Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online: Theory and Practice (SpringerBriefs in Education) [1st ed. 2021] 3030799182, 9783030799182

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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN EDUC ATION

Dionysios I. Psoinos

Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online Theory and Practice

SpringerBriefs in Education

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Dionysios I. Psoinos

Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online Theory and Practice

Dionysios I. Psoinos English Language Institute King Abdulaziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Hellenic American University Nashua, NH, USA

ISSN 2211-1921 ISSN 2211-193X (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Education ISBN 978-3-030-79918-2 ISBN 978-3-030-79919-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79919-9 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The first question that comes to the mind of the vast majority of readers regarding approaches and methods in language teaching is whether this is a topic worthy of discussion today or an outdated, anachronistic fixation in an era of results, performance, and standardization in academia. Many readers will ask: In the post-method era, why are we still discussing approaches and methods? I could dialectically reply with another question and ask the reading audience whether they are using an approach and a corresponding method in their day-to-day teaching and get several diverse responses. One teacher could answer ‘Communicative Language Teaching’ (CLT), another might classify themselves as eclectics, while a third might simply refuse to adhere to any specific approach. The truth is that, to some extent, every language educator has an inclination to use some approach and method or another. Be it instinctively, consciously or because of institutional directives or coursebook design, almost every teacher will use some method to deliver coherent classes. Thus, the initial question/argument of approaches and methods being obsolete is almost self-refuted. A second, slightly more direct answer to the previous question could be summarised in a Chinese proverb, according to which the tree that has deep roots does not fear the wind. If the tree is taken to depict teachers, the roots, our rich pedagogical background, and the wind is the changes in the teaching and learning environment today, referring to our methodological experience will not only help us endure the change gale, but grow into the future. In further defense of the need to review language teaching and learning practices in the online setting, Dziuban et al. (2018) contend that the current trend towards online language education courses will have an impact on the overall language-learning curriculum and raise educational policy questions relating to the content and the expediency of these courses. In light of the above, my main syllogism is that teachers need to make conscious, informed, and intentional decisions in the online classroom setting the same way we did in the face-to-face context. As online language teaching courses proliferate and technological advancements seem to outpace the TESOL community around

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the world, I argue in favour of re-setting our course, regrouping, and re-constituting ourselves as experts in our field by re-calibrating our ties with our pedagogical background, which renders us professional educators. To achieve this, approaches and methods that we have been using for decades in language education will be used as a starting, yet profoundly insightful point of reference. Their relevance to the particular online context will be examined, their potential for adaptation will be explored, and a proposition will be made for an eclectic approach that suits learners’ and teachers’ needs and that realistically responds to the challenges of twenty-first century online language teaching and learning. Approaches and methods in teaching foreign languages have always been a controversial issue. From the orgasmic 1950s, 60s, and 70s, when the field of applied linguistics and TESOL in particular prolifically produced approaches and methods that one would either love or hate, we have reached 2021 wise enough to know that no one approach and method is the sole answer to better language learning. The tendency for a post-method era that started in the 1980s with Stern (1983) arguing in favour of multiple methods as opposed to adhering to a single one coexisted with the development of new approaches and methods in the 1990s such as the Lexical Approach or CLIL later in the 2000s. More recently, Akbari (2008) argued that the coursebook dictates the approach teachers will adopt in their daily teaching. Clearly, we never really abandoned approaches and methods completely. For example, today, CLT mixed with features borrowed from the Lexical Approach, and Task-based Learning is prevalent in the materials teachers use in the classroom, indirectly showing the way towards an eclectic model of teaching languages that makes the best of all these approaches and methods and contribute to better, more efficient language learning. Nevertheless, eclecticism is an approach and comes with a method. Teachers and learners have experienced this amalgamation in face-to-face (FTF) classes for at least two decades. What about online? Are such practices transferable online? Is teaching languages face-to-face (FTF) the same as teaching online? More importantly, does the setting give shape to the method or the other way around? This last dilemma lies in the proposition that the approaches and methods teachers have been using so far in FTF classes were designed with the physical classroom in mind, which has specific features by default, i.e., communication and input channels or sensory and spatial characteristics. When Asher (1969), Gattegno (1972), Krashen and Terrell (1983), or Lewis (1993) but to name a few of the major contributors to TESOL methodology were developing their corresponding language teaching and learning approaches, they did so taking a specific setting and its features as a given. Are these approaches applicable online given the nature of the setting, or must we invent approaches that specifically suit the online context? So far, online language teachers have attempted to transfer their expertise and good practices online. How successful have we been, and where do we go from here practice-wise? These are only some of the issues I explore in the pages that follow. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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References Akbari, R. (2008). Postmethod discourse and practice. TESOL Quarterly, 42(4). Asher, J. (1969). The Total Physical Response Approach to Second Language Learning. The Modern Language Journal, 53(1), 3–17. Dziuban, C., Graham, C.R., Moskal, P.D. et al. (2018). Blended learning: the new normal and emerging technologies. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15 (3). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0087-5 Gattegno, C. (1972). Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way (2nd ed.). New York: Educational Solutions. Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press. Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach: The state of ELT and a way forward. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications. Stern, H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Acknowledgements

I want to thank my editors, Ms. Natalie Rieborn and Mrs. Helen van der Stelt, for their ongoing support and guidance throughout this endeavour. Their unparalleled professionalism made all the difference for me and encouraged me to see this manuscript through. I am also most grateful to the anonymous reviewers of this book, who understood my vision, as well as the aims, and scope of this book, and whose comments and thorough feedback were instrumental in improving the manuscript. Special thanks to Dr. Themis Kanaklidou and Prof. Juliane House of Hellenic American University for their unconditional support. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia May 2021

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Introduction

The field of applied linguistics with a focus on the teaching of languages has had a long and celebrated history of research on cognition, second language acquisition, approaches, methods, and pedagogy. Moreover, language teachers have been pioneers in the development, uptake, and integration of new technologies in our teaching from very early on. A clear example is blended learning or the flipped classroom, which has been used in language-learning programmes around the world, from primary to tertiary education, long before the recent massive and sudden shift to online teaching. Nevertheless, until recently, integration of technology had been partial in that it did not involve the broader language teaching population and had been mostly considered auxiliary to face-to-face teaching. Recently, educational institutions and the broader global academic community underwent a tremendous shock having to practically shift from onsite to online teaching overnight. Under the strangest of circumstances, teachers and learners have been rushed into taking their whole course(s) online, which might have caused feelings of distress and agitation to those involved in the endeavour. From a teacher’s perspective, the transition resembled trying to navigate through the uncharted, rough waters of synchronous or blended online teaching on what seemed to be a makeshift, flimsy raft in the hope of finding dry land. Naturally, survival in this new environment became a priority, and issues of approaches, methods, and pedagogy were, to a great extent, left behind. Familiarising ourselves with online teaching platforms, their properties, and tools; bypassing technical glitches; and getting learners to join online classes, to begin with, have been the main concerns for most practitioners at least at the beginning of this venture. To cope with the challenges, practitioners turned to their peers via professional fora and social media, seeking support and information about day-to-day online teaching practices and advice, which in turn, has had both positive and negative implications. On the one hand, teachers’ collaboration and exchange of ideas has been significantly advanced and has occurred at an unprecedented rate, but on the other, the latter are often overwhelmed by the information overload on offer. This book is written as a response to the issues raised above. It addresses novice and more experienced language teachers who currently teach or intend to teach online in the future. The main aim of the book is to help teachers regain control of their xi

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practice and establish their online niche by linking existing theories on approaches and methods in language teaching to the new,1 online teaching setting. To this end, I set out to explore the application of these methods and techniques that accompany them online. This pursuit has to be both theoretical and practical so that the reader will make well-informed decisions regarding their day-to-day online teaching. In this light, this book is not prescriptive and does not aim to promote one approach over another. Instead, it presents language teachers with a whole range of pedagogically sound choices, takes a critical look at practices that may or may not work online, and enables teachers to critically evaluate and select the ones that suit them. Throughout this book, I adopt a top-down, critical approach to exploring online TESOL. Chapter 1 marks the territory I will explore by defining the different modes of online language learning and pinning down the online teaching space, the electronic educational media it incorporates, and the tools teachers have at their disposal. The properties of such media may have a considerable impact on classroom practices and, to a degree, determine what happens in an online language-learning session (Kosma, 1994; Ko & Rossen, 2017). Online teaching and learning platforms and apps are a space of action with specific properties that either facilitate or restrict interaction among group participants. Moreover, although these spaces are not a medium per se, they encompass and utilise several media within a session. Thus, they constitute the context, the environment in which teaching and learning occur. In this light, it is essential to closely examine the environment in which teaching and learning occur before delving into approaches and methods in online language teaching. The discussion of the media features both online and in face-to-face (FTF) teaching helps illustrate their differences and address three of the hottest questions regarding online tools and platforms used in language teaching nowadays. To what extent has the medium become the message? If so, is this what teachers intended to achieve, or are we, language educators, led by technological advancements? What are the learner and teachers’ roles in this hi-tech, continually evolving, online teaching and learning context? Chapter 2 addresses these concerns by specifying the ‘new’ roles teachers and learners have to play in the newfound land of online language teaching and learning. These roles are part of our professional identity, and their unconscious and unquestionable adoption imply an involuntary transformation of identity. Thus, this chapter focuses on the people behind the screens, their freedom to make choices, and the ethical aspects of online language teaching and learning. These issues are examined through the lens of Critical Digital Pedagogy (CDP), an approach to online education that was specifically conceived and developed to investigate equality and power relations in the online educational context. My primary claim in this part of the book is that the shift from onsite to online teaching is an excellent opportunity for teachers to rediscover their professional identity, an endeavour that is further pursued in the 1 ‘New’

in the sense that the online teaching and learning setting is fluid and constantly ‘under construction’ with online platforms and tools undergoing continuous development and change (see Sects. 1.6 and 2.7).

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next chapter whereby learning theories are recruited in an effort to better understand the place of teachers in the fluid, online environment that empowers learners in an unprecedented scale and manner. To this end, old and newer learning theories and their take on teacher intervention in the process of acquiring knowledge online are discussed in Chap. 3 as they offer some utterly valuable insights in this regard. Chapter 3 opens with a brief account of the most prevalent learning theories to date, which are tied to the online teaching setting, learners and teachers included, and the most well-established language teaching methods. I then experiment with each one of these methods in a purist fashion and explore their application online. At the same time, I examine the media we have at our disposal and the things that they allow us to do as well as their limitations. In Sect. 3.3, I look into eclecticism as an approach to teaching languages online and expand on its great potential and shortcomings, and the chapter closes with a personalisable eclectic model proposition. Using myself as an example, I specify my online teaching philosophy based on the theories of learning to which I feel closer, the features I choose to borrow from different approaches and methods, as well as my classroom management style, always bearing in mind the features of the online setting as these were described in Chapter 1. Hopefully, this eclectic paradigm will increase online teachers’ confidence and enable them to be effective and stay true to their values in their online language teaching as opposed to going with the flow or making random choices. Chapter 4 draws on all the valuable insights gained from the previous chapters and provides examples of actual screenshots from online session interfaces, which I analyse in terms of the interaction among the medium, the mandated materials used in an online class, and the teacher’s assumptions about teaching languages online. CDP, teacher and learner identities, roles, platform tools, approaches, methods, and theories of learning all manifest themselves in practice enlightening the reader as to how technology and pedagogy can come together to serve language education online. Both Chaps. 3 and 4 explicate and demonstrate a range of good practices that work online, mainly with adolescents, young adults, and adult learners with levels of proficiency ranging from post-beginner to advanced so that teachers can select and compile their repertoire according to their circumstances as well as who they are as people and professional educators. The conclusion summarises the main arguments advocated in the book and makes a case in favour of an updated eclectic approach to teaching online. Such an approach would cut across methods; allow for conscious flexibility, adaptability, and resilience on the part of practitioners and decision-makers; and optimally serve the learner and the teachers’ objectives in the highly volatile online teaching and learning context of our times.

References Ko, S. & Rossen, S. (2017). Teaching Online: A Practical Guide (4th. ed.). New York. Routledge. Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, (42), 7–19.

Contents

1 Modes, Media and the Online Teaching Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Synchronous, Asynchronous, and Blended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The Screen as the Online Teaching Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Properties of the Virtual Space and Implications for Online Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Online Tools and Their Pedagogical Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Practical Problems (Power, Connection, Server, System Failure, Classroom Management, Motivation, Etiquette, Integrity of Assessment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 The Online Setting to Come . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 3

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2 Beyond the Online Teaching and Learning Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 The Learner, the Teacher, and Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Critical Digital Pedagogy (CDP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Teachers’ Roles and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Learners’ Roles and Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Adapting Teacher and Learner Identity to the Online Context . . . . 2.7 Teacher Education for Online Language Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25 25 26 27 29 36 38 43 46

3 Online Language Teaching Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Theories of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Behaviourism (Skinner, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Constructivism (Piaget, 1950; Chomsky, 1980) . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Social Constructivism (Vygotsky, 1934) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.4 Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.5 Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.6 Connectivism (Siemens, 2004; Downes, 2010) . . . . . . . . .

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3.2

The “established” Approaches and Methods and the Online Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Grammar and Translation (GT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Audiolingualism (ALM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 The Silent Way (Gattegno, 1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4 Total Physical Response (Asher, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5 Suggestopedia (Georgi Lozanov, 1978s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.6 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.7 The Lexical Approach (Lewis, 1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.8 Task-Based Learning (Prabhu, 1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.9 The Natural Approach (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) . . . . . . . 3.2.10 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) . . . . . 3.3 Teaching Languages Online—Eclecticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Features of Eclecticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 A Critical Look into Eclecticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 E-clecticism—A Suggested Pedagogical Paradigm for the Online Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Online Sample Activities, Theoretical Underpinnings, and Application of Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Learner Training-Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Warmer—Speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Learner Training—Using the Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Speaking and Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Vocabulary—Levels of Formality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Warmer—Speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Teaching Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Language Production Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 56 59 62 65 68 73 75 78 81 83 85 86 87 88 91 95 95 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 111 113 115

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Chapter 1

Modes, Media and the Online Teaching Space

This chapter reviews key terms in online language teaching and learning and familiarises the reader with the numerous, diverse variables involved in using a platform to teach languages online. Inherent features of the online setting, interface, and environment in which teaching and learning take place are discussed, tools that the platforms offer are being critically examined for their pedagogical value and potential, and current concerns, including integrity of assessment, are brought to the attention of the reader as factors that have an impact on the quality of ELT/language teaching courses offered online. The chapter closes with a ‘sneak peek’ into the online language education setting to come, which seems to be inextricably linked to the galloping advancements in areas such as Artificial Intelligence and Information Technology.

1.1 Synchronous, Asynchronous, and Blended Online courses can be delivered in several modes, namely via live sessions, recorded ones, a mix of both live and recorded classes along with written coursework, or even require some physical presence. To a great extent, teaching online offers quite many opportunities for learners, teachers, and educational institutions to tailor courses according to needs and circumstances. Thus, the combinations of course design and delivery can be both numerous and diverse. Nevertheless, online language courses mainly revolve around the synchronous and asynchronous modes, while blended learning is a category of its own. Synchronous language education involves the delivery of live online sessions where learners and the teacher can interact in real-time via an online platform or app. Synchronous classes are time, and place-specific, and all participants must log in to the platform at the same time, hence the term ‘synchronous.’ These sessions presuppose that learners and teachers have the necessary equipment that will allow them to attend the class, such as a computer or a smart device and a stable internet © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. I. Psoinos, Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79919-9_1

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1 Modes, Media and the Online Teaching Space

connection to say the least. In synchronous classes, participants can see and hear one another, share materials, work in pairs or groups, and engage in interaction similar to a ftf class. Nevertheless, when learners are in different time zones, synchronous learning can be quite a challenge as sessions have to be arranged at times convenient to all, which may not be feasible. There are a number of practical as well as ethical implications involved in synchronous language teaching and learning that will be discussed later in this book. Asynchronous teaching and learning refers to online courses in which sessions might be recorded, materials uploaded, and learners can perform different tasks in their own time and at their own pace. Such courses address the issue of course participants residing in different parts of the world, and in a sense, democratize access to education by giving learners and teachers the opportunity to attend a course without disrupting their personal or professional routine. Asynchronous courses tend to be highly and very clearly structured, arranged in weeks, or learning blocks so as to monitor learner progress within the course as well as build up on course content. Communication occurs via message board discussions or fora where participants can post and respond to one another at a later time but within a deadline. Lacking the ‘live’ element, asynchronous learning is deprived of the interactive choices available in courses delivered synchronously. Both synchronous and asynchronous language learning courses are categorized as distance education or online courses as most, if not all, of the content, coursework, and assessment is delivered online. Blended learning attempts to make the most of ftf and online teaching and learning features. As the name suggests, blended learning courses combine physical presence in the classroom and activities performed online (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Graham, 2006). The onsite-online ratio may vary, but the online element will usually not exceed 50%, or the course will be classified as online or distance education (Bernard, Borokhovski, Schmid, Tamim, & Abrami, 2014; Porter, Graham, Spring, & Welch, 2014). The main sub-categories/models include the well-known to many ‘flipped classroom’ whereby learners do preliminary work with course materials at home and engage in higher-order skills in class such as problem-solving or responding critically to what they read at home. Regulation and management of blended courses also vary significantly among schools. For example, some institutions may use the online element for homework and short assignments done asynchronously, while others may have learners working in groups online in order to complete an assessed project that they may later present live onsite or online. The variations, composition, and weight of activities in blended learning courses are, evidently, quite versatile and flexible (Hrastinski, 2019). This book addresses all three modes of online language teaching and learning in that it focuses on session delivery and management. In applying the most wellestablished approaches and methods in ELT online (see Chap. 3), I specifically refer to teacher and learner actions, which implies that the session is live. What is more, in the last chapter, where I present and analyse online language learning activities and explore their potential adaptation to suit the online context, I am referring to both synchronous and asynchronous sessions. Lastly, the book is relevant to blended learning teachers who deliver online classes in which there is some learner-learnerteacher interaction.

1.1 Synchronous, Asynchronous, and Blended

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I must clearly state at this point that my primary focus on the teacher in this book by no means implies that online learning is teacher-centred, and I explicitly illustrate that in Chap. 3, where the roles of learners and Critical Digital Pedagogy are discussed. Rather, I intentionally concentrate on the target audience of this book, i.e., language teachers and their concerns about the online teaching context, to raise their professional awareness and enable them to make decisions that suit them and are pedagogically sound online. To do that, one has to start from the seemingly plain yet, highly complex online teaching and learning setting.

1.2 The Screen as the Online Teaching Setting After the first quarter of 2020, the teaching and learning environment changed for many practitioners and their learners. What we once took as a given, i.e., the fact that most of our teaching took place in a physical classroom, was no longer true, and the virtual space became the sole environment/context in which we could teach. In discussing approaches and methods to teaching online, one cannot neglect to take into account the new environment, which in this case, is largely shaped by the media of instruction that it incorporates and which affect what teachers do in class as well as the learning outcomes of online courses (Hampel & Stickler, 2005). In this part, I will refer to the virtual and the physical classroom, not in antagonistic terms, but rather to highlight the features of the first. The rationale behind this choice is to relate the new teaching setting to something with which all teachers are familiar, i.e., the traditional, onsite classroom setting. An essential realisation and a starting point to the discussion is that in teaching languages online, the screen becomes the classroom, that is, the space where teaching and learning take place (Huang, Spector, &Yang, 2019). In the online language-teaching context, the screen and, more specifically, the platform interface via which a session is delivered, is the place from where all the action begins and where all session participants return after the action is finished. As such, the screen is central to the discussion of approaches and methods in teaching languages online as it reflects the teacher’s philosophical and methodological assumptions, technological expertise and sets the mood and the tone of the whole course (see Chap. 4). Compared to the physical classroom, the online teaching space is less linear as class participants use links, external resources and multitask during the sessions. An effective learning space must be user-friendly, aesthetically stimulating, practical, but most of all, intentional. I use the word ‘intentional’ to highlight the essentiality of conscious and purposeful decisions made by the teacher regarding the layout of the screen, which in turn reflect our methodological standpoint and awareness of the environment in which we operate. Cluttered, overpopulated screens, for example, could be a sign that a teacher is unaware of the cognitive load that they impose on learners, which may hinder the teaching and learning process (Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2005). Consequently, the teaching space must be transparent in terms of layout, accurately reflecting teacher beliefs about how

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people learn languages better. Tools, resources, and session participants’ video boxes must be arranged in a way that facilitates learning as opposed to distracting learners (see Chap. 4). The new teaching space requires teachers to be fully aware of all these variables in order to deliver effective online lessons. Thus, online language teachers are now interface designers and media managers, additionally to their other roles (Ellis & Goodyear, 2016—see Chap. 2). With the above in mind, it becomes evident that mastering the space and harnessing its media will lead to more successful and effective online sessions. The section below attempts to shed light upon the online classroom media and their features by comparing them with those found in the traditional, onsite classroom.

1.3 Properties of the Virtual Space and Implications for Online Language Teaching The definition of media in this book is the same as that provided by Kozma (1994: 11), whereby these are “vehicles for communication, relative to delivery and representation of information, and interaction among users.” It seems that there is much more to instructional media than meets the eye; put in Wildean terms, media is rarely pure and never simple. It is essential at this point to refer to the distinction between inbuilt/internal media that individuals have at their disposal in face-to-face interaction in relation to the external technical media available in computer-mediated interaction (Elleström, 2014: 118). The attributes of these media vary significantly in terms of materiality, sense reception, and realization of time and space. In the two figures below, for example, the media available to teachers and learners for communication of meaning onsite and online are presented. The online teaching context, given its two-dimensional nature, deprives teachers and learners of many communicative tools available in the physical classroom, which in turn, has numerous implications in relation to communicative effect. Similarly, in the physical classroom, teachers and learners have specific material, sensorial, and spatiotemporal resources/channels at their disposal, which allow them to mediate information and interact. In comparison, the online classroom is two-dimensional, and participants make use of the following media in order to interact. Elleström (2014: 5) holds that “All media are multimodal and intermedial in the sense that they are composed of multiple basic features and are understood only in relation to other types of media.” Hence, the bottom bubble in both Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 refers to a combination of all the previously mentioned media that users might recruit in attempting to make sense of a message that is being transmitted. Moreover, these media constitute the context, the realization, and result in the materiality of interaction in the online class. What are the practical implications for teachers and learners operating in such a context, and how do these media enhance or restrict teaching and learning? Ellestrom’s earlier assertion regarding the interconnection of media can be taken to imply the necessity of a skill on the part of the media user, to synthesise and

1.3 Properties of the Virtual Space and Implications …

5

Fig. 1.1 The initially amorphous online teaching space waiting to be brought to life. Platform depicted: Zoom

Voice/Sound

Smell/Tangibility

Vision & side vision/Sight

Physical

Touch/Tangibility

Classroom Body language: gestures,posture.

Media

Facial expressions

One intermediary (one or a combination of the above) Fig. 1.2 Media via which interaction occurs in the physical classroom

decode these modalities and interrelations among different media if one is to perceive the message accurately (Elleström, 2014). This skill can also be referred to as media/digital literacy. Several scholars have identified and highlighted the importance of being visually literate (Avgerinou & Ericson, 2002; K˛edra, 2018), especially in the online context, which is particularly dense in visual terms. Hobbs (2011), holds that visual, digital literacy skills are essential in computer-mediated instruction, and unless learners have been trained in these skills, communication and interaction via/with the material will be problematic (ibid). Consequently, instructional media and the online classroom interface once again come in the foreground of the discussion as factors that affect the teaching and learning process and its outcomes.

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1 Modes, Media and the Online Teaching Space

Voice/Sound

Mainly gestures due to current technical limitations

Online

Vision/Sight

Classroom Media

Facial expressions

Three intermediaries (one or a combination of the above + hardware + software) Fig. 1.3 Media available to teachers and learners in the virtual classroom

Figures 1.2 and 1.3 help illustrate the number of resources/channels teachers and learners can draw upon in classroom interaction onsite and online. In the first case, more contextual, paralinguistic features are present, while in the second, participant interaction occurs via the use of mechanical media. Learner motivation to actively participate in online sessions might be affected by the lack of context and proximity as learners can turn their microphone and camera on and off, which practically equals to learner withdrawal from a session as all communication media are disabled. Nevertheless, the learner might still be logged into the platform and thus, cannot be marked absent by the teacher. This constitutes a great power shift of roles and responsibilities in the online setting that is discussed in Chap. 2 of this book. Many learners are also camera shy, which can be used as a reason/excuse for lack of active participation in an online session. Admittedly, to date, visual and media literacy studies have been overlooked by the mainstream language teaching community, but the need to train teachers and learners to cope with the challenges that the new, visually hectic setting of the online class entails is more pressing than ever. Online language teachers must be aware of the media and tools they have at their disposal, their affordances, and misaffordances (Beatty, 2003) and attempt to exploit their features to the best of their ability when teaching online to compensate for the ones that the technology available to us today does not offer. This brings me to the issue of online tools that teachers can use online and their pedagogical significance, which is examined in the next section.

1.4 Online Tools and Their Pedagogical Value In this section, I critically review the platform tools available to online language teachers from a pedagogical point of view, and explore their various uses and potential so as to enable practitioners to best utilise them online. Different language learning platforms and apps offer different tools that learners and teachers can use in an

1.4 Online Tools and Their Pedagogical Value

7

online synchronous or asynchronous session. These are controlled and managed by a session moderator who may or may not opt to make them available to the rest of the participants. When setting up an online session, teachers do have a choice of making session participants moderators, thus granting them the power to control all the tools, or they may do so manually during the class as part of a specific task learners have to complete and then disable this feature. This option is particularly important as it allows for conscious and intentional power shifts in online sessions (see Chap. 2). Even if learners enter the session as participants however, they still have a level of control over some of the tools that platforms offer. Typically, but not always, online learning platforms and apps include at least some of the following tools. a.

b.

Camera/Microphone Although the camera and the mic might often be overlooked or taken for granted in online classes, they remain the two most indispensable audiovisual input channels in both synchronous and asynchronous online language teaching and learning courses. In disciplines/subjects/sessions where teaching is delivered in lecture mode, the camera and the microphone might not be central, yet, in online language learning classes, where teachers strive for materials, learnerto-learner as well as learner-to-teacher interactivity and interaction, optimal use of the mic and the camera is essential. They are practically the eyes and the ears of all session participants. Clark, Strudler, and Grove (2015) report significantly higher levels of engagement and an increased sense of online presence on the part of learners when video is used in online sessions compared to text-based communication. When learners use their cameras and microphones, the class attains a level of materiality, i.e., people are behind the screen as opposed to names on a list of participants, and the session comes to life. Learners become active participants by contributing comments, answers, or replying to their peers or the teacher, engage, negotiate meaning, personalise instruction by bringing their views onto the table, and a sense of co-learning and co-teaching is built. The pedagogical benefits of proper use of the camera and the mic are innumerable in online language classes, and every effort must be made to encourage their use despite the accompanying concerns over practical and ethical issues which can be tackled should everyone involved in the design and delivery of online classes wish to acknowledge them and take measures so that they are at least mitigated if not completely overcome (see next section). Chat box The chat box tool is an additional type of input channel along with the camera and the mic easily accessible by all participants in a session. Often used as an alternative to the camera and the mic, the chat box can complement the previous as some learners prefer to type responses and comments to speaking. In terms of learner affect, more reserved learners have a chance to be active and contribute to the class and thus, the chat box could be seen as a tool that fosters inclusion and engagement in an online session. It also allows learners with different learning styles e.g., analytical ones, to think of their response, plan

8

c.

d.

