personal understanding and experience of spirituality.

5. Hollenweger, "From “From Azusa Street to Toronto;' Toronto,” 6. 6. Thus Green characterizes modem modern biblical criticism with the term "autonomy;' “autonomy,” all allegiances, whether they be to certain explaining that one is expected to peel off al! theological formulations or institutions, and remove oneself from social locations, before engaging with biblical texts (Green, "Pentecostal Hermeneutics;' 160). Pente“Pentecostal Hermeneutics,” Pente­ costals, in contradistinction, surrender some of their autonomy as readers in order to acknowledge their dependency on the Spirit (Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 241). 7. See Kennedy, Modern Introduction to Theology, oppoTheology, 11. 1 1. Some of the most vocal oppo­ nents of Pentecostals are the cessasionists, who claim that the charismatic functioning of the church-in gifts-ended with the death church—in terms of Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts—ended

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AN A n AFRICAN A f r i c a n PENTECOSTAL P e n t e c o s t a l HERMENEUTIC H e r m e n e u t i c 8 in reaching two-thirds of the world ((the the Global South) and providing a South)8 spirituality acceptable to many postmoderns (or late-moderns) is then ascribed and linked to Pentecostalism as the resurgence of conservative 9 fundamental faith around the world. world.9 Early Pentecostalism, however, should rather be comprehended in terms of the line of antecedents and movements from which it sprang and the hermeneutical angles they used, namely evangelical Protestantism, especially the Wesleyan Methodist variety (with its notion of a "second “second blessing;' blessing,” a crisis experience subsequent to conversion called "sanctifica“sanctifica­ 10 tion"); ; the Reformed revivalism of tion”); the American Holiness movement movement10;

of the last apostle, and liberal theologians, who, in their skepticism that nothing can believers' faith in regu­ reguhappen that is not scientifically explainable that may destroy believers* lar divine interventions in the lives of contemporary people and their churches. It is my submission that Pentecostalism, in historical terms, should rather be evaluated as a reaction against the institutional church's church’s perceived formalism, spiritual deaddead­ ness, slackness, and lifeless worship, as a restorationist and primitivistic urge to regain (something of) the enthusiasm and life ofthe of the earliest church (see also McClung, "In“In­ troduction,” 4). troduction;' 8. The phrase "Global “Global South'' South” refers broadly to the regions of Latin America, Asia, viAfrica, and Oceania. The division is sometimes interpreted as the Brandt Line, a vi­ north/ south divide, proposed pro posed by West German Chancellor Willy sual depiction of the north/south Brandt in the 1980s. It encirdes encircles the world at a latitude of approximately 30 degrees north, passing between North and Centra! Central America, north of Africa and the Middle indude East, dimbing climbing north over China and Mongolia, but dipping south, so as to include North:' It is made up of Africa, Latin America, Australia and New Zealand in the "Rich “Rich North.” and developing Asia, induding including the Middle East. The South-with South—with three quarters of the world populations-has populations—has access to one-fifth of the world income. It is one of a family of terms, induding World" and "PeripherY:' Euincluding "Third “Third World” “Periphery,” that denote regions outside Eu­ rope and North America, mostly (though not all) low-income and often politically or culturally marginalized. The use of the phrase "Global “Global South" South” marks a shift from a centra! central focus on development or cultural difference toward an emphasis on geopolitigeopoliti­ cal relations of power. The term Global South functions as more than a metaphor for underdevelopment. It references an entire history of colonialism, neo-imperialism, and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained (Dados and ConCon­ nell, "Global “Global South," South,” 12-13). 12 -13 ). 9. The resurgence of conservative, fundamental faith may be linked to the world­ worldwide trend to the right that, in 2016, resulted inter alia in Brexit, followed by the elecelec­ tion of Theresa May as prime minister of Britain, and Donald Trump as the president of the United States. It is linked to the return to conservatism as a way to dose close ranks against the perceived new enemies, the needy immigrants from conflict-riddled parts of the world, especially from Muslim countries, perceived as "overflowing" “overflowing” developed countries. 10. There were three distinct groups of holiness adherents: the Wesleyan Holiness position, typified by Phoebe Palmer, who described "entire “entire sanctification" sanctification” or "perfect “perfect

BIBLE READING PRACTICES BIBLE READING PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

Perfectionism" of revivalists Charles Jonathan Edwards and the "Oberlin “Oberlin Perfectionism” Finney and Asa Mahan; the Keswick movement with Dwight L. Moody, Reuben A. Torrey and Andrew Murray; and the healing movement of Christoph Blumhardt, Dorothea Trudel, Charles Cullis, A. B. Simpson, Carrie Judd Montgomery, and Maria Woodworth-Etter.11 Woodworth-Etter. 11 These movemove­ ments share a view of themselves as being the product of Gods Goďs historical action in the same way as the nation nati on of Israel viewed itself in the Hebrew mission. 12 PenteBible and the church of Acts thought of its origin and mission.12 costals also stress their continuity with the persona! personal dynamic action of the saving and revealing God through the intervention of Gods Goďs Spirit in human history. Through a called and empowered priesthood (and prophethood) of individua! individual believers-by believers—by way of persona! personal discipleshipdiscipleship— God establishes Gods Goďs kingdom on earth through the church. They see themselves as the continuation of the early church; God must be seen to have a people, the new "Israel:' “Israel.” The aim of the church was not to compile dogma, confessions, and lectionaries but rather to live and act the gospel 13 of Jesus Christ. Christ.13 A further prerequisite for understanding the phenomenon of the early Pentecostal movement is that its hermeneutics be comprehended in terms of its early adherents who mainly came from the marginalized 14 and socially and economically disadvantaged. disadvantaged.14 Anderson asserts that most Pentecostal converts came from peasant roots and their religious 15 heritage differed from that of evangelical-pietistic Protestantism. Their Protestantism.15 spirituality consisted of mystical, supernatural, and even animistic and love" blessing" or Spirit baptism, identified with moral purity; the Re­ Relove” as the "second “second blessing” formed and Keswick position, exemplified by R. A. Torrey and South African Andrew Murray, who held that Spirit baptism was an enduement with power for service; and the "third blessing;' a radical fringe position, which distinguished between the "second “third blessing,” “second blessing" of sanctification and a "third blessing” “third blessing" blessing” or "baptism “baptism with fire:• fire.” What links these groups together is their dedication to mission service as their highest priority (Anderson, "Keswick Movement:• 129-30). “Keswick Movement,” 11. Holiness-Pentecos1 1. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 25-34; see Synan, Holiness-Pentecos­ tal Movement. Pentecostal churches and movements can be divided according to their distinctive theological themes, to those teaching a doctrine of sanctification in the Wesleyan Holiness tradition with "three “three works of grace;' grace,” those reducing this pattern grace;' and those holding a "Oneness" Only" view of the to "two “two works of grace,” “Oneness” or "Jesus “Jesus Only” Pentecostalism, 18). Godhead (Dayton, 1heological Theological Roots oj of Pentecostalismy “Investigation into the Nature,” 12. Clark, "Investigation Nature;' 39.

13. Clark, "Investigation Nature;'40. “Investigation into the Nature,”40. “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 27 274. 14. Keener, "Pentecostal 4. of the Disinherited, 135. 15. Anderson, Vision oj

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magical notions common to those who live close to the soil, although the quite human element in spirituality was always eminent, leading many 16 The answer to such to dismiss charismatic Christianity as counterfeit. counterfeit.16 criticism is not to reject the Spiriťs Spirits work but rather to sift through and discern what is of God and hold on to that (1 Thess 5:19-21), 5:19 -21), separatseparat­ 17 ing what is from God and what is from oneself. Pentecostal spiritualoneself.17 spiritual­ ity has several sensibilities, habitual attitudes, or predispositions that characterize its relationship with God. lt It is hardwired to perceive and respond to the influences of the Spirit, oriented to experience and atat­ tend actively to the Spiriťs Spirit s guidance, and is characterized by a sense of conflict in the spiritual realm, indicated as spiritual warfare. Pentecostals perceive themselves as part of a movement, rather than a denomination, organization, or religious society, as participants in a work of the Spirit on earth. In their world, the supernatural and the "power" “power” of God is imim­ participaportant; they value restoration, renewal, and the democratic participa­ 18 They see themselves as a fellowship of tion of all believers and mission. mission.18 congregations seeking to follow Gods Goďs will, and their anti-organizational and anti-hierachical rhetoric led to their being even more decentralized and disorganized than Protestantism.19 Protestantism. 19 They seek to remain open to the respondmovement of the Spirit and want their churches to be flexible in respond­ ing to Gods Goďs call. unAsamoah-Gyadu's typology of African spirituality is useful to un­ Asamoah-Gyadus 20 derstand the psyche of African Pentecostals.20 Pentecostals. Their spirituality affirms 16. Anderson supports Weber’s Weber's argument that artisan classes generally share the sarne Resame religious notions, consisting of anirnisrn animism and spiritisrn spiritism (Weber, Sociology oj of Re­ ligion, 80-84). Jacobsen argues that spirituality needs religion to keep it frorn from sirnply simply holdissipating into thin air, and religion needs spirituality to keep it frorn from becorning becoming hol­ low (Jacobsen, Thinking in the Spirit, 2). 17. McKay, "When AwaY:' 67. The Spirit of God is unpredictable; “When the Veil is Taken Away,” the Spirit is like the wind that blows wherever it wants. Religious experience attributed systematic way, leading to Asamoah-Gyadus to the Spirit may rnay not occur in any systernatic Asarnoah-Gyadu's remark rernark judgrnent over those whose experiences do not that care should be taken in sitting in judgment follow known patterns, for they could be as genuine as those stipulated as the norm norrn (Asarnoah-Gyadu, (Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 243). The Spirit does not need to follow huhu­ man logic in cornpleting Spiriťs course. completing the Spirit’s 18. Albrecht and Howard, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Spirituality," Spirituality,” 240-43. 19. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, 20 and 35. 20. Asamoah-Gyadu, Asarnoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 235-41. It should be remembered rernernbered what the institution of slavery contributed to the African identity. People threatened or victirnized by slavery found cornfort victimized comfort in the liberation stories of the Bible, especially the Old Testament (Zwiep, "Bible “Bible Herrneneutics," Hermeneutics,” 997). Cone identifies five sources

BIBLE READING PRACTICES PENTECOSTALS BIBLE READING PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS

Goďs existence, presence, and involvement in the daily lives ofbelievers. Gods of believers. The Western atheist debate seems strange in an African context, where a strik.ing striking feature of Africans is the intense conviction with which spiritualspiritual­ ity is being expressed by people who have encountered the reality of God in a personal sense. They find it difficult to understand how someone can argue that God does not exist when God is an integral part of their daily lives. The attention is drawn to the importance of experience in Christian faith and life; they know God because they have experiences with God. African Pentecostals consistently affirm that the God in whom they have come to believe is not a figment of someone's someones imagination. They have experienced God as real because God fulfills Gods Goďs promíse promise of rebirth for those who trust in Jesus, and Jesus gives them new tongues to speak in, heal their sick, and deliver the demonically possessed and oppressed. Out of their experience with God, they also "know" “know” that there is a trantran­ scendent dimension to life. There is no area oflife of life that God cannot touch Goďs liberating and transforming power. Further, in African spiriwith Gods spiri­ tuality, the living God authenticates Goďs God’s power and presence in "signs “signs and wonders,” wonders;' especially healing. Healing is interpreted in its wider connotation as a response to physical, social, and spiritual disorder, and its ministry forms a central activity in indigenous pentecostal renewal. Evidence of its result is provided by the testimonies through which parpar­ ticipants point to dramatic transformations in personality, recovery from ill-health, restoration of relationships that had gone awry, and restoration of human dignity as a result of receiving the grace of cessation of alcoholalcohol­ ism, womanizing, drug abuse, prostitution, neglect of family, and general 21 aimlessness in life. life.21 Vondey adds that Pentecostals operate at the limits of speech and are more comfortable with testimony, story, song, proclamation, testimony, glossolalia, and praise than with the definitions, concepts, propositions, glossolalicij

in Black Theology: Theology: Black experience, black history (in which slavery played an integral part), black culture, revelation, and Scripture (Cone, Black Theology of Liberation, 24-37). Mosala criticizes black theology for not recognizing that the biblical text itself is a product of class struggle. He focuses his attention behind the text, looking for clues to the ideology which gave rise to the text. In his exegesis of Luke, he acknowledges that the writer treats the poor as a subject but warns that the text is written by and adad­ dressed to the rich. What is needed is that the Bible first be "liberated" “liberated” by exposing not only its expediency to but also its origins in the class struggle. LeMarquand explains that Mosala writes within an explicitly Marxist paradigm (LeMarquand, "New “New TestaTesta­ ment Exegesis;' Exegesis,” 13). 21. Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 237.

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theses, systems, philosophies, and methodologies that characterize and conversa­ dominate the world of Western writing, publishing, scholarly conversa22 African Pentecostalism tion, and even worship services and spirituality. spirituality.22 also affirms the restoration of the charismata, not just in an ontological 23 sense but also as a functional reality. The Spirit equips some believreality.23 believ­ ers with the necessary charismata to become "ministers;' "pastors:' “ministers,” “pastors,” or 24 “evangelists,” by filling them with power and faith. faith.24 "evangelists:' This leads to conflict with established clergy who may feel scandalized and threatened that ordinary "lay previ“lay people" people” may become respected church leaders, while previ­ ously they counted for nothing. In many instances, these gifted leaders do not even have the necessary theological training required by established 25 denominations for ordination. Their emphasis is placed on worship, ordination.25 witness, and mission rather than preparation, training, and study. With the experience of the baptism with the Holy Spirit, Pentecostals feel sufsuf­ ficiently equipped to do the work of the Spirit, which consisted of saving, delivering, and healing lost people.26 people. 26 Anderson notes that the mass inin­ volvement of the so-called "laity" “laity” in the African Pentecostal movement is undoubtedly one of the reasons for its phenomenal success.27 success.27 In African Pentecostalism (as in early Pentecostalism), there is a diminished need for theologically articulate clergy, because cerebral and clerical ChristiChristi­ anity had-in Africans-already failed them. What had—in the minds of many Africans—already is needed, rather, is a demonstration of power by indigenous people to whom ordinary people could easily relate. A last characteristic of African spirituality, described by Asomoah-Gyadu· Asomoah-Gyadu* is the affirmation of worship as an authentic encounter with God, resulting-in resulting—in some cases-in cases—in the non-deliverance of the sermon because the congregants start worshiping

22.

Vondey, Pentecostalismy Pentecostalism, 121. 12 1.

23. The difference between African and Western Pentecostalism lies in the African churches' churches’ orientation to the spirit world. They agree with a dose close affinity regarding the Holy Spirit and the charismata (Anderson, Moya, 34); they link the world of the Spirit and the world of spirits in a holistic sense. 24. In Pauline thought, charisma is synonymous with diakonia (Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 239). 239). See also 11 Cor 12:4-6. 25. 25. Charles Parham, founder of the two Bible Schools where baptism in the Spirit was emphasized, remarked that, precisely because he lacked any educational precondiprecondi­ unbiased" manner (Jacobsen, Thinking tioning, he could read the Bible in an "entirely “entirely unbiased” in the Spirit, 20 ). 20). 26.

Vondey, Pentecostalism, 118, 118 , and King, Regeneration, 2:510-23.

27. 27.

"Global “Global Pentecostalism in the New Millennium;' Millennium,” 222. 222.

BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES BIBLE PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

in an emotive, expressive, and spontaneous manner, resulting in miracles 28 and conversions. conversions.28 When African Pentecostals confess that they believe in the Holy Spirit, it is because, during their Christian pilgrimage, they have, in some way, experienced the Spirit first-hand, and they identify with the experiences of the charismatic community to which they belong. Peter L. Berger asserts that the human experience could also contain theologi­ theologically relevant data. data.2299 For that reason, he is of the opinion that "inductive “inductive faith" truth. 30 faith” holds the greatest promise of "new “new approaches" approaches” to religious truth.30 Anderson defines Pentecostalism in terms of a unique response to the common problems of the working poor, consisting of the notion that religion was a matter of the "heart" “heart” rather than the intellect, and that miracles and wonders held a centra! place. 31 The poor thrived in central place.31 the emotionalistic and supernaturalistic outlook that also characterized the Holiness movement, in contradistinction to evangelical-revivalistic Protestantism. Anderson argues that because they were frustrated with their low social position in society and could not adjust to the challenges presented by urbanization, their social discontent became the root source 32 of Pentecostalism. However, most pentecostal researchers do not accept Pentecostalism.32 movemenťs self-understanding this explanation and instead depict the movements 28. Asomoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 240. 29. Berger, Rumour oj of Angels, 100. 30. Inductive faith refers to "a “a religious process of thought that begins with facts of human experience," experience,” unlike deductive faith, which begins with ideas (Berger, Rumour oj of Angels, 100). Inductive faith proceeds from human experience to statements about God. For African Pentecostals, faith is born from their experiential encounter with Jesus through the mediation of the Spirit. 31. Anderson, Vision oj of the Disinherited, 228. 32. Anderson, Vision oj of the Disinherited, 240. If soda! social depravity explained the atat­ traction of pentecostalism then one would expect that in the contemporary Pente­ Pentecostal movement the poor would still form the majority of members, which is not the case, at least not in Western churches (Hine, "Deprivation “Deprivation and Disorganization Theories;' Theories,” 656). Hine adds that the characteristics associated with the "sect “sect type" type” and "socially people," such as emotionally charged religious “socially and economically disinherited people,” experiences, lay leadership, a confessional requirement for membership, a high degree of participation by members, and reliance on the guidance of the Spirit occur in con­ contemporary Pentecostal churches consisting of middle and upper class converts as well. By 1950, Pentecostalism was no longer solely a religion of the poor and the marginal (Peel, "Post-Socialism" “Post-Socialism” 184). Although Pentecostalism still draws people from the lower socio-economic classes, many from other economic classes also join the move­ movement. Today, Pentecostalism is mainly an urban religion, the faith of choice for tens of millions of city-dwellers on five continents (Cox, Pire Fire from Heaven, 11). 11).

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in terms of its quest for a deeper and developing relationship with Jesus through his Spirit. Individuals were primarily attracted to Pentecostalism through its attention to people's peoples religious quest, serious consideration of spiritual growth, and the way they respected and interpreted the BiBi­ ble.33 The vast majority of recruits came from the Holiness movements, ble.33 both the Wesleyan Holiness movement34 movement34 and the Keswickian Higher 35 Pentecostal identity was established by the preaching Life movement. movement.35 of the full gospel message36 message 36 in a restorationist-revivalistic manner with 33. Contra Miller ("Pentecostalism (“Pentecostalism as a Social Movement;' Movement,” 114). Asamoah-Gyadu makes the important observation that while most if not all Pentecostals respect the Bible, African Pentecostals regard the Bible itself as holy, mediating holiness from the supernatural realm to the natural realm of existence, containing a divine and supersuper­ of belief or behavior (Asamoah-Gyadu, natural status, as the last word on any matters ofbelief Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity, 166-67). It is a symbol of sacred power, able to protect the believer from adverse effects of evil because, in the African imaginaimagina­ tion, that which is holy exudes power that could even be dangerous (Asamoah-Gyadu, Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity, 171). 34. This movement serves as Pentecostalism's Pentecostalism’s immediate predecessor and provides the new movement with several important characteristics, such as: a form of literal­ literalminded biblicism, emotional fervor, a puritanical ethical code ofliving, of living, enmity toward established denominations due to its rejection by these churches, and a belief in the "second blessing" in Christian experience, resulting in sanctification. The Church of “second blessing” God in Christ under the leadership of Charles Mason and the Church of God (Cleve(Cleve­ land) had been, at first, holiness denominations, and now they accepted a third work of grace, the baptism of the Holy Spirit, usually accompanied by speaking in tongues. Sanctification consists of moral perfection, attainable in this life through the baptism of the Spirit with the resultant eradication of inbred sin (Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited, inheritedy 289-90). 335. s. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, 12. PentecostalHermeneutiCy 12. Higher Life movements advocated a second work of grace called the baptism of the Spirit consisting of an enduement of power, enen­ abling one to become an effective winner of souls (contra (contra Wesleyan Holiness groups). Sanctification is, for them, a progressive process instead of an immediate experience (see Waldvogel, "Overcoming “Overcoming Life.") Life”) The Keswick Convention recognized two disdis­ birth" and the "fullness tinct experiences, the "new “new birth” “fullness of the Spirit;' Spirit,” with sanctification seen as a possible but progressive experience (Anderson, "Keswick “ Keswick Movement;' Movement,” 128). "Fullness move“Fullness of the Spirit" Spirit” was interpreted in terms of "holiness" “holiness” in the Holiness move­ ment and the "higher “higher Christian life" life” in the Keswick Convention (Anderson, "Keswick “Keswick Movement," Movement,” 128). By the end of the nineteenth century, however, Spirit baptism was primarily understood in Keswick and elsewhere as empowerment for mission service, and not only as individualistic holiness (Anderson, "Keswick “Keswick Movement," Movement,” 129 129).).

36. Pentecostals seldom have an elaborately worked-out theology (Anderson, Moya, 32-33). Their theology comes to life in song, music, prayers, sacramental acts Moyay ofhealing of healing and exorcism, art forms, architecture, liturgy, dress (especially important in Africa), church structures, and community life. Although they have little of an explicit theology, they have a praxis and spirituality in which their theology is implicit. "It “It is of

BIBLE READING PRACTICES BIBLE READING PRACTICES OP OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

an emphasis on millenarian theology, ecstatic charismatic experiences, the expectation that miracles would occur, and the experiential celebrative worship-consisting worship—consisting of participatory expressiveness of tongues and 37 38 prophecy. Hollenweger describes the aspects that form pentecostal prophecy.*37 Hollenweger38 theology as: maximum participation at the level of reflection, prayer, and decision making, forming of community that is reconciliatory; inclusion of dreams and visions into personal persona! and public forms of worship, funcfunc­ tioning as a kind of icon for the individua! individual and the community; and an understanding of the body/mind relationship that is informed by experiexperi­ ences of correspondence between body and mind, with the most striking application the ministry of healing by prayer. People did not become Pentecostals because they were deprived, disorganized, and defective, but because of their religious concerns and their acceptance of a pentecostal hermeneutics, specifically its continuationist sentiment. This hermeneutics also draws their attention to JeJe­ sus's sus’s predilection for the marginalized, transforming them into agents of 39 society,39 change in the poorer parts of society, allowing Gerlach to define Pente40 costalism not as a "reaction “reaction to change" change” but rather as a "cause 4cause of change:' change.”4 0 41 movement.41 It Pentecostalism is not a reactionary but a revolutionary movement. resides in the margins, set apart from the larger Christian community by its distinct doctrines of Spirit baptism and speaking in tongues.4 tongues. 422 While the essence that the believer interpreting the Spirit-inspired Scriptures be in submissubmis­ sion to the Holy Spirit through prayer in order that he might be filled with the Holy Spirit (Eph 5:18), walk by the Holy Spirit (Gal s;i6-25), 5:16-25), and Jive live by the Holy Spirit (Rom 8:1-11), 8 :1- 11) , so that his sinful nature might not quench the Holy Spiriťs Spirit’s work (1 Thess 5:19)" Interpretation, 167). 5:19)” (Seaman, Illumination and Interpretation^ 37. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneuticy Hermeneutic, 32. The Full Gospel was understood by early Pentecostals to be a restoration of the New Testament presentation of the gospel of Jesus Christ, a complete gospel that emphasized the importance of Jesus's Jesus’s redemptive ministry for humanity (Archer, "Full ‘Tull Gospel;' Gospel,” 89). Salvation, baptism in the Spirit, divine healing, and the second coming are the four cardinal doctrines commonly rere­ or ferred to as the Full Gospel. There was a shared belief and proclamation of the four- ((or five-) fold understanding of the work of Jesus as savior, (sanctifier), Spirit-baptizer, healer, and soon coming king, and of tongues as the initial evidence of Spirit baptism (Purdy, Pentecostal Hermeneuticy Hermeneutic, 33).

38. Hollenweger, "After Years7' 6. “After Twenty Years”’ 39. Hine, "Deprivation Theories;• 652, and Gerlach, "Pente“ Deprivation and Disorganization Theories,” “Pente­ costalism," costalism,” 671. 40. Gerlach, "Pentecostalism;• “Pentecostalism,” 672.

Hermeneutic, 36. 41. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutict 42. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneuticy Hermeneutic, 209. Most scholars accept that the "languages" “languages”

443 3

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Evangelicals equated Spirit baptism with conversion, most Pentecostals insist that the Spirit came on the disciples at Pentecost not as the source of new covenant existence but rather as the source of power for effective witness. This experience is analogous to Jesus's Jesus’s experience of the Spirit at the Jordan. As Jesus's Jesus’s experience at his baptism serves as a model for the experience of the disciples on the day of Pentecost, so does the disciples' disciples’ experience at Pentecost also serve as a model for subsequent Christians.43 Christians.43 Spirit baptism is an experience that is logically, if not chronologically disdis­ tinct from conversion, which unleashes a new dimension of the power of 44 the Spirit for service. service.4 4 Pentecostalism provided people with a democratic worship event where all and sunder might participate as equals, allowing everyone to live out their ministry and spiritual gifts with emotional support from like-minded people in a group interaction characterized by equality between its members. Involvement was a key component of pentecostal worship and its equality induded included all races and genders as well as age 45 groups (at least, initially). initially).4 5 Therefore, ordinary, untrained people were able to participate in public worship in a variety of ways, induding including the 46 exercise of spiritual gifts, for example, bringing a message (sermon) (sermon)4 6 or

in Acts 22 refer to genuine foreign languages (see Chance, Actsy Acts, 49, and Schnabel, Acts, 115), breaking down-for down—for the moment at least-the least—the barriers ofhuman of human languages as the essence of the curse of Babel (Thomas, Actsy Acts, 30-31). Speech was confounded at Pire from Heaven, the Tower of Babel; understanding was restored at Pentecost (Cox, Fire 38), although Keener contends correctly that the text in Acts 2 gives no indication that Luke made the connection (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, Hermeneuticsy 50). Babel and Pentecost stand like two great mountains at either ends of the Bible, demonstrating the value of language to separate and unite (Bartholomew, Introducing Biblical Hermeuticst Hermeutics, 543). This is Scripture's Scripture’s seminal language miracle (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 60). At the same time, scholars accept that the Corinthian languages refer to a different category oflanguages, of languages, ofunknown of unknown languages. 43. Menzies, Pentecost, Pentecosty 30. 44. Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 744. 744. See also: "They “ They have received the have" (Acts 10:47 ). Holy Spirit just as we have” 10:47).

45. Cox, Fire Pire from Heavent Heaven, 246. Early Pentecostalism was, in fact, the only portion of Protestantism that was integrated racially, referring to the situation in the United States (Marsden, "Everyone “Everyone One's One’s Own Interpreter?:' Interpreter?,” 83). This is true for South Africa Pire Falls Falis in Africay Africa, 384). as well, at least initially (Burger and Nel, Fire 46. Early Pentecostals avoided using the term "sermon" “sermon” because of its association with established churches and the ministy of preaching confined to the professional pastorate, and preferred to speak of "a “a message from the Lord," Lord,” supposing that any Spirit-filled believer might be used to bring the message.

BIBLE BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS 47 giving a personal persona! testimony. testimony.4 7 In their testimonies, they made theological sense of their participation by describing it as a gift of the Spirit who had now become present in the new creation of the believer and church as an abiding, empowering presence, a term which primarily means "partici“partici­ 48 Fee's opinion. pation in;' in,” in Fees opinion.48 Early Pentecostals moved along the fringes of established denomidenomi­ nations; their theological preferences of eschatological urgency to evan evan­gelize the whole world before the end of the age would occur had already 49 theywere marginized them from these mainline churches. churches.4 9That they were successsuccess­ ful is seen in the fact that they reached fifty nations within the first two years of the existence of the Pentecostal movement with the message of 50 "Pentecost:' They voiced a lack of patience at the prospect of forsaking “Pentecost.”50 or postponing the spread of the gospel due to the possible requirements of a formal theological education that conflicted with the eschatological 51 Chrisťs imminent return. Their revivalurgency of their expectation of Christ’s return.51 istic, experience-oriented worship was appealing to those who were often society.5522 PentecosPentecos­ shunned by mainline congregations and sidelined by society. tal preachers, energized by their eschatological fervor, preached wherever they could find space and, due to financial restraints, their locations were apoften storefronts, warehouses, etc., making them both accessible and ap­ persons. 53 Pentecostalism pealing to marginalized and disenfranchised persons.53 underclass. 54 They often worked along the fringes of was the faith of the underclass.54

Distinct, 46. 47. Purdy, Distincty 48. Fee, To What End Exegesis?, 259. Gordon Fee is a preeminent scholar whose commentaries are widely read and respected in evangelical circles (Oliverio, 1heologiTheologi­ cal Hermeneutics, 168). 49. Dempster, "Search “Search for Pentecostal Identity," Identity,” 1. 1. 50. Anderson, Moya, Maya, 27. 551. 1. Vondey, Pentecostalismy Pentecostalism, 118. 118 . Vondey states that even when Bible schools and institutes became more prominent in the 1920s and 1930s, many Pentecostals went into the mission field without credentials and formal forma! studies. In Africa, it is still the custom that a believer would move to a new neighborhood, start a prayer meeting in their home, and, before Jong, long, would serve as the leader of a srna!! small assembly. In most cases, they do not have any forma! formal theological training, and, in some instances, they eventually become respected leaders of successful churches. 52. Purdy, Distincty Distinct, 45. See Keener's Hermeneutics, 46) provocative remark Keener’s (Spirit Hermeneuticst that most of the places experiencing profound spiritual revival are situated among the poor and marginized. 553. 3. Cox, Fire Pire from Heaven, 24.

54. Davies, "What Read?;' 249. “What Does it Mean to Read?,”

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the established churches since their message appealed to those who had been turned off ((or or turned away) by the cold, cerebral religion of mainline 55 denominations. Their reading of the metanarrative with its latter rain denominations.55 6 57 motiť motif56 and primitivistic impulse impulse57 was driven by their passionate desire for an unmediated experience with the Spirit, developing into a deeper, persona! personal relationship with Jesus, and their restorationist views, moldmold­ 58 ing the subculture in which Pentecostalism flourished. flourished.58 Their attitudes toward the world were shaped by their conviction that current cultural values necessarily opposed true faith and they interpreted persecution and discrimination against them as a measure of spiritual strength and a 59 They volubly opposed much of sign of the correctness of their beliefs. beliefs.59 their culture, and the sense that they offered a viable, satisfying alternaalterna­ 60 tive to this-worldliness was instrumental in attracting new adherents. adherents.6 0 55. Purdy, Distinct, 46. 56. The use of the motif in the Pentecostal movement should be distinguished from the New Order of the Latter Rain, a revival serving as a precursor of the charischaris­ matic movement of the 1960s and originating at the Sharon Orphanage and Schools in North Battleford, Saskatchewan, Canada in 1947. George Hawtin, a pastor of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, clashed with colleagues due to his controversial statements, prophetic utterances, and "heavenly “heavenly revelations;' revelations,” leading to an organizaorganiza­ tional schism and a new movement (Mittelstadt, "Latter Movement;' 135-36). “Latter Rain Movement,” Hawtin's ministry was precipitated through the ministry of the controversial healing Hawtins evangelist William Branham. Branharn. The movement was driven by strong expectations of the irnrninent imminent return of Christ and re-established apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, 4 :11- 12 ) as present-day ministers that would herald the final days and teachers (Eph 4:11-12) (Mittelstadt, "Latter “Latter Rain Movement;' Movement,” 137). 57. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneuticy Hermeneutic, 136 and 150. 58. The charismatic movement that eventually originated within established main­ mainline churches does not adhere to classical pentecostal primitivistic restorationism; it is more open to also appreciate the Spirits Spiriťs work in and through the historical historka! church tradition, which classical Pentecostals traditionally viewed with deep suspicion (Neu(Neu­ mann, "Spirituality;' “Spirituality,” 198). 59. Early Pentecostals were certain that God had called them despite the fact that they were poor and unlettered. They also perceived that God had called them because oftheir of their poverty and their resultant dependence upon the power and care ofGod of God (Cox, Fire from Heaven, 254). Firefrom 60. Blurnhofer, Blumhofer, Assemblies of God, Gody 19. Cox emphasizes the necessity of reading below;' calling conventional readings into question (Cox, How the Bible also "from “from below,” to Read the Bible, 219). The excluded and disinherited in any society include those mistreated for a variety of reasons, such as color, physical makeup, gender, language, religion, sexual orientation, or disability. lt It is critically important that people who read the Bible from a more comfortable position in society need to check their irnpressions impressions against those who read it from a less secure point of view.

BIBLE READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OF BIBLE READING OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

The Pentecostal movement represents diverse phenomena and viewview­ points, and it cannot be brought together under one rubric. For instance, further study is necessary to ascertain the way African neo-Pentecostal groups look at the Bible and what their relation is to the fundamentalist paradigm. The conglomeration of groups forming part of the charismatic Penrenewal in traditional historical denominations, another part of the Pen­ tecostal movement, read the Bible with the hermeneutical angle that their different churches use. This dissertation is not concerned with the view of Scriptures held by these diverse groups. There may be some historical reasons for viewing pentecostal researchhermeneutics as, to a certain extent, fundamentalist-as fundamentalist—as some research­ ers have characterized it. What is then added in Pentecostalism is the speaking in tongues as initial proof ((or or as a sign, or one of the important misintersigns) of Spirit baptism. This is, however, for several reasons, a misinter­ pretation that does not represent the genius and genesis of PentecostalPentecostal­ ism, and certainly not the whole Pentecostal movement, as will be argued here. 61 here.61

Historical Survey of Pentecostal Hermeneutics At fi.rst, first, early Pentecostals generally separated themselves from "the “the world" world” as part of the drive to holiness that was viewed as incompatible 62 by believers with a lower socio-economic status. status.6 2 Before, during, and directly after the Second World War, however, it became important for socio-economically upwardly-mobile Pentecostals to change to acceptaccept­ able and respectable status; their status as cult and sect became an albaalba­ 63 tross around their neck.6 neck. 3 Starting in the 1930s and lasting to the 1960s, Pentecostals' Pentecostals perspective shifted gradually-but gradually—but also crucially-from crucially—from the viewpoint that the anointing with the Spirit was all one needed in order effective­ to understand and interpret the Bible and proclaim its message effectively, to the realization of the need for (some kind of) theological training in order to meet the challenges that reading an ancient document and proclaiming its message to people living many centuries later poses for the believer and pastor. At the same time, and as no coincidence, the Pentecostal movement slowly shifted its theological stance of the church Thinking in the Spirit, 355. 61. Jacobsen, 1hinking “Pentecostalism and the Early Church;' Church,” 158-59. 62. Nel, "Pentecostalism

Pire Falls Falis in Africa, 389. 63. Anderson, Vision, xi, and Burger and Nel, Fire

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as the body of Christ, with each member taking responsibility for its edification, to the professional pastorate taking up more and more of the ministry. 644 Although more and more requirements responsibilities of the ministry.6 were set for the training of pastors, it is true that most of them did not receive any professional teaching in exegetical methods and hermeneu­ hermeneuwithtics. Even today, most Pentecostal pastors probably read the Bible with­ out subjecting either the text or their reading of it to critical analysis. ln In Africa, one also seldom finds a tradition of academic use of the text from 65 a distinctively pentecostal perspective. perspective.6 5 There is historically no formal 66 pentecostal academic tradition. Pentecostal tradition.66 Most pastors employ a pre-critical and, in some senses, a fundamentalist hermeneutics within their sermons and 67 Bible instruction. instruction.6 7 It is also possible to describe the development of pentecostal hermeneutics in other ways, depending on one's ones perspective. Archer, for instance, thinks of three stages: of an early pre-critical period, from its modem period, from the 1940s to the 1980s; origin until the 1940s; a modern and the contemporary period, from the 1980s to the present.6 present.688 The first stage in his typology was characterized by the Bible reading methods and interpretive procedures that Pentecostals inherited from the holiness tratra­ ditions, with inductive reasoning, which focused on the text, and deducdeduc­ tive reasoning, which required all available biblical data on a particular topic to be examined and compared on the same level. This approach was thoroughly popularistic as a pre-critical, canonical, and text-centered approach from a revivalistic-restorational biblicist perspective.6 perspective. 699 Such 64. Menzies, Pentecost: 1his This Story, 129. In the AFM's AFM s research into Bible Reading Practices of its members, referred to above, 61 percent of respondents indicated that they think their pastor knows the Bible well, while only 58 percent think that the pastor's Bible is taught well at their local church. A meager 52 percent think that their pastors sermons are based on the Bible, while 51 percent indicate that no reference is made in these sermons to the Bible (Nel, "Bible “Bible Reading Practices"). Practices”). The research shows that all is not well with the sermonizing of the professional pastorate, at least within this particular African denomination. 65. Davies, "What “What Does it Mean to Read?;' Read?,” 249-50. 66. Because God is, for Pentecostals, so far above and beyond their grasp, they per­ perceive that anything they can assimilate intellectually cannot be from God; hence their skepticism about academic theology per se (Davies, "What “What Does it Mean to Read?;' Read?,” 253).

67. Cargal, "Beyond," “Beyond,” 170. 68. Archer, "Hermeneutics;' “Hermeneutics,” 111-15. 111-15 . 69. As typified by Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, 91-92.

BIBLE BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OP OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

an approach assumed that the Bible could be read in a straightforward manner and understood by the common reader or listener. The inductive approach focused on the literary context of the biblical text, interpreting single words. Then, the verse was to be understood in the larger literary context, such as the paragraph, chapter, and book, Old or New Testament, and the whole Bible. The deductive method was then utilized in order to develop a biblical doctrine based on the comparison of all texts related to the theme. It required that all the biblical data about a subject or topic be examined and then harmonized into a cohesive synthesis. The method was not unique to Pentecostals; other emerging evangelical groups were 70 also using the method. method.70 The second stage saw a shift away from the Bible reading method to historical-critical methodologies, with a focus on the world behind the text, although Pentecostals rejected the naturalistic worldview of modermoder­ nity.71 nity.71 These readers used an interpretive approach called the historicalgrammatical method, an adaptation of historical criticism, with the aim to identify the socio-historical influences on the author and possibly 72 The some of the circumstances that led to the production of the text. text.72 goal was to arrive objectively at the author's authors intended meaning, as comcom­ municated through the text, in order to apply the meaning of the text to 73 However, no the current situation, based on the deductive principle. principle.73 reader can be totally objective and free of presuppositions which propro­ foundly influence their interpretation. We need help to move from our language and culture into the different biblical languages and cultures of meanings. 74 the authors without changing or distorting their meanings.74 70. Archer, "Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation," “ Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation,” 169. 71. Keener describes the Western worldview as mechanistic and naturalistic, a product of the Enlightenment (Aujkliirung) (Aufklarung) that is currently culturally and historically Hermeneutics, 97). idiosyncratic (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 72. The method is concerned with the grammatical principie principle of words and sensen­ tences, analyzing etymological, historical, cognate, and comparative word studies, figurative language, and genre; as well as with the historical principie, principle, analyzing the key people, societies, geography, and topography (Tolar, "Grammatical-Historical “Grammatical-Historical Method;' 21-37). Method,” 73. The modem modern academic interpretive methods moved some pentecostal scholars to abandon tongues as initial evidence for Spirit baptism because the book of Acts was interpreted as simply a historical narrative (Archer, "Hermeneutics;' “Hermeneutics,” 113), 113 ), leading to further hostility and anti-intellectualist sentiment from the side of more conservative classical Pentecostals towards academic theology.

74. Tolar, "Grammatical-Historical Method;' 21. “Grammatical-Historical Method,”

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One of the products of the modern modem Western worldview—resulting worldview-resulting from the Enlightenment, with its mechanistic and closed view of the universe-was the development of historical-critical methods applied in universe—was reading historical texts, comprising of textual criticism, source criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism, and tradition criticism, whose main focus was the relationship between the text and the source. Ansberry and Hays acknowledge that historical criticism can be dangerous because it was traditionally fuelled by atheistic hostility to the authority of the Bible 75 and an over-weaning skepticism. Instead of rejecting these methods skepticism.75 in a wholesale manner, like most Pentecostals do (at least in practice), the authors make the meaningful and significant proposal that exegesis should sail like Odysseus's Odysseus’s ship, driven by the winds of knowledge and history, towards the Scylla of sincere but anti-intellectual sectarianism and the Charybdis of rigorous but apostate criticism. What is necessary is that the exegete be both critical and confessional because historical criticism can provide the exegete with exciting and significant resources, especially when the insights generated by criticism are harnessed by the perspective of faith. What is needed to interpret the revelation of God is a combination of rigorous historical inquiry, humble self-examination, and exultant faith. faith.7766 A majority of Pentecostals rejected historical criticriti­ cism because it was perceived as a dead-zone, irradiated and left lifeless Hays) 77 ; I by atheistic historiography (in the metaphor of Ansberry and Hays)77; suggest that the issue should be revisited and these methods recaptured and utilized in a manner that is conducive to the pentecostal ethos. Their robust spirituality will help Pentecostals to practice a critical faith and faithful criticism. The third stage embraces more post-critical and postmodern apap­ proaches, including literary approaches ((what what the text is communicating and how it is communicating it), reader-response approaches (what imim­ pact the text has upon the reader community), and advocacy hermeneuhermeneu­ tics (how the socio-economic and ethnic makeup of interpreters leads to "seeing" miss). 78 Methodolo“seeing” and "hearing" “hearing” things in the text that others miss).78 75. Ansberry and Hays, "Faithful Criticism;' 205. “Faithful Criticism,” 76. Ansberry and Hays, "Faithful “Faithful Criticism;' Criticism,” 207.

77. Ansberry and Hays, "Faithful “Faithful Criticism," Criticism,” 221. 78. Western pentecostal scholarship experiences a tension between those who utilize a historical-critical hermeneutic, emphasizing historical context, and others who favor a postmodern hermeneutic, playing down the importance of the original historical horizon. The first group is caricatured for an illusory goal of pure objectivity,

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gies that focus on the final form of the text have proved to be especially beneficial to pentecostal academic studies and are more in step with the pentecostal Pentecostal pre-critical stage of Bible reading. lt It also emphasizes the importance of the interpretive community that is reading and listening to the biblical text and the role of the Holy Spirit. Interpretation always takes place in an interpretive community that channels the "correctness" “correctness” of interpretation; hence, interpretation cannot, in a certain sense, be right or wrong. There is no single way of reading that is correct or natural, only "ways reading" that are extensions of community perspectives, “ways of reading” necessitating comparison of one's ones interpretation with the insights of other interpretive communities. There are limits to what one can make reasonably of a text, however. These limits are established by an informed reader with a certain literary competence within an interpretive com com­79 munity. 9 Today, pneumatological interpretation, human experiences, munity.7 the importance ofLuke-Acts of Luke-Acts as guiding pentecostal theology, the scopus of the fourfold or fivefold Full Gospel, and theological methodology are contemporary concerns of a pentecostal hermeneutics.8 hermeneutics. 800 Many Pentecostals still experience a certain tension between the working of the Spirit and academic training and endeavors, a sentiment 81 The pursuit of scholarthat was even more accentuated in earlier times. times.81 the second that they are falling into an abyss of unconstrained relativism. However, limiting the choice to ancient or modem modern meaning is invalid as both the ancient and modem horizons have historical contingency. Culture makes a difference on both modern ends or horizons of interpretation, in understanding the ancient context as well as in relating it to the interpreter's interpreters context. Interest in ancient meaning is demanded by the shape of the texts themselves (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 132). What is needed is a balance between the ancient and contemporary horizon, necessitating a both-and approach (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 142-51). 14 2 -51). Contemporary readers need ancient as well as modern modem meanings; the horizons need to be fused before significant mean­ meaning is generated. Once we understand what biblical texts communicated in their first context, we must hear their challenge or comfort in our own settings as well.

