American Studies in Europe, Their History and Present Organization, Volume 2: The Smaller Western Countries, the Scandinavian Countries, the Mediterranean Nations, Eastern Europe, International Organization, and Conclusion [Reprint 2016 ed.] 9781512806915

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AMERICAN IN

STUDIES

EUROPE II

Publications of T H E

A M E R I C A N

I N S T I T U T E

U N I V E R S I T Y OF O S L O

In cooperation with the D E P A R T M E N T OF AMERICAN

CIVILIZATION

Graduate School of Arts and Sciences U N I V E R S I T Y OF PENNSYLVANIA

AMERICAN STUDIES IN EUROPE THEIR HISTORY AND PRESENT ORGANIZATION

VOL. II

SIGMUND

SKARD

Professor of Literature, especially American, University of Oslo

U N I V E R S I T Y OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA

© 1958 by the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania Published in Great Britain, India, and Pakistan by the Oxford University Press London, Bombay, and Karachi Published in Norway by Gyldendal Norsk Forlag Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 57-11986

This publication was largely subsidized by Norges Almenvitenskapelige Forskningsrid, the University of Oslo, and the Norwegian Ministry of Church and Education

Printed in Norway by A S J O H N GRIEGS BOKTRYKKERI, BERGEN

T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S VOLUME

I.

Preface Acknowledgements Table of Contents Chapter I. THE G E N E R A L B A C K G R O U N D

Page 7 14 21 25

Chapter II. T H E U N I T E D K I N G D O M (England and Wales; Scotland; Northern Ireland) 45 A. Before the First World War 45 B. T h e Inter-War Period 57 C. After 1939 71 D. Individual Institutions 103 Chapter I I I . F R A N C E A. Before 1870 B. 1870—1914 C. The In ter-War Period D. The Fourth Republic E. Individual Institutions

131 131 141 155 168 192

Chapter IV. G E R M A N Y A. Before 1870 B. The Empire • C. The Weimar Period D. The Reign of Nazism E. After 1945 F. Individual Institutions

209 209 232 256 277 291 330

VOLUME

II.

Table of Contents

363

Chapter V. T H E S M A L L E R W E S T E R N C O U N T R I E S 1. The Republic of Ireland (Eire) 2. T h e Netherlands 3. Belgium 4. Switzerland 5. Austria-Hungary

365 365 368 378 385 404

364

Table of Contents

Chapter V I . T H E S C A N D I N A V I A N C O U N T R I E S 1. Iceland 2. Denmark 3. Norway 4. Sweden 5. Finland

Page 420 420 422 428 439 453

Chapter V I I . T H E M E D I T E R R A N E A N N A T I O N S 1. Italy A. Before the Unification B. From the Unification to the First World War C. Fascism D. The Post-War Period E. Individual Institutions 2. Spain 3. Portugal 4. Greece 5. Turkey 6. Israel

462 462 462 470 478 489 506 514 529 533 537 542

Chapter V I I I . E A S T E R N E U R O P E 1. Russia A. Before 1917 B. From the Revolution to the Nazi Attack C. The Second World W a r and After 2. T h e Satellites A. The German Democratic Republic B. The Other Satellites Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Czechoslovakia Hungary Rumania Bulgaria Albania Poland

552 553 553 558 566 580 582 601 601 601 605 606 609 611 611

3. Yugoslavia

618

Chapter I X . I N T E R N A T I O N A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N

634

Chapter X . C O N C L U S I O N

639

Appendices List of Sources List of Scholars Index of Names

655 660 669 706

V. THE

SMALLER

WESTERN

COUNTRIES

Great Britain, France and Germany set the standard for American Studies in Western Europe. In spite of considerable national differences, most of the smaller countries mainly represent a variation or combination of the practices found in the educational systems of their larger neighbours. T h e nations in the North, around the Mediterranean, and in Eastern Europe naturally fall, for purposes of our discussion, into separate groups.

I. T H E

REPUBLIC OF IRELAND

(EIRE)

For several reasons, the Irish could be expected to maintain unusually close connections with the United States. Even in the eighteenth century Anglo-Irish emigration (largely from protestant Ulster) assumed considerable proportions; and beginning with the great famine in 1845—47 the Central and Southern parts of the island poured their citizens into the United States in a continuous stream. In proportion to the size of its population no other country has made a similar contribution to the settlement of North America. But there was no independent nation at home to keep u p and cultivate such ties. Until 1921, Ireland remained a part of the British realm; the political energy of the Irish was consumed in the struggle for national liberty. In this long battle, the Irish groups in the United States often showed their sympathy with the nationalists at home, or even openly supported them, but there seems to have been little direct inspiration from American traditions as such. T h e situation in Ireland was extremely complicated, not least because of the strong position of the Catholic Church. T h e attitude toward the United States, its ideology and political organization was no less mixed than that in Britain itself.

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Western Countries

Moreover, the intellectual climate of Ireland before 1921 was overwhelmingly British. In most fields of cultural life, the Irish educated class shared the ideals and views of the British. This might involve a sporadic interest in things American (an anthology of American poets appeared in Dublin as early as 1834); but the Irish too took u p the British attitude of condescension toward Americans. This attitude was rather strengthened than weakened by the existence of the Irish group in the United States. While the first Irish flow of emigration went to the rural districts of America and was surrounded by the romantic halo of pioneering, the torrent of emigrants in the nineteenth century came from the least cultivated parts of the population. They largely settled in the big American cities, and engaged in activities that often found little understanding or sympathy among their fellow countrymen at home. Any kind of American Studies, therefore, was slow in developing in Ireland. T h e school system largely followed the British pattern, which throughout the nineteenth century paid little attention to happenings across the Atlantic. There is no reason to believe that the Irish secondary schools took a different line. Neither did the universities. It was quite exceptional when, in 1915, Trinity College, Dublin announced a Vice-Chancellor's Prize Essay on American Literature. Even in research, American subjects seem to have exerted little, if any, temptation on Irish scholars, exception made for occasional essays (e. g. Edw. Dowden on Whitman, 1878). The First World War and the establishment of the Free State slowly began to change this attitude. T h e Irish Government always emphasized its cordial relations with the United States as a kind of counterpoise against its mighty British neighbour. But the cultural interplay was hampered by the intensive preoccupation with national traditions which was typical of the Free State. T h e American Literary Renaissance of the 1920's left little mark on Irish intellectual life; the contacts were too weak. In addition, the Catholic Church early began putting undesirable books on its Index; since 1951 a government-appointed Committee of Censorship with heavy Church representation has issued an annual Register of such prohibited publications. A great number of leading American literary works since the 1920's have been banned in this way, a fact which has seriously interfered with their distribution even in academic circles. Except for references in World Geography

The Republic of Ireland

(Eire)

367

or History, and occasional reading of American texts in English anthologies, American subjects seem to have played a small part in Irish secondary schools up to this day. In the universities, a change for the better seems to have begun only after 1940, and then along the same lines as were followed in British universities. Such efforts, as far as they went, were facilitated by good library resources. For a long time the University (Trinity College) Library in Dublin has been a British deposit library on a par with the leading collections in the United Kingdom, and is entitled to one copy of everything that is published in Great Britain, including all American books with British imprint. T h e Library has therefore considerable holdings of American books, particularly in the field of History, and also a good many eighteenth century works. But it is seriously deficient in general American periodicals and in modern American books that have appeared in the United States only. T h e National Library in Dublin is extremely weak in Americana. T h e Department of History at Trinity College has a collection called the Lerky Library which is based on the books that once belonged to the historian \V. E. H. Lecky and includes a small but serviceable section on American History. T h e National University of Ireland (founded 1909) consists of three constituent colleges located in Cork, Dublin and Galway. Among these, University College in Dublin has since 1951 given a regional course in American Geography (two terms, alternate years) for an average of fifteen students. No specialized course seems to be given in American History. In American Literature there has been some teaching by visitors, and at various times the College has considered the institution of a Chair of American History and Literature, but nothing has come of it as yet. No American author is included in the English syllabus, and a planned comparative course of English—Irish—American Literature has not materialized. However, a number of M. A. dissertations in English have been written on subjects dealing with American Literature. More work is being done at the old University of Dublin (Trinity College). T h e American Geography and History programmes match those of any university in the United Kingdom; important efforts are also now being made in American Literature. A course in American Map Interpretation was begun in 1936, and a General Regional Course in North American Geography (one term, for an average of twenty-five students) in 1953; there

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The Smaller Western Countries

are plans for a more detailed Geography course for Honours students. In History, there has been since 1941/42 a three-term course on "The American Revolution, 1763—89", as a special subject for final-year students. Formerly compulsory, it is now one of a number of optional courses, including a course in "Economic Relations between the British Empire and Commonwealth, 1870— 1932", which are given in the final year. Students are also required in this year to make an independent study of an approved subject, and on the list of such subjects there is one on "The Beginnings of New England". Finally, in the ordinary or Pass arts programme a two-term outline course is given on "American History to 1913". T h e course is well attended by students selecting history as one of their subjects for the Pass B. A. degree and also by Honours students in History, who are all recommended to take it before they reach their final year. In English, there is no American text in the Honours courses of the first three years, but Mark Twain's Huckleberry Fimi was for many years prescribed as a subject for essays in one of the Pass examinations. Since 1953/54 a three-terms course of Honours lectures on American Literature, particularly of the 19th and 20th centuries, has been given by visiting American lecturers. T h e recommended reading list comprises the Oxford Book of American Verse and 13 works of American fiction and drama. This course is one of a number of alternatives, in the 4th, or final year, for the B. A. examination with Honours in Modern Literature. There is little research on American Civilization in Ireland.

2. T H E

NETHERLANDS

At the time of the establishment of the American Colonies the Dutch Republic was itself a great colonial power, and Dutchmen actively participated in European settlement on the American East Coast. T h e Dutch possessions were soon absorbed by the British, but Dutch commercial interests in the New World remained. When the American Colonies declared their independence, Holland saw the advantages of assisting the new government, with credits and otherwise, and did this to such an extent that the country itself for a short period (1780—84) became involved in war with England. A treaty of amity and commerce with the United States was signed

The Netherlands

369

in 1782, and there was extensive economic intercourse even before 1800. There was also considerable curiosity among the Dutch public about the whole American experiment. This interest is evidenced by Dutch translations of a number of the great American histories (W. Robertson, 1778; G. T h . F. Raynal, 1781; D. Ramsay, 1792-94), of part of the German Chr. Ebeling's work on North America, and of many British, French and German travel records of the United States. T h e strongest incentive remained commercial, however, not political. T h e hopes entertained by some Americans that the "Old Dutch Republic" would also become a political ally in the deeper sense had little foundation. By structure, Holland was one of the most solidly conservative countries in Europe. T h e well-to-do burghers who had long been in power, saw possibilities of a profitable trade with the new American state, but had little interest in the ideological aspects of the War of Independence, and even less in the political ideals of the new repuhlic. Outside the small circle of the so-called "Patriots', Dutch pamphlets on the American Revolution show no deep sympathy, and there was no background for such feelings in Dutch society at the close of the century. In 1814, the last republic in Europe besides Switzerland quietly obliterated itself and elected a King from the House of Orange. Under the new régime a cautious liberalism soon began to raise its head, and through the nineteenth century led to a gradual democratization of both state and society. But the movement seems to have had little connection with American models or traditions; the peaceful change in 1848 certainly lacked any revolutionary fervour. America remained a non-controversial topic; outside the most conservative circles there was even a friendly attitude. But. business connections apart, there was little real contact between either governments or peoples. A certain curiosity persisted, but knowledge was scanty. It is important in this connection that Dutch emigration hardly began before the 1840's, and even at its height (1911—15) was comparatively small. Although it sometimes had a political and religious background, the emigrant movement itself had relatively small repercussions at home. Outside Calvinist circles, few Dutchmen cared about those who left, or were interested in keeping u p connections with them. From the middle of the century, exchange gradually became

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The Smaller Western Countries

more vigorous. There were Dutch investments in American railroads and banks, and reconstruction after the Civil War called for fresh capital, while a direct steamship line was established in the 1870's. Travel books became more common. Toward 1900 the leading statesman A. Kuyper went to the United States and reported his findings. There were Dutch readers for translations of the great histories of the U. S. A. (Hildreth, 1854—57; Bancroft, 1868), and efforts were made to familiarize the Dutch public with American literature. 1 But compared to the keen intellectual interchange between the Netherlands and other nations of the time, their American contacts remained tenuous. This relative lack of interest was also apparent in Dutch education. T h e schools of Holland were moulded by the traditions of the great Dutch latinists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. T h e influence from German Neo-Humanism around 1800 only added a special flavour to a school which was already dominated by the classical languages more heavily than most educational systems of contemporary Europe. In the new century, the ideas of Realism gradually made themselves felt, but they made only small inroads into the traditional syllabus. For practical reasons, English was gradually introduced into the secondary schools from about 1850, but its teaching was closely geared to the civilization of near-by Great Britain. In the universities, classical traditions were no less predominant. T h e first chair of English was established in 1886 at the University of Groningen. But no other university took a similar step until about the beginning of the First World War; and the teaching of English strictly followed the traditions of Historical Philology, with little concern with recent times.2 Some attention was early paid to American History, particularly to the Dutch colonization in the New World. G. M. Asher published his bibliography of the New Netherlands as early as 1854—67; after 1900 came the work in American Church History by A. Eekhof. There were also a few Dutch doctoral dissertations on American affairs from the 1830's on. 3 But nothing is yet known about the extent to which such interests were reflected in academic teaching. Only after the First World War did closer intellectual contacts develop, not so much because of the armed conflict, in which Holland remained neutral, but because of the growing importance of the United States in the post-war world. From 1918 to 1939

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the n u m b e r of American translations increased markedly. A liter a t u r e of p o p u l a r information began to appear, i n c l u d i n g b o t h travel books a n d American histories, o n a h i g h e r level than before. 4 Organized cultural cooperation increased a n d the establishment, in 1923, of the Netherlands-American F o u n d a t i o n , with branches on both sides of the ocean, was particularly i m p o r t a n t . I n the schools, curricula largely r e m a i n e d as before; b u t in the universities interest was clearly on the increase. Some influence was exerted in these circles by the A m e r i c a n experience of the famous historian J o h a n Huizinga, whose two books (1918 a n d 1926) saw American Civilization in world perspective. 5 A scholarly production of high quality began in the 1920s a n d 1930's, both in History and in Political Science. Most of these works were concerned with Dutch-American relations (P. J. van W i n t e r , 1927—33; J. van H i n t e , 1928; J. C. Westermann, 1935). But there were also contributions to the study of purely A m e r i c a n problems, such as M. G. Levenbach's book on American L a b o u r (1926), T . A. Bijlhouwer's on American Physical Education (1931), A. N . J. den Hollander's on the "poor whites" (1933), T . J. de Boer's on American Philosophy (1934), a n d several studies in Economics. It is probable that American History was taught with some regularity, at least in general courses, f r o m the 1930's on. Seven doctoral theses on American subjects were presented in D u t c h universities 1924—28, two of t h e m on History a n d two on Religion. I n the field of English, a second chair was established in 1913 at the Municipal University of A m s t e r d a m . T e a c h i n g began to devote more attention to recent developments, a n d literary research slowly got u n d e r way; f r o m the 1920s onwards doctoral dissertations were presented occasionally on American writers. Still, there were "few countries where the American variety of language was more completely ignored"; 6 b u t even in that field interest began to manifest itself. T h e efforts of the linguist R. W . Zandvoort deserve notice: in 1933 he called for a m o r e intensive study of American matters; f r o m the time of his a p p o i n t m e n t to the chair at G r o n i n g e n in 1937, he gave some space to American L i t e r a t u r e a n d Language in the syllabus, as well as f o u n d i n g an A m e r i c a n Institute. T A t the University of N i j m e g e n A. P o m p e n in 1941/42 a n n o u n c e d lectures on "Modern English a n d American Literature" for the candidaats examination. T h u s , some beginnings had already been m a d e when

Dutch

372

The Smaller Western Countries

interest in everything American received fresh impetus from the Second World War. This time, invaded and occupied Holland shared with the other nations within the great alliance all the hopes and enthusiasms that were connected with the United States. T h e country had its share no less in the hectic American influence after 1945; interest among the general reading public was evidenced by the publication of a popular dictionary of American English (J. Vandenbergh, 1950). There was also an effort to give additional space to American material in schools and universities. These attempts were partly hampered by the persisting traditionalism of Dutch education, but as a whole showed noteworthy results. In the Netherlands, as elsewhere, these efforts were supported by the United States Information Service and the Fulbright arrangements, which facilitated student exchange and made American visiting professors available at every level in the educational system. T h e exchange arrangements were taken over in 1946 by the Netherland-America Institute in Amsterdam, which in 1948 merged with the older Netherlands-American Foundation. T h e Summer Schools in American Studies, arranged for scholars and teachers annually since 1953, were also important; since 1954 they were open even to Belgian teachers.8 Work was facilitated by the fact that there is a great deal of American source material in Holland; the general standard of Dutch scholarly libraries is high. The centre of the library system is the Royal Library in the Hague. While it does not directly serve a university, it has extensive American holdings, which are due to systematic purchase. T h e collection of general American periodicals is modest; but there is a considerable amount of American Belles Lettres and Literary History (e. g. a good collection of Emerson, ten books by W. D. Howells, the Camden Edition of Whitman, eighteen titles by Ezra Pound and four about him, twenty books by Faulkner and three about him); and in American History the collection is impressive (at least three to four thousand volumes on the United States alone). There is also in the Hague a U. S. Information Library of 7,500 volumes. In addition, the Royal Library houses an u p to date Union Catalogue on cards of the holdings of all Dutch libraries, both books and periodicals. With the small distances and the excellent interlibrary loan system in Holland, research material is thus easily available everywhere. American Studies have made least progress in secondary edu-

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cation. T h e Dutch six-years' gymnasium largely remains a classical school. From the fifth year on, there are also other specializations, with more or less Greek and Latin according to purpose. But for the study of the Humanities at the universities the classical specialization (or a corresponding supplementary course in the classics) is still the normal preparation; and even on the Science side Greek and Latin together have more periods in classes five and six than any other subject. Since all the three great modern tongues of Western Europe are being taught in addition to Dutch, relatively little time is left for each. In all specializations, English has only two periods a week for five years, while on the classical side Greek and Latin each have six periods weekly and in the two final years respectively seven and eight, and nine and nine periods. In the same specialization, History has, in the two final years, four and two periods weekly, Geography one and none. 9 T h e time available for studies in Modern History and Geography is thus limited. In English, a high degree of language proficiency and a pronunciation as British as is humanly possible are traditional in Dutch schools. Little space is therefore left for the study of Literature and Civilization. British traditions are strong, and almost all teachers of English in Holland have studied the language by visits to Great Britain, the great neighbour across the North Sea. This taken into consideration, too much could not be expected of American Studies in the secondary schools, and no organized action seems to have been taken. 10 In World Geography and History, some knowledge of the United States is, of course, expected. In English, the teachers are at liberty to choose the texts they want the pupils to read, and most textbooks and anthologies now pay some attention to the United States. One anthology is entirely devoted to American material; another contains an American section of fifty-five pages; a third includes a survey of American Literary History. 11 More thorough work may be expected from the American exchange teachers, and the quite numerous Dutch teachers who are spending three to six months in the U. S. A. on Fulbright grants. There is, however, no indication that the study of American Civilization plays any great part in Dutch schools as yet. At the universities, the system of studies and examinations is largely uniform. In most fields, the cand.id.aats examination is a preliminary and formal test which gives no qualification for

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The Smaller Western Countries

employment; it is usually passed after a n u m b e r of small tentamina, and may take three and a half years. T h e higher doctoraal examination normally comprises a m a j o r subject (that is, a m a i n field w i t h a written essay and several other special studies) and two subsidiary subjects, each of which is expected to take half a year; the whole examination often requires t w o and one^half years. T h e doctorate (not to be confused with the doctoraal) is awarded after acceptance and publication of a dissertation. It is not a part of the ordinary examination system, b u t a purely scholarly distinction; comparatively few students actually proceed to a Ph. D. T h i s arrangement offers many possibilities for specialization, and American Studies are, through experiment, finding their place. It must be taken into account that some of the D u t c h universities are relatively small; they do not all claim to offer regular work in all fields, but to some extent divide the subjects a m o n g themselves. In Geography, the study includes a general knowledge for the candidaats examination, and f o r the doctoraal a specialization which may include N o r t h America. In History, a similar system prevails at all universities. For the more elementary examination, the History student is usually supposed to choose two special fields, and in most of the D u t c h universities there are now qualified personnel to teach a specialized course in A m e r i c a n History from time to time for this part of the examination. A further specialization on a higher level may take place for the doctoraal. A similar system is f o u n d in other fields, such as Law, and Political and Economic Science; and at some universities, both teaching and examinations in the American specialization are now provided for. In English, there is considerable variation within the one framework. For the more elementary lower examination there are usually no optional subjects; but one university (Groningen) has made some knowledge of A m e r i c a n Literature compulsory f o r the candidaats. Acquaintance with the main traits of the A m e r i c a n language is also often expected. For the doctoraal, there is usually a specialization i n L a n g u a g e o r in Literature, and for those w h o choose the latter, A m e r i c a n Literature may be involved; at one university (Nijmegen) some knowledge of the field even seems to be compulsory for the doctoraal. B u t several of the universities have no specialist in A m e r i c a n Literature o n their staffs as yet; teaching largely depends o n visitors, and has little continuity. T h e r e are also difficulties with regard to examinations. T h e n u m b e r of

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candidates who choose an American specialization is therefore relatively small. T h e most organized work is being done at Amsterdam. T h e city has a U. S. Information Library of about seven thousand volumes, and the Public Library has a good deal of modern American Belles Lettres. T h e University Library has respectable collections of recent American History, and patchy but considerable holdings in American Literature. T h e Amerika Instituut of the University has a library of about eight thousand volumes, covering the fields of geography, regional descriptions, community studies, anthropology, ethnic groups, political, social, cultural and economic history, biography, political institutions, diplomacy, social structure, social problems, statistics, labour, economics, agriculture, industry, religious life, education, folklore, travel, foreign comment, literature and the fine arts. T h e Instituut has no Belles Lettres section, but much /in the way of Literary Biography, History and Criticism, more than forty current periodicals, and important back files; most of the books in the library appeared after 1946. T h e English Seminar has received a donation of 500 dollars from the USIS and is building u p a collection of American Literature. All the holdings of the University, its institutes and seminars, are entered in the University Library Catalogue. This Union List shows considerable strength, particularly in American History (for instance, approximately twenty titles by the historians Beard), and in Literary Biography and Criticism (ten books respectively on Emerson and Hawthorne, eleven on Thoreau, and fifteen on Whitman). T h e Municipal University is influenced by its location in a commercial metropolis with strong political traditions. It is less imbued with classical and academic traditions than are the older Dutch universities. American Studies in the specialized sense began in the Department of Political and Social Sciences, where in 1947 the field of the ordinary Chair of Sociology was enlarged to include "American Studies". T h e Amerika Instituut was built u p for work in this field. In addition to a full professor, there are two assistants and one secretary in the Instituut. Besides occasional lectures, studies are organized in a general course (one hour a week) and in a colloquium (two hours a week), both running for two years. They are taught by the full professor or by visitors and cover the most various aspects of American Civilization, particularly Geography, and 2. - II

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The Smaller Western Countries

Economic and Social Life, but not Literature. T h e courses lead u p to two "preliminary" examinations in Americanistics. For the more elementary "preliminary examination for candidaats" the student is expected to attend the general course and is examined on five or six brief handbooks on U. S. Geography, History, Economy and Politics, including some special aspect in which he is personally interested. For the "preliminary examination for doctoraal" the student also has to attend the colloquium, which requires a written paper; he must also do more extensive reading, and write an examination paper on a special subject. This examination is quite Tare. Normally examinations are oral. T h e lower examination is being used as a subsidiary part of the candidaats examination in Political and Social Science, and is now passed by about one-eighth of such students. For a period it was also used as part of the doctoraal in Political and Social Science; but it is not accepted as part of the Economics or History examination. Besides its teaching activity, the Instituut also strives to be useful to Dutch-American commerce. For their doctoraal in Political Science the students have to study three foreign political systems, including that of the U. S. A. Courses are often taught by American visitors. In the English Department of the Municipal University, there is no American material in the candidaats examination. For the doctoraal the student can pass the small preliminary examination in Americanistics as a subsidiary subject; this is being recommended and is being done by about fifteen students a year (one-third to one-fourth of the candidates in English). Besides, the English Department has since 1953 made a course of American Literature optional for the literary candidates for the doctoraal. T h e course runs for two years (one and a half hours a week), with seminar papers; for his examination the student writes a brief thesis. T h e course is being given by an Assistant Lecturer; strong emphasis is placed on literary criticism. O-f the literary students of English for the doctoraal about one-third choose American Literature as their optional subject. There are plans to make the course a compulsory special subject for the doctoraal. Besides Political Science and English, there are occasional specialized courses at Amsterdam in American History and Economic History. Such courses are also offered in Law by several professors; thus, there is an annual course on Anglo-American Private Law,

