Accessing and Browsing Information and Communication 9780262182140, 0262182149

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Accessing and Browsing Information and Communication Ronald E. Rice, Maureen McCreadie and Shan- Ju L. Chang

List of Tables and Figures Preface

1 The Importance of Accessing and Browsing Information and Communication

I Sept em ber 2001 I SBN 0- 262- 18214- 9 7 x 9, 368 pp. $52.00/ £33.95 ( CLOTH)

Accessing Information and Communication

2 Perspectives on Access in Six Research Literatures 3 Common Concepts across Research Literatures 4 Unique Aspects across Research Literature, and a Preliminary Framework of Access 5 A Research Approach: Access 6 Results: Testing the Framework of Access 7 Results: Refining the Framework of Access 8 Summary and Implications of the Framework of Access II Browsing Information and Communication 9 Perspectives on Browsing in Six Research Literatures 10 A Preliminary Framework of Browsing 11 A Research Approach: Browsing 12 Results: Testing the Framework of Browsing 13 Results: Motivating Themes and Patterns of Browsing 14 Results: A Refined Framework of Browsing 15 Future Research and Implications for the Frameworks of Accessing and Browsing Information and Communication References Index

Preface

T h e b a s ic a r g u m e n t a r e f u n d a m e n ta l

o f th is b o o k

hum an

e ty o f te r m in o lo g ie s u n d e r s to o d

ta in in g ra n g e

a s p e c ts

th e d e s ir e d o f re se a rc h

b r o w s in g

re so u rc e s.

in f o r m a tio n

and

F u r th e r ,

u n iq u e

p e r s p e c tiv e s to

d e v e lo p

of each

th a n

u s in g

so u rc e s

r e f in e d ,

it

c o n s id e r s T hese

a n y p a r tic u la r

tw o

a v a r i-

a r e a 's

fro m

hum an

T hese b o th

ob-

a w id e and

re so u rc e scom m on

p e r s p e c tiv e s

m o re

tr e a tm e n t

p r e lim in a r y

and

a c tiv itie s - a c c e s s in g

f u n d a m e n ta l

a re

s o th a t

p r o v id in g

a r e u s e d to id e n tif y

th a t

th e s e

fro m

r e v ie w s lite r a tu r e

lite r a tu r e s .

re se a rc h

o f e v id e n c e ,

p e o p le

hum an

r e v ie w s

fra m e w o rk s

of w ays and under

a r e a o r s e r v ic e s itu a tio n ,

T h is b o o k

f u n d a m e n ta l

o f th e r e s e a r c h

p r e lim in a r y

c o m p r e h e n s iv e

re se a rc h

re so u rc e s.

re so u rc e s

a r e a s . S e c o n d , th e y a r e in s u f f ic ie n tly

b ia s e s p r e v e n t

o n th e s e tw o

c o m m u n ic a tio n .

g r a te d

m u ltip le

in a n y p a r tic u la r

o r n e c e ssa ry

in a v a r ie ty

o f re se a rc h

o r u n in s p e c te d

a re a s

F ir s t, a c c e s s in g a n d b r o w s in g

a c tiv itie s , c o n s id e r e d

a c r o s s a v a r ie ty

o r id e n tif ie d

u n id e n tif ie d

is tw o f o ld .

g e n e ra l

and

a r e in te and

m o re

o f th e c o n c e p ts .

fra m e w o rk s

a re

re se a rc h ,

p r a c tic e ,

T hen,

e v a lu a te d ,

a n d v a lid a te d .