1 Modes, Media and the Online Teaching Space

it, revise it, and then post it for everyone to see. Thus, process writing/typing is fostered, and Task-based Learning practices are applied. In addition, via the chat box, learners could apply metacognitive strategies such as reflecting upon, evaluating, and managing their own learning and contributions to the session through self-correction or sentence-level peer correction, for example. The chat box might also be seen to aid typing skills, spelling, punctuation, and can be used by the teacher for a number of activities such as word race dictation. In this light, the tool in question is highly versatile and although it might seem basic, it offers the creative and imaginative teacher a range of pedagogically sound choices both as a complementary as well as a primary tool. Learner-to-learner as well as learner-to-teacher and vice versa private messaging is also possible via the chat function allowing session participants to text one another away from the prying eyes of the rest of the class. Teachers can choose to use this option to give feedback to a learner in one-to-one mode, personalise instruction, or talk to a learner about an issue that might require tact and discretion, such as behavioural or etiquette issues. Screen sharing Having discussed the three primary input media in online classes, the next most important tool would be the one that practically constitutes the context, the virtual environment in which interaction occurs. Through screen sharing, teachers can display the coursebook, PowerPoint presentations, their browser interface, or any other materials they wish to use in their daily sessions. The moderator’s screen will be mirrored onto all the participants’ devices synchronously, which adds to the cohesion and coherence of a given class as the same materials will be seen by all. Nevertheless, in most cases, if not always, screen sharing is by default exclusively available to the session moderator, which renders its manipulation by participants impossible unless the teacher makes the learners co-moderators upon setting up the session or allows multiple screen sharing. Naturally, this choice would, on the one hand, allow learners to share their screen with the whole class, peer teach and assume initiator roles, but at the same time, classroom management could be a challenge, for example, in a class of young learners. The feature is there, however, awaiting teachers to make the corresponding choice that suits their class’s profile and needs. Polls Flexible and immediate, polls can be used at any stage and time during a session for different purposes. They usually offer ‘yes/no’ and ‘multiple choice’ options. The moderator will type a question or statement to which participants will respond on the spot. This could occur at the start of the class to attract learners’ interest, motivate and engage them, or stimulate schemata. A teacher might use the poll tool to start a discussion, before reading a text, to concept check or confirm that participants have understood instructions, or simply to ‘stir things up’ in a session where learner participation might be low by asking a nonsensical or humorous question. From checking active learner attendance to using polls in order for participants to decide what they would like to do next, the tool is utterly interactive, straightforward, and engaging.

1.4 Online Tools and Their Pedagogical Value

e.

f.

g.

9

Breakout groups With Student Talking Time (STT) at the centre of language teaching and learning practices the past few decades, breakout groups is the ultimate online language teaching and learning tool for pair work and group work. They allow language teachers to divide their class into as big or small groups as they wish in order to complete a task. This will occur in the same way as it would in the physical classroom, bearing in mind the features and nature of the media at learners’ disposal. Similarly, the teacher can monitor the activity by joining in the different pairs/groups, prompting, or keeping silent as deemed necessary. Teacher-Talking Time decreases for the benefit of dialectics, negotiation skills, peer teaching, and opportunities for target language production increase. In this light, advocates of approaches and methods that prioritise learner-tolearner interaction and revolve around meaningful communication in the target language will find this tool indispensable. Whiteboard & Annotation Tools The whiteboard attempts to bring the plain or the interactive whiteboard used in the physical classroom online. As such, it brings a number of sub tools with it, such as zooming in and out, a pointer, a highlighter, a text box, shapes insertion, and a rubber. Different platforms offer different tools, yet generally speaking, at present, the whiteboard and accompanying annotation tools included in online platforms are relatively impractical compared to more advanced word processing programmes that are easily accessible by all session participants. Even if teachers/moderators decide to allow all participants to annotate and use the whiteboard freely, it seems quite hard to coordinate activity, and unless the class is made up of a very small number of adult learners, classroom management can easily spiral out of control resulting in disorientation. On the other hand, for teachers who are masters of classroom management, know their class, and plan activities meticulously, the whiteboard could be a canvas on which learners can experiment and interact with materials as well as one another. For example, a teacher could use the whiteboard as an outlet for low attention span young learners by having them practice a target item such as the alphabet using different colour pencils in class or during the break. Raise hand A handy classroom management tool that caters to inclusion in the sense that all learners are given the opportunity to participate actively at any time during a session in an orderly fashion. One of the problems with teaching online being that learners often choose to attend in stealth mode (see next section) the ‘raise hand’ button indexes learners’ conscious decision to take the initiative and ask or answer questions eponymously as their names are displayed on the screen. This allows the teacher to avoid having the same learners monopolizing a given session and invite the whole class to be active in the session. The raise hand tool also implies classroom etiquette and respect for turn-taking, which can be a challenge in online sessions.

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h.

Resources sharing/share files This is an option that online session participants have at their disposal, and that enables them to share files such as Word documents, PowerPoints, PDFs, session notes, photos, or anything class-related that could be used pre-, while, or post-session. Uploading files from one’s device allows for free sharing, distribution, and circulation of knowledge, greater interactivity among course participants, and can complement a course by giving access to information and materials course participants find useful and to which they might otherwise not have access. Recording sessions Most online language learning and teaching platforms allow moderators to record sessions and store them in a corresponding file that all course participants can access at their convenience. This is a particularly useful option, especially in blended and asynchronous teaching and learning settings, whereby learners might be in different time zones and may watch a session after its delivery. Moreover, learners who might have been absent in one session or would like to listen/watch a session again for their own reasons can have access to it usually for a limited period of time as storage of such files is hefty. Nevertheless, serious ethical issues arise, which will be discussed later in this book (see Sect. 2.3). Discussion board/forum An utterly ‘liberal’ tool in its inception, inspired by the ancient Greek and Roman fora whereby all citizens could take part in and express their views openly on matters of the ‘polis’, online discussion boards were created with a free exchange of ideas in mind for all course participants. Practically, it is up to the course moderator and the institutional guidelines to which they have to adhere to use the potential of this tool to whatever end they deem necessary. As a result, fora can be used for multiple purposes ranging from course participant bonding and fostering of group identity, to posting contributions on given topics to which learners must respond as part of course formal assessment. This is a particularly useful tool in asynchronous language learning classes as it can be used during a session or after it and learners can post delayed contributions, reply to a prompt or respond and react to other learners’ posts at a time convenient to them but within a deadline set by the moderator. The latter can use discussion boards to enhance the level of interactivity among course participants, promote learner autonomy, and practice critical thinking skills depending on how controlled, or laissez-faire1 they have consciously decided to be. Discussion boards can also be the ideal place for a session follow-up on a topic that learners might feel they have much to say but main session time does not allow them to do so. In this case, learners could use the forum to expand on what was taught in class after class extending the session with very little teacher intervention or maybe just

i.

j.

1 Interdisciplinary term that refers to management styles and involves minimum interference on the

part of an authority in how a particular action progresses or develops. In teaching, a laissez-faire classroom management style allows learners and activities to take their course and although the teacher monitors, they avoid intervening or exercising control/being authoritative.

1.4 Online Tools and Their Pedagogical Value

k.

l.

11

enough to prompt less active learners. Such use of the tool would be a significant indicator of learners’ intrinsic motivation and level of course engagement. Virtual background option Theatrical, redundant, or of secondary importance as this tool may seem to some readers, the truth is that choosing one’s background can actually be both highly practical as well as pedagogically invaluable. With sessions running within the limits of the screen and school surroundings absent online, the background tool offered by some platforms can help set the scene, and thus, contribute to contextualisation of sessions as well as specific activities. For example, during an activity where learners have to think critically on their own, the teacher can display a background of a virtual library hall, while during a role play, the background that matches the setting of the activity will help contextualise, visualize, and animate the situation in which interaction occurs. A virtual background of an exotic island before a theme-related listening task for example, might trigger a pre-task discussion via which the teacher activates schemata, elicits or pre-teaches key lexical items, and stimulates interest. Thus, the tool can be an exploitable resource. Virtual backgrounds can also be used to mark/signpost stages within a session. The teacher can use a corresponding background for pair work, group work, receptive and productive skills, making it clear every time what mode or content the class will be working on and adding variety to the session. Nevertheless, variety should not be an end in its own right in language teaching, and teachers should remember to use this tool according to the pedagogical aims it is recruited to serve. Lastly, virtual backgrounds may help teachers and learners to safeguard and protect their privacy by not revealing parts of their actual study space through the background, which is a highly practical and legitimate use of the tool. Wikis Wikis may be incorporated in some online platforms or can be used as an external tool to which learners are referred with the aim of collaboratively authoring/making course-related contributions. The tool itself is designed with course participant interactivity, autonomy, and independence in mind yet, it is up to the teacher to set the tone and adopt the role of an authority who requests specific contributions, controls and assesses the content, or they can moderate, and facilitate the process discreetly allowing for higher learner initiative and control. Individual course participants, as well as pairs or groups, can create a wiki page in which they compile a course glossary, summarise main grammar points taught in the course, make up tip lists for specific tests, highlight course components that the class must be aware of, or even add links to external articles and webpages that they have found useful in relation to course content. Learners can upload their class presentations, session notes, edit and comment on them, this way creating a repository of materials that is co-constructed, negotiable, and modifiable upon consensus. In doing so, learners engage in practicing higherorder meta-skills, such as critical thinking, reflection, and creativity. To a great extent, a course wiki could be seen as the ultimate peer teaching and learning tool

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rooted in the principles of social constructivist theory discussed in Sect. 3.1.3 in the book. This section overviewed some of the most popular and common tools available to online language teachers and learners. Ultimately, however, the teacher will decide how to utilise these tools based on their teaching style and professional identity. Tools themselves do not teach but rather await the expert to assign them value through use. Moreover, I have already made mention of some of the practical as well as ethical concerns involved in their use. These issues that online teachers might face in their day-to-day teaching and ways to tackle them are discussed below.

1.5 Practical Problems (Power, Connection, Server, System Failure, Classroom Management, Motivation, Etiquette, Integrity of Assessment) Literature on computer-assisted language teaching (CALL) is quite extensive and dates back to the early 1980s when CALL emerged as a highly promising branch of applied linguistics. Interaction was somewhat limited in those early years of CALL, as it was solely between the computer and the user. Thus, the teaching and learning setting was asynchronous, i.e., not real-time, relatively static, and heavily depended on the technical features of the medium, which were not very advanced compared to today. A multitude of scholars of that time investigate and write extensively on CALL– related issues, often generating lists of benefits as well as shortcomings of the use of computers in the teaching of languages asynchronously. Indicatively, I will refer to some key contributors in chronological order from older to more recent. Kenning and Kenning (1983), identifies the diverse roles that computers can play in the thenemerging computer-assisted language learning context. They hold that computers can tutor, assess, provide feedback, explain, and adapt to the learners’ performance (ibid). Pennington (1995) sees the computer as a partner that can help learners develop language skills and a more elaborate cognitive system, while Slater and Varney-Burch (2001), mention increased motivation, enhanced learner autonomy, and interaction with the technology that allows learners to have some control over the material as only some of the many benefits of multimedia and computer-enhanced language teaching. The same authors also refer to the negative implications involved in the use of computers in language teaching. Lack of genuine open-ended activities, predictability, and technical reliance on the computer are all features that teachers should consider when they engage in teaching languages with new technologies (Kenning & Kenning, 1983). Learner “anti-social behaviour” and a tendency for isolation are mentioned in Pennington (1996: 10) due to computer-mediated instruction. At the same time, Slater and Varney-Burch (2001) argue that distractors and overall interface design play a pivotal role in evaluating the multimedia that one will use in their lesson. Most of these views reflect the scholarly opinion of asynchronous

1.5 Practical Problems (Power, Connection, Server, System Failure…

13

computer-mediated instruction as opposed to a live class. To what extent are the considerations outlined above valid today in the online language teaching setting? The recent, unexpected massive transfer of all academic activity online and its impact on teachers and learners is most clearly conveyed in the Italian proverb of necessity knowing no laws. In jumping onto the hi-tech, ever-evolving online teaching wagon, the language teaching and learning community largely left its luggage behind only to soon realise that boarding is one thing, but staying on board is another. Below I elaborate on some of the concerns regarding teaching and learning English online that have always been there but only recently became prominently visible and recommend ways to overcome them. The problems are arranged and presented in five broad categories: Online classroom etiquette, motivation, distractions, academic integrity and reliability of assessment, and technical problems. (a)

Online classroom etiquette and protection of privacy In the previous sections, the online classroom setting and the media incorporated in it were discussed. The lack of contextual factors and proximity do render the online classroom particularly vulnerable to classroom management issues that teachers must always have in mind. Turn-taking, for example, can be a real problem online. If two speakers talk one over another in an open discussion, no one will be heard, resulting in feelings of disappointment and suppression as some learners might opt to withdraw from an interaction in which learners interrupt each other or that is generally unruly. Unless discussions occur via ‘breakout rooms’, the equivalent of pairs and small groups in the physical context, open-ended tasks can be chaotic and disheartening, and online teachers need to be plan activities accordingly and set classroom rules. One solution could be to encourage learners to use the ‘raise hand’ function whenever they wish to make a contribution to the session in plenary mode. The same is true for manners, tone, reactions, and posts that learners upload either in the chat box or in the class forum. Again, the teacher is responsible for setting the tone and encouraging positive interaction that can often be accompanied by specific emoji with which all class participants are familiar and have agreed to use at the start of the course. Consequently, the nature, tone, and rules of communication in the online classroom must be specified early on in a course and closely monitored throughout to avoid misunderstandings and ensure that teaching and learning take place in a non-threatening fashion for all course participants. There is no real difference to what teachers have already been doing in the physical classroom but must now transfer this skill to the online setting so as to create an encouraging and supportive online classroom culture. Camera and microphone use may also be an issue of concern in an online session as learner privacy is at stake or could be compromised. Exposure of personal space, living conditions, or members of one’s family may be seen to infringe on participants’ privacy, and naturally, this is not to be taken lightly. Such threats could be addressed both individually as well as collectively. Learners can designate a specific place in their dwelling for online classes, or where this is not a feasible or preferred option, schools and universities

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should allocate facilities for that purpose. Ideally, every school should have an online learning-designated room where, regardless of the institution one attends, learners could access electronic equipment and broadband internet. The point is for educational stakeholders and communities as a whole to realise that we need to adapt to the circumstances and create the conditions for online language teaching and learning to bear fruit in the same way we did with ftf classes. Lack of visual contact among course participants deprives them of an invaluable input channel, impoverishes language sessions, estranges participants, and raises serious course integrity concerns regarding the identity of participants and test-takers in a course (see paragraph ‘d’ below). Another issue is that of teachers’ work and office hours. Due to the 24/7 availability of the technical media, learners, as well as administrators, might be given the impression that teachers are available round the clock. Academic institutions have a responsibility to set clear rules in this regard and protect their faculty from such misconceptions. They must make it clear from the outset of a course that teachers are there to help and provide support and feedback at given times and within a specific schedule. If administrators are reluctant to take such steps, individual teachers should devise, specify, and publicise a schedule that is fair and balanced for all parties involved. Motivation Although it is not within the scope of this volume to review the extensive literature on motivation in language learning, for reasons of clarity, I will start this paragraph by defining my perception of the term. I refer to motivation as the learners’ desire and willingness to communicate using the target language or participate in activities that involve its practice in the online teaching and learning context (Dörnyei, 2001; Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner, Day, & McIntyre, 1992; Lightbown & Spada, 2006). The interrelationship between motivation and technology-assisted language teaching and learning has been a highly controversial issue among scholars. Clark, for example, argues that although media do not influence learning, they might result in increased motivation due to the novelty effect, which will subside once learners get used to the new medium (Clark, 1983). Contrary to that and more recently, Jeno, Vandvik, Eliassen, & Grytnes (2019:398), in a study they conducted to test the effect of novelty on learner achievement, report that learners using mobile-learning tools retained their motivation “far and above the effect novelty” (ibid). With the above in mind, it is worth looking into our own online learners and deliberate on their willingness to communicate and participate actively in our online language classes as well as the factors that might affect their motivation. Unlike asynchronous online teaching, where learners can choose when to log in and do work, synchronous language learning classes are scheduled, they involve live sessions where attendance is taken, and learner contributions are expected. Thus, in the latter case, motivation can often be extrinsic, i.e., learners might feel obliged to attend and participate actively in sessions as opposed to having a genuine desire to do so (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This may result in decreased participation and interaction, as well as learner (and teacher for that

1.5 Practical Problems (Power, Connection, Server, System Failure…

(c)

15

matter) anxiety in an online live class, which can be partly attributed to affective factors as some learners are camera conscious, have not had the chance to meet their peers in person, and might be hesitant to expose themselves to them and the teacher. What is more, if such lack of willingness to contribute to the class is not addressed from the first few sessions, it may become fossilised, and a teacher might end up teaching a class of twenty learners but interact with only a handful of them as the others may gradually withdraw and practically become ‘ghost attendees’. Classroom dynamics are thus essential in the online context, and participation and learner integration and inclusion on the part of the teacher must be pursued from the beginning of the course. Nevertheless, it is equally essential that learners engage in introspection and pin down their true reasons for attending an online language course specifying their expected outcomes so that their motivation is intrinsic, i.e., they are self-driven and desire to communicate and participate in the course so as to serve their particular expectations from it (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009). Distractions Any one teacher who has ever taught online must have noticed a certain lack of attention or limited attention span on the part of learners who might be looking at other devices or multitask during the session. The negative impact that media multitasking has on learners is highlighted in numerous empirical studies (Fox, Rosen, & Crawford, 2009; Gaudreau, Miranda, & Gareau, 2014; Karpinski, Kirschner, Ozer, Mellott, & Ochwo, 2013) that bust the myth that wants the new generation to be highly skilled in multitasking. Aagaard (2015), takes the argument further by arguing that stimulus from various diverse resources at the same time leads to information overload, which ultimately takes a toll on learners’ cognitive processes and results in decreased learner performance. Online teachers can never be entirely sure that learners are not using other devices even if their camera and microphone are on. The online classroom media limitations also come into play here as they deprive us of a 360° view of our virtual classroom or side-vision and the ability to observe our learners’ overall response to the stimuli that we provide, especially in a situation where their camera is turned off. The matter gets even more complex and intense when young learners are involved, and factors such as attention span are added to the issue of learner willingness to communicate. One way to address the challenges outlined above is by designing and delivering engaging lessons that are highly interactive increasing learner-talking-time and allowing learners to perform meaningful tasks that stimulate their interest. A second yet equally critical step is to raise teacher and learner awareness of the research findings outlined above. Admittedly, the vast majority of people tend to disregard such findings, so it is probably futile to start a campaign on the issue of media multitasking. However, as the broader academic community gains insights into the effect of online platforms and their media on cognition and people’s ability to process information, the novelty effect will inevitably wear off (Clark, 1983), and teachers and learners will hopefully start using media

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more selectively and wisely. Shorter in terms of duration, more kinaestheticoriented sessions also seem more fitting and proper with young learners and some age groups if teachers wish to avoid withdrawal from sessions, and better engage fidgety learners who might be unable to focus or are unwilling to interact with the teacher and their peers. Lastly, teacher education programmes should also integrate an online teaching element in their syllabus via which teachers will be informed about such misaffordances and be challenged to think critically about ways to overcome these obstacles in their day-to-day practice. Academic integrity and reliability of assessment A thorny issue that emerged during the recent shift from onsite to online teaching was that of academic integrity, as many cases of cheating, plagiarism, and false attendance in sessions have been reported by teachers. How can we ensure that the learner who is registered in a course is the actual test taker and not someone impersonating them? To what extent can we be sure that learners do not use reference materials or web resources during an online exam and thus, compromise the whole test-taking grades that do not reflect their actual earned knowledge in a course? These questions are crucial in online assessment, and although efforts have been made to safeguard integrity, academic institutions and teachers are still struggling to cope with the challenge. To date, educational systems around the world have been based on standardised tests as a major assessment tool in programme offerings. More often than not, these exams alone might be enough for a learner to be awarded a qualification or certificate while the actual progress, skills development, and growth of the learner are granted a small percentage in the overall assessment scheme in the best-case scenario. Some courses do incorporate assignments and projects that have to be completed as the course unfolds, yet the weight of such coursework in the assessment scheme is often negligible compared to standardised tests. In the online context, assessment cannot remain the same as in the physical classroom. Helms (2014) reports lower grades and a higher percentage of students failing a class when comparing student performance in online and face-to-face delivery modes of the same course and argues in favour of a new approach to the overall assessment paradigm in the online context. Similarly, Xu and Jaggars’s (2016) results suggest lower performance of learners attending online courses compared to their ftf counterparts and report wide performance gaps among same course participants in the social sciences, the broader branch of sciences in which language teaching and learning is classified. Thus, research data, along with the commonsensical assumption that online course assessment needs to ensure fairness and integrity, render the need for an updated framework for online language course assessment quite pressing. The framework proposed below would run through the whole duration of an online course and could culminate in a final presentation. More specifically, an ongoing, effective online language assessment scheme would be comprised of the following mix of formative, ipsative, and criterion-referenced assessment.

1.5 Practical Problems (Power, Connection, Server, System Failure…

17

Formative • Daily post-lesson learner observations. These observations would relate to items taught in the day’s class, include queries and reflections on areas of language learners would like discuss or elaborate on further, or involve open-ended discussions on anything learners might wish to commend on regarding the sessions. Such formative assessment via learner feedback would not only ensure active engagement throughout the course, but also provide teachers with evidence that learners attend offering at the same time, potentially valuable insights as to the design and delivery of classes. In addition, a sense of co-responsibility and ‘co-ownership’ of the course on the part of the learners is fostered, which could possibly lead to deeper learner involvement and engagement. Ipsative • Another way to address the problem of cheating and impersonation in online language classes is to assess learners by means of comparing their performance early in the course with their current one, a process that is recycled throughout and until the end of the course, i.e., ipsative feedback and assessment (Hughes, 2011). Due to the ongoing nature of this type of assessment, the teacher has a clear and whole picture of learners in their class and builds on their language production based on previous feedback and learners’ response to it. One of the many benefits of ipsative assessment in terms of safeguarding academic integrity is that learners forge an identity via their language production style that is unique to each one of them in the group and, thus, more difficult to fabricate. Criterion-referenced • Criterion-referenced assessment can be instrumental in the online teaching setting in connection to presentations and projects learners might be asked to do individually, in pairs, or in groups. Based on a set of fixed criteria that largely reflect the course outcomes, learners work towards completing a project that runs from the beginning of the course until the end. Moreover, it is important that learners be informed about these criteria in advance so that they can meet them. All the assessment methods mentioned here are process-oriented and, to a large extent, compensate for the shortcomings of summative assessment methods, which are particularly vulnerable to fraud in online courses (Fig. 1.4). (e)

Technical problems Teaching online not only pre-supposes that all participants have the necessary equipment that will allow them to join in a course, but that they are also confident users of that equipment. Mayer (2009) contends that a lesson that

18

1 Modes, Media and the Online Teaching Space Feedback & reflection

Process oriented

Criterion referenced assessment

Ipsative assessment

Formative assessment

Fig. 1.4 An ongoing, non-linear assessment framework could address integrity issues that emerged in the online language teaching context

incorporates multimedia is more likely to be effective if teachers and learners know the names and characteristics of the main concepts of the tools they are using. Therefore, it is essential that teachers take time to familiarize themselves with the hardware as well as the platforms they will be using to teach online. A trial session with a colleague and IT training could prove invaluable as problems with hardware and software are frequent and frustrating. Teachers might often be required to solve technical problems such as video and sound issues, power cuts, slow internet connections, server overload, and system failure. Most of these issues manifest themselves as delayed communication or ‘broken up’ speech, inability to see learners, or a platform crash. It is important for teachers to be patient, keep their composure, and be resourceful in bypassing these issues. Something that definitely helps is to have a backup channel of communication with one’s class in case of an emergency, such as a class social media account. These ‘technical glitches’ have an utterly negative effect on the teaching and learning process online, which in turn, is often reflected upon teachers’ and learners’ morale and motivation. In addition, they constitute a permanent X factor that may cause a session not to take place at all, and academic institutions must take this into account and take action to ensure that support is provided and technical infrastructure is adequate prior to launching an online course (Fig. 1.5). Are these problems going to persist? How long before we find solutions that will address the challenges outlined in this section so as to render delivery of online classes reliable, and technical glitches-free? In the section that follows, I elaborate on some of the future developments and changes that are on the way and that aim to improve the online teaching and learning experience.

1.6 The Online Setting to Come

19

Fig. 1.5 Numerous technical problems such as connectivity and slow internet connections may hinder online teaching procedures

1.6 The Online Setting to Come ´ «Tα παντα ρε´ι.» (Everything flows). Heracleitus of Ephesos.2 The aim of this section is twofold. Firstly, to discuss current trends in the field of online language teaching and learning, and secondly, to pin down imminent and necessary changes in connection to the problems outlined in the previous section. The latter can be briefly summarised as online etiquette, privacy, motivation, distractions, academic integrity, reliability of assessment, and technical problems. Taking a closer look at the list, one will observe that these problems fall into two broader categories, namely issues that relate to learners and teachers’ attitudes to online classes and others associated with technology. These are the two levels at which online teaching and learning will undergo the most substantial changes in the years to come. Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and ICT, areas of expertise that are developing at neck-breaking speed and which inevitably have an impact on online education, are working to address many of the issues analysed in the previous section. AI, ML, and ICT will ensure that these problems will be tackled effectively by developing advanced tools that will safeguard and guarantee privacy, reliability of assessment, academic integrity, and lack of technical glitches. For example, 2 Sixth century BC Greek, pre-Socratic philosopher born in the Ionian city of Ephesos (Asia Minor).

Heracleitos argues for the notion of constant change as a fundamental characteristic of reality and an inherent tenet of life and nature. The universe is made up of opposites which battle one another striving for unison to achieve harmony which is the ultimate of life. To this end, nothing remains motionless, inert, or stable but things change shape, form, or even essence following the law of change.