79. For a discussion regarding the insights of Stanley E. Fish in his texts about response criticism, see Zwiep, "Bible “Bible Hermeneutics from 1950;' 1950,” 986. 80. Archer, "Hermeneutics;' “Hermeneutics,” 115. 115 .

81. As expressed, for example, by Cronjé Cronj6 ('i\GS (“AGS Teologiese Kollege;' Kollege,” 46). Resistance to long-term intellectual pursuits was often supplanted by the more direct and negative perception that an intellectualization of the Christian faith was resisting or suppressing Pentecostalism, 118). The division in Pentecostal the work of the Holy Spirit (Vondey, Pentecostalismy churches between academic and church worlds has led to a kind of theological schizoschizo­ phrenia, where the Pentecostal community practices one form of theologizing in its proclamation and worship, and a quite different form when pentecostal academicians discuss faith with those who do not claim the same set of charismatic experiences

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ship is often still considered a hindrance to the determination shared by Pentecostals that the gospel of salvation is to be proclaimed to a world 82 facing the imminent second coming of Christ and the kingdom of God. God.8 2 Pentecostals perceive themselves as in discontinuity with the institutioninstitution­ alized and intellectualized church that has displaced the power of the Spirit. The established church, in Pentecostals Pentecostals' perception, had driven the Spirit out of the church and replaced the Spiriťs reliSpirits presence with a reli­ ance on the intellectual and rational abilities of human beings evidenced in speculative thinking, creeds, doctrines, theories, and criticisms that 83 paralyze the believers with skepticism. skepticism.8 3 Since the 1950s and 1960s, however, Pentecostal denominations re­ required more proper theological training as a prerequisite to be ordained 84 as an official pastor, at least in the developed countries. countries.8 4 And while previously women were treated as equals to men—because men-because ministry was derived from the gifts of the Spirit and the Spirit endowed many women with leadership and ministry gifts-now gifts—now women, in most instances, were

(Ellington, "Pentecostalism “Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scriptures;' Scriptures,” 169). The result is that brains" at some scholars "park “park their faith" faith” at the doorstep of academia and "park “park their brains” church's doorstep, as described by Masenya ("Foreign the church’s (“Foreign on Own Horne Home Front?;' Front?,” 393). This practice is unacceptable because of its logical implication that Pentecostalism and biblical scholarship are incompatible. Compare also the remark of McKay ("When (“When relithe Veil is Taken Away;' Away,” 39) that the kind of scholarship practiced today in most reli­ gious academic institutions is incompatible with a charismatic understanding of the Bible. Modem Modern scholarship interprets theology in terms of doctrines, assumptions and hypotheses about the nature of Scripture and revelation, while charismatics practice theology in the light of their experience of Spirit baptism. Pentecostal theology is fundamentally different from other models of theology, requiring from pentecostal theologians to articulate their theology in terms of their experiences of encountering Modem God in dynamic and powerful ways, rather than out of rational reflection. Modern pentecostal scholarship has expanded its horizon from a church-dominated audiaudi­ ence to a dialogue partner with diverse publics in the church, academy, and society (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 131). It is not concemed concerned with Pentecostalism as such, but with Pentecost, or more precisely, the renewing work of the Spirit across all bound­ boundaries, taking pentecostal scholarship to the frontiers of religion, science, technology, politics, economics, and other fields (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 132). 82. Vondey, Pentecostalism, 117. 117 . 83. Vondey, Pentecostalism, 119. 119 . 84. See Nel, "Hundred “Hundred Years ofTheological of Theological Training," Training,” 108-26; Nel, "Development “Development ofTheological of Theological Training and Hermeneutics;• Hermeneutics,” 191-207; 19 1-20 7; and Nel and Van Rensburg, "In“In­ Rationality,” for a discussion of theological training in South tegrating Spirituality and Rationality;' African Pentecostal churches (with emphasis on the AFM ofSA). of SA).

BIBLE READING PRACTICES BIBLE READING PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

chil­ disqualified from the teaching and preaching ministry, except to chil85 dren, other women, and prison inmates. inmates.8 5 Same Some Pentecostals are worried that theological expertise might serve as a substitute for and eventually replace the direct revelation and guidance of the Spirit in a church where theological training is being 86 made conditional to entry into the ministry. ministry.8 6 This view is supported hisby the perception that they share with early Pentecostals, that some his­ torical churches with excellent theological training for their ministers are lacking the "revivalistic “revivalistic spirit:' spirit.” Their "learning" “learning” presumably made them immune to the direct revelation of the power of the gospel demonstrated in signs and wonders. What Pentecostals value is revelation knowledge or a direct revelation of the Spirit through what is read in the Bible but also sometimes of an extra-biblical nature, supported by the working of the Spiriťs Spirits power in the form of miracles of healing, deliverance, and 88 provision. 877 They believe that revelation does not end with the Bible. provision.8 Bible.8 8 Revelation knowledge (sometimes called a rhema word) was viewed as superior to knowledge attained through theological study or the labor of informed exegetical investigation of Scriptures. Pentecostals must acknowledge that revelation knowledge was at times used without recourse to any evaluation against theological knowlknowl­ edge or scientific Biblical exegesis, resulting in several heretical teachings 89 that led to schisms within the Pentecostal movement. movement.8 9To overcome this purproblem, many Pentecostal denominations from the 1960s on chose pur­ posefully to provide training for their pastors in "Bible “Bible Schools" Schools” where that is, driven and initiated the training was characterized as "spiritual" “spiritual” ((that by the Spirit), Bible-centered and Bible-oriented-with Bible-oriented—with the Bible serving 85. Since its inception, the Pentecostal movement recognized the ministry of women as legitimate and as equal with that of men, based on the perception that exex­ perience showed that the Spirit used women in al! all ministries. This was an important witness over claims by cessationist fundamentalists, Evangelicals, historie historic Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox alike, that women are simply to be "silent “silent in the church:' church.” See Robeck, Azusa Street, 25. 86. For example, see Fee, Gospel and Spirit, 84.

87. Some argue that such a revelation always undermines the full and final revela­ revelation contained in Scriptures (Cartledge, "Locating “Locating the Spirit;' Spirit,” 252). Pentecostals would respond that the Spirit as the source of the revelation is the Spirit of Christ, who reveals Christ to them as the full and final revelation of God. See Omenyo and Arthur, "Bible “Bible Says!;' Says!,” 52. 88. Kinyua, Introducing Ordinary African Readers'Hermeneuticsy Readers' Hermeneutics, 301.

Falis in Africa, 389-94. 89. Burger and Nel, Pire Fire Falls

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as the main (and in many instances, the only) textbook, and committed 90 to the "fundamentals “fundamentals of the faith:' faith”9 0 The drive for acceptance by the second and third generation of Pen Pen-tecostals, referred to above, led to Pentecostals seeking an alliance with the broader conservative Protestant tradition, requesting to cooperate with 91 Evangelicals, Evangelicals,91 playing a particularly significant role in the establishment 92 of the National Association of Evangelicals (NAE) in the United States, States,9 2 leading to the "evangelicalization'' “evangelicalization” of Pentecostals (and, eventually, also the "pentecostalization" Evangelicals).933 Pentecostals largely abdicated “pentecostalization” of Evangelicals).9 90. Anderson and Pillay, "Segregated “Segregated Spirit;' Spirit,” 236, and Archer, Pentecostal HermeneutiCy neutic, 393. 91. 91. The Pentecostal movement originated in the United States and American mismis­ Pensionaries' sionaries’ work in South Africa from 1908 led to the establishment ofthe of the classical Pen­ tecostal denominations in South Africa. The decisions and tendencies of the American Pentecostal movement to a large extent determined the history of the movement in South Africa, an influence that is still forming the liturgical and theological developdevelop­ ment of the South African Pentecostal movement along with the direction provided by the successful neo-Pentecostal neo- Pentecostal churches, which, in some instances, draw crowds of thousands of interested persons. Missionaries from Azusa Street arrived in Liberia and Pentecostalism, 114). Angola in 1907 (Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalismy

(17 0 3-17 9 1) gave birth to an evanevan­ 92. In Britain, the revival led by John Wesley (1703-1791) gelical awakening, eventually forming the Evangelical Alliance in London in 1846, aflirming affirming nine doctrinal aflirmations affirmations (among which are the inspiration of the Bible, the Trinity, and the mediation of the divine Christ). In New England, the evangelical awakening led by Jonathan Edwards led to "Old “Old School" School” orthodox theology with its emphasis on the Bible as inerrant and the only source of divine revelation deductively theolodiscerned as objective truth. Charles Finney-together Finney—together with the Princeton theolo­ Hodge-converged with the older gians, B. B. Warfield, A. A. Hodge, and Charles Hodge—converged movements to produce the impetus of the fundamentalist movement (see Oliverio, Theological Hermeneuticst Hermeneutics, 86; Daunton-Fear, "Deliverance “Deliverance and Exorcism," Exorcism,” 75; and Anderson, "Fundamentalism;' “Fundamentalism,” 230). At the St. Louis, MO meeting of the National Conference for United Action Among Evangelicals in 1942, about 10 percent of the 150 150 delegates were Pentecostals. The meeting formed the NAE, and, by the end of the twentieth century, Pentecostals formed the majority, the Assemblies of God with more than 22 million members and the Church of God as well as the Church of the Nazarene with half a million members each respectively. Full participation did not come easily, but it was important for American Pentecostals to gain visibility and respectability among their evangelical peers, leaving behind their reputation as sectarians. The rival organization established by Carl Mclntire in 1942, the American Council of Christian Churches (ACCC)-the (ACCC)—the conservative alternative to the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America and succeeded by the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States-never States—never accepted Pentecostals, applying to them the epithet of "the Evangelicals;' 634-36, and “the tongues group" group” (see Robeck, "National “National Association of Evangelicals,” National Association of Evangelicals, "History"). “History”).

93. Ellington, "Pentecostalism “Pentecostalism and the Authority ofScriptures," of Scriptures,” 151. 15 1.

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their theological agenda to evangelical academic leadership; pentecostal Bible schools now even employed evangelical textbooks wholesale and 94 uncritically. uncritically.9 4 In South Africa, acceptance by Evangelicals did not come easily; some Reformed faculties of theology at state-operated universities did not even welcome students from the pentecostal fray who were interinter­ ested in furthering their theological studies. When Pentecostals did atat­ tend these theological faculties, they were exposed to textbooks from the Reformed perspective and paradigm with no sympathy or understanding for their unique paradigm. Acceptance by and participation in the evangelical community, 95 herhowever, came at a cost to Pentecostals. Pentecostals.9 5 Because they accepted the her­ meneutical angle of the Evangelicals with which they formed an alliance, 96 creating a hybrid hermeneutics of their own, own,9 6 they started interpreting the Bible differently in terms of several important issues. For instance, prior to the Second World War, most Pentecostals were pacifists, pledged to nonviolence, declaring that, in accordance with Scripture and Jesus's Jesus’s example, they could not participate in war and armed resistance which 97 involved the destruction of lives. lives.9 7 Because Jesus teaches his disciples to turn the other cheek, they would not retaliate wrongs done to them but would try to love their enemies. This viewpoint was changed without much discussion, and, in the case of the AFM of SA, without taking any resolution at a representative council of the church, in accordance with the norms of evangelicalism that support patriotism and nationalism. lts Its initial support for women in ministry was also superseded by evangelievangeli­ cal values that do not allow women to partake in the teaching ministry, 98 as already stated. stated.9 8 The involvement of the laity and their democratic participation in worship services and ministry was also sacrificed for the establishment of a professional pastorate and orderly worship services

94. Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 495. 95. Bebbington describes Evangelicalism as a subset of Protestantism, which em­ emphasizes conversionism, that is, the transformation of lives; activism, in spreading the gospel; biblicism, by which is meant a particularly high regard for the Bible; and crucicentrism, that is, a stress on the sacrifice of Christ on the cross, as centra! central to the Britain, 3). gospel message and soteriology (Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britainy

96. Oliverio, "Introduction;' “Introduction,” 3. 97. Robeck, "Assemblies “Assemblies of God and Ecumenical Cooperation;' Cooperation,” 107-50. See Nel, Pacifism and Pentecostals.

98. Poloma, Assemblies oj Welcome;' of God, 119, 119 , and Daniels, "Everyone “Everyone Bids You Welcome,” 235.. 235

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AN AFRICAN PENTECOSTAL A n A f r i c a n P e n t e c o s t a l HERMENEUTIC H e r m e n e u t i c 99 in accordance with evangelical practices. practices." Pentecostalism also shed its early restorationist and premillennialist fervor and became more li.ke like 100 longer-established denominations, denominations,9 100 all because many Pentecostals now 9 accepted the evangelical viewpoint of the verbal inerrancy and proposiproposi­ tional infallibility of Scriptures, aligning itself, to some extent, with the fundamentalist use of the Bible and creating a hybrid between evangelievangeli­ 101 102 calism and fundamentalism, fundamentalism,101 with a particular pentecostal flavor. flavor.102 According to Christian Smith, the biblicist-literalist viewpoint concon­ sists of ten mutually interrelated beliefs that can be summarized as folfol­ lows: that the Bible, in all its details, consists of and is identical with Gods Goďs very own words, written inerrantly in human language; that the Bible reprep­ resents the totality of Goďs Gods communication to and Goďs Gods will for human­ humanity; that the divine will about all the issues relevant to Christian belief and life is contained in the Bible and applicable to the contemporary situation without fail; that any reasonably intelligent person can read the Bible in his or her own language and correctly understand the plain meaning of the text as its first listeners or readers understood the intended meaning of the author, and that all that is needed to interpret the Bible is common sense and the ability to read; that the best way to understand biblical texts is by reading them rigidly in their explicit, plain, most obvious, and literal 103 ; that the significance of any sense, as the author intended it to be read read103; given biblical text can be understood without reliance on creeds, confesconfes­ sions, historical church traditions, or other forms of larger theological

99. Clark, "Contemporary “Contemporary Pentecostal Leadership;' Leadership,” 16. of God, 15. 100. Blumhofer, Assemblies oj

101. Oliverio, Theological Hermeneutics, 85. 102. 102. For fundamentalists, the Bible is a reliable guide to life, containing systematic ofhuman years" of rules for living that have been proven over "6,ooo “6,000 years” human history (in line with most fundamentalists' fundamentalists’ creationist viewpoint). Everything in Scripture is true, and, if they have questions about a specific Scripture-such Scripture—such as, its condoning of slavery, popo­ lygamy, or the use of excessive violence to subject enemies in the Old Testament-they Testament—they believe that prayer, study, and the pastor's pastor’s wisdom will provide an answer (Ammerman, "North-American “North-American Protestant Fundamentalism;' Fundamentalism,” 61). Keener, in his normative work on pentecostal hermeneutics, Spirit Hermeneutics, does not emphasize "iner“iner­ A pentecostal rancy" when he writes about the Bible as authoritative and inspired. A rancy” hermeneutics holds a high but also realist view of Scripture (see Archer, "Spirited “Spirited Conversation about Hermeneutics," Hermeneutics,” 186).

103. Early Pentecostals' Pentecostals’ operative principie principle of interpretation was the conviction that exegesis is best when it is as rigidly litera! literal as credibility can stand (Wacker, "Func“Func­ tions ofFaith," of Faith,” 365).

BIBLE PRACTICES OF PENTECOSTALS BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES OF PENTECOSTALS 104 ; that all related passages of the Bible on any hermeneutical frameworks frameworks104; given subject fit together almost like puzzle pieces into single, unified, internally-consistent bodies of instruction; that what the biblical authors Goďs people at any point in history remains universally valid for taught Gods all Christians at every other time, unless explicitly revoked by subsequent scriptural teaching; that all matters of Christian belief and practice can be learned by sitting down with the Bible and piecing together through 10 5; and that the careful study the clear "biblical" “biblical” truths that it teaches teaches105; Bible teaches doctrine and morals with every affirmation that it makes, so that together those affirmations comprise something like a handbook 106 living.10 6 or textbook for Christian belief and living. Hauerwas and Willimon explain that fundamentalist biblical inin­ terpretation and the phenomenon it reacts to, that is, higher criticism 107 or modernism, are actually two sides of the same coin. Fundamentalcoin.107 Fundamental­ ism is rooted in the Scottish Common Sense school of philosophy in a synthesis with the Baconian method, which asserted that propositions are accessible to any thinking, rational person. lt It led to two fundamental premises concerning knowledge: that Gods Goďs truth was a single, unified order, and that all persons of common sense were capable of knowing 108 lt that truth. truth.108 It implies that any rational person ought to be able to see the common sense of the assertion that God created heaven and earth. All that is needed is that a Christian asserts these kind of propositions which, because they are true, are understandable to anybody with comcom­ 109 mon sense. sense.109 Fundamentalists and modernists shared the philosophical

104. The contention of early fundamentalists was that creeds divided Christians and thus hindered the mission of the church (Hunt, "Dispensationalism;' “Dispensationalism,” 63). 105. In contrast, for early Pentecostals, the Bible was not a past, static deposit of truth, but a present primary source book for living a charismatic life (Byrd, "Paul “Paul Theological Hermeneutics, 42). Ricoeur's Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Theory;' Theory,” 214, and Oliverio, 1heological Their testimonies proved to Pentecostals that God was still working miracles in the present, as in biblical days. The testimony not only served to provide evidence of Goďs God’s miraculous power but also aided in the process of interpreting the Bible. It helped to shape the understanding and expectation of those attending the worship service. In this manner, the Pentecostal community participated in the hermeneutical process. 106. Smith, Bible Made Impossible, 4-5. 107. Hauerwas and Willimon, Resident Aliens, 163. 108. Marsden, Fundamentalism, 12-13. 12 -13 . 109. Hauerwas and Willimon are also of the opinion that the church has no stake beliefbased in the utilitarian defense ofbelief of belief as belief based on the assumption that the Christian Bible's religion is a system ofbelief of belief (Hauerwas and Willimon, Resident Aliens, 22). The Bible’s concern is whether or not we shall be faithful to the gospel of Jesus Christ-the Christ—the truth

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conviction that only what was historically and objectively scientifically verifiable could be considered "true" meaningful. 11110° Faith was “true” and thus meaningful.* 111 evidence.111 based on objective historical evidence. On the other hand, the historical-critical method as higher criticism denies the fundamentalist claim and asserts that the Bible is the product of a long historical process, requiring the application of sophisticated rules and tools of historical analysis to a given biblical text because one could not understand the text without understanding its true historical 112 context. It asked the who, what, where, when, and why questions of context.112 ancient writings, uncovering the original setting and original meaning of

about the way things are now that God is with us through the life, death, and resurresur­ Christ—and not with whether it is still possible for modern modem people to rection of Jesus Christ-and theologkal task is not believe. This leads Hauerwas and Willimon to assert that the theological merely the interpretive matter of translating Jesus into modem modern categories but rather to translate the world to him (Hauerwas and Willimon, Resident Aliens, 24). 110. 110. Torrey, Fundamentals, 83. However, one should distinguish between different hiskinds of truth at each Jeve! level (Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 153). Some things are his­ torically true, others are true expressions of the preaching, teaching, and worshiping needs of the early Christian community, while still others are true expressions of the theologkal theological perspective of the specific author of a biblical book. book

111. funda1 1 1 . Keegan makes the interesting remark that fundamentalism is actually funda­ mentally an Islamk Islamic view of inspiration, although it is not possible to prove a historka! historical Mohamlink (Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 156-57). According to Islam, the prophet Moham­ mystkal experience in whkh med had a kind of mystical which the angel Gabriel revealed to him that Goďs Gods word was inscribed on his heart. He was commanded to recite the word of God ("Koran" means "recitation"). that was on his heart (“Koran” “recitation”). His recitation was written down by others since he could not read or write. Islam is based on this inspired word, coming directly from God without any human interference, reminding us of Jer 1:9, Jer 2:1, and Ezek 2:9-3:3. 219-3:3. During the late seventeenth century, the dominant explanation of inspiration in Protestant orthodoxy became the notion of verba! verbal dktation, dictation, with the Spirit dictating the words of Scripture to the authors. 112. 112 . The starting point of classic "historka! “historical criticism" criticism” is skepticism and doubt. Descartes introduced the principle principie of universa! universal doubt into modem modern thought. The fundamental presupposition of historka! historical criticism of the Bible is systematic doubt, toppling the Bible as the authoritative source of all human knowledge and critkal critical theolunderstanding (Maier, Biblical Hermeneutics, 281 and 284-85), with Christian theol­ ogy as the queen of al! all sciences. For instance, Spinoza regarded the Bible as a human book, Lessing accorded truth actual authority (and not the Bible), and Kant integrated revelation into reason in a fundamental manner. Scripture and revelation is separated in historical historka! criticism: "Holy “Holy Scripture and Word of God are very much to be distindistin­ difference" (J. S. Semler in Maier, Biblical Hermeneuticsy Hermeneutics, guished, because we know the difference” 298). Historka! Historical criticism is intended to be criticism ofthe of the content ofthe of the Bible, leading to a bask basic incompatibility between historka! historical criticism and revelation.

BIBLE READING PRACTICES BIBLE READING PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS 113 although it also often led to speculative conjectures these documents, documents,113 114 meaning.114 It frequently asked quesques­ concerning the material and their meaning. tions that were seldom the ones on which human lives hinged, as Wink asserts, and it was married to a false objectivity, subjected to uncontrolled technologism, separated from a vital faith community, implying that it usefulness.'1 5 It implied that anybody who applies the has outlived its usefulness.115 correct historical tools will be able to understand the text. Both the fundamentalist and the higher critic assume that it is possible to understand the biblical text without training, without moral transformation, and without the forgiveness and confession that come about within the church. In an unconscious manner, both try to make everyone religious and able to understand and appropriate the Bible, without everyone's mmunity of which the Bible everyone’s being a member of the co community 116 is the sacred Scripture. Scripture.116 In contrast, Pentecostals regard the authority of Scripture not as a theological proposition but rather as a transformation­ transformation117 al experience of the Holy Spirit Spirit117 which happens every time when one is seized by the text. Texts change people through personal engagement.

113 . The practice of interpretation in ancient Greek times used a typology of 113. seven questions: Who (is the author) (quis/persona)? What (is the subject matter of the text) (quid/materia)? (quid!materia)? Why (was the text written) (eur/causa)? (cur/causa)? How (was the text composed) (quomodo/modus)? When (was the text written or published) (quando/ tempus)? tempus)7. Where (was the text written or published) (ubi!loco)? (ubi/loco)? By which means (was faculatibus/facultas)? the text written or published) puhlished) (quibus faculatibus/facultas )7 (Detel, Geist und Versteheriy 84-97). hen, 114. 114 . Efird, How to Interpret the Bible, 10. 115 . Wink, Bible in Human Transformation, 15. 115.

Aliens, 163. 116. 116 . Hauerwas and Willimon, Resident Aliens^ 117. 117 . Forma) Formal doctrinal statements on the authority of Scripture among conservaconserva­ tive churches arose out of debates which were not immediately important or relevant within the Pentecostal movement. When they adopted statements of scriptural auau­ thority, Pentecostals did so to gain a wider acceptance among Evangelicals and the conservative Christian community. Actually, the authority of Scripture is secondary in importance for Pentecostals to the experiences of an authoritative God in and through the Bible. Where Evangelicals use "proofs" “proofs” for inspiration to support a sagging arguargu­ ment for biblical authority, Pentecostals begin with an authoritative encounter with God and then seek to describe biblical inspiration in the only terms available to them, Ellingthose of conservative evangelicalism, with a limited amount of success (see Elling­ ton, "Pentecostalism “Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scriptures; Scriptures,” 152). Pentecostals experience persona) experiences of Goďs miracles and the mystery of personal Gods presence, experienced and mediated through the biblical text (among other ways), and, therefore, value knowing by perception over knowing by proof. As a result, they prefer to interpret Scripture by encounter more than exegesis (Davies, "What “What Does it Mean to Read?;' Read?,” 254).

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And while exegesis is important (or even indispensable) for work.ing working on the text-horizon, grasping the texťs texts significance is another matter and just as important. The Spirit makes the knowledge of God a possibility 118 in and through an "I-Thou" lt “I-Thou” encounter. encounter.118 It is the transformative experiexperi­ ence of conversion, that inner work of the Spirit in one's ones life, and a daily life lived in the power of the Spirit that bears witness to the power and 119 Scripture.119 authority of Scripture. While the doctrine of the premillennial rapture of the church taught by many fundamentalists who supported dispensationalism with 120 its pessimistic and apocalyptic premillenarian tendencies tendencies120 had already 121 been admired and accepted by Pentecostals, Pentecostals,121 a major difference be118. 118 . Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 240. 119. Solivan, "Sources.» “Sources,” 137. 120. Dispensationalisrn Dispensationalism is related to a wider culture of despair brought about by the global conflict, revolutionary upheavals, and econornic economic disasters that characterized the nineteenth century (Hunt, "Dispensationalisrn;' “Dispensationalism,” 62). 121. 12 1. Dispensationalisrn Dispensationalism accepts that God is pursuing three distinct prograrns: programs: one for the Jews, one for the church, and one for the nations. This distinction is based on 11 Cor 10:32, irnplying implying separate econornies economies for the different groups. Goďs God’s dealings with Israel are totally different and separate frorn from his dealings with the church and the nations. God adrninistered administered law to Israel, grace to the church, and punishrnent punishment to the world. Scripture never rningles princi ples oflaw mingles the principles of law and grace. The law of Moses-the Moses—the Torah-is rneant for a distinct people, Israel, and for a distinct period, frorn Torah—is a unity, meant from prornised land (Deut 6:1), until it was Sinai (Exod 19:1), and for a distinct place, the promised nailed to the cross and was canceled by the death of Christ (Col 2:14). The church, established by grace, began at Pentecost and will cease at its rapture to the rnillennial millennial A large part of early Pentereign of Christ (prernillennialisrn) (premillennialism) (Waltke, Dance, 486). A costalisrn prernillennialisrn of dispensationalists in their eschatological costalism adapted the premillennialism expectations. Another feature of dispensationalisrn dispensationalism is that it separates church and state and regards states as being governed by the eternal moral rnoral law, which they do not Commandments. Though the nations are part of God’s Goďs unified equate with the Ten Cornrnandrnents. kingdorn, they belong to the "world," kingdom, “world,” which stands in black-and-white opposition to Disthe church and is under the rule of Satan (Luke 4:5-6) (Waltke, Dance, 487). Dis­ pensationalists are concerned with saving the church out of the world before the irnim­ rninent transforrning culture. Pentecostalisrn minent rapture rather than with transforming Pentecostalism also inherited this ecclesiology and practice of separation frorn from the world (see Nel, "Pentecostalisrn “Pentecostalism and the Early Church"). Church”). After the church is raptured, God will again restore Israel to prornised land for their rightful position as the people of God, and they will live in the promised a thousand years while the church will reign with Christ over the Jews, the subjects of the kingdom. kingdorn. The kingdorn kingdom will be adrninistered administered according to the provisions of the new covenant, which consist of the substance of the unified Mosaic law, including its prorncerernonies terrns of it containing better prom­ ceremonies and food regulations, but differing in terms ises and provisions. In the millennial rnillennial kingdorn, kingdom, the nations will subject thernselves themselves to the rule of perfected Israel (but note the distinction between the nations and the

BIBLE READING PRACTICES BIBLE READING PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

tween fundamentalists and Pentecostals was concerned with Pentecos­ Pentecostals' claim that miracles and supernatural interventions still happen in tals’ contemporary times. times.*122 122 Fundamentalists and dispensationalists revered the appearance of miracles described in the Bible as one of the bedrock fundamentals of the faith, but they limited it to a sub-dispensation of the church age in which the charismata and supernatural interventions ococ­ curred, which ceased with the closure of the canon of the New Testament at the end of the apostolic era ((the the so-called "cessasionist viewpoint" that “cessasionist viewpoint” 123 opposes the noncessationist or continuationist view).123 view). For Pentecostals, the reappearance of the charismata was perceived as a sign of the restora­ restoration of the apostolic era and the early church; a sign that the latter rain would herald the rapture of the church before the end of the age. Keener questions early Pentecostals Pentecostals' allegorization of Joel’s Joel's "latter rain" (Joe! “latter rain” (Joel 2:23) to refer to the contemporary outpouring of the Spirit, although true. 124 The idea was that their eschatological expectations as such rang true.124 the showers of spring were followed in Palestine by the showers of auau­ 125 tumn, the latter rain, which were greater than the showers of spring. spring.125 According to Acts 2:17-21, 2 :17 -2 1, Peter recognizes that Jesus's Jesus’s followers now live in a special, biblically promised time—the time-the "last -when God “last days" days”—when would pour out God’s Goďs Spirit and save all who call on the name of Jesus, 126 restoring the church of the last days. "Restoration" days.126 “Restoration” is then interpreted church) (Waltke, Dance between God and Humanity, Humanity, 488). 122. Karkkii.inen, Karkkainen, "Pentecostal Hermeneutics;' Hermeneutics,” 76-115. 7 6 -115 . 123. Keener, Spirit Hermeneuticsy Hermeneutics, 54. Continuationism means that interest in bibli­ biblical texts is not simply for what they teach about ancient history or ideas, even though it may be intriguing, but rather because contemporary readers expect to share the kind of relationship with God and spiritual experience discovered and described in Scripture (Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 274). Hard cessationists posit radical discontinuity between biblical miracles and the present day, despite periodic "special providences," as cessationists describe events that look like miracles (Keener, “special providences,” "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 275). Most cessationists rule out only regular supernatural giftings, not special divine activity. This viewpoint rules out a contempocontempo­ rary practice of prophecy, interpretation of tongues, and other charismata of powers and miracles (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 321). That most Protestants are no longer cessationists is a tribute to the effectiveness of the Pentecostal movement (Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 275). Many cessationists argue that they believe miracles could happen but they have not seen any. 124. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation," Interpretation,” 277. 125. Torrey, Fundamentals, 138. 126. Pentecostals rightly grasped the sense of eschatological existence and anticipaanticipa­ tion that characterizes the church age, the period between the first and second comings

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in terms of a number of characteristics: a longing for the revelation of the power of God as a sign with eschatological significance; the importance of the biblical significance of Pentecost as described in Acts 2; tangible evidences such as conversions, powerful experiences of sanctification, and moving experiences of being filled with the Spirit; a tension with traditional Christianity; and the expectation of the unity of the church, with God recollecting Goďs Gods people from all denominations and walks of 127 life. The latter rain motif provided the Pentecostal movement a sense life.127 of having a key role in the approaching climax of history as a means by Lord. 128 which God was preparing the "bride" “bride” of Christ to meet her Lord.128 To define fundamentalism is not straightforward. Evangelical funfun­ damentalism is the result of the Protestant denial of any institution, inin­ cluding pope, prelate, church, or synod to interpret the Bible for others, and the right of the individua! individual reader to interpret Scriptures, necessarily placing weight on the text itself to instruct readers. Martin Luther re­ responded to Pope Leo XXIII's XXIII’s bull, Exsurge Domine, which claimed that he interpreted Scripture otherwise than the Holy Spirit demanded because he was inspired by his own sense of ambition, by declaring that Scripture ought to be interpreted in the most certain, simple, and clear way, with Scripture interpreting itself (sui ipsius interpres), interpresf testing, judging, and illuminating all things.129 things. 129 Vanhoozer paraphrazes Luther's Luthers meaning by arguing that the meaning of Scripture is clear for those who attended 130 to the grammar of the text and to the leading of the Spirit. Obscure Spirit.130 passages should be read in the light of clearer ones. John Calvin, in the same spirit, argued that the meaning and authority of the Bible did not depend on the church. The presupposition is that the Bible is clear in its meaning and that any reader can understand it if it is read in translation of Christ, as attested to by, inter alia: Rom 12:2; 11 Cor 2:9-10; 10:11; 10 :11; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 1:4; Heb 1:2; 6:5; 11 Pet 1:20 (Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 277). 127. Albrecht and Howard, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Spirituality," Spirituality,” 245-47. See Nel, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Ecurnenical Irnpulses." Ecumenical Impulses.” 128. Dayton, 1heological Pentecostalism, 28. Pentecostals were drawn to Theological Roots oj of Pentecostalismy prernillennial aspirations by two factors: first, the spiritual condition of the rnainline premillennial mainline denorninations denominations (described by John Nelson Darby) as apostate churches that conserconser­ vative Christians should leave as soon as possible, and second, the persecution they rnainline churches, includexperienced at the hand of the Christians associated with mainline includ­ ing fundarnentalists, fundamentalists, enhancing pentecostal apocalyptic tendencies and identity of the "true “true church" church” (Hunt, "Dispensationalisrn;' “Dispensationalism,” 62). 129. Starling, Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship, 8-9.

17 1. 130. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning?, 171.

BIBLE PENTECOSTALS BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS

and with common sense. However, this does not adequately discount the diverse literary forms that the Bible contains, requiring different reading strategies, or that translations are, to a certain extent, already interpretainterpreta­ tions, transposed onto the text by the translator. Extreme Protestants do not possess a "church" “church” to govern interpretation because they deny instituinstitu­ tional authority, "all “all the while possessing a de facto institutional structure 131 which is all the more powerful for being hidden:' lt hidden.”131 It should also be kept in mind that Bible translation is already an exercise in power and control, especially in colonial Africa.132 Africa. 132 The fundamentalism discussed here refers to a movement among 133 theologically conservative Protestant churches that organized them­ themconservative133 selves into the American Bible League in 1902 1902 and the Worlďs Worlds Christian Fundamentals Association in 1919, be1919, based on information published be­ tween 1910 19 10 and 1915 19 15 in twelve pamphlets entitled 1he The Fundamentals, 134 edited by A. C. Dixon and R. A. Torrey. The movement is grounded Torrey.134 135 the virgin birth and in five points: the verbal inerrancy of Scriptures, Scriptures,135 deity of Jesus Christ, the substitutionary atonement, the physical resur­ resur136 hodily return to the earth in the near future. rection of Jesus, and his bodily future.136 It found strong support among laypersons and in revivalist circles, but, at the same time, it was a scholarly movement from the beginning, typical of the history of theology in the United States ((and, and, indeed, partially even of the intellectual interchange between North America and Europe). It 131. 13 1. Boone, Bible Tel/s Tells 1hem Them So, 18. 132. Kinyua, lntroducing Readers' Hermeneutics^ Hermeneutics, 6-7. Introducing Ordinary African Readers’ 133. It must be emphasized that "fundamentalist" “fundamentalist” is not synonymous with "conser“conser­ vative." Fundamentalists share with conservative Christians support for "traditional" vative.” “traditional” doctrines like the virgin birth of Christ, the reality of Jesus's Jesus’s miracles and his resurresur­ rection, and his eventual return. However, fundamentalists are also found among the Evangelicals, who are defined as those who accept that only an individua! individual decision to follow Jesus will suffice for salvation and who seek to "win “win souls for Christ," Christ,” testifying to the necessity of a life-changing decision to become a Christian, leading to a sense of a persona! personal and intimate communion with Jesus (Ammerman, "North-American “North-American Protestant Fndamentalism,” Fndamentalism," 57). 134. Synan, "Fundamentalism," “Fundamentalism,” 324. It influenced Christian churches in other parts of the world, including South Africa. 135. There exists a range of conventional, modem modern evangelical positions within and beyond inerrancy (see Merrick, Garrett, and Gundry, Five Views on Biblical lnerrancy). Inerrancy). When they joined evangelicalism in the 1940s, some Pentecostals defined their belief more narrowly as "inerrancy," “inerrancy,” and not simply inspiration, an intrinsically pentecostalHermeneutics, 364). friendly concept (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics^

Movement, 49-72. 136. Synan, "Fundamentalism," “Fundamentalism,” 325, and Ellington, Evangelical Movementy

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served as an act of defense and therefore possessed a basically defensive and apologetic character. It worked mainly on systematic-theological procedure. 137 In premises and was therefore inclined toward deductive procedure.137 a sense, it is the most persistent surviving example of reformational-precritical Scripture interpretation. An eschatological schema that interprets history and prophecy in terms of seven periods or "dispensations" “dispensations” according to the different methods of Goďs God’s dealings with humankind also became integral to the 138 fundamentalist movement. Dispensational theology was imported movement.138 from the Plymouth Brethren movement in England through the teaching of John Nelson Darby, where it thrived as part of the American revivalist movement. 139 movement.139 Dispensationalists use a distinctive method of textual division and classification whereby seven dispensations, or ages, are distinguished in the biblical material. The dispensations are the following: of innocence or freedom, prior to Adams Adam's fall (Gen 2:8-17; 25); of conscience, from Adam's fall to Noah (Gen 3:10-18; Adams 3:10 -18 ; Rom 2:11-15); 2 :11- 15 ) ; of government, from Noah to Abraham (Gen 9:6; Rom 13:1); of patriarchal rule or promise, from Abraham to Moses (Gen 12:1-3; 12 :1-3 ; 22:17-18; 22:17 -18 ; Gal 3:15-19); 3:15-19 ); of the Mosaic Law, from Moses to Christ (Exod 20:1-26; Eph 3:1-9); of grace in the current church age (Rom 5:20-21; Eph 3:1-9); and of a literal, earthly, thousand-year millennial kingdom that has yet to come but soon will be inaugurated (Isa 9:6-7; Isa 11:1-9; 11 :1- 9 ; Rev 20:16). The church age is the age of grace ending with the rapture of the church and the second coming of Christ. Each of the dispensations represent a different way in which God deals with humankind, specifically a different testing of humanhuman­ kind. Its beliefs about Israel are also important in order to understand dispensationalism. There is a fundamental distinction between Israel and the church; they represent two peoples of God with different destinies, underlying a fundamental distinction between the law and grace that are mutually exclusive. The New Testament church is a parenthesis in Goďs Gods plan which was not foreseen by the Old Testament. And there is a distincdistinc­ tion between the rapture and the second coming of Christ; the rapture

137. Maier, Biblical Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 362. 138. Initially developed by A. C. Gaebelin (1861-1945) (18 61-19 45) and C. I. Scofield (1843-1921). (1843-19 21). 139. Anderson, "Fundamentalism;' “Fundamentalism,” 231.

BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OF PENTECOSTALS BIBLE OF PENTECOSTALS

of the church at Christs Chrisťs coming in the air (1 Thess 4:17) precedes the 140 second coming to the earth by seven years of tribulation. tribulation.140 Apparent intertextual contradictions are often resolved by identifyidentify­ 141 ing dispensational differences. Fundamentalists believe the Bible to be differences.141 142 perspicuous and its meaning deducible by the common reader.142 reader. In most cases, the meaning the plain person gets from reading the Bible is the correct one. This method of biblical interpretation is called literalism. If the meaning of the Bible contradicts known facts or flies in the face of logic, then the facts are to be disregarded and the logic ignored.143 ignored. 143 The Bible is given a centra! central position, signifying the high status of the text. To demonstrate its centrality, the pulpit stands high, in the center of the sanctuary, and sermons are expository, based on a primary text that is 144 passages.144 Fundamentalists are cross-referenced with other scriptural passages. anti-scientific and anti-intellectual in the sense that they are unwilling 140. See Hunt, "Dispensationalism:' “Dispensationalism.” 141. 14 1. Boone, Bible Tel/s Tells 1hem Them So, 13.

Ifbelievers 142. If believers are encouraged to read the Bible in a devotional sense, there must be a presumption that the words of the Bible are perspicuous-that perspicuous—that is, clear enough that all can understand what they say without needing the counsel of a scholar at their Hermeneutics, 215). elbow to instruct them (Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, Martin Luther especially affirmed the principle, principie, although he admitted that many texts in the Bible were obscure and abstruse. However, these texts in no way hindered a knowledge of the essential subject matter of the Bible, and there existed no need of anyone's anyone’s history of tradition to interpret those things that were necessary for salvasalva­ tion and growth in Christ. The Bible was clear and perspicuous on al! all these things. In the words of the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), "Ali “All things in Scripture are not alike plain in themselves; yet those things which are necessary to be known, believed and observed for salvation, are so clearly propounded, and opened in some place of Scripture or other, that not only the learned, but the unlearned, in a due use of the ordinary means, may attain unto a sufficient understanding of them" them” (quoted in Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, 216-17). 2 16 -17). It demonstrates the basic intelligibility and non-contradictory nature of Scriptures (Mueller-Vollmer, "Introduction:• “Introduction,” 2). 143. Whalen, "Literalism:• “Literalism,” 280-81. Keener relates the remark of a visiting pastor that, after forty days of fasting, had achieved a particular eschatological view that pretribulational Christians would escape the tribulation while posttribulational ChrisChris­ tians would stay behind to evangelize the world. Keener retorted that even forty days of fasting would not coerce from the Spirit something that contradicted the biblical Hermeneutics, 101). text and that the Spirit had already inspired (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 144. Boone, Bible Tel/s Tells 1hem Them So, 13. Fundamentalists prefer the Schofield Reference Bible (1967) and the more recent Ryrie KJV K JV Study Bible (1978), which contains extenexten­ sive footnotes explaining "the “the true intent" intent” of each passage of Scripture (Ammerman, "North-American “North-American Protestant Fundamentalism;' Fundamentalism,” 62).