S o m e n o ta b le • E x te n s iv e p lic a tio n s

a w id e r a n g e

o f c o n v e r g in g p u b lic

w in d o w s ,

spaces,

a r c h ite c tu r a l

in f o r m a tio n

s y s te m

• C o m p a r is o n • D e v e lo p m e n t • E x p lic it

o f th is b o o k

a n d c o m p r e h e n s iv e fro m

• A n a ly s is lib r a r ie s ,

f e a tu r e s

in c lu d e

r e v ie w

o f r e la te d

th e o r y ,

a n d im -

o f d is c ip lin e s

c o n te x ts g ro c e ry

s u c h a s m a s s m e d ia , s to r e s ,

th e

I n te r n e t

d e s ig n , a d v e r tis e m e n ts ,

o n lin e in f o r m a tio n

and

W o r ld

o r g a n iz a tio n a l

W id e

s e r v ic e s ,

W eb,

s to r e

c o m m u n ic a tio n ,

and

e v a lu a tio n

of com m on

a n d u n iq u e

a n d r e f in e m e n t

o p e r a tio n a liz a tio n

• C le a r e x p la n a tio n

c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s

o f g e n e r a l,

o f c o n c e p ts

o f m e th o d o lo g ic a l

• I n - d e p th

q u a lita tiv e

a n d q u a n tita tiv e

to in c r e a s e

th e o r e tic a l

v a r ia n c e

in te r d is c ip lin a r y w ith in

a b ro a d

a c r o s s m u ltip le

d is c ip lin e s

fra m e w o rk s a rra y

o f d im e n s io n s

p ro c e d u re s a n a ly s is

o f c a s e s tu d ie s , in te n tio n a lly

chosen

xu

Preface

• E x te n s iv e

u s e o f ta b le s

and

f ig u r e s to s u m m a r iz e

and

illu s tr a te

th e c o n c e p ts

and

a n a ly s is • C o m p r e h e n s iv e T h is b o o k s e r v ic e

b ib lio g r a p h y

is p r im a r ily

p r o v id e r s

in f o r m a tio n c o n c e p ts ,

in te r e s te d

a n d r e f in e d

a c a d e m ic

c a l m a te r ia ls

th e

d e ta ile d

fro m th is

a w id e v a r ie ty

w o u ld

w o u ld

h o p e th a t th is b o o k

e x te n d

its b o u n d a r ie s

a n d p r a c tic e

a re a s.

W e th a n k

e d ito r

C heyer Je rse y ,

fo r

a g r a d u a te

a n d D o n a ld

p lin a r y

w o rk

m a te r ia l and

b r o a d ly

a f o u n d a tio n

s u g g e s tio n s ,

o f th e R u tg e r s

U n iv e r s ity

G a r y M a r c h io n in i,

B a rb a ra

C a s e f o r th e ir th o u g h tf u l th a n k s

in c o m m u n ic a tio n U n iv e r s ity

W illia m and

th a n k

J im

and

u n d e r-

book

com e

b y d e f in itio n

r e p r e s e n te d

h e re .

a p p ro a c h

c u r r ic u lu m

and

a c ro ss

c o m m e n ts ,

to in f o r to

p ro -

d is c ip lin e s

tw o

C a n to r - A d a m s Snow

We

th a t w is h e s

in f o r m a tio n - s e e k in g

and

a n d D e b o ra h

We

and

o f th e

fo r a n e w

in th e tr a d itio n a l

lite r a tu r e s

s e e m th a t

a re a s

a s w e ll a s to in f o r m a tio n ,

c o p y e d itin g .

p o lic y -

a n d a ll th e o r e ti-

a p p lic a b le

bases

it w o u ld

h a lf - d o z e n

S e r y f o r h is e n c o u r a g e m e n t

e x q u is ite

o r g a n iz a -

a n d d e ta il m a k e th is a

o f re se a rc h

o f a n e s ta b lis h e d

e a r lie r

(h e re ,

o p e r a tio n a liz e d

re se a rc h e rs,

a n a ly s is ,

e m p ir ic a l

lite r a tu r e s , over

becom e

p ro c e sse s

D oug

R ic e p a r tic u la r ly

d a y s a t S ta n f o r d

th e

se rv e a s p a rt

f o r th e ir h e lp f u l

th e ir

W e a ls o th a n k

R on

to

re so u rc e s

and

e x a m p le s .