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plagiarism-checking software is widely used today, and schools, colleges, and universities have set their standards as to the percentages above which a text, essay, or coursework is considered plagiarized. There is also a prominent tendency to use technology to release teachers from daily ‘menial’ tasks such as taking attendance, invigilating tests, or performing identity checks online through biometric authentication of class participants. Biometrics are not far from being introduced as a mainstream means by which learners will be allowed to join in an online session or sit a test as such technology has been well-integrated and is already being used on most mobile devices whereby the user (un)locks their device, and logs in and out of webpages and apps by merely scanning their pupil or fingerprint. In addition, course assessment and its different components like essay correction will be partly or fully automatized as per institutional or other directives and preferences, with the system detecting errors at sentence level, i.e., mechanics such as grammar, punctuation, and spelling, and providing feedback to learners, while the teacher focuses on the essay’s overall communicative effect on the reader, higher-order skills, and offers adaptive and personalised feedback. Balfour (2013) holds that such automation in online education allows teachers to focus on skills that are essential in the twentyfirst century, such as problem-solving and critical thinking, fostering creativity that machines are currently unable to emulate. Numerous studies have also highlighted the expediency of learner analytics in monitoring dropout risk allowing learners and teachers to intervene in time and take corrective action, a practice that is already being used in several academic institutions (Khalil & Ebner, 2016; Whitehill, Mohan, Seaton, Rosen, & Tingley, 2017; Kashyap &Nayak, 2018). In this case, a platform or Learning Management System (LMS) will provide both the learner and their teacher with information/statistics on their progress and grades, making it possible for both parties to better control their course performance. Simple as this may read, learner analytics is a revolutionary concept compared to traditional course reports or PTA meetings whereby a custodian would only have access to their child’s grades a few times a year. This is the first time in formal education learners and parents alike can see, monitor, and act upon their own or their child’s course performance almost in real-time. In turn, this brings a number of implications in connection to learner initiative and role as a participant in a given course assigning them more responsibility for their progress, an issue which is discussed in detail in the next chapter. On a more futuristic albeit realistic note, the online language teaching and learning setting has much to gain from breakthroughs in fields such as Augmented Reality (AR). As discussed in Sect. 1.3 earlier, the online teaching and learning setting is twodimensional. 3D cameras or hologram-style class delivery would add the dimension currently missing online, while 3-D printing, which is currently underway, might mean that teachers and learners will actually be able to add a tangible element to the class by printing out realia or materials used in a session. With regard to etiquette, motivation, and distractions, it is essential that learners and educators alike realise that several of the problems we currently face in the online teaching and learning context are directly related to inner beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes that will have to be rethought. Teaching and learning online is here

1.6 The Online Setting to Come

21

to stay, and it will only be gaining momentum in the years ahead as an increasing number of schools and colleges will permanently move many of their courses online for reasons of logistics, as well as appealing to a global market but to name a few. Everyone involved in education will have to come to the realisation that studying online is neither a temporary substitute nor inferior to ftf courses, an assertion also supported by relevant research (Daymont & Blau, 2008; Paul & Jefferson, 2019). Etiquette, motivation, and distractions during an online session are issues that will have to be addressed by the same participants who cause them to emerge. Taking this into consideration, it is vital that there is a mindset change on the part of the public in general as well as the student population and education professionals in specific, in relation to online learning and accept the ‘legitimacy’ of language courses delivered online acknowledging them as equal to ftf classes. Decision-makers and educational policy authorities also have to adapt to this reality by recognizing qualifications earned online, but most importantly, by devising a holistic, complete framework for the regulation of online (language) education. Governments must and will inevitably have to initiate and regularly update legislation framing and ensuring the quality of online teaching and learning courses. However, this is a process that will take time and, as with every novelty, ‘baby illnesses’ are addressed as we move along and through trial and error. With the world en route to the fourth industrial revolution,3 or more accurately put, the second technological revolution (Harari, 2018; Schwab, 2017), a multitude of researchers, technical staff, institutions, as well as private investors and enterprises from diverse fields are currently working on improving the speed, quality, design, and security of online networks and products. These developments do not limit themselves to application in one field or another, e.g., online banking or booking a hotel online, but permeate all aspects of life and human endeavour, including online (language) education. This is indicative of the interdisciplinary tendency prevalent worldwide as well as in academia today. As a result, an online teacher of languages cannot afford to be detached from technological advancements in the same way that a software engineer cannot ignore the needs and profiles of the users of a product they are designing. The present and future of online language teaching and learning is integrated, interdisciplinary, intertextual, and highly interdiscursive. It is within this context that learners and teachers will have to educate and be educated, be critical concerning the plethora of information available online, turn this information into knowledge, and into questions that will take humanity a step further. There is no Manichean dilemma whether technology is a friend or foe, and teachers who already teach online know that very well. Concerns over teachers being replaced by or losing their jobs to AI, robotics, and automation are unsubstantiated yet, we need to adapt to a new reality, learn new skills, and incorporate them into the exceptional body of knowledge we already have, being conscious of the changing environment around us. In a recent talk and web interview, His Excellency former President 3 The

4th industrial revolution is the term used to refer to the years between the early 2000s to present whereby computers, AI, machines, and humans will connect and coexist in a symbiotic relationship.

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of the Hellenic Republic Prokopis Pavlopoulos (2020) stressed the importance of cultivating a symbiotic relationship with AI and new technologies in which the homo sentiens,4 i.e., the feeling human that is endowed with a conscience that algorithms have yet to surpass, will rule over machines. Thus, it is our conscience, affect, and the features that are unique to human teachers that will have to come to the foreground of the discussion on the future of (language) education online. It seems that at the outset of the third decade of the twenty-first century, the Heracleitian tenet of perpetual change governing life is more relevant than ever before in online education, with teacher and learner roles, responsibilities, and power relations substantially shifting and changing continuously. It is these changes, their significant implications for online teaching and learning of languages, and the role of Teacher Education in facilitating changing roles that the next chapter examines.

References Aagaard, J. (2015). Media multitasking, attention, and distraction: A critical discussion. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 14(4), 885–896. Avgerinou, M., & Ericson, J. (2002). A review of the concept of visual literacy. British Journal of Educational Technology, 28. Balfour, S. (2013). Assessing writing in MOOCs: automated essay scoring and calibrated peer review. Research & Practice in Assessment, 8, 40–48. Beatty, K. (2003). Teaching and researching computer-assisted language learning. London: Pearson Education. Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Schmid, R. F., Tamim, R. M., & Abrami, P. C. (2014). A metaanalysis of blended learning and technology use in higher education: From the general to the applied. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 26(1), 87–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12 528-013-9077-3 Clark, R. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445–459. Clark, R., Nguyen, F., & Sweller, J. (2005). Efficiency in learning: Evidence-based guidelines to manage cognitive load. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer https://www.learntechlib.org/p/161429/. Clark, C., Strudler, N. & Grove, K. (2015). Comparing asynchronous and synchronous video vs. Text based discussions in an online teacher education course. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 19(3), 48–69. Daymont, T., & Blau, G. (2008). Student performance in online and traditional sections of an undergraduate management course. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, 9, 275–294. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: CUP. Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (Eds.). (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self . Multilingual Matters. Elleström, L. (2014). Media transformation. The transfer of media characteristics among media. London: Palgrave, McMillan. Ellis, R., & Goodyear, P. (2016). Models of learning space: Integrating research on space, place and learning in higher education. Review of Education, 4(2), 149–191.

4 Homo

Sapiens: Latin for ‘the wise/thinking human’. Homo Sentiens: Latin for ‘feeling human’.

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Fox, A., Rosen, J., & Crawford, M. (2009). Distractions, distractions: Does instant messaging affect college students’ performance on a concurrent reading comprehension task? Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 12(1). Gardner, R., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Boston, MA: Newbury House Publisher. Gardner, R., Day, B., & McIntyre, P. (1992). Integrative motivation, induced anxiety, and language learning in a controlled environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 197–214. Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 7, 95–105. Gaudreau, P., Miranda, D., & Gareau, A. (2014). Canadian university students in wireless classrooms: What do they do on their laptops and does it really matter? Computers and Education, 70. Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends and future directions. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Hampel, R., & Stickler, U. (2005). New skills for new classrooms: Training tutors to teach languages online. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(4), 311–326. Harari, Y. N. (2018). 21 Lessons for the 21st century. London: Jonathan Cape. Helms, J. L. (2014). Comparing student performance in online and face-to-face delivery modalities. Online Learning Journal, 18, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v18i1.348. Hobbs, R. (2011). Empowering Learners with digital and media literacy. Knowledge Quest, 39(5). Hrastinski, S. (2019). What Do We Mean by Blended Learning? TechTrends, 63, 564–569. Huang, R., Spector, J. M., & Yang, J. (2019). Educational technology: A primer for the 21st century. Singapore: Springer. Hughes, G. (2011). Towards a personal best: A case for introducing ipsative assessment in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 36(3), 353–367. Jeno, L. M., Vandvik, V., Eliassen, S., & Grytnes, J. A. (2019). Testing the novelty effect of an m-learning tool on internalization and achievement: A Self-determination theory approach. Computers & Education, 128, 398–413. Karpinski, A. C., Kirschner, P. A., Ozer, I., Mellott, J. A., & Ochwo, P. (2013). An exploration of social networking site use, multitasking, and academic performance among the United States and European university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 1182–1192. Kashyap A., & Nayak, A. (2018). Different machine learning models to predict dropouts in MOOCs. In 2018 International Conference on Advances in Computing, Communications and Informatics (ICACCI). Bangalore. 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICACCI.2018.8554547. K˛edra, J. (2018). What does it mean to be visually literate? Examination of visual literacy definitions in a context of higher education. Journal of Visual Literacy, 37(2), 67–84. Kenning, M. J., & Kenning, M. M. (1983). Introduction to computer-assisted language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Khalil, M., & Ebner, M. (2016). What massive open online course (MOOC) stakeholders can learn from learning analytics?. In M. Spector, B. Lockee, & M. Childress (Eds.), Learning, design, and technology. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_3-1. Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42, 7–19. Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. Paul, J., & Jefferson, P. (2019). A comparative analysis of student performance in an online vs. Face-to-face environmental science course. From 2009 to 2016. Frontiers in Computer Science. Digital Education. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2019.00007 Pavlopoulos, P. (2020). Lecture on the 2nd technological revolution and technological unemployment (video in Greek). Hellenic Institute of Strategic Studies. Neocleous. Retrieved December 21, 2020, form https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akzuWbx3kTA.

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Pennington, M. C. (1995). The teacher change cycle. TESOL Quarterly, 29(4), 705–730. Pennington, M. C. (1996). The power of CALL. Houston: Athelstan. Porter, W., Graham, R., Spring, A., & Welch, R. (2014). Blended learning in higher education: Institutional adoption and implementation. Computers & Education, 75, 185–195. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.02.011 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definition and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67. Schwab, K. (2017). The fourth industrial revolution. New York: Crown Publishing Group. Slater, P., & Varney-Burch, S. (2001). Multimedia in language learning. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching. Whitehill, J., Mohan, K., Seaton, D., Rosen, Y., Tingley, D. (2017). MOOC dropout prediction: How to measure accuracy? In Proceedings of the Fourth ACM Conference on Learning (pp. 161–164). https://doi.org/10.1145/3051457.3053974 Xu, D., & Jaggars, S. (2016). Performance gaps between online and face-to-face courses: Differences across types of students and academic subject areas. Journal of Higher Education, 85, 633–659. https://doi.org/10.1353/jhe.2014.0028

Chapter 2

Beyond the Online Teaching and Learning Platform

Having set the scene for online language teaching and learning in the previous chapter, the people who are at the heart of the educational process are now brought in the foreground of the discussion. How can one design and deliver engaging and gratifying online language sessions without having first realised or contemplated the changing learner and teacher roles in the online context, issues of power shifts from the teacher to the learner, and ethical concerns about teaching and learning languages online? This chapter leaves the reader with an increased awareness of the dynamics involved in teaching online, reflecting on their current as well as desired professional identity as online language teachers. The chapter closes with a discussion on the central role of teacher education as a mediator and facilitator of change.

2.1 The Learner, the Teacher, and Other Considerations The recent dramatic shift to online teaching has left the language teaching community very little–if any–time to contemplate the role of the two most important parties that render the online classroom possible, namely, learners and teachers. The latter, however, are expected to adapt to the online setting, platforms, and tools as if no change has taken place, assuming that what worked onsite should work online too. Hopefully, by now, I hope to have made the randomness of this assumption clear, although this will become even more transparent in the last two chapters, where current methods and approaches to ELT will be put to the test online. Learners have had to go through a rather abrupt transition from face-to-face or blended learning to being taught online. They are now solely responsible for having the right equipment that will allow them to take part in an online session, they must regulate their schedule and resources so as to be present and active throughout the course, and they must be camera-ready. It seems that there are several parameters that one must take into account in discussing teacher and learners’ roles in the online environment. To what extent have these changed? © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. I. Psoinos, Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79919-9_2

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Teachers have also had to adapt swiftly to new circumstances. Information dissemination on academic fora, social media, as well as on professional platforms, and websites, may have contributed positively to teacher enlightenment regarding procedural and technical aspects of the new teaching and learning setting, but has also left many practitioners overwhelmed, confounded, and unclear as to their role in this new context. A factor that has made things even more complex is the fact that on numerous occasions in online language teaching, faculty are asked to record their online classes as proof that these have been delivered, to begin with, or for professional evaluation and development reasons. Does this have an impact on how teachers present themselves online? Does it change who they have been thus far in the classroom? The ethical dimension to teaching (exclusively) online also merits the attention of the academic community as issues of equal opportunities and access to education are among the many concerns that ought to be discussed in depth. The subsections that follow address issues of ethics, roles, skills, and identity of the people who are at the heart of the educational process, i.e., learners and teachers. To that end, I start by examining the factors that determine teacher and learner roles in the online language setting through the lens of Critical Digital Pedagogy (CDP). CDP is a particularly useful theory in that it offers a framework through which these roles can be specified from a perspective of power relations in the online context. The apparent connection between CDP and ethical issues in online teaching, with a particular focus on inclusion, is examined next. Having gained the necessary insights associated with the formation of teacher and learner roles in the online language teaching and learning context, I specify them and elaborate on the skills that both teachers and learners are expected to have online. Towards the end of this chapter, I pin down teacher and learner identities that are forged and come as a result of the variables discussed previously, while the last section discusses the fundamental role that teacher training and professional development initiatives have to play in making online language teaching and learning efficient, successful and fulfilling.

2.2 Critical Digital Pedagogy (CDP) Although Critical Digital Pedagogy (CDP) is often acknowledged as an approach and method in its own right, it takes a broader view of education in the online context. It is based on the principle that educational processes are not neutral, odourless, and tasteless, as decision-makers in education have had the academic community believe. On the contrary, they reflect the actor’s assumptions and beliefs about the nature of education and epistemology.1 According to Freire (1970), it is a fallacy to think that educational processes are objective, apolitical, and quantifiable. If this is true, education is dehumanized, and thus, decision-making power is granted solely to third parties, which leads to teacher and learners’ loss of freedom of choice (ibid). Thus, 1 Philosophical

etc.

branch studying the theory of knowledge, how it is acquired, how it is true, valid,

2.2 Critical Digital Pedagogy (CDP)

27

teacher identity and beliefs in relation to online teaching practices once again emerge as issues that merit our attention as they seem to underlie all teacher-led action online. In CDP terms, this human element-the human factor in online education is necessary and ought to be sought after so that human agency remains at the centre of technologymediated education. Learners and their democratic right to be able to make decisions and have choices in their online classes are also key variables in CDP as best learning occurs through collaborative tasks, dialogue, experimentation, negotiation, projects assigned to learners according to their interests, and resources are shared so as to ensure equal opportunities and access to education. CDP theory is applied in the last chapter of this book, where a wide range of teacher assumptions from pedagogy to aesthetics are examined and discussed using online session interface screenshots. Criticality is also a central pillar of CDP. The concept of criticality is perceived differently in different contexts. For example, in Critical Discourse Studies, “critical” denotes identification, evaluation, and remedy of societal injustice, and is a notion that stems from The Frankfurt School of Critical Theory (Bhatia, 2017: 22). In Critical Genre Analysis (CGA), the term reflects an attempt to be as objective as possible rather than criticise (ibid). In CDP, the primary take on criticality relates to agency, power relations, and exertion of oppression and control in the online teaching and learning context (Stommel, 2014). Who decides the content to be taught, who shapes the curriculum, and determines what will be included in the syllabus, how and when does assessment take place? To what extent are day-to-day classroom practices and decisions determined by the learners and the teacher in collaboration? These are all questions that CDP sets out to bring in the foreground of the discussion of online education in the 21st century. Moreover, there is a prominent ethical dimension to CDP in that agency and exertion of power and control can potentially include or exclude teachers and learners from the overall educational system. The issue is discussed below.

2.3 Ethics The proliferation of synchronous, asynchronous, and blended online courses has been accompanied by a number of philosophical and ethical issues ranging from the symbiotic relationship between humans and machines to equal access to education and inclusion. Academic institutions and online course providers seem to be taking the availability of apparatus and technical prerequisites for participation in such courses as a given, expecting teachers and learners to invest considerable amounts in purchasing equipment and maintaining a broadband internet connection at their own expense. Teachers and learners alike must make sure they have cutting edge computers or tablets, speakers, cameras, and headsets in order to be able to join in a class while high bandwidth internet connections that can be quite costly in certain parts of the world may deter some learners from enrolling in online classes. It is worth mentioning that such technology may not even be available or accessible by many

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learners in the place where they reside. Vulnerable learners whose personal circumstances render online courses inaccessible might also be excluded from education. There are learners who might be homeless while others may have siblings whose class hours overlap with theirs, and some learners might be sharing a room and a computer with other people. Online courses presuppose that participants have solved all these problems before joining a class. What is more, in the synchronous online classes’ setting, there are time zone constraints that may determine whether a learner will or will not attend a course. The responsibility to provide alternatives so as to ensure equity in education falls on academic institutions and governments who must fund, subsidize, or create physical spaces to which learners can be referred in order to have an online class. The recording of online sessions is another conundrum that has been overlooked but must be addressed urgently as it might be in breach of privacy regulations depending on national law. Many schools and colleges require teachers to record their class under the pretext of accountability or that learners might want to watch the session in case they were absent or go back to it and watch it again. In this case, steps must be taken to ensure that the only people who have access to these videos are the learners and their teacher unless they are informed otherwise, and they give their consent. Nevertheless, the issue of privacy remains unaddressed as video, and audio recordings are vulnerable to exposure, and thus, teachers and learners can never be entirely sure that they will be the sole viewers/listeners of the material. The ethical dimensions of online session recordings are multiple and must be taken seriously. In attending an online course, neither the teachers nor the learners can be taken to consent to being used as research subjects or informants unwillingly. Teachers’ professional and academic standing can also be subtly undermined through these recordings in the sense that institutions and administrators might use them to control/censor what teachers say and do in class intervening in the educational process in ways that are anything but democratic. Finally, online session recordings often make participants self-conscious and might thus have an impact on session interactions and processes. Consequently, recordings of online sessions can be used periodically for developmental and evaluative reasons but must be governed by strict and transparent protocols that specify their aim, use, and later destruction or archiving. Governments worldwide must be quick to pass the necessary legislation that will protect and regulate online courses, as well as specify the rights and responsibilities of all parties involved in their delivery. Academic and professional bodies in the field of applied linguistics should certainly contribute to that end. Teacher inclusion or exclusion is another implication of teaching languages online and is associated with the field of change management. Bell (1995: 11), reports teacher dissatisfaction with constant changes implemented in the British educational system that leaves them “bruised.” The abrupt transition to online teaching has had a similar effect on teachers in that it placed immense pressure on them to perform in a relatively unknown and demanding setting. Apart from subject matter and procedural knowledge (Leinhardt & Smith, 1985), teachers were expected to possess technical, IT skills in which few had received training. Moreover, academic institutions somewhat disregarded the fact that there is a broad teacher population that

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is well trained and experienced on the one hand, but on the other, it does not belong to the digital native generation (Prensky, 2001). These otherwise highly competent and often inspiring educators found themselves at a disadvantage compared to younger and less experienced teachers, something which challenged their selfconcept (Whitaker, 1995). By default, these teachers became the digital immigrants who now have to acquire new skills and demonstrate unparalleled flexibility, essentially re-inventing themselves. These teachers must ‘learn new tricks’ to avoid being placed out of the job market, which will be a loss for the broader academic community. The role of employers and ministries is, thus, vital in providing incentives to these teachers to encourage them to stay and develop professionally. With these in mind, the next section elaborates on the skills and roles to which teachers must adapt.

2.4 Teachers’ Roles and Skills Teacher roles are largely a matter of personal choice as well as an institutional imposition. These roles are usually embedded in job descriptions and on lists of teacher duties and responsibilities that state the employer’s expectations of the faculty they employ. The teacher will, naturally, have to teach their classes, correct learners’ written work and provide feedback, assess learners, attend staff meetings, etc. Thus, a generic framework of teachers’ roles is pre-crafted, imposed on practitioners, and is non-negotiable. These roles could be metaphorically seen as the branches of a tree, each representing different teacher role realisations, while the whole tree roots, trunk, branches, and foliage constitute teacher identity (see Sect. 2.6). One can adhere to the basic duties and responsibilities as these are specified by their employer, while at the same time, add their own perceptions of their role and teach accordingly. Teacher roles seem to be influenced by three key factors, although not the only ones: (a)

(b) (c)

The teacher’s perception of their mission, duties, and overall professional identity (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Clark & Yinger, 1979; Karavas-Doukas, 1996). The perceptions of external educational bodies and their expectations from their faculty (Van Huizen, Van Oers, & Wubbels, 2005) Parents’ and other stakeholders’ perceptions of what effective teachers are/should be like (Bell, 1995).

At first glance, the factors outlined above seem to be no different in the online teaching environment to the physical classroom. Teachers’ self-perceptions and the formation of an online teacher identity seem to be rather infantile areas, which in turn renders them both pressing to investigate as well as mesmerizing. Who are we in the online sessions, what is our goal/mission, what is our overall teaching philosophy? These have always been questions that every teacher should ask themselves at regular intervals in their career, and now the opportunity has appeared once more for practitioners to pin down who they are in relation to the new teaching setting and

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all that it brings along with it. The multifaceted nature of (language) educators’ roles is illustrated below. (a)

(b)

The Luminary—Source of Inspiration The choice of the word ‘luminary’ to refer to teachers is not at all random or arbitrary. Ideally, teachers are expected to be bearers of light (Lumen = Latin for light). Their intellect and cultivation are reflected upon their conduct and overall composure, which is tangible proof of the impact of education on people. They have insights that they have gained through studying, exploring, questioning, and experiencing, which are subtly manifested via the teacher’s interaction with others and which they wish to share with their learners. These are teachers to be remembered and, in today’s terms, are the influencers of their learners’ lives in that they mobilise and inspire the latter to be the best versions of themselves, to have a vision, and to pursue it through work. In the online teaching and learning setting, this teacher role should be stressed and sought after as it reinforces human to meaningful human interaction, which cannot, at least for now, be replicated by machines. What is more, it adds to the human element/presence in an online language course and transforms mere instruction into a holistic educational experience that values the development of the whole person as opposed to solely teaching skills. The Facilitator A second significant teacher role is that of a facilitator. The term has almost become a buzzword in contemporary pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes and courses, which is indexical of the emphasis that methodology nowadays places on more learner-centered approaches in language learning. The teacher assumes a more indirect role in the learning process by laying the ground for learning/acquisition, asking questions, and fostering independent thinking. Facilitators, as the name implies, make it easier for learners to learn. They prepare activities that foster learner autonomy, selfdiscovery, use peer teaching and peer correction, and elicit responses rather than provide answers. Given the increased interactivity in online language classes, as well as the platform features and tools described earlier, teachers need to be utterly skillful facilitators of activities, utilizing the whole range of tools available to them so as to sustain interest, give simple and very clear instructions, concept check to ensure learners have understood task requirements or face the danger of communication collapse, which is easier to occur in the online environment where learners may simply turn off mics and cameras. For example, if learners go into breakout groups without being clear as to what the task they have to perform is or how to do it, the teacher will end up monitoring groups that have ‘switched off’, i.e., remain silent and will probably have to give instructions afresh which is time-inefficient. One may rightly argue that this is true for ftf classes, the difference being, that online communication and learner interaction is more fragile and prone to breakdowns. Thus, masterful facilitation in online language sessions is a fine and demanding skill that teachers will have to practice.

2.4 Teachers’ Roles and Skills

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

31

The Challenger Online language classes rely heavily on learner participation, which means that teachers have to provoke, motivate, and mobilise learners by ‘challenging their wit’, especially at the beginning of the session or tasks so as to ensure engagement and participation. They could be referees in a word racing activity or coordinators in a debate, for example. The Guide Learners, in general, tend to rely on their teachers to know the course objectives and procedures. Teachers are responsible for taking learners through different stages of language competency within the course until the final objectives are met. The teacher is thus, perceived as the leader of the class who helps learners navigate through the challenges of the course. In an online course, this role could be particularly important and have an impact on learner motivation, feeling of safety, and maintaining a sense of orientation that leads to a final achievement/objective. The Life Coach/The Mentor A more holistic yet utterly realistic and prominent role that teachers have to assume online is that of a life coach. As such, teachers help learners with issues the latter might be facing with the course, and that may have an impact on their overall well-being and progress in it. Like in the role of luminaryperson who inspires discussed earlier, this role brings teachers and learners closer, allowing them to interact meaningfully via the use of technology and thus, contributes to humanising the course. It relies on features unique to humans such as empathy, and consciousness, which have yet to be simulated by machines. Teachers will engage in discussions with their learners about career choices, reflect on course performance, and suggest steps for further development or action to remedy any problems. Discussions of this sort can take place both in the presence of the class in the form of an open discussion or in pre-set, one-to-one meetings between the teacher and the learner and emphasise human presence in an online language course. The Materials’ Designer/Resources Compiler Coursebook adaptation is an integral part of a teacher’s daily work routine. Teachers select activities to include in their lesson, omit and modify others so as to suit their learners’ particular interests and needs. In doing so, they may design an activity themselves or add a ready-made one that they deem necessary to include in their lesson. Given the wealth of online resources and the occasional lack of classroom-ready and culturally appropriate materials for specific online classes, the online language teacher has to recruit their creativity, imagination, and expertise to make the best of the sessions. The Enchanter The learner—teacher relationship and vice versa is seemingly simple yet, not at all so. The two most important things a teacher has to do when starting classes with a new group of learners is to convince them of their professional adequacy and establish rapport. Achieving the first ensures that learners trust, respect, and allow a teacher to work with them. Rapport, however, relies on human

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(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

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interaction dynamics and practically translates into getting one’s learners to want to come to their virtual class. To that end, effective online teachers have to exert themselves in adapting to different learners’ personality traits, use humour, or not, and attempt to keep their class together by creating an online profile that is appealing to their learners. The Manager The concept of management is somewhat overlooked by teachers and researchers alike in that classroom and teaching management styles might or might not be included in teacher education courses despite having long been identified and elaborated on in the corresponding literature as key factors that influence classroom practices. In reality, this often means that most teachers tend to manage their class, almost instinctively. Whether authoritarian or laissez-faire, conscious or unaware of their management style, the truth remains that teachers do have to manage a multitude of variables in their daily online teaching from lesson and activity timing, to resources and learners themselves. Additionally, online teachers are expected to manage the screen and its layout, which is their new teaching setting—their classroom interface, reflecting their pedagogical identity and setting the mood. The Tamer Especially pertinent to the admirable teachers of young learners and adolescents, who, more often than not, have to deal with discipline issues while at the same time, perform their role as educators. In this role, teachers might have to engage in learner training, i.e., teach learners how to learn, take notes, record vocabulary, manage their study time, etc., as well as help them organize and structure their thoughts, e.g., when writing an essay. The Confidence Booster Otherwise referred to as positive reinforcement, it is part of a teacher’s job to praise learner effort and encourage them to do more. This is particularly important in online language teaching and learning where affective factors may influence language production or participation in the live session, which may easily lead to learners’ dropping out from it. The Exam Trainer For better or worse, standardised tests are increasingly gaining momentum in education, in which case, teachers have to assume the role of an exam coach. Reductionist as this may read, teachers have to vigorously prepare learners for external language exams, familiarize them with test formats, provide many opportunities for exam practice and feedback, and their success is judged by the learners’ results. The Grammarian This teacher role might be primarily the expectation of parents who perceive language teachers as expert linguists who must impart knowledge about the language onto their children. Several teachers and education administrators may also attribute great importance to this teacher role, which is not to be hastily dismissed as old-fashioned and absurd but must be seen as one of the many roles that teachers have to play in being effective or ‘convincing’

2.4 Teachers’ Roles and Skills

(m)

(n)

(o)

(p)

(q)

(r)

33

at what they do. Automation innovations described in Sect. 1.6 earlier, and a shift in people’s mentality about teachers’ roles, may gradually render this role defunct as grammar rules, examples, tailor-made clarifications, and personalised feedback could be provided by AI and ML. The Authority The teacher is an authority in their field. They know, they tell, they bestow knowledge to other people who look to them for the truth or the correct answers. It is a reassuring role both for the teacher as well as the learners who need to feel safe in the process of attaining language competence. The Assessor/evaluator The teacher assesses, evaluates, and grades learners’ work and overall performance in a course. Teachers, study assessment rubrics carefully and adhering to standards and assessment criteria specified by a higher authority such as a ministry, internal school policy, or external examination body, grade learners’ work. Feedback is essential in the online context as it is one of the few opportunities learners have to have their time with their teacher and reflect on their progress in the course. The IT Expert The teacher has technical knowledge that they are expected to apply whenever learners face a technical problem in the online platform or Learning Management System. The Initiator Teachers are often expected to take all initiative with regard to activities in the online classroom setting. They will start up a conversation, contribute posts in forums, and prompt learners in order to maintain activity momentum. In this role, teachers partly assume the role of co-learners, i.e., they take part in activities almost the same way learners do. The administrator Teachers have to complete a number of electronic forms and reports daily and submit them to the corresponding supervisor/department as per institutional instructions. These forms may relate to learner attendance, technical problem reports, and pages covered in the day’s session. The Edutainer The word ‘edutainer’ is an amalgamation of the words educator and entertainer. Anyone who has taught online classes has noticed that they need to be more ‘theatrical’ compared to the physical classroom. Teachers seem to have to try harder to attract and stimulate learners’ attention and interest in the online classroom. Considering young learners’ and teenagers’ attention span, teachers often have to exert themselves to maintain lesson momentum in online classes. This could be attributed to the expectations people have from the medium, i.e., learners have inextricably associated the screen with games, animated characters, lively colours, multimodal input, and the online class may seem static and dull compared to their subconscious expectations.