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one hour weekly for two terms, followed by an examination. Students may also choose American Constitutional Law as one of the subjects for the doctoraal. T h e Free University (Calvinistic) in Amsterdam has just organized its English Department, and specialized American Studies have not yet developed. An American Visiting Professor was invited to lecture on American Language a n d Literature in 1956/57. At Groningen, the University Library has a small collection in American History (particularly on the early periods) and American Literature. T h e Anglo-American Institute of the University has a small reference library for students, based on a Rockefeller Foundation gift of one thousand dollars in 1939, and a permanent loan collection from the USIS; there is little recent literature. All Americana in the University collections are entered in the University Library catalogue; in all there may be in Groningen 250 volumes of American Belles Lettres, and about the same n u m b e r of volumes in Literary History and Criticism. As mentioned above, some American material is compulsory for the candidaats examination. T h e student is expected to read Carl van Doren's What is American Literature (1935) or, if he finds time, M. Cunliffe's The Literature of the United States (1954), in addition to at least three major American works from the nineteenth a n d twentieth centuries. American specialization for the doctoraal is extensive, b u t infrequent; by 1954 there had been only two candidates. Teaching and examinations in American and Modern British Literature are taken care of by lecturers, mostly visitors coming ever}' two or three years; since 1955, an English lecturer has taught regular American Literature courses. 12 T h e r e are occasional specialized courses in American History. At Leiden, the University Library has had some Rockefeller Foundation support; after the war visiting professors were given a sum of money to buy books in their fields. T h e collection of American History is strong, b u t the holdings of American Literature are poor with the exception of American Literary Criticism. T h e r e are few American periodicals in back files. For a few years after the war a Leiden-HarvaTd Foundation arranged an exchange of professors in American Philosophy, History, Literature, etc. Courses are also occasionally given by the ordinary professors, but specialization is not frequent. In English, only American Literary Criticism is regularly included in the material

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dealt with in certain general courses and in seminars leading u p to the candidaats examination. Provision has been made, however, to add a specialist on American Literature to the teaching staff of the University in the near future, with a view to the doctoTcuil examination. Geography is not being taught at Leiden. At Nijmegen, libraries are weak in American material, and there is little specialized teaching. For the doctoraal examination in English an outline course on classic American writers makes up part of the syllabus, and essays are sometimes written on the subject. There is no Geography Department. At the Nederlandsche Economische Hoogeschool in Rotterdam a course on the Economic and Social Geography of the United States, when given, is compulsory for the students for the candidaats examination. American material plays a considerable part in the teaching of Economics; there are also regular courses on the "History and Civilization" of the United States. At the Tilburg School of Economic and Social Sciences American material plays a considerable part in general courses of Economics. T h e University of Utrecht has no English Department at present. Specialized courses are offered in Political, Economic and Social History; in Geography, such courses are given every third or fourth year (two hours a week during one year). T h e postwar decade has seen considerable Dutch research in the American field, notably in History and Political Science. Besides a number of doctoral dissertations of high quality there are general discussions such as the books by M. V. Polak, 1946, and B. H. M. Ylekke, 1948 and 1953, general histories of the United States (Ch. H. van Aken, 1946; J. Presser, 1949), and surveys such as A. G. Kranendonk's two-volume history of American Literature (1946—47), the sociologist P. J. Bouman's Volk in Beweging (1951), P. Geyl's analysis of the Civil War (1949), P. G. J. Korteweg's book on American Foreign Policies (1951) and P. Bromberg's study of American Architecture (1946). 3. BELGIUM In Belgium as well as in the Netherlands, contacts with America date far back. T h e first Belgian settlements in the present United States were made in 1624. But these beginnings were not followed u p to the same extent.

Belgium

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Like the French, the Belgians, particularly the Walloons, were no great emigrants and the expatriates never played any real part in national life at home. Commercial ties with America were late in developing. Moreover, the nation was absorbed in its own problems of national independence and cultural homogeneity, divided as it was in language, placed "at the crossroads of Europe", and open to many influences. During the domination of successive foreign powers it often seemed dubious whether a modern Belgian state would eventually emerge. T h e reign of the enlightened Austrian monarchs was most influential, as were the following French régimes, revolutionary and Napoleonic, which left their mark on institutions, cultural ideals and intellectual atmosphere. In subsequent years, foreign influences were to reach Belgium mostly through French intermediaries. In this French impact there was also a trend of thought from the liberal philosophers and the political revolutionaries with their tinge of American ideas. T h e movement for national liberty during the union with Holland (1815—30) was connected with this background. T h e liberal constitution and the "republican monarchy" which the Belgians established after the Revolution of 1830, and which have remained the framework of their national life ever since, owed some of their characteristic traits to American models, not least the important separation of State and Church. T h e Belgian government concluded a treaty of commerce and friendship with the United States as early as 1833. But in Belgium no more than in Holland did America become a continuous force in national history. In the growth of political and social democracy, and the gradual national coalescence which was typical of Belgian development u p to 1914, the trend towards liberalism did receive some stimulus from American political life. There was a good deal of interest in American affairs, particularly at the time of the Civil War (Bancroft appeared in a Belgian translation in 1862—64); and American classics were read, as they were in contemporary France. But there was no close or fruitful contact. This was also the case in education. Like Holland, Belgium had an impressive classical tradition descending from Erasmus and Lipsius, centred around the old University of Louvain. There was also an old and strong influence exerted on the schools by the Church. For a brief period the revolutionary French authorities

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The Smaller Western Countries

established secondary Central Schools of a very progressive type. But when the French domination came to an end, the Belgian athénées and collèges returned to their traditional pattern, even more consistently than did the Dutch. There was no great practical demand in Belgium for subjects such as Modern History or English, and they played a minor part, both in the private and in the new state-organized secondary schools. Soon after 1815, three Belgian universities were established or reestablished. After various vicissitudes, the 1830's saw the final organization of state universities in Ghent and Liège and private universities in Brussels (liberal) and Louvain (catholic). In their teaching and examination system, these universities largely followed the French pattern. And like the contemporary French faculties, the universities of Belgium long remained elementary in their teaching, without intellectual ambitions, and often without real independence. Their adherence to classical traditions was even stronger than was the case in France; some lectures were still dictated in Latin far into the nineteenth century. Besides the outmoded obligatory syllabus, occasional voluntary courses were given at an early date in less stale matters. At Brussels, for instance, the teaching of English Literature began in 1849; such efforts also might involve a protest against the domination by French cultural patterns. From the 1880's the Belgian, like the French, universities were reorganized in accordance with German ideas, and modern subjects began playing a more predominant part; the study of English was organized in Departments of Germanic Languages (in Liège from 1890). But American Studies gained little benefit from this development. 13 A definite change in the situation was noticeable after the First World War. T h e Americans and their government were deeply concerned with the fate of invaded, oppressed and starving Belgium. From 1914 the Commission for Relief in Belgium (C. R. B.), directed by Herbert Hoover, played a great part in international assistance to the country. After the war, the Commission established the C. R. B. Educational Foundation (changed in 1938 to the Belgian American Educational Foundation) in New York and the Fondation Universitaire in Brussels. Considerable sums of money were given to increase the endowment funds of the Belgian universities. American financial and other support was also important in the reconstruction of war-devastated Belgian libraries, parti-

Belgium

381

cularly that of Louvain University, and in the erection of new buildings for Brussels University. The C. R. B. Educational Foundation established a system of fellowships for postgraduate students and professors between Belgium and the United States and this programme, which still continues, has brought some 800 Belgians to the United States and sent some 400 Americans to Belgium since 1920, most of them for one or two years. There was also a growing interest among the general public, as witnessed by important travel books (J.-A. (Joris: Ontdek Amerika, 1928) and more philosophical discussions (Victor Bohet: L'Europe en face de l'Amérique, 1933). This new interest also gradually made itself felt in the educational system, although there was nothing like a systematic reform. Thus, in the secondary schools, little if any attention was paid to the United States in regulations, but American passages began to appear in the anthologies for English classes, and special editions were published of Irving and Longfellow; even in Geography and History, there was probably more interest than before. Similarly, the law which in 1926 regulated the examinations and the system of compulsory courses for the licence at the universities, paid no specific attention to the United States. But more American material gradually came into the general courses, particularly in fields such as Geography and History, Economics, and Comparative Law. In English, important work was done by Victor Bohet, Professor at the University of Liège, who has already been mentioned; he often included American material in his courses on English Literature, and did much to encourage interest in the U. S. A. in Belgian universities generally. The possibility of introducing more specialized work outside the normal syllabus was offered by the elective courses which were foreseen in the regulations for the two final years of university study. For the licence, Belgian universities offer a list of "facultative" courses, which the student may choose as part of his examination; such courses are given by ordinary teachers in permanent positions. Besides, the universities also offer "free" courses, given for a year at a time, often by visitors, who usually receive no remuneration. Attendance and examination at these "free" courses mean an additional qualification; but this certificate does not form part of the ordinary licence, and for that reason the courses are not always well attended.

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During the interwar period these elective courses were sometimes used in order to introduce American material. Thus, at the Universities of Ghent and Liège E. Clark Stillman in 1935—36 gave courses on American Literature and on the English Language in America; the courses were arranged jointly by the Ministry of Public Instruction and the C. R. B. Educational Foundation. At the University of Liège, there was in 1937 a "facultative" course of Anglo-Saxon Philosophy, given by Ph. Devaux. At the Free University of Brussels, the great scholar Henri Laurent, in 1937/38, gave a "facultative" course on American Economic and Social History 1776—1936. At the same university, Françoise Dony delivered an Outline Course of American Literature in 1935—39, as Assistant at the Seminary of Germanic Philology. T h e course was financed jointly by the University and the Belgian American Educational Foundation; it was originally "free", but in 1939 was made "facultative". T h e r e were probably more courses of this type than those which are mentioned here. A few students also wrote their papers for the licence, the agrégation, and the doctorate on American subjects. T h e fellowships awarded by the Belgian American Educational Foundation were indispensable in this work, and also to a great extent in the research which developed from the late 1920's. Most of the books that appeared were in the fields of American Economy and Labour (G. Eyskens, É. Mallien, J.-Ch. Snoy, M. and P. van Zeeland) and Law (Ch. Del Marmol, P. Wigny). T h e famous educationist O. Decroly wrote on the United States, and occasional works appeared on Literature (R. Kreemers: Sinclair Lewis, 1931). At the same time it is notable that of the many fellows who went to the States, the overwhelming majority were specializing in some general subject; very few intended to study any aspect of American Civilization. 14 T h e German invasion in 1940 interrupted these beginnings. But in Belgium, as elsewhere, the war and its aftermath led to a new strengthening of interest in and sympathy for the United States. For the second time American relief played an important part; so did the U. S. Information activity and the Fulbright Foundation. But it was the experience of the fellowship-in-arms which was decisive; and after the cessation of hostilities, Belgium eagerly participated in the general cooperation of the Western powers. As a whole, the "American impact" is probably as strong in Belgium

Belgium

383

to-day as it is in any European nation, a n d the general attitude to the U. S. A. no less friendly. Even since 1945, however, these fresh sympathies have led to relatively modest results in schools and universities. T h i s fact is partly d u e to the traditionalist character of the educational system, which is "exceedingly progressive and amazingly conservative, like all things Belgian". 15 While education in Belgium remains linked to Dutch and French patterns in many ways, it still seems to lack the incentives that in those two near-by countries have lately made room for systematic American Studies. Progress is being made, b u t slowly. T h i s slowness is also connected with the fact that source material for research and more thorough American work is still patchy in Belgium. T h e country has n o National Union Catalogue; efforts to establish o n e in 1908 resulted only in a file of printed catalogues, and later attempts were interrupted in 1940; an annual list of acquisitions covers the years 1930—32 alone, and the Repertoire and the Index of periodicals in Belgian libraries are old (1927 and 1935). T h e most important collections are, however, in Brussels; and the small distances and an efficient interlibrary loan system make the resources quite easily available. But for a systematic study of American Civilization these resources still leave much to be desired. After both World Wars American relief carried many American books into Belgium. T h e Royal Library in Brussels has not inconsiderable collections of Americana, including Belles Lettres and periodicals; there is also a good-sized American Information Library in Brussels. But old American holdings are quite weak; and even in regard to recent literature, the lack of systematic studies of American Civilization in the universities is b o u n d to limit the purchases of the libraries. T o g e t h e r with those of the Netherlands, the Belgian secondary schools have probably preserved more of their classical tradition than any other European nation outside the Mediterranean orbit. Both Greek and Latin remain entrance requirements in the Faculties of Philosophy and Letters, Law, and Medicine in the universities. Much space cannot be allotted to American material u n d e r such circumstances. Nevertheless, some openings are now being made, especially in Geography a n d History. 16 In English, the recent Commission for Reform of the Secondary Schools suggested that a study of American Literature, or at least an explication of

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The Smaller Western Countries

American texts, should be made a part of the programme in the last year in school. But the plan has not yet been adopted. At the universities, plans dating from 1926 are still in force. Most curricula are crowded, and there has been little desire to add more American material. In most subjects there are still no specific compulsory American requirements, and specialized studies are therefore slow in coming. As before, few of the Belgians going on fellowships to the United States intend to make a special study of its Civilization. The development that is taking place at present follows the lines of the pre-war years: more general courses include America, more elective courses are being offered on American subjects, and the number of theses is rising. T h e most promising feature is the establishment in several universities of "free", and even "facultative" American courses on a more permanent basis. But there is still a long road ahead before such courses attain any real standing. T h e University of Brussels has not re-established its special American Outline Course, mostly for financial reasons. T h e Professor of English at Brussels has his agrégation in American Literature, and quite often directs work for theses on American subjects, even for the licence. But his teaching is almost completely concerned with British material, which alone dominates the curriculum. American History, Economy, Pedagogy, etc. are only treated in general courses. In Geography, there is a regional course on America about every second year. A "free" course in AngloSaxon Philosophy has been given twice since the war. At the University of Ghent, the Library has the beginnings of an American collection; but no specialized courses are offered on American subjects. In 1948/49 a "facultative" course was established in American Literature; it was given by J.-A. Goris as Lecturer, but has actually been delivered only once, although it is still being announced. From 1957/58 it is planned to have the chair filled by visiting professors under the Fulbright programme, covering all aspects of American Civilization. There have been a few theses on American Literature and American Economy. At the University of Liège, a course on Anglo-Saxon Philosophy can be used for examinations. In English, theses are occasionally written on American Literature, even though the subject plays no part in teaching. In 1953 the University established a lectureship in "American Literature and Civilization", to be filled at first by

Belgium

385

Fulbright visitors. T h e lecturer gives a "free" course of thirty hours per academic year; the course gives no credit towards the licence. During the first year it was attended by twenty-five students, out of one h u n d r e d and fifty students of English. T h e r e is an American collection in the University Library; a special collection of books for use in the teaching has been donated by the Fulbright Commission. At the University of Louvain, a whole year's course is sometimes devoted to American Geography and, in the Department of Political and Social Studies, to American Economy. A "free" course in American Literature was established in 1948/49; it is delivered by the Professor of Germanic Philology. Like the course in Liège, it consists of thirty hours, but is given over a period of two years; it is concludcd by an oral and/or written examination, b u t gives no credit towards the licence. Five or six students a year register for the course. Travel records and books of general information about the United States have been n u m e r o u s in Belgium since 1945; b u t research in the strict sense remains uncommon. Among the important contributions after the war should be mentioned A. Baiwir's two books on American Literature (1943, 1946), S. Tassier's book on Belgian-American Diplomatic Relations 1914—18 (1951), Jos. van der Steen's survey of the Contemporary American Novel (1954), a n d several works on Economics, including L. H. Dupriez' General Economic Movements (I—II, 1947).

4.

SWITZERLAND

T h e small independent cantons of Switzerland have old connections with the New World. Swiss settlers participated in the foundation of Jamestown (1607), and others followed in a continuous stream; between 1700 and 1750 they n u m b e r e d about 15,000. Even in the 19th century, Swiss emigrants to the States were quite numerous; a Swiss consulate had to be established in the U. S. A. as early as 1822. By their history a n d national background, moreover, the Swiss were bound to be particularly open to American influence. T h e Swiss loved their national independence, and often had to fight for it against mighty neighbours. Like the Americans, they lived

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The Smaller Western Countries

in a federation of small republics, mutually jealous of their rights, and knew the difficulties inherent in such conditions, particularly in times of stress. In most regions of Switzerland, and particularly in the old rural cantons, there was a keen democratic sentiment, and a national tradition of selfgovernment which was much akin to that of the American settlers. At the same time, several of the Swiss cantons, above all the larger cities, were governed by an old and aristocratic bourgeoisie, which was firmly entrenched and felt no inclination to share its power with others. Towards the end of the 18th century, wide sections of the Swiss population, not least the intelligentsia, longed for an extension of political and social liberties, and were open to the radical ideas of the time. Such ideas reached the Swiss in abundance. Exchange within the country itself was often slow across the language barriers; but in compensation for this, Switzerland had its doors open to the world more than most nations. By way of its French-speaking population the country shared in the growth of French Enlightenment, and through its philosophers gave birth to some of the basic ideas of the movement; the Germanspeaking sector shared to an equal extent in the cultural currents of Enlightened Germany and was imbued with a similar spirit. The French Revolution created spontaneous revolutionary movements all over Switzerland, inspired by a youthful enthusiasm that was at the same time political, social and national. This revolutionary spirit had from the very beginning a strong American element, nurtured both by the tales of Swiss emigrants and by the writings of radical philosophers; the federalistic ideas of the Americans had a much stronger appeal to the Swiss than had the extreme centralism of the French. T h e birth and growth of the new American Republic was followed with keen interest in Switzerland, particularly in Basle and Zürich with their old republican sentiments, and in French-inspired Geneva. A collection of the American Constitutions appeared in the latter city as early as 1778, and a number of Swiss revolutionary leaders referred to American sources. In the German-speaking parts of the country, the popular historian Johannes von Müller was widely read. "Of all contemporary writers, no one took a keener interest in the efforts of the American colonists", and he freely expressed the opinion that "liberalism is shifting its centre from Europe to America.' 11 In the short-lived Helvetian state (1798—1803), American influence

Switzerland

387

made itself felt at the establishment of the Constitution, particularly through the efforts of J.-J. Cart, who had himself lived in the States. A substantial scholarly contribution, too, is due to these circles. In his Tableau de la situation actuelle des États-Unis I—II (Paris 1795—96) the famous statesman Charles Pictet de Rochemont "de Genève" described the country from the geographic, economic and political points of view in a spirit of tolerance and liberalism, and praised it as "the example of the best liberty". 18 This enthusiasm was not shared by the conservatives, who gradually returned to power as the revolutionary wave subsided. T h e restoration encouraged by the Holy Alliance had its counterpart even in Switzerland; the political theorist of reaction, Karl von Haller (above, p. 211), was a Swiss, and he had no love for the American Republic. But during the 1820's the liberal movement grew in strength. In 1830—31, a bloodless revolution all over Switzerland created democratic constitutions in about half of the cantons. In this reborn liberalism, American ideas were again active. They were advocated, for instance, by the democratic politician and poet Th. Bornhauser; and they played an increasing part in the growing radicalism that was typical of the 1830's and 1840's, in close contact with contemporary movements in France and Germany. In the German-speaking regions, American models were often referred to by liberal leaders such as J . J . Riittimann (Zurich) and the more radical P. Ignaz V. Troxler (Lucerne and Berne). The famous jurist J . K. Bluntschli who later, as a professor at Heidelberg, was to become a great admirer of the American Constitution, tried in vain to strike a more cautious note, and in 1848 left the country in disappointment.19 In the French-speaking parts, the leading representative of radicalism was James Fazy, who was reared on American ideas by Lafayette himself. From 1846 onwards he governed his city as a modern "people's tribune" for a quarter of a century and became "the creator of modern Geneva". T h e Swiss Federal Constitution that was eventually adopted after a brief clash of arms in 1848, followed American patterns on many points, and its establishment in the middle of the general defeat of liberalism was felt as a victory everywhere. Even after 1848, this political interest in America continued in Switzerland. The revolutionary fervour soon died down. Within the new framework, Swiss society remained solidly bourgeois; the process of social democratization was gradual and slow, and had

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many set-backs. But liberal sympathy with the United States remained, and was not without influence. In the American Civil War, the catholic and conservative Swiss largely sided with the South. But the liberals were solidly on the side of the Union. They felt the war to be a battle for liberal ideas against international monarchic reaction headed by Napoléon III, and the victory of the North was used as a lever in the struggle for a further liberalization of the Swiss Constitution. There was also considerable awareness of American cultural life. With Germany as an intermediary, a number of Swiss journals during the first decades of the nineteenth century gave a surprisingly wide picture of contemporary literary efforts in the United States, from periodicals and Belles Lettres to the products of scholarship. 20 Continued popular interest was evidenced by books like the travel description of William Rey (L'Amérique protestante, I—II, 1857). These interests had little influence on the schools, however. T h e Swiss educational system had never had any kind of unity. There is a certain partition by language; as of old, the French-speaking cantons follow the French educational pattern, while the school organization of the German-speaking regions corresponds to that of Germany. But in detail, particularism reigns supreme; each canton arranges its schools and universities according to its own liking. From the end of the 18th century, there was a good deal of educational unrest among the Swiss, and the radical movements from the 1830's onwards brought a gradual modernization even of the schools, which was particularly marked in the large cities. But the United States did not benefit much from it. T h e classical languages have always held a strong position in Swiss education. Besides, the country itself has several official languages, of which German and French were taught widely in the schools. Notwithstanding, several cantons introduced English in Oberrealschalen and "Industrial Schools" in the 1850's and 1860's; radical Geneva even made the language optional in the collège classique as early as 1848. But this was not typical; and in any case, America certainly had little place in the teaching. The same probably held good of the teaching of Geography and History. It was exceptional when, in the 1880's, American History was mentioned specifically in the regulations for the baccalauréat in Geneva.