a w id e v a r ie ty

th e

re se a rc h

to f a c to r s

c e s s , to c o m m u n ic a tio n

c a se -b a se d

s tu d e n ts ,

lib r a r ia n s ,

consum er

I ts s c o p e , c o v e r a g e ,

fro m

m ake

c o u ld

a n d c o u ld

d e s ig n e r s ,

c o n c e p tu a l

o f r e la te d

s e e k in g

m an,

s h o u ld

b e r e le v a n t

m a tio n

m o u s r e v ie w e r s

w ith

f u n d a m e n ta l

b r o w s in g

h o p e th a t th e r e v ie w s ,

is v e r y little s ta tis tic a l

o f th e c o n c e p ts

c a s e s tu d ie s

and

g r a d u a te

b e o f u s e to r e f e r e n c e

m essage

a n d o th e r s .

a r e f u lly d e s c r ib e d

A s th e

book

c o u ld

b u t th e r e

te a c h e r s ,

o f a c c e s s in g

W e w o u ld

d e s ig n e r s ,

book,

d e v e lo p m e n t

s ta n d a b le .

is s u e s

fra m e w o rk s

s y s te m

s o c ia l p s y c h o lo g is ts ,

r ig o r o u s

The

in

fo r re se a rc h e rs,

a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n ) .

tio n a l m a n a g e r s , m a k e rs,

in te n d e d

anony-

a n d A lic e

o f P r in c e to n ,

N ew

M .L .S . p r o g r a m ,

f o r th e f in e in d e x in g .

K w a s n ik ,

B a te s , C h r is tin e

re se a rc h

P a is le y

M a r c ia

a n d d is c u s s io n s

f o r h is g r o u n d

in f o r m a tio n

and

h is w is e

B o rg -

o n b r o w s in g .

b r e a k in g a d v is in g

in te r d is c id u r in g

my

and beyond.

A c k n o w le d g m e n ts

P o r tio n s

o f th is m a te r ia l

S c ie n c e , f r o m :

a re

a d a p te d

o r r e p r in te d ,

w ith

p e r m is s io n

fro m

E ls e v ie r

Preface

M c C re a d ie ,

M .,

and

C ro s s -d is c ip lin a ry

R . E . R ic e .

1 9 9 9 . T re n d s

c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s .

in a n a ly z in g

Information

access

to

in fo rm a tio n .

Processing and Management

X111

P a rt 35

I:

(1 ):

4 5 -7 6 . M c C re a d ie ,

M .,

U n iq u e

in te g ra tin g

and

and

R . E . R ic e .

1 9 9 9 . T re n d s

c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s .

in a n a ly z in g

a c c e s s to in fo rm a tio n .

Information Processing and Management

P a rt

II:

3 5 (1 ):

7 7 -9 9 .

A lth o u g h v e r y little o f th e f o llo w in g is d ir e c tly r e p r in te d o n b r o w s in g is c o n s id e r a b ly

( a lm o s t a ll o f th e m a te r ia l

d if f e r e n t) , w e w o u ld lik e to a c k n o w le d g e th e f o llo w in g

so u rc e : C hang,

S .- J .,

and

R.

Review ofInformation

E . R ic e .

1 9 9 3 . B ro w s in g :

Science and Technology

A

m u ltid im e n s io n a l

2 8 : 2 3 1 -2 7 1 .

fra m e w o rk .

Annual

1 The Importance of Accessing and Browsing Information and Communication

It is well understood

that in the last generation

oped countries have become information the central

nature

of work,

using, and evaluating tance of information tive demands information mation

societies, where most of the economy, and

is involved

information.

the United States and other devel-

in creating,

M ajor

processing,

social changes emphasizing

from digitized symbols, interconnectedness

(M archionini

and networks,

of and interaction

and forms, sources, and amounts

with

of infor-

1995, 3-4).

seeking is an enduring topic of theoretical,

relevance, treated

the impor-

seeking include rapidly increasing knowledge work and cogni-

technologies

Information

communicating,

in many textbooks,

practical,

and economic

research studies, commercial

products,

and

university courses that consider the processes and outcomes of people's attempts to acquire and use information. databases,

CD-ROM S,

Further, with the development

interactive

retrieval interfaces,

of the Internet, online

and digital libraries

comes

the promise of nearly unlimited retrieval of information. At the same time, however,

a new focus on the user and the user's context has

developed to challenge many of the traditional mation systems and the study of information cerns about increasing information

approaches

to the design of infor-

seeking. Further, there are many con-

inequity and the "digital divide," whereby many

people and groups may be excluded from this growth in information opportunities.