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(s)

(t)

(u)

2 Beyond the Online Teaching and Learning Platform

The moderator Online moderators watch, listen, and monitor procedures. Like television panel moderators, they make decisions as to agenda-setting, time distribution among speakers, and ensure pertinence of comments and contributions to the matter in hand. This could be characterized as a ‘Big Brother’ role as it implies a level of controlled freedom on the part of session participants as well as intervention whenever the teacher feels that learners deviate from the lesson objectives. The co-learner Teaching languages online can be highly interactive. Given that learners are usually younger than the teacher, their computer skills can be more advanced than those of their teacher. This means that the teacher can be a co-learner in this new educational context and that interactivity in the target language can result in mutual benefit. Access to information and learning resources that are not exclusively available to teachers also allows for greater learner engagement with materials and course content, which they can recommend to their teacher. The Mood Setter This is a role that is particularly demanding and relevant to teaching languages online due to the general inexperience with the new setting, its rules, protocols, and etiquette. Teachers are responsible for setting the tone, the rules that apply to interaction among participants, and for creating a friendly, cooperative, motivating, and stimulating teaching and learning online environment.

Although the list above is non-exhaustive, it does help to illustrate rather pointedly, the numerous, diverse roles that teachers often have to bring together in their practice and with which the vast majority of teachers can identify. To respond to all these roles, teachers need to master a series of skills, especially with regard to online language teaching. These are outlined below: (a)

Flexibility, Patience, and Persistence This is an age of adaptation and resilience, online teaching is just beginning to take shape, and countless changes will often occur without prior notice. Consequently, teachers need to be reflexive and demonstrate adaptability to volatile conditions in the online setting. From technical problems to methodological choices, and curricula directives, one is obliged by their professional capacity as well as for practical reasons, to observe, evaluate, seek training, and make informed choices. Currently, and for the foreseeable future, flexibility, patience, and persistence seem to be the three key attributes for the aspiring online teacher. Teachers who adapt to and embrace incoming technologies will be able to stay on the job market longer, while teachers who might be set in their ways will place themselves out of it. Thus, adaptation skills are essential in the online teaching and learning context. Personal qualities such as patience with technology and its ‘hiccups’, learners who might be struggling with its use, or decision-makers who might be making last-minute changes are necessary for the modern online language teacher who will have to grow

2.4 Teachers’ Roles and Skills

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

35

both at a professional as well as at a personal level in order to respond to these challenges. Technical Expertise One cannot possibly enter the realm of online language teaching without having some degree of knowledge on how LMSs, learning, and video conferencing apps work. Moreover, teachers will often have to solve problems relating to these platforms and apps, especially when they are not supported by an IT expert or team. Digital Media Manipulation (blogs, podcasts, social media, LMS, webpages, apps, email, presentational media). Teachers who embark on online teaching should be (fully) aware of the features of a variety of electronic resources/tools and be able to use them according to their pedagogical aims. A critical look into these tools from an educator’s perspective will contribute to acknowledging their affordances and misaffordances and will help teachers evaluate them as per their educational purpose. Broadcast Media Awareness (live streaming, real-time video conferencing, representational Media). Being camera and microphone aware/ready, knowing where to position the camera in relation to light and angle, setting up the background and sound so as to present one’ self in the best possible way to learners, are the new skills that online language teachers will have to learn. Multi-tasking and Time Management More often than not, online classes require that the teacher has several apps open, they minimise and maximise them, shift from screen to screen, respond to messages in the chat box, refer learners to external resources, monitor, and look at their lesson plan or course book in preparation for the next task and generally engage in a number of tasks during the lesson simultaneously. In addition, online teachers need to have a very good sense of time concerning the timing of activities during class, as well as post-lesson communication with the learners, and correction of assignments that learners submit online.

To assume that teachers are masters of the aforementioned skills upon graduation with a BA in English or that such mastery is a natural consequence of people’s exposure to technology on a daily basis is entirely random, to say the least. University programmes as well as continuous professional development initiatives and teacher training courses must incorporate these skills in their curriculum, and prepare the 21st century language educator accordingly so as to enable them to stay updated and be competent users of (educational) technology. To this end, teacher education and standardised pre-service as well as in-service methodology courses need to shift their attention from merely providing trainees with the otherwise useful lessonplanning skills necessary for all language teachers, to developing professionals who also possess the personal qualities and skills that are expected of them in the everchanging online educational setting. It is time we started viewing the EFL teacher as a whole person as opposed to an instructor (see Sect. 2.6).

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2.5 Learners’ Roles and Skills Synchronous online language courses have also added to and modified learners’ roles and skills by giving them more options and, thus, freedom to intervene in numerous ways in the course they are attending. In a sense, there is a shift of power from the teacher onto the learner who now has more responsibility for their learning and overall progress in the course through managing their time and resources. Yet, as the popular proverb goes, with freedom comes great responsibility, and unlike teachers, learners joining in an online course do not have much choice but to accept and adapt to the expectations that the new teaching and learning setting imposes on them. This means that learners will have to acknowledge and accept the additional responsibilities concerning their learning, and enter a new teaching and learning ‘contract’ that will govern the teacher-learner relationship. These learner roles are discussed below: (a)

(b)

The participant/the contributor As a general rule and depending on teacher choices, in online language classes, learners are expected to be more active and cooperative than in the physical classroom, engaging in peer teaching and participating actively in the sessions. This can be partly attributed to the fact that learner participation online is essentially seen as social presence and a contribution to the group enhancing its cohesion and boosting the sense of being a member of an active online microcommunity or team that pursues common goals. The more learners participate, cooperate, and interact with one another and the teacher during sessions, the more meaningful and engaging the session gets. This is particularly central in online language classes where classroom dynamics are more volatile due to learners’ option to turn their microphones and cameras off, in which case the session could practically die out. Thus, learners are responsible for coconstructing the context and co-setting the mood in which they wish their session to be delivered. Given that in the physical classroom, such responsibilities were largely the teacher’s, learners must now demonstrate a level of maturity that could be above and beyond their age. The researcher Given the inherently interdiscursive and intertextual nature of electronicallymediated communication (Georgieva & James, 2010), online language learners are expected to go beyond the prescribed course materials, explore and critically evaluate information from various diverse sources in order to complete assignments and projects. Their library is the World Wide Web, the online class might or might not be the centre of the course, and reference to external resources is frequently encouraged and promoted. Consequently, a much greater degree of learner autonomy in online classes is expected compared to f2f teaching as course participants set out to discover, filter, and bring their own insights into the teaching and learning process. These are all high-order skills that many learners might lack, and online course providers cannot take them for

2.5 Learners’ Roles and Skills

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

37

granted. Pre-course orientation sessions could be offered so that learners can train accordingly before they merge into their core language course. The lifelong learner The lifelong learner is different from other learners in that they consciously and voluntarily seek knowledge and pursue it vigorously. Herbert (2006), reports a dropout rate of learners enrolling in online courses that is 10–20% higher than onsite classes. The figures illustrate the need for learners to have a real sense of self-awareness, drive, self-motivation, and be clear and specific as to their reasons for attending an online course. A level of responsibility and maturity on the part of the learner emerges as an issue of concern that learners, parents, teachers, and administrators must seriously take into consideration. The manager Online learning is characterized by self-regulation which translates to an increased responsibility on the part of the learner to arrange their time in ways that allow them to respond to the demands of a course, be present for live sessions as well as allocate time to specific tasks in preparation for the class. Given the lack of a physical classroom that is a designated space for teaching and learning, channeling learners’ faculties accordingly, the screen is optional and taken for granted. If one adds the distractions found in the home or office environments from where learners might be logging in to do their online coursework or background studying, it becomes clear that discipline and selfmanagement are essential features of the successful online learner. Record keeping of materials, input, documents, files, links to external resources, or books provided by the teacher must also be downloaded, stored, and arranged properly in learners’ desktop or other folders. The assessor Due to the relatively independent nature of online language classes, learners need to be able to self-assess their progress in the course and be vigorous in taking remedial action to amend problems. It seems that self-reflection is an integral attribute of efficient online learners as they assume increased responsibility for their own learning progress and the accountability scales as to course outcomes and results, begin to lean towards the learner. For example, if a learner logs into sessions but remains inactive throughout the class, opting to deactivate their microphone and camera and becoming a ‘ghost student’, the teacher cannot be held accountable for low learner performance in subsequent tests. Thus, learner self-evaluation and self-reflection skills are necessary for effective and enjoyable online language classes. The potential content creator Creation of content can be a major means by which learner performance in an online language course is assessed as opposed to traditional testing. PowerPoint Presentations, contributions in the class forum, stories, narrations, and collaborative projects put learners in the position of course content creators. The IT expert Learners are expected to be confident users of the technology and the tools that the online platform offers, and be able to solve technical glitches largely

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on their own. Issues that relate to poor connections, software and hardware malfunctions that could affect learner participation in a course are expected to be solved by learners themselves, and they are solely responsible for ensuring that all the technological equipment and services necessary for their course attendance are in running order. The co-teacher Given the enhanced interaction and reliance on increased learner participation in the online language classroom, sessions can be rather learner-centred with the teacher acting as a facilitator or a guide who takes learners through the materials specified in the syllabus. Conversely, learners become the mood setters via their contributions and can act as topic initiators, propose, negotiate, and expand on topics based on an agenda set by the teacher.

2.6 Adapting Teacher and Learner Identity to the Online Context Before entering the discussion of identity, ask yourself the questions below: What is your job title? Are you an English language teacher, an English language instructor, trainer, educator, coach, tutor, specialist, or maybe a combination of all of the above? Did you assign yourself this title, or was it specified by the institution in which you work? Does it make a difference what one’s job title is? The critical reader may be suspicious as to the reasons why teachers need to contemplate on a seemingly theoretical question about their professional identity and its adaptation to the online context, given that the latter can simply transfer their teaching practices from the onsite to the online setting and adapt them through trial and error, which should be enough. A relatively short and straightforward counterargument/response to the previous observation could be that the online language teaching context is so dynamic, that teachers who do not engage in such reflections about what they do will simply be assigned identities by external agencies involuntarily. Moreover, the assumption that what worked in f2f classes will work in the same way online falls in the realm of absurdity and oversimplification given the differences in the setting as these were described in Chap. 1. Developments in the fields of AI and machine learning (see Sect. 1.6), somehow also compel increased teacher awareness as to identity features that render us unique compared to automated assistants. As humans, we must be aware of the features we bring into the teaching and learning process in the online context and build on those features that make us who we are, i.e., make up our professional identity and eventually frame our contribution to language learning online. Consequently, what better opportunity and circumstance than now to reflect and revisit one of the most fundamental concepts in ELT, such as professional identity, which to a great extent, influences our classroom-related decisions (Duff & Uchida, 1997; Ibarra, 1999)? Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, and Johnson (2005) hold that if one is to understand the complexity of language teaching and learning processes, they need to understand teachers; in turn, to understand teachers, they must

2.6 Adapting Teacher and Learner Identity to the Online Context

39

understand who the latter are professionally, culturally, politically, and at a personal level. The idea that teachers’ attitudes and beliefs have an impact on both the uptake and the implementation of innovation in the classroom is not new (Donaghue, 2003). Teacher beliefs and perceptions about online language teaching are reflected upon our practices and, consequently, should be pinned down to enable us to have the level of self-awareness that is expected of well-informed professionals. In other words, as will be demonstrated in Chap. 4 of this book, who one is, determines what they do in the online classroom, and the recent emergency classes did not allow teachers to look into such issues. In this light, Plato’s2 laconic quote that acknowledges necessity as the mother of invention, or in the case of online language classes, adaptation, is more relevant today than ever before. My interest in writing this section was triggered both by the arguments presented above but also by the growing trend in the field of ELT to refer to English language teachers as ‘instructors,’ educational media as ‘instructional media,’ and electronic materials’ design as ‘instructional design.’ It seems that the term ‘instruction’ in all its derivative forms are persistently gaining momentum, and despite efforts to find relevant, valid research reports illustrating the differences between ‘teaching’ and ‘instructing,’ the findings mainly come from fora and/or search engine answer posts. Nevertheless, words have power, and language is action, to draw on speech act theory.3 In this section, I attempt to reclaim the power of the word and argue that the words one selects to describe their professional capacity reflect how they perceive themselves, their mission, and duties within their field. I discuss the three main job titles teachers tend to use to describe what they do, namely English language instructor, educator, and teacher, and elaborate on the implications involved in each one of these three popular titles in relation to one’s identity. I further attempt to raise the reader’s awareness and contextualize teacher identity by bringing forward the question of classification of what we do with regard to the arts, the sciences, and the job market. Naturally, this identity is fluid, constantly negotiated, and unique to each teacher. Hopefully, by the end of this section, the reader will be able to approach the issue of their online teaching niche in a way that best reflects their priorities and perception of their professional self in the online setting. I start the discussion with what has been for me the bone of contention, i.e., the instructor. The Instructor The vigilant reader must have noticed that the term ‘instructor’ and its derivatives have been meticulously avoided in this book. My objection to the use of the word to refer to language teachers lies in both its denotation as well as the connotations that it entails, i.e., someone who instructs others to do things or perform tasks in a specific 2 Plato

is a 4th century BCE Athenian philosopher and one of the most influential thinkers of all time. He was the student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. His works on political organisation of society, ethics and epistemology of which he is regarded to be the father, are considered to be the basis of modern western civilisation. 3 Speech Act Theory is based on the premise that speakers do things and accomplish objectives through their discourse and specific utterances, i.e., language has performative value. For more see Austin (1962).

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fashion so as to acquire a skill. If one adheres to the notion that words are powerful and reflect our view of ourselves and the world around us, the word ‘instructor’ is highly reductionist, given that language teaching is classified in the broader realm of the humanities. Thus, language instruction implies duties, responsibilities, and roles that are associated with transferring a skill in the same way-the otherwise esteemedski or driving instructors have no other duty than to instruct/show their learners how to ski or drive safely. Is this what language teachers do? An example that illustrates this prevalent tendency to detach language teachers from their pedagogical role is also evident in the international job market whereby the term ‘instructor’ to refer to language teachers is widely used while the same is not true for other disciplines where the title of our counterparts is ‘maths, history, or physics teacher.’ The Educator The role of an educator is much broader than that of an instructor in that it encompasses more roles identified earlier in this book (see Sect. 4.4). Educators inspire learners to excel often through their life experiences, choices, and moral standing. They aim to bring out the best in their learners so that they can fulfill their potential. Romantic as this may read in times of standardization and results, it is still a view of teaching that many practitioners share and intentionally or even inadvertently adopt in their teaching in the sense that they bring their whole self into their classroom as opposed to providing skills training. The educator is the teacher we all remember from our years as learners ourselves. Thus, such teachers are not unicorns, i.e., legendary creatures disconnected from reality. Nevertheless, and in all fairness to instructors, educators might be prone to seeing day-to-day teaching duties as dull drills that have to be performed and look aloof to learners who are result-oriented, which is when the teacher emerges to save the day. The Teacher Teachers embody features of the instructor and the educator and, thus, can better respond to the range of roles specified in Sect. 2.4. They have a clear understanding of the course and lesson aims, subject matter, and procedural knowledge while at the same time are willing to share their experiences with the learners and have a distinct personal teaching style. Teachers are characters that have an impact on the learning process, which is what makes them different from learning a language through software. Teachers are visionaries who set realistic goals, good listeners, and lifelong learners. As such, they teach, train, instruct, listen, coach, manage, and support their learners but always operate under the realisation that teaching and learning are, fortunately, not neutral (see Sect. 4.2.2.2 , CDP). Next, ask yourself about the nature of your work. Is online language teaching (Fig. 2.1). Skimming through the definitions above, one instantly notices some key words that have been stressed in this book. The adjectives ‘imaginative’ and ‘creative’ that stand out in the definition of art, ‘observation’ and ‘experimentation’ in the definition of science, ‘practical skills’ and ‘design’ in the denotation of craft, ‘duty’ and ‘function’ to define a ‘job’, and ‘advanced education and training’ that characterise a profession.

2.6 Adapting Teacher and Learner Identity to the Online Context

an Art?

Subject of study such as languages, literature and history. These subjects place emphasis on imaginative and creative ability. Any skill or ability that can be developed by practice.

a Science?

The study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world and society esp. through observation and experiment.

a Craft?

Activities that require both artistic and practical skills e.g. pottery, weaving, etc. An activity involving a special skill at making things with the hands paying great attention to design and detail.

a job?

a profession?

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A paid position of regular employment. A responsibility, duty, or function. A paid occupation, esp. one that requires advanced education and training

Fig. 2.1 A list of major teacher identities. These can coexist in perfect harmony so long as teachers have found their niche, which will help them make informed and conscious decisions in the classroom

I intentionally opted to look up the terms in a dictionary of general English so as to show that even in layman’s terms, teaching embodies diverse features and is highly multifaceted and multidimensional. Based on this view, language teachers are artists, scientists, craftsmen, employees, and professionals. The proportion of each of the above aspects of identity and the corresponding roles and responsibilities that accompany them will vary from teacher to teacher and be subject to external factors such as institutional guidelines as well as personal preferences. A sample professional identity statement could read as follows: I am an online language teacher. I am an artist in that I can create something out of nothing. Drawing on my imagination and creativity, I can design a lesson using anything, from an emoticon to a newspaper article, I will find ways to appeal to my learners’ emotions just like all artists do, in the hope that their interest or reaction will turn to engagement, and that, to knowledge and development. I am a scientist in that I study and value theory and practice in second language pedagogy and all related areas. I follow the developments in my field and update my knowledge and teaching skills intrinsically. I observe and reflect on my practice, research and experiment with online resources and tools and adapt them to my learners’ needs. I am a craftsman. I look for materials online and make tailor-made flashcards, board games, crosswords, quizzes, and puzzles, and use them to teach language. I come up with solutions to problems my online learners might be facing on the spot, drawing on my creativity, experience, and intuition. I am a professional, and my conduct, training, and advanced knowledge of my subject matter speak for themselves. I am an instructor with a 90% pass rate in ESOL exams. I teach exam skills, and

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my students can write a formal email asking for a refund on a faulty product they purchased online in a most efficient manner. I am an educator because I believe that language learning involves the development of the whole person4 and will not hesitate to share my experience and lessons learned through it with my learners should the need arise. Part of my duties and responsibilities is to inspire, encourage learners to realise their potential and act so as to reach their intellectual goals. I care about my learners’ well-being and try to instill humanitarian values in them. I adapt my identity according to my class’s profile, my learners’ needs, and my lesson’s objectives. I am all of the above at will, but first and foremost, and above all, I am a teacher. Next, I look into learners’ identities in online language learning, which are also in constant flux. Learners’ identities in online language classes. As seen above, learners are faced with the immense challenge of realizing and adopting new roles in the online language teaching setting. They are given the power to choose whether to be active, passive, or ‘ghost’ attendees who log into sessions and then disappear, participate or abstain, contribute orally or mute themselves, turn on/off their camera, upload materials, and interact with their peers. This power shift allows for self-regulation of learning and grands learners liberties that they have never had before in formal education. From being course attendees, learners are now asked to be their own managers, co-teachers, assessors, and content creators, roles that require maturity and abilities and skills in which learners have not received any training whatsoever. It is the responsibility of online course providers to make sure that learners understand that “with freedom comes great responsibility,”5 and learner training workshops prior to launching a course might be an efficient way to inform and raise learners’ awareness on the implications of being an online language learning course participant. In these learner training sessions, the rationale behind the structure of a given course would be explained, the requirements and learner expectations for the course to be successful would be laid out, and learners would be given the opportunity to practice and familiarise themselves with the platform interface and tools. As a result, many of the attitudinal issues discussed earlier in Sect. 1.5 could be addressed, and learners could enter an online language course fully aware of the setting, its features, and the part they have to play in achieving the learning outcomes. It is a fallacy to assume that because learners are competent users of technology and social media apps, they are also conscious of the ethical and procedural workings of online language teaching and learning courses. Thus, learner training workshops and anything that will contribute toward a mindset change on the part of learners with regard to attending online language classes are indispensable in allowing course participants to make the most of the freedom that they have been given. 4 See

Rosiek (2003), Nias (1999), Gholami (2011). attributed to Eleanor Roosevelt, as a variation of “With great power comes great responsibility” most likely originally heard in the French National Convention of 1793.

5 Quote

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2.7 Teacher Education for Online Language Teachers The relationship between people and change has always been contradictory, if not dysfunctional. The paradox lies in the seemingly innate human tendency to seek stability and security6 in a perpetually changing world. In order to address this stark contrast between public sentiment and what actually seems to be a natural phenomenon, i.e., change, business, and management studies have created whole fields of expertise such as Change Management in an attempt to understand the workings as well as mitigate the effects of change on people in various settings including education. Moreover, there seems to be enough literature as well as research evidence today to suggest that people tend to be reluctant to embrace and adopt change that is imposed on them by systemic agents without any preparation or conditioning (Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979; Nunan, 1991; Pennington, 1995; Price & Chahar, 2006; Sartori, Costantini, Ceschi, & Tommasi, 2018). The example from the era of the second industrial revolution pertaining to the etymology of the word ‘sabotage’ helps illustrate resistance to change most amusingly. Workers in France in the mid 19th century, feeling threatened by the introduction of machines to do their job and fearing that they would soon become redundant, allegedly threw their sabots (French wooden shoe) into the machines so that the latter would break down, making a point to their employers that there is nothing more reliable than manual labour. It appears that the tragic fate of several sabot shoes might have been different should decisionmakers have communicated the changes more effectively to their employees. Similarly, teachers today need to be well-informed and ready to face the ever-changing teaching and learning setting, and the role of teacher education (TE) is central to that end. It seems somewhat necessary at this point to distinguish between terms for the sake of argument clarity. In this book, teacher education is used as an umbrella term that incorporates PD, teacher training courses, webinars, workshops, talks, plenaries/round tables, and any other initiative that aims to help teachers improve their practice or prepare to enter the profession. PD refers to in-service teacher education schemes whose objective is mainly to update already trained teachers on current developments in the field, while teacher training programmes are systematic, pre-service as well as in-service courses comprising pre-specified modules, syllabus, outcomes, classroom observations, self and peer reflection on practices and usually lead to a professional qualification such as a certificate or diploma. Conversely, webinars and workshops are usually standalone sessions focusing on one specific area of language teaching and learning. Webinars imply very little interactivity among attendees and involve an authority imparting knowledge to attendees who might lack insight into a particular topic or a recent breakthrough. A workshop, on the other hand, is highly interactive, and participants engage in presenter-attendee and peer interaction, completing tasks in pairs or groups accordingly. All of the aforementioned modes of teacher education today are invaluable yet, not equally relevant to all teachers. Novice teachers might need more teacher training, 6 See

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (1943).

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webinars and mentoring for example, while experienced and qualified faculty would require more online workshops in which their background and insights would be valued and shared. Individual teachers, but most importantly, academic managers and school administrators must know and encourage their faculty to attend teacher education sessions/courses that match their profile and suit their needs. This differentiation is necessary to facilitate change, foster teacher inclusion, and avoid teacher disillusionment due to irrelevance. In this light, TE initiatives for online language teachers should clearly specify their audience differentiating between starting/early career and more experienced teachers, practice what they preach when it comes to interactivity, and stipulate their mode, i.e., webinar, workshop, talk, plenary, etc. (Psoinos, 2020). It seems that currently, being spoilt for choice, we have ended up abusing the availability of online webinars and workshops by offering so many, often obscure in scope and aim options to language teachers that TE should be their sole occupation or concern. Moreover, the abundance of standalone sessions does not allow early career teachers to actually build up on their skills and theoretical background in a systematic fashion, reinforcing the fallacy that language teaching can be mastered by attending random, unrelated hourly sessions online. Apparently, there is an issue of quantity over quality when it comes to TE for online language teaching, which in turn, could have an adverse effect on teachers’ willingness to attend them as many of these webinars and workshops are simply not good value for time. PD for the sake of PD, promotion of products or individuals is highly detrimental at this transitional stage in language education and could drive teachers away from otherwise invaluable and insightful teacher education that the field currently truly needs. Another notable challenge teacher education is called to address is keeping up with technological developments. Given that growth in technology is exponential in relation to the linearity that characterises human progress (Taie, 2020), TE experts are to be the pioneers in educational technology, try out novelty, reflect on its pedagogical impact, and disseminate their experience to the broader teaching community this way facilitating the uptake of new technologies and their incorporation into mainstream language teaching and learning sessions. It falls on TE to demonstrate the necessary reflexes in ensuring that technological advancements do not outpace teachers and that these innovations are inextricably linked to developments in pedagogy and its extensions to teacher and learner identity, beliefs, roles, and responsibilities. Thus, it is crucial that TE experts keep up with the rapid advancements in technology and prepare the teaching and learning community in time for change so that it can be more easily adopted. Ideally, online TE should be incremental, systematic, building up on teachers’ skills and competencies. Moreover, it should align with all that it professes and a.

differentiate among teachers; novice teachers need more than just tips on how to manipulate online tools, apps, and ‘bells and whistles.’ They need teacher education that integrates solid pedagogical background and online technological expertise. Similarly, experienced and highly qualified teachers must be seen as a resource for more inclusive and engaging PD.