Switzerland

389

Quite different was the development in the field of higher studies. Before the 1830's, Switzerland had no modern university. T h e r e were institutions of higher learning (Académies) in several cities, b u t they were small and old-fashioned. About 1830, however, there was a sudden development in the German-speaking cantons, linked to the contemporary reorganization of higher education across the Rhine. New universities were established in Zurich (1833) and Berne (1834), and the old university of Basle was reorganized. A fourth institution, the international catholic university at Freiburg (bi-lingual, but German in organization) followed in 1889. At these institutions of the German type, a specialized study of the United States appeared from the 1830's or even earlier. As was the case in contemporary Germany, there was a connection between these academic studies and the political movements of the time. Some of the teachers were conservative and generally hostile to the United States. But most of them were liberals; and they were supported by the work of numerous political refugees from German universities. From the beginning, American History played a considerable part in the courses; but emphasis soon shifted to American Constitutional Law, which had equally strong political implications. T h e r e was probably more specialized teaching on this subject in Switzerland than in any other nation of the time, exception made for Germany, which was struggling with similar problems; in general courses the treatment was probably even wider. Besides, courses also began to appear in American Geography and, somewhat later, in American Literature. At Basle in the 1820's, the German-born liberal and republican Joh. Fr. Christoph Kortiim who had fought as a volunteer in the war of 1813—14, taught American History and the history of "Republicanism", and in 1829 published in Ziirich his History of the North American Revolution. His courses in "Modern History 1783—1823" certainly showed a similar tendency. After Kortiim, however, there were no specialized courses at Basle before the 1890's. At Berne, the famous conservative Karl Ludwig von Haller lectured on his political system from the early years of the century, and illustrated his ideas by reference to "the history of all republics", certainly not to their advantage. As a counterpoise, J. F. C. Kortiim taught some Modern History courses at Berne in the 1830's, before he moved back to Germany. In 1842/43, American Constitutional

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The Smaller Western Countries

Law was taught by Carl Herzog, Professor of Statistics, formerly Professor of History at Jena. In the very same year Herzog clashed with the authorities a n d had to resign his chair; he joined the "legion" and in 1845 was sentenced in Lucerne to a ten-year prison term, from which he was only saved by a démarche by the Government of Berne. T e n years later, American History was taught at the University by the radical liberal J. A. Henne, who had in a similar way been removed from his post at St. Gallen. Even later, there was almost continuous teaching of American Constitutional Law at Berne, among others by the outstanding liberal leader Gustav Vogt. Courses in American Geography were regular from the 1880's; American History was taught, among others, by the famous Germanborn scholar Alfred Stern. Freiburg before its reorganization had only the faculties of Medicine and Law. From the 1890's, American literary texts were read occasionally; there was also some teaching of American Geography. Both at this time and later, the leading position in Switzerland was held by Zürich, with regard to both the number of courses and the quality of teaching. T h e city had strong liberal traditions, which were also reflected in academic work. In addition, the influx of refugee Americanists from Germany was particularly strong at Zürich (H. Behn-Eschenburg, H. M. von Bieberstein, J. Froebel, Wilh. Schulz). Teaching began immediately after the reorganization; down to 1918 the University announced about fifty specialized courses on various aspects of American Civilization. T h e strongest subject was History, represented by men like the well-known liberal and national historian J. J. Hottinger, the German Max Büdinger, J. J. Müller, and after 1900, the renowned Eduard Fueter. But there was also continuous work in American Federal Law, notably by J. J. R ü t t i m a n n and by Gustav Vogt (who moved to Zürich as Professor of Democratic Constitutional Law), and in American Geography and Economy. In American Literature, courses on Benjamin Franklin were given twice in the 1860's and 1870's, a general outline course in 1888—89 by T h . Vetter, formerly a Harvard librarian, and another, in 1900—1901, by the Americanborn comparative scholar L.-P. Betz. In addition, almost forty courses on various aspects of American Civilization were given between the 1850's and the First World War at the Technische Hochschule in Zürich, the only federal

Switzerland

391

university of Switzerland, founded in 1854. Often these courses duplicated those given at the University; in any case, they were hardly more than an "intellectual dessert". Notwithstanding, they give evidence both of general interest and of liberal tendencies. Among the teachers from the 1860's onwards was the German-born "48er" and refugee Johannes Scherr, who also published several books on America; his courses were known for their "violent and polemical" note. 21 Alfred Stern was Professor at the Hochschule 1887—1928. As a whole, this American work in Zurich compares favourably with that in any other European university city of the period. A similar development took place, although more sporadically, in the French-speaking cantons. At Geneva, the Académie had old connections with the United States. During the revolutionary turmoil, the idea of moving the institution to the United States as the nucleus of an American university was discussed in earnest with Thomas Jefferson in 1794; but lasting ties were not established. Under the radical government from 1846 onwards, America came into the picture again. Toward the end of his life, James Fazy himself taught at the Académie, and throughout his régime did much to modernize it, and particularly to develop political studies. In 1852 he called from Paris as Professor of Roman (later International) Law the French scholar Alexandre Laya, author of a great work on English Law (1845) and France et Amérique, ou des Institutions républicaines (1850). Laya began his activity at Geneva by giving "facultative" courses in 1852—54 on English and American Law. T h e courses covered not only comparative legislation and institutions in the widest sense, but also "the economic, industrial and commercial movement of the two nations, and their influence on the monarchic or republican states in the 19th century". After the reorganization of the Académie as a University in 1874, American subjects also began to appear in its requirements, in accordance with the French system. Thus, the American Revolution was on the programme for the licence in History and the American Constitution in Constitutional Law in 1880; an American subject was on the History list again in 1897, and Edgar Allan Poe figured among the few prescribed texts for the English licence in 1889, 1900-02, 1907 and 1909. In teaching, the emphasis was 3 . • II

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The Smaller Western Countries

on Constitutional Law, where the most important scholar was Ch. Borgeaud, formerly of the École libre des sciences politiques in Paris. There was also occasional teaching of American Literature. 22 T h e two smaller Académies in French-speaking Switzerland, Lausanne and Neuchâtel, were only turned into universities in the 1890's. Before that, they had had extremely small means of existence; nevertheless, there were early examples of interest in the U. S. A. Thus, at Neuchâtel, courses were offered in Comparative Statistics (including America) in the 1860's; and in the 1870's and 1880's, the Académie established a surprising programme for the study of American Literary and Intellectual History. T h e list for the licence in English Literature included, under a separate American heading, Franklin's Autobiography and Washington Irving's Sketch-Book; the Lyrical Poets Bryant and Longfellow; the Songwriters of America (G. P. Morris); the Novelists Irving, Cooper, Hawthorne and H. B. Stowe; and the Historians Irving, Prescott, Motley, Bancroft and Ticknor. In the similar list for the licence in Modern General and Comparative Literature, North America was represented by Cooper (five novels), Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, and Motley. For the licence in History, there was a special reference as well.23 Even if these requirements were partly "facultative", they had few parallels in contemporary Europe. At the same time, no American courses were apparently to correspond to these requirements. It is probable, however, that the courses which actually began to appear from the 1890's, both at Lausanne and at Neuchâtel, corresponded even if only partly to certain American requirements in the reorganized programmes for the licence. Doctoral theses were written once in a while; thus, a dissertation on the American Historical Novel was presented at Lausanne in 1905. There were occasional studies in American Philosophy, like T h . Flournoy's book on W. James (1911). Emphasis in research was, however, on Politics and Constitutional Law, where divergent views did not prevent a discussion on a high level even outside the universities, from I. P. V. Troxler's book on the American Constitution as "Musterbild" (1848) to Ph. A. von Segesser's more conservative estimate (1866). T h e outstanding Swiss contribution was J. J. Ruttimann's Das nordamerikanische Bundesstaatsrecht verglichen mit den politischen Einrichtungen der Schweiz I—II

Switzerland

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(1867—76); later in the century a similar work was written by Ch. Borgeaud (1893). An American History by J.-A. Astii appeared in 1865. Basle. 1821/22: J. Fr. C. Kortiim (Origin and Growth of the Swiss, Belgian and American Confederate States). 1825/26, 1826, 1826/27: id. (Political and Social Development of Great Britain under the Stuarts, and of North America during the War of Independence, with an Outline of the Constitutions of both States). 1828/29, 1829: id. (Outline of the History of Germanic and Romance Republicanism from the 12th Century to the Liberation of South America). 1891/92, 1892/93: Edm. Bernatzik (Swiss, German and American Federal Law). 1893, 1893/94: Rud. Thommen (History). 1917/18: E. Stähelin (Church History). 1918: S. Bauer (Economic History). 1918/19: H. Hassinger (Geography). Berne. 1842/43: C. Herzog (Constitution). 1846/47, 1847/48: Fr. Stettler (Swiss, German and American Federal Law). 1852/53: J. A. Henne (The North-American Colonies and their Liberation). 1854/55: J. Lerch (Constitutional Law in Switzerland, compared to that of England and North America). 1856: Lektor Charles Hahn (reading of Irving). 1857, 1857/58, 1859/60: Gustav Vogt (Swiss and American Federal Law). 1860: T h . Delhorbe-Duplan (Mormonism, Darbyism, Irvingism). 1868/69: J. S. Gerster (Geography and Statistics). 1869: A. Dunoyer (History). 1871/72: Em. Acollas (Constitutions of the French Revolutionary Period, the United States and Switzerland). 1875/76, 1882: Alfred Stern (Origin of the U.S.A.). 1887: Ed. Petri (America, Countries and Nations). 1892-1900: Ed. Brückner (3 courses on Geography). 1896 - 1911/12: J. Sieber (14 courses on American and Swiss Constitutional Law, and on the American Constitution). 1906: Alfr. Philippson (Geography). 1909: Max Friederichsen (Geography). 1910 — 1917: Hermann Walser (3 courses on Geography). 1914/15: Fritz Nussbaum (Morphology). Freiburg. 1891/92, 1898/99, 1899-1900: Franz Steffens (reading of Emerson and Longfellow). 1899 - 1905: Jean Brunhes (4 courses on Geography). 1899 - 1906: Martin Pedrazzini (3 courses on Comparative Public Law of France, the U. S. A. and Switzerland). 1912: Max Turmann (Economic History). 1914/15: Hans Schorer (Economic and Social Statistics). 1915/16 — 1918/19: Paul Girardin (3 courses on Geography). Geneva. 1852/53, 1853/54: Alex. Laya (English and American Law). 1898/99, 1905: t. Redard (reading of Poe). 1899/1900 — 1913/14: Ch. Borgeaud (numerous courses on Comparative Constitutional Law, incl. the United States). 1904/05: L. Wuarin (Social Movement in the U.S.A., Travel Notes). 1905 — 1914: W. Rosier (5 courses on Comparative Geography). 1915: Fr. Abauzit (Morals of W. James). 1916: W. E. Rappard (American Economy). 1918/19: Rob. Mobbs (Some English and American Writers, including Whitman). Lausanne. 1894, 1918/19: Alex. Maurer (reading of Emerson: English Traits). 1898/99: Henri Narbel (Missions in America and Polynesia). 1904: Fr. Guex (Comparative Pedagogy). 1909: J. Brunhes (Irrigated Zones, including the Far West). 1909/10 — 1912/13: Eugene Cordey (4 courses of General Public Law, incl. the U.S.A.). Neuchdtel. 1867, 1870/71: C. Ayer (Comparative Statistics of the Principal States in Europe and America). 1892/93 — 1915/16: Ch. Knapp (6 courses on Geography). 1895/96 — 1911/12: E. Junod (several courses on Industry, Agriculture, Population and the Socialist Catholic Movement in Europe and the U.S.A.). 1902, 1904: J.-A. Swallow (Longfellow and other American Poets). 1910—1916: id. (3 courses on American Literature). Zürich. University. 1834: J. J. Hottinger (History). 1837 ff.: Wilh. Schulz (several courses on Constitution and Administration in the European-American System of States). 1841/42: J. Froebel (Geography). 1851: H. Marschall von Bieberstein (Comparative Constitutional Law); id. (Comparative Cultural Statistics). 1854: J. J. Rüttimann (Outline of English-American Processual Civil Law). 1854, 1854/55: Fr. Gidoni (Europe and America, Slavery and Liberty). 1855, 1858: J. J. Rüttimann (Comparison of North American and Swiss Federal Law). 1858/59: H. M. von Bieberstein (Comparative Commercial Statistics). 1859/60 - 1865/66: J. J. Rüttimann (4 courses on the Federal Law of the U. S. A ). 1866: H. Behn-Eschenburg (Life and Works of B. Franklin). 1870: Max Büdinger (History). 1874/75: J. J. Müller (History). 1875/76:

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id. (History of Slavery in North America). 1876: id. (BiogTaphy of Franklin with Reading of Sources). 1879—1883/84: J. J. Egli (3 courses on America, Country, Nation and Civilization). 1885/86: Aug. Sartorius von Waltershausen (Economy). 1885/86 — 1907: Otto Stoll (8 courses on Geography). 1886 — 1888/89: J. J. Egli (2 courses on Germanic, two on Romance America). 1887: Gustav Vogt (Comparative Constitutional Law). 1888/89, 1889: T h . Vetter (History of the English Literature in the U.S.A.; Contemporary North American Literature). 1890, 1892: Gustav Vogt (American and Swiss Democracy). 1892/93: Emilie Kempin (Anglo-American Processual Civil Law). 1900, 1901: L.-P. Betz (History of the Literature of North America and its Foreign Relations). 1905/06 — 1917/18: Eduard Fueter (6 courses on American History). 1914: A. K. Kuhn, Vis. Prof. (Anglo-American Jurisprudence Compared to that of Continental Europe). 1917/18: Hans Wehrli (Geography). Technische Hochschule. 1858 — 1872/73: J. J. Rüttimann (5 courses on U. S. Federal Law, 1 on the Federal Law of Switzerland, Germany and North America). 1862/63 — 1886: Johs. Scherr (5 courses on the Discovery, Conquest, Colonization and History of America to the Present Time, 5 similar courses "with Particular Reference to the U.S.A."). 1866: H. Behn-Eschenburg (B. Franklin). 1879, 1881, 1883/84: J. J. Egli (Geography of America). 1887/88, 1890/91: Alfred Stern (Origin and Development of the U. S. A.). 1888: A. Baumgartner (Longfellow's Hiawatha). 1888/89: A. Petit (European Colonization in the 19th Century in America and the Pacific). 1888/89, 1889: Th. Vetter (American Literature). 1889: A. Petit (Economic Geography — Italy, the U. S. A.). 1889/90: A. Baumgarten (W. Irving). 1892: G. Rossignol (History and Geography of the U. S. A. since 1860). 1897 — 1917/18: A. Guilland (7 courses on Country, Life and Mores of the U. S. A.). 1907/08: Fr. W. Foerster (Pedagogy). 1912/13: F. Heinemann (America's Part in the Progress of Modern Technology).

For neutral Switzerland, the First World War did not mean as much to its relations with America as it did for other countries. Nevertheless, the increasing might of the United States made itself felt. The League of Nations made Geneva a centre of international cooperation and intensified political studies. The American literary expansion in the 1920's influenced the Swiss no less than it did their great neighbours. This interest even made itself felt in the secondary schools. In regulations, little was apparently said about America, even in the plans for English; in most classical gymnasia, the language remained optional only. But American material began to creep into the English anthologies, or a few of them; teachers with special interests are known to have given quite extensive courses on the subject, with written work by the pupils. Similar efforts may have occurred in other fields, even if they remained rare.24 At the universities, there was more of a definite movement. In the French-speaking regions, American material continued to be included occasionally in the cantonal lists for the licence. Thus, at Lausanne, Pragmatism and W. James figured under Philosophy in 1925—28; in 1929, Hawthorne, Poe, Whitman and Robert Frost were part of a list of ten subjects from which the student of English had to choose two for special preparation. At Geneva,

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Longfellow: Evangeline and Emerson: Essays or Poems were on the list of 9 to 10 compulsory texts for the English licence in most of the years 1919—24. More important, America began to appear in the general requirements for future teachers in the Germanspeaking region. Thus, the Wegleitung in the Canton of Basle in 1939 mentioned for English "the political and social history of England and America" and demanded from the candidates "more than before a good knowledge of the modern Anglo-Saxon World". T h e similar Wegleitung in Zürich in 1941 listed among compulsory requirements "a long stay in an English-speaking country" and a knowledge of "the History of Modern English and American Literature". Most of the universities made no such provisions, however. Their American work was largely dependent on the amount of teaching; here progress was uneven, but definite, beginning during the war itself. T h e small universities of the French-speaking cantons remained weak in the American field, and so did Berne. Basle was relatively stronger; here G. Hübener taught American Literature repeatedly in the late 1920's; in 1930 he was succeeded by H. Lüdeke, who began building u p an American collection in the English Seminar Library. 25 At Freiburg, there was regular teaching of American Economic History in the 1930's by H. Schorer and M. Turmann. At Geneva, the University organized quite extensive studies of American Economy and Politics (Ch. A. Burky, W. E. Rappard), and Language and Literature (A. Velleman, L.-F. Choisy). But the centre of studies remained Zürich, where the University during the inter-war period announced almost as many specialized courses on America as it had done during the previous ninety years. American History and Literature particularly were represented in the lecture lists continuously from the early 1930's by Max Silberschmidt and H. Straumann; the former began his career as Privatdozent in Anglo-Saxon History. There was also a good deal of American teaching at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, and even at the Handelshochschule in St. Gallen. T h e relative rarity of university courses on American subjects in the French-speaking regions makes it improbable that such material figured very often in the examinations. Such was the case even at Geneva, where teaching was more frequent. T h e universities of the German-speaking section continued to follow the German system of voluntary specialization. It is probable that in some of

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them, at least, American material played a part corresponding to the number of courses, particularly in Geography, History, and English; a relatively large number of the courses was given by full professors. In Law, some of the courses probably aimed at the doctorate. In spite of library difficulties, a few doctoral theses were presented on American subjects, — from 1928 to 1944/45 in all 32 (eleven in Economics, nine in Law, five in Political Science, three in History, two each in Theology and Literature).28 Basle. 1926—29: G. Hübener (4 courses on American Literature and Civilization). 1929/30 — 1941/42: F. Jaeger (3 courses on Geography). 1930: S. Bauer (Economic and Financial Problems). 1931—1945: H. Liideke (8 courses on American Literature). 1932: Karl Jost (reading of T h . Dreiser). 1938, 1943: Fr. Voechting (Agrarian Policies). 1941: H. Gauss (W. James and Pragmatism). 1941/42, 1944/45: R. Stamm (The Modern American Novel; E. O'Neill). Berne. 1921—33: F. Nussbaum (4 courses on Morphology and Geography). 1924/25 - 1939: R. Zeller (5 courses on Geology and Geography). 1935/36 - 1943/44: W. Staub (5 courses on Geology and Geography). 1938: W. P. iriederich, Vis. Prof. (2 courses on American Literature, and on its Relations to German and English Literature). Freiburg. 1919—1931: Hans Schorer (9 courses on American Economy and Social Life). 1919/20 — 1935: M. T u r m a n n (11 courses on American Economic HistoryV 1923/24 — 1943/44: P. Girardin (6 courses on Geography). 1934, 1941: F. Benett (reading of W. Cather and P. S. Buck). Geneva. 1919 ff.: W. E. Rappard (several courses on American Foreign Policy and Economic Development). 1921: Alb. Malche (Education). 1921/22, 1927/28: H. Reverdin (W. James). 1921/22 — 1935/36: Ch. Borgeaud (8 courscs on Comparative Constitutional Law). 1921/22 — 1940/41: A. Velleman (17 practical language courses, with reading of Emerson, John Fiske, Franklin, H. George, W. Irving. S. Lewis, U. Sinclair, W. Wilson, A. G. Winslow, and the American Constitution). 1922 - 1923/24: L.-F. Choisy (3 readings of Emerson: Poems and Essays). 1924: id. (American Poets and Thinkers: Emerson, Poe, Longfellow. Reading of Emerson). 1925, 1931, 1932: id. (2 lecture courses on Poe, I on Emerson). 1930: E. Dirobert (American Protectionism). 1935/36: L.-F. Choisy (The American Poets, from Poe to Whitman). 1936, 1941: Ch. A. Burky (Economic Problems). 1937/38: L. Ledermann (The Economic Experiment of F. D. Roosevelt). 1939: id. (Econ. History of the U. S. A.). 1939/40, 1945: L. Dunand (Economy). 1941/42 — 1945: A. Velleman (4 courses on American History. 4 on the American Constitution at the Interpreters' School). Lausanne. 1919 ff.: Alex. Maurer (several courses on "Anglo-American Literature", b u t with little emphasis on America). 1920/21: id. (Carlyle and Emerson). 1926: Ch. Biermann (Geography). Neuchdtel. 1919/20: E. Farny (History). 1924/25 - 1935/36: E. Junod (7 courses on Economy). 1925: Ch. Biermann (Geography). 1926/27, 1927: G.-A. Bieneman (American Literature). St. Gallen. Handelshochschule. Several courses and discussions on American subjects, readings of American Literature, etc. (particularly by M. Wildi). Zürich. University. 1919/20, 1921/22: Eduard Fueter (History). 1922, 1924: C. E. D. Schindler (American and Swiss Federal Law). 1922/23: W. A. Braun, Vis. Prof. (Intellectual and Social Tendencies in the U. S. A.). 1924/25 — 1940: Hans Bernhard (6 courses on Geography, 1 on Economy). 1925/26 - 1938/39: H. Wehrli (5 courses on Geography). 1932—1945: M. Silberschmidt (13 courses on American Political and Economic History). 1936—1944: H. Straumann (12 courses on American Literature). 1940/41 — 1944: Hans Boesch (4 courses on Geography). 1944: Adolf Keller (Church and Theology in American Protestantism). Technische Hochschule. 1920—1931/32: F. Heinemann (5 courses on the Development of North American Technology and Civilization; Exchange in the Fields of Technology and Sociology between Europe and America; Europe as a Source of North

Switzerland

397

American Technology and Civilization). 1921/22 —1928: A. Guilland (3 courses on American Civilization and History). 1923/24: H. Schoop (Problems in American Politics and Civilization). 1924/25: id. (American Democracy). 1933, 1944/45: Ch. Clerc (America in French Literature and Thought). 1934/35 - 1944/45: W. Pfandler (8 courses on English and American Literature — specifically American Novelists of To-Day, and readings of P. S. Buck). 1938 — 1939/40: T h . L. Robinson, Vis. Prof. (3 courses on American History and Economy). 1941/42: O. Weiss (American History Since 1789). 1943, 1944/45: J. R. de Salis (American History; Great British and American Statesmen of Recent Times).

T h e Second World War gave added impetus to Swiss interest in the United States. In spite of their neutrality, the sympathy of the Swiss was overwhelmingly on the side of the Anti-Axis coalition. After the war, their attitude remained friendly, and much has been done to promote cultural exchange. At the same time, there are also negative factors. T h e Swiss are neutral by principle. They are wary of anything that may smack of foreign propaganda, and are careful not to display a particular bias toward any of the great Western powers. In matters of culture, their taste remains conservative. T h e United States Government and its agencies have, for the same reasons, approached Switzerland after the war with much caution, both financially and otherwise. One of the problems of American work, in Switzerland as everywhere, is the relative weakness of facilities for research. Few Swiss libraries have ever specialized systematically in any branch of American Studies, and there are consequently great lacunae. In 1945, a representative committee was organized with the purpose of establishing a large American research library in Switzerland. T h e institution was planned not only as a collection of books (if possible, 200,000 volumes), but as an international centre of information, with courses, exhibitions, fellowships, and travelling lecturers; it was to serve Switzerland, Central and Eastern Europe, the Danube fiasin and the Balkans. Unfortunately, postwar developments and the bipartition of Europe frustrated these plans, and a renewed attempt in 1955 led to no definite results. T h e library situation is also influenced by the fact that the U. S. Government has not seen fit to build up in Switzerland any information service comparable to that which is working in the former belligerent countries. T h e USIS libraries in Berne and Zlirich were dissolved soon after the war and the books distributed among the university libraries. As a compensation, the scholar can easily find his way to the resources for American Studies that actually are available. Because of its extreme decentralization, Switzerland is in particular need

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The Smaller Western Countries

of a Union Catalogue; the first plans for such an undertaking date back to the year 1800. A number of local catalogues are now in existence; in addition, a National Union Catalogue has been functioning at the National Library in Berne since the 1920's. There is an annual printed Bulletin of the acquisitions of Swiss libraries; a Union List of foreign periodicals after 1900 appeared in its latest edition in 1955. T h i s notwithstanding, systematic American Studies are still developing less consistently in post-war Switzerland than in many other countries. This is partly due to the very lack of centralization. In secondary schools, the number of teachers with American interests is doubtless much higher now than before the war; quite a few teachers have themselves visited the United States. An increasing amount of material is available for teaching purposes, in special collections of American texts, and in anthologies, Swiss and foreign-made; whole books by American authors (Mark Twain, Steinbeck, Hemingway, P. S. Buck) are sometimes read in class or at home. Even in Geography and History, opportunities are open for more intensive work.27 But there is no coordinated effort; as before, the individual cantons, schools or teachers are on their own. Syllabuses remain crowded not least in the hours available for English. There may also, in many Swiss schools, be a cautious or sceptical attitude toward the United States and its claims to attention, which is bound to influence teaching, particularly in English. In some quarters, at least, this situation is felt as unfortunate. At the 1952 meeting of the National Association of Swiss Secondary School Teachers appeals were made for a general change, at least in regard to English; it was also demanded that American pronunciation receive a certain recognition in school. T h e attitude of the teachers was largely sympathetic; but the demands are modest and reforms slow. In the article on English teaching in the Swiss Dictionary of Pedagogy (1950), the author mentions as "desirable that even America be considered" in the secondary schools and that "on the Oberstufe a couple of weeks, at least, be devoted to Amerikakunde",2S But this pious wish was not accompanied by any mention of a single selection for reading. At the universities, the situation is more hopeful. As before, there are great local differences in both quality and quantity. There is no concerted action, and conservatism of various types is not