services and

M any people complain of overload, confusion, frustration,

becoming

lost, not knowing where to go to find what they need, or not being able to interpret and evaluate information This book

after obtaining it.

argues that many of these tensions,

arise from an incomplete

conceptualization

so recently) called the information-seeking ceives of information

contradictions,

and challenges

of what has been traditionally process. This traditional

seeking as an intentional

(but less

approach

con-

process whereby a user, with a more

or less known problem, uses some kind of information

resource (usually a print or

2

C h a p te r

1

computer medium, such as a library's card catalog or online catalog or the Internet) to find some specific facts or data that would resolve the problem. process takes the form of matching

Typically, this

a user's search query with terms from a data-

base of indexed key words or even full text. However, this traditional,

narrow

conceptualization

of information

seeking may

in fact be the last, most easily observable, perhaps not even primary stage of a complex set of activities-ongoing, as serendipitous,

conscious as well as unconscious,

intentional

and social as well as political and cognitive. Borgman

argues that tasks are becoming more interdependent There are also many more information

(2000, 7)

and their boundaries

types and formats,

as well

blurring.

sources, access points

(virtual, temporal, and physical), and strategies. So it is increasingly difficult to identify and distinguish

the components

define information

of information

seeking in a traditional

tween the recognition

of an information

mation.

(1995) also sees "information

M archionini

rather than the more limited notion

seeking, and less justifiable to

way as consisting

of the activities be-

need and the acquisition

of relevant infor-

seeking as a broader

of information

retrieval"

process

(ix) and argues that

"a variety of disciplinary perspectives are needed to advance our state of knowledge and to develop better humans purposefully

systems"

(x). Information

much more general and dynamic learning and problem fers somewhat Further,

than

"information

retrieval";

(5). It is

it overlaps

with

solving in that its results may be stored for later use, but dif-

because the results may also be discarded after immediate use.

this process

not

only involves

symbols stored and represented exchange

seeking is "a process in which

engage in order to change their state of knowledge"

and creation

"information"

in the form

of useful

in some medium, but also "communication,"

of meaning

through

interaction

the

among social actors via a

variety of media ranging from face-to-face to hypermedia W orld W ide W eb sites. As Buckland

(1991b,

8) concurs,

"Interpersonal

communications

and mass commu-

nications clearly ought to be within our scope"; he also notes that M ooers referred to information "organizations

retrieval as "communication

are societies of minds,"

the social construction should support

of reality,

"information

and information

the multilevel interaction

In line with cybernetic theory, information the basis for "mutually formal

manifestation

constitutive

time"

representation

and

involves delivery

(Choo 1995, 1, 25).

does not "flow through

interactions"

(1951)

(61). Because

use for interpretation

of social discourse"

of information-documents-"is

nities and relationships"

through

a system" but is

(Hayles 1999, 11). Even the more embedded

in ...

commu-

(Borgman 2000, 99), such as opinion leadership,

invisible

T h e Im p o r ta n c e

colleges, citation

and co-author

relationships,

o f A c c e s s in g a n d B r o w s in g

journal

and disciplinary

3

norms, and

so on. Rather,

accessing and browsing information

and communication

sequential and multidimensional

aspects of the information

-often

to that experience.

even including

barriers

user's entire experience

Indeed, we argue that general

issues and processes of accessing and browsing information fundamental

and very general human

seeking print or computer

behaviors,

information.

are highly con-

and communication

are

not limited solely to the arena of

This book reviews literature

from a wide

range of disciplines on these two fundamental

human activities to develop prelimi-

nary integrated

accessing and browsing. Then, using

frameworks

for understanding

multiple sources of evidence, these preliminary

frameworks

and validated. The final result is an interdisciplinary basic human resources,

behaviors,

information

conceptualizing mation

and communication.

information

is a broad,

interdisciplinary

accessing and browsing,

narrow

to understanding

In line with recent developments

behavior

it.

behavior in the fields of library studies and

science have long suffered from a lack of coherent theories because of

assumptions

about information

environments

1996; Katzer and Fletcher 1992; Roberts

and information

behavior

is rationally

only take place within

such as the formal information

motivated recognizably

interpersonal

and organized,

and that information

artificial information

of information

overload,

environments

In the same vein, limited time, and

pressures, it is difficult for us to achieve optimal rationality.

cept of bounded rationality

corresponds

W ilson

of most user studies that

system of a single organization.