2.7 Teacher Education for Online Language Teachers

b.

c. d. e. f. g. h.

i. j.

k.

45

escape from the trainer-centred model of PD and review the relationship between trainer and trainee. According to Varghese et al. (2005), PD does not meet expectations because it has largely adopted an expert-recipient approach to training teachers, i.e., an authority generates knowledge and passes it on to teachers, who will then have to apply it in their classroom. interact with participants in the same way teachers are asked to interact with their learners. state objectives, audience, mode of delivery (workshop, webinar, talk, round table, etc.) clearly upon invitation to attend. use the online tools that it encourages teachers to use in their classes with their learners. value attendee contributions and personalise content. have the number of attendees that will allow the above; can one really deliver an effective PD workshop with 100 + attendees? empower, inspire, and raise teachers’ self-awareness by designing and delivering thought-provoking sessions related to their online professional identity or discussing their emotions/attitude to classroom practices, materials, or a new online tool. enable teachers to master the skills that are required to teach online (see previous section). engage teachers in critical discussions over existing theories of learning and approaches and methods to language teaching and learning in the online context. TESOL does not exist in a vacuum; there are theoretical insights that should be revisited, renegotiated, and redefined. prepare and familiarise teachers with the concept of change and its management

Overall, teachers, now more than ever before, are in need of high quality, targeted, personalised, and purposeful TE that will act as a road-map helping them navigate through the often overwhelmingly miscellaneous online teaching setting confidently. In this chapter, I have attempted to explore the ethical dimensions of online language teaching and learning in relation to human participants, pinning down the (additional) teacher and learner roles, which contribute to the formulation of new identities that incorporate multiple assumptions and implicit or explicit beliefs about second language acquisition theories, and theories of learning. The question that comes to the centre of the discussion now is how people can learn languages better online and where teachers fit in in this setting. Theories of learning seem to provide fertile ground for exploration in this regard, and this precisely what I am doing in Sect. 3.1, where I elaborate on the major theories of learning in connection to the online context. Taking the discussion a step further, Chap. 3 continues with an online sample class based on each one of the classic as well as more contemporary approaches in TESOL, culminating in a potpourri of good practices to be used online borrowed from each one of them, which constitutes a model of personalised eclecticism that is based on teacher identity and online setting specifications.

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References Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. London: Oxford University Press. John Searle has also written extensively on speech acts. Bhatia, V. K. (2017). Critical genre analysis: Investigating interdiscursive performance in professional communication. London: Routledge. Bell, J. (1995). Teachers talk about teaching: Coping with change in turbulent times. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Clark, C. M., & Yinger, R. J. (1979). Three studies of teacher planning. Research series N. 55. East Lansing, MI: Michigan University Press. Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers’ thought processes. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 255–296). New York: MacMillan. Donaghue, H. (2003). An instrument to elicit teachers’ beliefs and assumptions. ELT Journal, 57(4), 344–351. Duff, P. A., & Uchida, Y. (1997). The negotiation of teachers’ sociocultural identities and practices in postsecondary EFL classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 451–486. Freire, P. (1970a). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum. Georgieva, M., & James, A. (Eds.). (2010). Globalization in english studies. Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Gholami, K. (2011). Moral care and caring pedagogy: Two dimensions of teachers’ praxis. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 19(1), 133–151. Herbert, M. (2006). Staying the course: A study in online student satisfaction and retention. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 9(4). Ibarra, H. (1999). Provisional selves: Experimenting with image and identity in professional adaptation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4), 764–791. Karavas-Doukas, E. (1996). Using attitude scales to investigate teachers’ attitudes to the communicative approach. Elt Journal, 50, 187–198. Kotter, J. & Schlesinger, L. (1979). Choosing strategies for change. Harvard Business Review, 106, 14. Leinhardt, G., & Smith, D. (1985). Expertise in mathematics instruction: Subject matter knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 247–271. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. Nias, J. (1999). Primary teaching as a culture of care School culture. In Prosser, J. (Ed.), School culture. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Nunan, D. (1991). Syllabus design. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pennington, M. C. (1995). The teacher change cycle. TESOL Quarterly, 29(4), 705–730. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9, 5. Price, A. D. F., & Chahal, K. (2006). A strategic framework for change management. Construction Management and Economics, 24(3), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446190500227011 Psoinos, D. (2020). Teacher education: recalibrating our ties with pedagogy in the online language teaching setting. TESOL Greece Journal, 147. https://tesolgreece.org/news/tesol-greece-journal147/. Rosiek, J. (2003). Emotional scaffolding: An exploration of the teacher knowledge at the intersection of student emotion and the subject matter. Journal of Teacher Education, 54, 399–412. Sartori, R., Costantini, A., Ceschi, A., & Tommasi, F. (2018). How do you manage change in organizations? Training, development, innovation, and their relationships. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00313 Stommel, J. (2014). Critical digital pedagogy: A definition. Hybrid Pedagogy. https://hybridped agogy.org/critical-digital-pedagogy-definition/. Taie, M. (2020). Towards post-postmethodism: Embracing a new generation of methodism. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 10(7), 749–760. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1007.05

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Van Huizen, P., Van Oers, B., & Wubbels, T. (2005). Vygotskian perspective on teacher education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(3), 267–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027042000328468 Varghese, M., Morgan, B., Johnston, B., & Johnson, K. (2005). Theorizing language teacher identity: Three perspectives and beyond. Journal of Language Identity. 21–44. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15 327701jlie0401_2 Whitaker, P. (1995). Managing to learn. London: Cassell.

Chapter 3

Online Language Teaching Pedagogy

How do people learn? What insights do teachers have at their disposal through the relevant literature regarding the processes involved in learning and developing in the ftf and online contexts? Which of the well-established approaches and methods in language teaching and learning could optimally apply these insights online? This chapter provides an overview of the most prevalent learning theories to date but also tries out each of the aforementioned approaches and methods online in an attempt to address these questions empirically and draw corresponding conclusions. To this end, a sample online lesson and activities designed to reflect the main principles of each method are provided and critically discussed for usefulness as well as feasibility in the online setting. A personalised e-clectic online language teaching paradigm is proposed and elaborated on at the end of this chapter.

3.1 Theories of Learning Admittedly, learning theories could easily occupy a completely separate volume as, on the one hand, they enable educators to understand how people process information, while on the other, the relevant literature is both extensive as much as it is diverse (Leonard, 2002). However, in this section, I aim to open the window of inquiry by providing an overview of the main learning theories and relate them directly to teaching and learning languages online. Such awareness and insight is essential for practitioners of all disciplines as teacher and learner roles, identity, as well as online session practices are decidedly affected by one’s perceptions of how people learn or acquire knowledge. What is more, the inherent features of the current online setting as these were described in Sect. 1.3 of this book, together with the growing integration of more advanced AI, robotics, and other technological innovations into mainstream online language teaching, implicitly impose a prevalent view of how languages are best learnt online resulting in a transformation of teacher and learner roles and a shift © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. I. Psoinos, Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79919-9_3

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to higher-order skills like critical thinking, creativity, and intuition. In turn, this explains the current trend towards an ever more social-constructivist but also highly interconnected online teaching and learning paradigm, which can be attributed to platforms and our robotic assistants taking over time-consuming mechanical drills and much of the often-tedious paperwork teachers once had to do. Consequently, such developments bring the issue of learning theories underlying online language teaching and learning practices in the foreground of the discussion. Arguably, such insight renders teaching and learning more effective as this could be the key to unlock the brain of our learners and better understand the cognitive processes in which humans engage when learning languages online. From the definition of what constitutes a learning theory to the different theories developed over the past one hundred and twenty years, the scholarly perception remains stable on the first three fundamental paradigms elaborated below. Sections 3.1.4–3.1.6 refer to more recently developed theories that have been gaining momentum and relate closely to online teaching and learning in that they take the new hi-tech setting, its features, and potential into consideration in exploring how people learn best.

3.1.1 Behaviourism (Skinner, 1957) Otherwise known as the “stimulus–response” theory or “classical conditioning,” it heavily relies on action and reaction. Dating back to the nineteenth century, it draws on Pavlov’s experiment with dogs and their response to food. Similarly, humans learn by forming behavioural habits, and thus, these habits can be overtly taught. With reference to language learning, the focus is on immediate feedback to a received stimulus, which is either negative or gratifying so as to create a painful or rewarding memory, respectively, that will evoke the desired response on the part of the learner. Evidently, accuracy is a top priority, and errors are seen as bad habits that need to be ratified on the spot. Learners are perceived to be ‘tabula rasa,’ i.e., they do not possess any innate mental faculties, carry very little, if any, knowledge of the world, and as a result, the teacher’s role is to transmit knowledge. The Grammar and Translation method and Audiolingualism are two of the representative approaches and methods in language teaching and learning rooted in behaviourism and the habit formation principle. In online language teaching and learning, the application of behaviourism is clearly reflected in online activities that involve instant feedback and can be seen to address several learners’ need for explanation, definition, and results in the form of a grade or immediate feedback. Although often frowned upon by modern TESOL academics and practitioners branded as outdated or even obsolete, behaviourism never really ceased to exist in course materials and classroom practices via mechanical drills such as substitution, gap fills, and multiple matching that can now be done at learners’ own time as self-study and be corrected on the spot allowing the teacher to focus on more meaningful tasks during session time. Thus, behaviourist theory finds a place in online language teaching and learning through automation of activities and potentially the application of AI and ML (see Sect. 1.6).

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3.1.2 Constructivism (Piaget, 1950; Chomsky, 1980) According to this theory of learning, people are born with an innate ability to process information (Chomsky, 1988) and humans are endowed with information processing faculties at birth. We all have a built-in, biological cognitive system for learning, and we acquire knowledge through experience. This schematic knowledge, constructed through experience, plays a pivotal role in what, how, and at what pace the individual learns. Gradually, we scaffold on prior knowledge, connecting, synthesising, and constructing new schemata, which is added to what is already known to create new knowledge for every individual learner. These experiences can, in turn, be used in language teaching and learning during the warm-up stage of a lesson in which teachers might wish to start a conversation, for example, before entering a reading for gist activity, allowing for activation of relevant schemata and thus, aiding learner engagement through personalisation. Constructivists, consequently, hold that learners build on their previous knowledge to create new one. Learning occurs in stages, is continuously negotiated, and errors are an intrinsic part of that process. In online language learning classes, constructivists will engage learners in self-discovery that aids internalization of target items and concepts and promote active learner roles. Teachers will ask questions that will aid self-discovery and elicit rather than give grammar rules or word meanings. The theory is easily observable in the design of course materials such as course books, teaching practices in given lesson plans, but also through some platform tools such as ‘polls’ and the ‘chat box’ that can be utilised to activate prior knowledge or to ask and answer questions accordingly (see Sect. 1.4 on online tools and Sect. 3.2 below).

3.1.3 Social Constructivism (Vygotsky, 1934) The epistemological principles of Constructivism and Social Constructivism (SC) are not too far apart. The latter emphasises social stimuli, interaction with other people, culture, and context as key factors that affect learning from infancy to childhood through adulthood and throughout one’s life. Like in Constructivism, in SC, knowledge is subjective but Social Constructivists hold that learning is co-constructed and is highly dependent on social interchange (Guterman, 2006) as people formulate, reformulate, modify, adapt, and add to the body of knowledge already acquired through the exchanges they have in a given setting and thus, learning is a collaborative process rather than accumulation of facts presented by an authority, i.e., the parent or the teacher. Language is not learned or taught but acquired1 , and based on

1 ‘Learning’

implies a conscious, intentional effort to obtain knowledge as opposed to ‘acquiring’ which refers to subconscious, innate processes involved in doing so. See literature on the ‘nurture versus nature’ debate, and Bruner (1983).

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this fundamentally Socratic2 view of learning, dialectics are central to all learning and development of the individual at a given age. A means by which one can understand this developmental process, according to Vygotsky (1934) is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which helps highlight the significance and interconnection of social stimulus, interaction, culture, and context/environment in the cognitive development of a child. At the centre of the discussion is the development of a set of “higher psychological functions that can be acquired through interaction” (Chaiklin, 2003:44) that will allow individuals to perform independently within that interaction, indexing actual development and transition to the next age period of maturation as opposed to the acquisition of task completion skills only (ibid, 46–52). Thus, Vygotsky’s view of learning involves the development of the whole person within social interactions in given settings which is utterly relevant to teaching language online. Both Constructivism and Social Constructivism are process-oriented theories where errors are seen as an integral component of learning. In the traditional, ftf context, manifestations of both theories are evident in the prevalent Communicative Language Learning approach as well as in Task-based Learning but to name a few. Online teaching practices such as pair work and group work and tools that foster interaction among session participants such as breakout groups, discussion boards/fora, wikis, and resource sharing are indicative of the current dominance of the SC view of learning in the online context, which is actually prevalent in ftf teaching as well and has been carried over to the online setting.

3.1.4 Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) The Eagle soars in the summit of Heaven, The Hunter with his dogs pursues his circuit. O perpetual revolution of configured stars, O perpetual recurrence of determined seasons, O world of spring and autumn, birth and dying. The endless cycle of idea and action, Endless invention, endless experiment, Brings knowledge of motion, but not of stillness; Knowledge of speech, but not of silence; Knowledge of words, and ignorance of the Word. All our knowledge brings us nearer to our ignorance, All our ignorance brings us nearer to death, But nearness to death no nearer to GOD. 2 Socrates:

fifth century BC Greek philosopher who lived and taught in Athens. Socrates believed that the role of a teacher is to ask the right questions so as to elicit the truth from his students rather than tell them overtly—often referred to as the Socratic dialectic/method. See Gogus (2012).

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Where is the Life we have lost in living? Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge? Where is the knowledge we have lost in information? The cycles of Heaven in twenty centuries. Bring us farther from GOD and nearer to the Dust. Opening Stanza from Choruses from “The Rock” (1934). T. S. Eliot (1888–1965).

Literary critique in a book about teaching languages online would seem awkward to the reader, to say the least, and one can rest assured that tempting as this might be, my intentions are otherwise. At the same time, it would be hubris to decontextualise and isolate the two verses in bold that I need in order to make my point(s) one of which is to show the interconnection of fields, disciplines, and specialisations in an integrated world where insights can be gained from various, diverse resources. Furthermore, the verses in bold above directly relate to learning theories and online language teaching and learning through what Scardamalia and Bereiter (1993: 37) identified as the issue of “knowledge reproduction” versus “knowledge transformation” in computer use in education. Like T.S. Eliot in his brilliant poem above, the authors question the value of reproducing what we already know in a computer-mediated context instead of exploiting the potential of the medium to generate new knowledge paving the way for Computer-supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL). Along with technological advancements, CSCL has also come a long way since the early 1990s, and today, it constitutes a theory that is particularly relevant to teaching and learning languages online. To a great extent, it draws on Social Constructivism in that it views learning as socially co-constructed within groups and via interaction of the members of these groups. Nevertheless, CSCL delves deep into group interaction processes, dynamics, as well as discourse among group participants in an attempt to understand the discursive and other features that render group collaboration and cooperation successful (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2002). Stahl (2002) argues that collaborative learning and construction of meaning are inextricably linked at sentence-level discourse, suggesting that analysis of group discourse will help shed light upon the learning process among group members in a given technologymediated setting. Thus, the socio-cultural context that is central in SC, is replaced by the setting as this is shaped by technology, computers, and by extension, the online classroom, and is equally central in fostering learner growth in CSCL. Another new dimension however, that CSCL brings in the limelight is group members’ interpersonal skills, which could be linked to emotional intelligence (see next section). Individuals are accountable for their contributions to their group and individuality is by no means eliminated in CSCL but rather enhanced within the group in which one is learning/working in order to complete a common task (Resta & Laferrière, 2007). Collaborative tasks, process writing, debates, discussions, group presentations, or research projects using tools such as wikis, interactive whiteboards, discussion boards, or the chat box aid online learning via meaningful interaction. CSCL principles underlie a number of the online material adaptation ideas I recommend in the last chapter of this book.

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3.1.5 Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983) More recently, the multiple intelligences learning theory (MIT) has emerged and has been gaining momentum as a distinct alternative to the aforementioned theories. The MIT focuses on the distinction of sub-categories, i.e., modalities of intelligence that affect learning. Drawing on the broader research on multiple intelligences, it emphasizes individual, personal traits as factors that boost or hinder learning. It is an utterly learner-centred theory that highlights everyone’s potential to acquire knowledge and skills on condition that teaching is tailored to suit their innate cognitive profile. Consequently, teaching content is adapted to match individual learning styles, while personalisation of materials, methods, and techniques is viewed as a central component of effective teaching and learning. Cognition is a highly pluralistic concept as different people learn differently. Thus, teachers must design and deliver classes that incorporate a range of diverse activities and themes that will boost learners’ motivation. Given the power shift between teachers and learners in the online setting that I elaborated on earlier, it seems that online language learners today have every opportunity available to tailor their course to suit their aptitude. Taking advantage of the extra freedom/options they have, they can take initiative and go beyond the materials taught in class, bringing in insights from diverse resources of their preference for negotiation using the discussion forum or contributing these insights in a synchronous session. Teachers on the other hand, can (and should) differentiate their teaching by incorporating all the tools and resources available to them so as to be as inclusive as possible in teaching languages online. MIT is the theory of learning that applies what Tomlinson (1999) introduced as ‘differentiated learning,’ and the online setting seems ideal for serving that purpose.

3.1.6 Connectivism (Siemens, 2004; Downes, 2010) Connectivism was primarily conceived as a response to the momentum that webbased technologies have been gaining at the offset of the twenty-first century and is considered a theory that was developed for e-learning environments (Siemens, 2004). From an epistemological viewpoint, Connectivist theory sees knowledge as a network that interacts with stimuli to adapt and modify previous knowledge and produce new one. Learning can occur through diverse opinions and sources such as peers and machines, is a dynamic and ongoing process so long as nodes3 and network connections are maintained and nurtured. According to Siemens (2005), the moment an individual connects to any technology-mediated network, they become a learner. When learners react/respond to new information to which they have been exposed, learning occurs, and this process continues perpetually as learners’ perceptions change with new, incoming stimuli. Nevertheless, criticality is an integral 3A

node is one of the many network endpoints that are linked to one another e.g. learners, books, and materials (AlDahdouh, 2018).

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part of all learning that is reflected through peoples’ decisions, and as a result, it is the key skill that learners should practice and master in the interconnected technological context. Learner autonomy, intrinsic motivation, self-discovery, and social networking, contribute to learning and should be pursued. The theory is, in many respects, close to social-constructivism in assuming that learning is socially constructed and not merely the result of conditioning or overt instruction. The Connectivist view of learning directly addresses the power shift as well as the multidimensional nature of teaching online that were discussed earlier in this book. Learners are teachers and vice versa, information and knowledge are found both in machines as well as in human interaction, and course content is in constant flux and negotiated among course participants. This might seem chaotic to many language teachers but connectivists acknowledge this as a prominent feature of online learning with which learning communities have to make peace. In this light, the role of teachers and learners is to manage the flow of information, organise it, evaluate it, and keep it flowing so that more knowledge will be generated. In a blended learning or asynchronous context, tools such as discussion boards could be central to the aforementioned generation of knowledge while the chat box in a synchronous language class could be the place where learners expand on what is already being discussed in a given session. Research projects using external resources are also highly encouraged so that learners practice critical thinking skills and personally engage in peer teaching. The first three classical schools of thought of how learning occurs together with the younger theories discussed above raise teachers’ awareness of who they are and what they are doing in the online teaching setting based on these beliefs. They also give teachers the necessary tools to identify the approach that they will adopt in their onsite as well as online practice and, thus, empower them to make conscious and well-informed decisions about their classes. In combination with an awareness of the Approaches and Methods that have traditionally been used in onsite language teaching, learning theories inform teachers’ practices and help us form our online teaching identity. At this point, it might be worth asking oneself the fundamental teacher identityrelated questions: Which theory of learning do you feel closer to more than others in TESOL online? Moreover, all the approaches discussed below make assumptions about learner and teacher roles and the cognitive processes involved in the teaching and learning of foreign languages. Which theory of learning underlies each approach? Where do you position yourself in this regard?

3.2 The “established” Approaches and Methods and the Online Classroom Approaches and methods in teaching languages have always had ardent proponents and equally zealous critics. The methodological explosion of the 1960s during the 3rd industrial revolution was followed by disillusionment in the 1990s, giving rise

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to the post-method era. Prabhu (1990) was one of the first to argue that there is no best method, while Kumaravadivelu (1994, 2003, 2016) firmly discards the method as a hegemonic, almost tyrannical concept. Conversely, scholars like Bell (2007), and Taie (2020), hold that not only approaches and methods never really died, but they are making a come-back, not in the form of a single, one-size-fits-all form, but adapted to the new technologically-mediated/enhanced language teaching and learning environment. What better time then to try out all the methods TESOL has at its disposal and evaluate them by today’s online teaching standards, considering all the factors discussed in the previous chapters of this book? In doing so, I will be using the term ‘approach’ to refer to a set of overarching principles, theoretical assumptions, and views on the teaching and learning of foreign languages that are served by a method. The latter encompasses all the practices and techniques that reflect the theoretical tenets of the approach. Thus, the purpose of this part is to briefly review the basic principles that underlie the most prevalent approaches to language teaching and learning to date and relate them directly to teaching languages online. To this end, I start with a summary of the main features of the approach, provide an example from an online class, and discuss the theoretical and practical underpinnings and implications. Moreover, as the reader goes through the subsections below, it can be easily noticed that the examples are, in essence, digitalized lessons and activities that can also be applied to teaching synchronously online thus, bridging the distance between face-to-face and online practices. Teachers who are teaching asynchronously will also find the sections below relevant and informative in that the lessons that follow can be recorded and delivered at a later time. The element of live interaction will be missing, but this could potentially be compensated by live sessions incorporated in blended courses. The lessons/activities below are aimed at a range of English language learners with regard to age groups and levels of proficiency, which are specified in each case, and class size is assumed to be within the 4–25 learner range. The reader should feel free to exercise their criticality in adapting these lessons to their own class profile as they best see fit. Lastly, in this and the next chapter, I will refer to the following age groups: a. b. c. d.

young learners (5–10 years of age) adolescents (11–16 years of age) young adults (16–21 year-olds) adults (over 21).

3.2.1 Grammar and Translation (GT) GT is the preferred approach in the teaching of ancient Greek and Latin due to its morphological focus. Dating back to the nineteenth century, it is based on the premise that learning a language primarily involves the analysis of its syntax, structure, and morphology. The teacher is expected to transmit this knowledge about the language by using materials that foster memorization and analysis of these structures.

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Language learning, as opposed to language acquisition, occurs by means of learning the rules of that language, and accuracy is pursued at all costs. Choral drilling, translation of lexis, and mechanical drills are some of the techniques the GT teacher uses to make sure that learners have accurately memorised target items. For every lexical item in the target language, there is an equivalent in learners’ mother tongue (L1), so translated lists of vocabulary items are a means to that end. The screenshot below illustrates one of the numerous ways in which the approach can be employed online, which, admittedly, does not differ much from the way it would be used in face-to-face instruction. A session such as the one depicted below can take place with large classes as learner interaction is limited. Adult learners with more analytical learning styles and background might find such analysis useful or interesting (Fig. 3.1). Online class example: The teacher is the authority in the classroom as they impart knowledge to the learners who listen/watch and take notes. Focus is on form, and so, the context is considered irrelevant as it does not serve the goal of the session. Morphological features of the grammatical phenomenon are underlined or highlighted so that learners will accurately grasp the different components of the target item. Nevertheless, participants in this class may take a more active role by asking the teacher post-presentation questions but again, these questions are expected to be accuracy-oriented. The class will probably continue with an analysis of the use of the tense via a similar presentation of rules. Next, the teacher might get learners to perform mechanical drills by means of a gap-fill or a multiple-choice exercise, for example, in an attempt to ensure the highest degree of morphological or conceptual consolidation. GT is an extremely descriptive approach that views language as a subject of study in its own right as opposed to a means to an end, namely to engage in meaningful interaction with others using the medium of language. Thus, all emphasis is placed on its literary properties and value in the same way that we study and appreciate the wealth and beauty of ancient Greek and Latin today, knowing, however, that we will not be conversing with either Plato or Cicero in real life. In terms of a theory of learning, the approach rests on the far end of the behaviourist paradigm in that schematic knowledge is not taken into consideration, interacting with other students does not seem to contribute to learning, and the overall essence of the learning process is the transmission of facts from a wise transmitter to wisdom-needing receivers. In addition to the above, teachers who use GT to teach foreign languages may underuse or not use at all the functionalities/modalities of the online platform—in Fig. 1.1, for example, the teacher only uses the whiteboard tool. Whether one is teaching onsite or online, the lesson will remain teacher-centred and the teacher’s voice, the textbook, and the whiteboard the only media employed. Despite all the above, it is not only bad news when it comes to employing GT in online teaching. Given the lack of proximity in online settings, some GT features can indeed prove utterly useful for learners with a more analytical learning style. For those learners, having clear rules fosters a sense of security, a false, in the opinion

Fig. 3.1 Online presentation of the present perfect tense using GT. Platform used: Blackboard Collaborate

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of the writer, sense of safety in relation to an item they have just encountered, and provides a “road map” on which they can rely throughout their journey to ‘mastering’ the target language. In this sense, the approach does contribute to learning, and it is up to the teacher to use GT techniques to the extent that they feel benefits their students’ overall and long-term progress and development. Useful GT features in online language teaching • GT can be a teacher’s Trojan Horse. Given the restrictions of the twodimensional online teaching space in relation to establishing rapport with the learners compared to the physical classroom, teachers can use it as a stepping-stone at the beginning of a course to make learners feel comfortable and safe, and gradually depart from it, and move towards more learner-centred approaches. For example, they can build on learner autonomy by blending self-discovery questions and contextual elements into their sessions. Moreover, regardless of one’s personal feelings towards the approach, it is still considered by many learners and teachers as the default approach to learning languages with which people may feel familiar due to past learning experiences. • GT is easy for teachers to apply online, given the tools currently available. Teacher-fronted presentation of new language, and mechanical drills are well supported by the technology that almost all educational or even social media platforms provide. • GT values the language as a standalone subject of study. It is languagecentred highlighting its structures and lexis as feats of human intellect.

3.2.2 Audiolingualism (ALM) This approach to language learning is, to a large extent, attributed to USA government services who developed it with the aim to produce fluent, native-like speakers of languages on military-related missions abroad, mainly in the late 1950s through the 1970s. As can be assumed, the focus of the approach is on listening and speaking, while it is one of the few methods in which pronunciation is central. The goal is for speakers to blend in and pass as native speakers of the target language in the context in which this is naturally spoken. Some of the techniques that the approach employs are choral drilling, listen and respond, modelling exercises, and substitution. Audiolingualism is a product-oriented and teacher-centred approach to language teaching, and accuracy is pursued, although grammar may never be explicitly taught or tested (Fig. 3.2).