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to accept the principal assumptions and conclusions of recent science, although they accept Francis Bacon's Bacons principles of careful observation and classification of facts, but with an accompanying underdeveloped 145 They wed these princip les to "common historical consciousness. consciousness.145 principles “common sense" sense” which affirms the ability to apprehend the facts clearly ("Scottish (“Scottish ComCom­ mon Sense Realism”), “facts” drawn from Realism"), requiring them to harmonize "facts" the Bible and scientific data, forming the unspoken assumptions of funfun­ 146 damentalist thinking, along with their faith in the Bible. Bible.146 With the Bible as the only textbook for interpreting the events of history and as a manual for developing true faith and doctrine, dispensationalist-fundamentalist theology holds an inerrant and infallible view of Scripture and utilizes 147 grammatical-historical exegesis. The original documents of the Bible exegesis.147 had no errors whatsoever, and all parts of the writings are absolutely, literliter­ 148 ally true, not only religiously but also in historical and scientific detail. detail.148 149 After the Scopes trial in 1925, 1925,149 American fundamentalists re­ retreated from the seminaries and universities and built their own Bible institutes, where their faith was shielded from modernist theological "heresies" politi“heresies” and where, in many instances, they developed forms of politi­ cal radicalism, supporting either anti-Semitism or pro-Zionism, radical 150 anti-communism, separatism, and several conspiracy theories. The theories.150 145. It states unequivocally that science could uncover nothing that contradicts the Scripture and Scripture is a "storehouse “storehouse of facts" facts” (Charles Hodge, quoted in Ammerman, "North-American Fundamentalism," 72). Unfortunately, it is true that “North-American Protestant Fundamentalism,” much of contemporary Christian fundamentalism is ignorant, populist, and hostile to intellectual theology, in contrast to its original roots. It is only loosely connected with institutional churches and effectively functions through individua! individual organizations on their own (Barr, "Fundamentalism;' “Fundamentalism,” 364). “North-American Protestant Fundamentalism,” 146. Ammerman, "North-American Fundamentalism;' 64, and Marsunden, Fundamentalism, 7-8. They argue that the only thing necessary for proper un­ Goďs word is the implementation of common sense while reading it derstanding of Gods (Cherok, "Common “Common Sense Philosophy," Philosophy,” 107). 147. Poythress, Understanding Dispensationalism, Dispensationalismy 142, and Hutchison, "Bible “Bible Study," Study,” 63-64. Historical-cultural investigation is concerned with the author and intended readers, the time period of the writing, the occasion for the writing, socialcultural customs and religious beliefs of the period, societal structures, religious and political centers of power, geographical and physical features, economic structures, and the historical referential meaning of words (Archer, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical InterInter­ pretation;' 180). pretation,”

148. Efird, How to Interpret the Bible, 5. 149. Russell, "Biological “Biological Science and Christian Thought:' Thought,” 51-56. 150. Fundamentalism has become "a “a worldwide reaction against many of the mixed offerings of modernity" modernity” (Marty, Religion and Republic, 299) and appeals to

BIBLE READING PENTECOSTALS BIBLE READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS

Pentecostals followed suit and established Bible Schools, as will be dede­ scribed in the next section. After 1960, i960, the term "fundamentalist" “fundamentalist” is reserved for separatist groups, excluding conservatives in most mainline denominations. denominations.*151 151 Fundamentalists find their strongest ally in the pietistic tradition and revivalist movement, where it receives popular support in the grassroots 152 evangelicalism that revivalism produces. Today, the term is used in produces.152 the United States mostly to refer to Baptist dispensationalists and some churches forming the Holiness movement.153 movement. 153 They view cultural factors as subversive of biblical bibli cal faith and strongly reject the world with its secusecu­ larism and humanism as antithetical to Gods Goďs revealed truth in the Bible. They are active in mounting campaigns against pornography, abortion, and those contemporary forces which break down and undermine the 154 traditional family. Another semantic shift in the word "fundamentalfamily.154 “fundamental­ ism" ism” encompasses "fundamentalisms" “fundamentalisms” in other religions. The term "fun“fun­ damentalism'' damentalism” is increasingly being applied to phenomena found in other faiths, notably Islam, but also Judaism, Hinduism and aspects of Roman 155 Catholicism. The semantic shift has led to many people perceiving Catholicism.155 "fundamentalism'' funda“fundamentalism” in these extreme terms (Islamic or Hindu funda­ mentalism), equating it with "Christian “Christian fundamentalism;' fundamentalism,” a notion that clouds any discussion of the term. These forms of fundamentalisms have nothing to do with the original Christian movement of the early 1920s and their identification by way of the term "fundamentalism" “fundamentalism” is causing a lot of semantic and pragmatic confusion. those looking for "authoritarian “authoritarian solutions." solutions.” Fundamentalists are less motivated by religious belief as such than by psychological disposition, social forces, and historka! historical circumstances. It is best defined as "militantly “militantly anti-modernist Protestant evangelicalevangelical­ ism" ism” (Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Cu/ture, Culture, 4). lts Its present resurgence is partially due to contemporary fundamentalists' fundamentalists’ skilful use of the mass media (Marty, Religion and Republic, 300 300). ). The history of fundamentalism contains many instances of the persecution of denominational leaders and theologians suspected of "modern“modern­ ist" ist” tendencies (Anderson, "Fundamentalism;' “Fundamentalism,” 230). 151. 15 1. Many conservatives became disillusioned with the negative and separatist stance of the fundamentalists and started formulating a new approach to defining the theological agenda, exemplified by inter alia Carl F. Henry and Harold J. Ockenga with their "new “new evangelicalism" evangelicalism” (Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism, 243). 152. Anderson, "Fundamentalism;' “Fundamentalism,” 231. 153. Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism, 4. “Fundamentalism,” 232. 154. Anderson, "Fundamentalism;' 155. Barr, "Fundamentalism;' “Fundamentalism,” 365.

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What is important is to distinguish between fundamentalism as an epithet and as a phenomenon. When it is used as an epithet, theologitheologi­ cal groups brand each other with it. As a phenomenon, fundamentalism refers to the attitudes of individuals and groups that, in an exclusivist and sectarian manner, consider their position as the only standard of truth, rejecting all other viewpoints and perspectives in advance, without any 156 further discussion. This attitude is not confi.ned discussion.156 confined to theology or religion but can even occur in scientific endeavors and includes people from didi­ 157 verse viewpoints, from extremely conservative to liberal. liberal.157 In conclusion, fundamentalism can be defined for purposes of comparison with the Pentecostals as a religious attitude in conservative circles that display the following characteristics: it views the Bible as the 158 absolute source of authority and focuses on the verbal inerrancy of the authority158 159 Bible Bible159;; it is negative toward and feels threatened by modernist theology, especially German higher critical views, and science, especially the theotheo­ 160 ry of evolution ; it is highly exclusivist and sectarian and functions with evolution160; the supposition that its theology contains the whole and full truth. The basis of faith (and truth) is something given; it does not lie in the church as an institution (contra Roman Catholicism) and it is neither a matter 156. "Sectarian" “Sectarian” refers to the claim that one holds the exclusive right to be doctrinally correct. "Truth" “Truth” was, at times, seen as supposing the view that it represents auau­ tonomous, value-free research. Postmodernism has rightly helped us to see that such a al! of us approach the world in particular ways and with particular view is a myth, that all foundational commitments. True progress can only be made if scholars bring their foundational commitments out into the open and foster a genuine pluralism in which different foundational commitments are allowed to come to expression and real, indepth dialogue can begin (Bartholomew, Introducing Biblical Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 5). Keener Hermeneutics, 67-98). Pen­ Penagrees and argues for global readings (see Keener, Spirit HermeneuticSy tecostal foundational commitments include that the Bible contains the word of God when the Spirit reveals the truth to the praying, meditating believer. In studying the Bible, the aim is not to gain knowledge but rather to encounter the One who is the truth, the life, and the door (John 14:6 and 8:32). One needs the interpretations of other faith communities to compare with one's ones own interpretation in order to ascerascer­ tain the validity of one’s one's reading. 157. See Barr, "Fundamentalism." “Fundamentalism.” 158. "The “The one unifying factor in all these movements, without a doubt, is their common adherence to the basic authority of the Scripture as the only dependable guide for faith and practice" practice” (Falwell, Fundamentalist Phenomenon, 53). For a brief Mode/s for but informative outline of the crisis of biblical authority, see Goldingay, Models

Scripture, 117-21. Scripturey 117 - 2 1. 159. Packer, Fundamentalismy Fundamentalism, 32. 160. Ammerman, "North-American “North-American Protestant Fundamentalism;' Fundamentalism,” 56.

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of reasoned or dispassionate discussion nor something to be worked out or discovered, but something already known and to be proclaimed with certainty, clearly exemplified in the Bible, and which must be accepted 161 without question or qualification. qualification.161 As stated, the moderate fundamentalists who distanced themselves establishing the NAE in 1943, accepted from Carl Mclntire and his ACCC, establishingthe the Pentecostals, marking the beginning of a new era of cooperation with evangelicalism that replaced the reputation of the previous, discredited movement. In the process, it influenced the way Pentecostals interpreted the Bible, as they adopted evangelical statements about the inspiration of Scripture uncritically, based on 11 Timothy 3:15-6, 2 Peter 1:20-21, 1:20 -21, John Scrip­ 10:35, and Matthew 5:17. Land emphasizes that, for Pentecostals, Scrip-that is, the dynamic interaction of written ture is always "Spirit-Word" “Spirit-Word”—that 162 The same Spirit who inspired and preserved the text and the Spirit. Spirit.162 Bible still illuminates, teaches, guides, convicts, and transforms people when they meet the word, Jesus Christ, in the pages of the Bible through the working of the Spirit. The word is alive, quick, and powerful because of the Spirit's Spiriťs ministry. The relation of the Spirit to the Bible is based on that of Spirit to Christ; as the Spirit formed Christ in Mary, so the Spirit uses the Bible to form Christ in believers (and vice versa). The authority of the Spirit stands above the authority of the Bible; the Spirit was prior to the Bible, and without the Spirit, there would have been no word, incarincar­ 163 If nate or written. Without the word, there would have been no church. church.163 the Bible is to become the word of God in the lives of contemporary readread­ 164 ers, the letter is going to have to become alive by means of the Spirit. Spirit.16 4 In other words, the Bible is not of itself the word of God, but becomes the word of God to the reader or hearer through the action and participation of the Holy Spirit in a continuation of inspiration, introducing the reader 165 to the word in an encounter that is transformative. transformative.165 Pentecostals agree 161. 16 1. Barr, "Fundamentalism;• “Fundamentalism” 363-4. 162. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, 100. 163. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, 106. 164. Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics;• Hermeneutics,” 4. 165. The Spirit serves as the ultimate arbiter of meaning and significance, the selfself­ authenticating key in the hermeneutic process (Anderson, "Hermeneutical “Hermeneutical Processes of Pentecostal-type," inPentecostal-type,” 3). In discussing inspiration, Keegan distinguishes between in­ spiration located in the author of the text, in the text itself, or in the reading of the text (Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 153). The last option-inspiration option—inspiration in the reading of the text-is text—is supported by reader-response criticism which maintains that the text is a virtual entity that comes into being in the act of reading when the reader actualizes

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that the Bible is divinely inspired, but they do not stop there in relation to inspiration. Rather, the community has a role within the interpretive process, and the Holy Spirit works through that community by inspiring it to make right decisions, in accordance with how Pentecostals interpret Acts 15 .* . 166 166 The Bible is the authoritative word of God because the same Spirit who inspired its writers meets us today in its pages. Biblical authorauthor­ ity does not rest in the text but rather in the God that we meet and know in and through the text.167 text. 167 Scripture is not viewed in the static sense of received, true propositions, simply to be believed and applied, but as the 168 locus of Goďs The Bible does not merely God’s continuing act of revelation. revelation.168 describe believers’ believers' experiences of God; it enables them to have experiexperi­ ences with God, implying that the Bible is the primary reference point for 169 God.16 9 community with God. If Scripture contains the word of God, no one can stand before it as a mere spectator. It must be read and interpreted in the light of the same Spirit by whom it was written.170 written. 17 Following the secularization of academic biblical studies as a part of Western academics, it has become acceptable to divorce biblical interpretation from a spiritual, prayerful, and meditative reading. Pentecostals accept that the obedience of faith cannot be confined to the cultic sphere alone; the practice of Christian scholars who inhabit two unrelated worlds-the worlds—the world of the church and the world of the lecture room—is room-is incompatible with faithful living. In the first, a close walk with Christ is acknowledged while in the other, Christ is unwelcome, where reason and neutrality reign.171 reign. 171 Pentecostal

°

the literary text. I suggest that pentecostal practice finds its connection here, with Pen­ Pentecostals supporting the inspiration of the Bible in terms of its text, but hearing the word of God only when the text is actualized and appropriated to their contemporary situation. The word of God happens or takes place at the nexus of text and context with the canonical text becoming the word of God over and over again-as again—as situations change and as the Spirit wills (Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 155). 166. Cartledge, "Text-Community-Spirit;' “Text-Community-Spirit,” 133. 167. Ellington, "Pentecostalism “Pentecostalism and the Authority ofScriptures:' of Scriptures,” 157. 168. Cartledge, "Text-Community-Spirit;' “Text-Community-Spirit,” 134. 169. The role of the Spirit is to use the witness of the original meaning of the Bible, that is, what is and does not change, in new ways and ever new settings, creating sigsig­ nificance for contemporary readers and working out salvation in history (Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics," Hermeneutics,” 16). 170. As verbalized by Jerome, St. Jerome: Commentary on Galatians, 207.

171. Hermeneutics, 45. 17 1. Bartholomew, Introducing Biblical Hermeneutics,

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hermeneutics requires an integration of ecclesial and academic interpreinterpre­ tation, both rooted in a profound sense of Scripture as Goďs God’s word. From the 1970s, new developments led to the change from "Bible “Bible School" School” training to proper theological training and the establishment of 172 theological colleges, later called seminaries. The movement accepted seminaries.172 that its leaders and pastors should be sufficiently trained to lead believers in a responsible manner, leading to an integrated, pentecostal liberal eduedu­ 173 cation and a pastorate consisting of full-time professional pastors.174 pastors. 174 cation173 Eventually, theological training was made compulsory for anyone concon­ sidering to enter the ordained ministry and, as a result, the gap between the "clergy" broadened. 175 “clergy” and "laity" “laity” broadened.175 It is necessary to discuss the period between 1940 and 1970, and the development of pentecostal hermeneutics.

172. See, for example, Reddy, 'J\.postolic Africa;' 160, and “Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa,” Chinappan, In Covenant Bible College, Collegey4. 173. See Turnage, "Early Axis;' 4-29, especially 21. “Early Church and the Axis,”

Pire Falls Falis in Africa, 393. 174. Burger and Nel, Fire 175. Goff, Measuring the Clergy/Laity Gap, 91.

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How Pentecostal Hermeneutics H erm eneutics Developed Early Pentecostalism's Pentecostalisms spirituality was charismatic with an emphasis on the participation of every believer dueto due to an acceptance of the prophethood and priesthood of every believer, implying that, through the Spirit, each one was endowed with unique equipment for the edification of the body of Christ (1 Cor 14:26) and eschatologically driven by an urgency to reach the world with the gospel before the imminent second comcom­ ing.176 ing.176 Their spirituality determined how they interpreted the Bible, with an emphasis on supernatural interventions and the expectation of the rapture that could occur at any moment.177 moment. 177 The Bible was read in order to experience Chrisťs Christs presence, empowering and allowing all believers witness. 178 Everyone participated in the proclamation of to preach and witness.178 179 Members would affirm the message and through persona! personal testimonies. testimonies.179 their approval with what was said in their meetings by saying, ''.Amen" “Amen” and "Hallelujah;' “Hallelujah,” and, in many instances, someone listening would be moved to stand up and participate in the service. The worship service 180 Sermons-and was not the responsibility of a professional. professional.180 Sermons—and even some 181 testimonies-ended with an altar call, testimonies—ended call,181 and interested parties would be

176. The early Pentecostals saw the soon coming of Christ as the prime motivation for the urgent task of preparing the world for the cataclysmic event, and prophecies and interpretation of tongues as well as visions affirmed this expectation (Anderson, Spreading Fires, 221). 221). The Azusa Street Mission's Mission’s magazine, Apostolic Faith, writes in ‘“Jesus is coming very soon; soon,* is the message that the Holy Ghost is speaking today 1908: '"Jesus through nearly everyone that receives the baptism with the Holy Ghost. Many times they get the interpretation of the message spoken in an unknown language and many times others have understood the language spoken. Many receive visions ofJesus of Jesus and soon: Two saints recently in Minneapolis who fell under the He says, 'I ‘I am coming soon.’ power were caught up to Heaven and saw the New Jerusalem, the table tahle spread, and many of the saints there, both seeing the same visions at the same time. They said Jesus time:• was coming very soon and for us to work as we had little time.” 177. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, 3, and Karkkainen, Spiritus Ubi Vult Spirat, 77.

14 1. 178. Sandidge, Roman Catholic-Pentecostal dialogue, 141. 179. In terms used by Karl Barth, proclamation is defined here as human language in and through which Godself speaks, which is meant to be heard and apprehended in faith as the divine decision upon life and death, as the divine judgment and the divine acquittal, the eternal law and the eternal gospel both together (Barth, Kirchliche Dogmatik, 1.1:57). 180. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, 67. 181. 18 1. See Moore, "Altar “Altar Hermeneutics:' Hermeneutics.”

BIBLE READING PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS BIBLE READING PRACTICES 182 accompanied by believers who shared prayer with them. The message message182 183 was pragmatic and directed to listeners' listeners needs. needs.183 Oliverio bases the ethos of early Pentecostalism upon four care core inin­ 184 The terpretive assumptions, that, in his opinion, explain its orientation. orientation.184 first is that the Protestant Scriptures were the sole, ultimate authority for reliChristian belief and living, which functioned dialogically with the reli­ gious and general experiences of early Pentecostals to form a theological understanding of their world and circumstances. Second is the restorationist beliefs, centering on the narrative of Goďs God’s plan for humankind coming to pass with the outpouring of the Spirit in the latter rain. Third is the fourfold or fivefold "Full “Full Gospel;' Gospel,” which served as the doctrinal grid, hypothwhich oriented pentecostal beliefs and living, and as doctrinal hypoth­ eses, which explained Scripture and spiritual experiences. And lastly, a

182. In its early days, Pentecostals did not refer to a "sermon;' “sermon,” as explained above. The term was limited to the formal mode of speech they connected with established denominations and professional ministers. Pentecostals expected that the preacher would bring a charismatic "message “message from the heart of God;' God,” often found in a deeper texťs meaning, which can only be perceived by the help of significance of the biblical text’s the Spirit (Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 223). In order to receive the mesmes­ sage, it was not as important to exegete a text from the Bible than to pray, experience the anointing of the Spirit, meet God in an encounter, and hear directly the voice of the Spirit. The historical-critical approach to reading the text was held as especially suspisuspi­ cious because it was perceived to reflect human efforts to interpret Goďs Gods word (Byrd, "Paul “Paul Ricoeur's Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Theory;' Theory,” 203-5), and the uncritical adoption of these methods leads to a denial of the theological insights of early Pentecostalism (StudeReview;' 376). Oliverio discusses the use of historical-critical methods baker, "Book “Book Review,” by some Pentecostals, leading to his distinction of a "contemporary “contemporary evangelical-pentecostal hermeneutic,” hermeneutic;' with proponents like James Railey, Benny Akker, Stanley Horton, Gordon Anderson, David Bernard, Gordon Fee, and, to a certain degree, Roger Stronstad and William and Robert Menzies (Oliverio, 1heological Theological Hermeneutics, 133-84). It includes a range of approaches, such as those that aflirm affirm the inerrancy of the Bible as the starting point for interpreting God, the self and the world, those who affirm the hermeneutiauthority of the Bible but who are more philosophically engaged in the hermeneuti­ cal debates over meaning in the biblical texts, and those who find a crucial place for bibli cal texts.The texts. The first looks the presence of the Spirit for the proper interpretation of biblical to the texts as the word of God, the second to the authors (and editors) of the biblibibli­ cal texts for their intention, and the third to the readers reader's relationship to the Spirit in interpretation. It is an open question whether a distinction (such as Oliverio makes) for a contemporary evangelical-pentecostal hermeneutic is justified in terms of the proponents that he identifies. 183. Wacker, Heaven Below, 10.

Hermeneutics, 231-34. 184. Oliverio, 1heological Theological Hermeneuticsy 231-34 .

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pragmatic, naive realism formed early pentecostal rationality, integrated 185 with an understanding of the primacy of the supernatural. supernatural.185 For them, the Bible served as the inspired Word of God, determindetermin­ ing doctrine and lifestyle through the mediation of the Spirit. Scripture had epistemic primacy and merited epistemic priority over doctrinal optimal resource for verifying or falsifying its statements, serving as the optima! 186 claims. claims.186 When they read the Bible, in most instances, they probably did not recognize the historical distance between contemporary believers and the text. They did not read the text in terms of its social-cultural and historical setting but as though it were written for their situation. It was 187 important to read the Bible as literally as possible, taking it at face value. value.187 In the process, the distance between the original context of Scripture and 188 the context of the reader was collapsed. They searched the Bible for all collapsed.188 scriptural references to a particular subject and then synthesized those references into a theological statement. It is a harmonizing and deductive 189 method. method.18 9 Difficult texts were given a new lease on life and applied to their own context by way of allegory, anagogy, typology,190 typology, 190 or tracing hidden, 185. The tacit realism that presupposes direct correspondence between early Pentecostals' tecostals theological views and the realities to which these articulations pointed led to an absolutism which, in the decades following the Azusa Street Revival, resulted in the splintering of the movement into many groups and denominations (Oliverio, 1heoTheo­ HermeneuticSy 32). Oliverio discusses the classical Pentecostal hermeneutic at logical Hermeneutics, Sey­ the hand of four early Pentecostal leaders: Charles Fox Parham, William Joseph Seymour, Charles Harrison Mason, and Garfield Thomas Haywood (Oliverio, 1heological Theological Hermeneutics, 51-77). HermeneuticSy 186. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 104. What is important is that Christians grant church's epistemic priority to what the exegesis of Scripture reveals rather than to the church’s tradition. 187. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneuticy Hermeneutic, 65-66. To read the Bible literally implies that "it “it means what it says" says” (Boone, Bible Tel/s Tells 1hem Them So, 13). 188. Martin, "Introduction Hermeneutics;' 3, and Carson, “Introduction to Pentecostal Biblical Hermeneutics,”

Exegetical FallacieSy Fallacies, 127. 189. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneuticy Hermeneutic, 102. 190. Spittler, "Scripture “Scripture and the Theological Enterprise;' Enterprise,” 75-77. Thomas Aquinas refers to the anagogic power of Scripture, that is, its capacity to edify and inspire (Da(Da­ vies, "What “What Does it Mean to Read?," Read?,” 254). Luther was not impressed with the allegoriallegori­ cal meaning of Scripture and described allegories as empty speculations, the scum of Holy Scriptures, awkward, absurd, invented, obsolete, and loose rags. Calvin called it a contrivance of Satan and emphasized the need that an interpreter should let the author say what he does say, instead of attributing to him what we think he ought to say (Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 270).

BIBLE READING READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OF PENTECOSTALS BIBLE OF PENTECOSTALS 191 spiritual meanings in the text. What was important was not to provide text.191 believers with a lot of information about God; what was more essential was that people experienced an encounter with God in the same terms as described by biblical witnesses. Believers learned how to verbalize their experience of encounters with God in order to become witness to the pentecostal truth by way of biblical witnesses. They learned the vocabuPentecostal vocabu­ 192 Bible.192 To know God was to stand in a lary of their testimonies from the Bible. relationship with God rather than to have information about God. When you witnessed about God, you talked about your encounter with God 193 in your testimony. They also understood history in a positivist sense; testimony.193 historical (and scientific) "facts" “facts” provided in the Bible were undeniably 194 true because it was contained in the Bible, the word of God. God.194 That it was written in the Bible guaranteed its truth. They utilized a specific scopus to interpret the Bible, either the fourfold Full Gospel pre-understanding

191. Survey, 19 1. McKay, "When “When the Veil is Taken Away;' Away,” 63. See Tenney, New Testament Survey, for how to read the Bible in a devotional way: with a spirit of eagerness, which seeks the mind of God, a spirit of humility, which listens to the voice of God, a spirit of adad­ venture, which pursues earnestly the will of God, and a spirit of adoration, which rests in the presence of God (Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, 214). 192. Pliiss, "Azusa Myths," 191. “Azusa and Other Myths,” 19 1. It should be emphasized that the Bible contains a record of testimonies of the relationship between God and God’s Goďs creation. Therefore, the Bible is ideally positioned to serve as a corrective for experience (El(El­ lington, "Pentecostalism “Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scriptures;' Scriptures,” 162). 193. Ellington, "Pentecostals “Pentecostals and the Authority of Scriptures," Scriptures,” i-viii. Cartledge mentions that a testimony has a coordinating function that brings together other sources of knowledge (perception, memory, introspection, and reason) and expresses them in a narrative shape. It is an auto-ethnographic description of observations and experiences (Cartledge, "Locating “Locating the Spirit;' Spirit,” 259). 194. The positive side is that history is taken seriously as history by a pentecostal hermeneutic. Because the present age can share in the experience and power of that of the first century CE, it is relevant to inquire what actually happened then. CorCor­ relation between then and now became significant enough to read the text dosely closely to understand its socio-political and economic realities. Identification was not total and absolute and Pentecostals recognized the many real and challenging discontinuities between the New Testament era and the present day. In essence, Pentecostals strove closer identification with the One propagated by the early church, as attested by the for doser texts they left behind. Commonality was of discipleship and experience rather than of historical coincidence (Clark, "Investigation Nature;' 181). Pentecostals “Investigation into the Nature,” described church history in terms of a progressive restoration, leading from Wydiffe Wycliffe and Luther, who restored Scripture and justification by faith, through Wesley, who restored the doctrine of sanctification, and on to the present pentecostal revival, which was understood to have restored the doctrine of Spirit baptism and the charismata (Albrecht and Howard, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Spirituality;' Spirituality,” 246-47).

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of Jesus—as Jesus-as savior, baptizer, sanctifier, and soon coming king195—or king 195 -or the fivefold Gospel of Christ-as Christ—as savior, healer, sanctifier, baptizer, and coming king—that king-that forms the centra! Pencentral defining characteristic of the Pen­ 196 tecostal movement.196 movement. Jesus at the center of pentecostal theology was the theological grid that provided a firm interpretive lens for the fluid PentePente­ 197 costal community and their reading of Scripture. Scripture.197 In the early worship services, most participants were uneducated and poor, functioning at the edge of society and experiencing revilement and rejection for what 198 many perceived as their emotionalist ways of worshiping, worshiping,198 functioning 199 primarily as an oral culture. culture.199 They did not do theology in a standard Western mode but rather through their songs, poems, testimonies, and 200 dances.20 0 dances. However, as argued before, early Pentecostals did not interpret the Bible in fundamentalist manner201 manner201 because they did not ascribe authority to the Bible due to its inerrancy or infallibility but rather its utility of 202 showing the way to a personal persona! encounter with God. God.20 2 Pentecostal theol195. Menzies, "Methodology Theology;' 14, and Tomberlin, Pen­ Pen“Methodology of Pentecostal Theology,” tecostal Sacraments, SacramentSy 35-53. The five theological motifs are: justification by faith in

Christ; sanctification by faith as a second definitive work of grace; healing of the body as provided for al! all in the atonement; the premillennial return of Christ; and the bapbap­ Pneumatology, tism in the Holy Spirit, evidenced by speaking in tongues (Karkkainen, Pneumatologyt 91). Karkkainen suggests that the "prophethood believers" should be added as a “prophethood of al! all believers” sixth motif (see Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, Spiritualityy 18). 196. Lewis, "Reflections “Reflections of a Hundred Years of Pentecostal Theology;' Theology,” 1-25, 1-2 5 , and Nel, "Pentecostals' “Pentecostals Reading ofthe of the Old Testament;' Testament,” 526-27. 197. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneuticy Hermeneutic, 137. 198. Spittler, "Scripture “Scripture and the Theological Enterprise;' Enterprise,” 75. Pentecostals were rejected by fundamentalists, the holiness bodies from which they came, and all the established denominations of their day, forcing them to carve out their own path in isolation (Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 328). 199. Martin, "Hearing God;' 219. “Hearing the Voice of God,”

Pentecostalism, 269-72. 200. Hollenweger, Pentecostalismy 201. See Hollenweger, "From “From Azusa Street;' Street,” and Lewis, "Reflections “Reflections of a Hundred Years;' 8. Years,” 202. Ellington, "Pentecostals “Pentecostals and the Authority of Scriptures," Scriptures,” 17. Cox agrees that Pire from it is a serious mistake to equate Pentecostals with fundamentalists (Cox, Fire Heaven, 15). While fundamentalists attach unique authority to the letter of the ver­ verHeaveny Pentecostals' subjective stress on the bally inspired Scripture, they are suspicious of the Pentecostals’ immediate experience of the Spirit of God. While the beliefs of fundamentalists are enen­ shrined in forma! formal theological systems, Pentecostals embed their beliefs in testimonies, ecstatic speech, and hodily bodily movement. But Pentecostals do practice theology, with a full-blown religious cosmos and an intricate system of symbols that respond to the

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ogy was a theological trajectory that emerged from nineteenth-century 203 evangelicalism rather than from twentieth-century fundamentalism. fundamentalism.*20 3 Cox's Cox’s definition of pentecostal theology is correct, stressing general 204 worldview over systematic comprehension and rightness of logic. logic.20 4 He includes moral and emotional values alongside cognitive matters, sugsug­ gesting that pentecostal theology ought to be conceived of in terms of the symbolic cosmos of the Pentecostal movement. Pentecostal theology flourishes in the context of song, prayer, sermon, and testimony, and not in the format of lengthy treatises. Early Pentecostals embodied the trajectory of American evangelievangeli­ calism that emphasized the spiritual exercise of experience and piety, an innovative process of resourcing tradition and constructing a new and 205 hybrid theological foundation. foundation.20 5 They viewed the Bible as a single, uniuni­ fied narrative of Gods Goďs redemptive pian, plan, a grand, unified story that led reading. 206 them to utilize intertextuality as a justifying mark of a faithful reading.2 06 They appreciated the narrative quality of Scripture because it allowed perennial questions of human meaning and value. The difference is that Pentecostals sing and pray their theology, put it in pamphlets to distribute on street corners, and proclaim it enthusiastically. For instance, Pentecostals refer to the Spirit in terms of the symbols of wind, water, and fire, symbols that are typologically revealed in the cloud which sat over the people oflsrael of Israel in the wilderness (Exod 13:21-22). These elements are, however, not only life-giving and preserving; they also have a destructive capacity (Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, 44).

Review;' 375. 203. Studebaker, "Book “Book Review,”

Heaven, 201. 204. Cox, Fire from Heaven, 205. Archer notes the type of questions that early Pentecostals typically asked from the Bible during their spiritual exercises: What does the Spirit intend with the passage in light of the redemption provided in Christ? How are we to appropriate or embody a particular theological practice as a faith community or as individuals? What kind of spiritual practices are necessary in order to carry out the message? How does this passage challenge or affirm other passages that address similar concerns, beliefs, and practices? And how am I being impacted by the biblical narrative? See Archer, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation:• Interpretation,” 180. 206. Green, '"Treasures ‘“ Treasures Old and New;" New,*” 15. Maier's Maier’s remarks about faith as an aid to Hermeneutics, 51-53). It is "thoroughly understanding is relevant here (Maier, Biblical Hermeneutics, “thoroughly unnatural;' unnatural,” in his opinion, to deny the Christian faith in the process of interpreting the Bible. To divest one of the encounter with Christ and prior Christian background in order to do critical research is unscientific. The scientific way is to examine one's one’s own pre-judgments and pre-decisions and to render them fruitful. It is also not desirdesir­ able to detach faith and love for Goďs God’s word from the person doing biblical research. A distinction should therefore be made between the regenerate and unregenerate A interpreter. The theologian needs to be familiar with the oratorio-meditatio-tentatio (prayer-meditation-struggle) sequence.

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them to become part of the biblical story of Gods Goďs involvement in the 207 world. world.207 For that reason, I proposed elsewhere that Pentecostals should in­ develop literary perceptivity in interpreting the Bible because of their interest in biblical narratives.20 narratives. 2088 They should read these narratives not only as "literature" “literature” or as texts that should be analyzed; rather, they should read them looking for insights and encouragement in their ongoing campaign 209 for the sake of the kingdom. kingdom.20 9 They should further develop skills to read narratives as literature in order to enable them to read and reflect criticalcritical­ 210 ly. ly.210 The skills of structural analysis and narratological synthesis can be helpful. Early Pentecostals did not look at the Bible from the outside; they had entered the world of the Bible, and the world of the Bible shaped 211 their world. It is in the nature of narratives that they have the potential world.211 to engage and change readers. Their daily charismatic experiences altered their epistemology, giving them existential awareness of the miraculous 212 in the biblical worldview and appreciating the influence of the Spirit. Spirit.212 Their own experiences of the supernatural affirmed and supported the truthfulness of the supernatural components of the biblical story and suggested a broader approach to knowing the truth; the Spirit who had inspired the Bible moved in them to reveal the meaning of Scripture as 207. Because the centra! central message of Christianity is the epic story of redemption, the bulk of Scripture consists in the form of narrative (Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 245). 208. Nel, '"He ‘“He Changes Times and Seasonst Seasons,*” 15-21. 15 - 2 1. 209. Cox, How to Read the Bible, 10. Cox's Cox*s remark here is motivated by his obserobser­ vation that academically trained biblical researchers often try to distance themselves from any persona! personal stake they might have in what they discover in the Bible, arguing persona! life should not have any bearing on their research that, to be objective, their personal (Cox, How to Read the Bible, 11). Any pretense of total objectivity should be set apart as illusory and self-serving. See also Green, -Treasures New;' 15. ‘“ Treasures Old and New”* 210. lnterest Interest in the narrative aspects of biblical texts goes back a Jong long way in the history of interpretation, and, in recent years, there has been a rediscovery of narrative and story in both biblical studies and theology (see Frei, Eclipse oj Na"ative). of Biblical Narrative). This is part of a wider cultural movement, demonstrating a disenchantment with things abstract, rationalistic, cerebral, didactic, intellectualist, structured, prosaic, scientistic, and technocratic, with a new appeal of the concrete, affective, intuitive, spontaneous, and poetic, which contribute to the story focus (Fackre, "Narrative “Narrative Theology," Theology,” 342). The remarkable growth of Bible study groups on a grassroots level Jeve! may be connected theologito this trend, as part of a protest against the separation of expert and layman, theologi­ cal scholar and church member (West, Biblical Hermeneutics oj of Liberation, 63). 211. 2 11. Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 246. 212. Ervin, "Hermeneutics: “Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option;' Option,” 24.

BIBLE READING BIBLE READING PRACTICES PRACTICES OP OF PENTECOSTALS PENTECOSTALS

well. 213 Their view of the Bible as lived story allowed them to utilize nar­ narwell.213 rative parts of the Bible for theologizing; some biblical narratives became examples that the church should follow (supported by their interpreta­ interpreta214 2:21). tion of 11 Car Cor 10:11, 1 0 : 1 1 , 11 Pet 2:21, 2:21, John 12:14, 12:14, and 11 Pet 2:2i).214 Narratives were understood literally, taken to be repeatable, and the experience of 215 For Penbiblical characters were seen as something to be emulated. emulated.215 tecostals, the biblical story had its beginning, center, and goal in Jesus Christ. The Old Testament was read Christologically, often using allegory and typology to find Christ in the ancient texts. Early Pentecostals also believed that the work of the Spirit was to restore the last-days church to its primitive capacity, and that the activity of the Spirit, including inin­ terpreting the Bible for contemporary readers, occurred in the church. Goďs presence legitimated the community as the people of God; it was God’s Goďs people. The not feasible to belong to God without belonging to Gods eschatological expectations of early Pentecostals compelled them to an urgent pursuit of world evangelization. For them, the Bible functioned primarily to form and equip the church for its mission of evangelization, providing the content of their message to the world. They read the Bible with an end result in mind.216 mind. 216 Although the Bible served for them as the standard to define faith and practice,217 practice,217 their angle to define doctrine was on the basis of their ex“illumination’ goes beyond the Reformed concept to allow for 213. Their view of "illumination" an element of divine revelation. It is also true that Pentecostals do not acquiesce to the evangelical doctrine of sola Scriptura because the revelation of God is not transmit­ transmitted to new generations by Scripture alone, but by the work of the Holy Spirit (Wad(Wad­ dell, Spirit oj Revelation, 127). Kaiser and Silva calls the doctrine of sola of the Book oj of Revelationy Scriptura the forma! principie of the Protestant Reformation, while sola fide and sola formal principle gratia constituted the material principles (Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical

Hermeneutics, 270). Hermeneutics, 214. Narrative texts are notoriouosly difficult to interpret theologically. See Dayton,

Theological Roots, 22. 1heological

Reading;' 527. Although Pentecostalism did not invent 215. Nel, "Pentecostals' “Pentecostals Reading,” anything which was completely new and unique, few, if any, other Christian churches today take the New Testament accounts of experiences of a lived relationship with God and empowerment by the Spirit for ministry so literally as the Pentecostals (Ellington, “Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture,” 153). "Pentecostalism ofScripture;' 216. See Martin, "Introduction “Introduction to Pentecostal Biblical Hermeneutics;' Hermeneutics,” 4-8, for a description of the early pentecostal hermeneutical paradigm. 217. Reading the biblical narrative with faith means reading it as true, making the boundaries between the narrative world and one's ones own world permeable. The God of the Bible is one's ones God. Especially early Pentecostals saw themselves as living in the concon­ tinuation of "Bible “Bible days." days.” Charles Parham and others in the movement assumed that

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periences with the God who utilized the Bible to reveal Godself through 218 Goďs God’s Spirit. Spirit.*218 Doctrine was defined experientially in terms of the Bible. Canonical texts were "measuring “measuring sticks" sticks” and not texts to be exploited for 219 ideological agendas. A pentecostal hermeneutics denied a variety of agendas.219 readings that seek to use Scripture in ways that run contrary to its implied design, such as irresponsible readings that seek to abuse the authority of biblical texts instead of honoring them.220 them. 220 There is a consensus that early pentecostal hermeneutics is charchar­ acterized as oral, charismatic, largely ahistorical and minimally contexcontex­ tual, litera} literal in its interpretations, morally and spiritually absolutizing, pragmatic, and pastoral. It differs from fundamentalism in several other 221 well.221 Kraus helpfully outlines the major distinctions as follows: ways as well. Pentecostalism is charismatic while fundamentalism is didactic; PenteWesleyan/Arminian costalism is Wesleyan/ Arminian while fundamentalism is Calvinistic; Pentecostals emphasize the charismata that provide assurance while, for fundamentalists, inerrant Scripture provides assurance; Pentecostalism is experience-centered while fundamentalism is theology-centered; in Pen­ Pentecostalism, non-rational elements are recognized while, for fundamenfundamen­ talists, the rational message is emphasized; for Pentecostals, the church serves as a community while, for fundamentalists, the church serves as a non-denominational fellowship; Pentecostals make a separation between Christian experience today should match that reported in Acts (see Nel, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Movemenťs View of the Continuity.") Movement’s Continuity” ) 218. Pentecostals understand and utilize doctrine in a fundamentally different way from most other traditions which are grounded in rationalist models of considering the question of the authority of Scripture. For Pentecostals, doctrine is not essentially generative in function; it is rather descriptive, because they utilize doctrine to describe and verbalize lived experience. Forma! PenFormal deductive doctrinal statements are for Pen­ tecostals an attempt to organize and understand described experience and not an attempt to serve as proof for those things which lie completely outside the realm of experience (Ellington, "Pentecostalism Pen“Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scriptures;' Scriptures,” 150). Pen­ tecostals base their faith first on the God that they have met and only then do they attempt to articulate their experiences in normative, doctrinal ways. 219. Keener defines "canon" “canon” as the minima! minimal revelation that all of us agree on as the Hermeneutics, measuring stick for testing other claims to revelation (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 107-8). If Scripture is our measuring stick, then it does matter what God inspired it to mean, implying that Christians would take the trouble to understand its intended meaning. Especially if the divinely commissioned and inspired message of Jesus is to be valued (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 111). 1 11 ) . 220. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 188-89. 221. 221.

Oliverio, Theological Iheological Hermeneutics, 51. 51.

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church and state while, for fundamentalists, the Christian nation and church are cognate; and Pentecostals, with their holiness ethic, strive for separation from the world, while fundamentalists, with their born-again ethic, see themselves as justified within the world.222 world. 222 What is also important to note is that, while fundamentalists accept the cessasionist view that the supernatural should be ensconced in the past and bracketed off from the present, the essence of pentecostal spirispiri­ tuality is the charismatic experience of Spirit baptism, leading to the exex­ pectation of the miracle-working intervention of God in the present-day 223 church. Pentecostal spirituality is hardwired to perceive and respond church.223 224 to the influences of the Spirit. Ironically, fundamentalism shares with Spirit.224 modernism the elimination of the supernatural from the contemporary 225 ; fundamentalists affirm the supernatural in theory experience of faith faith225; 222. Kraus, "Great “Great Evangelical Coalition," Coalition,” 58-59. 223. Pentecostals do not think to replicate every kind of experience found in ScripScrip­ ture. Many events described in Scripture are one-time events, such as the experience of David, Mary (the mother of Jesus), or the prophets. That does not imply that we cannot learn lessons from their lives and characters. In cases of supernatural interveninterven­ tions described in the Bible, Pentecostals do not expect that God would intervene in their situations in exactly the sarne same way, but the biblical narratives encourage them to expect that God will intervene in some or other immediate way. 224. Albrecht and Howard, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Spirituality," Spirituality,” 240. 225. It is ironie ironic because modernist Bible interpretation in the form ofthe of the historicalcritical methods generally practices a functional atheism, separating the text from the strearns streams of existence and objectifying it, making the biblical text into an abstract object without any ready applications to practical situations or daily use (Ellington, "Pentecostalism ofScriptures;' “Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scriptures,” 164). The historical-critical method functions on the premise that outside interference and arbitrary divine intervention is unconditionally excluded. These and other observations about contemporary Western methods of biblical interpretation illustrate the bankruptcy of biblical scholarship, which is founded largely or entirely on a rationalist understanding of faith and God. As long as "objective “objective distance" distance” implies the objectification of the Bible, it must remain non-relational in nature and therefore limited in its application (Ellington, "Pentecos“Pentecos­ talism and the Authority of Scriptures;' Scriptures,” 169 169). ). Pentecostal scholarship is to counteract what it perceives to be the bankruptcy of a biblical scholarship based exclusively on cerebral cognition (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 125-28). Pentecostal scholarship is expeexpe­ riential, and an encounter with the Spirit is of centra! central importance for the Christian life. It is an attempt to articulate this normative encounter with God in the diverse operforms, methods, and vocabulary of the scholarly and scientific communities. It oper­ means" or "pure ates on the principle principie of play, of "pure “pure means” “pure self-presentation;' self-presentation,” rather than performance-oriented and utilitarian categories of traditional scholarship under the tyranny of rationalism and seriousness. In an important sense, pentecostal scholarship is also always embodied, going beyond the mere intellectual pursuit of knowledge to include holistic modes of learning and being. Finally, pentecostal scholarship is based

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and in events described in the Bible, but deny its present-day revelation in practice. "Pentecostalism, “Pentecostalism, as a whole, was just too physical and too lacking in philosophical rationality for most fundamentalists to give it a 226 positive look:' look”*226 Fundamentalists view Goďs God's relation to the world in constant, unun­ changing terms; Pentecostals experience the relation as dynamic and progressive. For fundamentalists, the truth was delivered in the Bible and the Bible represents a closed canon; Pentecostals expect that God would reveal the truth in the present moment on an ongoing basis. The primary task of fundamentalists is to defend the absolutely essential foundation 227 and criterion of truth given once and for all in the Bible ; Pentecostals Bible227; accept that Goďs Gods character is unchanging and constant, however, God is passionately involved in the history of human affairs, representing 228 Truth the apocalyptic worldview favored by the Jesus of the Gospels. Gospels.228 is still unfolding because the Spirit reveals Christ in new situations and contexts at the hand of the biblical testimony. While Pentecostals respect the Bible as the fount of revealed truth, the Bible also functions as the road sign, showing the way to meet God in Goďs Gods ongoing revelation of truth. They are not primarily concerned with the truth found in the Bible but in encountering the truth described as the word of God that reveals the Father, Jesus Christ; biblical witnesses testify to the truth and show the way to meet God, through Gods Goďs Spirit. At the same time, however, it is important to state that what the Spirit has to reveal to the church is not new doctrines or new revelations which go beyond and add to what Jesus said. The Spirit will never lead the church into "new" “new” truths but into "all" history. 229 What Christ “all” truth. The Spirit leads the church forward in history.229 says today will not contradict what his witnesses said in Scripture. Some matters, however, need to be made more explicit and developed, and, in

on a comprehensive hermeneutic that, in the broadest sense, can be characterized as analogical, as a "this-is-that" “this-is-that” hermeneutic, with interpretation of the present in terms of the past, the Christian life in terms of biblical texts, and the charismatic experiexperi­ principie of analogy that defines and ence in terms of the story of Pentecost. lt It is this principle correlates the pentecostal interpretation of Scripture and of the contemporary world. 226. 226.

Jacobsen, 1hinking Thinking in the Spirit, 357.

227. 227.

“Fundamentalism,” 363. Barr, "Fundamentalism,"

228. Menzies, PentecosU Pentecost, 13. See also discussion in chapter 4. 229. Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 238.

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this way, go beyond the text, but never contradieting contradicting the spirit/Spirit of 230 the Bible. Bible.230 The Bible is viewed and respected as inspired and preserved by transformthe Spirit with the purpose of illuminating, teaching, and transform­ ing the lives of contemporary believers. Their purpose in reading the Bible is to find something there that can be experienced as relevant to needs. 231 The Bible becomes the word, as Luther emphasized, their felt needs.231 because of the Spiriťs Spirit’s ministry; the authority of the Spirit comes before 232 and determines the authority accorded to the Bible. The expectation is Bible.232 that a modern-day believer can experience existentially what the earliest 233 apostles experienced through the working of the same Spirit and acSpirit233 ac­ companied by the same charismatie charismatic phenomenology that also charactercharacter­ 234 ized the earliest church. church.234 Early Pentecostals viewed creedalism as a sign of the petrification of historieal historie historical mainline denominations where truth only existed in a historic 235 sense235 because they did not enjoy the Spirit baptism and the resultant sense Spiriťs Spirits illumination when reading the Bible, while fundamentalism greatly valued the historic historie confessions of faith as founding the church's church’s biblieal truth. For Pentecostals, the Bible was viewed as proclamation of biblical Goďs self-revelation, and an encounter with the all-sufficient source of God’s Scripture was perceived as an encounter with God, requiring no need of 236 formulation.236 any creedal formulation. In the words of early pentecostal pioneers, 230. Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 241. 231. Anderson, Introduction to Pentecostalism, 222.