Katzer (1987) argues that in a world

needs and

1989; Johnson

1982; W ersig and W indel1985;

1981). Roberts (1982) challenges the implicit assumptions

activities

in

and that a user-centered,

uses (Chang 1993; Dervin 1980; Dervin and Nilan 1986; Durrance

information

two

with respect to two basic human

is required to fully understand

Studies of human information-seeking information

approach

refined,

seeking, we propose that the process of seeking infor-

pervasive aspect of human

approach

are evaluated,

This con-

to Simon's (1976) satisficing theory, which

states that people tend to look for a course of action that is satisfactory,

or good

enough, rather than optimal. Thus, research in the area of user studies has become more focused on discovering of people's information-seeking

the motivations,

obstacles, contexts,

and dimensions

behavior and what uses they make of information

in various settings. This book extends these approaches for a c c e s s i n g i n fo r m a t i o n

and

by developing interdisciplinary

c o m m u n ic a tio n

(part I) and b r o w s i n g

frameworks i n fo r m a t i o n

4

C h a p te r

1

(part II), thus extending

a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n

the scope of the information-seeking

process.

Accessing Information

and Communication

Defining the Parameters

of Access

Access can be understood

from the perspective

of privileged, as well as excluded,

access. In many cases, gaining access to information vant interpretations in a community

requires gaining access to rele-

of a society, group, or organization

(Geertz 1973). M embership

is recognized in different ways by different "tribes"

For example, insider stock trading cannot occur without cation,

"outsiders").

In the context

of technological

the necessary skills and access to the technologies,

(Taylor 1968).

"insiders"

(and by impli-

systems, there are those with those with some skills and par-

tial access, and those without. At a more basic level, there are those with the knowledge that such systems exist and those lacking that knowledge. distinctions

have existed historically

Such divisions or

in the academic research tradition.

For exam-

ple, across academic disciplines, women have generally been treated as "other,"

as

deviant, as outside the norm (Simone de Beauvoir 1989, xxi). It has been in accordance with such standards In the context

that evaluation

of information

has been carried out.

science, the "standard"

saliently be described as elite. Historically,

human

the development

type might more

of information

science

as a field of research is rooted in the need to control and gain access to scientific information

(Sparckjones

1981), information

that plays a role in a nation's relative

position of power in the world. In developing our field based on this perspective, we have focused on elites, on their needs, applications,

and uses of information.

doing, we have risked making access to pertinent information

more difficult and less

likely for nonelites, for a vast and perhaps majority population This unintentional

In so

of "others."

limiting of access illustrates what Stuart Hall (1982) refers to

as hegemonic power. A critical reading leads to an understanding

that the power in

this context lies not only in conscious decisions to control access. It lies primarily in the power to set and follow the terms of the debate, to define the parameters form and content, to establish the framework

for

for the very notion of what informa-

tion can mean. Hall describes two groups of participants

in the "struggle over access

to the very means of signification": those accredited

witnesses and spokesmen

who had a privileged

world of public discourse and whose statements which permitted

them to establish the primary

access, as of right, to the

carried the representativeness framework

and authority

or terms of an argument; ... and

T h e Im p o r ta n c e

o f A c c e s s in g a n d B r o w s in g

5

those who had to struggle to gain access to the world of public discourse at all; whose "definitions" were always more partial, fragmentary and delegitimated; and who, when they did gain access, had to p e r fo r m w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d t e r m s o f t h e p r o b l e m a t i c i n p l a y . ( 8 1 ; emphasis in original) In the example

of information

science, the scientists, researchers,

players are those with privileged access, those who determine

and corporate

the language in use,

the questions asked. Others are left outside the arena of public discourse.