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Fig. 3.2 The microphone and the camera are indispensable tools for both learners and teachers in the online context. Platform depicted: Blackboard Collaborate

Online class example: Given the prevalent “listen and repeat” technique in Audiolingualism, teachers and learners in the online class, would have to turn on their microphones, speakers, and cameras for the lesson to be effective in a synchronous class. The lessons depicted in Figs. 3.3 and 3.5 can be adapted to suit all age groups at post-beginner level, but class size must be considered as repetition may not work with heavily populated classes. The teacher models a short dialogue that may incorporate the target item for the day’s class. For example, in the lesson below, this item will be the phrase “I would like to.” The students listen carefully. The teacher reads aloud for a second time, stressing “I would like to” and students repeat. Drilling continues with the teacher reading out the taxi driver’s lines and the learners responding as passengers (see Fig. 3.3). It is worth noting here that the whole activity is based solely on aural input, and no text is presented yet. Thus, the approach heavily relies on memorization on

Fig. 3.3 Interactional modes in an ALM mechanical drill constantly shift. A typical dialogue presented in Microsoft Word

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the part of the learners. However, for reasons of procedural clarity, the dialogue is provided below and would be read out as follows. After that, the students are divided into two groups, and each group speaks out their lines. One will notice that the floor is gradually given to the students who act out the dialogue in groups and later, in pairs. After all this mechanical drilling, the students substitute the “central train station” with the alternative places provided by the teacher who can also turn on their camera and act as a conductor of an orchestra throughout the drill. Should the online teaching platform permit it, teachers can make use of the “breakout groups,” a tool that allows students to be divided into groups or pairs so as to perform a task (Fig. 3.4). Only after successful completion of the oral drill does the teacher show the transcript of the dialogue and using the screen-sharing tool available on most online platforms, they project it and ask learners to read it aloud. The ultimate goal is for the class to memorise the dialogue and be able to reproduce it without looking at the transcript. Explicit mention or analysis on the target item does not occur at any stage of the lesson, and learners are expected to simply produce the target phrase accurately. Thus, the conceptual, semantic, and pragmatic elements of the phrase “I would like to” are assumed to be attained inductively (Fig. 3.5). Reflecting on the brief description of the online session summarized above, it seems that having a purely audiolingual-based class online will be quite an onerous task mostly due to technical limitations. Group repetition online could be very problematic as the internet connection and equipment quality participants are using can seriously affect the progress of the lesson. Learners might not be heard, others might be unable to coordinate with the group, and all learners talking at the same time online simply results in earaches. In this light, ALM seems to be an approach more suitable for one-to-one online teaching, as well as face-to-face.

Fig. 3.4 The breakout room feature is ideal for pair and group work

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Fig. 3.5 The dialogue as it might be presented to learners after oral drilling

Useful ALM features in online language teaching • Although the approach is criticized or even discarded as outdated by many today, few language educators would deny that repetition and memory, two key features of ALM, play a role in language learning and/or acquisition. In an online setting, games that aid memorization of target items, or some choral drilling to practice pronunciation, intonation, and stress could work very well depending of course, on the theory of learning to which a teacher feels closer. • The breakout room feature that some platforms offer, can be a space for dialogue/role play practice for learners.

3.2.3 The Silent Way (Gattegno, 1972) On a different note, and as the name implies, the most prevalent feature of this approach is reduced teacher talking time. The Silent Way (TSW) gives the floor to the learners as the latter are encouraged to speak/use the target language as much as possible with minimal teacher intervention. Physical objects are used to represent target language items, and the teacher uses them to elicit responses that lead to language production. The language taught is organized according to complexity, so the teaching of the present form of verbs, for example, precedes the Present Perfect tense. Self-discovery and problem-solving tasks are at the heart of the approach. The teacher introduces new language by using realia, Cuisenaire rods, and few verbal cues. Consolidation on the part of the learners is ensured by means of self and peer

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Fig. 3.6 Everything learners need in order to perform the task is on their screen. Software depicted: Zoom and Microsoft Word

correction, while the teacher gradually withdraws, allowing the class to experiment with the target item in order to complete a task. Could the approach be applied online? Online class example: A. Assuming that the level of the class is intermediate or higher and the aim of the particular session is learner training with a focus on teacher feedback and learners reflecting on their own errors, a screenshot of a lesson employing the Silent Way could look and progress online as follows (Fig. 3.6). The teacher uses the cursor to point at the instructions on top of the left-hand page. The correction code to which learners have to refer is displayed, pointed at, and an example of what learners are expected to do is elicited. The class can use the chat box to discuss their ideas while the teacher monitors to ensure the smooth progression of the task. Students can also be given control of the annotation tools and start working on the errors provided they raise their hands. The teacher is a manager of events, a facilitator, while learners experiment with the target item. Learners can also work in pairs or groups using the breakout rooms or complete the task in plenary mode, i.e., as a class. The latter is a classroom management decision that teachers will have to make and depends on the number of learners one has in their class at that given time. The overarching aim is for the students to perform the task in groups with little or no teacher intervention focusing on the teacher’s cues.

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Fig. 3.7 Assigning words to colour-coded objects is a technique used in TSW for more language production

B. With a CEFR A2-level4 class of approximately 15 pre-adolescent learners in mind, a language systems-focused online lesson employing The Silent Way could follow the procedure below. The teacher tells the students that today, they will talk about what they did yesterday. The aim of the lesson is to introduce the affirmative form of the Past Simple tense with regular verbs. The teacher presents the target item in a sentence, e.g., “I played football yesterday.” The sentence is broken down into individual words, and each one of the words in the example sentence is assigned a physical object. The teacher repeats the sentence, holding up the object that corresponds to each word (see Fig. 3.7). Coloured rods match the colour of words/suffix in the sentence). Then, the teacher stops talking and only raises the objects to elicit responses from the 4 C.E.F.R.:

Common European Framework of Reference for languages. The classification of levels starts from A1 representing beginners, and reaches level C2 to refer to proficient users of a language. See Council of Europe website: https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-refere nce-languages/table-1-cefr-3.3-common-reference-levels-global-scale.

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class. Using a table with additional regular verbs that form the past by adding -ed- to the stem, the teacher points and uses the props so that learners will form sentences. Having ensured that the class has grasped the new form, the teacher can ask learners to write down a sentence or two about something they did yesterday using the verbs on the table and read them out to their peers. The Silent Way is an approach to language teaching and learning that is utterly rewarding for both teachers and learners. It leaves everyone in the classroom with a sense of accomplishment in that without having explicitly being taught an item in the target language, learners are using it productively quite early on in a session. The unusual and almost awkward silence on the part of the teacher also has a magnificent effect on the learners as they are wondering why the teacher will not talk. In an online setting, however, given the centrality of audio input, this could be a doubleedged sword, and it could be challenging to apply it. Online classes rely heavily on audiovisual media and minimizing the use of sound, could possibly make it difficult for the learners to follow the teacher (see Sect. 1.4). Useful Silent Way features in online language teaching • In online sessions, learners can be very easily distracted (see section I). The SW feature of little/minimal teacher talk helps learners focus more on what the teacher is actually doing via the visual cues, resulting in improved learner concentration and class participation. The teacher could exploit this mode of teaching when they notice lack of learner focus and/or at different stages of an online session accordingly. • The approach is learner-centred, fosters learner interactivity, and is well supported by existing technology, making the most of the camera.

3.2.4 Total Physical Response (Asher, 1969) This approach (TPR), draws on child, mother tongue acquisition observations and is thus, based on the use of the imperative. In the first year of their life, children listen and do. In a similar manner, foreign/second language learners are asked to perform specific actions as a response to specific commands given by the teacher. The commands always contain that target item to be taught in the day’s class, and learners are expected to understand the new concept(s) implicitly, that is, without explicit analysis or explanation, but through the teacher’s actions. Language learning itself is viewed as “action,” and the approach is product-oriented. It assumes and takes it as a given that orders will be executed accurately so that the final product will be the desired one. At low levels, students listen and do, while later they might be asked to think, produce language, and ask classmates to read/listen and perform a task. Thus, listening precedes all other skills, and meaning is associated with movement

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and physical action. It is an approach that favours game playing, miming activities, and is claimed to bring the classroom to life. Online class example: The lesson below could be designed for a class of 10–15 pre-intermediate level adolescents, young adults, or adults and could start with a statement of the lesson objectives on the part of the teacher. For example, the teacher might inform the class that today, they will be making a cake. The main aim of the lesson is language systems, namely, verbs relating to food preparation, and pastry-related lexis. Realia are used in the particular example, which, however, the students might or might not be expected to have in front of them depending on the arrangement made between the teacher and the class beforehand, i.e., the teacher might have informed learners about the next day’s class, and they have all agreed to actually perform the task for real. The teacher presents the objects and ingredients to the students using the camera and their microphone. “This is my baking tray, this is my baking powder,” etc. It is essential that the teacher uses gestures, and all available resources in order to animate the process so that learners can follow their instructions later (Fig. 3.8). The teacher repeats the presentation as many times as they feel necessary for their learners to associate the objects with the meaning/action. They then ask the learners to pick up the items that they name and show them on screen. Learners do this numerous times in random order so that the teacher is sure that they have learned the target lexical items. The lesson continues with the teacher demonstrating execution instructions, e.g., “Break four eggs, pour the sugar into the bowl, mix the dough,” etc. The teacher repeats the procedure to ensure that verbs relating to food preparation have been clearly demonstrated and conceptualised. It is worth mentioning at this point, that often for practical reasons, this stage can be mimed. Next, the teacher gives instructions to the learners without providing visual modelling, while the latter act out the commands. Drilling continues, and when the teacher feels that learners are confident with the target items, these are presented on the whiteboard. Learners may ask questions, clarify concepts, or take notes. Close to the end of the session or for homework, learners might be asked to think of a recipe of their own, write down the instructions, and have the class or partner execute the commands. The motto that could best describe the rationale behind the approach could be “learning by doing.” Learning outcomes-wise, accurate execution of the commands means that learners have consolidated the target items, and thus, the lesson objectives have been met. The approach, although seemingly mechanical and behaviourist in principle, focuses on meaning and learner comprehension of what is being taught. Moreover, and contrary to popular belief, one can teach a variety of language items using TPR so long as they add a physical, tangible aspect to their lesson plan. Online, the hands-on element of the approach can be replaced by miming or acting out scenarios whereby students and teachers give and respond to commands using their cameras. TPR can lead to very creative, imaginative, and rewarding online lessons that actively engage learners as opposed to keeping them stationary and motionless

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Fig. 3.8 Language in action. The combination of verbal, visual, and kinesthetic cues aid language acquisition. Teacher and learners are making a cake in today’s class

on a chair. Nevertheless, teacher presentation and performing skills play a pivotal role to that end. Useful TPR features in online language teaching • TPR allows teachers and learners alike to bring the physical world into the virtual classroom. • Realia and miming add variety and a level of tangibility to online sessions that is very much needed and welcome. • Commands can work very well with all age groups, especially young learners. • Easy and extensive use of platform tools such as the camera, microphone, speakers, and whiteboard.

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3.2.5 Suggestopedia (Georgi Lozanov, 1978s) The basic tenet of this approach is that optimal learning occurs when learners have opened up to instruction via an environment that is conducive to learning. The primary role of the teacher is to create such an environment by means of dim or soft lighting, comfortable seats, classical music, and anything that may contribute to the aforementioned goal. The teacher presents target items, usually through narration or dialogues, which are read out to students, while textual analysis follows. At a later stage of the lesson, students use the target language to act out dialogues, play games or even sing. L1 can be used, and errors may not be corrected as they may traumatise the student’s psyche. Learners may adopt an alias so as to immerse themselves into the new/target context and remove negative feelings such as inhibitions and fear of exposure. Online class example: (Classical music plays in the background) The teacher’s microphone and camera are on. They start the online session smoothly by asking the learners to sit back and relax, and by telling them about the story/dialogue, the class will be doing today. The teacher explains that they will be doing the reading at this point and that learners have to listen carefully and observe the teacher’s actions. Learners should try to understand as much of the text as possible through noticing. Baroque music is playing at a low volume in the background. This will help create a student-friendly atmosphere and provide a lead-in for the session and the text that contains the target items. The teacher starts reading aloud while at the same time, they act the text out so as to aid global as well as more detailed comprehension. New lexis, structures, and other discursive features are subtly conceptualized by learners through the teacher’s prosody, facial expressions, and body language. Learners look at the teacher and listen to the narration. To illustrate my point about the essentiality of acting out the text as the teacher reads, look at the screenshots below. Can you think of how the narrator of the story feels in the still images? If yes, then the teacher is effectively facilitating learners’ comprehension of the text and, thus, contributes to learners’ subconscious language acquisition (Fig. 3.9). The teacher reads the text for a second time without moving or gesturing and asks learners to bring back to memory the movements that they made the first time they read the text. Learners listen and perform the gestures. Learners are shown the script, and they all read the text aloud, acting it out in front of their cameras. Like in Audiolingualism, this could be a challenge in an online setting, as choral drilling online can be disorderly and chaotic, resulting in what could mildly be described as indiscernible murmuring. With this in mind, the teacher’s online classroom management skills must be recruited. In a one-to-one session, or with small groups, this stage of the lesson could work relatively well, but with larger groups, the teacher might want to divide learners into groups of 3 or 4 learners, and repeat the process with each group while the rest of the learners listen and watch. Suggestopedic techniques include activities rooted in behaviourism such

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Fig. 3.9 The teacher narrates and acts out the story at the start of the class. A certain degree of acting skills is required on the part of teachers who wish to engage in Suggestopedia-based sessions

as listen and repeat drills yet, these do not primarily aim at accuracy, but contribute to learners’ formation of habits in the target language and enhance target item retention.

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Fig. 3.9 (continued)

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Fig. 3.9 (continued)

Next, the teacher looks at sentences in the text that incorporate the target item in today’s class, in this case, the modal verbs, could and should. They are read out, and their intonation is stressed so that learners understand the concept of possibility and obligation represented by could and should respectively. More drilling, less controlled activities, or games follow so as to ensure the consolidation of today’s new language. E.g., “Think of something that worries you these days. Write down your problem. Read it to your partner. They must give you advice using could or should”. Lastly, using the breakout rooms, learners are divided into pairs, whereby one student reads out the text while the other one acts it out. The idea is that repetition and dramatization aid learning. Learners are advised to look at the text once more before they go to sleep at night, a time when human consciousness is most permeable, and thus, they are more susceptible to learning. Useful Suggestopedia features in online language teaching • Adds a humanistic, almost ‘ecological’ element to teaching languages in that it acknowledges the importance of learners’ psychological state and the essentiality of a non-threatening environment for learning to occur. I am using the term ecological to refer to a negative feelings-free online classroom environment. • Dramatisation could be a great technique to use online on which teachers can build by asking learners to produce their own short sequences for example. • Associates movement and action to target items.

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3.2.6 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) This approach places emphasis on what the learners can do with the language as opposed to how well they know its linguistic structures. It is primarily a skillsbased approach that views language as competency, and thus, language systems such as grammar and pronunciation are a means to an end, they are peripheral, and all contribute to the communicative goal. Transferable skills practice and pair work are encouraged. In CLT, authentic texts might be used, L1 is to be avoided, and production activities will work, only if they are meaningful, i.e., not mechanical. To that end, the teacher has to create an information gap so that learners will need to communicate genuinely and perform a task in the target language. Errors are part of the acquisition process, and learners’ schemata are valued and perceived as a resource on which the teacher can draw. Online class example: The class profile for the lesson below could be summarized as intermediate or upper intermediate (CEFR B1, B2) level of young adults or adults and the main aim of the session is to practice reading and viewing for detail as well as to engage in meaningful interaction using question forms. Nevertheless, the materials are also suitable for higher levels as they negotiate complex notions that might require a level of world knowledge and competencies found in higher-level learners. Thus, it would be up to the teacher to adapt materials and aims accordingly. The teacher uses the ‘screen sharing’ tool and zooms into the question of what art is (see Fig. 3.10). Learners are given a minute to read the prompts presented in the task and use the ‘raise hand’ button to talk. If the platform does not offer a ‘raise hand’ tool, students could type their first name in the chat box, and the teacher can manage

Fig. 3.10 The warm-up stage in a CLT class. The aim is to attract attention and activate learners’ prior knowledge

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Fig. 3.11 Information gap activities lead to meaningful language production

turn-taking from there. The activity aims to activate schematic knowledge, stimulate interest, and lay the ground for the main activity that will follow. Learners express their opinion, while the teacher might want to take the opportunity to pre-teach some key lexical items found in the text/video later. Accuracy is not on focus, and learners are expected to produce language ‘in bulk’ as in CLT, fluency precedes accuracy. A jigsaw activity is presented next, whereby breakout rooms can be used to get learners to guess the missing information in the table (Fig. 3.11). The teacher monitors by joining the rooms prompting when necessary. Next, learners come back to the main room, and the teacher divides the class into two groups. Group A reads the text found in the course book, while group B watches the video via the platform’s additional resources tab, or the course book mobile app. Each group confirms their guesses to the previous activity, i.e., complete the missing information in the table. The result of the activity is that learners from different groups have more or additional information that they must now share with their partners. To this end, the teacher pairs up one learner from group A and one from group B and tells them that they have to ask each other questions so as to add more facts to the information they already have in their table. Useful language is presented so that learners will use question forms with -wh-words, an example might be given, and concept questions asked to ensure that participants know what they are doing. Learners go to breakout groups and talk while the teacher monitors. A follow up to this session could involve a presentation of a public figure that learners would select. As can easily be observed, CLT assumptions and techniques are prevalent and widespread in language teaching today. What is notable is the fact that many of these techniques that most teachers use in their physical classroom, can be transferred to online sessions relatively easily and without much effort. Nevertheless, close monitoring of activities, concept questions, and keeping the session as interactive as possible is essential for CLT to be successfully applied online.

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Useful CLT features in online language teaching • Allows teachers and learners to engage in different communication modes online such as narratives, argumentative, illustrative, persuasive, and expository discourse or simply, have a friendly chat at the start of the session that would activate schematic knowledge. • Offers teachers the opportunity to utilise the whole range of online tools available to serve their communicative lesson aims. For example, polls, breakout rooms, annotation and share screen tools. • Is supported by course book design and supplementary materials that publishers may provide for free.

3.2.7 The Lexical Approach (Lewis, 1993) Developed in the 1990s, the Lexical Approach (TLA), as its name implies, places vocabulary at the heart of language teaching and learning. A language is its lexicon, and it primarily consists of lexical chunks and collocations that effective users of the target language have readily available. These prefabricated linguistic chunks aid both receptive as well as productive skills, and the more of such chunks a language user has stored in their memory, the more fluent and competent they are. Grammar, syntax, and pronunciation are secondary systems, and elicitation and guided/self-discovery of lexical meaning are encouraged. The latter feature is reflected upon the lesson staging that Lewis proposes, namely, Observation, Hypothesis, Experimentation as an alternative to the Presentation, Practice, Production paradigm. Online class example: The lesson below is designed with a class of advanced adult learners in mind (CEFR C1 or C2). Nevertheless, the procedure could be transferred to suit lower levels in combination with corresponding materials. It is quite unusual for language teachers to see a session starting with vocabulary straight on, yet, this is perfectly legitimate in a class where the Lexical Approach is employed. Notice below how the teacher can either pick up where they left off in the previous session or initiate a new session that focuses on lexis, putting aside skills work that usually precedes sentence-level, micro-analysis of textual or aural input. The teacher shares their screen and displays a set of utterances in which target lexical items are embedded and contextualized (Fig. 3.12). Learners are asked to read the utterances, notice, identify, and underline all the collocations they can find. The teacher allows 1 min for the task to be completed, and learners use the ‘raise hand’ button to report to class (Fig. 3.13). Alternatively, should the platform or app one is using not offer this turn-taking tool, learners type their first name in the chat box. Provided that access to the annotation

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Fig. 3.12 Noticing is a predominant technique used in the Lexical Approach

Fig. 3.13 Learners may be given the opportunity to use the online tools to manipulate the text

tools or whiteboard has been granted to the learners, they can manipulate the text, enhancing user-interface interactivity. To do that, one might have to go to their settings and enable the annotation feature (Fig. 3.14). Learners are now divided into pairs using ‘breakout rooms’ and are asked to guess the meaning of the collocations they identified earlier. The instructions of exercise B also prompt the learners to look into the etymology and context of lexis; thus, word building and morphology are not banished from the language classroom. The class reports their guesses, and a discussion can follow on what helped learners come up with the particular guesses. During the discussion, the teacher acts as a moderator and manages turn-taking without confirming the learners’ guesses. Learners now use the dictionary to confirm their answers to the previous task. They must also expand on their notes, adding more adjectives to the nouns (Fig. 3.15).

Fig. 3.14 Many of the features that teachers use online have to be manually enabled

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Fig. 3.15 Using the dictionary fosters learner autonomy. Learner training should be pursued and is valuable in foreign language learning

A word race game can follow, aiming at further manipulating the target items and thus, contributing to their retention using the chat box. The teacher types in one of the constituent parts of the collocation, while the learners must type the matching part as quickly as they can. As seen in the screenshot below, learners now write their own cloze passage and send it to their partner to complete via private messaging on the platform, a designated class WhatsApp group, or email (Fig. 3.16).

Fig. 3.16 Stage 3 out of 3 in the Observation, Hypothesis, Experimenting lesson paradigm

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Noticing and engaging in critical thinking as to the meaning and possible uses of lexical items is central to the approach. Self-discovery, and awareness-raising activities, enable learners to better conceptualise and internalize linguistic chunks. Online, the approach and its techniques are relatively easy to apply. Useful TLA features in online language teaching • The approach favours intermediality by principle and thus, finds itself right at home in the online context. Learners are often asked to use reference books, dictionaries, and/or external resources as a means to expanding, and researching lexical chunks further, a feature that can definitely be put into good use by teachers. • Learners can be very creative as to lexical chunk experimentation and engage in drag and drop, or matching activities and online language games. • TLA brings the central concept of learner autonomy to the foreground of online language teaching and learning.

3.2.8 Task-Based Learning (Prabhu, 1987) Often considered a branch of CLT, the method prioritises completion of a task over language systems and skills per se. Learners are meaningfully engaged in completing different stages of one classroom task, e.g., an oral presentation, an extended piece of written discourse of a particular genre, etc. and language emerges out of their real need to communicate, i.e., achieve successful completion of the task/project. Like in CLT, in Task-based Learning (TBL), there has to be an information, opinion, or reasoning gap to make the task real and authentic. The method assumes and promotes learner intrinsic motivation and autonomy and is highly process-oriented, although it aspires to a satisfactory final product. Linguistic input via spoken or written text may be used prior to assigning the task so as to stimulate interest and lay the ground for the activity that will follow. Online class example: The main aims of the lesson outlined below are to practice speaking presentation skills and to use language of expressing and defending opinion. Learners are presented with a statement that aims to intrigue, polarize, and evoke a reaction. The underlying assumption here is that one knows what topics would appeal to their particular group of learners at a given time. In this case, learners are B2 level 18-year-old males who are keen on a sport called ‘drifting,’ i.e., racing and making fancy maneuvers with one’s car, and thus, the statement below is expected to stimulate interest, and evoke reactions (Fig. 3.17).

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Fig. 3.17 The ‘hot’ debate topic is presented. The whole session builds upon this central argument

Fig. 3.18 Brainstorming and mind mapping are two major techniques used in TBL

The teacher invites learners to brainstorm some ideas in favour of the statement and starts a mind map to record their ideas. Learners raise their virtual hands to respond (Fig. 3.18). The same procedure is repeated for reasons against the proposal. The teacher has thus far ensured that learners have enough input/arguments/content to proceed to the next stage of the session, which involves drawing on linguistic resources that participants will need in their presentations later in the session. To this end, the teacher divides learners into pairs using breakout rooms and asks them to brainstorm phrases and lexeis relating to expressing and defending opinion. External resources, as well as learners’ course books, can be used. Some examples are given, and learners take a few minutes to perform the task. Naturally, the task topic and procedure can be adapted to suit different level classes and learner profiles accordingly. At a lower level for example, different degrees of work with textual or audiovisual input will precede this task so that learners will have the language necessary to perform it (Fig. 3.19). Coming back to the main room, learners report their answers, and the teacher hands over the whiteboard so that the useful language boxes will be filled. To avoid

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Fig. 3.19 Language input is necessary for learners to perform the task. It can be elicited or explicitly provided

classroom management problems, learners who wish to contribute a phrase have to raise their hand before they annotate the boxes. The teacher avoids intervention yet, manages, coordinates, asks for peer correction, moderates, and prompts learners discretely and only when absolutely necessary. Remember that in TBL it is learners who are at the heart of the activity, and teacher corrections, for example, can be seen as unwanted interventions in the process of learners completing the task collaboratively. For the next stage, learners are divided into two groups-one in favour of the proposition and one against. Both groups are given ten minutes (indicative time) to prepare their presentation using breakout rooms, while the teacher monitors closely so as to address any questions learners may have as well as fine-tune, refine and help them with any organization, vocabulary, or sentence-level issues they may encounter. Lastly, the two groups present, and a Q + A among opposing sides may follow. TBL is an approach that finds much space in the online context in that it fosters collaborative, brisk sessions that involve learners from start to finish. The online tools currently available also seem to serve the approach and its main aims, i.e., learners are demonstrating linguistic competencies. Useful TBL features in online language teaching • In TBL, language is a means to an end, i.e., completion of the task. Media are in service of learners’ genuine communicative needs. • In a setting where distractors interfere with learners’ attention span, building on a specific task from the beginning of a session might contribute to keeping learners focused and motivated so as to complete it. • The approach fosters interaction between participants, media, and is supported by the technology we have available.