Spirituality, 100, 106, and Welker, "Word 232. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, 100,106, “Word and Spirit;' Spirit,” 52-79. unfasAccording to John 10:35, Jesus says that Scripture cannot be loosed, unbound, unfas­ tened, or annulled. 233. According to Martin, the apostles’ apostles' hermeneutics changed when they were confronted by four new contextual factors that supplemented their standard Jewish exegetical practices: The life, teachings, and resurrection of Jesus; the gift of the Spirit poured out on the day of Pentecost; the mission of spreading the gospel, which dede­ manded that the disciples hasten to reach the ends of the earth; and the eschatological tlie return nature of Goďs God’s kingdom, which required the disciples to wait patiently for the ofJesus Hermeneutics;' 2). of Jesus (Martin, "Introduction “Introduction to Pentecostal Biblical Hermeneutics,” 234. Ervin, "Hermeneutics;' “Hermeneutics,” 22. 23 5. In the words of the tlie early Pentecostal Bible School principal, Charles F. Parham, 235. men's opinions, stuffed in skins and featliers "The “The best of creeds are but the sawdust of men’s feathers of truth to give them a pleasing and attractive appearance; to draw people into the tlie propaganda'' (Parham, support of an organized ecclesiasticism, or an individualistic propaganda” Kol Kare Bemidbar, 67).

tlie important 236. Arrington, "Hermeneutics;' “Hermeneutics,” 380-81. Arrington also makes the

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theological endeavors in mainline, established churches were viewed by Pentecostals as a fence of words that prevented Christians from having to confront the living God as the One who surpasses all the church's church’s neat 237 formulas-and sometimes even contradicts it. Theology, in part, rep­ repformulas—and it.237 resented the long night of theological dryness that was characterized by people being fed on the theological chips, shavings, and winds. But now, with the new pentecostal light that dawned in 1906 at Azusa Street, it 238 Dogmas and doctrine were viewed as the worn-out shells had passed. passed.238 of yesterday, idols of ink and paper,239 paper, 239 thankfully discarded after holdhold­ ing Christians in bondage for so many years.24 years. 2400 Dogmas were viewed as essentially reductionistic and impersonal because they were cast in the 241 form of inflexible doctrine. What was important was not to defend doctrine.241 242 truth but to advance it, through the power of the Spirit. Spirit.24 2 Harvey Cox divides the population into four large spiritual or ideoideo­ logical blocks: scientific modernists, conventional (mainstream) religious 243 244 and proponents of experimentalism. believers, fundamentalists, fundamentalists,243 experimentalism.24 4 He places most Pentecostals in the last group rather than among the fundaobservation that a methodology that tries to make either Scripture or experience chronologically (or even logically) prior to the other should be rejected They are always in dialogue with each other. Just the same, Scripture is prior in a normative manner. Experience is improperly used by Pentecostals when they wrongfully confuse their own spirit with the Spirit of God; Scripture and the faith community properly hold pneumatic interpretation accountable. And it is improperly used when experiexperi­ preence becomes the basis for theology-even theology—even though it has its proper place in one's one’s pre­ suppositions and in confirming theological conclusions (Arrington, "Hermeneutics," “Hermeneutics,” au­ 384). Fee and Stuarts Stuarťs remark that Scripture is to be considered the penultimate authority is more in line with pentecostal hermeneutic (Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 32); God is the ultimate authority, although the Bible carries its own authority since God communicates and reveals Godself through it.

Bemidbar, 66. 237. Parham, Kol Kare Bemidbary 238. Spurling, Lost Link, 22. 239. Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit," Spirit,” 247. 240. Kenyon, Identification, 63. 241. Ellington, "Pentecostalism “Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scriptures;' Scriptures,” 162. By building personal experience one builds on a singularly unstable faith on doctrine rather than persona! foundation. 242. Jacobsen, "Knowing Pentecostals," 104. “ Knowing the Doctrines of Pentecostals,” 243. The fact is that Pentecostalism was, for the better part of its history, largely ridiignored by mainstream scholarship and neglected as a subject matter. It was even ridi­ culed as a dialogue partner by scientific modernists, conventional religious believers, and fundamentalists alike (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 122). 244. Cox, Fire Pire from Heaven, 81.

BIBLE READING PRACTICES PENTECOSTALS BIBLE READING PRACTICES OF OF PENTECOSTALS

mentalists, arguing that Pentecostalism enjoys its current phenomenal 245 growth because it has somehow reached beyond the levels of creed growth245 and ceremony, cognizant of a cerebral religion, into the realm of "primal “primal spirituality;' spirituality,” defined in terms of the search for connection with the precognitive core impulse of human life that had been evident in several 246 influential cultural movements during the last century. century.24 6 Pentecostals have a penchant for experience combined with the rejection of the notion that a coherent and comprehensive vision of God, themselves, and the world may exist. Faith is rather a spiritual bricolage, an eclectic, pulledtogether bundle of ideas and practices that helps people to traverse the 247 spiritual journey pragmatically. pragmatically.24 7 Their faith reaches beneath, around, and beyond currently available language to help people deal with deep human experiences that defy translation into rational speech. Glossolalia fulfills the function in terms of their spirituality to verbalize the relationrelation­ ship with God who is unknowable. Pentecostal spirituality places equal value on the affective, moral, and doctrinal (or cerebral) dimensions of 248 faith-that faith—that is, feeling, action, and belief. belief.24 8 Scripture is read not only with the mind but also with the affective-spiritual dimensions of existence. lt It is only through exegesis of the Spirit of God of the spirit of believers that true understanding and appropriation of Scripture is possible, leading 245. Pentecostalism is often treated by sociologists and other scientists as an anomanom­ aly rather than the religious future. As a practical religious reality, however, Pentecos­ Pentecostalism has countered the three modes of secularity spelled out by Charles Taylor in Secular Age> Age, consisting of secularization in the public place of religion, actual religious belief, and plausibility conditions of religious belief (see also Oliverio, "Book “Book Review;' Review,” 131). Pentecostalism has provided a counternarrative to the mainstream stories of Western secularization concerning al! all three modes of secularism. 246. Cox, Pire Heaven, 117. Fire from Heaven, 117 . Cox defines "prima! “primal spirituality" spirituality” in terms of three dimensions: primal prima! speech, the ecstatic utterance of "speaking tongues;' or "pray“speaking in tongues,” “pray­ ing in the Spirit"; prima! piety, consisting of phenomena like visions, healing, dreams, Spirit”; primal dance, and other archetypal religious expressions; and primal prima! hope, as the millennial outlook consisting of the insistence that a radically new world age is about to dawn. 247. Cox, Fire Pire from Heaven, Heaveny 304-5. 248. See the critique of Johns that, for a pentecostal service to be successful, there are two prerequisites: The Holy Spirit needs to be present in a palpable and emotional way, and there has to be some form of seizure-God seizure—God has to take control. Johns is correct in the sense that Pentecostals' Pentecostals religion is concerned with affection; however, the worship service is still mostly driven by rational elements. The term "seizure" “seizure” is “ecstasy,” without qualifying the relation between used by the author as a synonym of "ecstasY:' "seizure" psychiatrie illnesses (Johns, Pentecostal Paradigm, 18). PentecosPentecos­ “seizure” and some psychiatric tals do not typically emphasize loss of consciousness or self in the divine (Neumann, "Spirituality;' “Spirituality,” 197).

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AN AFRICAN PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTIC A n A f r i c a n P e n t e c o s t a l H e r m e n e u t i c 249 to the desired transformation. Theology is defined as more than the transformation.249 250 intellectual, an option that many postmodern people find attractive. attractive.250 As stated already, after 1945, it became imperative for Pentecostals to improve their status. When the Evangelicals accepted them,251 them, 251 they established Bible Schools to train pastors in Evangelicals' Evangelicals fundamentalist-literalist way of reading the Bible and utilizing the textbooks written 252 They rejected any criticism of the Bible, by conservative Evangelicals. Evangelicals.252 ascribing the lax morals in some churches to the influence of modern modem theologians in destroying the faith of ordinary Christians. Since the 1970s, more and more Pentecostals ventured into the academy of theology,253 theology, 253 eventually leading to the establishment of theotheo­ logical colleges, seminaries, and a debate about pentecostal hermeneutics with a strong pneumatic element in order to authentically account for the 254 Oliverio confides how he and many pentecostal ethos and tendencies. tendencies.254 of his fellow pentecostal scholars found the original classical pentecostal hermeneutics to be a hermeneutics that interprets Scripture and the rest of life anew in a manner that could create a new Christian tradition of classical Pentecostalism.255 Pentecostalism. 255 In describing the pentecostal method of inter­ interpretation as essentially pneumatic or charismatic, the necessity is emphaempha­ sized that the interpreter relies on the Spiriťs Spirits illumination of the biblical text. 256 text in order to come to the fullest understanding of the biblical text.256

249. Martin, "Spirit “Spirit and Flesh in the Doing of Theology,” 5-31. 5 -31. ofTheology;' 250. Jacobsen, 1hinking Thinking in the Spirit, 362.

Pentecostals;' 90-107. 251. Jacobsen, "Knowing “Knowing the Doctrines of Pentecostals,” 252. Jacobsen, 1hinking Thinking in the Spirit, Spirity 356. 253. It is true that many pentecostal scholars who entered the academy were rere­ quired to abandon their ethos, oral culture, and emphasis on experience to adopt the modes of logic, reason, and linear thought that characterized Western biblical scholschol­ arship. Those who accepted the Western Enlightenment model either forsook their pentecostal tradition entirely and remained in the Pentecostal church-but church—but aligned themselves with evangelical fundamentalism or a rationalistically framed reacreac­ tion against "liberalism;' “liberalism,” accepting an evangelical hermeneutic and separating their scholarly life from their spiritual life-or life—or adopted an elitist mentality of "enlightened" “enlightened” Pentecostalism, attempting to retain their connection to Pentecostalism but no longer 220 ). embracing its ethos (Martin, "Hearing “Hearing the Voice of God;' God,” 220). 254. Lewis, "Reflections theology," 10, and Olive“Reflections of a Hundred Years of Pentecostal theology,” Olive­ rio, "Introduction;' “Introduction,” 3. For a survey of the debate surrounding the issue of pentecostal hermeneutics, see the Fall 1993 and Spring 1994 issues of Pneuma, the journal of the Society of Pentecostal Studies. 255. Oliverio, "Book “Book Review;' Review,” 1. 256. Arrington, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Identity;' Identity,” 16.

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This method reaches beyond the literal meaning of the text. Arrington explains in what way the pneumatic interpreter relies on the Spirit to come to a full understanding of the biblical text: a persona! personal experience of faith as part of the entire interpretive process; submission of the mind to God so that the critical and analytical abilities are exercised under the guidance of the Spirit; a genuine openness to the Spirit as the text is exex­ amined prayerfully; and a relevant response to the transforming call of 257 Gods word is necessary. necessary.257 Goďs can­ The meaning of the biblical message for contemporary people cannot be explained apart from the Spirit. 11 Corinthians 2:9-10 explains at the hand of a quotation, "What “What no eye has seen, nor ear heard, nor the human heart conceived, what God has prepared for those who love him,” him:' that God has revealed such things to contemporary readers through the Spirit, for the Spirit searches everything-even everything—even the depths of God. While anyone with sufficient rational faculties and skills can glean truth from the Bible, real insights that transform the lives of present-day readers 258 come from faith and the Spirit. Spirit.258 A significant part of members and pastors of the classical PentecosPentecos­ 259 tal movement, however, still read the Bible in fundamentalist fashion. fashion.259 260 For that reason, they prefer to use the King James Version, Version,26 0 and, in South Africa, the Afrikaans Ou Vertaling, leading to a divergence be­ between members, pastors, and some theologians.261 theologians. 261 Very early in pentecostal history, a turn to an evangelical-pentecostal hermeneutics developed-even developed—even before the 194os-when 1940s—when Pentecostals looked for alliances with Evangelicals due to an uneasy relationship 262 between Pentecostals and fundamentalists-dispensationalists. fundamentalists-dispensationalists.26 2 Oliverio identifies three major subtypes of this hermeneutics: one focusing on the principle of inerrancy, another on author-centered hermeneu257. Arrington, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Identity;• Identity,” 18. See also Cox, How to Read the Bible, 217. 258. Arrington, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Identity;' Identity,” 18.

259. See, for instance, the results ofresearch of research into the Bible reading practices within the AFM of SA discussed in chapter 1, which found that 66 percent of those who percompleted the questionnaire believe everything that the Bible says is true and 67 per­ cent believe that the entire Bible is the inspired Word of God. See Nel, "Bible “Bible Reading AFM." Practices in the AFM.” 260. The King James Version is still the most read English translation in the twentyfirst century (Zylstra, "Most Popular;• 1); see also Altany ("Biblical “Most Popular,” (“Biblical Criticism;' Criticism,” 64).

261. Lederle, Treasures O/d Old and New, 162; Cargal, "Beyond “Beyond the FundamentalistModernist Controversy," Years;• 10. Controversy,” 179; and Lewis, "Reflections “Reflections of a Hundred Years,” 262. Oliverio, 1heo/ogica/ Theological Hermeneutics, 317.

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AN A n AFRICAN A f r i c a n PENTECOSTAL P e n t e c o s t a l HERMENEUTIC H e r m e n e u t i c 263 tic theory, and another on a pneumatic version. version.26 3 Oliverio divides the hermeneutical developments since the 1970s in different streams: the contemporary evangelical-pentecostal hermeneutics, the contextualpentecostal hermeneutics, the postmodern contextual-pentecostal 264 critique, and the ecumenical-pentecostal hermeneutics. hermeneutics.26 4 The contextucontextu­ al-pentecostal hermeneutics is a critique of the evangelical-pentecostal hermeneutics and engagement with current concerns in philosophical hermeneutics such as the issues of the author's authors intention, the farce force of the interpreter's interpreter s own context, and what counts as a text (associated with the Richwork of Martin Heidegger, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jacques Derrida, Rich­ 265 ard Rorty, and Paul Ricoeur).265 Ricoeur). Pentecostal scholars such as Richard D. Israel, Daniel E. Albrecht, Randal Randa! G. McNally, Timothy B. Cargal, Joseph Byrd, Jean-Daniel Pli.iss, Pliiss, Murray W. Dempster, Samuel Solivan (and his development of an ethnic contextual-pentecostal theological hermeneuhermeneu­ 266 Archer 6 (with their narrative and tics), John C. Thomas and Kenneth J. Archer26 communitarian approaches to pentecostal hermeneutics), Amos Yong (with his trinitarian-pneumatological approach), and James K. A. Smith (with his creational hermeneutics participated in the conversation). A last major hermeneutics in Oliverio's Oliverios typology is the ecumenical-pentecostal hermeneutics, in continuity with the ecumenical impulse and sentiment 267 that characterized the early Pentecostal movement, whose charismatic movement,267 268 spirituality included believers from diverse Christian traditions, traditions,26 8 but was in discontinuity with the institutional forms of classical Pentecos-

263. These subdivisions seem to meto me to be subjectivistic, inviting researchers rather to keep the hermeneutic type together. 133-34 . Oliverio acknowledges that his 264. Oliverio, Theological Hermeneutics, 133-34. typology-based typology—based on and inspired by Henry May's May’s typological interpretation of the four forms the Enlightenment took in America (Studebaker, "Book “Book Review;' Review,” 375)375)— is not the only legitimate categorization of or the only proper angle for approaching the development of pentecostal theology, nor that it is comprehensive. Rice is correct in stating that Oliverio works almost exclusively from the view of historiography of North American classical Pentecostalism, although it might be true that there are inin­ terfaces with other traditions such as African Pentecostalism due to globalization and glocalization (Rice, "Book “Book Review:' Review,” 1). 265. Oliverio, Theological Hermeneutics, 186.

266. Yong refers to the Cleveland School, with the contributions of Moore and Thomas of the Pentecostal Holiness Church in Cleveland, TN, who established the Journal oj of Pentecostal Theology and write about pentecostal hermeneutics and spirituspiritu­ ality (Yong, Hermeneutical Spirit, 8). 267. See Nel, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Ecumenical Impulses:' Impulses.” 268. Studebaker, "Book “Book Review;' Review,” 376.

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talism that emerged and became dominant throughout the twentieth century, associated with the work of Ernest S. Williams and Cecil M. Robeck, Frank D. Macchia ((with with an expansion of the boundaries of Spirit baptism, Veli-Matti Karkkainen (with his development of consensual doctrines), Simon Chan (with a call for pentecostal "traditioning"), “traditioning”), and Koo Dong Yun (with a dialectical approach to Spirit baptism). Williams (1885-1981) experienced Spirit baptism at Azusa Street and became a dialectician in the tradition of David du Plessis and Donald Gee with his three-volume Systematic Theology, while Robeck served as co-chair of the Fourth (1990-1997) and Fifth (1998-2006) Phases of the International Roman Catholic-Pentecostal Dialogue, affirming an ecumenical orientaorienta­ 269 tion. tion.26 9 The assumption is that the Spirit has been present in the past, is doing new things in the present, and will do so in future, and, although theoltradition is differentiated from Scripture in its role as a source for theol­ ogy, pentecostal hermeneutic tradition must always still be corrected by Bible. 270 the Bible.270 In his contribution to the development of a pentecostal herme­ hermeneutics, Oliverio emphasizes that a "text" “text” is anything that is interpreted theologically, including, inter alia, the Bible, the world of nature, special religious experiences, general human experience, the human self, ratioratio­ 271 nality, and tradition. tradition.271 His hermeneutics is ubiquitous and necessary for offering cogent theological accounts of our world, in line with the "lin“lin­ guistic turn" turn” in twentieth-century Anglo-American analytic philosophy and a similar turn in the phenomenology of the Continental tradition.272 tradition. 272 It should be understood in terms ofholistic of holistic paradigms, which provide, in his opinion, the best theological accounts of reality and which intertwine the ontologies implicit in hermeneutics, the specific discernments made concerning the truths of historical existence, and what has come to be the structures of the hermeneutics themselves. The pentecostal experiexperi­ ence of God and a fruitful pentecostal theological hermeneutics draw 269. Oliverio, Theological Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 264-65 and 272-74. 2270. 70. Oliverio, Theological Hermeneutics, 311. 3 11. 19-60. 271. Oliverio, Theological Hermeneutics, 3 319-60. 272. Though certain universa! universal principles were to be found in all languages, each language constituted through its grammatical form a unique manner and way of perper­ ceiving the world, leading to the Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure's Saussures distinction between language as a system (langue) and language as speech or utterance (parole). UnderUnder­ standing is grounded in language as the correlative of speaking (Mueller-Vollmer, "Introduction;' “Introduction,” 13-14). 13 -14 ).

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upon Word, creation, culture, and tradition in the manner that and to the degree which each are graced by God. In doing so, the Spirit serves as the guide. Spirit baptism does not imply that we relate to God as an object of reflection but rather that we are baptized into God as a powerful expe­ field of experience, which opens up wonders and joys as a daily expe273 rience, requiring theological reflection. reflection.273 It implies that Christianity is lt not essentially based exclusively on revelations of timeless truths, though it does include such revelations. A good hermeneutics draws together a framework that includes the history of the text, recognizes the role language plays in regard to author, text, and interpreter, and acknowlacknowl­ edges the existence of time (and thus the contextuality and finitude of the interpreter, who operates in a tradition of interpretation), but still keeps on looking at the experience of transcendence and a transcendent God, which is the subject matter of theology, while also being aware of 274 the communal nature of all interpretation. An adequate pentecostal ininterpretation.274 in­ terpretation is not simply cognitive but also can be found in the readers reader's encounter with a transcendent God through the text because people do come to know God in life-transforming ways, and Scripture promotes 275 and enables such encounters in the service of the Spirit. The experience Spirit.275 of God is the hermeneutical goal in pentecostal hermeneutics, and it is 276 Goďs word. While Protestants the result of careful listening to and for Gods word.276 bibtend to be word-oriented, emphasizing the cognitive content of the bib­ lical revelation and its logic-based interpretation, Pentecostals, by concon­ trast, emphasize spirit/Spirit and the experienced reality of God in one's ones life and in the world, even though Protestantism and Pentecostalism also share many other similarities, such as: the priesthood of all believers, with every believer having direct access to God; the singular authority of the Bible, in contrast to tradition or church hierarchy; and salvation 277 based on grace alone through faith alone, ap apart effort.277 art from any human effort. For Protestants, the center of gravity is the word, with doctrine and scripscrip­ tural teaching being centra!; central; Pentecostalism's Pentecostalisms center of gravity centers on experience, expecting the felt presence of God in a person's normapersons life as norma­ tive for a Christian life, and their experience is their creed. Although they 273. Macchia, Baptized in the Spirit, 56. 274. Autry, "Dimensions “Dimensions ofHermeneutics;' of Hermeneutics,” 32-47. 2 7 5. 275.

Hermeneutics;· 550. o. Autry, "Dimensions “Dimensions of Hermeneutics,”

276. Autry, "Dimensions Hermeneutics," 44. “Dimensions of Hermeneutics,” 277. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, 18-19. 18 -19 .

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embrace the message of the Bible and believe its words, they read the Bible in order to live like people whose stories are told in the Bible rather 278 than to define doctrine or theologize about biblical issues. issues.278 279 The role of culture, in Oliverio's CulOliverios view, is also important. important.279 Cul­ ture consists of the cultivation of language, action, habits, gestures, and thoughts, forming the context for doing theology. The hermeneutical task interpreta­ is not only to recognize that culture provides the context for interpretation but also that it provides the venue of Goďs God's revelation and the place of constructive interpretive action. This always occurs in language, as ilil­ lustrated in the wonderful works of God, heard in the many languages of the people who heard the disciples speaking in their own languages (Acts 2:5-11). 2 :5 -11). Christianity is a translating and translated religion because of its essential task of interpretation for different cultures. At the same time, a pentecostal hermeneutical paradigm also draws upon sources from the deep well of the larger Christian tradition (see 11 Car Cor 11:23; 15:3; 2 Thess 2: 15 ), consisting of the variety of ways the faith has been passed on 2:15), and the ways Christian faith communities are continuing to form traditradi­ tions and pass on the faith. A viable pentecostal hermeneutics should also be ecumenical, making it imperative to recognize the role of tradi­ tradition. In this sense, Yang Yong argues for a hermeneutics of ecclesial tradition that consists of tradition as past history ((which which is needed for a historical consciousness), tradition as present location, and tradition as the act of traditioning (which directs actions toward forming the future). future).2280 80 Pentecostal faith is, in some sense, flexible and "postmodern;' “postmodern,” but that does not and should not mean that anything goes in a relativistic fashion. Pentecostals agree that the Bible—as Bible-as the word of God-should God—should remain the bedrock of truth, even if they allow for ongoing revelation. Extra-biblical revelation should always be measured against the guideguide­ lines provided in Scripture, and the community of faith should remain the center of discernment to protect it against the risks inherent to its subjectivism.

278. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, 35-36. William Seymour frequently told seekers that they could not be filled with the Spirit when they were caught up in "thinking “thinking thought"; they had to become like "little babes" to get the blessing. They had to set thought”; “little babes” their "adult “adult minds" minds” aside (Jacobsen, Global Gospel, GospeU 36). Theological Hermeneutics* Hermeneutics, 359. 279. Oliverio, 1heological

280. Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, 265-73.

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Concluding Remarks Although the Pentecostal movement is diverse, as demonstrated by the diverse movements from which it originated, it is possible to define a valid pentecostal hermeneutical approach already functioning in its earear­ 281 liest days in terms of four aspects. First, the Bible becomes a living aspects.281 word when it interprets the believer in ways that cannot be predicted or determined, leading to a transformation of the reader's readers life. That is the work of the Spirit and cannot be predicted. Secondly, when the believer stands in a relation with God, it leads to knowledge about God that is based on the Bible and mediated through their experiences with God; knowledge about God comes from Scripture and practical experience with God. Pentecostals do not primarily compile information about God in the Bible; the Bible anticipates what happens when God meets people. readThirdly, pentecostal hermeneutics is characterized by a democratic read­ ing and interpretation of the Bible, where all believers witness to the truth of the Bible as it is reflected in their encounters with God. In their testimonies about their encounters with God, they utilize the vocabulary provided by biblical witnesses.28 witnesses. 2822 Lastly, the church serves as a corrective influence to discern truth and prevent individua! individual interpretation that may lead to heresy. Believers equipped with the gift of discernment ((11 Cor 12:10) 12:10) protect the church from the influence of spirits foreign to Christ. Although Pentecostals allow that each believer may interpret the 283 Bible in terms of its common sense -as do fundamentalists-they sense283—as fundamentalists—they believe that the core of truth lies in an encounter with God which leads 284 to life transformation. transformation.28 4 Scripture forms a fixed reference point for the 285 encounter with God; this is the core of pentecostal identity. Their identity.285 pre-critical Bible reading approach, initially shared with the Wesleyan Holiness and Keswickian movements, was an adaptation of the prooftext method, which consisted of stringing together a series of scriptural 281. Moore, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Approach," Approach,” 12-13. 12 -13 . 282. Some recent contributions to pentecostal hermeneutics even includes the eleele­ ment of testimony in the hermeneutical process; see Moore, "Deuteronomy “Deuteronomy and the Fire of God;' God,” 12-23. Moore allocates the larger part of his article to this topic and McQueen, making much of the realization of the message of Joe!, Joel, particularly in terms oflament, of lament, in his own interpretation of that book (McQueen, Joel and the Spirit). 283. "In “In ninety-nine out of a hundred cases, the meaning that the plain man gets out of the Bible is the correct one" one” (Torrey, Fundamentals, 34). 284. Martin, "Pentecostalism: “Pentecostalism: An Alternate Form;' Form,” 59-60. 285. Johns, "Pentecostalism Worldview," 75. “Pentecostalism and the Postmodern Worldview,”

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passages on a given topic in order to understand what God has said about 286 The focal point and primary concern of the topic under investigation. investigation.286 the Bible Reading Method was to synthesize the data into a doctrinal statement and thereby produce a biblical understanding concerning the 287 investigation.287 topic under investigation. The only textbook used was the Bible and sub­ the primary method was to read and study the Bible by taking a subject, looking up the references on that subject, and then praying for the anointing of the Spirit to open up the message in such a way as to bring necessary conviction to the students of the Bible.2 Bible. 288 88 Bible doctrines are to be believed, experienced, and practiced. Pentecostal interpretation of 289 Scripture was always done with praxis being the goal. goal.2 89lt It had three basic characteristics: it was pneumatic, experiential, and its focus was primar­ primar290 ily on historical narratives. Since the Holy Spirit had guided the writers narratives.290 of the Bible, so should the interpreter also seek to receive such guidance and inspiration. As there was only one true God as the embodiment of truth, so there was only one truth and, therefore, one correct interpreta­ interpretation of the Bible-a numerBible—a perspective that had the potential for causing numer­ ous disputes and factions among Pentecostals. The relationship between experience and the interpretation of the Bible operated in a dialogical 286. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, 62. Brookes explains how this method of studying the Bible should be applied in a group Bible study: "Have “Have your reader select some word, as faith, repentance, love, hope, justification, sanctification and, with the aid of a good concordance, mark down, before the time of the meeting, the references to the subject under discussion. These can be read as called for, thus presenting all the Holy Ghost has pleased to reveal on the topic” topic" (Brookes, "Studying Bible:' “Studying the Bible,” 314). The assumption of proof-texting is that the Bible was equally inspired through­ throughout (Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, 64). Popular users of proof-texts often do not give attention to the texťs texts contexts. However, some conservative readers did advocate inductive Bible study as well, emphasizing the need to read each book of the Bible as a whole (Keener, Spirit Hermeneuticsy Hermeneutics, 378n4). 287. Torrey, Fundamentals, 102. 288. D. Wesley Myland, an early pentecostal pioneer, teaches that Scripture ought to be interpreted in a dual manner (Myland, Latter Rain Covenant, 3). First, Scripture should always be interpreted literally and historically, and then it should be applied spiritually and typologically. Some portions, however, require a threefold interpretive approach, moving from the literal-historical understanding through the typologicalGoďs spiritual application into the prophetic-dispensational understanding of God’s redemptive pian. plan. The "latter Tatter rain covenant" covenant” is ranked third among the seven great Goďs purpose, and is relevant for this Gospel age. covenants of God’s 289. Torrey, Fundamentals, 108.

Hermeneu290. Arrington, "Hermeneutics," “Hermeneutics,” 382-83. See also Oliverio, Theological Hermeneu­ tics, 4343.

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manner and not as the result oflinear of linear progression. At every point, experiexperi­ ence informed the process of interpretation, and the fruit of interpretainterpreta­ tion informed experience. Proof-texting assumes that the Bible is equally inspired throughout and timeless in its teachings ("plenary" (“plenary” refers to the Bible being "fully “fully 291 inspired"). Thus, anyverse ofScripture proofto inspired”).291 any verse of Scripture could be used as a proof to supsup­ 292 port a doctrinal position.29 position. 2 They believed in the harmony of Scripture with a gradual and progressive unfolding of truth. They accepted that the Bible cannot contradict itself on any given subject. lt It was possible to harmonize Scripture because everything in the Bible is in agreement with everything else, for the reason that the whole Bible was built in the thought of God. Its unity displayed the unity of the divine pian plan and susu­ 293 preme intelligence. intelligence.293 The preferred Bible study method was the inductive-synthetic model, stressing that the Bible should be understood as a unified book parts. 2944 The syntax, grambefore breaking it down into its individua! individual parts.29 gram­ matical structure, and repetition of words and ideas in the text in the translated version of the Bible should receive the reader reader'ss close attention. One needed to form an overview or panoramic view of the Bible before one started investigating its different parts. The basic premise was that the Bible was an objective body of literature and one should approach it in an objective manner, consisting of objective, impartial induction. Deduction was viewed as too subjective and pre-judicial. Pentecostal hermeneutics differs from fundamentalism in several ways. Fundamentalists believe that the supernatural should be bracketed off from the present, while Pentecostals' Pentecostals experience of the Spirit baptism leads them to expect supernatural intervention in their daily lives. The truth was delivered in the closed canon of the Bible for fundamentalists, 291. Efird, How to Interpret the Bible, 3.

292. Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, Hermeneutic, 64. ental 97-98. 293. Torrey, Fundam Fundamenta/s,

294. Wilbert W W. White developed the inductive method of Bible study and inin­ fluenced many Bible readers. His principal goal was to train readers of the Bible in developing for themselves a way that they could independently apply to get original knowlideas from the text of the Bible that would help them to grow in the grace and knowl­ edge of Jesus (Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, 213). Arrington emphasizes that it was inductive Bible study that led to the doctrine of the baptism of the Spirit at the turn of the twentieth century in the Parham Bible School in Topeka, Kansas and students responded to the insight by setting themselves apart in prayer for a similar experience (Arrington "Pentecostal Identity," 18). “Pentecostal Identity,”

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while Pentecostals expect that God would reveal the truth in the present moment. The primary task of fundamentalists is to defend the absolutely essential foundation and criterion of truth given for once and for all in the Bible, while Pentecostals accept that God is involved in the history of their daily lives as well. They respect the Bible for its revealed truth but add that the Bible serves as the road sign showing the way to meet God. The Pentecostal movement lives in the tension of two opposing ways of Bible-a fundamentalist and pentecostal hermeneutics. viewing the Bible—a

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CHAPTER C h apter

2

Defining A A Pentecostal Hermeneutics for Africa

Introduction THE The QUESTION question 1s, is, WHAT what

is distinctive about Pentecostals' Pentecostals* reading of the Bible? In what way do Pentecostal people read the Bible so that they reach different conclusions than believers of other denominations? Is it possible to speak of a pentecostal hermeneutics? In what way does it differ from the hermeneutics found in other theological traditions, such as the Catholic, Eastern, and Reformed traditions? And how does Pentecostals' practice?1 practice? 1 their hermeneutics inform Pentecostals In the previous chapter, the way Pentecostals read the Bible in the early days of their existence and today was described. It was shown that, although it may seem as if Pentecostals read the Bible in a fundamentalist-literalist way, this observation is only partly correct. In this chapter, the theme of a pentecostal hermeneutics is further developed in order to describe the distinguishing factors that define its ethos. The most significant observation is that Pentecostals' Pentecostals* religious consciousness expects an experience or encounter between God and huhu­ man beings through Gods Goďs Spirit. This is supposed to happen not only in the worship service but also in the practice of Bible reading, whether individually or collectively, as well as in the part of the worship service where a message is proclaimed. They read and proclaim the message in the light of their experience of the repetition of the day of Pentecost. 1. chapter is partly based on on Nel,Nel, "Attempting to to Define a Pentecostal i. TheThe chapter is partly based “Attempting Define a Pentecostal Hermeneutics:• Hermeneutics.”

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DEFINING FOR DE F IN ING A A PENTECOSTAL PEN TEC O ST AL HERMENEUTICS HE RMENE UT I C S FO R AFRICA AFR I CA Because they have received the gift of the Spirit, Pentecostals read the Bible prayerfully and with the expectation that the Spirit will explicate lives.22 The pentecostal presupposition is that and apply the word to their lives. the word is revealed in the Bible only when people experience God, and the existential precondition leads to a pentecostal emphasis on narratives describing similar encounters in the Bible, appreciating narratives for value. 3 their theological value.3 Underlying the distinctive existence of different theological traditradi­ tions is a specific way of reading and interpreting the Bible (hermeneu(hermeneu­ tics), serving as the justification for traditions existing separately from 4 the rest of the Christian church. These different traditions have also been church.4 produced by their specific ways of reading and interpreting the Bible because the interpretation of biblical texts leads to "sense-making “sense-making with 5 existential consequences;' consequences,”5 resulting in different theologies informing the different denominations. Hermeneutics is the unavoidable activity of interpretation, an intelintel­ lectual quest to discover meaning driven by a governing question: "What “What does the process of interpretation involve and can it even uncover indu­ indu6 The Greek hermeneuein was deployed by the Greeks bitable meaning?" meaning?”6 to refer to three basic meanings: to express aloud in words (or to vocal­ vocalize), to explain, and to translate. Palmer argues that, in all three cases, something foreign, strange, and separated in time, space, or experience

2. This is the reason why Keener, in his important work, describes Pentecostals as 2. reading the Bible in light of Pentecost (see Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics).

3. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation," Interpretation,” 274. 4. See Porter and Stovell, Biblical Hermeneutics, for a description of five such views, comprising the historical-critical or grarnmatical grammatical view, the literary or postmodern view, the philosophical or theological view, the redemptive-historical view, and the caca­ nonical view. The Pentecostal movement would find itself at home horne sornewhere somewhere on the continuurn continuum between the discussion of the last two views. The canonical herrneneutic hermeneutic focuses on interpreting the Bible as a Christian text, gathered together by the church and for the church (Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, 3) while a redernptive-historical redemptive-historical herrneneutics emphasizes the corpus of the gospel message rnessage of JJesus esus Christ as summary hermeneutics of the Bible. Canonical exegesis is based on an understanding of the Christian Bible, including a particular canonical shape, which functions as an authoritative witness to Goďs workings in the world, and a reading of the Bible in the context of the God and Gods Christian faith and the faith cornrnunity community (Smit, Canonical Criticism, 10-u). 10 - 11) . 5. Lategan, "New Herrneneutics (Part I);' “New Testament Hermeneutics I),” 13. 6. Kennedy, Modem Modern Introduction to Theology, 164.

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is made familiar and comprehensible. comprehensible.77 lt It is interpreted and explained in 8 familiar.8 order that the unfamiliar becomes familiar.

Hermeneutical Problem modem her­ herA wide variety of theoretical approaches characterize the modern 9 summarized by Thiselton as the hermeneutics of meneutical debate, debate,9 understanding, the hermeneutics of self-involvement, the hermeneutics of metacriticism and the foundations of knowledge, the hermeneutics of suspicion and retrieval, the hermeneutics of socio-critical theory, the hermeneutics of liberation theologies and feminist theologies, the hermehermeneutics of reading in the context ofliterary of literary theory, and the herme­ meaning. 10 In neutics of reading in reader-response theories of literary meaning.10 discussing a pentecostal hermeneutics, it should probably be classified in the terms developed by Thiselton's Thiselton’s categories in terms of a hermeneutics of metacriticism, where the foundations of knowledge, the basis of un­ understanding the biblical text, and the modern modem reader's possible relation readers 11 texťs message are addressed. Because Pentecostals read the Bible to the text’s addressed.11 with faith that its message is true, Keener typifies it as a hermeneutics of trust. 12 The God of the Bible is their God; the Jesus of the Gospels is their trust.12 risen Lord; the angels and demons that inhabit the New Testament exist in their world; and the Bible's Bibles verdict on human moral failure is what they see reflected around them continually. "Pentecostal “Pentecostal rituals exhibit a worldview that presupposes that worship is about encountering God, inin­ God,” writes Anderson.13 cluding a faith in an all-powerful God;' Anderson. 13 Reading with faith means reading biblical narratives with the expectation that God will speak or act in some way related to Goďs God’s revelation in the narrative world of the Bible; it is the same God who is active in our world. "Jesus “Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever;' forever,” (Heb 13:8) is a text Pentecostals love to quote that underlines this sentiment. Expecting God 7. Palmer, Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 14. 14. 8. Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical HermeneuticSy Hermeneutics, 37. 9. See, for example, Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, Hermeneuticst 275-93 for a summary of the debate. 10. 10.

See Thiselton, New Horizons. See also Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical

HermeneuticSy 34. Hermeneutics, 11. 11.

Grabe, "Hermeneutical “Hermeneutical Reflections:' Reflections,” 14. 14.

12. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation," Interpretation,” 276. 13. Anderson, Ends of the Earthy Barth, 138.

DEFINING A PE PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS FOR AFRICA DE FINI NG A NT ECOS TAL HERME NE UT I C S FOR A F RICA to act today as God did in the Bible is dosely closely related to what the Bible calls "faith:' “faith.” 14 14 A pentecostal hermeneutics emphasizes three elements: the interinter­ relationship between the Holy Spirit as the one animating Scriptures and 15 empowering the believing community community15 with the purpose that members are equipped for ministry and witness in culturally appropriate ways.16 ways. 16 In the rest of the chapter, these three elements-Spirit, elements—Spirit, Scriptures, and bebe­ lieving community-will community—will be discussed in order to analyse the way Pentecostals interpret the Bible to define the distinctives of their hermeneutics. Before it can be discussed, the hermeneutical challenge should be Aufkliirung of the eighteenth century demanded described. While the Aufkldrung understanding to be objective and that truth could be found by rigorous modem consensus is that all understanding is methodical exercises, the modern necessarily based on preconceptions or presuppositions determined by prior understanding (pre-understanding) engendered by being engaged 17 with the matter involved. Readers' presupposiinvolved.17 Readers’ prior experiences and presupposi­ tions are all a part of the horizon within which they interpret what is read with the last influencing the present horizon (Lategan calls it the readers reader's 18 containing past experiences, preconceived ideas, "persona! “personal backpack;' backpack,”18 persona! prejudices, fears, and understanding of how the world works, personal expectations). It is necessary to be critically aware of the role played by pre-understanding although it is not necessary ((or or possible) to rid oneself of one's Vor-urteil) before one can partake in the act one’s past or prejudices ((Vor-urteil) of understanding. What is necessary, rather, is to take our prejudices— prejudices19 an outgrowth and function of one's -into account one’s historical existence existence19—into and place them in balance, leading to the conscious act of the fusing of 20 horizons. To understand is, according to Gadamer, to confront the text horizons.20 14. Keener, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation;• Interpretation,” 276. 15. See Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic. 16. Ranee, Rance, "Fulfilling “Fulfilling the Apostolic Mandate;' Mandate,” 8. 17. Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methodey Methode, 278.

II);' 81. 18. Lategan, "New “New Testament Hermeneutics (Part II),” 19. Mueller-Vollmer, "Introduction," nec“Introduction,” 38. Prejudice, according to Gadamer, is a nec­ essary condition of all historical (and other) understanding. Acts of understanding or interpretation always involve two aspects: The overcoming of the strangeness of the phenomenon to be understood, and its transformation into an object of familiarity in which the horiwn horizon of the historical phenomenon and that of the interpreter become united. 20. Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, Methode, 289.

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with the conscious awareness of onťs one’s necessary pre-understandings or 21 onťs own "horizon in order to validate or correct onťs ones “horizon of expectation" expectation”21 one’s 22 pre-understandings through the text. text.22 “The ongoing cyclic process of "The pre-understanding—challenge—rejection acceptance—adjustmentpre-understanding-challenge-rejection or acceptance-adjustmentself-understanding—new pre-understanding is what is understood new self-understanding-new 23 as the 'hermeneutical The image of the hermeneutic circle has ‘hermeneutical circle:" circle.’”23 24 been modified and reconfigured by Osborne into a spiral, spiral,24 which exex­ plains the hermeneutical process in a clearer way because it represents an open-ended movement from the horizon of the text to the horizon of the reader.25 reader. 25 The process of interpretation consists of spiraling nearer and nearer to the texťs text’s intended meaning, as the text is allowed to continue to challenge and correct alternative interpretations, guiding the delineation to its significance for the situation today.26 today. 26 But the spiral is also a cone, not twirling upward forever with no ending in sight but rather moving ever narrower to the meaning of the text and its significance for today. It also emphasizes that the reader must be concerned not only with discovering "what “what Scripture means" means” but also experience "what “what the word does;' does,” with 27 the two tasks of the hearer never to be divorced. divorced.2728Experiencing what the text does goes hand in hand with determining what Scripture means. We need to pay attention not only to the way in which Scripture interprets us Keener2 9 adds that but also the way in which Scripture interprets itself. itself 28 Keener29 authorial intention (Absicht) is necessarily conditioned by probability; we often make probable inferences about the implied author from the text’s texťs literary strategies in their originating contexts.30 contexts.30 Bruns makes the imporimpor­ 21. "Horizon “Horizon of expectation" expectation” is a term coined by Thiselton, New Horizons, 61.

22. See Grabe, "Hermeneutical “Hermeneutical Reflections;' Reflections,” 17. 23. Lategan, "New “New Testament Hermeneutics (Part II);' II),” 81. 24. Osborne, Hermeneutical Spira/, Spiral 22.