Switzerland

399

unknown. Nevertheless, the change of atmosphere after the war is striking. T h e place accorded to American material in the regulations at some of the French-speaking universities is encouraging. Even more important is the growth of American teaching by nationals, particularly in the German-speaking regions. There are still no specialized permanent chairs. But in most of the Swiss universities, one or more of the full chairs in general subjects are now held by competent Americanists. There can be no doubt that their work will gradually strengthen the importance of American material both in specialization and in general requirements. At Basle, the University Library, the largest library in Switzerland, has considerable but uneven American holdings; generaJ American periodicals are few. There is a useful collection of American Literature in the English Seminar (perhaps 300 volumes of texts, and some History and Criticism). The University offers American teaching in Geography, Economics, Political Science, and Law, but emphasis is on American History and Literature, which have been taught quite regularly after the war; the total of specialized courses in all fields in 1945/46 — 1956 was 19. In the higher state examination for secondary school teachers in English at Basle, the student chooses two authors for special study, and here American material may come in; but only a small proportion of the students pass the higher examination. At Berne, the National Library (Landesbibliothek) has a special American collection of about 1,500 volumes, selected by the American Library Association and donated by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1939. T h e collection covers all aspects of American Civilization with the emphasis on Belles Lettres and Literary History (more than 300 volumes), History, Politics and Economy; a printed catalogue of the collection was published in 1942. T h e Library of the Federal Parliament (Eidgenössische Zentralbibliothek) has some American Government publications. T h e City and University Library received an American donation, mostly of periodicals, thirty years ago, but the collection has not been developed; the holdings of books with reference to American Civilization are miserable (there is no text of Dreiser, Robert Frost or Melville in English). T h e English Seminar of the University has about 150 American volumes, the Historical Seminar is receiving the great edition of Jefferson. Since 1945 the University has offered quite regular teaching in

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The Smaller Western Countries

American Geography, a course on American Constitutional Law every two years, and occasional courses in American Literature, History and Sociology; the total of courses 1945/46 — 1956 was 23. In English, a number of courses were given by a Lehrbeauftragter in Recent English and American Literature who mostly taught American subjects. In 1956, he was appointed full professor of English, and in the future intends to lecture on American Literature "with a certain regularity". Before his appointment, specialization in American Literature was "exceptional"; that may change from now on. Doctoral theses on American subjects in 1945—54 averaged about one a year. At Freiburg, the International Catholic University has close connections with the United States, and receives many American students, particularly at its summer schools, which began in 1949. T h e Canton and University Library has a small collection of American books (perhaps 500 volumes) which was taken over from the USIS Library in Berne; there are hardly any general American periodicals. About 150 of the volumes are in die English Seminar. In 1953—55 the University had a visitor as charge-de-cours in American Civilization and Literature; his courses were attended by about 30 students, but were of small importance in the English examination. A course in American Democracy (given in cooperation with the History professor) was used for the examination in History; the same held good for some courses in the Geography Department. T h e total of specialized courses in 1950/51 — 1956 was 16. Through the years a number of doctoral dissertations at Freiburg have touched upon the United States, but most of them were written by foreigners. At Geneva, the University Library has uneven holdings in American Literature and History, and few general periodicals (but a complete set of Kenyon Review). T h e main collection of Americana in Geneva is in the United Nations Library, which was founded in 1927 by a donation from John D. Rockefeller, J r . as "a world centre for the study of international questions"; it was taken over by the United Nations in 1946. T h e Library contains about 450,000 volumes of books and receives about 2,500 current periodicals. It contains a comprehensive collection of statistical publications and law texts, including the largest collection of American Government publications in Europe, and much material on American Geo-

Switzerland

401

graphy, History, Economy, Financial and Social affairs, and general reference works. After the war, American teaching has been rare in the University; the few courses on American Geography, History, Politics, and Literature were mostly given by visitors and Privatdozents. In English, American material has no regular place in the licence, although the students may choose some American texts as a specialization or write a dissertation on an American subject. T h e School of Interpreters of the University has long been offering regular elementary courses (usually two or three per term) on American Geography and History and on the American Constitution. About 50 specialized American courses were given at the University in 1946—56. In addition, the Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales, which was founded with American money, offers frequent courses, by Swiss scholars and American visitors, on various aspects of American Civilization. At Lausanne, the Canton and University Library may have about 1.000 volumes of Americana (400 on American History, 150 on American Literature), and hardly any American general periodicals. T h e Library of the Faculty of Letters (30,000 volumes) has less than 100 American books; the Library of the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences has some recent American Sociology. Since 1947 the study of American Literature has been compulsory for the licence in English. For the lower degree (diplôme d'état) the student in his first, elementary, examination has the choice between one British and one American author in Modern English Literature; for his paper in the second examination he has the choice between two subjects from British and one from American Litera ture. For the higher degree (diplôme d'université), one American work is compulsory in the programme; in the written examination, the student has the choice between three British and one American subjects. In the orals it is decided by drawing lots whether the student will be examined in English or American texts. At intervals, American History is in the programme for the "examen préalable" in accordance with the French system. Courses of American Literature were given regularly from 1947 to 1955 by a chargé-de-cours; from 1956, he is continuing his teaching as full professor of English. In addition, some courses are given on American History and Politics. T h e total number of American courses in 1946—56 was 19.

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The Smaller Western Countries

At Neuchatel, the Public and University Library has miserable American holdings, as has the English Seminar; few American literary texts are available at Neuchatel. But the University has a chair of "English Language and Literature, Anglo-Saxon Economic and Political Institutions", and since 1947 the Professor has given regular courses on the American Constitution (in the Departments of Law, and of Commercial, Economic and Social Studies) and on American Literature and Civilization. In the English examination he "always requires a knowledge of the chief American authors, at least three or four". Occasional courses on other aspects of American Civilization are used for examinations in the terms when they are given. T h e total of American courses in 1947—56 was 17. At St. Gallen, the Handelshochschule requires the study of two foreign languages. Up to 1956, the Professor of English Language and Literature was a specialist in American Literature; he offered frequent courses on the subject, and permitted students to specialize in it. Courses are also given in American Geography and Law, and doctoral dissertations on American subjects are to be found. At Zürich, the Zentralbibliothek, which is also the University Library and the second largest library in the country, has an American collection of some two thousand volumes donated by the Carnegie Foundation after the First World War. It is supplemented by collections of Americana in the Museumsgesellschaft, and in the English Department and the Institute of Geography at the University. T h e American holdings of the Library of the Technische Hochschule are insignificant. The Catalogue of the Zentralbibliothek is a Union Catalogue for all libraries in Zürich. The city has strong collections in American Political, Social and Economic History, and even in American Belles Lettres, Literary History and Criticism (21 English titles by Dreiser, more than 30 by Howells, 7 by F. O. Matthiessen). T h e holdings of general American periodicals are weak (but American Literature is complete). Teaching at the University remains extensive. In the period between 1945/46 and 1956 fifty specialized courses were given, and the coverage was wide (American History and Economic History 19, Literature and Language 12, Law 8, Geography 5, Religion 4, Education 2). As before, emphasis was on American History and Literature. In History, there are two examining professors in the

Switzerland

403

Modern period, and one of them is a specialist in American History; the students have the choice of being examined by one or the other, and specialize accordingly. "British and American History, including Colonial History" can be taken as a minor subject both for the "Lizenciat" and the doctorate in History. In English, all students expect to be asked general questions about American Literature in the examinations, and the reading of at least two American novels is compulsory in the proseminar; about one-tenth of the students specialize in American Literature, using the courses they have attended. In the doctorate in English, American Studies can not be used as an independent subject. Since the war, about one thesis a year on an average has been presented in the field of American Civilization. T h e Technische Hochschule in Zürich traditionally offers a good deal of American teaching in its Department of the Humanities. From 1945/46 to 1956 19 specialized courses were given on American Philosophy, Literature, and particularly History. T h e courses are optional. Doctoral work in Switzerland is still hampered by travel difficulties; there is no Fulbright Foundation. This is especially felt in English, where it is usually expected that the student should spend some time in the country of his specialization. In Law, Economics, and also in History, the amount of doctoral work is nevertheless considerable and much exceeds that of the inter-war period. During the years 1950—54, 23 theses were presented (seven at Zürich, six ar Berne, three each at Freiburg and Geneva, one each at Basle, Lausanne, Neuchätel and St. Gallen). Seven of these dissertations were on American Law, six each on Economics and History, two on Language and Literature, and one each on Political Science and Philosophy. 29 Even general research is growing. It may suffice to mention the production of W. E. Rappard and Max Silberschmidt on American History and Politics, of A. Keller on American Religion, J. Freymond's work on recent American foreign policy (1953), monographs in Economics and Law (Hans Trumpler), the survey of Modern American Literature by H. Straumann (1951), and the History of American Literature by H. Lüdeke (1952).

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The Smaller Western Countries

5. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Like parts of Switzerland, Austria has always been closely tied to Germany. Until 1866, German and Austrian politics were interwoven; the Habsburg dynasts held a more or less leading position among the German princes. T h e r e was a n o less intimate connection in matters of culture: for all practical purposes the book market was common; professors and students moved freely between Austrian and German universities; many Austrian writers had the majority of their readers in Germany, lived in that country themselves, and were more or less absorbed by the German milieu. Austria, therefore, also came to share many of the German attitudes and opinions toward the American Republic. In the New World, Austrians and Germans often settled together and mixed freely, even as early as the eighteenth century. Enlightenment itself ascended the throne in Austria. There was in the country a tradition of French liberal thought which often involved an admiration of American liberty, and a trend of cosmopolitanism, natural in a land of many tongues and civilizations. An expression of such attitudes as early as the 1770's was the work of the independent and objective historian of America Fr. W. von Taube. Under the Holy Alliance, this liberal spirit was not entirely crushed, even if it was weaker than in Germany; and sympathetic interest was revived as the political pressure subsided. A proof of this curiosity in wider circles was the Amerikanisches Lese-Cabinet, which ran to twenty-one volumes during the year 1855. A number of the writers who participated in the German discussion of America in the new century were actually Austrians, from Charles Sealsfield (Karl Postl) and Anastasius Griin to Nicolaus Lenau and Franz Grillparzer. Official Austria never shared these friendly feelings, however. Even before 1800, censorship was often severe; T a u b e had several of his books forbidden by the government of Joseph II. Under the regime instituted by Metternich, Vienna became the capital of German reaction, and its official attitude toward the United States was one of extreme hostility. Among German historians of the American Republic in the 1820's Austria was represented by the violently anti-democratic J. G. Hiilsemann, a faithful collaborator of Metternich, and later for many years Austria's minister to Washington. 30 Events in 1848 were not likely to change this negative

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attitude. Until the downfall of the Empire no love was lost for the United States within the walls of the Hofburg. Moreover, there was also a remoteness in geography and climate. In spite of its interest in German politics, the Dual Monarchy turned its eyes not toward the Atlantic, but toward the Slavonic World, the Orient, the Mediterranean and Italy, and the welter of its own internal problems. Even Austrian civilization, with its kinship to that of Germany, was still no replica of German culture, but showed a difference in orientation. In Old Vienna before 1918, Washington and New York had much less actual reality than they had in contemporary Hamburg or Berlin. Less complicated, but also less articulate, was the attitude toward the United States in the non-German nationalities which, with more or less enthusiasm, formed parts of the Habsburg monarchy. In the governing classes of these nations there was often the same conservative reserve that was typical of the Austrians. But in the people lived the old, libertarian love for the new Republic of the A Vest. In most of the nations under the Austrian crown there was also in the 19th century a movement of emigration to America, which kept sympathy and interest awake. T h e Hungarians had been Am erica-worshippers since the Revolution. From soon after 1800 there was a considerable literature on the United States in Hungary, — travel books, songs, novels, and plays, and numerous translations; among them, one of Tocqueville. T h e dreams of democracy in Hungary had a strong American tinge. In 1848, Daniel Webster's expression of U. S. sympathy with the Hungarian rebels made a deep impression; so did the magnificent reception accorded to Kossuth in the States. A similar interest was noticeable among the Slavs; James Bryce's American Commonwealth was translated into Croatian. T h e closest contact developed among the internationally-minded Czechs. In about the middle of the 19th century J a k u b Maly wrote on American History, and an Americka biblioteka published literary translations. An important intermediary was J . V. Slidek, who from the 1870's translated many American writers and wrote extensively on American life and literature (a collection of his articles is Americke obrazky I—II, 1914). But this sympathy often had an anti-Austrian trend; one could hardly expect the Government and its school system to be very eager to extol the United States and its way of life.

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These obstacles notwithstanding, the Austrian Empire did not, during the nineteenth century, remain altogether outside that development of American Studies that was typical of German, Swiss, French, and British universities. But the efforts were modest, and did not exceed the obvious. There is no reason to believe that Austrian school children before 1918 learned more than the bare essentials about the Geography or History of the United States. English had to compete with many other languages (French, German, Italian, Czech). It was taught only in the three topmost classes of the Oberrealschule, but even there not in all provinces, and only in schools for children with German as their mother tongue. In any case, the teaching was entirely British. One may find Washington Irving in Austrian anthologies for Realschulen of about 1880, as one does in other nations.31 But America was still far away. In the universities, beginnings were also late. This fact was hardly due to political pressure, as was the case in Germany, but because Austrian universities were traditionally absorbed in the study of South-Eastern Europe, its history, languages and traditions, much more than was the case in other parts of Europe; American interests, if they existed, were little more than a sideline. It has been asserted that during his early reign Emperor Franz Joseph vetoed the establishment of chairs of American History in the Universities of Prague and Vienna; it is highly improbable that these universities at that time would propose so extraordinary an innovation.32 The study of English in the universities was only an elementary language training, if the subject was studied at all. But this situation had many parallels in other nations, and was largely due to the fact that the language had such a weak position in the schools. The American Civil War increased interest in the United States, in Austria as everywhere. After 1900, economic relations between the two countries became more close, partly due to the establishment of direct steamship lines. Even the universities were aware of the change. At Innsbruck, apparently, no specialized American course of any kind was offered before the First World War. But the University of Graz, from 1881/82 to 1916/17, announced seven specialized courses in American Geography (W. Tomaschek, Ed. Richter, Rob. Sieger). At Vienna, V. F. Klun gave a course in 1862/63 on "The Physical, Technical and Intellectual Culture of

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North America, Compared to that of the Western European States"; subsequently, Vienna offered one course on European and American Commercial Policies 1872/73 (Fr. X . Neumann), ten courses on American Geography 1886-1912/13 (W. Tomaschek, Karl Diener, Rob. Sieger, E. Oberhummer, Fr. Machatschek), and five on American History 1873—1903/04 (Max Büdinger, Hanns Schütter). About the Hungarian universities little is known; 3 3 but at Prague, the Karl Ferdinand Universität in 1885 and 1904 offered courses on American History (Ant. Gindely, Ottokar Weber), and between 1897 and 1907/08 five courses on American Geography (Oskar Lenz). Austrian interest in the literature of the United States continued during the second half of the nineteenth century, and besides producing some serious literary criticism (Karl Federn, 1899) also brought forth a beginning in research. Full chairs of English were established in the universities from the 1870's. At Graz, Professor A. Schönbach in 1880 published an American Literary History, and between 1883 and 1886 studies on Cooper, Longfellow, Hawthorne, and the American novel. In the study of Hawthorne particularly he protested against the supercilious British habit of regarding American Literature as a mere appendage. He gave a formal course on American Literature at Graz in 1887/88.34 At Vienna, Lektor G. G. Bagster held two readings of Irving and Longfellow in 1887, and Karl Brunner announced an outline course on American Literature (which could not be given) 1915/16. At the Czech University in Prague Professor Emil Frida gave a course on Whitman in 1905/06. T h e visitor G. S. Fullerton lectured on American Philosophy at Vienna in 1913/14. In the ordinary teaching programme these few classes, of course, amounted to little. T h e First World W a r changed Austria's position completely. T h e Empire crumbled; the nationalities within its former borders established their national independence. T h e little that was left of traditional Austria was shorn of its economic resources and left powerless among unfriendly neighbours. For its survival it was largely dependent on the victor nations, Hoover's Relief Administration, international loans, and what political, financial and moral support could be obtained. T h e situation hardly made for any warmth of feeling on the part of the Austrians. Furthermore, events in the 1930's with their combination of foreign pressure and internal reaction, ending in the forcible Anschluss with Nazi Ger4. - I I

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many with the silent acquiescence of the West, were to demonstrate how little the country's few friends at the time could be relied upon. Nevertheless, the Austrians tried, at least, to adapt themselves to conditions in a new world facing West. There was a definite reorientation during the inter-war period, particularly toward the Anglo-Saxon powers, and it was cautiously expressed in the educational system. As was the case in Germany, Austria of the 1920's saw a brisk pedagogical debate, not least about the choice of the first foreign language. In 1923, the Austrian Association of Secondary School Teachers presented a plan for the teaching of English as the first foreign language. For the Oberschule this plan demanded that attention now be paid also to the British Colonies and to North America. A systematic study of the whole area was outlined in detail, including "English and North American Literature"; the reading list for the Oberschule contained more than a dozen American references. 35 There can be no doubt that these recommendations, and the plan which was eventually adopted, noticeably increased the attention paid to American material, at least in the English classes. A number of Austrian anthologies of English Literature that were published in the inter-war years contained quite extensive American sections. In one of them, there was also a brief History of American Literature. 36 In 1937, N. Martin, Dozent in the Methods of Modern Language Teaching, gave a course at the University of Innsbruck on "The Pedagogical-Didactical Treatment of Longfellow". This course probably had some connection with the increased attention given to American Literature in the schools. But it may also have been linked to the new regulations for the staie examination in English in the universities, which were issued in 1937. In these regulations, the candidate at major level was for the first time required to show a knowledge of American English, and also of "the historical and cultural relationship of England to America". The candidate at the minor level was expected to interpret a number of British and American poems, and to attend a course on "the Commonwealth and the United States".87 There was also a certain growth in the amount of academic teaching. As before, the smaller universities lagged far behind. At Graz, there were only two specialized courses in American Geography during the inter-war years (A. Aigner, 1930/31; O. Maull,

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1939). At Innsbruck, the available material shows seven courses in Geography (R. Marek, Joh. Müllner, H. Kinzl), two in History (I. Ph. Dengel), and four on American Literature (three outline courses by Karl Brunner, and one reading of Emerson by an unknown Lektor). But at Vienna, there was now considerable activity. During the years between 1919 and 1945, the University offered forty-six American courses; one-fourth of them were given after 1940 at the School for Interpreters. Coverage was wide, and the work on a high level. Besides rotation in Geography, there was also from the 1920's onwards quite regular teaching in American History. (Not all specialized courses may have been entered in the lecture lists.) At least three dissertations were presented in American History in the early 1930's. Literature and Philosophy also came in for some attention at Vienna under the ordinary specialization system. Vienna. 1919 — 1922/23: Karl Brunner (two courses on American Literature, one on American Institutions). 1919 — 1925/26: J. Redlich (three courses on the Foundations and Development of the North American Federal Constitution). 1921: E. Hanslik (Geography). 1921/22, 1922: H. Schütter (History). 1921/22, 1925/26: Ed. Brückner (Geography). 1926/27: E. Oberhummer (Geography). 1930: F. Machatschek (Geography). 1931: K. Roretz (History of American Philosophy). 1932: W. R. Shepherd, Vis. Prof. (History). 1932/33: A. B. Faust, Vis. Prof. (German Emigration to the U.S.A.). 1933 — 1937/38: R. Meister and T h . Reitterer (four courses on English and American Education). 1934: H. Hassinger (Geography); H. Sperl (Law). 1935/36-1942: F. Wild (four courses on American Literature). 1936/37 —1943: P. Müller (four courses on History). 1941 I — 1943: W. Paulowsky (three courses on American English). 1941/42, 1942: Erna Patzelt (History). 1942/43: J. Solch (Geography). In the Dolmetscherausbildung 1940— 1943/44: five courses on American History (P. Müller, E. Patzelt), four on American English (W. Paulowsky), 1 on Geography (J. Solch).

Thus, some groundwork had already been done in Austria before the events in 1945 again, for the second time in a few decades, created a totally new situation. T h e country shared the downfall of that Nazism of which it had been the victim. Like Germany, Austria was divided between four occupational powers; and because of its size and its precarious geographical position, its political and economic future might now appear as equally desperate. No less painful was its intellectual and moral plight. Many Austrians after the war did not know where to turn; they felt as if they had been betrayed by friend and foe alike, and had little conviction that the West would regard Austria as a bastion important enough to be held. There was in Vienna of the early occupation years an atmosphere of mocking

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unreality which differed sharply from the fighting spirit of West Berlin. This pessimism and neutralist fatigue did not gain the upper hand, however. Unlike occupied Germany, the country had a central government which from the very end of the war could serve as a rallying point. By hard work on a day-to-day basis, the Austrians made unexpected progress toward political unity and economic recovery; in 1955 the occupation came to an end. T h e country regained its liberty of action; and notwithstanding their neutral status the Austrians in their detached and semi-sceptical manner reasserted their faith in Western democracy, which was also a part of their own tradition. Even more than was the case after 1918, the United States came to take part in this process. Extensive assistance in rehabilitation of many kinds was offered by U. S. agencies; exchange of students and professors soon took on great proportions. But the one great fact was that in the world which now faced Austria, decisive political support could be expected only from the U. S. Government. During the few years after the war this new orientation has made Austria a country as "Western" as any. It also has made the country a stronghold of American Studies. This has been done in spite of considerable practical handicaps. In earlier times, Austrian scholars were often accustomed to rely upon foreign libraries in case of need. Cooperation was particularly intimate with Germany; the most important Austrian libraries had their holdings listed in German Union Catalogues, and were parts of the German interlibrary loan sysitem. This cooperation was interrupted by the war; during the occupation Austria was isolated even more than was Germany. T h e country retained a great part of the library material which existed in old Austria; but its resources were not organized on an independent basis. While some Union Lists exist, there is still no national Union Catalogue. War damage was relatively small, however, as far as libraries were concerned. In the American field, there were some old collections in the country. Bolstered by generous American donations of books, these resources have, so far, proved sufficient for the purpose. In the secondary schools, temporary new plans were introduced in 1946.88 In Geography and History, American material was only referred to in a summary way, but the treatment in textbooks was quite extensive.39 There is more detail in the plans for English

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which, after the war, has been the d o m i n a n t foreign language in Austrian schools. 40 Like several of the contemporary German school-plans, these Austrian Lehrpldne are based on the idea that any study of English after the war will have to comprise the entire English-speaking world. Work on the Unterstufe is supposed to introduce the student to "a knowledge of land and people in Great Britain, the British Commonwealth and the U. S. A." O n the Oberstufe he should, through reading as widely as possible, learn to understand "the social, economic, political and intellectual life" of the British a n d the Anglo-AmeTicans, their literature, particularly that of the nineteenth century, and their part in the formation of the present world. In instructions for the individual classes these studies are discussed in great detail with reference to all possible aspects of British and American life, f r o m Church and Education, Press and Laws to the various literary genres, "British and American philosophers" and "the main differences between British and American English". In its various chapters the plan offers extensive lists of recommended reading for use in selection. For the Unterstufe, the plan mentions more than a dozen American books; for Class VIII, a similar number. 4 1 T h e authorized English anthology that is being used most widely in Austrian secondary schools contains much American material. 4 2 O n e authorized anthology, which is devoted exclusively to American writers, is frequently used on the Oberstufe.43 T h e r e are also a couple of special school editions (Poe; American Short Stories). Like some German schools, those of Austria also have the students read a good many foreign authors in translation in the G e r m a n classes. This study of "World Literature" is based on samples, selected to give a picture which is "as many-sided as possible". I n the 1946 plans the recommended list includes American Poetry and seven American prose works ranging from Franklin's Autobiography to Hemingway, Dos Passos, Sinclair Lewis and Margaret Mitchell. In contrast with the situation in Germany, this introduction of American material into Austrian schools seems to have aroused little discussion. 44 Here as there, the actual use will of course depend on the individual teacher and his background. But certainly there is a great improvement in comparison with the situation before 1938.