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3.2.9 The Natural Approach (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) The Natural Approach (TNA), has had a lasting impact on how languages have been taught since its inception in the early 1980s. It is often referred to as the input–output hypothesis as it is based on the premise that, like infants, learners have to experience an input stage whereby they receive information before they can be expected to produce language themselves. By that token, receptive skills precede productive ones, and learners must be exposed to natural speech as much as possible, which, in turn, will eventually lead to production of language when the learner is ready. Languages are acquired as opposed to being taught, and this process must be as stress-free as possible so as to lower learners’ affective filter, i.e., resistance to new input. Language is viewed as a vehicle for delivering messages, and communication is at the heart of the approach. Online class example: The overarching aim of any TNA-based session relates to meaningful communication among learners using the target language, i.e., language production. In this light, a typical online session could start with a chant or a song in which new, target lexical items are embedded. The lyrics are neither too difficult for learners to understand, nor too easy following the i + 1 principle according to which, classroom input should be one level above the level of the learners so as to provoke and challenge them. As the case with other approaches discussed earlier, ‘listen and repeat’ type of activities can be challenging to manage online in that, currently, they are not fully supported in technological terms, and unless one is teaching a small group, they would have to resort to their classroom-managerial ingenuity to make the activity work (see Audiolingualism above for recommended action). Nevertheless, the fundamental principle in TNA that prioritises the receptive skills over productive ones remains. Consequently, learners must be exposed to comprehensible input prior to being asked to produce language. To that end, the teacher can use written or spoken text as an alternative to the chant/song and exploits it accordingly. An online TNA intermediate-level class of pre-adolescents could start with listening. Sharing their screen with the class, the teacher plays an audio track in which a boy or girl tell their story. In the story, adverbs of manner are embedded. The teacher mimes these adverbs on camera as the story unfolds. When narration is finished, the teacher asks questions that aim to elicit the meaning of target lexical items, e.g., “How did the boy’s friend speak?” Learners respond while the teacher lists the adverbs on the platform whiteboard. When all adverbs are on the list, the teacher mimes them again one by one. Then, they ask learners to mime any one of the adverbs while the rest of the class watches and guesses the correct adverb. The transcript of the listening is presented next. Learners spot the adverbs, underline them and discuss their position in the sentence, i.e., word order through self-discovery so as to aid acquisition as opposed to learning. The session continues with learners writing down their own sentences incorporating any one of the adverbs. They mime it on camera, and the class attempt to transcribe the whole sentence. Learners read

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out their sentences, and the learner who wrote the original one selects the sentence that is closest to theirs. In pairs, using breakout rooms, learners write down their own short story embedding the target items. With a class of advanced-level (young) adults, a session could start with reading input. Sharing their screen with the class, the teacher presents an opinion article and asks learners to look at the heading. They must guess the content of the passage. Learners raise their hands and respond (Fig. 3.20). The teacher reveals the text, and learners read for gist and confirm their guesses. The teacher listens and positively reinforces all learners who contribute ideas to the task. Next, the teacher asks learners to assign a summarizing heading to each paragraph of the passage (Fig. 3.21). When they finish, learners are sent to breakout rooms to negotiate their headings in pairs or small groups. They report to class and justify their answers. Collaborative learning and intrinsic motivation are vital in TNA. Notice that although the teacher does not ask learners to read for detail and does not give them a corresponding task, the latter do it by themselves to defend and justify their opinion to their peers; thus, they engage in genuine interaction using the target language. TNA also emphasises lexical input, which is next on focus. The teacher draws the learners’ attention to the orange, square boxes scattered in the body of the text and asks: “What word could we put there?” Learners make guesses. Learners might

Fig. 3.20 Activating schemata and developing expectations contribute to learner engagement

Fig. 3.21 A major TNA assumption is that learners need much input before being asked to speak or write. The input text

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then be presented to a set of adverbs that learners have to insert in the place of the orange boxes. An image-matching or miming activity may follow so that learners will visualize the meaning of the target lexis. Annotation tools can be handed over to individual learners to perform these tasks. When the teacher feels that learners have grasped the meaning and form of the target lexis, they make space for the latter to experiment with the production of utterances or longer pieces of written discourse. For example, learners could be asked to write a response to the article they read. Useful TNA features in online language teaching • TNA highlights the significance of the affective aspect to language acquisition which is utterly relevant in the online setting. Creating a stress-free, familiar online environment, is essential for acquisition to occur. • The use of songs as a major language acquisition resource can be particularly well exploited online as per teachers’ discretion. • Self-discovery, miming, peer correction, dialectics, are techniques that can be applied online.

3.2.10 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) Immersion programmes are not a novelty in language education dating as far back as the 1970s when bilingual countries such as Canada, implemented them in an effort to get Canadians to speak both English and French (Von Baeyer & Von Baeyer, 2002). More recently, in Europe, scholars such as Coyle, Hood, and Marsh (2010), have written extensively and argued in favour of CLIL, which builds on the idea of immersion but goes many steps farther, resulting in the development of an approach that employs methodological features from a number of different approaches, and that draws on diverse learning theories. The starting point is the view that language acquisition is the natural consequence of teaching different subjects in the target language as opposed to teaching the language per se (Dalton-Puffer, 2007; Psoinos, 2012). In doing so, both core content knowledge of those subjects is acquired, as well as the target language (Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008). Skills are integrated, language is functional, and materials are as valuable as the language itself, if not more. The target language is used as a means to an end, i.e., learning the subject being taught, and the range of activities is broad ranging from using diagrams, visuals, aural and written text top-down processing, to drilling, repetition of key terms in a text, and re-ordering. Online class example: The start of a CLIL-based online session would be similar to a CLT-based one whereby the teacher could ask questions in order to stimulate learners’ schematic

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Fig. 3.22 Online class screenshot depicting a language lesson using a text on American history and enhanced by the use of the Google search engine to provide visuals and further information

knowledge on the subject discussed, in this case, American history. It is worth highlighting at this point, that the feature that clearly distinguishes CLIL to other language teaching approaches is the content-value5 of the materials used. Visuals could also be used to elicit content/topic-related responses, vocabulary, as well as to ensure learner engagement. Using a top-down approach, reading comprehension could follow the warm-up, and learners could be asked to extract dates, places, names, or any other useful information and complete a table or a diagram. In CLIL, input is as important as output, so next, learners could listen to a track about a specific historical figure taken from American history, and take notes. Assuming that the session objectives include teaching lexical items such as ‘population, confederation, legislation, superimpose, etc.’, these could be repeated by the teacher throughout the session as well as seen in the exercises learners are asked to complete so that they are taught inductively. Learners could then be assigned partners, and using the breakout groups feature, they choose a historical figure, look up information online, complete a similar table to the one they completed in the previous activity, and present their chosen figure to the other class groups. See Sects. 4.2, 4.9, and 4.10 for additional CLIL-style online interfaces (Fig. 3.22). Useful CLIL features in online language teaching • Learners (and teachers) work with materials that have Content Value as opposed to working with texts that are neutral and devoid of any knowledge about the world. This can potentially have a positive impact on learner motivation. • Meaningful, engaging, variable tasks and projects. • The approach is hybrid; it borrows features, strategies and techniques from other well-grounded approaches, methods, and learning theories.

5 Content-value

refers to actual knowledge about the world that learners will acquire by using language teaching and learning materials as opposed to exploiting them to teach language only.

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• Language is viewed as a medium via which people learn, communicate, and act. At this point, and having read the application descriptions of all the approaches and methods above, it might be useful to ask oneself the question of what approach features they like/dislike the most and why or why not. Such introspection would be the optimal lead-in to the section that follows where the possibility and potential of devising one’s own eclectic paradigm for online teaching and learning is explored.

3.3 Teaching Languages Online—Eclecticism The cynic philosopher, Antisthenes, very eloquently highlighted the significance of knowing the exact meaning of words when one is in pursuit of wisdom in his ´ fourth century BCE aphorism, «Aρχη´ σoϕ´ιας, η των oνoματων επ´ισκεψις,» “the beginning of wisdom lies in the definition of words.” In one’s effort to become a little wiser then, a clear definition of eclecticism is necessary. Eclecticism is the anglicised version of the Greek word ‘εκλεκτικισμ´oς’ (eklektikismos), and its cognates include ‘εκλεκτικ´oς’ (eklektikos), i.e., selective, and ‘εκλεγω´ (eklego), i.e., to select and to elect. As both the Greek and the English words denote, eclecticism involves the intentional selection of the best components, ingredients, or parts of a generic whole, to be optimally used for achieving one’s purpose. The generic whole refers to a specific class of abstract or concrete nouns, e.g., an ideology, a profession, or a pedagogic paradigm. For example, one is being eclectic in their selection of the best politician to lead a country among other candidates, that is, they apply a particular set of criteria that allow them to elect the leader they think is best for themselves and their nation. Similarly, being eclectic in language teaching has meant combining features borrowed from different methods according to teacher identity, preferences, and lesson objectives. It is a term that was coined to refer to philosophers and thinkers of the classical era who refused to accept doctrines or adhere to one specific philosophical school of thought in its totality. Rather, the Eclectics collected and combined diverse theories and principles from across the whole spectrum of available schools of thought in order to interpret phenomena. This allowed them to think independent of doctrines which they did not have to serve or defend. Now, consider eclecticism in terms of approaches and methods to online language teaching and learning taking into consideration all the insights gained in the previous chapters of this book like the features of the setting which are in constant flux, the changing roles and power balance between learners and teachers, as well as theories of learning. How can an intentional eclectic approach to online teaching be useful, effective, and beneficial for online language learners and teachers?

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Eclecticism has been a term invariably used in language teaching since the 1990s, and it ideally involves the synthesis of diverse approaches, methods, techniques, as well as theoretical assumptions that underlie teaching practices so as to maximize learning. An eclectic approach to language teaching and learning brings together a selection of various methodological features and techniques from different approaches and methods adapted to suit learner needs, as well as learning and teaching styles and aims to make the lesson more fun, memorable, and effective. It would sound like the most sensible choice to make in designing and implementing syllabi as well as in terms of classroom practice, yet, what are the features of an eclectic approach to language teaching today and how relevant is this notion to the online setting?

3.3.1 Features of Eclecticism The language teaching community has very rightly, long, been disillusioned regarding the strict adherence to one approach and method. Kumaravadivelu (1994) emphasises the disengagement on the part of the language teaching community with approaches and methods and refers to the post-method era as a natural consequence of the concept obsolescence. Akbari (2008), takes the claim further by claiming that there is no such thing as a post method era but rather one in which the coursebook determines what teachers do in the classroom this way implying however, that approaches and methods never really disappeared. Finally, Richards and Rodgers (2014) highlight the importance of using methods as a resource from which teachers can draw valid and effective practices. In this book, I adopt this last and most recent view of the use of approaches and methods. In this light, eclecticism in online language teaching and learning is utterly relevant nowadays, perhaps more than ever. Teachers must make well-informed decisions daily regarding their online teaching and select features borrowed from different approaches in their attempt to design and deliver engaging, effective, and theoretically sound sessions online. Naturally, this will happen if teachers are aware of the approaches, their underlying assumptions about what language and learning are, as well as their application in the classroom (see previous section—The “established” Approaches…). One can then select the features that are fitting and proper to serve the pedagogic objectives and course outcomes that they or their institution has pre-determined, bearing in mind the following. • Eclecticism is not a fixed, stable, and unchanging approach to language teaching. It is relatively fluid in the sense that teachers and educational institutions reflect, evaluate, and modify or rectify practices as per learner or teacher feedback. This makes it ideal for the online language teaching context. • Eclecticism can favour one approach or theory of learning, yet, incorporate features from other approaches and theories as seen best for the progress of learners. • It can fall both onto the teacher through their daily teaching routine, and the educational institution for which they work, to determine which features will

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be adopted in the classroom. This will happen via curriculum/syllabus design. Despite efforts to fully standardize teaching, language educators have still retained some liberty to use techniques they deem necessary for optimal learning provided, of course, that these belong to the body of existing knowledge in the field. This flexibility and opportunity to adapt one’s practices seem to suit the online setting perfectly. • An eclectic approach to language teaching will be reflected upon the design of materials, the selection of teaching strategies and techniques to be used in an online course, as well as lesson delivery. All the previous are shaped and influenced by learners’ age group, gender, social context, and background.

3.3.2 A Critical Look into Eclecticism Despite its good intentions, eclecticism has been marked by ambiguity in the field of language teaching. This can be partly attributed to the fact that from the postmethod era that vehemently emerged in the mid-1990s until today, eclecticism has been a buzzword often masking ignorance on the part of some practitioners who teach in disregard of any theoretical insights. In reality, global language teaching geography integrates people from all walks of life and educational backgrounds as well as people who come into the profession temporarily relying on their instinct and “apprenticeship of observation6 ” as the only resources that inform their classroom decisions. These people might abuse the term to conceal their own lack of awareness of the processes involved in teaching professionally. Eclecticism has thus been used as a refuge to which one will refer when they are asked about their pedagogical and methodological beliefs and teaching philosophy. This has resulted in the term often carrying negative connotations, perceived as being devoid of any real value or meaning. Skeptics of eclecticism also hold that it has been seen as a panacea by many teachers whose answer and solution to any and all issues in language teaching pedagogy as well as day-to-day practice is eclecticism. It is often taken as an evasion of actual, deep engagement with reflexive practice and change so as to ultimately provide optimal teaching quality to learners. Others may describe themselves as eclectic to disguise the fact that they have either not coined a professional identity that is reflected on their practices or engage in ‘convenient’ cherry-picking primarily according to their personal preferences as opposed to what is best for the learners. The convenience lies in those teachers’ tendency to stick to what they know, to continue to teach the same way they always have, because ‘it works,’ and to refuse to go outside their comfort zone. A random selection of different activities taken from a limited, fixed list that one uses in their sessions does not constitute an eclectic approach. Lastly, eclecticism deflects the purists’ (if there are any still left) argument 6 Lortie,

(1975) claimed that many teachers teach the way they were taught i.e. their teaching practices are solely determined by their own experience as learners which in turn, almost cancels out teacher education and training courses. He called this, “the apprenticeship of observation”.

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in language teaching according to which, when one employs one approach, they are obliged to do so faithfully, adhering to its theoretical underpinnings and sticking to its strategies and techniques. In the fluid online environment of today, this would indeed seem non-sensical and deprive teachers of valuable insights the TESOL community has so painstakingly earned through experience and research. Despite the criticism mentioned above, adopting an eclectic approach in teaching languages online seems to be the best choice by far, and an example of how this can be made possible is outlined in the next section.

3.3.3 E-clecticism—A Suggested Pedagogical Paradigm for the Online Setting It’s time for us to release ourselves from simplistic and ineffective prescriptions; the time to ream is upon us. (Glickman, 1990: 69).

As the title of this sub-section implies, the hyphen in ‘e-clecticism’ is used to reflect the electronic, online setting and the choices teachers will make regarding their teaching practices in this setting. Moreover, in Sect. 3.2, an attempt was made to illustrate the application of the traditional, established methods in teaching language online from a purist perspective. However, in today’s post-method era, practitioners know better than to stick to one method alone as we are free to select the features that appeal to us, meet our learners’ needs, make the best of the online setting features, as well as comply with institutional policy. With the above in mind, and under the assumption that post-method does not mean no-method, at the end of each online class example in Sect. 3.2, I selected the most appealing features of those approaches in terms of my personal preferences and assumptions about teaching languages online. What is more important though, is that in making this methodological choices, I also made an implicit statement of professional identity, pinned down my own beliefs about the nature of language teaching and learning, and specified my perception of how I think people learn best online. As a result, I created my own e-clectic teaching paradigm that is based on a whole teaching philosophy personal to me. The teaching paradigm I constructed will thus serve these assumptions and beliefs while being reflexive and flexible in accordance with the times. My online teaching philosophy is summarized below (Fig. 3.23). The principles above act as a compass or navigation tools that guide my online teaching practices. Subsequently, I selected the following methodological features from each one of the methods described earlier to serve my teaching philosophy (Fig. 3.24). The summary above constitutes my take on what online language teaching involves; it is my teaching road map, my statement of teaching philosophy, and professional identity, which I have pinned down, evaluated, and upon which I will

3.3 Teaching Languages Online—Eclecticism My Online Language Teaching Philosophy Name: Dionysios I. Psoinos (Dion) Occupation: Online Language Teacher (English) Principles that underlie holder’s practice: type text below I believe that online language learning is more engaging and effective when

a. learners are aware of their active role, duties, responsibilities, and etiquette in the online language learning setting. To this end, learner training is necessary. b. ‘ownership’ of the course is shared among course participants. This can be achieved by engaging learners in peer teaching, projects, and presentations that build up on metacognitive skills. c. learners have options as to content, delivery, and assessment methods. d all the tools available in the platform/LMS system are exploited to encour age learner active participation. Cameras and microphones bring the session to life. e. feedback provided to learners is personalised and takes learner affect into consideration.Above all, I am an educator/a teacher and my students’ well-being is a priority. f. there is room for mechanical drills that can be done in learners’ own time and might be discussed during office hours or in class depending on learners’ needs. g. social/affective learning strategies are fostered within the course. Learners do not shy away from class participation, feel safe, and want to be active co-shapers of the course. Learner-moderated communication channels outside the platform foster a sense of community and encourage group collaboration. h. learners go outside the platform to research, discover, and explore reallife issues/problems to which they can identify, and return to class to present and discuss their findings. i. I allow learners to take (some) control of the session realizing that my role is to set the scene, guide, direct, discuss with learners, ask questions, and facilitate learning. This can be hard for teachers and requires management and other skills discussed in sections 2.5, 2.6. j. drama techniques, word games, re-enactments, and variety of activities and teaching strategies help sustain learner interest in online sessions. k. focus is on vocabulary systems-wise, and high order thinking skills. Mechanical activities can be assigned to AI and robotics especially with higher -level or adult learners. l. all theories of learning elaborated on at the start of this chapter stand valid today and help me understand the diversity of teaching and learning online. The ratio of the principles that underlie each one fluctuates in my daily teaching practices but they are all there.

Fig. 3.23 Summary of my conscious and intentional online teaching philosophy

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My e-clectic online teaching paradigm Grammar and Translation - Automated tasks with immediate feedback c an cater for some analytical learners’ need for form and structure. - Teacher & learner prior experience may make participants feel safe/role expectations - Analytical learners like it Total Physical Response - Action -oriented approach - Process and product oriented - Adds a tangible element to online sessions - Very interesting to implement online esp. with young learners The Lexical Approach - Learner training is an integral approach component particularly relevant to the online setting - Self -discovery and critical thinking skills are encouraged - Fosters learner autonomy - Focuses on lexis

Audiolingualism

The Silent Way

- Memorization has a place in language learning - Repetition via drills aids memorization - Choral drilling games can be fun

- Improved learner concentration - Minimal distractions - Increased learner talking time - Visual cues stimulate learner interest - Fosters learner responsibility Communicative L. Teaching - Meaningful communication in the target language - Mobilisation of schemata - Values learners’ contributions - Variety of activities/authentic materials online

Suggestopedia - Attention is drawn to learner affect - Creation of a learner friendly online environment - Drama techniques aid learning - Associates action with language Task-based Learning - Increased learner engagement with a task /problem - Process -oriented - Feeling of accomplishment upon task completion - Learner autonomy and peer teaching is promoted - The online setting favours application.

The Natural Approach - Acquisition vs. learning - the 1+1 , and comprehensible input hypotheses are utterly interesting concepts to observe online as input might not precede output and can come from multiple, diverse sources in online sessions. - Use of songs - Draws on learner affect

Fig. 3.24 A personalised e-clectic grid, incorporating diverse methodological features and teacherpreferred assumptions in teaching languages online

reflect after my daily teaching. It is a personalized, eclectic framework comprised of pedagogically sound and generally accepted teaching practices within which I will navigate when teaching my online language class. It is a dynamic, flexible, and adaptable personalised teaching paradigm that works for me and which I assume will work with my learners. Nevertheless, it is subject to change should it prove ineffective, teaching strategies and techniques may be added or removed depending on the progress of my learners in the course. It is not static or an end in itself. My starting point, however, is my professional capacity as an educator who draws on theoretical insights, sets his teaching objectives, and uses online tools and resources to serve them and not vice versa. In any other case, it seems that we might simply go back to the idea that anyone who speaks a language can also teach it. How are expert language teachers different from laypeople then? Every teacher could go through a

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similar process so as to enable themselves to make conscious professional choices regarding their practice. In coming up with one’s personalised e-clectic approach, they could consider the following dimensions. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

To what extent does my teaching focus on form and function? How analytic do I wish and can afford to be in online language sessions? How much am I interested in accuracy vs fluency? Are language systems and skills equally important? How do I prioritise my learners’ affect? Is my teaching transmissive or dialogic? Is deductive teaching more effective than inductive? What is the role of L1 in my online teaching? What is my mission or overarching aim as an online professional language educator?

Introspection and an honest discussion with oneself on the questions above, will help them select the corresponding methodological features and create their own good practice, e-clectic teaching model. Nevertheless, among factors that influence a teacher’s selection and implementation of their e-clectic teaching paradigm are the materials that one uses in the online classroom, such as a course book. Therefore, one of the first things teachers need to be able to do is to evaluate the assumptions that their given materials make about teaching and learning and adapt and modify them accordingly. In the chapter that follows, I bring all the previous chapters of this book together as I demonstrate e-clecticism, look into teacher and learner online identity in practice, and examine media and online tools’ use from a pedagogical perspective. To achieve this, I provide specific examples of online materials ranging from beginner to advanced level, analyse their inherent pedagogic assumptions, interpret the teacher’s assumptions based on the screen layout that they have used, and offer some ideas for a possible adaptation of the materials to suit different e-clectic approaches to language teaching and learning. In a sense, it becomes obvious that e-clecticism is not one, singular teaching paradigm but is anchored to teachers’ identities and beliefs that govern their decisions and guide them in making corresponding classroom practice-related choices. Consequently, we could be talking about ‘e-clecticisms’ in the plural, a term that might more accurately reflect its numerous variations and manifestations online.

References Akbari, R. (2008). Postmethod discourse and practice. TESOL Quarterly, 42(4). AlDahdouh, A. A. (2018). Jumping from one resource to another: How do students navigate learning networks?. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15. Asher, J. (1969). The total physical response approach to second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 53(1), 3–17.

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Bell, D. (2007). Do teachers think that methods are dead? ELT Journal, 61. Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk: Learning to use language. Oxford University Press. Chaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky’s analysis of learning and instruction. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Learning in doing. Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 1–61. Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and the problems of knowledge. MIT Press. Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL. Cambridge University Press. Dalton-Puffer, C. (2007). Discourse in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) classrooms. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Downes, S. (2010). Learning networks and connective knowledge. In: Hao Yang, H., Chi-Yin Yuen, S. (Eds.), Collective intelligence and e-learning 2.0: Implications of web-based communities and networking. IGI Global. Retrieved from https://www.igi-global.com/book/collective-intell igence-learning/167#table-of-contents. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gattegno, C. (1972). Teaching foreign languages in schools: The silent way (2nd ed.). Educational Solutions. Glickman, C. D. (1990). Pushing school reform to a new edge: Seven ironies of school empowerment. Phi Delta Kappa, 72(1), 68–75. Gogus A. (2012) Socratic questioning. In: Seel N.M. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Boston, MA: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_492. Guterman, J. T. (2006). Mastering the art of solution-focused counseling. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Johnson, D., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (2002). Circles of learning: Cooperation in the classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Alemany Press. Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). The postmethod condition: (E) merging strategies for second/foreign language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 28(1), 27–48. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching. Yale University Press. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2016). The decolonial option in english teaching: Can the subaltern act? TESOL Quarterly, 50(1), 66–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.202 Leonard, D. (2002). Learning theories. Oryx Press. Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach: The state of ELT and a way forward. Language Teaching Publications. Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study. University of Chicago Press. Lozanov, G. (1978). An invitation to suggestopedia. New York: Gordon and Brecher Publishers. Mehisto, P., Marsh, D., & Frigols, M. J. (2008). Uncovering CLIL: Content and language integrated learning in bilingual and multilingual education. Macmillan. Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. Routledge. Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford University Press. Prabhu, N. S. (1990). There is no best method–Why? TESOL Quarterly, 24(2), 161–176. Psoinos, D. (2012). Do our coursebooks live up to the challenges of today? Adopting an interdisciplinary approach to TEFL. The Reading Matrix, 12(2), 177–180. Resta, P., & Laferrière, T. (2007). Technology in support of collaborative learning. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-007-9042-7.S2CID2328138 Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1993). Technologies for knowledge-building discourse. Communications of the ACM, 36(5), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1145/155049.155056 Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age [html]. Retrieved from https://jotamac.typepad.com/jotamacs_weblog/files/Connectivism.pdf.

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Chapter 4

Theory and Practice

4.1 Online Sample Activities, Theoretical Underpinnings, and Application of Tools In this chapter, I demonstrate e-clecticism by looking into specific examples/screenshots from online sessions and discussing the interrelationship between materials’ design and teacher’s methodological assumptions as these subtly manifest themselves through the interface the teacher is using. The chapter also aims to provide solid examples of activities that teachers may use with their learners online and analyse them in terms of their methodological and theoretical underpinnings. I take original course book materials as the starting point, and discuss their current and potential use given the tools the online platforms offer. At the same time, ideas on how teachers could expand, adapt, and/or supplement them with online resources delivering a high-end, varied class are examined. I start by presenting a screenshot that captures a moment in an online session, extract the assumptions about learning that the material designers implicitly make, discuss the screen layout in connection to the teacher’s assumptions, and recommend some adaptation ideas of the material in relation to the whole range of online tools teachers have at our disposal. As the reader goes through the activities presented below, they will notice principles and practices borrowed from almost every one of the approaches and methods discussed in the previous chapter, the only difference being that in this chapter, e-clecticism is seen in practice. Like in ftf teaching, but considering the tools available online as well as the overall setting, an amalgamation of best theory and practice is adapted and applied online. Furthermore, it is imperative that practitioners consider the fact that in taking course books on screen, teachers and learners alike, are expected to familiarise themselves with two different layouts, namely that of the course book, as well as the platform interface. This may have numerous implications for all participants in online classes, and teachers must be fully aware that screen layout is a new sub-skill they will have to practice and master consciously as opposed to relying on intuitive choices. This is because the screen is the classroom in the online setting, and as such, it has to be tidy, functional, inspiring, and conducive © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. I. Psoinos, Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79919-9_4

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to learning. In this light, screen ‘topography’ or ‘landscaping’ becomes paramount for effective teaching and learning to take place online. In its digital education manifesto video, the University of Edinburgh clearly acknowledges the centrality of interface design and aesthetics as factors that shape learning online (2020). The range of activities available to online teachers today is relatively broad, although still determined by the capabilities of the technology and what it allows us to do in the 2D online context. Whether one decides to stick to the course materials that might be ready-made and readily accessible or go out on a limb and explore the World Wide Web, the resources are innumerable. Once again, teachers must exercise their well-informed judgement and select resources that serve their pedagogical aims.

4.2 Reading Upper Intermediate or Advanced level, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.1). Material Assumptions Exercise B • Learning languages is an interdisciplinary process. • Emphasis must be placed on the warm-up stage of sessions so as to engage, stimulate, and activate learners’ schematic knowledge. • The warm-up activities contextualise, and facilitate understanding of texts that might be cognitively demanding or require prior learner knowledge.