25. Oliverio, "Book “Book Review:• Review,” 134. 26. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies, 126.

27. O'Day O’Day refers to the generativity of the Bible, its capability for producing new meaning in new contexts (O'Day, (O’Day, "'Today ‘“Today this Word is Fulfilled,"' Fulfilled,”’ 357). Scripture does not remain static. It generates new life and meanings for itself in a community's community’s apap­ propriation of it. 28. Starling, Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship, 13. 29. Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, 140. 30. Authorial intention implies that words and sentences, if used correctly, would

always convey the meaning which the author intended. If a text appears obscure or ambiguous, this is because the writer did not succeed in the correct use of language, the correct explanation of terms, or in the proper construction of his arguments

DEFINING PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS HERMENEUTICS FOR DEFINING AA PENTECOSTAL FOR AFRICA AFRICA

tant observation that the beginnings of scriptural interpretation are to be 31 looked for within the Bible itself. The making of Scripture was a hermeitself.31 herme­ neutical process in which earlier biblical material was rewritten in order to make it intelligible and applicable to later situations, implying that the Bible can be read, despite its textual heterogeneity, as a self-glossing book. One learns to study it by following the ways in which one portion of the text illuminates another, explains Bruns. In his opinion, the scribes who shaped and reshaped the biblical texts appear to have designed it to be studied in this way. 32 Starling suggests that the metaphors of the hermeneutic circle Starling32 and spiral can be supplemented by the image of a snowball, explaining Scripture’s constituent parts. The the interpretive relationship between Scripture's hermeneutical statement that Scripture is a unity should be qualified; it is a weighty, complex, and multi-layered unity because the Bible did not fall from the sky like a single snowflake but rolled down the hill of salvation history, adding layers as it went. Each new layer of this acac­ cumulating collection presupposes what comes before and wraps itself around it, and, in so doing, offers direction in how to read it, asking to 33 be interpreted in light of it. The existence of a fuller sense is many times it.33 revealed when one studies a text in the light of other texts.34 texts. 34 One gains meaning from reading the Bible by circular movements between analysis and synthesis, pre-understanding and disclosure, from spiralling toward the text but also by realizing that the text came into existence through a history in which it was already approaching the reader, rolling down the hill for hundreds of years, accumulating layers of self-interpretation on its way. The progressive revelation that believers accept in faith when they read the Bible (progressio revelationis), however, is not a simple and one-dimensional model, leading from the old to the new and from good to had, probad, as Hebrews 1:1-2 1:1 - 2 might suggest. The process of interpreting pro­ gressive revelation also did not stop when the canon was closed because histhe process of interpretation is still going on. The Bible's Bibles reception his­ tory did not end when the canon was declared closed (whenever and (Mueller-Vollmer, "Introduction;' ). “Introduction,” 5 5). “Midrash and Allegory;' Allegory,” 626-27. 31. Bruns, "Midrash 32. Starling, Hermeneutics as Apprenticeship, 14.

33. Hebner, "Introduction;' “Introduction,” 2-3. Each text presents different historka! historical layers for interpretation and with each historka! historical layer, different possibilities for theologkal theological meaning are conveyed. 34. Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 242.

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if that happened at all as the termination of a specific historical event}; event); rather, the contemporary church should regain an "evangelical “evangelical ressource35 ment;' in the words of Williams, menty Williams,35 that includes a renewed acquaintance 36 with Protestantism's and medieval heritage as a corrective to Protestantisms patristic patristic36 an ahistorical, sectarian, and modernist tendency in exegesis and the­ theology. This does not deny the canonical boundary that sets the Bible apart among human writings and the uniquely authoritative role played 37 Croatto, a Latin American liberation by inner-biblical interpretation. interpretation.37 theologian, outlines the three aspects of the discipline of hermeneutics: as the "privileged “privileged locus" locus” of the interpretation of texts (first aspect), while all interpreters condition their reading of a text by a kind of pre-underoipre-understanding, arising from their own life context (second aspect}, aspect), and where the interpreter also enlarges the meaning of the text being interpreted 38 (third aspect}. Pentecostals dislocate the text by placing emphasis not aspect).38 on the meaning of the text in itself but rather on the meaning the text 39 Croatto also contends that the Bible has for those people reading it. it.39 must not be viewed as a fixed deposit that has already said everything; it is not so much that the Bible "said" “said” but rather that the Bible "is “is saying:' saying.” In committing their message to writing, the biblical authors themselves disappeared, but their absence means semantic richness. The "closure" “closure” of 35. Williams, Tradition, Scripturey Scripture, and Interpretation, 7-8.

36. Exegesis in the patristic era was founded in the philosophical schools of PlaPla­ tonism and Stoicism. Platonism interpreted reality in terms of an idea! ideal and incorpoincorpo­ real reality of which this world was a shadowy copy. To understand the true nature of reality, one had to turn one's one’s gaze away from the visible world and begin an ascent into the ideal idea! world of forms, which was not material at al!, all, but changeless, eternal, and truly real. Stoicism differed from Platonism by denying a gulf between the intelligible and visible world; al! all that existed was material. Ultimate reality, which was essentially rational, was itself material and permeated the entire universe. This universe is govgov­ erned by natural law and is rationally organized organized. Human beings as rational creatures could understand the natural laws, leading to the development of allegorical interinter­ Fathers;' 91). For the school pretation (Bernard, "Hermeneutics “Hermeneutics of the Early Church Fathers,” of Alexandria, the combination of Platonism and Stoicism formed a framework for interpreting the Scriptures. The school of Antioch, on the other hand, had no use for allegorical interpretation but considered the historical text in terms of its litera! literal meaning, grammar, and historical context. They emphasized insight or theoria into spiritual truth to be gained from the Bible, insisting that such insight was rooted in the litera! literal meaning of the text (Bernard, "Hermeneutics “Hermeneutics of the Early Church Fathers," Fathers,” 94). 37. I will be discussing the canonical boundaries and its implications for Pentecos37. 1 talism later Jater in this chapter. 1. 38. Croatto, Biblical Hermeneutics, 1.

39. Mester, "Use “Use ofthe of the Bible;' Bible,” 124. 124.

DEFINING HERMENEUTICS FOR POR AFRICA AFRICA DEFINING AA PENTECOSTAL PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS

authorial meaning results in the "opening" “opening” of new meaning. The reader's reader s responsibility is not exegesis, consisting ofbringing of bringing out a pure meaning, but rather eisegesis, the entering of the text with new questions so as to produce new meaning.4 meaning. 400 A precondition to understanding is the consciousness of one's ones parpar­ ticipation in the effective histories of the text where the different variations of historical criticism (text criticism, source criticism, form criticism, tradition criticism, and later variations such as redaction criticism and 41 can help to explain the origins of phenomena social-scientific criticism) criticism)41 42 and plotting their development. undevelopment.4 2 Bultmann already emphasized that un­ derstanding implies a living relationship between the interpreter and the text, 433 based on "fore-understanding" text,4 “fore-understanding” because it is already presupposed and not attained through the process of understanding. When reading the Bible, the Christian believer utilizes a necessarily Christian existential 4 fore-understanding4 fore-understanding44 because the New Testament originated within and 45 community.4 5 was specifically intended for the Christian community. Hermeneutics, 17 and 66. See also Kaiser and Silva, Introduc­ Introduc40. Croatto, Biblical Hermeneutics, tion to Biblical Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 279. Postmodem Methods;' 41. Green, "Modem “Modern and Postmodern Methods,” 189. 42. Jeanrond, "Biblical “Biblical Interpretation as Appropriation;' Appropriation,” 4, and Lategan, "New “New TesTes­ tament Hermeneutics (Part II);' II),” 83.

43. As explained by Gadamer, Truth and Method, Method, 295, and Lategan, "New “New TestaTesta­ ment Hermeneutics (Part I);' I),” 35. 44. Gadamer, Truth and Method, Method, 196.

Emeuerung," 523. Kruger asks the provocative ques45. Kasper, "Prolegomena “Prolegomena zur Erneuerung,” ques­ tion whether the authors of the Gospels, letters, and other writings that later formed the New Testament were aware that they were contributing to authoritative docudocu­ ments, even though the canon was only formulated much Jater later (Kruger, "Modem “Modern and Postmodem Postmodern Methods;• Methods,” 155 and 202-203). Most scholars have settled on the end of the second century CE as the point at which much of the transition into a canonical decision took place. Kruger then argues that the people in Irenaeus's Irenaeuss own time period already perceived many of the New Testament books as Scripture (as illustrated in the Maratorium Fragment, Clement of Alexandria, and Theophilus of Antioch), but this trend can be traced even further back into the second century, with Justin Martyr seemingly knowing of four canonical Gospels, and Papias, Ignatius, Polycarp, 11 ClemClem­ ent, 22 Peter, and 11 Timothy, regarding a number of Christian writings as Scripture or as possessing apostolic authority (Kruger, "Modem Methods;' 202). “Modern and Postmodem Postmodern Methods,” The conclusion is that Christians began to view some books as Scripture much earlier than Irenaeus, perhaps even by the tum turn of the first century in to the second. The canon was thus not a late development but had grown naturally and innately out of the earliest Christian movement. The authors of the New Testament appeared to have some awareness that they were writing Scripture. ln In this way, Kruger challenges the "big bang" theory of canon that argues that the canon was forcibly planted within the “big bang”

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Postmodern biblical interpretation traverses ambiguous boundaries that are not easily mapped. lt It began as a reaction to modernity's modernity’s assumed objectivity and the new approaches are held together by a common commitment by critical sensibilities rather than a common method.* method. 4466 Postmodern interpreters argue that we have no objectively determined ledge of truth on which to stand in order to make value-free judgments in the work of creating meaning. Truth does not exist as an abstract realreal­ ity apart from human knowing. Meaning is not a property of the text that readers must discover or excavate but rather is the product of the neutral47 and their interaction of readers with texts. Critical tools are not neutral47 underpinnings may require reconfiguration in relation to the epistemic 48 priority of one's ones theological stance. stance.4 8 Severa! Several interpretive strategies have 49 been formulated and there is no such thing as abstract exegesis. exegesis.4 9 Some approaches address the text as a window through which to access and examine the deposit of meaning (behind-the-text approaches). Others recalibrate their focus on the qualities of the text itself, its architecture and texture (in-the-text approaches), and a last group orients themselves around the perspective of various readers of the text, communities ofinof in­ terpreters, and the effects of these texts on readers (in-front-of-the-text approaches), leading to narrative criticism, rhetorical criticism, feminist

soil of the church by later Jater ecclesiastical powers ((whether whether by Irenaues or others) with the purpose of refuting the existing heresies. Kruger suggests that the canon began like a seed present in the soil of the church from the very beginning (Kruger, "Modem “Modern and Postmodern Methods;• Methods,” 203). It might have happened that the earliest church did not see any necessity for a canon of writings since they had the apostles who taught them the words of Jesus, and they awaited the imminent second coming of Christ in their generation. Only when some of the apostles died did the early church realize its need for Scriptures that contain the apostles' apostles* teaching. 46. Archer defines "modernity" “modernity” as Descartes's Descartes’s autonomous, rational substance encountering Newtons Newton's mechanistic world, forming a humanistic (mastery of all natu­ naturalistic and supernaturalistic forces), positivistic (science and instrumental reasoning as sole arbiter of truth), and naturalistic-mechanistic universe (material universe is the sum total of reality) (Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, 43). 47. It is never neutra! neutral because interpretation always betrays and perpetuates cercer­ tain biases on behalf ofboth of both the sender (which is embedded in the text) and receiver (who determines the true meaning of the text) (Archer, "Hermeneutics;• “Hermeneutics,” 109).

Bartholomew, Introducing Biblical Hermeneuticsy Hermeneutics, 10. 48. Bartholomewy 10. 49. Davies, "What Read?," 262. “What Does it Mean to Read?”

DEFINING HERMENEUTICS FOR DEFINING A A PENTECOSTAL PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS FOR AFRICA AFRICA

criticism, African American criticism, intercultural or contextual criticriti­ cism, postcolonial criticism, womanist criticism, and Latino/Latina criticriti­ 50 cism, to name a few. few.50 The Bible cannot be understood adequately only in terms of an indiindi­ vidual'ss self-understanding based on their participation in the world but vidual also from faith's faiths self-understanding, determined by the fact that faith is 51 a gracious act of God that happens to the one who has faith. faith.51 Faith is a 2 pneumatological reality5 reality52 and, from a pentecostal perspective, the Bible is interpreted as the product of an experience with the Spirit which the 53 Bible describes in phenomenological language, leading to the expeclanguage,53 expec­ tation by modern-day Pentecostals that the Spirit would apply biblical truth and promises to their every-day experiences and circumstances. circumstances.5544 "The “The experience of the presence and involvement of the Spirit in the be50. See Green, "Modem “Modern and Postmodern Methods;• Methods,” 196-201.

551. 1. Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 54. 52. Schtitz, Schiitz, Einfuhrung in die Pneumatologie, 3-4. 53. Ervin, "Hermeneutics: Option;• 33. Castelo thinks that a proper “Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option,” "first theology" would be pneumatology, the doctrine of the Spirit, constituting a “first theology” Article" contra a "Theology Article;• associated with "Theology “Theology of the First Article,” “Theology of the Third Article” Roman Catholicism's Catholicism’s emphasis on grace perfecting nature, and a "Theology “Theology of the Second Article,” Article;• associated with Protestantism's Protestantism’s focus on the disruption implied by the fall and the restoration provided by Christ (Castelo, "Diakrisis “Diakrisis Always En Conjunto," Conjunto, 200). This is not the case for most textbook discussions oftheology; of theology; see, for example, Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, 635-36, who spend little more than a page at the very end of their monumental work describing the role of the Holy Spirit in Bible interpretation. See also Yong's Yong’s argument that to begin with the Third Article rather that the Second opens up towards a trinitarianism that is much more robust than that which has to date emerged from a christological startingpoint (Yong, Spirit-Word-Community, 8-9). A pneumatological starting-point is both christological and patriological, the Spirit being the Spirit of Christ and the Spirit of the Father (filioque). The question is where to start theology, with the divine or the human, descent or ascent, ofGod of God as always in and around us (Schleiermacher) or who is the "wholly “wholly Other" Other” (Barth). The benefit of a Theology of the Third Article over the others is that it is not a theology from above (Barth) or from below (Schleiermacher) because pneumatology stresses that God is, in a sense, both and neither from above and below; God is a relational God who is beyond and in the midst of creation. The Spirit is not subjective or objective but rather transjective. Castelo's DabCastelo’s work follows Dab­ ney, "Why First?;' 240-61. “Why Should the Last be First?,” 54. Some researchers accuse Pentecostals of an overemphasis on pneumatology at the cost of a developed Christology. In the heart of pentecostal theology, however, as already explained, one finds Jesus as healer, savior, baptizer, and sanctifier. Christ is not relegated to the periphery; in fact, the focus on the Spirit is continually interspersed with and amplified by clear-sighted visions ofJesus of Jesus (Daneel, Questfor Questfor Belonging, 259).

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liever's liever s life enables one to come to terms with the apostolic witness in a truly existential manner,”5 manner;' 555 leading to a continuity with the original faith community for whom the epistle or Gospel was intended, as well as the modern-day community.

Luke-Acts and Paul: A Different Pneumatology Pneum atology Pentecostals engaged in a debate about the pneumatology of Luke and Acts. Initially between Dunn and Menzies, the debate raged in the Jour­ Journal of Pentecostal Theology of 1993 and 1994, with Menzies charging Dunn 56 that he does not give Luke enough credence for a view of pneuDunn56 pneu­ 57 Traditionally, "cessasionists" matology that is distinct from Paul. Paul.57 “cessasionists” interinter­ preted the Spirit baptism in terms of conversion and identified it with incorporation into the body of Christ as the representation of the new covenant. covenant.5588 It is what makes a person truly a Christian. Christian.5599 Following John Wesleys (1703-1791) (170 3-17 9 1) eighteenth-century contribution to the discussion Wesley's on sanctification in contrast to the Lutheran dialectic of the Christian existing as simultaneously sinner and saint (simul iustus et peccator),6 peccator), 600 61 sanctification.61 As a Spirit baptism was brought by some in relation to sanctification. theol­ synthesis between nineteenth-century dispensational and holiness theology, twentieth-century Pentecostalism identifies baptism with an ecstatic experience characterized by speaking in tongues, powerful equipment for 55. Grabe, "Hermeneutical Reflections on the Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 19. seri­ 56. James D. G. Dunn was one of the first scholars to take Pentecostalism seriously enough to write a major scholarly critique of its understanding of Spirit baptism. Dunn is not a Pentecostal or charismatic in popular terms, although his rigorous diadia­ logue with Pentecostals was always characterized by a conciliatory and friendly spirit Hermeneutics, 23). Dunn affirms the continuance ofthe (Keener, Spirit Hermeneutics, of the charismata. Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Theory,» Theory,” 204-8, for a summary. 57. See Byrd, "Paul Ricoeur's

58. See, for example, Stott, Baptism and Fullness, 23, and Peerbolte, "'Do ‘"Do not quench the Spirit!,"' Spirit!,”’ 4. all other 59. Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 744. Paul was elevated above al! canonical writers due to Luther's Luther’s and Calvin's Calvin’s emphasis on Pauline epistles, which supsup­ ported their respective doctrines of justification by faith and the sovereignty of God. The privileging of Paul was further encouraged by German scholarship critical of the historical reliability of Acts. Until recently, Evangelicals viewed Luke as a historian rather than a theologian (Menzies, Pentecost, 26). Pentecostals accept that Luke wrote history with a theological purpose in view, utilizing his own vocabulary and style as he presented the material.

60. Oliverio, 1heological Hermeneutics, 23. Theological Hermeneuticsy Movement,” 475. 61. Dayton, "Holiness Movement,»

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witness. 622 From the Sixties of the last century, the charboth service and witness.6 char­ ismatic movement that was born from the marriage between traditional Lutheran, Catholic, and Reformed theology and charismatic experience 63 reinterpreted Spirit baptism as an actualization of the Spirit. Spirit.6 3 ''Although “Although there is a consensus among renewalists on the noncessationist interpretainterpreta­ tion of Scripture, most other elements of the renewal tradition hold to a Luke/ Acts than classic Pentecostals.”6 Pentecostals:'644 broader view of pneumatology in Luke/Acts At the heart of the difference about the interpretation of Spirit baptism lies fundamental hermeneutical methodological differences genres. 655 Pauls Paul's theology is derived from let­ letrelated to different literary genres.6 ters; Luke writes what role the Spirit has fulfilled in history in narrative form. The difference between letter and narrative leads to a fundamental 66 methodological difference in how the work of the Spirit is described. described.6 6 Pentecostals accept continuity between the events that Luke writes about in his Gospel and events in the earliest church in Acts.6 Acts. 677 In the process, they tend to emphasize the theological character of the narratives at the expense of their historical uniqueness, while "cessasionists" “cessasionists” again highlight the historical character of the narratives at the expense of their

62. Holdcroft, Holy Spirit, Spirit, 120. See also Vondey's Vondey’s provocative remark thatglossolalia that glossolalia is the flagship of the pentecostal resistance to the dominance of the human language and the discourse of meaning (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 122). Where the intellect fails to grasp meaning and purpose, Pentecostals rely on the affections and imagination to allow the utterances to stand.

63. McDonnell, "Holy Initiation;' 82. As a worldwide phenom“ Holy Spirit and Christian Initiation,” phenom­ enon, the charismatic movement adds a number of important dimensions to the global temperament of Pentecostalism (Vondey, Pentecostalism, 23-25). The most significant is the ecclesial connectedness of the movement that integrates pentecostal spirituality and practices in the liturgical and ecumenical contexts of the established "mainline" “mainline” traditions. A second dimension is the widespread social acceptance of pentecostal and charismatic spirituality often connected with church leaders, councils, well-known personalities, and representatives of the intellectual elite. A third element is their inin­ tellectual and academic dimension. Another element is its establishment of a global character also in its theological dimensions. Fifthly, the movement has significantly expanded the ecumenical sensitivities of Pentecostals, with "allies" “allies” now found among the Evangelicals. 64. Spawn and Wright, "Emergence Hermeneutic," 17. “Emergence of a Pneumatic Hermeneutic,” 65. Fee, Gospel and Spirit, 110-11. 110 -11.

66. Zwiep, "Luke's “Lukes Understanding of Baptism;' Baptism,” 134. 67. Contra, e.g., Conzelmann, Theology of Saint Luke, 150; Minear, "Luke's “Lukes Use of theologithe Birth Stories," Stories,” 124; and Gasque, History of the Criticism, Criticismy294, who assume theologi­ cal homogeneity.

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AN A n AFRICAN A f r i c a n PENTECOSTAL P e n t e c o s t a l HERMENEUTIC H e r m e n e u t i c 68 This leads to Farrell's theological character. character.6 8 Farrells judgment that the historical narratives in Acts offer "a “a flimsy foundation" foundation” on which Pentecostals build their teachings of Christian life so that he can assert that "no “no directives 69 for normative Christian experience are contained in these passages:' passages.”6 9 Doctrine cannot be rooted in narrative alone, for narrative is too slipslip­ 70 pery, elastic, and imprecise. imprecise.70 Against this argument stands the viewpoint of Pentecostals that "the “the events that occurred on the day of Pentecost are 71 held to be the pattern for centuries to come:' come.”71 Paul's Pauls own theological way of working undermines a clear dichotdichot­ omy between narrative and literary writing, using historical narratives to draw didactic conclusions: "For “For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, so that by steadfastness and by the enen­ couragement ofthe of the scriptures we might have hope" hope” (Rom 15:4). If Paul uses the historical narratives of the Old Testament to motivate didactic statements, it is logical to assume that Luke would use the stories of the church for didactic reasons, as he bases his historiography deliberately on Old Testament historiography.72 historiography. 72 Marshall asks whether history and theology stand opposite each other and answers that Luke regards his task to provide a description of historical events, colored by his theotheo­ 73 logical viewpoint. viewpoint.73 He uses history to illustrate his message of the gospel of Jesus Christ. The implication is that his narratives contain more than descriptions or facts because it is subordinate to his theological interinter­ ests. A dichotomy between historical and didactic material in Luke-Acts is therefore artificial and arbitrary. Luke-Acts represents history with a

68. Stronstad, Charismatic Theology, 6. 69. Farrell, "Outburst ofTongues," “Outburst of Tongues,” 5. Fee agrees, stating that Pentecostals wrongly use historical portions of the Bible to justify their doctrinal claims rather than the didactic (Fee, Gospel and Spirit, 86). They mistakenly take the descriptive history of the primitive church and attempt to make it normative for the contemporary church. Fee's objections to the distinctive pentecostal docStronstad and Menzies replied to Fees doc­ trines by denying a simple dichotomy between descriptive historical portions of ScripScrip­ ture and didaction portions, aiming to establish the thesis that Luke is a theologian in right-and that-and that one should move from biblical his own right— -and a charismatic one at that—and theology to systematic theology (an approach advanced by Robert Menzies). See also discussion in Stronstad, Charismatic Theology; Theology; Menzies, "Synoptic “Synoptic Theology:' Theology,” 14-21; 14 -2 1; and Keener, Spirit Hermeneuticsy Hermeneutics, 252.

70. Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 585.

71. Holdcroft, Holy Spirit, 110. 110. 72. Marshall, Lukey Luke, 56, and Atkinson, 'í\ngels “Angels and the Spirit;' Spirit,” 51-52.

73. Marshall, Luke, 52.

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view. 74 That is why purpose, history written with a theological agenda in view.74 Luke's Lukes narratives provide an important and valid source for his teaching of the Spirit that has normative implications for the church's mission and 75 religious experience. experience.75 To interpret Luke's Lukes historical narratives about the work of the Spirit 76 in Pauline terms is an "illegitimate This happens “illegitimate identity transfer:' transfer.”76 when didactic passages enjoy preference above historical narratives and 77 the book of Acts is read and interpreted from 11 Corinthians. 11 CorinCorinthians.77 Corin­ thians 12:13 12 :13 describes Spirit baptism as initiation and incorporation into 8 the body of Christ7 ; Stott interprets Luke 3:16, Acts 1:5, and Acts n:16 Christ78; 11:16 79 in the same terms, interpreting Luke with a Pauline interpretation. interpretation.79 The conclusion then is that the Spirit baptism does not represent a second80 phase experience but refers to the initiation experience. experience.8 0 And Luke's terms ("filled (“filled with the Spirit;' Spirit,” for example, in Luke 1:15) is then interinter­ 18, so that Paul's preted in terms of Ephesians 5: 5:18, Pauls single use of the phrase is made normative for Luke's nine references.81 references. 81 Against this viewpoint, Pentecostals hold that Luke was a historian and theologian in his own right who deliberately and independently developed his teaching about pneumatology822 thus exists next the Spirit. Luke's charismatic, prophetic pneumatology8 83 to and independent of Paul's soteriological theology of the Spirit. Spirit.8 3 74. Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 623.

775. 5. Rudolf Otto refers to "religious reli“religious experience" experience” as the non-rational element in reli­ Holy, 3). It may be correct in a general sense to assert that reli­ religion (Otto, Idea of the Holy, “holy.” At the same gious experience has largely been jettisoned out of the idea of the "holY:' modem Africa has become "totally time, modern “totally inconceivable apart from the presence of Christianity" Europe;' 40), and Pentecostalism is the area Christianity” (Forrester, "Christianity “Christianity in Europe,” in which the growth in African Christianity has been most conspicuous (AsamoahGyadu, African Charismatics, 7-10), 76. Barr, Semantics of Biblical Language, 222.

77. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy Spirit, 15, and Green, I Believe in the Holy Spirit. 78. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy Spirit, 129-30. 79. Stott, Baptism and Fullness, 23. 80. Green, I Believe Be/ieve in the Holy Spirity Spirit, 141-42. 14 1-4 2.

4 3-5 1. 81. Stott, Baptism and Fullness, 43-51. 82. Turner, "Does “Does Luke Believe Reception;' Reception,” 8. 83. Menzies, "Luke's Baptism;' 112. Jater than “Lukes Understanding of Baptism,” 112 . Luke writes much later correcPaul, probably around 70 CE, and could possibly be seen as a reversal of and correc­ tion on Pauline pneumatological trends (Atkinson, "Angels “Angels and the Spirit in LukeActs;' Acts,” 89). From South African ranks, pentecostal scholars wrote two dissertations on 11 Corinthians 12-14: 12 -14 : Moller, Diskussie oor die Charismata is about the charismata as it is practiced in the Pentecostal movement in comparison with what the Corinthian

109 10 9

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Paul's pneumatological perspective is not irreconcilable with that Pauls of Luke. On the contrary, Menzies and Menzies argue that the pneumatologies of Luke and Paul are different but not incompatible, and these differences should not be blurred.8 blurred. 844 Both perspectives offer valuable inin­ sights into the dynamic work of the Spirit. Paul has the more developed view, for he writes about the full richness of the Spiriťs Spirits work. For Paul, the Spirit is the source of the Christian's Christians cleansing (Rom 15:16; 11 Cor 6:11), 6 :11), righteousness (Rom 2:29; 8:1-17; 8 :1-17 ; 14:17; Gal 5:5; 5:16-26), intiinti­ 8 :14 -17; Gal 4:6), as well as the source mate fellowship with God (Rom 8:14-17; of power for mission (Rom 15:18-19; Fee855 emphasizes 15 :18 -19 ; Phil 1:18-19). 1:18 -19 ). Fee8 that the Spirit plays an absolutely crucial role in Paul's Pauls Christian experiexperi­ central ence and his understanding of the gospel. Crucial to the Spirits Spiriťs centra! role is the thoroughly eschatological framework within which Paul both experienced and understood the Spirit. Equally crucial to the Pauline perspective is the dynamically experienced nature of the coming of the 86 Spirit in the life of the individua! individual and community. community.8 6 Paul attests to both the soteriological and charismatic dimensions of the Spirits Spiriťs work, while Luke's Lukes view is less developed and more limited, only bearing witness to the charismatic dimension of the work of the Spirit. But Luke also has an important contribution to make, reminding us that the church is a prophetic community empowered for a missionary task by virtue of its reception of the pentecostal gift. That is the reason for Luke adding a unique text to his Gospel, in his account ofthe of the sending ofthe of the Seventy (Luke 10:1-16). 10 :1-16 ). The three Synoptic Gospels record Jesus's Jesus’s words of instruction to the Twelve as they are sent dis­ out on their mission. Only Luke records a second, larger sending of disciples, either "seventy-two" deter“seventy-two” or "seventy;' “seventy,” a number that cannot be deter­ 87 mined with confidence. confidence.8 7 The number might have syrnbolic symbolic significance. As the number "twelve" “twelve” clearly symbolizes the reconstitution of Israel (Gen 35:23-26) with the twelve tribes oflsrael of Israel as basis, the background

letter teaches about it, and Bezuidenhout, "Pauliniese “Pauliniese Kriteria" Kriteria” is on Pauline criteria regarding the practice of charismata. In both cases, exegesis is done on Paul's descripdescrip­ tion of the charismata without investigating Paul's view of the baptism of the Spirit, a subject examined by later pentecostal scholars in more detail. 84. Menzies and Menzies, Spirit and Power, 931. 85. Fee, Goďs God's Empowering Presence, 896-99. 86. Karkkainen, Karkkiiinen, Pneumatology, 34.

87. Metzger, "Seventy Disciples?;' 321. “Seventy or Seventy-Two Disciples?,”

DEFINING HERMENEUTICS FOR DEFINING AA PENTECOSTAL PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS FOR AFRICA AFRICA 88 for the reference to the "seventy" “seventy” is to be found in Numbers 11:24-30. ir.24-30.8 8 Numbers 11:25 spirit) that was 11:25 describes how YHWH took of the Spirit ((spirit) prophesy­ on Moses and put the Spirit on the seventy elders. They started prophesying for a short duration. Two of the elected elders, Eldad and Medad, did not attend the meeting but remained in the camp. When they started prophesying and Joshua heard about it, he rushed to Moses with the re­ request that he should stop them. Moses replied, 'J\.re you jealous for me? “Are I wish that all of the Lorďs Lords people were prophets. And I wish that the them" (Num 11:29). This Lord would put his Spirit on them” "This accounts for the two textual traditions underlying Luke 10:1, in Menzies’s Menzies's view, because of the interplay of seventy and seventy-two prophets. It also finds explicit fulfilment in the narrative of Acts and it ties into one of the great themes of Luke-Acts, the work of the Spirit. Menzies then finds the significance of the symbolism in the expansion of the number of disciples into mis­ mission from twelve to seventy (or seventy-two), actualizing the wish of Moses that all YHWH's YHWH s people would be prophets. This wish was fulfilled throughout Acts, including the people of Samaria (Acts 8:14-17), the man from Africa (Acts 8:27-40), the Roman officer Cornelius's Cornelius’s house (Acts 10:44-48), and Ephesus (Acts 19:1-7). 19 :1-7). Luke wishes to state sucsuc­ cinctly that every member of the church is called (Luke 24:45-49; Acts 1:4-8; Isa 49:6) and empowered to be a prophet (Acts 2:17-21; 2 :17 -2 1; 4:31). The prophetic enabling experienced by the disciples at Pentecost is available Moses's wish. Luke anticipates the fulfilto all of Goďs Gods people, realizing Moses’s fulfil­ 89 ment of this reality (Luke 10:1). io :i).8 9Pentecost then represents the fulfilment of Moses's Moses’s wish that all believers would be prophets, rather than the disdis­ 90 ciples' ciples’ entrance into the new age. age.9 0

The Reading Community C om m unity lhe The results of a pentecostal encounter with the Bible are: a deepening respect for the witness of the Scriptures, especially the apostolic witnesses 88. Menzies, Pentecost, 33. Pentecosty 35. 89. Menzies, Pentecost, 90. As argued, only by reading Luke-Acts through the lens Jens of Pauline Paulíne theology can Pentecost be construed as the moment when the disciples enter into the new age (Menzies, Pentecosty Pentecost, 36). Twelftree argues that, for Luke, the beginning of the church must be traced back to Jesus's Jesus’s selection of the Twelve, and the ministry of the church is not seen as distinct from but continues the ministry of Jesus (Twelftree, People oj of

Spirity 30 30). the Spirit, ).

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AN A n AFRICAN A f r i c a n PENTECOSTAL P e n t e c o s t a l HERMENEUTIC H e r m e n e u t i c 91 concerning Jesus contained in it ; a denial that all passages should be it91; read and interpreted literally, as though the truths contained in the passage are transferred in a mechanistic or automatic way; and the inin­ terpretation of Scriptures within the pneumatic continuity of the faith 92 community through all ages. ages.9 2 The community is defined in terms ofbeof be­ ing Spirit-driven, Spirit-led, and Spirit-empowered to accomplish Goďs God’s purposes for and through the community-a community—a community that is to be 93 Spirit-governed, Spirit-supported, and Spirit-propagated. Spirit-propagated.9 3 Pinnock adds that a genuinely Spirit-led reading will be consistent with the apostolic witness, which he deems an important check and that matches the res94 torationist motif that helps to determine pentecostal self-identity. self-identity.9 4 The preference for ''.Apostolic" “Apostolic” in the title of many Pentecostal groups and movements, going back to the self-designation of the Azusa Street group, testifies to the importance for Pentecostals that their teaching and pracprac­ 95 tice should be in accord with the witness of the first apostles. apostles.9 5 If understanding is defined as the fusion of horizons conditioned by effective historical historka! criticism, the important question remains: how does one validate one's ones experience with the text? Ricoeur is concerned about text comprehension and shows that the relationship between interpreter and text should be approached methodically in a critically accountable 96 way. way.9 6 He contends that one should distinguish between the relations of mean­ speaking-hearing and writing-reading. In spoken discourse, the meaning of the discourse overlaps the intention of the speaker. However, with written discourse, the author's authors intention and the meaning of the text cease to coincide. What the text means now matters more than what the 97 author meant when he wrote it. it.9 7 The interpretive process is dialectical, progressing from an initial, naive understanding, to an explanation of the

91. Gee, Pentecost, 8. 92. Grabe, "Hermeneutical “Hermeneutical Reflections;' Reflections,” 19. 93. Rance, Mandate;• 9. Ranee, "Fulfilling “Fulfilling the Apostolic Mandate,” 94. Pinnock, "Work “Work of the Holy Spirit;' Spirit,” 241.

95. See Yong, Hermeneutical Spirit, 12-13. 12 -13 .

96. Jeanrond, Text Und Interpretation als Kategorien, 27. 97. Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, Hermeneutics, 279. John Wyckoff, a pentecostal scholar, devoted his dissertation to addressing pneumatic hermeneutics, contending that Scripture is the final authority only if the author's author’s original intended meaning, as opposed to the perspectives of the readers, is determinate for al! all other possible valid meanings, in which he includes what many prefer to cal! call "applications:• “applications ” PentecosHis view that denies authorial intention is, however, a minority view among Pentecos­ tals (see Wyckoff, "Relationship “Relationship of the Holy Spirit"). Spirit”).

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text, a deeper understanding of the text, and a methodological validation 98 of the results of the first or naive understanding. understanding.9 8 I contend that although the meaning of a biblical passage need not (and cannot always) be identified completely with the author's authors inteninten­ tion-there tion—there will always be uncertainty about the intention of a specific author-authorial meaning can never be secondary or dispensable. In author—authorial certain cases, the task of identifying what the biblical author meant is not the only legitimate way of proceeding in interpreting the text, but such a task is always necessary and must continue to function as an eses­ sential goal of the hermeneutical process. Before further considerations are brough to the text, one must always listen to the author in terms of language, historical, social and economic context, and genre. In order not to read into the text one's ones own ideas and meaning, one should take the trouble to hear the text speaking on its own terms. No modern modem author would be happy with readers interpreting the text in a way that reflects their own ideological ideas without listening to the arguments in the 99 text. text.9 9 The stated primary purpose of the Bible is to communicate an intelligible message that requires a response, and the Bible is read in a spiritual manner by believers with the purpose to hear the voice of God, despite the Bible also being a literary and artistic work. 100 An True understanding always includes the act of application. application.100 important part of the application of texts consists of the personal involve­ involvement of the reader or listener with the word, as the author of Jeremiah dede­ clares: "Your “Your words were found, and I ate them, and your words became to me a joy and the delight of my heart; for I am called by your name, O Lord, God of hosts” hosts" (Jer 15:16). "I “I am called by your name" name” literally reads, "Your name was upon me;' evoking the language of Deuteronomy “Your me,” 12:5 and 11, 1 1 , which refers to the place where YHWH would choose to put his name and habitation (eventually in Jerusalem). YHWH inhabits the Goďs prophet; Jeremiah has to "become" “become” Jerusalem in order to proclaim Gods message to Jerusalem. He needs to be "with “with God" God” in order to receive and 101 This is not an objective, neutral, distant readproclaim Goďs Gods word. word.101 read­ ing or hearing of Goďs Gods word; the interpreter must be owned by God,

98. Jeanrond, "Biblical “Biblical Interpretation as Appropriation;' Appropriation,” 5, and Jeanrond, Text

Und Interpretation als Kategorien, 42. 99. Hermeneutics, 291. 99. See Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, 100. Method, 270. 100. Gadamer, Truth and Method, 270. 101. Hermeutics, 539. 10 1. Bartholomew, Introducing Biblical Hermeuticsy

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obedient to God, confident in God, and at Goďs Gods disposal in order to be 102 Gods prophet.102 Goďs prophet. The text that is understood historically is always forced to abandon its claim that it is uttering something true, argues Gadamer, and the acac­ knowledgment of the otherness of the other involves the fundamental suspension of its claim to truth, leading to the dilemma of theology when 103 Scripture is applied in an edifying way in Christian preaching. preaching.1 03 Here, understanding involves the application of the text to be understood to the present situation of the interpreter and the listeners.1 listeners. 104 04 The relation between interpreter and text consists in "understand“understand­ ing”; the methodological activity taking place between interpreter and ing"; text leads to "explanation"; “explanation”; a last element consists in "assessment;' “assessment,” concon­ sisting of the reader reader'ss personal responsibility towards the meaning of the them. 105 text that opens up before them.1 05 Assessment of biblical texts consists of discovering the claim(s) made by the text and making a personal persona} ("altar") (“altar”) response to it. What does it mean, then, that the interpreter should rely upon the Holy Spirit in interpreting the text? Arrington suggests the following ways in which the interpreter relies on the Spirit: submission of the mind to God, so that the critical and analytical abilities are exercised under the guidance of the Holy Spirit; a genuine openness to the witness of the Spirit as the text is examined; the personal experience of faith as part of the entire interpretative process; and response to the transforming call of Gods Goďs word.1 word. 106 06 The Holy Spirit enables the interpreter to bridge the historie al and cultural gulf between the authors of the Bible and the preshistorical pres­ ent readers. Pentecostals ascribe their strong emphasis on the Spirit to Scripture which emphasizes the role of the Spirit in revealing God and Goďs Gods will to Goďs God’s people. "But, “But, as it is written, 'What ‘What no eye has seen, nor ear heard, nor the human heart conceived, what God has prepared for those who love him'-these him’—these things God has revealed to us through 102. To be a true prophet would thus always include that one meets opposition, hatred, and persecution because one shares in Goďs God’s holiness and separatedness. The prophet may become a lonely person and appear to be a failed and therefore false Hermeutics, 539-40). prophet (Bartholomew, Introducing Biblical Hermeutics, 103. Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, 329. 74, and Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical 104. Gadamer, Truth and Method, 2274, HermeneuticSy Hermeneutics, 328. 105. Jeanrond, Text Und Interpretation als Kategorien, Kategorien, 70 and 125. 106. Arrington, "Use “Use ofthe of the Bible;' Bible,” 105.

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the Spirit; for the Spirit searches everything, even the depths of God" God” (1 Cor 2:9-10). The two dimensions of the interpreting process—the process-the experientialpneumatic (or spiritual) and the exegetical elements-should elements—should be kept in balance. By overemphasizing the experiential and pneumatic at the cost of the work of the mind can lead to a subjectivizing interpretative pro­ process. Scripture should always stand as the objective standard to which al! all interpretation must submit. Unless it can support its case biblically, it has 107 no compelling reason to exist. exist.107 Pentecostals believe that God still speaks today, and when God speaks, God has more to say than just Scripture. Yet what God says will never be in contradistinction to what Scripture teaches because it is the same Spirit who inspired the authors of the Bible who reveal God to concon­ 108 believers. temporary believers.108 By way of concluding, faith does not render scientific methodmethod­ ologically controlled interpretation of biblical texts impossible but rather forms the framework that makes the enterprise meaningful.10 meaningful. 1099 However, the ceaseless movement of biblical interpretation begins and ends in the 11 Faith forms risk of a response, which is not exhausted by commentary. commentary.110 the necessary and unique precondition from which believers orient themselves in all their choices. Hermeneutics reminds that biblical faith cannot be separated from the movement of interpretation, which elevates 111 it into language. From a pentecostal perspective, faith is interpreted as language.111 a transforming and empowering encounter with the divine, as described in Acts, leading to a Christian community eager to bear witness to the 112 power and love of God that they experienced and a consciousness of experienced112 113 the real presence and power of the Spirit. Spirit.113 The Pentecostal movement believes that the Spirit has manifested again as in the days of the early church when the Spirit gives the charismata

°

107. See Bruner, quoted in Thomas, "Women, Bible;' 49. “Women, Pentecostals, and the Bible,” 108. Archer, "Pentecostal “Pentecostal Hermeneutics,» Hermeneutics,” 148. 109. Stuhlmacher, Vom Verstehen des Neuen Testaments, Testamentsy 204.

Hermeneutics," 31. 110. 110 . Ricoeur, "Philosophical “Philosophical Hermeneutics,” 31. 111. Hermeneutics, 56, and Grabe, "Her1 1 1 . Kaiser and Silva, Introduction to Biblical Hermeneuticsy “Her­ meneutical Reflections,” Reflections;' 23.

112. 112 . Schnackenburg, Belief in the New Testament, 81-82. 113. 113 . Pentecostals find that God is so intrusively real that their subjective experience is constantly being challenged and proveď Authorproved (Ellington, "Pentecostalism “Pentecostalism and the Author­ ity ofScriptures;' of Scriptures,” 154).

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of glossolalia glossolalia,, prophecy, miracles of healing, and other signs in contemcontem­ porary times. Pentecostals now read the Bible in order to understand 114 themselves,1 14 a mode of subjectivity which responds and corresponds themselves, to the power of the New Testament to display its own world, radiated by the living Lord and present among Goďs Gods people, the community of faith, through the Holy Spirit and leading to the transformation of the lives of the readers.1 readers.11155 They also expect these same signs and wonders to occur in their ministry; they prioritize spectacular displays of celestial power, such as healing and deliverance from sinful habits and Satanic bondage, to authenticate the preaching of the Word and build the faith oflisteners of listeners 116 to expect the miracle they need in faith, leading to faith in the word. word.1 16

Canon C anon of the Bible? Pentecostals are part of the Protestant tradition and mostly accept with­ without question the canon of the Reformation. However, the different lists of canonical books found in Catholic, Protestant, and other Christian Bibles necessitate that the issue of the boundaries of the canon should still be attended to. Canonical criticism shows the fluidity of the canon throughthrough­ out the first few centuries of the Christian church's churchs existence which, at times, experienced intense canonical debates. The Reformation used the criterion of apostolicity for determining the canon of the New Testament contra the Roman Catholic Bible. For determing the canon of the Old Testament, the reformers, in their rejec­ rejection of the Catholic Bible, accepted the Jewish canon. For that reason, the Protestant Old Testament has the same books as the Jewish Old TestaTesta­ ment, although it follows the same order of the books as most Septuagint 117 manuscripts ((the the Greek translation of the Old Testament). Testament).1 17 114. 114 . Ricoeur, "Philosophical “Philosophical Hermeneutics;' Hermeneutics,” 30. 115. relativity" as a neces­ neces115 . In this regard, Schiissler Fiorenza refers to "self-conscious “self-conscious relativity” sity in reading the Bible effectively (Fiorenza, Bread not Stoney Stone, 104). This requires our

being quite explicit about where we are coming from, who we are, what our tradition is, and what we hope to find in the Bible. The past does not reveal itself to a supposedly detached, objective, and value-free spectator. Christians claim that God continues to "speak" to us from the Bible, but the Bible speaks to us only when we come to it with “speak” our honest questions and real hopes, not as distanced outside observers (Cox, How to Read the Bible, 13). 116. Anderson, "Towards “Towards a Pentecostal Missiology," Missiology,” 35. 117. or Instruc117 . The order of the Jewish canon is important, consisting of the Torah ((or Instruc­ tion ofMoses), of Moses), the Nebi'im Nebi’im (or Prophets), and the Ketubim (or wisdom writings). The

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Western Christianity has generally accepted what is now the CathoCatho­ 118 onward.118 lic Old Testament as canonical from at least the fourth century onward. There were some conflicting voices, however, such as Jerome, the translatransla­ tor of the Bible into Latin, who found many discrepancies between the Hebrew text and the Septuagint translation. However, Augustine, theinthe in­ fluential bishop of Hippo, and several ecclesiastical synods declared the 119 longer list to be canonical. canonical.119 The Reformers decided to follow the Jewish canon rather than the canon decided upon by the synods of the early church since the Hebrew Bible originated among the Jews and the Christian religion comes out of 120 Judaism. Judaism.120 A complication is that the determination of the Jewish canon It is clear that the canon of the is later than the Christian Old Testament. lt Hebrew Bible was not established at a supposed Synod ofJabne of Jabne or Jamnia at the end of the first century CE, as many scholars accepted during the twentieth cen tury. The synagogue at Jamnia served as the center of later century. rabbinic Judaism but there is no clear documentary evidence that it took a decision that was binding on all Jewish communities. Prior to Christianity, all Jews and Samaritans recognized the Torah or Pentateuch as the foundation of their religion. Some of the prophets were also revered, interpreted, and accorded authority by many Jews, but not all. The Sadducees, for instance, only accepted the Torah, even in Jesus’s day (Matt 22:23; Mark 12:18; Luke 20:27; Acts 23:6-8). Jesus's First-century Christian believers were at first Jews but, at least since the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Roman forces, most Christian believers were non-Jews, using mostly Greek as lingua franca. They read Torah served as the main canon while the Prophets served to interpret the Instruction, and the Wisdom writings served to interpret the Prophets, showing a distinction in the authority and value of the different parts of the canon (Collins, Introduction to the

Bible, 2-10). Hebrew Bibley 118. 118 . Their canon also contains 1 Esdras (Vulgate 3 Esdras); 2 Esdras (Vulgate 4 Esdras); Tobit; Judith; Rest ofEsther of Esther (Vulgate Esther 10:4-16:24); 10:4— 16:24); Wisdom ofSolomon; of Solomon; Ecclesiasticus (also known as Sirach); Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah (al! (all part of Vulgate Baruch); Song of the Three Children (Vulgate Daniel 3:24-90); Story of Susanna (Vulgate Daniel 13); The Idol Bel and the Dragon (Vulgate Daniel 14); Prayer ofManasses; of Manasses; 11 Maccabees; and 22 Maccabees (Collins, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible,

5). 5). 119. 119 . Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 150. 120. However, the Reformers allowed that the apocryphal books (as they called persona! upbuilding but the Roman Catholic "deuterocanonical" “deuterocanonical” books) be read for personal not for the formulation of doctrine. John Wesley relied much on the Apocrypha in his ). sermons (Wansbrough, Use and Abuse of the Bible, 129 129).