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O n the basis of these requirements in the schools, the Austrian universities have followed a similar path since the war. T h i s development has had no revolutionary character. Traditionally, Austrian universities are no less "conservative", "isolationist" and "atomistic" in their approach than their German counterparts; and the post-war years have seen no sweeping change. American Studies in Austria have completely lacked that flourish of general reform based on the Social Sciences that was typical of similar efforts in post-war Germany; the idea of "integration" is conspicuously absent. But within the existing framework, American Studies have acquired, by a gradual tightening of requirements, a position in the universities that is quite remarkable. In most subjects, this progress has worked through the traditional system of voluntary specialization; but in English, the changes are more far-reaching. T h e nation-wide regulations for state examinations and the doctorate that were introduced after the war, base the teaching of English on the idea of the unity of the Anglo-Saxon World, as do those of the secondary schools. All Austrian students of English from now on have to know both British and American Language, Literature and Civilization, as far as the facilities of each university permit. In the Modern Languages, it is the major examination which really counts, the minor being more elementary and of less importance. Studies for the English major examination are normally based on a lecture course running through eight semesters, which in practice is obligatory; two of these eight semester courses and, in addition, two special courses or seminars, are intended to be devoted to American Literature. T h e elementary knowledge of the students for the major examination is tested in the entrance examination to the seminar (usually in the fourth semester); the reading list enumerates, among others, poems by seventeen American poets, and a number of American reference works. For the final examination, about one third of the books on the reading list for the students at major level are by American authors or deal with aspects of American life and literature; those at minor level content themselves with works by "the greatest American writers" only. In the Klausur, the student is given the choice between subjects in the Literature or Landeskunde of both nations; translation may normally be from a British or an American text. In the final oral examination all candidates must be able to show

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that they are familiar with the development of American Literature, the history of its background, and the main differences between British and American English; they must have read at least one work of each of the representative American authors. T h e major examination also involves a home-written thesis. T h e candidate is expected to have a much more detailed and intimate knowledge and to have done much more extensive reading in the field from which he has chosen the subject for his thesis. But since, according to regulations, a basic knowledge of both British and American material is now compulsory for all students of English in Austria, specialization in one or the other involves no extra burden. For that reason, the number of theses on American Literature after the war is extremely high. T h e same holds good with regard to the doctorate. A great proportion of the students of Anglistics in Austria pass the doctorate. T h e regulations and reading lists for the doctor's examination require from all candidates in Anglistics a knowledge of both British and American texts, Literary History and Landeskunde, and requirements are similar for the major and minor examinations, except for some difference in the number of authors to be read. (Americanistics as a special subject does not exist.) As is the case in the state examinations, specialization in American material therefore means no additional burden, and theses are numerous. Within this framework, progress in American Studies in Austria has been surprising, both at the smaller universities and at Vienna. At Graz, the University Library has, since the war, received large collections of books on American Studies from the U. S. Information Service. The library of the University Institute of English Philology has about 1,000 volumes of books in the American field, particularly Literature. These libraries are supplemented by an American Information Library. The University seems to have no specialist in American History. But courses in American Geography have been given regularly since 1948, and there is occasional teaching on American Social and Economic Life. A Lehrauftrag is devoted to "International Organizations with Special Reference to the Area of American Law". In the English Department, courses on American Language, Literature and "Amerikakunde" are given regularly by the full professor of English Language and Literature, by a Dozent of English Language and Literature, and by American visiting pro-

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lessors. A considerable n u m b e r of students write theses for the state examination on topics taiken from the field of American Literature; nine doctoral theses o n American authors have been completed since 1945 and several are in preparation. Some of the American courses at Graz are given in a School for Interpreters. At Innsbruck, the University Library has not inconsiderable holdings in American Literature, Geography and History. T h e Institute of English Language and Literature has a useful collection of American Literature, and the Department of Economics a good deal of material o n American Economic Life. When, in 1955, the U. S. Information Library in Innsbruck was closed, its more scholarly books in several subjects, including many reference works, were donated to the university on permanent loan as the foundation of an American Institute, which was opened in the following year. T h e Institute is administered by an interfaculty committee. Besides serving American Studies at the University it also arranges lectures and seminars on the Civilization of the United States. At the University, specialized courses are offered at intervals in both American Geography and History; American material also plays a part in the teaching of the Economics Department. In English, arrangements for examinations and doctorate correspond to those at Graz. T h e full professor of English teaches courses in American Literature and Civilization; in addition, there is regular teaching by a Dozent "with Special Reference to American Literature", and also by visitors, who are often shared with the University of Graz. Theses on American subjects are quite frequent. Innsbruck has an Institute for Interpreters with extensive English language training, based on British or American texts. T h e r e is "of course" n o objection to the students having an American pronunciation at Innsbruck, "as long as they speak intelligibly". T h e centre of American work in Austria, now as before, is Vienna. T h e greatest resources for research are there, and the largest teaching staff. While Vienna was bombed during the war, the two great libraries, the Nationalbibliothek (formerly Hofbibliothek) and the University Library, suffered little destruction. T h e y both have old collections of Anglistics, including a good deal of Americana. After the war they received large American donations. T h e Nationalbibliothek is a depository for the publications of international organizations. At the University, the Englisch-amerikanisches In-

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stitut ("American" was added after the war) has in its library of eighteen thousand volumes something like two thousand American books donated by the American Government and by American visiting professors; sets of texts for class work are sometimes shared with the other two Austrian universities. 45 T h e Institute for Interpreters has a library of 4,500 volumes, largely donated by the Rockefeller Foundation (1951); it contains some American material. There is also a U. S. Information Library in Vienna. T h e extent of activity at the University can be gauged by the number of courses. From 1946 — 1953/54 eighty-four specialized courses were offered on American Civilization; about one fourth of them, particularly in elementary Language and Landeskunde, were repeated in the Institute for Interpreters, which brings the total to around one hundred. Of the 84 courses, 41 were on American Language and Literature, 13 on American History, 13 on American Civilization generally, 9 on the Arts (Theatre and Film), 4 on Law, and 2 each on Geography and Philosophy. Few European universities to-day can compete with Vienna in the extent and variety of its American teaching. Of the total, 25 courses were given by visitors. Even apart from Literature, there was obviously a good deal of American specialization in examinations and for the doctorate. In 1947—52 six dissertations were presented in History, four in Political Science, three in Economics, one in Law, and one in the Arts. In English, American work is strengthened by the fact that Vienna has two full professors of English, one in Language and one in Literature. In addition to the extensive teaching, the students have easy access to competent advice in their specialized work. Between 1949 and 1953, ninety-six candidates in English at major level in the state examination wrote on British subjects, forty-four on American; for theses in preparation by 1953 the corresponding figures were twenty-seven and thirty-two. In 1956 there were about 400 students of English. This interest is also apparent in the doctorate at Vienna. From 1949 to 1952 more than thirty theses were accepted in American Language and Literature; by 1953, fifty theses were in preparation on British subjects, thirty-five on American. In view of the relative scarcity of source material in present-day Vienna, there is hardly any place in Europe where the available material is being put into use more effectively.

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With regard to the language standard, "consistent and correct American pronunciation is accepted" at Vienna; a mixture is not tolerated. T h e Technical Universities in Austria offer no teaching on American subjects. But the Hochschule fur Welthandel in Vienna gives regular courses in American Geography, Economy, Commercial Law, and Language. T h e Institute of Geography at the Hochschule is well equipped with American material. There is an Honorary chair for Americanistics, and a Dozent in AngloAmerican Commercial Law. A great number of theses are written on American subjects. During the years 1945 to 1953/54 there were more than twenty doctoral dissertations of this kind, and more than eighty theses for the diploma. 46 Some research is developing, even if it is limited by the small market and the shortage of funds. Most important are the contributions to Literary History, like A. Bronner's general survey (1946), H. H. Kiihnelt's great book on Edgar Allan Poe in English Literature (1949), and that of F. Stanzel on the novel, including Melville and Henry James (1955). It is typical of Vienna that there is also a little book on American Music (1949;, by E. Krenek. Seen as a whole, the efforts to establish American Studies in Austria are impressive. They got under way at a time when the nation was fighting for its survival, politically and otherwise. Post-war difficulties in the schools were immense; universities were overcrowded and understaffed, and received little Government support. In spite of such obstacles, a well balanced system of American teaching was established, with an unusual degree of coordination between secondary and higher education; and it proved possible to make the system work. Now the stress is lessening. Schools are returning to normality. From 1948 to 1953 the student body of the universities decreased by twonfifths; from 1955 the university budget increased sizeably. There is reason to believe that, like Austria itself, the American Studies it has established, may now be "over the hump". Austria is a small country. It can hardly afford those interdepartmental experiments in American Studies which have cross-fertilised university work in other nations. Scholarly recruitment is still precarious. Few students in present-day Austria can afford to think of an academic career, and American research does not appear as

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particularly attractive. There is no full, permanent chair in any branch of American Studies in Austria; the English Department at Vienna has a dozen teachers, but no one has American Studies as his special field. Given a peaceful development of the world, however, it is probable that these difficulties can gradually be overcome. With the requirements that have now been established in the schools and the clear system corresponding to them in the state examinations, the study particularly of American Literature and Language is also bound to have a place in the teaching and on the staffs of the universities, and to receive a certain recognition in the academic ranking system. T h e Dozentships with special reference to American material that have appeared after the war are of considerable promise; and the extraordinary amount of doctoral work will hardly remain without Tesults. In the picture of American Studies in post-war Europe, Austria is a pivotal point in more than one sense. With their limited means the Austrians are living u p to that responsibility in a way which demands respect, and may well serve as a model to other nations. NOTES Cenerai Sources. The Netherlands. D. M. E. Habbema: T h e Teaching of English in Holland (English Language Teaching 2, 1948, 182-187). F.. N. W. Mottram, I.e. y. F. L. Verster: Holland-America (Amsterdam 1922). B. H. M. Vlekke: The Netherlands and the U.S. (Boston 1945. America Looks Ahead, No. 10). J. C. Westermann: The Netherlands and the United States. Their Relations in the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century (The H a g u e 1935). R. W . Zand\oort, I.e. H. Zylstra: Mid-Nineteenth-Century Dutch View of American Life and Letters (Publications of the Modern Language Association 57, 1942, 1108-1136). Belgium. Belgium, ed. J.-A. Goris (Berkeley 1946, T h e United Nations Series). R. Gilsoul: Les influences anglo-saxonnes sur les letttes françaises en Belgique de 1850 à 1880 (Brussels 1953, Académie Royale de Langue et de Littérature Françaises de Belgique). H. Pirenne: Histoire de Belgique, 6—7 (Brussels 1926—32). J. van Hove: Répertoire des organismes de documentation en Belgique (Brussels 1947). Switzerland. G. Boner: Die Universität Basel in den Jahren 1914—1939 (Basle 1943). Ch. Borgeaud: Histoire de l'Université de Genève (Genève 1900 ff.). Encyklopädie des gesammten Erziehungsund Unterrichtsweseiis, hg. K. A. Schmid, 8 (Gotha 1870). R. Feller: Die schweizerische Geschichtschreibung im 19. Jahrhundert (Zürich 1938). Id.: Die Universität Bern 1834—1934 (Berne 1935). Geschichte der Schweiz von H . Nabholz, L. von Muralt, R. Feller, E. Bonjour, 2 (Zürich 1938). E. Graf: Die Aufnahme der englischen und amerikanischen Literatur in der deutschen Schweiz von 1800—1830 (Diss. Zürich 1951). L. Haas: Die Schweiz und die Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika. Ein geschichtlicher Rückblick (Zeitschrift für schweizerische Geschichte 20, 1940, 228—263). Ed. His: Amerikanische Einflüsse im schweizerischen Verfassungsrecht (Festgabe der Basler Juristenfakultät und des Basler Juristenvereins zum Schweizerischen Juristentag, Sept. 1920, Basle 1920, 81—110). Historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Schweiz I—VIII (Neuenburg 1921—34). King, I.e. George Müller: Der amerikanische Sezessionskrieg in der schweizerischen öffentlichen Meinung (Diss. Basle 1944.

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The Smaller Western Countries

Basler Beiträge zur Geschichtswissenschaft, 14). W . E. R a p p a r d : Notre Grande République Soeur; Aperçu sur l'Évolution des États-Unis et sur les Rapports SuissesAméricains. Conférence (Geneva 1916). Die Universität Zürich 1833—1933 und ihre Vorläufer. Festschrift (Zürich 1938). Austria. For Austrian writers, see P. C. Weber: America in Imaginative German Literature in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century (New York 1926), particularly Chapter V. A survey of the Austrian situation after 1945 is f o u n d in E. Anderson, I. c., p. 81 ff. For Hungary, see E. Pivâny: Hungarian-American Historical Connections from the Pre-Columbian Times to the End of the American Civil War (Budapest 1927). 1 Zylstra, I. c. 2 Habbema, I.e. 3 O. A. Leewe v. Aduard 1835, J. P. Smeele 1856 (both on the War of Independence); P. Just van L. Sels 1878 (on the Civil War). * M. C. van Mourik Broekman (1914); H . A. Ritter and C. te Lintum (1918); J . G. Sleeswijk (1932); R. Steinmetz and M. de Casseres (1939). 5 Mensch en Menigte in Amerika. Essays (Haarlem 1918); Amerika Levend en Denkend. Losse Opmerkingen (Haarlem 1926). See also his Wege der Kulturgeschichte (1930). 6 Zandvoort, I. c. 5. 7 At the meeting of philologists in Leiden in 1933 he spoke on "Taal en cultuur in Amerika" (Zandvoort, I. c. 9). 8 Newsletter of the European Association for American Studies 1—3, 1955— 57. A description of the Amerika Instituut in Amsterdam is found ibid. 2, 1956, 20-22. 9 Times Educational Supplement Aug. 9, 1947, No. 1684, 417 (plans for the Barlaeus Gymnasium, Amsterdam). 10 T h e r e is no mention of America in the great Rapport from the Staatscommissie tot reorganisatie van het hoger onderwijs (The Hague 1949). » D. M. E. Habbema (ed.): Aspects of the United States. Texts selected ('sGravenhage 1954); P. H. Breitenstein and H . A. Vermeer (eds.): Mainstream of English and American Literature I—II (Amsterdam 1948); J. G. Riewald, L. Grooten and T . Zwartkruis (eds.): A Book of English and American Literature (Bussum 1953) with companion volume; the latter anthology aims especially at the catholic schools. Between 1946 and 1950 school editions appeared of P. S. Buck, Hawthorne, Mark Twain, and Poe. 12 See his inaugural lecture, E. N. W. Mottram, I. c. 13 See I. J. Simon: Soixante années de philologie germanique à Liège (Liège, Fac. de Philos, et Lettres 1950, 15-51).

H Belgian and American C. R. B. Fellows 1920-1950 (New York 1950). 15 Belgium, I.e. 232. 18 Compare recent textbooks in Geography like A. H . Debouverie and G. Verscheure: L'Amérique, l'Océanie et les régions polaires. A l'usage de l'enseignement moyen (Bruxelles 1954). 17 King, I.e. 161 ff., 186. 18 B. Fay: Bibliographie critique des ouvrages français relatifs aux États-Unis (1770-1800) (Thèse, Paris 1924), 34, 90. 19 E. His, I.e. 20 Details in Graf, I.e. 21 See W. Klinke: Johannes Scherr, Kulturhistoriker. Leben, Wirken, Gedankenwelt (Thayngen — Schaffhausen 1943). 22 Ch. Borgeaud, I.e. I, 611 ff. and III, 387, and the Programmes. 23 Programmes détaillés des examens .... de la licence (1875), 59 f., 65 f. Compare edition 1884 and others. 24 T h e Collection of English Texts for Use in Schools (Verlag Francke, Berne) included at least four American volumes before the end of 1945, and three after; the collection now numbers 75 volumes. An English Reader for Swiss Schools, ed. H. Meier (Zürich 1938) has a good deal of American material; other readers contain nothing, or next to nothing. 25 G. Boner, I.e. 104. 26 Statistics are based on the summary index in the Jahresverzeichnis der Schweizerischen Hochschulschriften, and are hardly exhaustive. 27 Happy Stories and Songs from America (Aarau 1945) and Glimpses of the American Language and Civilization (Berne 1945), both ed. by J. H . Wild; compare also above, Note 24. English anthologies in common use are the German volume published by Herrig-Förster and the French collections edited by G. Guibillon and by A. Beljame and E. Legouis. For Geography, see, for instance, W . Staub: Amerika (Zürich 1952. O. Füsslis Geographisches Unterrichtswerk, Leitfäden, 3).

Notes 28 Lexikon der Pädagogik I (Berne 1950), art. "Englischunterricht". 29 Statistics based on the Swiss material in the bibliography in the Newsletter of the European Association for American Studies 2, 1956, 29 ff. 30 For Taube and Hülsemann, see Doll, I. c. 454 tí., 489, 508, for Hülsemann also American Historical Review 41, 1935/36, 503-514. 31 Verhandlungen der Direktoren-Versammlungen in den Provinzen des Königreichs Preussen 11, 1882, 494. 32 Appltton's Journal, I. c. T h e author also reports that the Austrian "Privatdozent Gebhardi" gave a course of American History in 1873. It has proved impossible to find a man of that name at any of the Austrian universities in 1873. 33 T h e Academy of Pest in 1872/73 announced a prize for an essay on " T h e Rapid Development of the U. S. A. and its Reasons" (Appleton's Journal, I. c.). 34 A. Schönbach on Hawthorne in Englische Studien 7, 1884, 239-303. 35 Die neueren Sprachen 32, 1924, 283-290. 39 Many books published by A. Brandeis, F. Karpf, T h . Pesta, T h . Reitterer, M. Schmid-Schmidsfelden and W. Swoboda. T h e Literary History Survey is in W. Swoboda: Lehrbuch der englischen Sprache III, 2. Aufl. (Wien 1916). 37 Verordnung. . über die Erwerbung der Befähigung für das Lehramt an Mittelschulen (Bundesgesetzblatt für den Bundesstaat Österreich 1937, 66. Stück, 271, p. 1197 ff.). 38 Provisorische Lehrpläne für die Mittelschulen. Sonderabdruck aus dem Verordnungsblatt (Wien 1946). A first draft is printed in the Mitteilungsblatt des Allgemeinen Deutschen Neuphilologenverbandes 2, 1949, No. 3/5, p. 5 f. 38 See, for instance, Erdkunde von H. Fuchs, H. Kellner, H. Klimpt und H.

419

Slanar, I - V I (Wien 1949-52). the U. S. A. particularly in vols. 3 and 5; Lehrbuch der Geschichte für die Oberstufe der Mittelschulen. Hg. von F. Heilsberg und Fr. Korger, I - I V (Wien 1951-52). 74 Bornhausen, K. 246 f., 252, 268, 343 Börnhausen T h . 387 Bornova 541 Borries, Kurt 687 Borrini, T . 489 Borsa, G. 690 Borsieri, G. 469 Bosisio, Alfr. 549 Bosnia 618, 623 Bossi, Carlo 464 Boston 273 Botta, Carlo 469 Boucke, Ew. 274 Bouman, P. J. 378, 692 Bourgeois, É. 148, 163 Bourgeois, Léon 142 Bourgeois, M. 197 Bourget, Paul 135 Bouricz-Grcgg, F. 673 Bourquin, M. 697 Boussoulas, N.-I. 673 Boutmy, É. 143, 146, 558 Boutroux, É. 145 Brackenridge, H. M. 469 Bradstreet, Anne 110 Brandeis, A. 419 Brandes, Georg 423 Brandl, A. 2 5 0 - 5 2 , 271 f. Brandt, C. D. J. 693 Bratislava 602 f., 604 , 672 Bräuer, Karl 273 Braun, Gust. 273 Braun, W. A. 396 Brauns, E. L. 230 Braunschweig 289, 335 , 681 ßraunschwig, M. 207 Braure, M. 675 Bravo Olalde, Aug. 694 Breitenstein, P. H. 418 Brekke, K. 460 Bremen 213, 298, 355 Bremer, Fredrika 440, 454 Brenner, Ed. 285, 288, 347, 682, 686 Breslau 228 f., 238, 243, 247 , 251, 2 6 6 - 6 8 , 273, 285, 288, 587 Bridel, M. 697 Brie, Fr. 267 Briggs, Asa 700 Brill, Herrn. 682 Brinkmann, Carl (Karl) 2 7 2 - 7 6 Bristol 68 f., 78, 86, 91, 115, 699

710

Index of Names

Britain, British, see the United Kingdom Brkic, Svetozar 705 Brno 603, 672 Broches, A. 460 Brock, W. R. 699 Brockhoff, M.-E. 686 Brodin, Piene 673 Brogan, D. W. 66-69, 84, 89, 299, 699 Broicher, Charl. 685 Bröker, Hugo 272 Bromberg, P. 578 Bromhead, P. A. 700 Bronner, A. 416 Bronte, Charlotte 572 Brooks, Van Wyck 578 Brown, Charles Brockden 252 Brown, John 570 Browning, E. B. and Rob. 472 Bruck, W. F. 275 Brückner, Ed. 238, 393, 409 Brumm, Ursula 680 Brunetitre, F. 145 Brunhes, J. 393 Brüning, Eb. 679 Brüning, Heinr. 681 Brüning, Kurt 275, 683 Brunnemann, K. 224 Brunner, Karl 407, 409, 670 Bruns, Fr. 276 Bruns, V. 272 Brusendorff, Aa. 425 Brussels 380-84, 671 Bryan, P. W. 524 Bryant. William C. 252, 392, 466, 544, 658 Bryce, James 56, 66, 128, 405, 519, 558 Bryn Mawr College 196 Buchan, J. 127 Buchanan, G. O. 66 Bucharest 581, 607 f. Buchloh, P. 681 Büchner, Alex. 138, 152 Büchner, Georg 205 Büchner, Ludw. 205 Buck, Gerh. 289 Buck, Pearl S. 396-98, 418, 532 Budapest 605, 627 Budden, E. S. 70S Büdinger, Max 390, 393, 407 Bühler, Ottmar 681 Bülau, Fr. von 227, 229 Bulgaria 609 f., 630. 633, 671 Bülow, D. von 220 Bunyan, John 316 Burbank, H. H. 67 Burchard, A. 289 Burgess. J. W. 235, 247 Buri, Fritz 697 Burian, B. O. 541 Burky, Ch. A. 395 f., 697

Burn, D. L. 67 Bum, W. L. 68, 700 Bumett, Frances H. 155, 255 Burns, J. H. 699 Burrows, Montagu 53, 55 Busch, Joh. G. 350 Busch, W. 247 Buss, F. J. von 226 f.. 229 Butland, G. J. 699 Butler, David 703 Butler, G. G. 67 Butler, R. A. 71 Butté, W. 229 Bvron, George G., Lord 223, 248, 351, 467, 517, 572, 586, 622 Byzantine 536 Cable, George Wash. 452 CAdiz 524 Cady, E. H. 453 Caen 138, 144, 148, 1511., 161, 164 f„ 178, 182, 185, 200, 675 Ca' Foscari, see Venice Cagliari 513, 089 Cahen, J.-F. 188, 524, 673 Cahn, Ernst 247 Calamandrei, \i. 689 Caldwell, Erskinc 156 California 167, 238, 290, 313 Callaghan, G. 550 Calogero, G. 691 Calvin, Jean 369, 377 Camberley Staff College 88 Cambon, Gl. 503, 688 Cambridge (England) 54, 56 f„ 64-68, 70. 75, 81, 83. 87, 90, 104, 109 f., 112L. 128, 627, 699 f. Cambridge (Mass.) 54, 144 f„ 219, 234, 354, 377, 390, 501, 634 f. Campbell, A. E. 700 Campbell, E. M. J. 701 Campbell, F. C. A. 251 Canada 82, 88, 92, 112, 118, 120, 167, 172, 187, 268, 420 f., 513, 532, 569 Canby, H. S. 115, 194 Cantù, Cesare 469 Canu, J. 188, .r>24, 673 Canzler, F. G. 221 Caraci, G. 502, 691 Carbonara, P. 489, 691 Carbonari 465 Caibonell, Fr. 550 Cardiff 90, 123, 704 Carey, H. C. 229 Caribbean Ocean 514, 577 Carlier, A. 139, 146 Carlos I, King of Spain 527 Carlson, Sune 696 Carlyle, Thomas 251, 262, 288, 396

Index of Names Carnegie, Andrew (Endowment, Foundation) 106, 113, 128, 167, 196, 204, 262, 402 Carol II of Rumania 607 Carpentier-Fialip, P. and M. 172, 175, 207 Carré, H. 148, 162 Carrère, Félix 678 Carstens, Karl 682 Cart, J.-J. 387 Carter, J. R. 698 Carthaginians 514 Cartier, R. M. E. 673 Car)', J. 464 Casati, Gabrio 473, 477, 483 Casseres, M. de 418 Castberg, Frede 693 Castella, G. 697 Castellet, J. M. 694 Castigliano, L. 690 Castiglione, Luigi 464 Castro, Américo 521 Catalonia 516, 519 f., 522 Catania 513 Catel, J. 165 f. Cather, Willa 63, 115, 158 f., 396 Catherine II of Russia 554 Catinella, S. 489 Caudel, M. 146 Cavling, H. 424 Cavour, C. di 467, 473 Cazamian, M. 207, 673 Cecchi, Emilio 482, 489. 688 Cecchi, G. 489 Celli, Aldo 689 Cellini, B. 692 Celtiberians 514 Ccltic 253, 262 CcrvCTi 55Q Cestre, Ch. 144 f., 157 f., 162 f., 166, 207, 677 Chabot, Georges 677 Chaffurin, L. 168, 176, 207 Chalmers, G. 48 Chalupt, R. 673 Chamaillard, V. 164, 675 Chamberlain, J. P. 68 Chamberlain, Neville 58 Chambers, F. P. 701 Chambrun, A. de 146 Champier, L. 686 Chandler, T. J. 701 Channing, W. E. 151, 656 Chardonnet, J. 675 Charles University, see Prague Charles X 132 Charleston, S. 442 Charterhouse School 61 Chasles, Ph. 135 Chateaubriand, Fr.-R. de 27 23 - 11.