Barriers in Libraries and Information In a library setting we encounter Insiders

such as reference

understand

Science

hegemonic structures,

librarians

the "rules of the game"

or frequent

barriers, and power systems.

system users, at the very least,

(Taylor 1968) and have realistic expectations

about what needs they might address through

information.

Others, outsiders,

never become users because the barriers to the inside-such that access to a periodical

article might be applicable to situations

in their particu-

lar lives, or issues and situations that fall within the existing framework and documents, computer

or the required knowledge

technologies

established

W hen

"others"

terms of the problematic

In particular, (concerning researchers

of citations

of a variety of formats and functions

in order to retrieve the information-experiential

that inevitably leave a potential user feeling "stupid" great to overcome.

the boundaries

and like an "outsider,"

do gain access, they must perform

what constitutes

the population

issues of access as well as users) to library have been drawn very narrowly.

of interest

and information

science

It is rare for user studies to account for

Belkin (1978) points out difficulties in studying information

1975) do not necessarily rule out a broader

what information

are too

within the

in play (Hall 1982).

around

general sense, definitions of the discipline (Belkin and Robertson Neveling

of

barriers

those who never enter the inside, who never use a library or information Although

may

as the necessary belief

1976; W ersig and

theoretical

means, nor do they rule out a consideration

system.

in its most

understanding

of "others"

of

in addi-

tion to elites. Given arguments

that purchasing

the inside circle of participating

power will increasingly

citizens (M urdock

plex of social and economic disadvantages entry into the world

be the price of entry to

and Golding 1989), that a com-

becomes compounded

over time, making

of elites less and less likely for the majority

tion (Gandy

1988), or that technology

bureaucratic

insiders relative to that of individual

1980), it is clear that the information-rich

has increased

tremendously

outsiders

have p r i v i l e g e d

of the popula-

(Gandy

the power

of

1989; Singer

access to information.

The

6

C h a p te r

1

struggle to gain access for "others"

requires that they learn and adapt to the frame-

work of those with privileged access to the world of public discourse (Hall 1982). An alternative potential

perspective might view information

systems as designed with the

to address issues of access for those outsiders who, thus far, have carried

out their lives beyond the scope of interest of research on information the potential

implications

science. Given

of widely differential levels and types of access to infor-

mation, from diverse research perspectives, it is time to expand our focus, to include "others"

in our research, and to consider access issues and dimensions outside nar-

rowly drawn boundaries

Importance

of Access as Focus of Research

Historically,

evaluation

a system (Robertson

retrieves

in information

retrieval has focused on the effectiveness of

1981), and "system"

based set of technology system

of specific disciplines or professions.

and software.

representations

has traditionally

implied a computer-

Generally, this has meant how well a given

of documents

text) in response to requests for information

(descriptors,

as represented

citations,

abstracts,

by a query statement-

usually referred to as relevance judgments (for example, Swanson 1965). M ost such studies say nothing about the role of access in system evaluation. is in a position to make a relevance judgment of information

(Cleverdon

1974;

Cooper

1973a;

1973b),

(Auster and Lawton 1984; Tessier, Crouch, and Atherton to use (Dervin 1983; W ilson necessarily

are already

information-seeking addressed

and Streatfield

involved

process are dimensions

measure

satisfaction

1977), or put information

1977), several dimensions

and have already

long before a user formulates

However, if a user

(Saracevic 1975), evaluate the utility

of access

been achieved. Implicit in the

of access, many of which occur or are

(or finds herself unable to formulate)

a

query statement. For several decades researchers information

have been aware that the quantity

available from a system is frequently

less important

to users than is

the degree of ease with which they gain access to the information Although researchers have begun to look at access to information 1983; 1984; 1985; Gerstberger Johnson

1989; O'Reilly

and Allen 1968; Hart

or quality of

(Taylor 1968). systems (Culnan

and Rice 1991; Hiltz and

1982; Rice and Shook 1986; 1988), these studies have fo-

cused primarily on physical access to systems or access to other individuals through communication

media. Other dimensions

of access-for

tive, political, economic, and cultural-are W e know

very little about

awareness or perceptions

the potential

example, cognitive, affec-

also worthy of exploration. dimensions

of access or about

of such dimensions of access to information.