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the Scriptures in Greek, using the Septuagint, with the thirty-nine books of the Hebrew Bible and a further fifteen writings composed in Greek. "The “The Septuagint, not the Old Testament in Hebrew, was the Bible of the 121 early church:' This is important to remember. The early Christian writ­ writchurch.”121 ings that were later accorded authority were also written in Greek. Since the Septuagint contained books that eventually would not be included in the Jewish canon, the Christian synods accepted these books as part of their Bible; since they had been using the Septuagint since the establishestablish­ ment of the church, it was not a matter of discussion for them which books to allow into the canon. First-century Christians saw themselves 122 as the implied readers of these books; it spoke to their life situations. situations.122 Prior to the first century CE, the technology for binding books did not exist, and different books were found on different scrolls, making the question of which books should be bound together in the Bible a question that was not (and could not be) asked or considered. When the Christian church eventually did answer the question, it was based on the practice of the early church and on the book selection of the Septuagint. In its eventual answer to the question of the boundaries of the canon, Judaism, at a later stage, decided to leave out such books as Mac­ Maccabees with its apocalyptic militarism that had resulted in the destruction of the Temple. Their decision to leave out some books was also probably 123 related to their reaction to Christians' Christians utilization of the Septuagint. Septuagint.123 Their decision was determined by their new self-understanding, as a 124 post-temple rabbinic faith community. community.124 Whatever the case, the Jewish canon was shorter, excluding some of the books that early Western ChrisChris­ tians accepted. 121. 12 1.

Soulen, Sacred Scripture, 20. 20.

122. 122.

Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 151. 15 1.

123. The most contentious point was the Septuagints 7:14, which 123. Septuaginťs rendition of Isa 7:14, referred to a "virgin" Greek parthenos) who would conceive and bear a son. The more “virgin” ((Greek woman" (Hebrew alma), not "virgin:• ancient Hebrew version of Isaiah reads "young “young woman” “virgin.” By rejecting the Septuagint and reverting to the Hebrew texts, the rabbinic movement sought to counter the scriptural grounds Christians employed to defend Jesus as the 21 ). The Hebrew Messiah as foretold by the Jewish prophets (Soulen, Sacred Scripture, 21). inter alia) as a defensive reaction to the rise of Chris ti ani ty Bible came into existence ((inter Christianity and its decision to reject the Septuagint was determined by Christians' Christians’ acceptance of the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (along with and including the apocryphal writings). Under the leadership of Rabbi Akiba, the Jews condemned the Septuagint 130 CE. in 130 124. 124.

Keegan, Mind oj of the Spirit, 152. 152.

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lt It is suggested that Pentecostals should revisit their unquestioning acceptance of the Reformed canon of the Bible. The question to be asked is whether the Protestant tradition was correct in following the Jewish canon, ignoring the practices of early Christians. The question seems to be especially relevant for Pentecostals with their restorationist urge. Perhaps Pentecostals should reconsider introducing the Apocrypha to their churches but then the conception should be emphasized that the apocryphal books are to be read only in terms of the guidelines provided in and under the standard of the other, unquestionably canonical books (as deutero-canonical books, with the Bible books serving as norma norminima! canon of the mata). The inner boundary of the canon is the minimal Reformation churches and does not admit of further reduction; and spespe­ cifically in pentecostal thinking, the outer boundary, on the other hand, 125 is not fixed. fixed.125

Africa's Contribution Christianity was introduced to Africans on the day of Pentecost, with people from Africa present where Peter provided his first sermon, emem­ minisphasized by the events that Acts 8 witnesses to. In Acts 8, Philip's Philips minis­ try proleptically fulfills two of the three points of mission in Acts 1:8, to Samaria and the ends of the earth, when he advanced the gospel north, 126 127 to the Samaritans, and south, south,126 to the Africans. Africans.127 Philip, in obedience to an angelic command and the Spirit’s Spiriťs voice, encounters a God-fearing 128 African official who is not yet a full proselyte. He is reading a primary proselyte.128 messianic text for the Jesus movement and invites Philip to interpret the passage for him. The unnamed official becomes the forerunner of the

125. Maier, Bíblical Hermeneutícs, 159. Biblical Hermeneutics, 126. The term "South" “South” in Acts 8:26 can also be translated as "midday:' “midday.” "South" “South” fits the context of a road "from “from Jerusalem to Gaza" Gaza” better. Perhaps Nubia refers to a black Meroě and African kingdom between Aswan and Khartoum. lts Its leading cities were Meroe Napata and since the early third century BCE had ruled from its capital in Meroe. Meroě. Some scholars think that the intention of the reference should rather be interpreted as that the man comes from "far “far away;' away,” from an exotic destination (Keener, Acts, 1552). 127. Keener, Acts, 1464. 128. Because/if the man is a eunuch he does not qualify to become a full proselyte. The term "eunuch" “eunuch” can refer to a eunuch or a high official. Keener is of the opinion that the arguments in favor of the man's man’s being a eunuch and hence merely a God-fearer are stronger than those favoring his being a full proselyte (Keener, Acts, 1567 ). 1567).

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African mission, as the first non-Jewish convert, and the forerunner of 129 the gentile mission in general. general.129 By the second century, Christians could be found all across the northern coast of the continent, as part of the Roman Empire. The Bible was known to the Africans as early as the second and third century, 130 mainly in the North African cities of Carthage, Hippo, and Alexandria. Alexandria.130 Despite the growing influence of the Christian church, however, the use of the Bible in Africa remained elitist and confined only to the latinized minority, largely disconnected from the local population. Even though the Greek New Testament had been translated into Coptic, Ethiopic, 131 and Nubian languages, serious biblical studies were lacking. Soon, lacking.131 Christianity also spread southward, and Africans who were not part of the extensive Roman Empire accepted the gospel. In Axum (Ethiopia), Christianity soon became the official religion of the state in the fourth century, and nearby Nubia (Sudan) was Christianized in the sixth cencen­ tury. The successful evangelization of a region showed a pattern across continents: a charismatic nun or monk would visit the region, preach the gospel, and perform miraculous acts that challenged pagan deities, demonstrating the power of the Christian God. Then, the local king and/ or queen would embrace the gospel and require everyone in their realm 132 to do the same. same.132 African Christianity began to decline in the mid-6oos when Islam started taking over much of the region. By the year 11000 ooo CE, Christianity had practically been eliminated from much of North Africa, except for the Coptic church in Egypt and the Ethiopian church. By 1400, 1400, Africa was religiously divided, with Islam dominant in the north and African 1491, traditional religions (ATR) continuing to flourish in the south. In 1491, Portuguese missionaries arrived in the central African region. There were 1800, many other European Christian forays into the continent. Until 1800, these expeditions were led by Catholics, but in the early nineteenth cencen­ tury, Protestants began joining the ranks of Catholic missionaries, just when the African slave trade was finally ending.133 ending. 133

129. Keener,Acts, Keener, Acts, 1545. 130. 130.

12. Kinyua, Introducing Ordinary African Readers' Hermeneutics, 12.

131. 13 1.

Metzger, Text oj of the New Testament, 68.

132. 132. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, Gospely 5. Conversion was generally a group phenomenon, especially in Africa.

133. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, 44. Gospel 44-

DEFINING AFRICA DEFINING AA PENTECOSTAL PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS HERMENEUTICS FOR FOR AFRICA

When the industrial age dawned, the nations of Europe unilaterally decided to take control of the continent in order to exploit its resources and inhabitants as cheap natural resources. Between 1885 and 1915, Belgium, France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Portugal, and Spain engaged in dividing Africa between them, with Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Liberia 134 as the sole exceptions. At the Conference of ofBerlin exceptions.134 Berlin in 1884-1885, most of the continent was carved up between France-who France—who acquired almost a third of the continent-and continent—and Britain, with Portugal retaining two large countries in southern Africa, Belgium taking a large part of centra! central AfAf­ 135 rica, and Germany, Spain, and Italy also receiving large parcels of land. land.135 At the beginning of the colonial era, roughly 5 percent of the African population was Christian. By the time colonialism ended, in the 1960s, almost a third of Africa’s Africa's population was Christian, including 45 million Catholics, 3 5 million Protestants, 20 million members of the AICs, and 20 Ethiopia. 136 million members of the old Orthodox churches of Egypt and Ethiopia.136 The Bible reached Africa through what West calls the sometimes uncomfortable-but nonetheless successful-partnership uncomfortable—but successful—partnership between colocolo­ 137 nialism and the Christian missionary enterprise. enterprise.137 Either the missionary enterprise used colonialism as an effective and readily available vehicle to reach the religious heart of the "dark “dark continent;' continent,” or it was colonialcolonial­ ism that used the missionary enterprise to soften the hearts and minds of Africans. There is a thin line between the missionary intention and the intent of the colonizer, explaining the negative reputation earned by missionaries. 138 In the words of Mofokeng: "When missionaries.138 “When the white man came to our country he had the Bible and we had the land. The white man Gospel 48. 134. Jacobsen, Global Gospel,

135. Anderson, Spreading Fires, 151-52. 15 1-5 2 . 136. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, 51. Kinyua defines colonialism and its discourses as the representation and categorization of the African identities produced and re­ reproduced by various colonial rules, systems, and procedures in order to create and separate the Africans as "other" ‘ other” (Kinyua, Introducing Ordinary African Readers' Hermeneutics, 2). Hermeneutics, 137. West, Biblical Hermeneutics of Liberation, 52. 138. lt It should be stated, however, that not al! all missionaries cooperated with the colonizing powers, and some of the missionaries and missionary organizations served as highly critical of the behavior of white people. LeMarquand states that, in his research, most African Christians are grateful for the work of the missionaries that was many times accompanied by great suffering, although they are also aware of the cul tura! blindness and racial prejudice of much mission activity (LeMarquand, "New cultural “New Testament Exegesis in (Modem) (Modern) Africa;• Africa,” 8).

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said to us, 'Let ‘Let us pray: pray.’ After the prayer, the white man had the land and Bible:' 139 The remark illustrates the centra! we had the Bible.”139 central position occupied by the Bible in the ongoing process of colonization, national oppression, and exploitation, the incomprehensible paradox of being colonized by a accept­ Christian people and yet being converted to their religion and accepting their Bible, their ideological instrument of colonization, oppression and exploitation. It expresses a historie historic commitment that is accepted solemnly by one generation and passed on to another, a commitment to terminate exploitation of humans by other humans.140 humans. 140 In 1971, 19 71, John Gattu of the Presbyterian Church in East Africa called for an immediate moratorium on all missionary activity in Africa, demdem­ onstrating the shift of emphasis away from Western-style reason and 141 orderliness toward a more free-wheeling focus on the Spirit. Spirit.141 The translation of the Bible into African languages aided the spread of Christianity more than almost any other factor. These vernacular translations gave the Bible a degree of independence from the European missionaries' missionaries worldview and gave Africans a source of Christian authorauthor­ ity external to the missionary. Now they could hear (and read) the Bible 139. Mofokeng, "Black “Black Christians," Christians,” 34. 140. Mofokeng, "Black “Black Christians," Christians,” 34. Barbara Kingsolver wrote a novel, Poisonwood Bible, about the poisonous effect that the Bible-ar Bible—or rather, what it represents for a certain fanatical mentality-could mentality—could have under certain circumstances, in this case on people who live precarious subsistence-economy lives in the African jungle of what used to be the Belgian Congo (Jater (later Zaire, after independence, and more recently desdes­ ignated as the Democratic Republic of the Congo). "Poisonwood;' “Poisonwood,” in the Congo, is a plant that leaves horrible, suppurating sores on the hands and arms of people who touch it inadvertently; hence, as an adjective qualifying the Bible as symbol ofWestern of Western culture, it makes the Bible a metonymy of the poisonous effects that Western culture has had on those cultures unfortunate enough to have it imposed on them (see Olivier, "Kingsolver's lt is the story of a fiery Baptist preacher from “Kingsolver’s Narrative Indictment"). Indictment”). It Bethlehem, Georgia, overflowing with evangelical fervor, his wife, and his four daugh­ daughters, who arrived in the Belgian Congo in 1959-just 1959—just before independence-to independence—to replace trie s the former minister of religion ((aa Catholic) in the village of Kilanga. The preacher tries worhis best to convince the village Congolese of the advisability to switch from the wor­ ship of their local gods to that of"Tata of “ Tata Jesu;' Jesu,” and, moreover, of the importance ofbeing of being baptized in the nearby river-an river—an ill-advised thing to do, considering that there were dangerous, human-eating crocodiles there. Smalt Small wonder that the indigenous people regard Nathan with suspicion. The Price family suffers to survive through the misery of the drought, the threat brought by independence (and the father's refusal to leave ), the disastrous "mass the Congo, despite their sponsors' urgent advice to do so so), “mass hunt" hunt” to provide food for the starving villagers, and the subsequent flight of the mother and her surviving three daughters from the village in torrential rain. 141. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, 52.

DEFINING A PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS DEFINING A PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS FOR FOR AFRICA AFRICA

on its own terms, leading to the enormous growth of AICs and other oror­ ganizations, effectively merging African culture and tradition with their missionown readings of the Bible. In translating the Bible, however, the mission­ aries and other scholars also interpreted it. Their translation and reading of the vernacular Bible was filtered through cultural lenses which were not always congenial to African traditional life and they rejected many traditional African customs without considering its possible value for a 142 Christian worldview. worldview.142 Africans saw the discrepancy between what mismis­ sionaries said and what the Bible stated in terms of an issue like polygyny and polygamy; African readers noted that many of the great "heroes “heroes of faith'' faith” had more than one wife. And while missionaries did not "hear" “hear” asas­ pects of the New Testament message concerning divine healing, African Christians did, because they had traditionally been accustomed to askask­ 143 ing God for healing. healing.143 Missionaries accepted that only by becoming less African could one become Christian; Africans were required to accept the customs of Western civilization before they were qualified to become "Christians:• “Christians.” At times, missionaries described their task of bringing the gospel to Africa in terms of"carrying of “carrying the light of civilization" civilization” into Africa. LeMarquand states that Western biblical interpretation is still pervasive 144 in mission-founded churches in Africa. Most published material in Africa.144 African Christian book stores, and those exegetical and other theological material used and prescribed in facilities training African candidates for the ministry use the paradigm of Western theology.145 theology. 145 Some hold the opinion that Africans feel more at home with the Old Testament than with the New; they show a predilection for the Old TestaTesta­ ment. While it is probably true that they use the Old Testament more frequently in their preaching than what happens in other parts of the world—because concepts and philosophies contained in the Old TestaTesta­ world-because ment are more readily comprehensible in African contexts-it contexts—it is not true that the African and New Testament worlds do not contain many concon­ 146 While Africans find many similarities between their tinuities as well. well.146 context and the Old Testament world in terms of, for instance, sacrificial 142. Some of these customs, like female circumcision, were not acceptable on moral terms. 143. LeMarquand, "New Exegesis," 15. “New Testament Exegesis,” 144. LeMarquand, "New Exegesis," 8. “New Testament Exegesis,” 145. This is especially the case in South Africa, where the debate about decolonized syllables for theological and other studies is raging. 146. LeMarquand, "New Africa," 7. “New Testament Exegesis in (Modem) (Modern) Africa,”

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rituals and their proverbial tradition that links to the Old Testament wis­ wisdom literature, the New Testament is considered to be more "powerful" “powerful” by many Africans and it is often used in a magical way to combat evil. New Testament texts also play an important role in the identity formaforma­ tion of some African congregations and preachers. The most profound and widespread social transformations in Africa in the twentieth cen tury were religious in character, with a meager 18 percentury 18 per­ cent of the African population belonging to either Christianity or Islam in 1900, 1900, and more that 80 80 percent of the 1.2 1.2 billion Africans today being 147 either Christian or Muslim. Africans are "notoriously Muslim.147 “notoriously religious;' religious,” with no separation between the worlds of play and prayer, market and miracle. A staggering 84 84 percent of Africans say that religion is very important in their lives, compared to Europe, where only 21 21 percent say that religion is ofimportance of importance in their lives (see also North America, with 57 percent, and Latin America, with 66 percent). About 80 80 percent of African Christians attend worship at least once a week, and many attend more frequentlyfrequently— double the reported attendance of North American Christians-and Christians—and more than half of African Christians say they have been born again. Most 148 believe the Bible should be interpreted literally, word for word. word.148 About 45 percent of Africans are Christians (more Africans are Christian than Muslim), and Pentecostal Christianity in Africa is estimated at about 31 149 percent (up from 1u1 percent in 2004), 2004),149 leading Asamoah-Gyadu150 Asamoah-Gyadu 150 to 151 call Africa a "hotbed Pentecostal“hotbed of Pentecostal/charismatic activity:' activity.”151 ism is big business in Africa. Omenyo and Atiemo152 Atiemo 152 use a typology of African Pentecostalism that takes into account historical and theological categories, making sense of the diversity of Pentecostal denominations, independent groups and movements within Africa: The Africa InitiIniti­ ated (Instituted, Independent, Indigenous) Churches (AICs) or Aladura Churches are the oldest type, established at the turn of the twentieth cencen­ tury by African Prophets and considered to be the fi.rst first stream of African Context,” 362. 147. Ukah, "Deregulation of Piety in the Context;' 148. Jacobsen, Global Gospel, Gospel 60. This is also reflected in the survey concerning Bible reading practices within the AFM ofSA, of SA, referred to above. See Nel, "Bible ReadRead­ ing Practices in the AFM.” AFM:'

World’s Christians, 50. 149. Jacobsen, Worlds 150. Asamoah-Gyadu, Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity, 32. 151. 15 1. In Africa, there are 126 million charismatics or members of mainline churches Renewal;' 409). with a charismatic experience (Barrett, "Worldwide Holy Spirit Renewal,” 152. Omenyo and Atiemo "Claiming “Claiming Religious Space;• Space,” 58.

DEFINING A PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS HERMENEUTICS FOR AFRICA DEFINING A PENTECOSTAL FOR AFRICA

Pentecostals 153 ; the classical Pentecostal movements, some of which had Pentecostals153; roots in William Seymour's Seymour’s Azusa Street revivals; transdenominational fellowships such as the Full Gospel Business Mens Men's Fellowship InternaInterna­ 5 4; tional (FGBMFI), Women Aglow Fellowship International, and others' others154; charismatic renewal groups in the mainline churches, the independent neo-Pentecostal churches and ministries which started as a result of lolo­ cal initiatives, and neo-prophetism, which is an amalgamation of forms of ministries of the AICs and neo-Pentecostal churches. Africa is also a diverse continent with more than three thousand ethnicities and distinct languages. African scholars trace the origin of biblical interpretation on their continent to the cities of Alexandria in Egypt and Hippo Regius (modernday Annaba) in Algeria, where hermeneutical models were formed in a Imporferment of theological endeavors in the first four centuries CE. Impor­ tant names in these debates are Clement of Alexandria (150-215), Origen of Alexandria (185-254), Cyprian (200-258), Tertullian (155-240), Athanasius (296-373), Augustine of Hippa Hippo (354-430), and others who 155 lived in North Africa.155 Africa. Alexandrian theologians perfected the allealle­ gorical method that influenced the Western church until the Aufklarungy Aufkliirung, when it became the fashion to refer to allegorization as pre-modern and 156 uncritical. uncritical.156 “African Pentecostalism;' Pentecostalism,” 136. 153. Omenyo, "Afrkan

154. Collins, "Deliverance Exorcism:• 93. “Deliverance and Exorcism,” “African Biblical Interpretation;' Interpretation,” 284, and Quayesi-Amakye, 155. Katho, 'J\frkan "'Nativizing' “’Nativizing* the Gospel," Gospel,” 292.

156. Maier refers to the positive aspects of pre-critkal pre-critical methods of interpreting the Bible that have been discovered in more recent hermeneutkal hermeneutical discussion, such as its emphasis on the material unity of Old and New Testament, the integrity of the biblical canon, and the identity of Scriptural doctrine and systematk systematic theology (Maier, Biblical Hermeneutics, 333-36). It was strongly realistic, realistk, at once historka! Hermeneutics, historical and litera!, literal, with an emphasis on philology and history, with an openness to a spiritual meaning in Scripture. Pre-critical Pre-critkal exegesis sought to work with philologkal historka! philological precision, historical realism, and multidimensionality as a result of its conviction regarding inspiration. The renewal of the Christian interpreter through the Spirit was presupposed, implyimply­ ing no distinction between life and doctrine of the interpreter. Interpretation aimed ultimately at preaching and instruction and served a salvation-historkal salvation-historical view of the events described in the Bible. It is also characterized by a methodologkally methodologically reflected uninterpretation, a self-awareness of one's own procedure, testability, feasabililty, un­ Hermeneutics, 342-43). The derstandable, and learnable presentation (Maier, Biblical Hermeneuticsy Bible was read as self-interpreting and the hermeneutkal hermeneutical rule of comparing Scripture with Scripture was commonplace. It was directed by its adherence to the "rule “rule of faith:' faith,” as a story that could only be read in a trinitarian manner. Interpretation was primarily

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The eighteenth century saw the development of the historical-crit­ historical-critical method, which determined biblical scholarship until the middle of the twentieth century, when literary approaches became the fashion, only 157 The histo be gradually supplemented by social-scientific criticism. criticism.157 his­ torical-critical approach to the interpretation of the Bible treats biblical texts primarily like any other texts that function as historical sources. lt It does not proceed from the conviction that the canonical Bible is a unified whole or that the different books can be understood best by reading them in canonical context. It focuses on the Sitz im Leben as it is historically reconstructed and authenticated by scholarly methodology, aiming to establish what the text originally meant and not what it might now mean for the contemporary reader, creating a "historical “historical distance" distance” between the ancient biblical text and the contemporary interpreter. lt It drives a wedge Geschichte) between the narrative recounted in the biblical narratives ((Geschichte) and the actual history (Historie) (Historie) that is ascertained by the methods of a scientific historiography.158 historiography. 158 Karl Barth describes the critical deficiency of much historical-critical interpretation of biblical texts as the failure to read the Bible as a realistic narrative of Goďs God’s self-revelation in the history the task of the faith community and not isolated individuals (Venema, "Interpreting “Interpreting Bible,” 27-29). the Bible;' 157. Traditionally the Bible was primarily the church’s church's book. For many centuries, Western Christians did not read the Bible themselves but rather listened to its interinter­ pretation by the church. The Reformation handed the Bible back to ordinary believers, allowing them to interpret it for themselves, and running the risk that they might misinterpret or misappropriate it. Then, Enlightenment scholarship took the Bible out of the church's churchs lectern and placed it in the scholars' scholars’ study (Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 145). The Enlightenment paradigm offered historical-critical approaches such Bibky as textual criticism, source criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism, and tradition criticism, whose main focus was the relationship between the text and the source. EnlightenKinyua emphasizes that biblical scholarship in Africa must realize that the Enlighten­ ment scientific paradigm has run its course (Kinyua, Introducing Ordinary African Readers' Hermeneuticsy Hermeneutics, 295). Kinyua argues further that the Reformation churches Readers’ read the Bible in solidity because they did not allow church tradition to interpret the Bible. Enlightenment scholarship purposed to make the Bible something solid and objective, on which Reformation Christianity could stand. In the process the Bible was separated from the community and its faith, contributing to a skepticism against "theologians" “theologians” from the side of some believers. The believing community is bracketed out in biblical scholarship, and faith is bracketed out from the consideration of the scholar, allowing the scholar to be "objective:• “objective.” Keegan asserts that one who does not participate in the faith community that is presupposed of the implied reader of a given text cannot read that text in a sensible way (Keegan, Interpreting the Bible, 147). 158. Venema, "Interpreting Bible," 31-32. “Interpreting the Bible,” 3 1-32 .

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159 For Barth, religion is a human, cultural phenomenon, Christ.159 of Jesus Christ. or, even more negatively, reflecting human hubris, an attempt to avoid the true God with idolatry. For that reason, it is important that exegesis must not serve the ends of religion, for the Bible is not about religion. It is about God, Goďs revelation. 160 Gods action, and Goďs Gods revelation.160 The historical critical approach to biblical exegesis did not impact African scholarship to a significant extent. The emergence of formal 161 to John modem Africa is linked by Kinyua biblical interpretation in modern Kinyua161 Williams's Africa, published in 1930. Willliams draws Williams’s Hebrewism oj of West Africa* linguistic parallelism between the Ashanti and Hebrew languages as a vilification of African traditions and religions. The major works in Af­ African biblical studies were those of Harry Sawyer (1968), Kwesi Dickson (1968, 1969), Byang Kato (1975), Leonidas Kalugila (1980), Kofi Appiah(1968,1969), Kubi (1977), John Mbiti (1971 and later), Daniel Wambutda (1978), Charles Nyamiti (1984), and Johnson Kimuhu (2008). Mbiti's Mbiti’s works were especially influential as he pioneered the idea of integrating the biblical world with that of the traditional African world through African theolotheolo­ gy.162 intercultural gy.162 This trend was later called "inculturation “inculturation theology" theology” ((intercultural exegesis or intercultural hermeneutics)163 hermeneutics) 163 by African theologians such as Zablon N'thamburi and Douglas Waruta. Its purpose was to consciously and explicitly subject biblical texts to a socio-cultural analysis and relate it comparatively to African socio-cultural perspectives while acknowlacknowl­ edging the sacred status of the Bible and its normative value for Christian 164 African religions, culture, and metaphors became the hermeneulife. life.164 hermeneu­ 165 166 tical keys through which the texts were engaged. engaged.165 Justin Ukpong Ukpong166 explains that inculturation theology is not a theological discipline but 159. 159.

1.2:620. Barth, Kirchliche Dogmatik, 1.2:620.

160. 160.

See Topping, Revelation, Scripture, and Church, 11. 11 .

161. 16 1.

Kinyua, Introducing Ordinary African Readers* Readers' Hermeneutics, 11-12. 11-12 .

See, for example, Mbiti, "Biblical theol“Biblical Basis in Present Trends;' Trends,” 122. African theol­ ogy can be described as an attempt to give African expression to the Christian faith within a theological framework (Ukpong, "Current “Current Theology;' Theology,” 501). Mbiti argues (along with other African theologians) that African theology should stay within the worldvíew in order to traditionalize Christianity within African orbits of an African worldview culture. 162.

163. 163.

Loba-Mkole, "New Exegesis;' 7. “New Testament and Intercultural Exegesis,”

164. 164.

Loba-Mkole, "New Exegesis;' 11. “New Testament and Intercultural Exegesis,” 11.

165. 165.

12. Kinyua, Introducing Ordinary African Readers* Readers' Hermeneutics, 12.

166.

See Ukpong, "Current Theology:' “Current Theology.”

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rather a way of doing theology which cuts across disciplines, charactercharacter­ ized by consciously and explicitly seeking to interpret texts from the socio-political perspectives of different people. It reads the Bible in light of the needs, hopes, cultural values, religious aspirations, political, social, 167 and economic realities of human beings. Four issues from the Afri­ Afribeings.167 can world appear to command the most attention from African biblical scholars, according to LeMarquand: mission and colonialism; suffering; 168 faith; and African traditional religion and culture. Prom the perspecculture.168 From perspec­ tive of inculturation biblical hermeneutics, however, African context and people are not just used as a field of applying "exegetical" “exegetical” conclusions but they stand as the subject of interpretation, equipped with genuine epistemological privilege.16 privilege. 1699 In the process, the historicity of biblical texts was at times sacrisacri­ ficed (as far as its content was concerned) to transfer African meaning to the passage. What is notable is that these efforts represented a conscious rejection, defiance, and interruption of the patronizing and hegemonic hegemonie Western biblical hermeneutics that have silenced Africa for years. How­ How170 ever, Ituneleng Mosala170 Mosala warns that African hermeneutics can easily fall into ideological captivity to the hermeneutical principie principle of a theology of oppression. The "inculturation" “inculturation” theology is represented by an overover­ whelmingly male-dominated and patriarchal group, criticized for being 171 patronizing to women by ignoring their voice. voice.171 What is needed is an African theology that represents all voices, including those of women and children, as well as the working class and poor peasant culture, in order to define its hermeneutical starting point. Hermeneutics must be 172 accountable to the marginalized and not just to academia. It is not academia.172 enough to read the Bible "for" “for” the poor and marginalilzed; these commucommu­ tahle to nities themselves have insights which must also be brought to the table 173 discover the liberating potential of biblical texts.173 texts. In post-Aufklarung post-Aufkliirung Africa, Western biblical scholarship determined the way African pastors and theologians functioned until the 1930s when 167. Ukpong, "Current “Current Theology;' Theology,” 524. 168. LeMarquand, "New “New Testament Exegesis in (Modem) (Modern) Africa;' Africa,” 14. 169. Loba-Mkole, "New “New Testament and Intercultural Exegesis," Exegesis,” 24. 170. Mosala, Biblical Hermeneutics and Black Theology, 16-20.

17 1. Kanyoro, Introducing Feminist Cultural Hermeneutics, 13. 171. 172. Kinyua, Introducing Ordinary African Readers Readers'7Hermeneutics, 16. 173. LeMarquand, "New Africa;' 13. “New Testament Exegesis in (Modem) (Modern) Africa,”

DEFINING A PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS FOR AFRICA DEFINING A PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTICS FOR AFRICA 174 an ''.African" What is indicated by ''.African" “African” scholarship originated. originated.174 “African” in biblical interpretation is the integration of the specific context of AfricaA fric a socio-political, religious, philosophical, and economic-in economic—in the theologiztheologiz­ ing of African theologians. The distinctive character of African biblical interpretation is the focus of the interpreter on the interaction between the biblical text and the context against which the text functions, and the 175 In situation of the contemporary interpreter with its unique challenges. challenges.175 the Western context, theologizing invariably involves rational, systematic analyses of the "contents “contents of faith;' faith,” that is the nature, purposes, and activity of God in relation to the world. The purpose is to formulate propositional statements that are valid for all people and all times. African Pentecostals also theologize, but their emphasis is on the center of their Christianity, Chrisťs Spirit, experienced as the their encounter with Christ through Christs 176 heartbeat of their faith. Therefore, Asamoah-Gyadu Asamoah-Gyadu176 makes the sensible remark that it is more appropriate in the oral African tradition to speak of pentecostal beliefs and practices rather than of pentecostal theology, which might give the impression of a rational systematic reflection of what faith entails. African Pentecostalism is concerned with spirituality and life much more than with theology. The articulation of their beliefs is based on believers' experiences of the Spirit, which can be better exex­ pressed as their theological orientation or spirituality. The codification of pentecostal theology also has the distinct disadvantage that it does not take account of the prominence of particular beliefs in specific cultural contexts that continuously change within an oral world.177 world. 177 The development of African biblical interpretation can be described 178 stages.178 The early period, from the 1930s to the 1970s, saw the in three stages. focus on legitimizing African religions and cultures contra Western mismis­ sionaries' sionaries wholesale rejection of indigenous cultures and religions. AfriAfri­

174. Today, the people of Africa refer to Western civilization as WEIRD: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. WEIRD people see themselves as self-sufficient and independent, in contrast to the African notion of being rooted in communion (Jacobsen, Global Gospel, GospeU 62). 175. African scholarship provided several experts on different issues, although Asamoah-Gyadu correctly emphasizes that to function as an authority in Pentecostal circles, one should prove that ones one's theology is based not exclusively on ideas but on Af experience, and that these ideas are translatable on the ground (Asamoah-Gyadu, Af­

rican Charismatics, CharismaticSy 244). 176. Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, 7. 177. Asamoah-Gyadu, African Charismatics, CharismaticSy 8. 178. See Katho, "African Interpretation;' 285-89. “African Biblical Interpretation,”

129 129

130 130

AN AFRICAN PENTECOSTAL HERMENEUTIC A n A f r i c a n P e n t e c o s t a l H e r m e n e u t i c

can scholars described what they perceived as the similarities between Hebrew and African cultures and worldviews, with related values such as the importance of community life and the omnipresent nature of religion in everyday life, through comparative methods.179 methods. 179 In this way, African Christians claimed their unique identity that accompanied the experience of achieving independence for most African nations in the 1950s and 1960s. Theologians contributed to national development in 180 African theological scholarship political, economic and cultural sense. sense.180 is almost always confessional in its ethos. Most African biblical scholars find Western skepticism underlying all scientific endeavors unacceptable. While in North America, God has become marginalized, in Africa, God is acknowledged as a living reality, not bracketed aut out in the illusion of 181 being objective. objective.181 A middle period of African theology, from the 1970s to the 1990s, A was dominated by inculturation (or indigenization), in an attempt to unun­ derstand the relationship between the Bible and African culture and to facilitate understanding and communication of the message of the Bible in Africa with the hope that a new understanding would introduce a herme­ Christianity that is both biblical and African, and by a liberation hermeneutics, reflecting the African continenťs continent s relatively poor, oppressed and

179. See the remark of Asamoah-Gyadu that perhaps African Christianity-and Christianity—and generally-constitutes better reflections of the the Christianity of the Third World generally—constitutes faith in its biblical forms than the historie historic Western patterns that, for centuries, the world has been made to accept as representing what Christianity was meant to be warn(Asamoah-Gyadu, Sighs and Signs of the Spirit, 104). However, consider also the warn­ ing of Carson about worldview confusion that can easily and unconsciously bedevil interpreting the Bible (Carson, Exegetical Fallacies, 103). 180. Originally, Pentecostals and charismatics 156 ahistorically, 184 “from below,” 46n6o centrality of the Holy Spirit in, 156-96 characterized by community­ sharing, 154 by church members with lim­ ited education, 1320186 combining rational and spiri­ tual, 220-21 in a devotional way, 750 19 1 experientially, 5 with faith, 2 18 -19 as literally as possible, 74 needing light from the Spirit, 194

Pentecostal pre-critical stage of, 51 from the perspective of Pen­ tecost, 7 plain meaning of the text, 56 practices of Pentecostals, 34-95 principles used for, 2 process of, 134 with the purpose of hearing the voice of God, 1 13 on a regular basis, 34 results of research into prac­ tices of, 870259

as self-interpreting, 12 5 m 56 to share experiences, 29 in a straightforward manner, 49 within the church, 228 receptive and positive attitude toward, 241 as the reference point for commu­ nity with God, 70 remaining the bedrock of truth, 91 resonating with the wounds of the oppressed, i9oni87 as revelation, 14 1,19 6 role in AICs, 144 rolled down the hill of salvation history, 10 1 sacredness or supernatural charac­ ter of, 140 as a self-glossing book, 10 1 serving as a corrective for experi­ ence, 75ni92 serving as a symbol of God’s pres­ ence and power, 145 showing the way to meet God, 76, 82 single, unified narrative, 77 source book for living a charismatic life, 57ni05 speaking to us, n 6 n ii5 special book for believers, 152 standard for Christian faith and living, 1 1 standing at the heart of Pentecostalism, 156 status of in pentecostal circles, 162 still unfinished story, 12 study groups, 34, 78n2io studying applying the proof-text method to, 93n286 inductive-synthetic model as the preferred, 94 for ordinary readers, 22onioo reading each book of the Bible as a whole, 93n286 studying inductively, 190 supernatural power of, 20 ,139 , I39n22i

INDEX

symbol of God’s authority, 13911220 teaching doctrine and morals, 57 teaching monotheism, 174 texts challenging the ethical stan­ dards of Christians, 16 1 totality of God’s communication to and God’s will for humanity, 56 translation of, 6 3 ,12 2 undeniably true, 75 the word of God, 18 1 words of as perspicuous, 650142 written inerrantly in human lan­ guage, 56 written text making no sense, 144 written witness about the word of God, 18 1 “Bible days,” living in the continuation of, 790217 Bible institutes, built by American fundamentalists, 66 Bible Reading Method, 93 Bible Schools changing to proper theological training, 71 of Charles Parham, 13 established by Pentecostals, 86 training for pastors in, 53 Bible-based “experience-reality,” 169 biblical characters, supernatural experiences of replicated for contemporary believers, 192 biblical criticism, characterizing modern, 35n6 biblical data, harmonized, 49 biblical hermeneutics, 1- 2 ,9 Biblical Hermeneutics (Maier), I25n i56 biblical injunctions, interpretation of, 162029 biblical interpretation. See interpretation biblical model, for knowledge of God, i 59n i4 biblical narratives (Geschichte)> 78, 79, 12 6 ,17 7 biblical numbers, permeating pentecostal literature, 179-80

279

biblical passages, “real” meaning revealed by the Spirit, 154 biblical questions, of hermeneutics, 2 biblical record, Pentecostals treasur­ ing parts of, 18 1 biblical scholars distancing from any personal stake, 78n209 learning from members of Pente­ costal churches, 4m 3 biblical scholarship bankruptcy of, 8m225 as incompatible with Pentecostalism, 52n8i not detaching faith and love for God’s word from, 770206 biblical tales, in the pentecostal narra­ tive tradition, 19 1 biblical texts authority for the lives of believers, 10 coming to the fullest understanding of, 86-87 historicity sacrificed to transfer African meaning, 128 illuminating each other, 10 1 interest in narrative aspects of, 78n2io interpretation of, 97 making into an abstract, 810225 needing to be heard first in their own cultural setting, 3 0 -3 1 ordinary readers or nonspecialists working with, i32ni86 as “sources” by which one addresses other questions, 30 as the starting point and founda­ tion for pentecostal faith, 156 subjecting to socio-cultural analy­ sis, 127 textual and revelatory meaning of adhering to contexts, 1 1 understanding significance of, 56-57 understanding without training, 59 biblical truth, in the testimony itself, 164

280

INDEX

biblical world, integrating with the traditional African world, 127 biblical worldview, elements of, 149 Biblical writers, utilized information available, 18 1 biblicist-literalist viewpoint, inter­ related beliefs of, 56 Black Pentecostalism, 8n26 black theology, 39020 black working class, 144 Blumhardt, Christoph, 37 body/mind relationship, informed by experiences, 43 BonhoefFer, model of “Christonomy,” 232030 both-and approach, necessitating, 511178 Brandt Line, 36n8 Branham, William, 46056 Burton, William F. P., 201 call to know God, 22onioo Calvin, John, 62, 740190, io6n59 canon “big bang” theory of, 103045-4045 defined, 8on2i9 issue of the boundaries of, 116 like a seed present in the soil of the church, i04n45 of the Reformation churches, 116 , 119 “canon within the canon,” for Pentecostals, 241 canonical boundary, 102 canonical hermeneutic, 97114 canonical texts, 700165, 80 canonical view, 97x14 Capps, Charles, 27 “carrying the light of civilization,” into Africa, 123 Catholics. See Roman Catholics cessasionist view, 61, 81 cessationism, 7, i4on226 cessationist Evangelicals, 217 cessationists on the historical character o f the narratives, 107-8 interpreting Spirit baptism, 106

ruling out only regular supernatu­ ral giftings, 6in 123 as vocal opponents of Pentecostals, 35n7-36n7

Chan, Simon, 89 charism, of prophecy, 14 1 charismciy as synonymous with diakoniciy 4on24 charismata, 115 in African spirituality, 149 argument of the legitimacy of, 2i5n78 communion of, 168 Dunn affirming the continuance of, 106056 functioning of, 33 identifying with, 232 ministry of the Spirit by way of, 200 Pauline criteria regarding, no n 83 Pentecostals emphasizing, 80 restoration of as an experiential pre-understanding, 222 as a sign of Chrises imminent return, 212 Spirit addressing believers by way of, 242 Spirit equipping believers with, 40 utilizing for narcissistic purposes, 234 “charismatic,” referring to the renewal movement, 32 charismatic branch, size of, 17 Charismatic Christianity, as a global culture, 32 charismatic community, 230-35 charismatic excesses, countering, 194 charismatic experiences, 7, 33, 78, I9 in i9 0 charismatic manifestations, i8 n 7 4 ,19 charismatic media preachers, focusing on instant cures, 26m 03 charismatic movements adding important dimensions to Pentecostalism, i07n63 in Asia, 15 not adhering to classical Pentecos­ tal primitivistic restorationism, 46058

281

INDEX

reinterpreting Spirit baptism, 107 in sub-Saharan Africa, 32 taking up the theology of the latter rain, 2 1 1 in the Western context, 32 charismatic Pentecostals, 9n29, I4n50, 231 charismatic practices, mainline churches’ lack of, 1 4 3 ^ 3 7 charismatic renewal of mainline churches, 1 3 ,12 5 phases in, 3 2m 22 in traditional historical denomina­ tions, 47 charismatic theologians, on Spirit baptism, I3n47 charismatics across the entire spectrum of Christianity, 14 in Africa, 124m 51 characteristics shared with Pente­ costals, I7n69-i8n69 estimated number worldwide, 17 practicing theology, 52n8i children, in the kingdom of God, 229 Chinese and Korean believers, I7n62 Christ. See also Jesus Christ appearing before the judgment seat of, 2i4n70 defeating the Antichrist in the battle of Armageddon, 215 expecting the imminent return of, 222 interpreting in Africans, 133 as a reality, 178 reigning over the kingdom of the church, 228 thousand-year reign on earth, 2i4n70 as unwelcome where reason and neutrality reign, 70 Christ-event, experience of, 19 4 ,19 5 Christian Action, problem raised by, 27ni05 Christian apocalyptic imagery, 223 Christian belief and practice, learning, 57