711

Chaucer, Geoffrey 250 Chauvigné, D. 207 Chemyshevsky, N. 555 Chiaromon te-Rosen thai, M. 502, 688 Chicago 235, 338 Chicherin, B. 558 Chimenti, Fr. 477 China 62, 80, 227, 229, 256, 328, 583, 590 Chinard, G. 673 Chinol, E. 503, 690 Chisholm, G. C. 55 Choisy, L.-F. 395 f. Chotard, H. 144 Christa, M. 251 Chueca, F. 694 Churchill, W. (the novelist) 59 Churchill, W. (the statesman) 71 Chwostow, W. M. 631 Cipolla, C. M. 502, 692 Clarendon Press 73 Clarendon Report 51 Clarke, Dorothv P. 699 Classen, Wilh. 289 Clavel, M. 164, 166, 674 Clemen, P. 247 Clemens, S. L., see Twain, Mark Clement, Wilh. 685 Clerc, Ch. 397 Clermont-FerTand 144, 148, 162, 182, 200, 675 Cloché, P. 162, 674 Cluj 607 Coats, A. W. 702 Codignola, E. 487, 689 Cognetti de Mardis, S. 476 Cohn, L. A. 229 Coimbra 530-33 Coindreau, M. E. 673 Coing, Helmut 682 Colamonico, C. 549 Cole, G. D. H. 68 Cole, Monica 702 Coleridge, Samuel T. 572 Colliard, Cl.-A. 675 Collyer, C. 700 Cologne 267 f., 273, 288, 315, 322, 351. 335 f., 357, 681 f. Columbus, Christopher 51, 124, 154, 217, 255 , 462, 514, 639 Comas, J. 550 Comburg 301 Com i lias 694 Commager, H. S. 457 Common, R . 700 Compagnoni, G. 469 Condorcet, M.-J.-A. C. de 131 Connely, W. 129, 698 Connolly, C. V. 698 Cons, H. 148 Cons, L. 149

712

Index of Names

Contraine, H. 677 Conway. A. A. 704 Come, Werner 686 Cooke. M. E. 704 Coolidge, A. C. 148, 243 Cooper, J. F. 60, 76, 94, 158, 161, 166, 255, 392, 407, 544, 550, 596, 656, 658 Copenhagen 420 f., 423-28, 672 Corallo, G. 688 Corchado, M. 550 Cordey, E. 393 Cork 367 Cornud, Y. 207 Corsi, Th. 502, 688 Cossar, J. 68 Court, W. H. B. 699 Cracow 614, 617 Craddock, Charles E. (pseud.) 252 Craigie, W. A. 100, 115 Crane, Stephen 60, 115, 184, 587 Credner, Rud. 238 Creutzburg, N. 275, 683 Crèvecocur, J. H. St. J. de 26, 131, 139 Crick, Bernard 701 Crinò, Anna Maria 689 Crispi, Fr. 471 Croatia 405 , 611, 618, 620, 623 f. Croce, Benedetto 471, 477, 479 f., 484, 488, 497 Crome, A. Fr. W. 220, 226, 229 Cromwell, O. 586 Crowe, P. R. 702 Crozals, J. de 148 Cucchi, G. 503 Cumming, G. A. 703 Cummings, E. E. 115 Cunlitfe, M. 96, 377, 626, 702 Cunningham, W. 54 Currie, J. 66 Cyprus 557 Czajka, W. 288 Czechoslovakia 73, 405-07, 567, 590, 601-05, 609, 630, 633, 672 Daenell, E. 241, 243, 247, 274 f., 352 d'Agostino, Nemi 689, 691 Dahl, I. 461 Dahl, Ottar 693 Dahl, Sven G. 695 Dahms, H. G. 325, 679 Daiches, David 700 d'Alessandro, Vitt. 690 Dalin, Ebba 444, 448, 450, 461 Dalma tia 618 Dana, R. H. 550 d'Annunzio, Gabr. 471 f., 474, 477, 479 Dantzler, L. 251 Danube Basin 397 Danzig 243, 275, 289 f. Darby, J. N. 393

Darmstadt 275, 290, S36, 662 Darmstaedter, P. 241—43, 273, S52 Darvall, F. 63, 701, 698 Daskalakis, A. 687 David, René 677 Davidsen, Herm. 678 Davidsohn, Rob. 243 Davies, D. J. L. 704 Davi», J. 251 Davis. R. H. 151 Davis, W. M. 148, 238 De Bartolomeis, Fr. 691 Debouverie, A. H. 418 Debrecen 606 Decembrists 555 £. Deckert, E. 2381. Decroly, O. 382 Defoe, Daniel 316, 622 De Francesco, G. A. 688 Delaware 439 Deledalle, G. 188, 673 Delhorbe-Duplan, Th. 393 De Maddalena, A. 502, 690 Demangeon, A. 148, 163, 171 Demangeot, J. 673 Demolins, E. 143 Demoulin, Rob. 671 Dengel, X. Ph. 409 Dengler, Paul 670 Denmark 420-30, 434. 445, 460, 644, 6722 Denonain, J.-J. 674 De Ritis, B. 489 Dérobert, E. 396 Derruau, Max 675 De Ruggiero, Guido 476 De Sanctis, Fr. 477 Desjardins, A. 144 Deuchler, G. 274 De' Virgilii, Pasquale 466 Devaux, Ph. 382, 671 Devolder, N. 671 Dewey, John 288, 444, 476, 488 f„ 4955, 502, 511, 513, 522, 557, 563 Dézert, D. du 144, 148 Dhaleine, L. 152 Dibelius, Martin 289 Dibelius, W. 259, 268, 270 f„ 273, 276 Dick, Fritz 686 Dickens, A. G. 700 Dickens, Charles 48, 262, 572, 586, 622 Dickinson, Emily 452, 489, 541 Dickinson, R. E. 66 Diderot, Denis 464 Diels, H. 254 Diener, Karl 407 Dierlamtn, G. 687 Dieterich, Erich 281 f„ 288 Dietrich, Br. 238, 273, 290 Dietz, J. 146 Dietze, Const, von 683

Index of Names Diffené, Irene 274 Dijon 148, 152, 161 f., 182, 186, 200 f., 675 Dillen, J. G. van 695 Djilas, M. 621 Dobinson, C. H. 70S Dobrzycka, I. 694 Dodd, A. H. 704 Doehn, Rud. 234 Dogliotti-Frati, G. 549 Dognon, P. 148 Doniol, H. 149 Donner, Heinr. W. 696 Dony, Françoise 382, 671 Dören, Carl van 377 Dörner, Herrn. 684 Dorpat, see Tartu Dos Passos, John 156, 161, 175, 184, 194, 411, 419, 444, 601, 610 Doty, M. Z. 697 Douady, A. 163 Douai 138, 144 Dove, Carl 238 f. Dovifat, Emil 272, 276, 680 Dowden, Edw. 366 Doyle, J. A. 56 Drascher, W. 275 , 289 Dresden 255, 272, 290, 599, 632, 678 Dreiser. Theodore 60, 105 f., 115, 184, 195, 396, 399, 402. 457, 578, 587, 596, 610, 623, 631 Drinkwater, J. 59, 419 Drost, P. N. 693 Drygalski, E. von 238, 268, 274, 289 f. Dublin 366—68, 687 f. Dubois, W. E. B. 587 Dubuisson, P. U. 139 Dugard, Marie 150 Duhamel, Georges 135 Dühring, K. E. 227, 229 Dumas, F. 148 Duméril, H. 144, 148, 152 Dumont, René 676 Dunand, L. 396 Duncan, S. J. 442 Dundee 125 f., 703 f. Dunoyer, A. 393 Dupont, V. 678 Dupré Theseiiler, E. 689 Dupriez, L. H. 385, 671 Duran, Faik Sabri 551 Durand, R. 152 Durbin, E. F. M. 67 Durham 68, 115 f., 700 Duron, I. J. 138, 673 Duroselle, J.-B. 677, 686 Duruy, V. 137 f., 140-42 Dutch, see the Netherlands Dwight, Timothy 219 Dyos, H. J. 701

713

Eastman, George 129 Ebeling, Chr. D. 219-21, 225, 338, 369. 469 Ecke, G. 247 Eckert, Max 238, 275, 289 Eckert-Greifendorff, M. 239 Eckhoff, T . 439, 693 Ederer, K. A. 679 Edgren, Hj. 442 Edinburgh 55 f., 68 f., 87. 124 f.. 130, 186, 700 Edwards, Jonathan 195 Eekhof, A. 370 Effelberger, H. 325 , 679 Efimov, A. 566 Ege University, see Bornova Egerton, H. F.. 55 f., 67 f. F.gli, J. J. 394 Egypt 328 Einaudi, M. 489 Eire, see Ireland (Eire) Eiselein, J. 229 Eiselen, J. F. G. 229 Eisenbrown, H. 288 Ekholm, I. 461 Ekström, Kjell 452, 695 Ekwall, B. O. E. 695 Eliot, T . S. 47, 76, 95. 110, 159, 438 f., 513 Elisseieff, K. 325 Elistratova, A. 578 Elizabeth, Queen of England 317 Ellis-Fermor, Una 701 Ellrodt, Rob. 674 F.lovson, H. 444, 695 F.lze, Karl 249 Emerson, Ralph W. 28, 57, 59 f., 150-52, 155, 158 f., 161, 166, 168, 171, 184,251 f., 262, 272-74, 287 f., 298, 315, 372, 375, 393, 395 f.. 409, 419, 425 , 442, 452, 457, 484, 492, 507, 519 f., 544 . 584, 656. 658 Enehjelm, Helen af 459 Enequist, G. M. 696 Engel, E. 252 Engel, Cl.-E. 697 Engels. Fr. 559 f., 570, 572, 589, 624, 631 England, English, see the United Kingdom Enjalbert, H. 675 Enkvist, N. E. 459, 673 Eoll, Eva 275 Erasmus Roterodamus 379 Ericsson, John 440 Erlangen 238, 247 , 250 f., 267, 273, 285, 288, 306, 322. 336 f., 682 Erler, Adalb. 682 Ernst, Fritz 289, 684 Errera, C. 489 Erskine, John, Mr. and Mrs. 200 Esch, Arno 682

714

Index of Names

Escoffier, M. 146 Espinosa, M. 528, 694 Estève, E. 166 Estonia 601 Ethiopia 495 Eton 51, 61, 77, 128 Evans, E. P. 2S4 Evans, I. L. 67 Exeter 53, 116, 700 Eydal, A. 687 Eynem, G. von 680 Eyre, S. R. 701 Eyskens, G. 382, 671 Ezquerra, R. 694 Fabian, Bernh. 685 Fabre, Michel 674 Fahlbeck, P. 441 Fairhurat, H. 700 Falckenberg, R. 247 Fallati, J. F. 230 Fantoni, G., see Labindo Farinelli, Arturo 477, 482 Farmer, A. J. 164, 677 Famy, E. 396 Fast, Howard 578, 585-87, 604, 608, 610, 623, 627, 631 f. Faulkner, William 156, 184 , 372, 528, 610 Faure, Jacqueline 676 Fausset, H. I. 098 Faust. A. B. 409 Fay, B. 162 f., 166 Fay, C. R. 67 Fazy, James 387, 391 Fearenside, C. S. 442 Federn, Karl 407 Fehr, J. 230, 243 Fel, André 675 Feldmann, E. 681 Fels, Edwin 289, 680 Ferber, Edna 444 Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies 469 Ferns, H. S. 699 Ferrara 689 Ferrerò, G. 476 Feuer, J. 632 Fforde, J. S. 703 Fiddes, Edw. 68 Fielden, Fr. J. 442 Filangieri, G. 464 f. Filipovic, Rud. 705 Filippi, Luigi 548 Filson, J. 139 Finer, H. 67 Finer, S. E. 702 Fingerle, Ant. 679 Finland 454, 453-61, 644, 649, 672 f. Finley, J. H. 148 Fischer, Fritz 683

Fischer, G. E. 22P Fischer, H. 239, 354 Fischer, T h . 238 Fischer. W. 251, 263 f.. 267 f., 272 f., 276, 285, 288, 325, 685 Fisher, F. J. 701 Fiske, John 55, 396 Fitz-Gerald, J. D. 550 Flasdieck, H. M. 684 Flechtheim, O. K. 680 Florence 470, 477 f., 487 f., 496, 498,500 f., 506, 509, 548, 689 Florence, P. S. 699 Flournoy, T h . 392 Flügel, Ewald 250-52 Flügel, Felix 224, 250 Foerster, Fr. W. 394 Foerster, Norman 161 Foligno, C. 488 Folien, Karl 213 Fontanet, G. 172, 207 Fonzi, Bruno 688 Ford, Ch. 188 Ford, Henry (Ford Foundation) 167, 262. 332 f., 419. 560, 635 Fordham, P. E. 702 Forgues, E. D. 135 Förster, Max 418 Fort, J.-B. 164, 677 Fortunatov, St. 558 Fossati. E. 502, 691 Fraenkel, Ernst 680 Fraga Iribarne, M. 528, 694 f. Frahne, K. H. 325 France (French) 27, 30, 33, 35, 44, 48. 52 f.. 67 , 92, 109, 120, 130-211, 214, 216-18, 220-23, 225, 227, 229 f., 232, 234-36, 243 f., 247 f., 252, 254, 257, 264, 266, 270, 272-74, 279, 295, 305, 312, 342, 352-54, 356, 365 , 369, 373, 379 f., 383, 386-88, 391-95, 397, 399, 401,404, 406, 418-20, 423, 429, 439 f., 452, 454, 463-65, 467-70, 474 f., 478, 484-86, 491, 496, 50t f., 515-19, 521, 524-26, 530, 532-35, 538-40, 544 f., 550, 554, 556-58, 562, 570, 574, 577, 583, 585, 589 f., 597, 601 f.. 607 f., 610-13, 618 f., 622, 632 f., 637, 641, 643 f., 647 , 649, 656, 673-78 Franco, Enrique 694 Franco, Francesco 522-24, 527 f., 531,547 François, L. 207 Frankfurt a. M. 238, 247, 267 f., 275, 288, 302, 506, 513, 315, 317, 321 f., 330, 357 f.. 557, 682 f. Frankfurter, Felix 68 Franklin. B. 151, 144, 150, 152, 154, 194, 255 , 272, 288, 298, 352, 390, 392-94, 396, 411, 464, 484, 550, 554, 570, 622 f.. 658

Index of Names Franz, A. 243, 273 Franz, W. 243, 250 f., 275 Franz Joseph I 406 Frarv, R. 144 Fraser, I. F. 676 Frederix, P. 673 Freiburg i. B. 226-29, 238, 241, 247, 251, 267, 273, 285, 288, 315, 317, 338, 348, 683 Freiburg i. S. 389 f., 393, 395 f., 400. 403, 697 Frenckell, E. M. von 673 Frerichs, W. 355 Freund, Max 274 Freymond, J. 403, 697 Frick, Heinr. 289 Frida, Em il 407 Friebel, Karl 682 Friedberg 294 Friederich, W. 1'. 396 Friederichsen, Max 238, 393 Friedend, G. 276, 290 Friedländer, L. 229 Friedrich, C. J. 274 Friedrich, Ernst 238, 274 Friedrichs, H. 356 Friis-Hansen, O. 460 Froebel, J. 390, 393 Frost, Robert 158 f., 183 f., 394, 399 Fuchs, C. (Karl) J. 247 Fuchs, H. 419 Fuchs, W. P. 684 Fueter, Ed. 390, 394, 396 Fuga, Igino 688 Fuhrken, G. E. 442 Fuhrmann, Ch. 289, 684 Fulbright, James W. 41, 74 f., 77, 82. 90, 96, 99, 104 f., 169 £., 172, 185, 348, 372 f., 382, 384 f., 403, 426, 434, 437, 445, 451, 458, 501, 527, 536 £., 544, 634, 650, 653 Füller, G. J. 702 Füller, Margaret 466 Fullerton, G. S. 407 Fulton, J. S. 68 Funke, Gerh. 681 Gabrieli, Vittorio 688 Gabrielsen, T h . 693 Gabus, Jean 697 Gachon, J. 166. 207 Gachon, L. 675 Cade, H . 353 Gaffarei, P. 148 Gaiser, Konr. 679 Galeotti, S. 690 Galgano, S. 691 Galiani, Ferd. 464 Galinsky, H. 289, 325, 685 Gallie, W. B. 698 Gallino, L. 688

715

Gallois, L. 148 Galsworthy, John 622 f. Galway 367 Gangnet, P. 673 Gärdlund, T. W. 696 Gargiulo, W. 488, 690 Garibaldi, G. 46 Garland, Hamlin 587 Garlanda, Fed. 477 f. Garosci, A. 502, 691 Garretto, V. 476 Gash, Norman 703 Gaskoin, C. J. B. 67 Gasparini, I. 692 Gaudefroy-Demombynes, J. 188, 674 Gaudemet, P. M. 676 Gauger, Hildegard 289 Gauss, Herrn. 396, 697 Gay, H. Nelson 478, 482, 488, 500, 505, 507 Gebauer, Max 247 Gebelin, J. 148 Gebhardi (?) 419 Geer, S. de 444 Geiger, I.udw. 242 Geisler, Fr. 282, 295, 300, 354, 681 Gcislcr, W. 273, 289 Geldem-Crispendorf, G. von 288, 686 Geneva 386-88, 3 9 1 - % , 400 f., 403, 697 Genoa 462, 488. 495, 498 f., 509, 690 Gentile, Giovanni 480 f., 483, 485-87, 489, 491 George, Henry 49, 172, 247, 274, 396,423 George, Pierre 677 Georgetown University, see Washington D. C. Gerbi, Ant. 688 Gerbov, K. 577 Gerhard, Dietrich 288, 682 Gerland, G. 238 Gerling, Walter 687 Germany (East and West Germany; German, Germanic) 30, 32 f., 35, 38, 41, 48 f., 57, 92, 104, 132, 134, 136, 138, 141, 143-46, 149, 153, 156, 167 f., 170, 178, 181, 188, 190-92, 204, 209-357, 365, 369 f., 373, 380, 382, 386-91, 3 9 3 96, 399, 404-12, 420 f., 423-25, 4 3 0 34, 439-43, 445, 454-56, 463 f., 469-75, 477, 479-81, 483-86, 489-92, 502, 504, 509, 518, 520-22, 524, 526, 530-55, 538—40, 543, 550, 553-57, 564, 566, 569, 571, 573-76, 582-603, 607, 609, 612, 615, 618 f., 622, 627, 630, 632 f., 637, 643-47, 649, 656, 678-87 Germeisheim 542 Gerster, J. S. S93 Geyl, P. C. A. 378, 693 Ghent 380, 382, 384, 671 Giammanoo, Rob. 688

716

Index of Nanus

Giani, R. 476 Gibert, André 676 Gibraltar 515 Gidoni, Fr. 393 Gierlichs, VV. 28« Giessen 226, 229, 23«, 243, 266-68, 273, 285, 288, 343 Gigli, Lor. 688 Gijsen, M., see Goris, J.-A. Gil Munilla, O. 695 Gilbert, E. W. 68 £., 703 Gindely, Ant. 407 Girardin, Paul 393, 396 Giraud, M. 189, 676 Giraudoux, Jean 135 Gladstone, W. 46 Glasgow 56 f„ 68, 86 f„ 125 , 700 Gley, W. 288 Glum, Friedr. 686 Glunz, H. H. 288 Goblet, Y.-M. 163 Godechot, J. 678 Godlinnik, Y. 1. 631 Goedeckenieyer, A. 274 Goethe, J. W. 210 f., 223 Goffin, Robert 671 Gold, Michael 572, 610, 623 Goldammer, K. 685 Goldhagen, Conr. 684 f. Goldschmidt, Bernh. 684 Goldschmidt, H. 273 Goldsmith, Oliver 586, 632 Golf, A. 247 Gómez del Campillo, M. 527, 694 Gomulka, Wl. 615-17 Gonnaud, M. 675 Goodhart, A. L. 68, 703 Goodman, F. 288 Goodman, G. H. 288 Goodman, Leo 344 Gordon, D. J. 703 Gorer, Geoffrey 698 Goris, J.-A. (pseud.) 381, 384, 671 Gorky, Maxim (Institute), see Moscow Gorlier, CI. 683 Gorodinsky, V. 578 Gostwick, J. 57 Gothenburg 440, 442-44. 448-51, 695 Goths 514 Gottesman Foundation 451 Gòttingen 210. 212, 218-21, 226. 229,235, 238, 241, 243. 247, 250, 266, 268 f„ 273, 281, 285, 288. 315, 317, 330, 338 f„ 555, 632, 683 Gottmann, J- 188, 674 Gourmont, R. de 166 Gourou, P. 671 Gowan, I. L. 702 Gower, L. C. B. 701 Grafer, G. 282

Grahame, J. 48, 350 Grand'Combe, F. (pseud.), see BoiUot, F. Gränström, P. O. 444 Grant, Madison 279 Grässe, J. G. Th. 224 Grassetti, C. 690 Grasso, G. 476 Graveson, R. H. 701 Gray, M. 704 Graz 406-08, 413-15 , 669 f. Great Britain, see the United Kingdom Greece (Greek) 29. 50, 136, 144, 159, 207. 210, 214-17. 244, 256, 373, 383, 419, 431, 441, 473, 486, 493, 495, 518, 524. 533-38. 544, 547, 550, 618, 649, 687 Greenland 428 Greenwich Naval College 88 Gregor, Joseph 670 Gregory, S. 701 Gregory, T . E. 67 Greiffenhagen, M. 678 Greifswald 238, 243, 247, 251, 266-68, 273, 288, 599 f., 633, 678 Grenoble 148, 165, 178, 182, 186-88,201, 675 f. Grentrup, T h . 288 Grenville, J. A. S. 702 Grewe, Wilh. 683 Grey, Zane 444 Gribaudi, D. and P. 549 Grillparzer, Franz 404 Grimm, Petre 607 Groningen 370 f., 374, 377, 692 Grooten, L. 418 Grossmann, Eugen 698 Grotkopp, W. 276 Grottian, Walt. 680 Grove, J. W. 702 Grün, Anastasius 404 Grand, F. J. 231 Grundtvig, N. F. S. 423 Grzebieniowski, T . 694 Gucirin, Dan. 674 Guex, Fr. 393 Guibillon, G. 207, 418 Guichot, J. 550 Guidi, Aug. 690 Guiguet, J. 675 Guilcher, And. 676 Guilland, A. 394, 397 Guizot, Fr. 137, 140, 352, 516 Gülich, W. 289 Gullick, C. F. W. R. 703 Günther, Hans 285 , 288 Guradze. H. 682 Gurland, Marianne 679 Gustaf III, King of Sweden 439 Güthler, Wolfg. 679 Guyot, Charly 696 Guyot, R. 163