Fig. 4.1 Today the class is learning English by tracing Alexander the Great’s route from Greece to the Middle East, and Asia. The platform annotation tools are laid out awaiting to be used interactively

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• Visual stimulus aids engagement and, by extension, learning. • Learners must be active from the beginning of the session. Interaction with the materials aids learning. • Learning by doing, i.e., drawing the route on the map, aids engagement and, by extension, learning. Exercise C • Reading is an active skill. • Information gap provides opportunities for meaningful task completion and skills practice in the target language. • Learners move from general to specific, i.e., a top-down approach to lesson planning is optimal. Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The course book is at the centre of the screen zoomed out enough for learners to see two of its pages. The annotation toolbar is expanded at the top-left hand corner, and drawing tools are presented to learners. • The teacher has opted for a plain and clear screen layout. This might relate to the cognitive load of the activity itself (exercise B) which some learners may find challenging, or to the teacher’s intention to have learners focus on the particular exercise and complete the task. The page being zoomed out, however, partly seems to defeat that latter purpose. The teacher is not making use of the chat box, a web browser, or their camera. Nevertheless, the class seems to be about to select a drawing tool so as to draw on the map, which makes this session rather interactive, adding a dynamic to the procedure. Online Adaptation Potential Given that exercise B is part of the pre-reading stage of the session, the teacher’s camera should be on. It is important for learners to have visual contact with the teacher when the latter is giving instructions or during the warm-up when the teacher attempts to motivate the class. Zooming into the map would also help learners manipulate it more easily. It seems somewhat awkward and pointless that the beginning of the reading passage is displayed. Handing over the drawing tools to learners so as to make the activity even more interactive, would give a ‘hands-on’ feel to it, a tangibility that is rare much sought-after in online sessions. Naturally, this is a choice the teacher will make considering their learners’ and class profile. Lastly, external resources such as Google Maps or Google Earth could prove particularly useful with this exercise as they allow zooming in and out of the interactive world map, which could greatly facilitate overall contextualisation of the course book unit theme. Learners can locate the specific cities mentioned in the passage, zoom in and explore the ruins of palaces, and visit sites that might be of interest to

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Fig. 4.2 Google Maps and Google Earth can be useful tools in the online classroom setting

them or that the teacher will point. The scope of the session can thus be as broad or as narrow as the teacher pre-decides. Yet, the options are there for learners to use in their own time, expanding and exposing themselves to actual authentic materials and opening up to intrinsically motivated self-exploration (Fig. 4.2).

4.3 Learner Training-Error Correction Pre-intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.3). Material Assumptions Exercise C • Errors are an integral part of the learning process. • Raising learner awareness of their language production contributes to learning. Self-reflection is a necessary component of language learning. • Categories and colours aid learning. • Learner training, i.e., learning how to learn is an important, high-order meta-skill. Exercise D • Recognition precedes production of language. • Personalisation of tasks promotes learning.

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Fig. 4.3 Familiarising learners with the correction code the teacher will be using when providing feedback on written work. Learning how to learn, and self-reflection are essential skills for twentyfirst century learners

• Learners’ discourse can be used as a resource in the classroom. • Experimentation with the target language must be fostered. • Peer correction and peer teaching aid learning. Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The screen is divided between the course book, which dominates the screen, and the browser, which is positioned in the right-hand corner of the screen. The blank space on the browser page is used for the camera. All tools and platform paraphernalia are placed on top of the page. • This screen layout clearly indexes an attempt on the part of the teacher to draw learners’ attention to the activities on focus in the course book. Displaying the browser is debatable as the book activities seem to be fairly narrow in their scope, and thus, learners will probably not have to use external resources in order to perform the tasks. The plain browser interface however, reduces the cognitive load for learners and provides space for the teacher to use their camera. The absence of the chat box feature could be attributed to the nature of the activities, which, for the most part, require little interactivity among learners. Thus, the teacher chooses to keep the chat box out of the way to avoid possible distractions. Online Adaptation Potential The teacher could definitely make use of the breakout room feature in order to make the activities more interactive and foster collaborative learning.

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An error correction race could also engage learners more actively whereby the teacher maximises the chat box, and types in the erroneous example sentences found in the book one at a time. Learners have to spot and type in the correct version of the sentence as quickly as possible. Then, the whole class discusses the type of error this was in the sentence, i.e., grammar, spelling, etc. The particular activity can occur using a combination of the learners’ microphones and the class chat box. The teacher types in the erroneous sentence, and the learners use the ‘raise hand’ button to report the type of mistake in it orally. Alternatively, the teacher can ask learners to prepare small flashcard-like strips of paper with the error correction categories written on each one of them. The teacher types the sentence in the chat box, and learners vote on the type of error they think the sentence contains by raising their flashcard and showing it to the class using their cameras.

4.4 Warmer—Speaking Intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.4) as above. Material Assumptions • Learning involves the whole person, is holistic and interdisciplinary. • High-value, meaningful content and open discussions boost learner motivation. • Prompting or additional input may help learner engagement and, thus, task participation. • Learners’ schematic knowledge is a resource on which teachers can draw.

Fig. 4.4 Learners should engage with the materials critically

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• Language is a medium for expressing ideas and beliefs. • Fluency precedes accuracy. Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The screen is divided between the course book, which dominates the screen, and the browser, which is positioned in the right-hand corner of the screen. All tools and platform paraphernalia are placed on top of the page while the teacher can only be heard and not seen. • This screenshot might induce mixed feelings regarding the presentation of materials and the exploitation of technological tools. The teacher rightly draws the learners’ attention to the course book and the bubble prompts yet, their camera is turned off. Given that this is a pre-task activity in which learners are asked to participate in an open discussion, visual contact would definitely help contextualise the interaction. In this light, removing the visual element at this stage of the class seems unreasonable. The expanded annotation tools’ bar on the top of the screen and the browser are also two teacher choices that are controversial as to their actual usefulness in this particular activity. Online Adaptation Potential Given the open-ended nature of the target activity, the session could start or finish with a discussion using the ‘discussion board/forum’ tool that some platforms offer. Learners could upload their posts there, reacting, responding, and building up on each others’ views while engaging in meaningful interaction using the target language (Fig. 4.5). A variation to the discussion board could be to use breakout rooms whereby the teacher divides learners into small groups of four, for example. The groups take a

Fig. 4.5 Blackboard Collaborate’s discussion board initial interface. Discussion boards can be ideal for free language production both in the synchronous and the asynchronous online language classroom

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few minutes to discuss their ideas, formulate a definition, and report to class, i.e., the main room where they present, negotiate, and possibly defend their view. A more dialectic-oriented teacher might want to display works of art such as paintings or sculptures, but to name a few, and elicit responses that could lead to a definition of art or simply to a discussion relevant to the course book task that will follow and connected to the lesson objectives as these are determined by the teacher beforehand.

4.5 Learner Training—Using the Dictionary Pre-intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.6). Material Assumptions • • • • • •

Lexis is at the heart of the language acquisition process. Language is largely comprised of lexical chunks, in this case, collocations. Learner autonomy must be fostered. Self-discovery aids language acquisition. Learner training, i.e., dictionary use, aids language acquisition. Materials should encourage learner exploration and experimentation with target items. • Learners are intrinsically motivated and can take responsibility for their own learning.

Fig. 4.6 Split screen between the coursebook and Google. Screen layout must be clear and conducive to learning

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Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The screen is divided in two, almost equal parts. The first half is used for displaying the course book, while the second is devoted to the browser. The annotation tools’ bar is expanded on top of the page, and the teacher’s camera box is placed at the bottom centre of the screen traversing, and at the same time, connecting the course book and the browser windows. • This screen seems highly intuitive and purposeful on the part of the teacher as their choices entail numerous implicit symbolisms indexing conscious selection of material layout. The 50/50 split of the main screen and the position of the camera box suggest that the class has to pay equal attention to both sub screens/windows. The course book window also has the annotation tools’ bar expanded, and the teacher is using the pointer (red mark) to guide learners through the activity. This informs learners that they will annotate this particular part of the screen. The browser shows dictionary results and thus, implies that the class will be using one of them in order to complete the task. The teacher’s camera at the bottom of the screen provides visual contact without distracting learners from the task. This screen layout seems highly interactive and clear. Online Adaptation Potential There is a number of alternative tools the teacher can explore in order to practice advanced-level collocations, including myriads of external resources, such as webpages and applications such as the one seen in the Fig. 4.7. The teacher can either use ready-made, off the shelf materials, or create their own, tailor-made activity so that learners practice items that are on focus in their particular class/session. However, this presupposes that the teacher invests time and effort to research and supplement their course book material with online activities that they have selected or designed from scratch. Another idea that requires a minimum investment on the part of the teacher, and could be seen to foster learner autonomy, would be to ask learners to read out their dictionary findings of additional words in random order and one by one. The class can guess which of these words collocate with the words given on their book list.

Fig. 4.7 The Kahoot search interface. Filtering one’s search will definitely save them time browsing through thousands of results in the app’s database

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Thus, the teacher turns the activity feedback stage into a multiple matching game, increasing interactivity and, hopefully, interest and motivation.

4.6 Speaking and Vocabulary Pre-intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.8). Material Assumptions Exercise A • Learning involves the whole person, is holistic and interdisciplinary. • Emotional engagement and personalisation aid learning. • Music is a tool the teacher can use to achieve learner engagement and stimulate interest. • Learners need prompting or some initial support/input before they can produce language. Exercise B • • • • •

Learners’ schematic knowledge is a resource on which teachers can draw. Visual cues contextualise and stimulate language production. Language is a medium for expressing ideas and beliefs. Fluency precedes accuracy. High-value, meaningful content and open discussions boost learner motivation.

Fig. 4.8 The coursebook and chat box on screen. Variety of input in online classes should be pursued

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Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The main theme on this screen is the course book which is placed at its centre. On one side, the teacher has made the chat box available to learners, the annotation bar tab/shortcut is at the bottom centre, and on the other side opposite the chat box, is the teacher’s minimized camera. • The landscaping of this screen is not visually dense yet, not particularly clear either. Although the cognitive load learners will have to process upon looking at the screen remains reasonably low, the teacher has zoomed out of the course book page, and as a result, the user is confounded as to the activity on focus. Unless one is specifically instructed to look at one of the three activities, they will not know where to look. The camera and tool tabs contribute to this feeling of lack of focus as they seem to be randomly scattered on the interface. On a more positive note, the teacher is using the chat box. Its width and position on the screen seem to overshadow the course book, which could mean that the teacher anticipates brainstorming of lexis in connection to exercise A. If so, this teacher choice seems sensible. Another notable and praiseworthy choice the teacher has made is to resist the temptation of using video for this activity. Playing and showing learners a music video would totally defeat the purpose of the activity, which requires learners to use their imagination and produce language based on their take of the listening tracks. Online Adaptation Potential As a general rule, online screen landscaping must be clear and consistent so as not to add to the cognitive load of a given activity. If learners need time to familiarize themselves with the screen layout and its features, the medium prevails over the message even for a little while, which is, however, enough to distract learners from the task. In this light, the teacher should keep all tools in one part of the screen, not only in this session, but in every subsequent one so that learners are familiar with their class setting and will not be wandering around the interface trying to find where things are. Assuming that the class is doing the first exercise, i.e., listen and write down your emotions, a lexical input activity could help learners expand their emotionrelated vocabulary in the target language as well as raise their awareness on their own feelings. A number of scholars (Greenberg, 2002; Koole & Rothermund, 2011; ιντšρης, 1997) have acknowledged the highly beneficial impact of labelling and talking about one’s emotions on their overall well-being. Based on this, admittedly, more holistic approach to language teaching and learning, a teacher can provide learners with a short list of lexical items and ask them to look them up in an online dictionary. Learners can work in pairs using ‘breakout rooms,’ and upon finishing, the class can discuss the items in plenary mode in the main room. Using their cameras, learners can even mime emotions while the rest of the class guesses which word from the list they are miming. An activity of this sort does take time off the rest of the lesson, yet, the benefits are multifold.

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With regard to exercise B in the course book, the teacher could illustrate stereotyping by using realia and their camera to elicit responses, reactions, and initiate discussion. Such realia could be a cap with a specific logo on it, a T-shirt with an imprint, etc.

4.7 Vocabulary—Levels of Formality Intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.9). Material Assumptions Exercise A • Awareness-raising via noticing contributes to language acquisition. • Stylistics is part of the language learning process, and learners should be aware of stylistic differences in the target language. • Learners must be taught real English, i.e., as speakers around the world use it. • Learners should experiment with target items. • Language learning involves cognitive investment on the part of the learner (Convert the formal phrases to informal and vice versa). Exercise B • Learning is a social process. Peer learning/teaching and collaborative learning aid language acquisition. • Language is largely comprised of lexical chunks. • Learners must be actively involved in the teaching and learning process.

Fig. 4.9 A purposeless active and visible chat box can distract learners from the task

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Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The course book page is at the centre of the screen. The chat box and the teacher’s camera are positioned on the top, right-hand corner. All other tools are hidden. • Clear and functional layout. For practical as well as for aesthetic reasons, the course book page could be slightly dragged away from the chat box so they do not overlap. At the same time, this would make the screen look and feel less cramped on the one end. • In terms of online classroom management, one assumes that the class is in plenary mode doing exercise A, and that the teacher is using the chat box for learners to post their answers. Chat box answers are complimentary to sound and camera, and help the teacher keep track of and manage responses. The teacher is using the camera to provide positive reinforcement as can be deduced by his approving ‘thumbs up’ gesture. Online Adaptation Potential The whiteboard tool can be used optimally for both exercises A and B as in both cases, learners are required to take notes, rephrase, and experiment with the lexical items. After doing the exercises in pairs or mini groups as per the course book instructions, they can report to class or play a miming game whereby each pair, mimes the slang/collocations they found in their assigned paragraph (exercise B), and other learners scan the text to find the answer. Of course, adapting the activity adds a secondary aim to the lesson plan, namely, to practise reading sub-skills, scanning. Exercise A could be further enhanced by means of adding visuals which learners could match with the phrases/words in the book. This can easily be done using Quizlet. Notice the variety of modes available to the teacher via the menu on the side of the page. Can you find the phrase from exercise A that is depicted in the last figure? (Figs. 4.10, 4.11 and 4.12).

Fig. 4.10 Flashcard mode using Quizlet

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Fig. 4.11 Learn mode using Quizlet

Fig. 4.12 Writing and spelling mode on Quizlet

4.8 Writing Intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.13). Material Assumptions • Contextualisation of writing act/ties aids learning. Activation of schematic knowledge aids learning. • Learners have valuable contributions to make in the target language (questions 4–7). • Materials must be authentic and have content-value. This is appreciated by learners, stimulates, motivates them, and provides opportunities for personalisation. • Real ‘English’ should be taught. • Language is communication. • Music and lyrics of songs can be an insightful and highly exploitable teaching resource. • Critical thinking must be fostered. • The teacher’s role involves asking the right questions. • Awareness-raising questions aid task focus and can be used for concept checking (exercise 1). • Format and structure of written production is important (exercise 1) • Format and structure can be elicited from learners.

4.8 Writing Fig. 4.13 Teacher presentation skills may facilitate understanding and boost learner motivation

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Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The course book page is at the centre of the screen. The teacher’s camera is positioned towards the bottom, right-hand corner. The annotation tool bar is expanded at the top-left of the screen. • This interface implies that the teacher might be giving instructions to the class as to what they will be doing in the session. This would justify the zoomed out page of the course book, which allows learners to see the whole Unit page as opposed to focusing on one of the activities. The tools bar also suggests that some annotation might occur, while the teacher is using the camera to, sort of, act out and contextualise the activities. Finally, the teacher’s position of the camera box seems rather random. It might be worth considering either the top or bottom corner, so that platform tools are placed close to one another resulting in a feeling of consistency and neatness. Online Adaptation Potential • A PDF or another format of the course book could be recommended as the red and blue Word underlining might distract the learners. Conversely, the teacher can use the underlined words to elicit stylistic differences, raise learners’ awareness of the type of language that is being used, and further exploit the material. • One could actually play the song in their class, designing corresponding activities as per their teaching objectives. • This is a dense course book page. Zooming into the warm-up questions on top of the page could help learners focus on a particular activity as opposed to being overwhelmed by the sight of the whole sequence of activities that are to follow.

4.9 Warmer—Speaking Pre-intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.14). Material Assumptions The teacher does not display the course book or other materials at this point in the session. Judging only by the poll that is screen shared, one can assume that the material is interdisciplinary on principle. If this is the case, the course book or the materials the teacher will use, assume that language is a medium by which messages are communicated, i.e., a means to an end and not the end per se. Learners will acquire the target language by learning about the world, i.e., historical figures. Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The platform menu and tools are in the background as well as on the side of the screen. The ‘poll’ tool is in the foreground. • The teacher assumes that, at this point in the session, learners do not need to see anything other than the poll so as to answer the questions which aim at activating schemata, stimulating interest, and engaging the learners.

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Fig. 4.14 The poll tool adds variety and significantly enhances learner engagement via interactivity in the online context

• Depending on how the teacher decides to do this task, e.g., as a game/competition/race, to initiate discussion, to elicit lexis or facts, etc. the activity can be timed or not. Online Adaptation Potential • A browser window could be available on the side of the screen, so as to encourage learners to use external resources to find the answers to the poll. This could add value to the activity and aid self-discovery and promote learner autonomy by engaging in a meaningful task. • The teacher can use an online survey maker programme, or questionnaire maker. • Visual cues in the background could aid contextualisation of the topic.

4.10 Teaching Grammar Intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.15). Material Assumptions Exercise B • • • •

There is a place for teaching grammar in language learning. Grammar is best taught inductively. Noticing aids language acquisition. Peer teaching, negotiation of meaning, and self-discovery, aid language acquisition.

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Fig. 4.15 Learners and teachers can use web browsers on the spot to enhance the classroom materials and enrich the teaching and learning experience online

Exercise C • Course book author moves from general to specific, i.e., uses a top-down approach to target item presentation. • Materials designers prioritise language skills and systems as follows: listening, speaking, reading, writing. • New language must be presented in context. • The context must have content value, i.e., learners are learning about Cuba. Exercise D Some degree of meta-language is necessary, i.e., names of the grammar tenses. Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The screen is divided into three parts, namely, the course book, which dominates the screen, the chat box, and the browser, which are sharing the space in the righthand corner of the screen. All tools and platform paraphernalia are dragged and dropped on top of the page. • The teacher attempts to keep the interface simple and functional. At this stage of the lesson, they only use their voice and have minimized their camera. The teacher might feel that visual contact is not necessary in order for learners to perform the task(s). Nevertheless, teacher presence is discretely stated through the microphone tab on the top right-hand corner of the screen. • There is a certain dynamic to this interface. The teacher has all the platform tools laid out, google is there for external referencing, while the chat box can be used by all participants at any given time during this part of the lesson, for queries

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Fig. 4.16 Quizlet online games, flashcard applications, and websites can enrich online sessions

and/or clarification. The chat box is also a tool that learners who might not wish to be heard or seen for their own reasons, can use and thus, opportunities for contributions to the lesson are multiplied. Online Adaptation Potential Since Exercise C (text about Cuba) is independent of the previous exercise, the teacher could facilitate text understanding by pre-teaching some key lexis and/or by introducing the figures mentioned in the passage using visuals, the poll tool, or a Quizlet matching/drag and drop activity (Fig. 4.16). This, of course, only seems plausible if the teacher wishes to bring the actual content of the text in the foreground, thus, adapting the lesson aims to include reading for detail. The browser implies an intention on the part of the teacher to attempt to contextualise the exercise probably by asking learners to look up the names mentioned in the passage. The teacher could ask learners to spot the names of key figures in the text, look them up in an online encyclopedia, and type the information they find in the chat box. This could occur as pair work using breakout rooms, or in plenary mode as a resource race. Potential is vast in the particular case, as visuals or even a map, or Cuban music can all help contextualise the passage. It all depends on the class profile, i.e., age group, interests, world knowledge, motivation, etc., the teacher’s lesson objectives, and the time they wish to spend on particular tasks.

4.11 Language Production Activity Intermediate or higher levels, adolescents, young adults, adults (Fig. 4.17). Material Assumptions • Language learning is a social process. Language Production Activity

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Fig. 4.17 Discussion fora offer the opportunity for expansion/follow-up activities to what has been taught in an online session. Platform used: Blackboard Collaborate

• Open-ended tasks promote target language production. • Practice of target items is best served by engaging in meaningful interaction with peers. • Linguistic input can prompt and encourage learners to participate in the interaction. • Learners must be fully aware of assessment rules that apply to specific activities. • Assessment can be used for motivational purposes. • The teacher’s role is to monitor learner interaction and language production with minimum interference. • Learners must be aware of relevance and appropriacy rules. Screen Layout and Teacher Assumptions • The target task is centrally displayed while all other platform menu options and tools are minimized. • This screen is simple and clear as to where the learners’ attention should be drawn. The teacher assumes that learners are ready and willing to engage in the task, which is quite open-ended, although book pages with useful language are provided probably as remedial teaching or to cater for weaker or more reserved learners. The teacher further assumes that informing learners about the task assessment criteria might motivate them to participate. Online Adaptation Potential This is a pretty ‘dry’, decontextualised presentation of a task. One can only assume that this discussion is assigned for homework or that it is a follow-up activity to what was taught in the day’s session. Whichever the case, the teacher’s camera should be on, and the latter should write a post in order to initiate a thread to which learners would respond and on which they would build.

References

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References Greenberg, L. S. (2002). Emotion-focused therapy: Coaching clients to work through their feelings. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Koole, S. L., & Rothermund, K. (2011). “I feel better but I don’t know why”: The psychology of implicit emotion regulation. Cognition and Emotion, 25(3), 389–399. ιντšρης, . (1997). Mα γ ιατ ι´ νιωθω ´ šτ σ ι; Aθηνα: ´ Eκδ´oσεις υμαρι. ´

Conclusion

This book is the result of genuine professional interest and reflection on the recent massive transition from onsite to online language teaching. The physical classroom has been replaced by the screen in the online setting, an environment that essentially constitutes the action field where all teaching and learning take place. Within this context, numerous media and online platform tools that carry specific affordances and limitations are incorporated, and an attempt was made to illustrate these features so that teachers are aware of the choices that are available to them, choices that work and make sense pedagogically. Nevertheless, issues pertaining to educational philosophy and technology with a particular focus on the ethical dimension of teaching and learning languages online have emerged and should be examined. For example, the debate of whether the medium determines teachers’ pedagogy and classroom practices might be anything but new dating back to the 1980s in what has been recorded in the relevant literature as ‘The media debate’, yet, seems utterly relevant today with the emergence of breakthrough technologies that are being integrated in online language education. The broader TESOL community, including teacher education, has to engage in earnest dialogue over the relationship and interdependence of pedagogy, technology, and the online teaching and learning setting. In a way, we might be experiencing a resurgence of the educational media debate but on 21st century terms. In the 1980s and 90s, the two debating sides consisted of prominent scholars such as Clark (1989, 1994), who claimed that the message is not affected by the medium in the same way that a means of transport has very little impact on the quality of the product it takes from point A to point B. By extension, instructional media have minimal impact on learning and cognition, and the teaching method remains at the centre of the teaching and learning process. As a result, the approach and method are accountable for adequate or inadequate learning outcomes. Contrary to the above, Kozma (1994) argued that the medium carries fixed attributes that may shape or distort the message depending on transmission conditions. Advocates of the Clark School illustrate their point by using the example of milk that is delivered to consumers’ houses using a refrigerated van or, adversely, a donkey. Thus, the medium the latter contend does have a substantial impact on the message. Particular media © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. I. Psoinos, Adapting Approaches and Methods to Teaching English Online, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79919-9

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suit particular approaches and methods in language teaching and have an impact on learning outcomes. Kosma goes as far as to claim that media constitute a proxy method and that the two are inherently linked (ibid). Speech act theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) is also relevant to the debate. Human interaction occurs when the speaker and listener mobilise channels of communication, such as the voice/sound and hearing, respectively. The actual perception of the message on the part of the listener, i.e., the perlocutionary force of an utterance, largely depends on the transmission and receiving channels. Is it all about the medium then? Is McLuhan’s famous aphorism that wants the medium to be the message valid and true today (McLuhan, 1964), or must teachers always remember that technology is not an autonomous entity but rather a means to an end, namely to serve human life? Floridi (2014) further holds that with ICTs independently being able to process information and communicate that information between machines, humans might just be “in the loop” of technology, but should be “on the loop” (Floridi, 2014: 30), indicating the current imbalance between technological advancements and human adaptation to it. As humans increasingly perceive the world around them in informational terms, and the world and people’s lives become blended (Dziuban, Graham, Moskal, Norberg, & Sicilia, 2018), educators need to take a firm grasp of the reigns and ensure that educational technology remains anthropocentric. Today, more than ever before, there is a need on the part of the applied linguistics community worldwide to realise that one cannot allow the tail to wag the dog, that is, educators must be actively involved in the development of educational technology, and teachers must rediscover their ties to their pedagogical background and expertise and use technology to serve their intentional aims. The meta post-method era does not equal a non-method one. To illustrate this point, I presented nine lessons based on a purist version of currently used approaches and methods in an effort to explore their potential and fitness in the online languageteaching context. This experimentation revealed some of the pros and cons of these methods, and a hybrid, e-clectic approach was recommended. E-clecticism combines features from all approaches and is a highly personalisable paradigm via which teachers can pin down their professional beliefs and assumptions and teach more effectively online. The proposed model is based on the premise that methodology is still relevant today, and that teachers who are intentional in their methodological choices are better teachers (Spiro, 2013). E-clecticism also differs from what we have known until now about this approach to teaching languages in that it takes the online setting features and tools under consideration and acknowledges the shift of power from the teacher onto the learner in the online context. This shift inevitably affects and re-shapes teacher and learner roles in the classroom, and should not be ignored or overlooked if we are to take online teaching and learning of languages as an option that merits scholarly attention. In the last chapter of this book, eleven screenshots taken from online sessions were analysed for teacher assumptions and screen landscaping, i.e., layout. This critical analysis sheds light upon the importance of using the screen wisely by making conscious decisions about materials’ presentation and arrangement on the interface.

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Recommendations for improvement and adaptation ideas were made, and the book closed with a discussion on the essentiality on the part of online language teachers to realise the challenges of the new setting and adapt effectively to their additional roles. To achieve this, teachers need to engage critically in their professional identity, which largely determines their classroom decisions. Online teaching is here to stay, and like with progress in all fields, it almost has a momentum on its own. Instead of feeling threatened by the new setting and the possible shift of power from the teacher to the learner (Masschelein & Simons, 2013), teachers can prepare to face online language teaching with confidence and topmost expertise just like they have always done. Educational policymakers, administrators, decision-makers, but most of all, teachers, need to pause and reflect on the experience we have had with emergency online teaching thus far so as to gain insight into the nature of the new teaching environment, classroom and curriculum-related decisions, and our practices which will, in turn, enable us to assess and rectify these accordingly. Moreover, it seems that online classes will truly be successful when platforms and their media become invisible, and the focus returns to the subject matter and the people that technology is called to serve. A quote that seems to be attributed to Albert Einstein and engulfs much of what has been discussed in this book highlights the centrality of human faculties such as creativity and intuition in all progress in stating that “The intuitive mind is a sacred gift and the analytical, reasoning mind (orthological) is a faithful servant.” In a world of profuse information, let us not forget the gift.

References

Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. London: Oxford University Press. (John Searle has also written extensively on speech acts). Clark, R. 1983. Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research 53 (4): 445–459. Clark, R. (1994). Media will never influence learning. ETR&D, 42, 21–29. Dziuban, C., Graham, C. R., Moskal, P. D., Norberg, A., & Sicilia, N. (2018). Blended learning: The new normal and emerging technologies. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0087-5. Floridi, L. 2014. The 4th revolution: How the infosphere is reshaping human reality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kozma, R. 1994. Will media influence learning: Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development 42 (2): 7–19. Masschelein, J., and M. Simons. 2013. In defense of the school: A public issue. Leuven: E-ducation, Culture and Society Publishers. McLuhan, M. 1964. Understanding media. London: Routledge. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: An essay in the philosophy of language. London: Cambridge University Press. Spiro, J. 2013. Changing methodologies in TESOL. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. University of Edinburgh. (2016). Digital education manifesto. Retrieved April 17, 2021, from https:// blogs.ed.ac.uk/manifestoteachingonline/the-text/.