Christian believers

Greek as lingua franca, 1 1 7 - 1 8 utilizing a Christian existential fore-understanding, 103 “Christian Centres,” called Christian Fellowships International, 14ns 2 Christian church apocalypticism and, 207-9 first convents of, 207-8 using religion to make money il­ legally, 27 Christian community, central in a Pentecostal hermeneutics of Scripture, 238 Christian faith, Spirit-centered ver­ sion of, 29 Christian fundamentalism, only loosely connected with institu­ tional churches, 66ni45 Christian God, demonstrating the power of, 120 Christian message, satisfied a large group of people, 209 Christian missionary enterprise, part­ nership with colonialism, 12 1 Christian movement as an apocalyptic sect within Juda­ ism, 208 on a global basis, i6n57 Christian North churches, perception of, i6n57 Christian scholars, inhabiting two unrelated worlds, 70 Christianity about the community in Africa, 227 central message of, 78x1207 introduced to Africans on the day of Pentecost, 119 introducing both biblical and African, 130 thoroughly Africanized version of, I38n2i5 as a translating and translated religion, 91 Christians. See also African Chris­ tians; early Christians apocalyptic elements in Jewish writings, 207 being colonized by, 122

282

INDEX

Christians (continued) on books as Scripture before Irenaeus, 103045 with a de facto canon within canon, 17062 learning from imperfect examples of others, 230 living in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 15 living in the “relevant presence of God,” 178 misinterpreting the Bible, 227 using Bible verses like sound bites, n n 35 “Christonomy,” model of, 232030 Chrises Spirit, Spirit as, 157 church ceasing at its rapture, 6 on i2i as a community for Pentecostals, 80 as the continuation of the incarna­ tion of Christ, 228 as a continuing body throughout history, 230 as a creation of the Spirit, 179, 238 discerning truth, 92 essence of, 228-30 maintaining openness to the Spirits guidance, 194 as the most significant ethical unit, 227 representing the interpretive com­ munity, 234 on theological interpretation, 188 where Scripture and people meet, 227 church age, as the age of grace, 64 church history, as a progressive resto­ ration, 75ni94 church members, 23 church tradition, 235 churches in the Majority World, i6n59 as spaza shops selling holy water and prayers for a profit, 27 “churches of the Spirit,” known as Zionists and Apostolics, i5n54 circumcision

accepting non-Jewish believers apart from, 236 early church on, 193 as an “eternal covenant,” 16 1 female, I23n i4 2 for gentile converts, i8 sn i6 3 circumstances, reading Scripture in the light of, 219-20 civil religion, keeping the church from practicing, 227 claim of the Spirit/text, 182 claritas scripturae, doctrine of, 231 “Classical Pentecostal,” 32 classical Pentecostal denominations, 13* 14 classical Pentecostal hermeneutic, 74n i85 classical Pentecostal movement, 3 2 n i2 4 ,125 classical Pentecostalism, origins of, 13 cleavage, from sin, i73n94 Clement of Alexandria, 125 clergy, threatened by ordinary “lay people,” 40 Cleveland School, 88n266,1790128 colonialism, 1 2 1 ,1 2 1 0 1 3 6 color line, washed away by the blood, 201 Commission for Promotion and Pro­ tection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious, and Linguistic Com­ munities (CRL), 27, 28ni07 common sense apprehending the facts clearly, 66 interpreting the Bible in terms of, 56, 92, 920283 necessary for understanding of God's word, 66ni46 communal aspect, of Bible reading, 150 communal identity, 228n9 communal nature, of all interpreta­ tion, 90 communal pentecostal hermeneutics, 150 communal way of living, in Africa,

154

283

INDEX

communal worship service, role in Pentecostal experience, 2291116 community as a complex network of relation­ ships, 229ni4 discerning the signs and sound of the Spirit, 238 of faith, 187-94 immediate, 229ni4 needing the controlled liberty of the Spirit, 186 as the place of the Spirit’s activity, 237 role in the process of interpreting Scripture, 240 Scripture’s meaning perceived by, 192 testifying to experiences attributed to the Spirit, 186 comprehension, 187 concepts, clarification of, 3 1- 3 3 Conference of Berlin in 1884-1885, 12 1 “confessions,” about the book of Joel, 182-83 congregations, seeking to follow God’s will, 38 conscience, 6 4 ,157 conscious awareness, of one’s pre­ understandings or “horizon of expectation,” 100 conservatism, return to, 36n9 conservative Christians, divergence with Pentecostals, 159 Conservative Grace Brethren Churches, 35 contemporary listeners, power of God transforming, 149 contemporary period, of pentecostal hermeneutics, 48 contemporary readers, needing ancient and modern meanings, 511178 contemporary society, individualism of, 229 contemporary teachings, qualifying as malpractices, 27 contexts, io n 3 2 ,1 1

contextual Bible study method, I32ni89 contextual pre-understanding, of text, i8oni32 contextualization, of African herme­ neutics, 135 contextual-pentecostal hermeneutics, 88

continuationism, 6 in i2 3 continuationist approach, to the Bible, 29 controversial practices, basing on “the Bible,” 28 conversion, bearing witness to Scrip­ ture, 60 Copeland, Kenneth and Gloria, 27 Coptic church, in Egypt, 120 Corinthian languages, 44n42 1 Corinthians 2 :14 -15 , i85ni6o 1 Corinthians 12 :13 ,10 9 cosmic oneness, I38n2i6 cosmic powers, 139 counter-culture movement, early Pentecostals as, 165n48 co-workers with God, inviting people to become, 178 Cox, Harvey, 84 creational hermeneutics, 88 creationist viewpoint, of fundamen­ talists, 56ni02 creative power, of God’s words, 242 Creed of Constantinople, 142 creedalism, 83 creeds, 83n235 criticism, insights generated by, 50 cross-cultural prophetic empower­ ment, 217 Cullis, Charles, 37 cultic devotion, to prophets, 236n47 cultural blinders, i7n62 cultural differences, characterizing different Pentecostal groups, 234 cultural values, opposed true faith, 46 culturally insensitive hermeneutics, i9oni87 culture, 5 in 7 8 ,91 Cyprian, 125

284

INDEX

daily living, challenges and problems of, 219 Daniel, Lesego, 21, 22-23 Darby, John Nelson, 64, 2 14 -15 day of Pentecost, experience of, 189, 200 decision-making, guidance for, 149 deduction, 94 deductive approach, 220m 00 deductive faith, 4in30 deductive method, 49 deductive procedure, 64 deductive reasoning, 48 defetishisation, 1380215 deity, non-gender view of, 2n7 democratic ecclesiology, leading to a professional pastorate, 210 Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Pentecostals in, 1 5 ^ 6 demons, 139 ,14 8 denominations, different theologies informing, 97 Descartes, 58m 12 destructive capacity, of Pentecostal symbols, 7711202 destructive subjectivism, 233 deus otiosusy withdrawn, distant supreme being, i4 in 2 3 i “deuterocanonical” books, Reformers views on, 1 1 7m 20 diakoniciy synonymous with charismay 40024 dialectic, 17 3 ,17 4 ,17 5 dialectical encounter, 19 1 dialectical theology, 173094 dialogical encounter, between biblical text and community, 19 1-9 2 dialogical relationship, with the Bible, 238 dialogue, i6oni9 Dickson, Kwesi, 127 didactic genre in the Bible, 192 discernment, believers equipped with the gift of, 92 disciples, experience at Pentecost, 44 dispensational premillennialism, stages of, 210

dispensationalism, 60, 6oni20, 6on i2i dispensationalist-fundamentalists theology, 66 dispensationalists, 6 1,6 4 “dispensations,” seven periods of, 64 distantiation, 13 4 -3 5 ,13 4 0 19 8 “divination,” 153 divine encounters, 162 divine immediacy, quest for, 1400226 divine intervention, in a continuationist sense, 330125 divine will, contained in the Bible, 56 diviners, 153, 236047 Dixon, A. C., 63 doctrine, 183 building faith on, 840241 defined experientially, 80 as descriptive for Pentecostals, 8on2i8 rooting in narrative, 108 dogmas and doctrine, 84 Doom (pesticide), 25 Dowie, John Alexander, 15054 du Plessis, David, 320122 Dunn, James D. G., 106,106056 early Christians. See also Christians eschatological expectations of, 2 1 1 interpreting the Old Testament,

1850163 early church on circumcision, 193 concentrated on the function of the Spirit, 142 existed long before there was a New Testament, 179 made decisions in council, 243 as the model for Pentecostals, 217 represented a minority missionary movement, 233 represented how faith was ex­ pressed, 8n27 return to, 222 early Pentecostals adapted premillennialism of dis­ pensationalists, 6 o n i2i

285

INDEX

adjusted and adapted mission strat­ egies, 223 m 1 1 avoided using the term “sermon,” 441146 certain that God had called them because of their poverty, 46059 classified as pre-modern, anti-intel­ lectual, and anti-social, 165048 on the coming of Christ, 72m 76 emphasized bodily healing and socio-economic upward mobil­ ity, 51115 expected Christian unity, 4 m l, 14311237 functioning at the periphery of society, 222 hermeneutical approach, 7 hermeneutics of, 37 integrated racially, 44045 living in the biblical experience, 29 moved along the fringes of estab­ lished denominations, 45 on the narrative grid of the “latter rain,” 209 new tongues as equipment for spreading the pentecostal mes­ sage, 201 not interested in establishing churches or organizations, 3-4 reading the book o f Revelation literally, 2i4n70 rejected by Evangelicals, 7n22 restorationist urge among, 222 spirituality among, 213 earthkeeping, Spirit involving, 145 Eastern Orthodox Church, io n 3i, 142 eating grass, 21 Ebionites, sect of, 208 ecclesia, reducing to a leisurely activ­ ity, 229 ecclesiastical authority, Pentecostals not supporting, i64n40 Economic Freedom Front (EFF), 23-24 “ecstasy? “seizure” as a synonym for, 850248

ecstatic experiences, of Africans, 2on8o Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians (EATWOT), 15 1 ecumenical impulse, uniting all bornagain Christians, 202 ecumenical-pentecostal hermeneu­ tics, 88-89 ecumenism, as a result of the Spirit’s work, 1430237 Edwards, Jonathan, 37, 54092 eisegesis, as the reader’s responsibility, 103 Eldad, 1 1 1 Elijah, 224 Elisha, 224 emotional response, 182 empowerment, for mission, 224-25 enlarged meaning, of text, i8oni32 “enlightened” Pentecostalism, elitist mentality of, 86n253 Enlightenment scholarship, 1260157 Enoch (book of), as authoritative Scripture, 203023 “entire sanctification,” 36nio epistemologies, 176 m 06 epithet, fundamentalism as, 68 equality, group interaction character­ ized by, 44 equivalence, of Scripture and Word of God, I58ni2 escapist mentality, of Pentecostalism, 216 eschatological community, Pentecos­ tals as, 235 eschatological dualism, 203-4 eschatological expectations, of early Pentecostals, 209-10 eschatological identity, 209-24 eschatological messianic community, 203 eschatological time, characteristics of, 2 11-12 eschatology disappearance of, 203 of early Pentecostalism, 210 removal from ethics, 202

286

INDEX

essence, of the church, 228-30 essentia (essence) of God, viewed as the reality of God, 172 eternal life, 174, i74nioo ethical behavior, Jesus on, 193 ethical evaluations, making, 160 Ethiopian church, 120 ethnic contextual-pentecostal theo­ logical hermeneutics, 88 etymology, defining a term, in4 “eunuch,” 119 m 28 Europe, separating from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, i6n57 Evangelical Alliance, in London, 541192 evangelical community, cost to Pentecostals of acceptance by, 5 5 evangelical fundamentalism, 62 evangelical media preachers, focusing on Bible exposition, 26m 03 evangelical Protestantism, 36 “evangelical ressourcement,” 102 Evangelical Theology (Barth), 167-68 “Evangelical/evangelical,” capitalizing of as a term, 31 Evangelicalism, 55, 55n95 “evangelicalization,” of Pentecostals, 54

evangelical-pentecostal hermeneutics, 87-88 Evangelicals accepted Pentecostals, 86 cooperating with, 54 employing the language of “bap­ tism in the Spirit,” i3n45 equated Spirit baptism with conver­ sion, 44 experiencing their “own Pentecost,” 32ni22 fundamentalists found among, 6311133 hermeneutical angle of, 55 viewed Luke as a historian, io6n59 evangelism, distinguished from mis­ sion, 2i3n68 evangelization, of regions of the world, 120 Evening Light Saints, 197

events, described in Scripture, 8in223 evil, powers of, 138 evil spirits, oppression of, 19 excluded and disinherited, in any society, 46n6o exegesis, 50,102036 existential challenges, 232031 existing languages (xenolalia), speak­ ing in tongues equipped with, 2 0 2 n i8

expected messiah, Jesus viewed as, 208 experience of an encounter with Christ, 157 of God through Gods Spirit, 167 improperly used by Pentecostals, 840236 informing the process of interpreta­ tion, 94 as an interpretation, 163 as not always self-interpreting, 221 as primary over theory, 168 role in opening up the biblical text, 18 1-8 2 showing that the Spirit can speak from the text, 19 1 as the starting point for theological reflection, 15 1 unknowable and unfathomable, 186 validating with the text, 1 1 2 experience and piety, spiritual exercise o f, 7 7

experiential element, of pentecostal hermeneutics, 176 -77 experiential expectation, 220 experiential knowledge, 1430237 experiential narrative, 15 5 ,18 9 experiential reading, 190, 221, 2 2 in io i experimentalism, proponents of, 84-85 expert and layman, protest against the separation of, 78n2io “explanation,” 114 Exsurge Domine (Pope Leo XXIII), 62 extra-linguistic features, of a text, 2i8n93

287

INDEX

extreme Protestants, denying institu­ tional authority, 63 faith as an aid to understanding, 77n2o6 based on objective historical evi­ dence, 58 basis of as given, 68 bracketed out from the consider­ ation of the scholar, 126 m 57 building on doctrine, 8 4 ^ 4 1 depending on the power of God, 183 as an encounter with the divine, 115

framework for interpretation of biblical texts, 115 as a gracious act of God, 105 mediating the entire interpretive process, n n 3 4 necessary for understanding testi­ monies, 33ni25 as part of the interpretative process, 114 as a pneumatological reality, 105 reading with, 79n2i7, 98-99 resurgence of conservative, funda­ mental, 36n9 as a spiritual bricolage, 85 faith community articulating alternative images of reality, 164 believers remaining apprentices of, 230 as a communitarian dynamic, 238 defined in terms of the Spirit, 1 1 2 described, 170, 229ni4 interpretation of the Bible by, 226-38, 242 mode of appropriation by, 164 sharing testimonies of experiences, 160 standing where the world ought to be standing, 232030 “fake pastors,” investigating, 27 family, remaining the domestic church, 229 Farrow, Lucy, 198

Father of Jesus Christ. See God Fee, Gordon, 45n48 Fellowship of Fundamental Bible Churches, 35 female circumcision, i23n i4 2 fides Humana, distinguished from fides divina, 183 Finney, Charles, 37, 54n92 “first theology,” 105ns 3 First World War, as a sign of the sec­ ond coming, 214 flat area, of Christianity, i6n57 flowers, congregation eating, 22 football matches, between “Protes­ tant” Rangers and “Catholic” Celtics, 27ni05 foreign tongues, enabling missionary activity, I98n4 “fore-understanding,” 103 forms, ideal world of, I02n36 Foundation Ministries, 14ns 2 Full Gospel cardinal doctrines of, 43n37 fourfold or fivefold, 73 fourfold pre-understanding of Jesus, 75-76 Full Gospel Business Men’s Fellowship International (FGBMFI), 125 full gospel message, 42-43 “Full Gospel” proclamation, 155 “fullness of the Spirit,” 42n35 fundamentalism compared to pentecostal herme­ neutics, 80,94-95 defining not straightforward, 62 as didactic, 80 on elimination of the supernatural, 81 as an epithet and as a phenomenon, 68 in extreme terms, 67 as an Islamic view of inspiration, 5 8 n in Pentecostalism as a variant of, 35 rooted in the Scottish Common Sense school of philosophy, 57 valued historic confessions of faith, 83

288

INDEX

fundamentalism (continued) as “a worldwide reaction against many of the mixed offerings of modernity,” 66ni50-67ni50 fundamentalism movement, de­ scribed, 63-64 “fundamentalisms,” in other religions, 67 “fundamentalist,” not synonymous with “conservative,” 6 3 m 33 fundamentalist biblical interpretation, 57 fundamentalist fashion, reading the Bible in, 87 fundamentalist view, of the Bible, i76ni04 fundamentalist-dispensational escha­ tology, 210 fundamentalists accepted Pentecostals, 69 as anti-scientific and anti-intellec­ tual, 65-66 Bible as a reliable guide to life for, 56ni02 on Christian notion and church, 81 church serving as a non-denomina­ tional fellowship, 80 on creeds dividing Christians, 57m o4 denying present-day revelation in practice, 8 1-8 2 emphasizing the rational message, 80 finding strongest ally in the pietistic tradition and revivalist move­ ment, 67 inerrant Scripture providing assur­ ance for, 80 as justified within the world, 81 on miracles as limited, 61 suspicious of stress on the experi­ ence of the Spirit, 760202 viewing God’s relation to the world, 82 The Fundamentals, 63 future, prophecy and apocalypticism oriented towards, 206

future events, calculations of the dates of, 204 Galatians, Spirit coming upon, 16 1 gathering together, importance of, 244 Gattu, John, 122 generational curses, promoting the breaking of, 27 generativity, of the Bible, ioon27 Ghana, Pentecostals in, 15 n s6 gift o f grace, Christians needing, 157 gift of tongues, interpretations of, 2 0 1-2 gifts of the Spirit, opennesss to, 6n20 global Christian North/South, i6n57 Global Christianity, as irreversibly more egalitarian, 7 global church, biblical scholarship of, 16 Global South center o f world Christianity shifted to, 16 history of, 36n8 Pentecostalism in, 2 3 5 ^ 7 - 3 6 ^ 7 glossolaliay 39,85, i0 7 n 6 2 ,116 , 2i2n64 gnosticism, accusation of, 233 God access open to all, 160 Africans having experiences with, 39 always in and around us, 10 5n53 answering prayers, 16 6 ,17 0 attributes of, 17 1- 7 2 authenticating in “signs and won­ ders,” 39 chose some human beings from the beginning, 174 “elected” the Bible as a divinelyauthored norm, 230 engaging in dialogue with God’s children, 17 1 entering space and time to encoun­ ter us, 172 establishing God’s kingdom on earth, 37 exercising authority through hu­ man agents, n n 38

289

INDEX

experiencing an encounter with, 75 filling both heaven and earth, 174 having empathy with human be­ ings, 172 interacting on a regular basis with God’s children, 166 judging human beings, 136 knowing, 16 6 ,18 0 , i8 o n i3 i, 242 as a living reality in Africa, 3 9 ,13 0 loving relationality as fundamental, 16 6 ,17 0 ,17 5 meeting the needs of God’s people directly, 232031 mingling with human beings, 173, 175 participation in biblical accounts, 162 Pentecostal talk about, 165-69 Pentecostals and, 170-79 for Pentecostals as far above and beyond their grasp, 48n66 raising up a purified and racially inclusive church, 197 referring to in a gender-less man­ ner, 2n7 relating to humans, 170 remaining a mystery, 172 restoring Israel as the people of God, 6 o n i2i revealing Godself, 1 1 , n n 38 , 80 speaking to God’s church, 168 speaking today, 115 still working miracles in the pres­ ent, 57ni05 as the ultimate authority, 840236 as unknowable, 17 1 ,1 7 1 0 8 2 using the text to create a new vi­ sion, 164 God’s Spirit. See Spirit God’s truth, common sense capable of knowing, 57 God’s word. See word of God Godself encounters created by, 231 God revealing, 1 1 , n n 38 , 8 0 ,173 learning what it means to be a person, 170

good or evil spirits, acts perpetuated by, 137-38 gospel of Jesus Christ being faithful to, 57m 09 fivefold, 76, 76ni95 proclaiming to all nations, 213 government, dispensation of, 64 grace to the church, 6on i2i dispensation of, 64 grammatical-historical exegesis, of dispensationalist-fundamentalists theology, 66 grammatico-historical method, 195 Greek New Testament, translated into Coptic, Ethiopic, and Nubian languages, 120 group study, searching the Scripture in, 22onioo guardian of the land, Spirit as, 145 Hagin, Kenneth, 27 hard cessationists, positing radical discontinuity, 6 in 123 Harrist churches, in the Ivory Coast, 19 Hate Speech Bill, of the South African Parliament, 27m os Hawtin, George, 46056, 2ions6 healer, Spirit as, 145 healing as a central activity in indigenous Pentecostal renewal, 39 dangerous and poisonous media as necessary for, 22 interpreted in Africa in the holistic sense, 5m s as the main motivation why people go to worship in Africa, 5m 5 ministry of, 43 healing movement, 37 health, as a foretaste of the wholeness to come, 1410230 health and wealth gospel, in African churches, 5m s hearers, of the Bible, i2n39 “hearing,” the word of God, 220098 Hebrew Bible, 1 1 7 , 1 1 8n 123

290

INDEX

Hebrewism of West Africa (Williams), 127 heretical teachings, within the Pente­ costal movement, 53 hermeneueitiy 97-98 hermeneutical challenge, 99 “hermeneutical circle,” 100 hermeneutical debate, 98 hermeneutical development, within the Pentecostal movement, 3 5 -4 7

hermeneutical distantiation, 218 hermeneutical keys, African religions, culture, and metaphors as, 127 hermeneutical models, formed in Africa, 125 hermeneutical process, primary com­ ponents in, 185-86 hermeneutical strategy, involving an interdependent tridactic dialogue, 166 hermeneutical traditions, modern, 243

hermeneutical trialectic, 237 hermeneutics as an art, 1840155 aspects of the discipline of, 102 defined, 1, m 3, 97 distinctives of, 9 -10 framework of a good, 90 maintaining two emphases from modern, 1 3 ^ 1 9 8 Pentecostal development of, 72 -9 1 questions of concern, 2 testing in terms of quality and effect of revelation, 241 of the typical pentecostal believer, 189 Hermes, 1 hesychasm, of the Eastern Orthodox church, io n 3i heterodox groups, as signs of the impending doom, 213 Hezmalhalch, Thomas, 201 higher education, Pentecostalisms rejection of, 165048 Higher Life movements, 42035 historic Christian tradition, 2291114

historical criticism, 50, 58m 12 ,10 3 “historical distance,” 126 historical situatedness, of the Bible, 3 5 historical survey, of pentecostal hermeneutics, 4 7 -7 1 historical tools, applying to under­ stand the text, 59 historical-critical method denying the fundamentalist claim, 58 described, 126 m 5 7 development of, 50 ,126 focusing on the Sitz im Leben, 126 focusing on the world behind the text, 49 modernist Bible interpretation in the form of, 8in225 not impacting African scholarship, 127 premise of, 8in225 use of by some Pentecostals, 73m 82 historical-critical or grammatical view, 9704 historical-critical tools, African schol­ ars using, 134 historical-cultural investigation, 66ni47 historical-grammatical method, 49, 49n72 history apocalypticism’s view of, 206-7 consisting of memory of the past, 219097 as the grand narrative of time, 19804 in a positivist sense, 75 taken seriously by a pentecostal hermeneutic, 75ni94 Hodge, A. A., 54092 Hodge, Charles, 54092 holiness, as a reflection of the holy God, 1410230 holiness adherents, distinct groups of, 36nio Holiness movement, 4m 1 ,4 1,4 2 , 67 “Holiness/holiness,” capitalizing of as a term, 3 1

291

INDEX

holistic paradigms, providing theo­ logical accounts of reality, 89 holistic pentecostal hermeneutics, 185 Holt, Herrick, 210056 Holy Spirit. See also Spirit; Spirit of God “African” way of revealing the Spirit to Africans, i9n8o animating Scriptures, 99 cannot be tamed and domesticated, i86ni67 centrality in reading the Bible, 156-96, 242 dwelling in every believer, 157 as an element of pentecostal hermeneutics, 154 equipping God's people, 12 as an essential animating presence, 185 guided the writers of the Bible, 93 not far removed from biblical rev­ elation, I38n2i6 power of conquering sickness, 19 power to provide in any and all needs of believers, 140 present in the community of faith, 1 8 7 -9 4

quickening and animating Scrip­ tures, 179-87* 194 realizing the Christ-event in the present, 157-65 role in Bible interpretation, 10 5n s3 unprecedented interest in, I2n40 viewed as the eschatological Spirit, 200 working through the community, 70 home, as a place of listening to the word, 229 homiletical value, of the Bible, 180 homophobia, occurrence of, 228n9 homosexual orientation, revisiting, i62n29 horizons, conscious act of fusing, 99 human beings choosing or rejecting salvation, 174 as only agents in a limited sense, 207

as the works of Gods hands, 17 1 human connectedness, African sense of, 228n9 human error, Bible as a document replete with, i07ni04 human experience, containing theo­ logically relevant data, 41 human mind, training in understand­ ing and defence of the truth, 22in i04 Hutchins, Julia W., 198-99 hybridized readings and interpreta­ tions, of biblical texts, 227 “illegitimate identity transfer,” inter­ preting Luke's historical narra­ tives as, 109 illiterate listener, listening to the read­ ing of the Bible, 132 illocution, of text, 1 1 “illumination,” io n 3i, 79n2i3 imagination, 14 3 ,1 5 0 ^ 5 9 immigrants, “overflowing” developed countries, 36n9 impersonal objects, scientific method appropriate for, 196 imprecatory prayers, 152 incarnation, 1 3 1 , 1 7 3 ^ 4 , 1 7 4 inculturation (or indigenization), 1 3 0 - 3 1 ,13 10 18 2 “inculturation” theology, 12 7 ,12 8 independent Christian denomina­ tions, I4n52, 2in85 independent churches, in Africa, I4 n 5 2 ,15, 2in85 independent Pentecostal-charismatic theologies and spiritualities, 9n29 Independents. See neo-Pentecostals indigenous African movements, 131146 indigenous Christians, 20 indigenous people, demonstration of power by, 40 individual self-interest, subverting the text to, 233 individual spiritual experience, 3 in n 8

292

INDEX

individualism, 229, 233, 2 3 8 ^ 6 induction, objective, impartial, 94 inductive approach, 49, 22onioo inductive faith, 4 1 , 4in30 inductive method, of Bible study, 9411294 inductive reasoning, focused on the text, 48 inerrancy, 63ni35, 73m 82 infallibility, doctrine of, 6ni7 in-front-of-the-text approaches, 104-5

“initial evidence” doctrine, problems of, 131147 inner silence, as crucial to inner listening, 184 “inner word,” 8n24 innocence or freedom, dispensation of, 64 inspiration conception of, 209047 supported by reader-response criti­ cism, 690165-700165 Institute for the Study of the Bible, 1320189 intellectual pursuits, resistance to long-term, 5in 8 i intellectualization, of the Christian faith, 5in 8 i interconnectedness, described as ubuntUy 228 interlocutors, the poor as, 1 5 1 International Fellowship of Christian Churches (IFCC), 14ns 2 International Roman CatholicPentecostal Dialogue, affirming an ecumenical orientation, 89 interpretation aspects of, 99019 Barth accentuating the spiritual dimensions of, 184-85 betraying and perpetuating biases, 104047 of the Bible on the African continent, 125 divorcing from reading, 70 emergence of formal in mod­ ern Africa, 127

including the community of ordinary readers in, 132 neglecting the role of the Spirit as bankrupt, 185 of the Bible as a communal task, 230 of the Bible from the underside of society, 227 of the biblical narrative, 16 9 ,17 5 colored by Christological “Full Gospel” pre-understanding, 154 culture providing the context for, 9i dimensions of, 115 extending horizons of, 230 informing experience, 94 in an interpretive community, 51 in Jewish exegesis of the first cen­ tury CE, 209n47 methodologically reflected, 1250156 not right or wrong, 51 practice of in ancient Greek times, 5 9 n ii3

process of, 97,100 process still going on, 10 1 of a spiritual message, 158 m 2 of a text, 135 of text as dialectical, 1 1 2 - 1 3 through the Spirit’s action, 237 interpretative community model, 237 interpreter accountable to the texts origina­ tion, 1 1 being Gods prophet, 1 1 3 - 1 4 enlarging the meaning o f the text, 102 relation with the text, 114 relying on the Spirit’s illumination of the biblical text, 86 seeking guidance and inspiration, 93

interpretive community, 229, 230-35 interracial fellowship, as a sign of the last days, 201 interraciality, of the Azusa Street meetings, 200 in-the-text approaches, 104

INDEX

293

involvement, in Pentecostal worship,

revealing in and through passages,

44 Irenaeus, 235 Irving, Charles, 215 Islam, 5 8 n m , 120 Israel as distinct from the church, 64 God’s dealings with, 6 o n i2 i last generation of experiencing the end of times, 207 reoccupying “holy land” viewed as a sign of the second coming, 213 settlement policy in the West Bank, i62n29 “I-Thou” encounter, 60

154 the same yesterday and today and forever, 98 as savior, (sanctifier), Spirit-baptizer, healer, and soon coming king,

James, i89ni84, 236 Jehovah’s Witnesses, 213 Jeremiah, 1 13 Jerome, 1 1 7 Jesus Christ. See also Christ addressing worship and prayer, i7in 8 2 as the beginning, center, and the goal, 79 blended the original prophetic word with its current signifi­ cance, 193 at the center of pentecostal theol­ ogy, 76, 105054 as the center of the Christian mes­ sage, 157 on divorce, 162 experience at his baptism, 44 gifts to Africans, 39 knew and used Scripture in context, 27ni03 meeting the pages of the Bible, 69 nature of as paradox, 174 predilection for the marginalized, 43 promise to pour out the Spirit, 224 reading and interpreting the He­ brew Bible, 193 reading texts from the scopus of, 240 relationship with through his Spirit,

42

43n37 on Scripture, 8 3 ^ 3 2 setting Scripture free to function in new ways, 193 translating the world to, 58m 09 visions of saying “I am coming soon,” 72m 76 “Jesus Only,” 3 7 m l Jewish canon, 116 , I i 6 n i i7 - i7 n ii7 , 118 Jewish Christians, emigrated to Pella in Transjordan, 208 Jewish circles, apocalyptic works circulating in, 203n23 Jewish community, influence of apocalyptic literature on, 203 Jewish exegetical methods, influenced Christians, 2 0 9 ^ 7 Jewish God, accepting as the true God, 209 Jewish monotheism, accepted by the Christian church, 208 Jews, God-given right concerning Palestine, 2 1 3 ^ 0 Joel, 92n282,182-83, 243 Joshua, 1 1 1 , 224m 16 Journal of Pentecostal Theology of 1993 and 1994,106 Jude, 203n23 Justin Martyr, I03n45 Kalugila, Leonidas, 127 Kant, Immanuel, 58m 12 ,19 5 -9 6 Karkkainen, Veli-Matti, 89 Kato, Byang, 127 Kenya, Pentecostals in, 15n s6 kerygmatic character, of the Bible, 231 Keswick Convention, 42n35, 2 iin 59 Keswick movement, 37, 2 1 1 Keswickian Higher Life movement, 42 Kgatle, Doreen, 21 Kimbanguist movement, in Zaire, 19

294

INDEX

Kimuhu, Johnson, 127 King James Version, 20, 87, 87n26o “knower,” as subject, i59ni4 knowing (Verstehen), i6 8 n 59 ,196 knowledge of God, 92,195 as insight into divine truth, 163 premises concerning, 57 “Koran,” meaning “recitation,” 58m 1 1 Korean believers, I7n62 kratophany, i39 n 22i laity, 40, 55 Lake, John G., 201 language never encompassing God, 17 2 ,17 5 separating and uniting, 44n42 as speech or utterance {parole), 89n272 as a system {langue)f 890272 language miracle, Scriptures seminal, 44n42 languages Acts 2 referring to genuine foreign languages, 43042-44042 uniqueness of each, 890272 last days, 61, 2 1 1 last of the last days, living during, 189 last-days church, restoring to its primitive capacity, 79 Latin American Christians, emphasiz­ ing justice and liberation, 17062 “latter rain” connected with the outpouring of the Spirit on the day of Pente­ cost, 209 corresponding to the “former rain” on the day of Pentecost, 225 early Pentecostals’ allegorization of Joels, 61 falling on spiritually parched ground, 197 key in the approaching climax of history, 62 motif of, 46 preparing the world for the great harvest, 210 “latter rain covenant,” 93n288

law o f Moses, 6 on i2i lectio divinay io n 3i, 184, 219 Pope Leo XXIII, 62 Lessing, 58m 12 liberal theology, Karl Barth’s rejection of, 158 0 12 liberalism, 175 0 10 3-7 6 0 10 3, i76ni03 liberation, in Bible reading practices, 134 liberation hermeneutics, 13 0 - 3 1, 13 10 18 5 liberation questions, of the people of the South, 17 liberation theology, 1 3 1 life after death, in the Hebrew Bible, 204 Limpopo High Court, 25-26 Limpopo Ministers’ Fraternal (LMF), 26 linear method, of Western theological work, 146 linguistic features, of a text, 218093 linguistic questions, of hermeneutics, 2 “linguistic turn,” in twentieth-century analytic philosophy, 89 listener, standing openly before God, 183-84 literacy, occluded oral cultural imagi­ nation, 146 literalism, of African pentecostal hermeneutics, 152 literalism method, of biblical interpre­ tation, 65 literary approaches, to the text, 50 literary genres, 107, 204 literary ideas and motifs, apocalyptic eschatology as, 205 literary or postmodern view, 97114 literary questions, of hermeneutics, 2 liturgical structure, Pentecostals rejecting formal, 30 lives, transformed when God speaks, 242 “living into the spirit of biblical texts,” 243

INDEX

local assembly leader or pastor, anointed by the Spirit to preach, 155 Luke adding a unique text to his Gospel, 110 on the charismatic dimension of the work o f the Spirit, 110 demonstrating that God had fulfilled promises to David in Jesus, 236 on every member of the church being called and empowered to be a prophet, 1 1 1 interpreting with a Pauline inter­ pretation, 109 prophetic pneumatology of, 109 on Spirit baptism, 217 on the Spirit’s role in empowering disciples, 224 subsequent-empowerment lan­ guage of, 192 text written by and addressed to the rich, 39n20 using history to illustrate his mes­ sage, 108 using the stories of the church for didactic reasons, 108 view of pneumatology distinct from Paul, 106 writing in narrative form, 107 writing much later than Paul, I09n83 Luke-Acts on pentecostal practice and theory, 240-41 as a primary resource in forming experience, 195 reading through the lens of Pauline theology, m n 9 0 representing history with a pur­ pose, 108-9 “Luke’s Understanding of Baptism” (Menzies), io9n83 Luther, Martin on the Bible as clear and perspicu­ ous, 6sni42

295

criticism of the sale of “relics” and “indulgences,” 27 emphasis on Pauline epistles, io6n59 not impressed with the allegorical meaning of Scripture, 74m 90 responded to Pope Leo XXIII’s bull, Exsurge Dominey62 restored Scripture and justification by faith, 75ni94 Lutheran dialectic, 106 Macchia, Frank D., 89 magisterium, 5n i7-6 n i7 Mahan, Asa, 37 mainline churches, 13, 32 mainline denominations, 4 6 ,6 2m 28 majority group, God judging and punishing, 204 M ajority W orld, 16, i6 n 5 9 , i 6 n 6 i , I7 n 6 2 , 243

Malema, Julius, 23-24 Mana, Ka, 134 “many tongues” principle, of Amos Yong, i76nio6 Maranke church, in Zimbabwe, 19 marginalized, hermeneutics account­ able to, 128 Mark 16, reference to, 25 Mark 16:9-20, pentecostal Wirkungsgeschichte of, 25n96 Marxist paradigm, of Mosala, 39n20 Mason, Charles H., 136 mass media, fundamentalists’ use of, 67ni50 material prosperity, 5 m 5 May, Theresa, 36n9 Mbiti, John, 127 meaning arriving at the author’s intended, 49 defined, n n 3 5 as interaction of readers with texts, 104 in non-oral communication, 146 in the sense intended by the writer, 2i 9n97 Medad, 1 1 1

296

INDEX

m ed ia n C h ristian today, as a y o u n g w o m a n from th e G lob al Sou th,

17 members, affirming approval by say­ ing “Amen” and “Hallelujah,” 72 Menzies, 1 0 6 ,1 1 1 , 1 6 7 message (sermon), bringing, 44 “message from the heart of God,” receiving, 73ni82 “message from the Lord,” 44046, 242 Messianic Jewish believers, 17062 metacriticism, hermeneutics of, 98 method pluralism, 241 methodology, never value-free, 187 millennial expectations, determining theology, 223 millennial kingdom, 6 o n i2 i- 6 m i2 i, 64 millennial movements, 223 millennium, 215 mind, submission to God, 114 ministries anointing of the Spirit on, 155 signs and wonders occurring in, 116 minority group, displacing and alien­ ating, 204 miracles, allowing to happen, 189 the miraculous, Pentecostals empha­ sizing, 1420236 mission distinguished from evangelism, 2i3n68 empowerment for, 224-25 mission Christianity, i39 n 22i mission Christians, perception of, 20 mission churches, rejected the African worldview, 137 mission languages, ability to speak, 217 mission service, dedication to, 37nio missional impulse, connection be­ tween speaking in tongues and, 217 missional task, to preach the gospel to the nations, 216 missionaries, 12 1, i2 in i3 8 , 201, 208

missionary tongues, praying for the second blessing of, 216 missionary xenoglossy or xenoglossia, 2 0 2 n i8

mnemonic devices, enabling recita­ tion and memory, 148 Mnguni, Penuel, 23, 24 modern academic interpretive meth­ ods, moved some pentecostal scholars to abandon tongues, 49n73 modern period, of pentecostal herme­ neutics, 48 modern Western worldview, devel­ opment of historical-critical methods, 50 modernist eschatology, 1760103 “modernity,” 104046 Mohammed, 58m 1 1 Montanist movement, 7n23 Montgomery, Carrie Judd, 37 Moody, Dwight L., 37 moral virtues, implementing, 30 moralism, 203 Mormons, spread of, 213 Mosaic Law, dispensation of, 64 Mosala, Ituneleng, 128 Moses identifying with, 1900187 imparted the spirit to Joshua, 224m 16 law of, 6 o n i2i on prophecy of the seventy elders, 111 Mugambi, Jesse N. K., 134 Murray, Andrew, 37, 37 m 0 muti (herbal medicines and potions made by sangomas), 138 Myland, D. Wesley, 930288 “mystery,” of the symbolic world of the Bible, 145 mystification, hermeneutics of, 145 narrative approach, 189 narrative genre, using to reconstruct the history, 192 narrative tradition, 189 narratives

INDEX

communicating theological and moral perspectives, 217 interpreting theologically, 790214 literary readings of, 240 of Luke subordinate to his theologi­ cal interests, 108 potential to engage and change readers, 78 providing structure, 217 testing against lived experience, 164 understood literally in the Bible, 79 National Association of Evangelicals (NAE), 54 National Conference for United Action Among Evangelicals in 1942, 541192 National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States, 541192 nations exploitation of Africa, 1 2 1 under the rule of Satan, 6on i2i natural world, as a religious universe, 136 negative events, having a spiritual or metaphysical root, 153 Nel, theological education of, 9n28 neo-Apostolics. See neo-Pentecostals neo-charismatic denominations and networks, 14 neo-charismatics. See neo-Pentecostals neo-orthodox exegesis, 158 m 2 “neo-Pentecostal,” 32 neo-Pentecostal churches, 14ns 2, 20-28, 54n9i, 125 neo-Pentecostal prophets, 236047, 242 neo-Pentecostal televangelistic move­ ments, 32 neo-Pentecostalism wave, 1 3 - 1 4 neo-Pentecostals, 14 0 51, 2 1 1 neoprophetism, 15 0 5 4 ,12 5 “new birth,” 42035 New Covenant Ministries, 14052 “new evangelicalism,” 6 70 151 New Order of the Latter Rain, 46056, 2ion56

297

New Testament closure of the canon of, 61 considered more “powerful” by many Africans, 124 intended for the Christian com­ munity, 103 reading in a continuationist way, 213

transforming the lives of the read­ ers, 116 worldview found in, 149 New Testament church, 64,188 New Zealand, 36n8 Ngcobo Killings, of 21 February 2018, 28ni07 Nicene Creed, 142 Nigeria, Pentecostals in, 15056 Njohi, Reverend, 24 noncessationist approach, to the Bible, 29

non-Pentecostal “mainline” denomi­ nations, 14 n on -W estern w orld, grow in g churches in, 1 4 -1 5

North America, separating from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, i 6n57 North American Pentecostalism, 2351147 N’thamburi, Zablon, 127 Nubia (Sudan), 119 0 12 6 ,12 0 numbers, having symbolic signifi­ cance, 204 Nyamiti, Charles, 127 “Oberlin Perfectionism,” 37 “objective distance,” implying objecti­ fication of the Bible, 810225 objective manner, approaching the Bible in, 94 objectivity, pretense of total, 780209 “Old School” orthodox theology, as inerrant, 541192 Old Testament determining the canon of, 116 read Christologically, 79 “older churches,” in the West, 16057 Oliverio, 88n264, 89

298

INDEX

“Oneness” or “Jesus Only” view of the Godhead, 3 7 m l Oneness Pentecostals, teaching a Unitarianism of the Son, 9n29 openness, to the witness of the Spirit, nn34> 1 1 4

opera ad extra sunt indivisa, 17108 2 oral African tradition, 129 oral culture, 14 8 ,15 0 , 220098 oral expression and testimony, 160 oral knowledge of the Bible, 144 oral nature, 1 4 3 ^ 3 7 orality, African culture of, 146-50 oratorio-meditatio-tentatio (prayermeditation-struggle) sequence, 77n2o6 ordinary classical Pentecostal Bible readers, 154 ordinary people, 132018 7 ordinary readers, 132, 220 Organization of African Instituted Churches, 15054 Origen of Alexandria, io n 3i, 125 original context, of text, i8oni32 Orthodox Judaism, rejected apocalyp­ ticism, 207 orthodoxy, 15 0 ,15 7 , 244 orthopathy, 150, 243, 244 orthopraxy, 15 0 ,15 7 , 244 “outer” word, 8n24 Ozman, Agnes, 217 Palmer, defining “hermeneutics,” m 3 Palmer, Phoebe, 36nio paradox, in some biblical description of God, 17 1 para-linguistic features, of a text, 2i8n93 Parham, Charles Fox allowing Seymour to sit outside the classroom, 198 claimed to be specially gifted in Yiddish, 201 on creeds, 830235 doctrine of Spirit of baptism with the initial evidence of tongues, I 98n4

judged Azusa Street to be marked by emotional excess, 202 reading the Bible in an “entirely unbiased” manner, 4on25 split from Seymour, 202 Parham Bible School, 940294 participant observation, main ingredi­ ents of, 30m 14 the past, communicated in and through presently experienced texts, 219097 pastor(s) arrested after two people he was baptizing in a river drowned, 24 employing a pre-critical and funda­ mentalist hermeneutics, 48 investigating fake, 27 pastorate, of full-time professional pastors, 71 pathos, understanding the Bible via, 243 patriarchal rule or promise, dispensa­ tion of, 64 Paul amended the teaching of Jesus on divorce, 162 attesting to the dimensions of the Spirits wotk, 110 citing the judgment experienced by Israel as a warning, 1890184 coloring all discussions of the Holy Spirit, 192 elevated above all other canonical writers, io6n59 pneumatological perspective of, 110 theology derived from letters, 107 using Abram’s faith as a model, 1890184 using historical narratives of the Old Testament, 108 view of pneumatology distinct from Luke, 106 writing on the full richness of the Spirit’s work, 110 “Pauliniese Kriteria” (Bezuidenhout), non83