Index of Names Haake, Paul 272 Haas, Rudolf 687 Habbema, D. M. E. 418 Habsburg 404 (. Hädicke, K.-H. 679 Hadley, A. T . 54, 247 Haefke, Fr. 678 Haferkoni, Reinh. 685 Hagen, H. B. 274 Hague 372 Hahn, C. 393 Hahn, Fr. 238 Haifa 545 Haifeld, A. 264 Halkin, S. 688 Hall, Th. C. 269, 273, 285 Halle 212, 219, 229, 238, 243, 247, 251, 267 , 273, 285, 288, 330, 352, 600, 678 f. Halle, E. von 245, 247 Haller, Heinz 685 Haller, Karl 1.. von 211, 387, 389 Hallstein, Walter 682 Halten berger, M. 601 Hamberg, A. 442, 444 Hambro, C. J. 432 Hamburg 212, 218, 233, 268-70, 273 f., 288 f., 297 f., 300, 315-17, 321 f., 330, 339 f., 355 , 357 , 405, 683 f. Hammar, George 695 Hammer, S. C. 433 Hamsun, Knut 432 Handelmann, G. H. 226 f., 229 Hangest, G. d' 168 Hannemann, Max 273, 288 f., 680 Hanotaux, G. 144 Hanover 218, 275 , 290, 340, 355 , 684 Hans, N. 701 Hansa 218 Hantsch, Hugo 670 Häpke, Rud. 272, 274 Hanns, H. H. 680 Harmsworth, H. V. (Chair at Oxford) 67 Harnack, A. 288 Harnack-Fish, M. 272, 288 Hansen, Ad. 423 Hanslik, E. 409 Harkness, Edw. 68 Harrod, H. R. F. 68, 703 Harrow School 52, 78 f. Harte, Bret 60, 72. 158, 233, 251, 550 Hartke, Wolf«. 685 Hartner, Willy 682 Harvard University, see Cambridge (Mass.) Harvey, W. J. 702 Hase, Felix 251 Hasenclever, Ad. 243, 267, 273, 288 Hasenkamp, X. O. G. E. von 229 Hassel, J. G. H. 230 H a n e r t , K. 276, 290

717

Hassinger, H. 393, 409 His tad, Elis W. 696 Hatschek, J. 247 Hatt, G. 424 Haug, K. F. 230 Haughton, J. P. 688 Hauser, H. 148, 166 Hauser, Osw. 685 Hausermann, H. W. 697 Hawgood, J. A. 66, 68, 699 Hawthorne. N. 60, 76, 94, 150-52, 155, 158 f., 161, 167, 172, 183 f„ 262, 272, 274, 289, 315, 375, 392, 394, 407, 418, 452, 457, 472, 498, 544, 656, 658 Hazen, C. D. 162 Hazon, Mario 488, 549 Headlam, J. W. 51 Hearn, Lafcadio 273 Hebrew, see Israel Hebrew University, see Jerusalem Heckscher, G. E. 695 Hedges, H. W. 62 Heepe, E. 425 Heeren, A. L. 221, 229, 555 Heffter, Heinr. 681 Hegel, G. W. F. 212 Heidegger, M. 590 Heidelberg 226-29, 238, 241, 243, 247, 250 f„ 267 f.. 274, 284 f„ 289, 314, 317, 340 f„ 352, 357, 387, 684 Heidelberger, Albin 684 Heilsberg, F. 419 Heine, Heinr. 212 Heine, Otto 678 Heinemann, F. 394, 396 f. Heinemann, Fiitz 273 Heinrich, Prince of Prussia 235 Heinrich, Walter 670 Heintz, Peter 682 Held, J. von 230 Helfritz, Hans 082 Helms, Erwin 683 Helsinki (Helsingfors) 454-60, 672 f. Helsztynski, St. 694 Helvetia 386 f. Helwing, E. 229 Hemingway, Ernest 156, 184, 398, 411, 430, 460, 526, 532, 578, 610 Henderson, Th. (Collection of Americana), see Edinburgh Henne, J. A. 390, 393 Hennecke, Hans 680 Hennings, R. 288 Henningsen, Svcn 672 Henry. O. (pseud.) 76, 274, 460, 572 Hensel, Gerh. 681 Hen tig, Hans von 681 Hentschel, C. 444 Herbert, Sydney 68, 704 Herbertson, A. J. 53

718

Index of Names

Herbst, Th. 224 Herder, J. G. von 210, 214 Hermann, F. B. W. 250 Hernandez, Mario 694 Herrfahrdt, Heinr. 685 Herrig, L. 216 f., 224, 418 Herrmann, Alfr. 681 Hertling, L. 325 Herzegovina 618 Herzen, Alex. 555 Herzfeld, Friedr. 680 Herzfeld, Hans 680 Herzog, Carl 390, 393 Hesse, Fritz 685 Hessen 297, 304 f., 317, 351, 355 f. Hessler, Carl A. 696 Hettner, Alfr. 238, 274 Heuer, H. 289, 683 Heuvelmans, B. 671 Heyer, Friedr. 685 Hibler, Leo von 272 Hietsch, O. 670 Higgins, Fr. A. 272, 287 Hildreth, Richard 370 Hillebrand, K. 138 Hilliard d'Auberteuil, M.-R. 139 Himly, A. 148 Hinte, J. van 371 Hirsch, S. 229 Hirsch, Th. 238 Hirst, F. W. 69 Hitler, Adolf 279 f., 291, 480, 485, 562, 566, 582, 604 Hjärne, Erfand 444 , 696 Hodgart, M. J. C. 700 Hoel, Sigurd 433, 693 Hoeniger, Heinr. 682 Hoetzsch, O. 243, 272, 352 Hofer, Walther 680 Hoffman, Kurt 686 Hoffmann, Walther 686 Hohenzollem 355, 607 Holland, see the Netherlands Hollander, A. N. J. den 371, 692 Hollond, M. T. 68 Hollywood 60 Holm, Edvard 424 Holm, Svenre 693 Holmes, Oliver W. 150. 158. 172, 656 Hoist, Herrman von 213 , 240 f., 243 f.. 247, 253, 350 Holthusen, H. E. 680 Hölzle, E. 325 , 680 Honig, Rich. 683 Hookham, M. 701 Hoops, Johs. 250 f., 264 Hoover, Herbert 380, 407, 612 Hopp, (Ernst) Otto 234, 243 Horkheimer, Max 682 Hom, Wilh. 268

Hottinger, J. J. 390, 393 House, J. W. 700 Housman, I. 558 Howells, W. D. 115, 117, 372, 402, 435, 442, 472, 507 Howland, H. E. 419 Hübener, Gust. 273 f., 288, 395 f. Huber, Hans 697 Hübner, W. 288, 681 Huebener, Fr. M. 680 Hugh-Jones, F.. M. 70S Hughes, A. 251 Hughes, E. W. 700 Hughes, Langston 587 Hughes, T . J. 687 Huizinga, Johan 371 Hull 66, 116, 700 Hülsemann. J. G. 230, 404 Humbert I, King of Italy 471 Humboldt University, see Berlin Humlum, Johs. 672 Humphreys, Arthur 701 Humphreys, D. W. 299 Humphreys, David 219 Humphreys, R. A. 66, 68, 702 Hungary 212, 404-07, 418 f.. 495, 552, 579, 581, 596, 604-06, 610, 615 , 621. 630, 632 f. Hunos0e, F. 460 Hunt, Norman C. 703 Hunter College, see New York Hurtig, Theod. 678 Huscher, H. 289, 687 Husserl, Gerh. 683 Huttenlocher, Fr. 687 Hutton, Graham 698 Hyde, James H. 145 Hylla, E. 276, 680 Iceland 420-22, 428. 460, 687 Iglesias, Carmen 694 Ilesic, S. 628, 705 Ilf, I. 561 India 113, 227, 229, 328 Indians 206, 570, 584, 586, 657 Indochina 568 Innes, Cosmo 55 Innsbruck 406, 408 f., 414 f., 670 Ireland (Eire) 46 f., 92, 103, 129. 219, 249, 365-68, 429, 687 f. Ireland (Northern) 45, 47. 73, 76 f., 79, 123, 126 f., 129, 365 , 429 Irving, Edw. 393 Irving, Washington 52. 59 f., 138, 150— 52, 154 f., 161, 167 f., 171. 217. 224, 251 f., 255 , 262, 272, 381, 392-94, 396, 406 f., 419, 441, 532, 544, 550, 572, 596^ 605 , 658 Isaac, J. 171, 207 Isaacs, J. 702

Index of Names Isachsen, Fr. 432. 693 Isnard, H. 674 Israel (Palestine, Jews) 217 , 279, 514, 518, 538, 541-47, 551, 644, 649, 688 Istanbul 538, 540 f. Italy 44, 92, 295 , 347 , 394, 405 f., 462516, 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, 533. 535, 540, 547-50, 596 f., 611, 618, 640 f., 644, 647, 649, 688-92 Ivan the Terrible 554 Ivcrsen, Herbert 425 Izzo, Carlo 689, 692 Jäckh, E. 260 Jacob, G. 678 Jacob, Karl 275 Jacob, Louis 676 Jacobsen, E. 672 Jacobson, G. 461 Jaeger, F. 396 Jaeger, L. 288 f. Jahrreiss, H. 274 James, Henry 60, 65, 94 f., 110, 117 f., 150, 158 f., 183 f., 315, 416, 444, 452, 457, 472, 507, 513, 656, 658 James, R. I. 68 James, William 151, 164, 166, 247 , 262. 274, 288, 392-94, 396, 484, 492 Jamestown 385 Janelle, P. 675 Jankovic, Vida 705 Jansma, T . S. 692 Janssens, J. 188, 674 Japan 62. 274 J a r m a n , T . L. 699 Jasinska, J. 694 Jaspers, Karl 590 Jayne, F. J. 55 Jeanne, G. 139 Jeanne, R. 188 Jeffers, Robinson 159 Jefferson, Thomas 131, 391, 399, 439,464, 471, 544, 555, 586, 627 ]efimow, A. W. 631 f. Jegorov, N. V. 631 Jena 226, 229, 238, 243, 245-47, 267, 274, 285, 289, 390, 592, 600, 679 Jennings, L. J. 48 Jensen, Johs. V. 424 Jerome, J. K. 572 Jerusalem 544 f., 688 Jespersen, O. 460 Jessen, Otto 273, 275, 289 Jews, see Israel Jobert, Ambr. 675 Johns Hopkins University, see Baltimore Johnson, Pamela H. 698 Johnson, Sam. 28, 622 Johnsson, Melker 695 Jonasson, Olof G. 444, 695

Jones, Daniel 100, 174 Jones, Emrys 699 Jones, Emest 572 Jones, F. C. 699 Jones, H. Mumford 105 Jones, L. RodweU 67, 524 Jones, Lloyd A. 685 Jones, M. A. 702 Jones, P. d'A. 89, 699 Jones, R. F. 273 Jones, Stanley J. 703 Jonsson, Thorsten 442 Jonveaux, £. 516 Jorri, Marcel 675 Joseph II of Austria 404 Josephson, Lennart 696 Jost, Joh. F. 286, 289 Jost, Karl 396 Journaux, And. 675 Jucker, Charles 698 Julius. N. H. 231 Junod, E. 393, 396 Jürgensen, B. 461 Juul, Stig 672 Kahl, W. 273 Kahn, Sh. J. 688 Kahn-Freund, O. 701 Kaiser, Josef H. 681 Kallin, Hj. 461 Kalm, Pehr 439, 453 Kaluza, M. 250 f., 274 Kamitsch, G. 354 Kampermann, A. 355 Kandel, I. L. 97, 130 Kant, Immanuel 210 Kanter, H. 274, 289 Kapp, Fr. K. 230 Kapp, Rud. 289 Karl, E. 355 Karle, Lektor 275 Karlsruhe 243, 275, 341, 684 Karpf, F. 419 Karsen, Fritz 272 Kartzke, G. 276. 678 Kattenbusch, Ferd. 247 Kaufmann, O. K. 698 Kautsky, B. 669 Kayser, Kurt 682 Keats, John 467 Keeton, G. W. 702 Kegel, Fr. 288 Kegel, Gerh. 682 Keller, Adolf 396, 403, 698 Keller. H. G. 697 Kellner, H. 419 Kellner, Leon 252 Kemal, Mustafa 538 f. Kempin, Em. 394 Kerensky, A. F. 558

719

720

Index of Names

Kerschagl, Rieh. 670 Kerscfaensteiner, G. 268, 274 Kern, H. 207 Kessel, Eberhard 685 Keyserling, H. 276, 282 Kiel 226 f., 229, 238, 243, 247, 251, 2 6 6 68, 274, 289, 315, 317, 341, 352, 354, 684 f. Kilburn School 78 Kildal, Arne 432, 693 Kimpen, E. 275 King, A. H. 444 Kingsley, Charles 54, 572 Kinvig, R. H. 699 Kinz], Hans 409, 670 Kipling, Rudyard 48 Kiralfy, A. K. R. 701 Kirchhoff, Alfr. 238 Kirchner, G. 267. 274, 289, 679 Kirkpatrick, J. 55 Kirov, S. M. 564 Kisch, E. E. 632 Kisch, I. 692 Kjellén, R. 442 Klein, J. F. 353 Kleinschmidt, A. 243 Klemencic, Sl. 705 Klenze, Cam. von 267 f., 274, 286, 289 Klett, Ernst, Verlag 356 Klimpt, H. 419 Klinger, Fr. M. 210 Klopstock, Fr. G. 210 Kloss, H. 289, 291 Kluge, F. H. 288 Kluke, Paul 680 Klun, V. F. 406 Klute, Fr. 288 Kluth, Käthe 678 Knapp, Ch. 393 Knies, Carl G. A. 224, 228-30 Knight, Margaret 699 Knortz, K. 252 Koch, A. 243 Koch, Reinh. 679 Kock, Karin 695 Kocmanová, J. 672 Köditz, H. 587 Koelbing, A. 251, 274 Koemer, F. 679 Kögl, Richard 670 Kogon, Eugen 682 Kohl, J. G. 230 Köhler, Günther 678 Kohns, Lee 162 Koht, Halvdan 432 f.. 438, 693 Kökeritz. H. 461 Kolb, Alb. 289 f., 683 Kömmerling-Fitzler, Hedw. 684 König, Josef 683 König, René 682

Königsberg 224, 226-29, 238, 247, 250 f , 266-68, 274 f., 289, 352, 587 Korea 568 Korger, Fr. 419 Kornblueh, D. 273 Komiiowa, E. 631 Korteweg, P. G. J. 378 Körting, G. 249 Kortüm, J. F. C. 228, 389, 393 Kosciuszko, T . Gli Kosegarten, W. 227, 229 Kossuth, L. 405 Röttgen, C. 276 Kovalevsky, M. 558 Koziol, H. 669 Kramer, Hans 678 Kranendonk, A. G. van 378, 692 Kraus, A. 273 Kraus, Herbert 683 Kraus, Theod. 682 Krauske, O. 274 Kreemers, R. 382 Krejcik, N. 419 Krenek, Ernst 416, 669 Kreter, Herbert 683 Krieger, H. 291 Kries, G. 228 f. Kristensen, S. M0ller 428, 672 Kristensson, Folke 696 Kromphardt, W. 289, 683 Kropotkin, P. 555 Krüger, F.-K. 261, 273 Krumbacher, Karl 243 Krümmel, O. 238 Krusius-Ahrenberg, L. 672 Kübler, E. 669 Kuczynski, J. 596, 678 Kufahl, L. 227 , 229 Kuhn, A. K. 394 Kühn, Arthur 288 Kuhn, Helmut 686 Kühn, Johs. 684 Kühnelt, H. H. 416, 670 Kunigk, A. 632 Küntzel, G. 273, 275, 290 Kuske, B. 273 Kuyper, A. 370 Kuznets, M. D. 631 Kveder, Kordia 705 Labindo (G. Fantoni) 464 Lablache, V. de 148 La Boissière, T . 139 Laboulaye, Éd. 154, 140 f., 143, 145, 206, 214, 516 Labra y Cadrana, R. M. de 519 Ladd, B. A. 251 Lafayette, M. de 131, 133, 387 Laffey, A. 207 Lagarde, Assistant 678

Index of Niants Lalou, René 674 La Lozère, P. de 159 Lamar, R. 172. 175, 207 Lambere, H. W. 692 Lambert, Éd. 164 Lambert, J . 166, 676 Lamprecht, A. 586 Lamprecht, Karl 240-43, 252 f., 270, 286, 352 Lan, V. 566, 577 Landheer, B. 692 Landini, P. 690 Landowski, W. A. L. 674 Landré, L. 164 , 677 Lang, A. 273, 288 Lang, Hans-Joachim 683 Langevin, Paul 189 Lanux, P. de 163 Lanzellotti, A. 548 Large, D. C. 704 Large, David 688 La Roque, M. de 678 Larsen, Alf 439 Lasker, Ed. 233 Laski, H. J . 67 Lasserre, G. 675 Latham, L. R. 700 Latin 50, 135 f., 142, 144, 152, 159, 207, 214-16, 254, 281, 370, 373, 380, 383, 419, 441, 473, 476, 483, 492 f., 498, 504, 518, 524, 536, 539, 544, 548, 556, 589, 597, 606, 618, 622 Lattanzio, Mich. 689 Latvia 601 Laughton, J . K. 55 Laun, Rud. 289 Laurent, H. 382 Lausanne 392-94, 396, 401, 403, 697 Lautensach, H. 325, 687 Lauvrière, E. 152, 166 Lauwerys, J . A. 701 I-avau, G. 675 Lavisse, E. 146, 149 Lawlor, J. J. 99 f., 702 Lawrence, D. H. 65 Lawson, F. H. 703 Lawson, John Howard 578 Layj, Alex. 391, 393 Laycock, G. K. 444 Leander, F. 444, 695 Leavis, F. R. 42, 44, 94, 700 Lebeaii, R.-M. 697 Lebon, A. 146 Leboucher, O.-J. 139 L e Breton, M. I 163 f., 166, 658, 677 L e Breton, M. II 678 Lecly, W. E. H. 56, 262, 367 Ledermann, L. 396 Leeds 69, 82, 116 f., 700 f. Leers, J . von 289

721

Lees, F. N. 702 Lefebvre de Clumieres d'Ovidio, A. 690 Lefèvre, P. 671 Legouis, É. 157, 418 Lehmann, Edgar 679 Lehmann, Heinz 687 Lehmann, Herbert 682 Lehmann, John F. 699 Lehmann, Rieh. 238 Lehmann, W. C. 346 Lehnert, M. 631, 633 Lehr, E. 146 Leibholz, Gerh. 683 Leicester 83, 91, 109, 701 Leiden 377 f., 692 Leipzig 220, 226 f., 229, 238, 241-45,247, 250 f., 268, 270, 272, 274, 286, 289 f.. 330, 352, 588, 592 f., 597, 600, 679 Leiste, Chr. 220 Leiter, Herrn. J . 670 Lciviskä, I. G. 455 Le Jules, And. 676 Lemmi, Fr. 549 Lemonnier, L. 166, 189 Lenau, Nicolaus 404 Lenin. V. I. U. 558-61, 569 f., 573, 589, 591, 598, 604 f., 613 f., 619, 621, 624,628 Leningrad 574 Lentzner, K. 251 Lenz, F. 325 Lenz, Oskar 407 Leo, H. L. 227, 229 Leonhard, R. 238, 247 Lepargneur, H. 674 Lerch, J . 393 Leroux, E. 164 Leroy-Beaulieu, P. 146 Lessing, O. E. 276 Leubuscher, Chr. 272 Levant 543 Levasseur, É. 146, 148 Levenbach, M. G. 371, 692 Leverkuehn, P. 325 Levison, W. 273, 288 Levita, K. 229 Levy, Herrn. 247 Lewis, Sinclair 159, 161, 175, 272-74,382, 396, 411, 419, 444, 457, 532, 587, 601 Lewisohn, Ludwig 175 Leyen, A. von der 245 Lezius, Fr. 247, 274 L'Huillier, F. 675, 677 Liard, Louis 142 Lieber, Franz 213, 329 Liefmann, Rob. 247 Liefmann-Keil, El. 683 Liège 380-82, 384 f., 671 Liepmann, L. 288 Liermann, H. 682

722

Index of Names

Lüjegren, S. B. 267 f.. 273, 288, 444, 451, 678, 696 Lille 148, 160 f., 164 f., 178, 182 f., 185 f., 187, 201 f., 676 Linati, Carlo 482 Lincoln, A. 59, 62, 66, 72, 154, 157. 272, 281, 300. 419, 430, 439, 507, 544, 550, 611 Lindberg, Folke A. 461, 696 Lindman, Sven 673 Lindner, T h . 243 Lindsay, Vachel 63, 72. 128 Linhardt, H. 275 Link, Franz H. 682 Linon, Michel 674 Linton, David L. 704 Lintum, C. te 418 Lips, M. A. 226, 228 f. Lipsius, J. 379 Lisbon 529-33 List, Friedrich 213, 230, 244 Lithuania 601 Liverpool 53 f., 83, 86, 96, 117, 701 Lizier, A. 549 Ljubljana 623, 625-27, 705 Ljungman, K. S. B. 696 Llewellyn, K. N. 274 Llorens, Ed. 273 Löben Sels, P. J. van 418 Locher, Theod. J. G. 692 Lftdrup, H. 460 Lodz 614 L0ffler, Emst 424 Löffler, M. 275 Löfgren, R. 461 Löher, Fr. von 226 f., 230 Loiseau, J. G. 164, 675 Lombardo, Ag. 689, 691 Lombardo-Radice, G. 487 Lombardy 464 London 53, 55 f., 66 f., 69, 73, 82-84, 86-88, 90 f., 93, 96, 99, 103-09, 113, 116, 122, 143, 167, 467, 701 f. London, Jack 115, 117, 151, 158, 161, 43.",. 442, 532, 555, 561, 572, 622 f., 658 Londonio, G. C. G. 469 Longchamps, P. de 139 Longfellow. H. W. 49, 52, 59 f., 138, 150-52, 154 f., 161, 166, 168, 171, 224, 249, 251 f.. 255 , 274, 352, 381, 392-96. 407 f., 424, 431, 452, 460. 472. 474, 484, 488 f., 532, 544, 550, 572, 604 f., 656, 658 Lorain, P. 139 Loria, A. 476 Lorimer, G. H. 442 Los Angeles 290 Lötz, H. 356 Loubat, Due de 206 Louis XVIII 132, 211

Louis Philippe 133, 136 Louis, Herbert 287, 686 Louisiana 189, 527 Louvain 379-81, 385 , 671 Lowell, J. R. 59, 127, 150 f., 172, 251, 452, 656, 658 Luca, P. 476 Lucatello, G. 489, 689 Lucerne 387, 390 Luckwaldt, F. 241, 243, 275, 289 £. Lüdeke, H. 251, 395 f., 403, 697 Ludwig, A. 353 Ludwig, G. 230, 243 Lund 441 f., 444, 449-51, 695 f. Lundblad, J. 452, 695 Lundkvist, Artur 442, 693 Lunzer, D. 670 Luther, M. 423, 430 Lütkens, Chr. 276 Lutz, Fr. 288 Lyde, L. W. 55, 66 Lyon 144, 147 f., 151, 161, 163 f., 178, 180, 182, 185, 187 f., 202, 676 Lyons, F. S. L. 688 Mably, G. B. de 139 Macaulay, Th. B. 255 McCloy, J. J. 328 McCormick, J. O. 333, 681 MacDonald, Ramsay 58 Macedonia 47, 623 McElroy, R. McN. 68, 129 McFarlane, J. 69 MacGregor, D. H. 54 Macgregor, J. 48 Machatschek, F. 276, 289, 407 , 409 , 686 Machiavelli, N. 471 McHugh, Roger 687 Mclnnes, C. M. 68 Mackinder, H. J. 53 Mackintosh, J. P. 700 MacLeish, Archibald 444 Macmillan, Mary 632 Madgwick, P. J. 702 Madrid 515, 518, 520-22, 524, 526 f., 550, 694 f. Madsen, O. 460 Maenner, Ludw. 289 Mager, Fr. 274, 289 Magny, Cl.-Edm. 674 Mainz 306, 311-13, 315-17, 321 f., 342, 659, 685 Maistre, J. de 133, 211 Majakovsky, W. 585 Makarios, Bishop 537 Malavialle, H. L. 148 Malche, Alb. 396 Malenkov, G. M. 567 Malet, A. 171, 207 Maletzke, Gerh. 684