INDEX

peculiar function (eigentliche Leistung), of language characterizing understanding, 29m 10 Pentateuch, 1 1 7 Pentecost

as entering into the new age, m n90 experience of available to all of God’s people, 1 1 1 Parham’s theology of, i98n4 Pentecost apostolic charismatic expe­ rience, 242 “pentecostal,” 31, 3 in i 2 i Pentecostal academic tradition, no formal, 48

Pentecostal academicians, developed hermeneutical models, 29 Pentecostal Bible schools, 55 Pentecostal Christianity, in Africa, 124 Pentecostal churches, 3 7 m l, 5in 8 i, 143, 22in i04 Pentecostal community narrative tradition of, 188 reading Scripture to develop a praxis, 19 1

Pentecostal denominations as not normative, 35n4 requiring more theological training to be ordained, 52 Pentecostal diversity, allowing some to be fundamentalists, 35n4 Pentecostal emphasis, on an urgent eschatological expectation, 203 Pentecostal epistemology, as not experience-based faith, 242 Pentecostal eschatology, 235 Pentecostal expectations, 223 Pentecostal experience, 33,159 ,172 Pentecostal faith, 91, 244 Pentecostal foundational commit­ ments, 68ni56 “Pentecostal gospel,” 213067 Pentecostal hermeneutics acceptance of, 43 approach of, 92 challenges for evangelical theology, 167056

299 characteristics of, 8 0,92,192 classified in terms of metacriticism, 98 communal nature of, 182 consensus definitions of elusive, 6 contemporary concerns of, 51 contribution to understanding biblical texts, 6 debate about, 86, 86n254 deconstructing the Enlightenment myth, 190 defining for Africa, 96-155 defining what is distinctive in, 28 deliberate use of, 9n29 descriptive approach flowing into a prescriptive approach, 30 design of, 239 development of, 4 8 ,72 -9 1, 239 different from an orthodox, nonpentecostal hermeneutic and theology, i64n42 differing from fundamentalism, 94-95 distinctive aspects of, 3 distinctives of, 9 ,12 ,19 4 distinguishing factors, 96-97 as diverse, 12 diversity of Scripture, not forcing into an artificial unity, 8n27 as ecumenical, 91 elements emphasized, 9 9 , 154 elements of, 176 -77 experience of God as the goal in, 90 goal of, 2i9n98 historical survey of, 4 7 -7 1 imbalance between scientific study of the Bible and spiritual engage­ ment with the Bible, 196 integration of ecclesial and aca­ demic interpretation, 70 -71 interpreting the Bible, 6ni9 models of, 29 narrative and communitarian ap­ proaches to, 88 paradigm of, 91 prioritizing the authority of the Bible, 237 realist view of Scripture, 56ni02

300

INDEX

Pentecostal hermeneutics (continued) right thinking, feeling, and living in, 244 Scripture, not using in ways con­ trary to its implied design, 80 sharing with hermeneutics of other theological traditions, 2 suspicion or despair, not leading to a hermeneutic of, i76nio6 Pentecostal interpretation, 86-87,90, 187-88 Pentecostal movement characteristics of, 4 m 3 2 definitional issues of, 17067 diversity of, 12 ,4 7 ,9 2 in indigenous churches, 145 in Latin America, 15 opposing ways of viewing the Bible, 95 as a protest against modernity, i76ni05 recognized the ministry of women, 53n85 rooted in the American black slave culture, 8n26 shifted to a professional pastorate, 47-48 theology of, 163036 Pentecostal pastors/preachers, 45,48,

17711113 Pentecostal prophetism, 138 ,14 0 , 236047 Pentecostal prophets, 153, 2 3 6 ^ 7 Pentecostal readings, of the Bible, 5, i8oni32 Pentecostal revival, 750194 Pentecostal scholars adopting modes of logic, reason, and linear thought, 860253 approaches of, 12 consensus about a pentecostal hermeneutics, 240 debate about the purposes of Spirit baptism, 212064 dissertations on 1 Corinthians 12 -14 ,10 9 0 8 3 interpreting the Bible, 3n9

on the original classical pentecostal hermeneutics, 86 “parking their faith” at the doorstep of academia and “parking their brains” at the church’s doorstep, 52n8i pentecostal scholarship counteracting the bankruptcy of biblical scholarship, 810225 expansion of in the last twenty years, 239m explosion of, 23902 going beyond intellectual pursuit of knowledge, 8in225 periods of the history of, 239m pursuit of still considered a hin­ drance, 5 1-5 2 retaining its counter-cultural stance, 165048 pentecostal service, prerequisites for, 850248 pentecostal spirituality affirming that God is present and active, 222 defined, 6ni9 from the early church to the pres­ ent, 4ni2 responding to the influences of the Spirit, 81 pentecostal supernaturalistic world­ view, 176 pentecostal talk, about God, 165-69 pentecostal theologians, 16 30 36 ,17 4 pentecostal theology arising out of lived experience, 3 aspects of, 43 based on ideas and experience, I29ni75 concerned with encountering God, 188 defined, 7 7 ,16 3 0 3 6 ,16 5 n48 different from an orthodox, nonpentecostal hermeneutic and theology, 164042 different from other models of theology, 52n8i of the end of the known order, the telos, 200

301

INDEX

as experience-certified theology, 169 of the ordinary people, I32ni87 precondition for participation in, 163 rethinking every aspect of theology, 167 tenor of outside the US, 29 in terms of the symbolic cosmos, 77 using language of dialectic, 172 within the communion of charis­ mata, 168 Pentecostal “thinking,” 15 0 ^ 5 9 Pentecostal/charismatic activity, Africa a hotbed of, 124 Pentecostalism as an anomaly, 8sn245 arising from affections, 150 attractions of, 42 as big business in Africa, 124 as a “cause of change,” 43 characteristics of members in Africa, 223 as charismatic, 80 classification of, 12 - 1 4 core interpretive assumptions of early, 73 counternarrative to the mainstream stories of Western secularization, 8511245 created a new theological tradition, 7 defined, 41 democratic worship event, 44 difference between African and Western, 4on23 diversity of, 243 diversity of categorizations of, i2n44 ecumenical impulse inherent in, 3 n ii - 4 n n , 8n27 emerged in Africa decades before the Azusa Street meetings, i3n46 expanded throughout the world, 217 as experience-centered, 80 as an expression of conservative Christian protest, 35

as an expression of primal spiritual­ ity, 135 facilitating marginalized people, 224 failing the test of established ortho­ doxy, I57n8-58n8 as the faith of the underclass, 45-46 as a global phenomenon, 16 -17 Holy Spirit working in an African way, 19 identifying baptism with an ecstatic experience, 106-7 ignored by mainstream scholarship, 84n243 as a learning movement in transi­ tion, 5ni4 from a line of antecedents and movements, 36 linking rationality and affection, i68n59 millennial sensibility of, 222 no longer solely a religion of the poor and the marginal, 4 m 3 2 not a monolithic community, 5ni6 not having a strong theological base, 239 presupposing contact between the divine and the human, 3 3 m 25 protesting against too much reli­ ance on words, 173 reaching the impoverished and disenfranchised people of Africa, 160 reaction against the institutional church’s perceived formalism, 36n7 recognizing non-rational elements, 80 restored the Spirit, 222 as the resurgence of conservative fundamental faith, 36 as revolutionary, 43 separation from the world, 6oni2i shed early restorationist and premillennialist fervor, 56 standing against modernism, 175 tapping into popular religious and cultural beliefs, 140

302

INDEX

Pentecostalism (continued) variety of seen in its main “theolo­ gies,” 91129 as a way of situating oneself in the world, 223 pentecostalization of African Christianity, 15 of Evangelicals, 54 Pentecostals accepted by Evangelicals, 86 accepting authority of the Holy Spirit, 6ni7 evangelical viewpoint of the inerrancy and infallibility of Scriptures, 56 God’s character as unchanging and constant, 82 Gods involvement in the his­ tory of daily lives, 95 that Luke wrote history with a theological purpose, io6n59 adopted evangelical statements, 59m 17,6 9 alternative vision of God’s plan, 2 9 n in applying promises from the Bible, 184 asking questions of the text, i8oni32 assimilating scriptural stories, verses, and concepts, 180 avoiding excesses, 10 7m 04 awaiting a tidal change in world history, 223 balancing dedication to God with witness in the world, i6on22 bearing witness to a reality and dimension of life in the Spirit, 241-42 believing that the Bible contains applicable a solutions, 183 believing they are in the last days, 225 Bible as the all-sufficient source, 83 Bible reading practices of, 9, 34-95

on the Catholic/Protestant debate about the relation between Scrip­ ture and tradition, 162-63 changing to acceptable and respect­ able status, 47 characteristics of members, 14, 227 concentrating on narratives in the New Testament, 188 concentrating on the function of the Spirit, 142 confessing subjective pre-under­ standing, 162 confidence that the future lies in the hand of the sovereign Lord, 216 as the continuation of the early church, 37 current excluded from participa­ tion in the pastoral message, 158 defining belief as “inerrancy,” 6311135

discontinuity with the institutional­ ized and intellectualized church, 52 discrepancy between Bible-reading practices of early and contempo­ rary, 35 drawn to premillennial aspirations, 62ni28 drowning in a sea of excessive subjectivity, 31 early, entered the world of the Bible, 78 early, not interpreting the Bible in fundamentalist manner, 76 eisegeting their experiences into the text, 19 10 19 0 emphasis on liberation, i3 in i8 5 emphasis on the Spirit’s involve­ ment, 192 emphasizing divine healing, I4in230 emphasizing re-experiencing the biblical text through preaching, 177 emphasizing spirit/Spirit and the experienced reality of God, 90-91

303

INDEX

emphasizing the theological char­ acter of the narratives of Luke, 107 encounters with God as condi­ tional, 175 engaging with the text as a resource for divine encounter, 226 established Bible Schools, 67 evaluated war as sinful, 2i4 n 7i expecting a charismatic “message from the heart of God,” 730182 expecting God to intervene in their lives and circumstances, 30,16 6 expecting God to reveal truth in the present moment, 82, 95 experiencing God, 16 5 ,16 7 experiencing miracles through the biblical text, 59m 17 experiencing tension between the working of the Spirit and aca­ demic training and endeavors, 51 experiencing the events and truths described in the Bible first-hand, 194 experiencing the illumination of the Spirit in their minds, 1 0 - 1 1 finding God to be intrusively real, 1 15 1111 3 finding themselves and their world in the Bible, 218 first generation of only received a basic education, 165048 God and, 170-79 grasped the sense of the church age, 6 m i2 6 -6 2n i26 hearing the word of God only when the text is actualized, 7oni65 historical portions of the Bible jus­ tifying doctrinal claims, io8n69 identification with the early church’s believers, 2 1 2 identification with the One propagated by the early church, 7511194

interpreting Acts 15, 70 involved in the establishment of political parties in African states, i3oni8o

lapsed into a spiritual drought, 2ion56 looked for alliances with Evangeli­ cals, 87 loving the Bible, 179-80 majority rejected historical criti­ cism, 50 in the mission field without creden­ tials and formal studies, 45ns 1 more comfortable with testimony, story, song, proclamation, testi­ mony, glossolalia, 39 moving away from emphasis on the community’s role in interpreatation, 234 needing confessional, theological readings, 240 no magisterium for, 5-6 not addressing prayer exclusively to the Father, 171082 not equated with fundamentalists, 76n202 not founding the authority of Scrip­ ture on a bedrock of doctrine, 183 not limited to a hermeneutics of orthodoxy and/or orthopraxy, 16 1 not reading the ancient text in terms of its historical horizon, 31 not recognizing much of a histori­ cal distance between the text and themselves, 154 not typically emphasizing loss of consciousness or self, 850248 number in total, 14 overemphasis on pneumatology at the cost of Christology, 105054 pacifists prior to the Second World War, 55 as part of a decentralized move­ ment, 38 as a part of the end-time church, 225 percentage of white and non-white worldwide, 14 perception of revelation, 159

304

INDEX

Pentecostals (continued) practicing theology,

76n202-77n202 priesthood and prophethood of all believers, 13 2 m 87 principle of interpretation on ex­ egesis as rigidly literal, 56ni03 quenching the Spirit through ac­ commodation, 235 questions asked by early, 77n205 reading Acts looking for clues to the signs of Spirit baptism, 217 reading biblical narratives with faith, 2 17 -18 reading the Bible with faith that its message is true, 98 with a “higher view,” 2-3 in light of Pentecost, 97n2 from the perspective of the day of Pentecost, 156 to understand themselves, 116 readings of, 240 reappearance of the charismata, 61 recognized discontinuities between the New Testament era and the present day, 75ni94 regarding the authority of Scripture as a transformational experience of the Holy Spirit, 59 rejected by fundamentalists, 76ni98 rejection of a comprehensive vision of God, themselves, and the world, 85 relating to the larger biblical metanarrative and experiences of the faith community, 160 on a relationship with the One, 163 representing a community of prophets, 234 seeking an alliance with the broader conservative Protestant tradition, 54 separation between church and state, 80-81 singing and praying their theology, 77n202

skepticism and criticism of biblical interpretation, 233 on the Spirit as the source of power for effective witness, 44 stressing orthopraxy, 157 striving for separation from the world, 81 surrendering autonomy as readers, 35n6 suspicion of treating the Bible as a book just to learn from, 226 theological words to make sense of their faith, 173 theology of as implicit, 42036-43036 tradition of pacifism and quies­ cence, i6on22 valuing direct revelation of the Spirit, 53 viewing God in trinitarian terms, 175 God’s relation to the world, 82

viewpoint of events on the day of Pentecost, 108 worshiping the God of the Bible, 174

Pentecostal-type Indigenous Churches (African Indigenous Churches, African Independent Churches, or AICs). See Africa Initiated (Instituted, Indepen­ dent, Indigenous) Churches (AICs) perception of things seen, as represen­ tative of things not seen, 153 “perfect love,” as the “second blessing” or Spirit baptism, 36 n io -37n io perfect understanding, 196 “Periphery.” See Global South perlocution, of the text, 1 1 persecution, of Pentecostals, 62m 28 “personal backpack,” of the reader, 99 personal experience, at the end of the hermeneutical process, 19 1m 90 pesticide, spraying on people seeking healing, 24-25 Peter, i9 o n i8 6 ,193, 2 11 , 224

INDEX

petrol, church members drinking, 22, 23 phenomenological approach, to Bible reading, 136 phenomenology, of the Continental tradition, 89 phenomenon, fundamentalism as, 68 Phetha, Rosemary, 21 Philip, 119 philosophical or theological view, 97n4 philosophical questions, of herme­ neutics, 2 philosophical terminology, God can­ not be contained in, 1 7 1 physical events, looking beyond to their “actual causes,” 153 Platonism, I02n36 plot, of a tale, 19 1 pneumatic Christianity, in Africa, 18 pneumatic element, of pentecostal hermeneutics, 176 -77 pneumatic encounters, 33 m 25 pneumatic exegesis, 15 8n 12 pneumatic interpretation, 840236 pneumatic interpreter, 87 pneumatological dimension, to know­ ing, i68n59 pneumatological framework, 237 pneumatological precedent, 183 pneumatological starting-point, 1051153 pneumatological view, of the God of Scriptures, 19 pneumatology, 10 50 53,14 5 “Poisonwood,” in the Congo, 1 2 2 m 40 Poisonwood Bible (Kingsolver), i22n i40 political quiescence, of Pentecostals, i6on22 political radicalism, forms of, 66 polygamy/polygyny, in Africa, 123 the poor, Pentecostalism and, 1 3 1 , 1 5 1 popular charismatic interpretation, of the Bible, 26 population, large spiritual or ideologi­ cal blocks, 84

305

Postdenominationalists. See neo-Pentecostals postmillenarianism, more optimistic, 236n47 postmillennial social reconstruction, opting for, 2 1 1 postmillennialism, 1760103, 214075 postmodern biblical interpretation, boundaries of, 104 postmodern interpreters, 104 postmodernism, 6 8 m s 6 ,169070,175 poverty, widely prevailing in Africa, 151

power, hierarchy of, 1380216 praying, in a violent way, 1 5 2 preaching, 4 2 -4 3* 1 5 8 , 1 7 7 , I 7 7 m i 2 pre-comprehension, of the reader, 1400223 pre-critical Bible reading approach, 92 pre-critical methods of interpreting the Bible, 1250156 pre-critical period, of pentecostal hermeneutics, 48 pre-existing religions, elements of in Africa, 14 10232 prejudices, taking into account, 99, 99n i9 premillennial rapture of the church, 60 premillennialism, 215, 215079, 2 2 3 n il2 premillennialist escapism, 215077 premillennialist perspective, reading the book of Revelation, 214070 premillennialist secret rapture dispentionalism, 214075 Presbyterian Church in East Africa, 122 pre-understanding (Vorverstandms), 7> 99> 10 0 ,10 2. See also understanding priesthood (and prophethood), of individual believers, 37 primal religions of Africa, 1340196 “primal spirituality,” 85, 850246 primal vision, with a sense of cosmic oneness, 139

30 6

INDEX

primitivist and restorationist impulse, of Pentecostals, 1430237 primitivist principle, in Pentecostalism, 235 “privileged locus,” of the interpreta­ tion of texts, 102 probable inferences, about the implied author, 100 proclamation, 720179, 231 progressive revelation (progressio revelationis), 10 1 proleptic or inaugural eschatology, 210 promise-fulfillment scheme, reading the Bible from, 184 proof-text method, adaptation of, 92- 93. 93n286, 94 prophecy applying the Bible to a specific situ­ ation, 187 appropriating the gift of, 234 distinguishing from apocalypti­ cism, 205-6 influencing the contemporary American Pentecostal church, 186-87 not coming by human will, 241 roots in Israels salvation history and the tradition of election, 206 subjecting to the discernment of the faith community, 242 Prophecy Conference, of Dwight L. Moody, 214 prophet(s) all the Lord’s people as, 212 being a true, H 4ni02 as an engaged observer, 1420235 interpreting a problem by a revela­ tion of the Spirit, 236047 invoking and speaking on behalf of the Holy Spirit, 153 linked to the Old Testament proph­ ets in Africa, 236047 as living, speaking subjects, i7 7 n n o media coverage in Africa, 14 1 possessing the authority of God in African Pentecostalism, 2i2n 6 i

similarity with the diviner, 236047 prophetic movement, popularity of, i 5n54 The Prophetic Times monthly periodi­ cal, 214 prophetical persons, appreciating the records of prophetical figures, 18 1 prophetic-dispensational understand­ ing, of God’s redemptive plan, 93n288 prophetism, in Africa’s religious climate, 138 prosperity gospel, of African neoPentecostal churches, 5015 Protestant Scriptures, as the sole, ultimate authority, 73 Protestantism, similarities with Pente­ costalism, 90 Protestants in danger of neglecting the church as an entity, 232030 emphasizing orthodoxy, 157 justification by faith as their start­ ing point in reading Scripture, 7 as no longer cessationists, 6 in i2 3 tending to be word-oriented, 90 Psalms, 19 0 ,19 5 0 2 11 published material, in African Chris­ tian book stores, 123 punishment, to the world, 6 o n i2i “put on the new man” (Eph 4:24), 26n ioi Quran, as a kratophany, 139 0221 Rabalago, Lethebo, 24-25 rabbinic movement, countering the scriptural grounds Christians, n 8 n i2 3 the rain, bringing the promise of new life and vitality, 178 rapture, 64-65, 72, 214070 rational element, of pentecostal hermeneutics, 176 -7 7 rationalism, 159, i59 n i4 rationalist vacuum, of Protestant theological endeavors, 165048

INDEX

reader-response approaches, to the text, 50 reader-response hermeneutics, 149 readers, 1 0 0 ,1 5 3 ,1 6 1 realism, 74 reality, i02n36, i59 n i4 “realized eschatology,” 215 reason, i6 8 n 59 ,170 reconciliation, 228 reconstruction and renaissance, theol­ ogy of, 13 1- 3 2 redemptive-historical hermeneutics, 97n4 Reformation changed the status of the Bible into a weapon, 222ni07 churches read the Bible in solidity, i26n i57 determining the canon of the New Testament, 116 handed the Bible back to ordinary believers, 12 6 m 57, 222 illiteracy during, 227n3 Reformed and Keswick position, 37nio Reformed canon of the Bible, Pentecostals acceptance of, 119 Reformed revivalism of Jonathan Edwards, 36-37 Reformers, 195, 227n3, 235 regula fidei, form of, 235 religion(s) history of intolerance and hate speech, 27nios as a matter of the “heart,” 41 needing spirituality, 38m 6 relevance of old in the transition to the new in Christianity, I34ni96 “religious experience,” i09n75 religious freedom, 28 religious leaders, abuse of vulnerabil­ ity by, 28ni07 religious meaning, in African tradi­ tional life, i35n i99 religious movements, routinization and rationalization attending all, 216

307

religious objects, persons skilled in identifying, 136 “religious solidarity networks,” 144 religious truth, “new approaches” to, 41 repentance, need for, 208-9 restoration, 6 1-6 2, 2 11 restorationism, idealized the early church, 222 restorationist beliefs, centering on the latter rain, 73 restorationist urge, to become con­ formed to the early church, 243 Revelation (book of), a literalist read­ ing of, 215 revelation knowledge (rhema word), 53

revelation of God choosing over the finite restrictions of human logic, 174 continuing, 53,70 interpreting, 50 not transmitted by the work of the Holy Spirit, 79n2i3 participant observation involved, 3o n ii4

“revelation of the Spirit,” evaluating, 240 “revivalistic spirit,” lacking in some historical churches, 53 Ricoeur, concerned about text com­ prehension, 11 2 right, world-wide trend to the, 36n9 risen Christ, as a reality, 178 rituals and manifestations of worship, enacting theology, 18 Robeck, Cecil M., 89 Roman Catholic Church, 6ni7, 222ni07 Roman Catholics, i3n47, 32m 22, 232n30 Roman Empire, Christians in, 120 Rorty, Richard, 169 sacrifice, prescribed, 153 Sadducees, only accepted the Torah, 117

30 8

INDEX

salvation concerned with protection from spiritual powers, 140 as freedom from the various spiri­ tual powers, 13 7 ,13 8 interpreted to be eschatological, 206-7 overarching story of, 240 process of, 196

epistemic priority over doctrinal statements, 74 exposure to as vital to a child’s development, 229 goal of studying as “knowledge of God,” 180 harmony of with a gradual and progressive unfolding of truth,

in term s o f th e h o listic n eed s o f

hearing of shaped by various fac­ tors, 162

p eo p le, 147

from the wretchedness of this world, 203 salvation-initiation language, used by Paul, 192 San Francisco earthquake, 201 sanctification conversion called, 36 described, 42n34 “finished work” view of, 2 1 1 as a progressive process, 42035 with “three works of grace,” 3 7 m l Satan, 214070, 215 savior of humankind, Spirit as, 145 Sawyer, Harry, 127 school of Alexandria, i02n36 school of Antioch, 102036 scientific exegetical methods, 195 scientific method, 196 Scofield Reference Bible (1909), 214 scopus of the text, 241 Scripture approaching like a literary text, 10 becoming authoritative and central, 186 becoming truth in the word of God,

194 comparing with Scripture, 1250156 descriptive historical portions and didaction portions, io8n69 distinctly Pentecostal way of read­ ing and interpreting, 8 drawing us into God’s very life, 231 as a dynamic authority, 193 as an element of pentecostal hermeneutics, 154 emphasizing the role of the Spirit, 114 -15

94

H oly Spirit q u ick en in g an d an im a t­ ing, 1 7 9 -8 7

inseparable from church, 227 as the inspired word of God, 154 intelligibility and non-contradicto­ ry nature of, 65ni42 intensity of heard through disso­ nance, 8n27 interpreting, 6 2 ,93n288,100 judging prophecies, 187 listening to with ears of faith, 183 as the locus of God’s continuing act of revelation, 70 making as a hermeneutical process, 10 1 not remaining static, ioon27 as the objective standard for inter­ pretation, 115 as the only dependable guide for faith and practice, 68ni58 in a pentecostal hermeneutics, 8n27 Pentecostal interpretation of, 93 as the penultimate authority, 84n236 as the primal point of reference, 18 1 as prior in a normative maner, 84n236 readers interpreting, 62 readers taking the “natural” sense of the narrative, 166 reading, 85 as “Spirit-Word,” 69 as a “storehouse of facts,” 66ni45 text-centered, reader-oriented ap­ proach prioritizing, 237

INDEX

unity of, 15 8 m 2 usefulness of, 221 words experienced in somewhat magical terms, 147-48 scrolls, different books found on dif­ ferent, 118 sealed bride of Christ, 19804 searching, the Scripture, 220m 00 “second blessing” in language, Spirit baptism as, 198 second coming of Christ expectation of, 203, 216 not realizing imminently, 2 2 3 0 111 signs of, 2 13 -14 , 224 “Sectarian,” 68m s6 secularism, modes of, 850245 seizure, forms of, 8 5 ^ 4 8 selective reading, leading to isolation from the Bible, 136 “self-conscious relativity,” as a necessi­ ty in reading the Bible, n 6 n ii5 self-understanding, of faith, 105 seminarians, not expected to let the text speak for itself, 195 seminaries, establishment of, 71 Septuagint, 1 1 6 ,1 1 8 , n 8 n i2 3 sermons, 6 5 ,7 2 ,17 7 0 112 Seventy, 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 Seymour, William Joseph background of, 197-98 on becoming like “little babes,” 910278 on the experience of Spirit baptism, 198 on the interracial character of his Mission, 202 on Pentecost, 20 2m 8 physical description of, 200 preached the pentecostal message, 199 shalom, of the kingdom, 1410230 Shema> 1840156, 229 signs. See also specific signs indicating that God is active and participating, 136 of the second coming, 2 13 -14 , 224 silence, as personal engagement to the text, 183

309

Simpson, A.B, 37 sinful nature, not quenching the Holy Spirit’s work, 43036 sinner and saint (simul iustus et peccator\ 106 sins, revelation of hidden, 14 1-4 2 skepticism, toward learning and higher education, 176 skills, acquisition of, 226 slavery, 38n20,1900187 slaves, 8n26, 224 Smith, Christian, 56 snowball, explaining Scripture, 10 1 social dimension, of pentecostal spiri­ tuality, 229ni6 social engagement, escapism discon­ necting members from, 216 “social gospel,” of the main Protestant denominations, 2i4n75 social ideology, apocalypticism as, 205 socially engaged scholars, in Africa, I32ni86 sociopolitical level, of the African, 133 sola Scriptura, evangelical doctrine of, 7911213 Solivan, Samuel, 88 soul, prosperity of, 5 m 5 sound and hearing, human orality facilitated primarily by, 146 South, positive association of, i6n57 South Africa Evangelicals acceptance of Pentecostals, 55 having at least 6,000 Pentecostal churches, 20 as the most biblically literate soci­ ety on earth, 2on84 Pentecostals in, i5n56 racially integrated services, 201 South African Council of Churches, 25

Speakingfo r Ourselves (booklet), 143, 144 speaking in tongues facilitating the preaching of the gospel in all the languages of the earth, 213

3io

INDEX

speaking in tongues (continued) as initial proof of Spirit baptism as a misinterpretation, 47 as the new spiritual language of the new community, 2i2n64 remaining the most significant counter-cultural practice of Pentecostals, i65n48-66n48 Seymours first encounter with, 198 speaking-hearing, relation of, 1 12 speech, about God as provisional and conditional, 173 Spinoza, 58m 12 spiral, explaining the hermeneutical process, 100 Spirit. See also Holy Spirit; Spirit of God addressing worship and prayer along with the Father, i7 in 8 2 as agent of encounter with the holy God, i86ni67 allowing believers to partake in the life and work of the divine, 178 as always scripturally-based, 238 applying to every-day experiences and circumstances, 105-6 authority of, coming before the authority of Scripture, 180 characteristics of, i66n5i creating the context for interpretion, 237 desire for an unmediated experi­ ence with, 46 as a domesticated helper, 235 driving home the truth contained in narrative, 16 9 ,17 5 as the dunamis or the dynamic power of life, i87ni70 empowering the believing com­ munity, 178 enabling the community in the interpretive process, 185 experience of overriding hallowed Scripture, 16 1 facilitating the encounter with Christ, 157 giving authority to the written word of the Bible, 8n24

giving the charismata of glossolalia, 115 -16 guiding the community into a new understanding of God's will, 185 interpreting the biblical message in the languages of today, 186 introducing believers to God and God's actions, 159 involvement in the perlocution of text, 1 1 joined to the original texts by, 2191197 as the living presence of the sover­ eign God, i86ni67 making the knowledge of God a possibility, 60 manifesting the communion of the Father and the Son, I43n237 moving to encounter people in their needs, 244 never leading the church into “new” truths but into “all” truth, 82 not needing to follow human logic, 38n i7 as the only commodity, 144 operating in miraculous and ordi­ nary ways, 142 participation in the act of reading and interpreting the Bible, n n 3 4 persons taught by, i66n49 as the power through which the exalted Lord is present, 178 providing balanced emphases, 189 put by Moses on the seventy elders, 111 as rationality contributing to the fundamental notion of intelligi­ bility, i8 7n i70 relation to the Bible, 69 revealed Christ to the church, 179 revealing the meaning of Scripture, 78-79 revelation of God and God's power to transform lives, 241 revelatory activity of, 6 reviving the dry bones in the age of the new covenant, 178

311

INDEX

role, 145 in the faith community and world, 18 7m 70 in Paul’s Christian experience, 110 in the reading process, 232 saying more than Scripture but never in contradiction to Scrip­ ture, 192 searching everything, 87 serving as the guide, 90 serving as the ultimate arbiter of meaning and significance, 69ni65 silenced by traditional Western theology, 1950208 speaking through ordinary readers, 132018 7 using the gifts of members, 244

teaching everything, 10 in terms of the symbols of wind, water, and fire, 7711202 as transjective, 105053 using the witness of the original meaning of the Bible, 700169 using women in all ministries, 53n85 voice in the interpretative task, 238 works of made manifest through human agents, 244 yielding to, 220m 00 Spirit AICs, 15054 Spirit baptism distinct from conversion, 44 experience of, 90 interpretation of, 107 power for service, 37nio as preparation of the end-time church, 200 purposes of, 2i2n64 referring to the initiation experi­ ence, 109 representing a renewal of the day of Pentecost, 3 m l, 4 m l viewing as empowerment to do miracles, 1420236

Spirit of Christ, 53087, 228 Spirit of God. See also Holy Spirit; Spirit inspires the text by inspiring its readers, 16 1 Pentecostal hermeneutics resting on, 237 as unpredictable, 38 m 7 using human voices, 148 Spirit of justice, Spirit as, 145 spirit world, 13 8 -3 9 ,14 10 2 3 1 Spirit-churches, in Africa, 15054 Spirit-filled people, reading the Bible, 30, 219 Spirit-in-spired reading, of the Bible, 4 spiritism, describing ATR’s, 14 10 2 3 1 Spirit-led reading, consistent with apostolic witness, 11 2 Spirit-oriented movements, 214075 Spirit-type churches, in Africa, 18 ,19 spiritual democracy, women bishops playing a prominent role, 143-44 spiritual experiences, 330125, 221 spiritual illumination, 1760109 spiritual power, returning to the church of the “last days,” 215078 “spiritual reading,” of a text, 220 spiritual realm, conflict in, 38 spiritual revival, situated among the poor and marginized, 45052 spirituality affections and mind marrying in, 167 differentiating Pentecostals from other Christian traditions and spiritualities, 6ni9 forming the heart of theological endeavors, 168 needing religion, 38ni6 of Pentecostals responding to influ­ ences of the Spirit, 38 St. Charles Catholic Church, 131147 Stibbe, 190m 86 Stoicism, i02n36 subjective relationship with God, 222 subjectivism, 18 2,19 4 subjectivistic interpretation, 230

312

INDEX

subjectivity, 3 1m 19, 2 2 1-2 2 subjectivizing tendencies, 185 subsequent-empowerment language, 192 supernatural, 7 8 ,13 9 ,15 5 “supernatural” element within the community, 30 supernatural interventions, 72,94 synoptic Gospels, emphasis on, 188 synthetic manner, of interpreting the Bible, 3n9 system of knowledge, ignoring the listening processes, 184 systematic doubt, toppling the Bible, 58 n ii2 Systematic Theology (Williams), 89 technique, interpreting the text, I 3 4 n i9 8

“ Teilhabe” (gaining part of), 178 Terry, Neely, 198 Tertullian, 125, 235 testimonies about encounters with God, 75,92 colored by subjectivity, 164 described, 750193 of dramatic transformations through healing, 39 ended with an altar call, 72 at the heart of the speech about God, 160 in the hermeneutical process, 92n282 of Pentecostals, 45 sharing, 2 20m 00 truth generated by, 163 testimonium Spiritus Sancti internum (inner witness of the Holy Spirit), 158 m 2 text(s) changing people through personal engagement, 59 as communicative actions, 2191197 continuing to challenge and correct alternative interpretations, 100 conveying meanings not necessarily intended by authors, 146 engaging with, 160

experiencing, 219097 features conditioning the reading of a, 2i8n93 giving too much respect, 193 interpretation of, 12 8 ,13 6 meaning of, 1 12 ,15 9 0 1 3 providing balanced emphases, 189 reading with interests and agendas, 190 reality of the original, 219097 re-experienced by contemporary readers, 164 speaking for itself, 1 1 3 ,1 3 4 - 3 5 studying in the light of other texts, 10 1 understanding the original message of, 19 1 understood historically, 114 textuality, 14 6 ,14 7 Theism, 14 10 2 3 1,17 2 theodicy, 204 Theologia Africana, 133 theological expertise, as a substitute for direct revelation, 53 theological liberalism, pessimistic reaction to, 214075 theological schizophrenia, in the Pen­ tecostal community, 5 in 8 i theological schools, disregarding un­ trained, illiterate, or semi-literate readers, i32n i8 6 theological training, 47, 71 theological wheel, Pentecostals not reinventing, 165048 theology in abstraction from first-hand experience, 3nio based on the experiential, 15 1 based upon Scripture as the origi­ nal source, 168 best undertaken en conjuncto (“to­ gether” or “with others”), 238 as a critical reflection on the primary truth of the biblical nar­ rative, 169 defined, 86,163036 devoid of spirituality as unaccept­ able, 168

INDEX

elements conditional for good, 175 enacting of, 18 following experience, 166 giving direction to experience and praxis, 239 as a life-giving activity within the community of faith, 169 needing language, 17 1 practical in Africa, 133 representing of theological dryness, 84 serving the revelation of God to human beings, 169 of the Spirit, n n 40 starting with the divine or the hu­ man, I05n53 through songs, poems, testimonies, and dances, 76 on truth, 168 two elements conditional for good, 169 Theology of the Third Article, benefit of, i05n53 thing known, as “object,” I59ni4 “third blessing,” radical fringe posi­ tion, 37nio Third Wavers. See neo-Pentecostals “Third World.” See Global South third-wave phenomenon, 14 this-is-that approach, 243, 244 “this-is-that” hermeneutic, of Pente­ costal scholarship, 82n225 “this-worldly” challenges, serving as the hermeneutical key, 232031 time, existence of, 90 tongues, as initial evidence of Spirit baptism, 43^37 “the tongues group,” 541192 tongues speech, purposes of, 2i2n64 Torah, 117 , H 7 n ii7 , 236 Torrey, Reuben A., 37, 37nio, 63 Tower of Babel, speech confounded at, 441142 tradition(s) existing separately from the rest of the Christian church, 97 as past history, present location, and as the act of traditioning, 91

313

of Pentecostals, 163 significance of historic Christian, 241 traditional African customs, rejected by missionaries, 123 transaction, reading as, 19 1 transcendent God, 17 2 ,17 4 transdenominational fellowships, 125 transformation, agenda of, 132 translations, as already interpreta­ tions, 63 tribulation doctrine, debates over, 210 trinitarian life, 142 trinitarian relationship, of Spirit, Word, and Community as move­ ment, 237 trinitarian theology paradoxical character of, 170 Pentecostals neglecting relation aspects of, 1 4 2 ^ 3 7 - 4 3 ^ 3 7 as a theology of relationships, 170, 175 trinitarian-pneumatological approach, to pentecostal hermeneutics, 88 Trinity doctrine of, 170, i7in 8 2 of healing, prophecy, and prosper­ ity, I4in230 Trudel, Dorothea, 37 true believers (“sheep”), separated from unbelievers (“goats”), 215 true church, raptured to heaven, 215 Trump, Donald, 36n9 trust, hermeneutics of, 98 truth distinguishing between different kinds of, 58m 10 leading to life transformation, 92 located in the contribution of believers to the worship service, 163 made real in the lives of contempo­ rary readers, 169 not existing as an abstract reality, 104 postmodernisms disapproval of absolute, 169070 rational evaluation of, 30m 14

INDEX

314

truth (continued) as still unfolding, 82 truth-claims, of Israel in the Old Testament, 163-64 “twelve,” symbolizing the reconstruc­ tion of Israel, 1 1 0 - 1 1 ubuntiij 146, 228 Ukpong, Justin, 127-28 unchangeableness, of God, i89ni82 uncritical approach, not always taken seriously, 132 0 18 7 understanding. See also pre-under­ standing (Vorverstandnis) adequate and perfect, 196 aspects of, 99019 based on preconceptions or presup­ positions, 99 defined, 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 including the act of application, 1 1 3 between the interpreter and the text, 103 steps in the process of, 1400223 unfamiliar, becoming familiar, 98 United States, Evangelicals strongly outnumber Pentecostals, 29 unity of thought, pervading Africa, 136 urban religion, Pentecostalism as mainly, 41032 validation, of doctrinal truth, 158 verbal dictation, of the Spirit, 58m 1 1 verbal inerrancy, of the Bible, 68 verbalization, of words from the Bible, 14 9

“ Vergegenwartigung” (making present of), 178 vernacular Bible, 12 3,1350 20 0 vernacular translations, 122 vernacularization, 135 Vineyard churches in South Africa, i 3n47 violence, kingdom of heaven suffer­ ing, 152 voice of God, 30, 219098 voice of the Spirit, 3, io n 3i, 219 voices, inviting a response, 146-47

Wambutda, Daniel, 127 Warfield, B. B., 54n92 Waruta, Douglas, 127 wealth of unbelievers, for taking by Christians, 152 WEIRD: Western, Educated, Indus­ trialized, Rich, and Democratic,

1290174 Wesley, John revival led by, 54092 role of experience in reading and interpreting the Bible, 220099 on sanctification, 750 19 4 ,106 urged Christians to pray about biblical passages, 218096 Wesleyan Holiness Movement, 42, 42n34 Wesleyan Holiness position, 36nio Wesleyan Pentecostals, emphasizing the “second blessing,” 9T129 Wesleyan Quadrilateral, 220099 West, Gerald O., 134 West Bank, Israel’s settlement policy in, i62n29 Western atheist debate, strange in an African context, 39 Western biblical scholarship, 128-29 Western Christianity, not providing an answer to Africans, 19 Western Christians, vocabulary of “older” and “younger” churches, i 6n57 Western civilization, as WEIRD,

1290174 Western context, theologizing in, 129 Western culture, Bible as symbol of,

1220140 Western hermeneutics, 148 Western missionaries churches established by, 19 legacy of, 135 Western pentecostal scholarship, 50078 Western Pentecostalism, 150 Western theology, 148 Western worldview, 49n7i

INDEX

Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), 650142 “what the Bible says,” 186 White, Wilbert W., 940294 “wholly Other,” God as, 105053 Williams, Ernest S., 89 wisdom literature, 206 witchcraft, 153 wizardry, detecting, 142 women in all ministries, 53n85 as bishops, 143-44 disqualified from the teaching and preaching ministry, 52-53 emerging as a strong voice in the exegetical community, 134 as preachers, 212063 Women Aglow Fellowship Interna­ tional, 125 Woodworth-Etter, Maria, 37 Word of Faith teachers, teaching of popular, 27 word of God biblical text as, 10 as broader than the Bible, 8n24 empowering responses to life’s daily challenges, 149 encountering the truth described as the, 82 entire Bible as the inspired, 35 evaluation of in unanticipated cir­ cumstances, 16 1 personal involvement of the reader or listener with, 1 1 3 preached, written, and revealed, i58 n io as quick, powerful and sharper than a two-edged sword, 152 response to the transforming call of, 114

revealed in the process of reading the text, 241 words, explaining and describing expe­ rience, 173 Worker Ministry Project, of the Uni­ versity of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, 1320189 working poor, 41 works, of God not exhausting Gods person, 17 4 ,17 5 world as flat, 16057 world Christianity, center of shifted to the Global South, 16 world evangelization, 79, 215 world order, as inevitably doomed, 215 World’s Christian Fundamentals As­ sociation, 63 worldview, influencing behavior, 210 worship, 4 0 -4 1,4 5 worship services, 30, 850248,158 writing, as self-alienation, 219097 writing-reading, relation of, 112 Wyckoff, John, 112097 Wycliffe, 750194 xenolalia, 19804 xenophobia, occurrence of, 228n9 yada, 159014, i8 o n i3 i YHWH, inhabiting the prophet, 113 Yong, 9 1,10 5 0 5 3 “young woman” (Hebrew alma), n 8 n i2 3 “younger churches,” i6n57 Yun, Koo Dong, 89 Zambia, Pentecostals in, 15056 Zimbabwe, Pentecostals in, 15056 Zion Apostolic churches, 144 Zwiep, in4

315

The face of African Christianity is becoming Pentecostal. African Pentecostalism is a diverse movement, but its collective interest in baptism in the Spirit and the result of Pentecost in daily living binds it together. Pentecostals read the Bible with the expectation that the Spirit who inspired the authors will again inspire them to hear it as Gods word. They emphasize the experiential, at times at the cost of proper doctrine and practice. This book sketches an African hermeneutic that provides guidance to a diverse movement with many faces, and serves as corrective for doctrine and practice in the face of some excesses and abuses (especially in some parts of'the neo-Pentecostal movement). African Pentecostalisms contribution to the hermeneutical debate is described before three points are discussed that define it: the centrality of the Holy Spirit in reading the Bible, the eschatological lens that Pentecostals use when they read the Bible, and the faith commu­ nity as normative for the interpretation of the Bible.

“ From one o f the southern ends o f the earth, Marius Nel provides a near exhaustive engagement with the existing literature on pentecostal hermeneutics—scholars should not miss out on the feast of extensive footnotes reaching from cover to cover!—and comes up with an almost comprehensive synthesis from a southern African perspective. What emerges is a reformulation o f the classic this-is-that eschatological sensibility that bridges the scriptural text with the contemporary horizon, albeit in this case enriched with the orality and performativity characteristic o f an authentically African pentecostal movement that itself stretches back, however complicatedly, to the early twentieth-century transnational and worldwide revival.”

—AMOS YONG, Professor o f Theology & Mission, Fuller Theological Seminary “ In this carefully researched and historically sensitive book, Marius Nel recognizes that ‘deep in the soul of Pentecostalism are its African origins’ He draws together his interests in Pentecostalism and African Christi­ anity to make a wise call for a Jesus-centered hermeneutic that is Spirit led, eschatologically alert, and community based. Readers will benefit from the wealth o f information brought together here.

-W IL L IA M P. ATKINSON,

Senior Lecturer in Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies, London School of Theology

“In this book Marius Nel defines the distinctive contribution that African pentecostal hermeneutics makes to hermeneutics . . . [He] shows how orthodoxy, orthopathy, and orthopraxy are intertwined in pentecostal hermeneutics, and that interpreters o f the Bible should expect that what people in biblical times experienced with God is to be repeated in the contemporary experience.”

—FIKA J. VAN RENSBURG,

M A R IU S N EL

Professor of New Testament Studies, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, North-West University, South Africa

is Research Professor of Ecumene: Pentecostalism and Neo-Pentecostalism

at the Unit for Reformational Theology and the Development of the South African Society of North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa. He is the author of Pacifism and Pentecostals in South Africa (2018).

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