Index of Names Malkin, M. M. 566 Mallien, Ém. 382, 671 Maitz, Alb. 578, 587 , 610, 632 Maly, Jakub 405 Manaresi, A. 549 Manchester 53, 55 f., 61, 68 f., 78, 83, 87, 95-99, 113, 117-19, 655 f.. 702 Mangin, R. 207 Mangoldt, H. von 289 f. Maniu, Juliu 607 Manley, Gordon 701 Mann, Fritz Karl 682 Mann, Horace 522 Mannhardt, J. W. 271, 288 f. Mannhart, Hans 680 Mannheim 275, 342 f., 685 Mantegazza. Vico 548 Maranini, G. 502, 689 Marburg 224, 226-30, 238, 246 £., 250 f., 266-68, 274, 286, 289, 294, 315 , 317, 321 f., 331, 343, 352, 599, 685 Marcel, G. H. 674 Marchi, S. 476 Mareks, Erich 241, 243 f., 268, 274, 352 Marco Polo 639 Marek, R. 409 Margerie, Emm. de C74 Marias, Julian 694 Marion, M. 148, 163 Marmol, Ch. del 382, 671 Marquardt, H. 683 Marryat, Fr. 48 Marschall von Bieberstein, H. 390, 393 Marseilles 198. See also Aix-Marseilles Marshall. George C. 531 Marti, Hans 697 Martin, Ernest 166, 677 Martin, Gaston 675 Martin, Gottfr. 685 Martin, Kurt 702 Martin, N. 408 Martin, Roger 676 Martineau, H. 48 MIartonne, E. de 148 Mlarx, Karl 49, 281, 352, 556, 559-61, 564, 568, 570, 572 f., 576-78, 589, 591, 595, 598, 604 f., 613-15, 619, 621 f., 624, 631, 633 MIasaryk, Jan 604 Mfasaryk, Thomas G. 602 Miaschke, R. 247, 274 Miason, E. 289 Miason, Ronald 699 Mfassachusetts 431 Miathiez, A. 148, 162 Miathiot, And. 675 , 677 Mfatson, Alex. 459 Mfatthes, Heinr. 682 Mfatthiessen, F. O. 194, 402, 603, 635 Miauclair, C. 166

723

Maudsley, R. H. 703 Maull, O. 273, 275, 408, 686 Maurer, Alex. 393, 396 Mauro, Fréd. 678 Maurois, André 166, 207, 524, 674 Maynard, T h . 139 Mazzei, Fil. 464, 468 f., 555 Mazzini, G. 466 f., 479 Mead, W. R. 702 Mecking, Ludw. 238, 274, 289 Mediterranean Ocean 132, 192, 365 , 383, 405, 462-551, 620, 651 Meier, H. 418 Meinecke, Fritz 682 Meissner, P. 288 Meister, Rieh. 409, 670 Melchiori, G. 691 Melik, Anton 704 Mellon, M. T . 267, 273, 285 , 288 Melville, Herman 60, 63, 72, 76, 94,106, 117, 161, 166, 184, 287, 298, 315, 399, 416, 439, 452, 457, 492, 503, 507, 587, 596, 658 Melzer, E. F. (?) 229 Mencken, H. L. 110, 276, 428 Mendelssohn, G. B. 229 Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, A. 269 Méndez Herrero, J. 694 Menéndez y Pelayo, M. 518 f. Menzel, Eberh. 685 Merck, Walther 684 Mérigot, J.-G. 675 Merk, W. 275 Merle, Rob. 677 Mertner, Edgar 686 Messac, Regís 674 Messina 487, 513 Metaxas, I. 535 Metternich, CI. von 404 Metz, Fr. 275 Metzger, Arnold 686 Metzger, Herrn. 687 Mexico 140, 158, 517 Meyer, Eduard 243, 351 Meyer, Ernst Wilh. 682 Meyer, Hans 274 Meynen, Emil 288, 290, 680 Meynier, André 164, 207 , 677 Miallon, G. 172-78, 207 Michael, W. 273 Michaud, R. 150, 163, 166 Michelet, J. 139-41 Micheli, A. A. 489 Mignet, F.-A.-A. 352 Mihajlovic, M. L. 633, 705 Milan 475 f., 480, 488, 496, 499 f.. 506, 509 f., 690 Miliband, R. 701 Miller, Joaquin 49 Miller, V. C. 274

724

Index of Names

Milton, John 262, 316, 586, 608, 623 Minchinton, W. N. 704 Mirbt, Cari 247 Mississippi 243 Mitchell. J . D. B. 700 Mitchell, Margaret 63, 411, 419 Mobbs, Rob. 393 Moberly, W. 81 Moeller, Hero 273 Mohl, R . von 227, 230 Mohr, Anton 432, 693 Moireau, A. 149 Mokre, Joh. 669 Molena, S. 549 Molière, J . B. P. 173 Moltke, H. von 253 Mondaini, G. 476, 487, 502 Monod, G. 154 Monod, Sylvère 675 Monroe Doctrine 54, 79, 515, 657 Montalembert, C. de 134 Montaner, Ant. 325 , 685 Montégut, É. 135 Montenegro 618 Montero Diaz, Santiago 550, 695 Montesquieu, C. de 134 Montoliu, C. 520 Montpellier 148, 151, 165, 203, 676 Moodie, G. C. 700 Moody, T . W. 688 Moody, W. V. 287 Moore, Geoffrey 702 Morales Padrón, Fr. 694 More, Thomas 623 Morgenstieme, B. 431 Mori, Alb. 691 Morison, S. E. 68 Morley, H. 56 Mormonism 243, 393 Morot-Sir, Ed. 676 Morris, G. P. 392 Morris, J . H. C. 703 Morris, William 472 Mörstadt, K. E. 229 Mortensen, Hans 273, 288, 683 Morton, A. L. 586 Moscow 557, 564 f., 574 , 576, 578, 580 f., 606, 608, 620 f.. 631 Moser, J . J . 220 Mossé, Rob. 675 Motley, J . L. 152, 234, 392 Mottram, E. N. W. 418, 692 Mouridsen, F. T . 460 Mourik Broekman, M. C. van 418 Mowat, R . B. 68 f. Mühlmann, O. 679 Müller, F. H. 229, 238, 242 Müller, J . J . 390, 393 f. Müller, Johs. von 230, 386 Müller, P. 409

Müller-Freienfels. W. 685 Müller-Wille, Wilh. 686 Müllner, Joh. 409 Multhoff, Rob. 681 Mumford, Lewis 110, 419 Munich 226-28, 230, 238, 243, 247, 250 f., 267 f., 274, 280, 286, 289, 294 f., 302, 306-10, 312 f., 315. 321 f., 3 4 3 - 4 6 , 357, 576, 602, 685 f. Münster 238, 243, 251, 268, 270, 274 f., 289, 297, 299, 314, 346 f., 352, 686 Münsterberg, H. 234 f. Murfree, M. N., see Craddodt, C. E. Murray, H. 48 Musset, R . 164, 675 Mussolini, Benito 474, 480 f., 483 f. Mutschmann, H. 286, 289, 353, 601 Mutton. A. F. A. 702 Muzzey, D. S. 128 Myklebost, T . 439, 693 Myrdal, Alva 443 Myrdal, Gunnar 443 f., 696 Nancy 148, 151, 162, 182, 203, 676 Nangeroni, G. 690 Naples 464, 468 f., 47(i, 487 f., 496, 506, 510 f., 514, 548, 690 Napoleon I 27, 132, 135 f., 211, 221, 465, 515 Napoleon III 132 f., 136, 141, 388 Napp-Zinn, A. F. 288 Narbel, Henri 393 Näsmark, K.-E. 461 Nauwerck, K. 230 Nazari, Em. 690 Nedic, Borivoj 633, 704 Negroes 561, 570, 587, 657 Nelson, H. M. O. 442, 444, 461, 696 Nencioni, Enrico 477 Neser, L. 289 Netherlands 266, 368-80, 383, 417 f., 644 692 f Neuchätel 392 f., 396, 402 f., 697 f. Neumann, Fr. X . 407 Neumann, K. Fr. 228 f. Neumann, Ludw. 238 Nevins, Allan 129, 457 New England 111, 121, 152, 158f., 207 , 231, 268, 368, 656, 658 New York 68, 162, 338, 380, 405, 466, 478, 658 Newall, A. 128 Newcastle 68 f., 115 f., 700 Newman, E. C. 444 Nice 170, 185 Nichol, J . 25, 57, 96, 125, 128, 249 Nicholas I of Russia 557 Nicholas, H. G. 68, 703 Nicodemi, G. 502, 688

500. 379,

439,

171. 422.

Index of Names Niedeisachsen 296 f., 299 f., 302, $04. 355 f. Nielsen, Axel 425 Nielsen, Yngvar 431 Niemeier, G. 288 Nietzsche, Fr. 38, 471 f. Nijmegen 371, 374, 378, 692 Nippold. Fr. 245, 247 Nissen, Hartvig 431 Noack, Ulrich 687 Node, S. A. 274 Nolte, F. 149 Norborg, S. 433 Nordemkjöld, O. 442 "Nordic" 279 f., 281 Nordrhein-Westfalen 2971., 300, 355 Norlin, G. 272 Norlind, G. A. 442 Norris, Frank 115, 151, 158 NfrstebO, S. 439, 695 North Sea 373, 429 North Staffordshire 82, 98 f., IIS, 119 f., 646, 702 Norway 421, 428-39, 445 , 460 f., 644, 649, 693 Norwood Report 129 Nottingham 66, 83, 96-99, 120 f., 702 f. Novi Sad 624, 627, 705 Novosiltsev, N. 555 Nuremberg 347 , 686 Nussbaum, Fritz 393, 396 Nygird, K. 460 Nyström, J . Fr. 442 Oberhummer, E. 238, 407, 409 Obermann, Karl 596, 678 Obertello, Alfr. 690 Obst, E. 238, 275, 290. 684 O D e l l , A. C. 699 Odets, Clifford 444 Odhner, Cl. T h . 442 Oestreich, Carl 238 Oggioni, Em. 689 Ohlin, Bertil 696 Okun, S. B. 566 Oliver, John 704 Olivero, F. 488 f. Olomouc 60S Olschki, L. 463 Olsson, Hagar 459 Omsted, A. 433 Oncken, Herrn. 241, 243, 253, 264, 268, 274, 287. 352 O'Neill, Eugene 60, 158, 161, 184, 272, 287, 396. 658 Ontiveros y Herrera, E. G. 527, 694 Ophüls, C. F. 683 Oporto 5 SO—32 Oppel, A. 239 Oppel, Horst 685

725

Orange, House of 369 Ording, Ame 432, 693 Oriani, Alfr. 472 Oriental Institute, see Naples Oriental Seminar, see Berlin Oreini, G. N. 488 f. Ortolani, M. 691 Osicka, A. J . 602, 672 Oslo 431 f., 434-38, 460, 693 Ostrogorsky, M. 558, 562 O'Sullivan, D. 688 Otto, Ernst 681 Ottoman Empire 533, 537 Ottoman University, see Istanbul Oundle School 79 Ovid 215 Oxford 5 3 - 5 7 , 60, 64, 67 f., 70, 75 f., 81, 84 f.. 87 f., 90, 104, 109-13, 296, 298, 368, 565, 628, 703 Pabón, J . 695 Paci, Enzo 691 Pacific Ocean 238, 394. 514 Padua 475 f., 513, 690 Page, Thomas Nelson 62 Pagès, G. 163 Pagnini, M. 502, 691 Paine, T h . 131, 287, 584, 586 Palermo 487, 513, 690 Palestine, see Israel Palmerston, J . T . 46 Panassié, H. 674 Panzer, Wolfg. 272, 288 f„ 685 Papajewski, H. 682 Papy, Louis 675 Parent, Mon. 675 Pares, R . 66, 68 Paret, K. H. 224 Pareto, V. 471 Paris 134, 136, 138. 140-53, 156-60, 162 f., 165, 178-83, 185-89, 193-98, 201-04, 206, 235, 272, 391 f., 558, 637 f., 656, 676 f. Parker, J . 704 Parkhurst, Helen 563 Parkinson, J . 70S Parkman, Francis 158, 656 Parma 513 Parmentier, J . 152 Parrington, V. L. 115 Parry, D. H. 701 Partsch, Jos. 238, 274 Pasi, Mario 688 Pasquet, D. 163, 166 Passy, P. 146 Paterson, John H. 700 Pattee, F. L. 44, 550 Patterson, E. J . 700 Patzelt, Ema 409, 670 Paul, A. 553 f.

726

Index of Names

Paulowsky, W. 409 Paupil, K. 670 Pavese, Cesare 482 Pavia 487 f., 51S, 690 £. Pea body, F. G. 247 Pear. R. H. 84, 701 Pearson, C. H. 55 Pedrazzini, M. 393 Pedro V, King of Portugal 530 Pellegrini, G. 503, 691 Pelling, H. 89, 703 Pellim, Cam. 689 Peltola, N. J. 459, 673 Penck, Albr. 272 Pender, R. H. 272 Pennsylvania, Univ. of, see Philadelphia Pepys, S. 586 Pergolesi, F. 689 Perpillou, A. 207, 677 Perry, Bliss 152 Pest 419 Pesta, Th. 419 Potain, Ph. 132 Petch, G. A. 700 Peter the Great 554, 556 Peters, H. F. 344-46 Peters, W. E. 274 Petersen, Peter 274 Petit, A. 394 Petri, Ed. 395 Petrone, Michele 686 Petrov, E. 561 Petrova, A. V. 631 Petzäll, Alee 696 Petzold, G. von 273, 275 Pfändler, W. 397 Pfannenstill, B. A. 696 Pfeffer, K.-H. 288 Pfeifer, Gottfr. 288, 290, 684 Philadelphia 199 Philip of Macedonia 47 Philip, Kjeld 672 Philippi, Ferd. 230 Philippines 290, 576 Philippson, Alfr. 238, 393 Philippson, E. A. 273, 288 Pi y Margall, F. 516 Pickford, E. 229 Pictet de Rochemont, C. 387 Piedmont 464, 473 Pierandrei, Fr. 691 Pierro, M. 489 Pilley, J. G. 700 Pilsudski, J. 612 Pinchemel, Ph. 676 Pingaud, L. 144, 148 Pinto, Roger 676 Piovene, G. 688 Pipping, Hugo E. 673 Pirou, G. 163

Pisa 487, 496, 499, 511, 691 Pitt Chair, Cambridge (England) 112 f. Pivano, Fernanda 688 Plaisance, Rob. 162 Platen, Paul 679 Plath, K. H. C. 246 Pleijel, H. A. 696 Plenge, Joh. 247 Plessow, G. 286, 289, 332 Plewe, Ernst 685 Plischke, H. 288 Plöchl, Willibald M. 670 Poe, Edgar A. 60, 76, 150-52, 158, 161, 166-68, 184, 251 f., 262, 272-74, 28789, 391, 393 f., 396, 411, 416, 418, 439, 444, 452, 457, 484, 488 f., 492, 498, 503, 513, 532, 541, 544, 550, 605, 658 Pohl La Vera, A. 290 Poinsard, L. 146 Poitiers 148, 151 f., 161 f., 178, 182, 203. 677 Pokrovsky, M. N. 564 Polak, Fred. L. 692 Polak, M. V. 378, 692 Poland 73, 581, 590, 596, 611-17, 628. 630, 633, 694 Polar Regions 238, 420, 422 Polcik, Lecturer 672 Pole, J. R. 702 Policardi, S. 503, 690 Polisensky, J. 672 Pölitz, K. H. L. 226 f., 229 Pollard, A. F. 66, 69, 99 Pollard, E. A. 274 Polynesia 393 Pompen, A. 371, 692 Pons, C. 674 Ponteil, F. 677 Pontoppidan, M. 424 Pontovitch, S. V. 631 Poppitz, Johs. 289 Porter, W. S„ see Henry, O. Portugal 524, 529-33, 547, 550 Posen, see Poznan Poser, Hans 289, 684 Postan, Michael 700 Postl, C., see Sealsfield, C. Potsdam 582 Potter, A. M. 84, 702 Potter, J. 701 Pound, Ezra 324, 372 Poussin, G. T. 139 Pouthas, Ch.-H. 207 Powell, I. B. 704 Poznan (Posen) 283, 289, 587, 614 f., 694 Pradier-Fodiri, P. 146 Prague (Praha) 406 f., 602-04, 672 Praz, M. 485, 488, 503, 691 Prfclin, Edm. 162, 166, 207, 675 Predöhl, And. 274, 686

Index of Names Preller, Hugo 679 Pre-raphaelites 472 Prescott, W. H. 48, 59 f., 255, 392 Presser. J. 378, 692 I'reuss, Hugo 246 I'rezzolini, G. 689 Price, Bonamy 55 Priestley, J. B. 623 I'rieur, S. 675 Pritchard, M. W. 699 Privat, Edm. 698 Prussia 167, 214. 216 f.. 222, 227. 232-36, 246, 250. 254 f., 259 . 262-64 , 266, 277, 351 Pruvost, R. 162, 677 Pucellc, J. 677 Pugno, G. M. 691 Pulaski, C. 611 I'usic. Eugen 705 Pye, V 701 Pyrenees 514 Quelle, Otto 273, 681 Quiggin, E. C. 251 Quinn, A. H. 115 Quinn, D. B. 704 Qvamme, B. 693 Rabbeno, Ugo 476 Radakovic, K. 670 R.rder, O. M. 432 Radishchev, Alex. 551, 579 Raff, G. Ch. 221 Ragghiami, C. L. 691 Raiziss, S. 674 R a m b a u d , Alfr. 149 R a m b e a u , Adolf 246 f., 252 Ramsay, D. 139, 369 Ranke, L. von 215, 224 f., 239, 255. 351 Ransom, J. C. 106 R a p i n , René 697 R a p p a r d , W. E. 393, 395 f., 403, 697 Rasmussen, Egil 439 Ratcliffe, S. K. 699 Rathgen, K. 273 Ratzel, Fr. 238 f. R a u c h h a u p t , F. \V. von 268. 271 Rauers, Fr. 272 R ä u m e r , Fr. von 224, 227. 229 Rauschning. H. 354 Rawlings. M. K. 72 Ravnal. G.-Th.-F. 131. 139. 369. 464 Reading 121, 703 Rebillon, A. 164, 677 Rebora, P. 549, 690 Reclus, t . 149 Redard. f.. 393 Redlich. J. 409 Redslob, R. 247 Rees. J. C. 704 24» - I I .

ITI

Regel, F. 238 f. Reimann, Ed. 230 Reimann, Erna 679 Rein, Adolf 269, 273, 289, 684 Rein, J. J. 238 Rein, Willi. 246 f. Reinhard, M. 677 Reinhard, Rud. 289 Reinhardt, W. 679 Reinhold. H. 681 Reinsch. P. S. 242 f.. 217 Reintanz, Gerh. 679 Reitterer, T h . 409, 419 Rcmords, G. 678 Renard, G. 163 Rennes 148. 164, 182, 203 f., 677 Renouvin, P. 163, 677 Reske-Nielsen, F.. 672 Retslag, C. 228 Reuning, Karl 268, 273 Reuss. J. D. 219 Reuter, O. R. 461, 673 Reverdin, H. 396 Rexius, G. 441 f. Rev, William 388 Reyes, Alb. 694 Reykjavik 421 f.. 687 Reynolds, P. A. 704 Rheinland-Pfalz 297 f., 302, 304 f.. 317. 355 f., 659 Rheinstein, Max 272 Rhodes, Cecil (Housc. Scholarships) 53, 70. 110, 112 Rhodes, J. F. 54 Ribot, Alex. 142, 154 Ricci, Aldo 549 Ricci, Leon. 690 Richards, Peter G. 704 Richert, Hans 262 Richter, Ed. 406 Richter, Jul. 272 Richter, W e r n e r 325, 681 Richthofen, C. L. B. von 229 Richthofen, F. Fr. von 238 Rick, Karl 275, 289 Riese, T e u t 683 Riess. Ludw. 242, 273 Riewald, J. G. 418 Riley, James W. 252 Ritter, Carl 226 Ritter, Gerhard 683 Ritter, H . A. 418 Ritter, Karl 680 Ritterbusch, P. 274 Rittershausen, H . 288 Rivera, Primo de 520 Rizzardi. Alfr. 689 Robbins, C. A. 272 Robert College, see Istanbul Robert, Jean 677

728

Index of Names

Roberti, G. 689 Roberts, C. H. 55 Roberts, J. M. 703 Robertson, C. J. 700 Robertson, W. 48, 139, 369, 423, 464, 469. 516, 554 Robinson, Edw. A. 158 f. Robinson, Th. L. 397 Robson, E. 89 Robson, W. A. 701 Roché, René 675 Rochester, Univ. of 202 Rock, A. 325 Rockefeller (Family; Foundation) 70. 73. 112, 117, 120, 124, 167, 199, 34». 377. 399, 400, 415, 426, 135 f., 449, 507, 511. 627, 635 Rodger, A. B. 703 Rödgen, H. B. 702 Rodolico, N. 502, 689 Rodriguez Casado, V. 527, 695 Roediger, Conr. 687 Roemer, Hans 680 Roger, G. 172, 207 Roglic, Josip 705 Roloff, E. A. 289, 681 Roloff, G. 242, 273 Romains, Jules 135 Romance Languages 132. 144, 192, 204. 223 , 247 , 266, 295 , 393 f., 463, 50-1. 526. 540, 597 Rome 29, 144, 217 , 244, 256, 391. 431. 463, 471, 474, 476-80, 482, 480-88, 495-98, 500 f., 505-09, 514, 524, 529, 546, 548, 691 Romussi, C. 475 f. Roosevelt, F. D. 169, 369, 430, 439. 442, 481 Roosevelt, Th. 235 f., 243, 261 Roosval, J. 444 , 696 Röpke, W. 274 Roretz, Karl 409, 670 Rosati, S. 503, 691 Rosberg, J. E. 455 Rosenberg, Alfred 279, 354 Rosenius, C. 461 Rosenstock-Franck, L. 189, 677 Rosier, W. 393 Ross, C. 291 Ross, E.-M. 672 Rossetti. C. 548. 689 Rossi, E. 476 Rossi, Paolo 491 Rossignol, G. 394 Rostock 226, 228, 230, 238, 267, 27.'i. 289. 352, 593, 600 f., 679 Roth, H. M. 276 Roth, Maria 684 Roth, P. R. von 230 Rothenstein, J. 699

Rothfels, Hans 687 Rothschild. B. de 674 Rotteck, K. von 228 Rotterdam 378, 692 Rouen 200 Rousseau, J.-J. 134 Roux de Rochelle, J.-B.-G. 516 Rovelli, Fr. 690 Rowe, W. J. 701 Royce. Josiah 433, 476, 484 . 492 Roz, Firmin 150, 157, 166, 207, 524. 674 Rudiinger, Arnold 696 Rudolph, Emil 239 Rüegg, Walter 698 Ruellan, F. 674 Rugby 127 Rühl, Alfr. 238, 272, 287 Ruhmer, Eb. 680 Ruiz Morales, J. M. 694 Rumania 606-10, 630, 633 Rungaldier, Rand. 670 Rupp. Hans 288, 687 Rüschkamp-Whitehead, A. 273 Ruskin, John 47 Russell, W. 48 Russi, Ant. 691 Russia (the Soviet Union) 37-39. 42. 62. 73 f., 80, 104, 130. 272. 292. 419. 440 453-55. 481, 491, 539 f.. 543, 552-86. 588-91. 594-98. 601, 603-22 . 624, 627-33, 647, 669 Ruth, Walter 670 Rüttimann. J. J. 387, 390, 392-94 Ruttke, F. 289 Ruville, Alb. von 243 Saar (Saarbrücken) 311, 347, 686 Sachsen 255, 632 Sadler, M. E. 56 Sagnac, Ph. 163 Sahinbas, Irfan 698 St. Andrews 68 f., 87, 91. 125 f., 703 f. St. Gallen 390, 395 f., 402 f.. 698 St. Louis 235 Salamanca 526 Salazar, Antonio 531 Salewsky, R. 253 Salin, Edgar 697 Salis. J. R. de 397. 698 Sailing. Aa. 460 Salomon. Felix 243. 270. 274 Salonika 535—37 Salsa, C. 489 Salter, Arthur 68 Salter, F. R. 54 Salzburg (Seminar) 41. 426. 625 f.. «35-38 Samarin. R. 578 Samhaber. F.. 325. 680 Samona, G. 691 Sampson, R. V. 699

Index of Names Sandburg, Carl 175 Samdiford, Rob. 691 Sandven. Johs. 439. 693 Sanna, Vitt. 689 Sanskrit 328 Siantayana, G. 152, 188, 288. 502 Santos, Angel 694 Sapper, Karl T h . 239, 275 Saragossa 521, 524, 695 Sarajevo 623, 627 Sardinia 466 Sardo, A. 549 Sarenkov, V. 671 Sargent, A. J. 55, 67 Saroyan, William 298 Sartorius, G. 221, 229, 555 Sartorius von Waltershausen, A. 245.247, 394 Sartre, J.-P. 156 Sassari 513 Sauermann, H. 683 S a u l , S. R. 701 Savigear, R. A. G. 704 Saxton. Alex. 578 Sjayers, R. S. 701 Stcandinavia 191, 207 . 247 . 266. 420-61. 647 S