users'

Yet access to

T h e Im p o r ta n c e

information

and communication

7

affects many aspects of our lives, from economic

well-being to privacy rights, from workplace and decision making, and transnational many different areas of everyday understand

o f A c c e s s in g a n d B r o w s in g

management

and monitoring

business operations.

to policy

W ith access underlying

life, and implicit in much research,

we need to

its dimensions in order to consider seriously its implications.

As we con-

sider system design and evaluation,

it is necessary to ask what the objectives are

when these systems are employed in the individual's 1987). Do we expect information

communication

process (Budd

systems to meet the needs only of those who

already have access to such systems, or do we expect access to be open also to potential (currently non-) users? Is physical access sufficient, or are many other dimensions of access necessary, of increased corporate

sufficient, or facilitative?

access to information

espionage or computer

questions carry important

In considering

potential

implications

(for example privacy issues, or protection viruses), what are the pertinent

implications

for theory and method

from

dimensions?

Such

as well as for policy

issues and freedom of information. An explicit understanding

of the dimensions

user must address in the information-seeking to contribute

to improved

future information

design, development,

implementation,

and evaluation

of

systems and services. Further, it may help inform policy debates

about access to information fying previously

of access, and of the access issues a

process in any given situation, is likely

and information

systems in society by explicitly identi-

implicit aspects of access and by describing interrelations

among

what are often seen as separate aspects of access. Access is covered, information-related a unique perspective.

or at least mentioned, literatures.

Each vantage

Every research

growing

research

Certainly, the notion of access to information

of access and its underlying

tribute to integration

from

Rice (1988) has noted the difficulty of communication

that are by nature is interdisciplinary.

of how the concept is treated in different research understanding

and

access issues from

then, stands to be informed

on computer-mediated

same difficulty lies in other areas of research

of communication-

point illuminates

literature,

new perspectives of other bodies of literature. integrating

in a variety

interdisciplinary. An understanding

areas will contribute

dimensions.

of research across situations,

systems. The

This, in turn,

to a fuller may con-

disciplines, systems, and research

processes.

Research Questions To develop a framework mation

identifying

and communication,

the underlying

dimensions

of accessing infor-

part I considers the following research questions:

8

C h a p te r

1

1. W hat are the common issues and concerns implied by discussions related issues in several relevant research areas (see chapter 3)? 2. W hat are the influences and constraints

on access to information

of access-

(see chapter 3)?

3. W hat are the assumptions and primary issues or foci of each research lead to the differences among them (see chapter 4)? To test the framework,

this study raises the following

area that

research questions:

4. How well does the framework capture/organize participants' perceptions of access to information across situations, individuals, and settings (see chapter 6)? 5. Do the study results suggest additional work (see chapters 6 and 7)?

Browsing Information

The ultimate

components

goal of information

systems and services has been to serve human

and facilitate information-seeking

this end, much recent research has addressed

Nilan

seeking and application

1986; Durrance

A commonly

1989; Hewins

observed

and retrieval processes. To

the concern for better understanding

from the user's point of view (Dervin and

1990; Taylor

form of information

been observed and investigated in general

1991).

seeking is browsing.

in the context of information

1972) and has increasingly

assumed

greater

importance

"the principle

of least effort"

screening information has been conceived

gathering,

them as they go through

as a way to overcome

as a screening

and monitoring

inter-

1987; Oddy

1977).

part of human

in daily life. People tend to follow

and may be constantly

around

1990; Hyman

in human-machine

(Belkin et al. 1987; Croft and Thompson

which takes place in diverse contexts

has

seeking in the library

Browsing as a concept and an activity appears to be a fundamental

employed

Browsing

(Ayris 1986; Bates 1989; Ellis 1989; Hancock-Beaulieu

action in particular

behavior,

for the frame-

and Communication

needs for information

of information

or dimensions

information technique

monitoring,

and

daily life. Indeed, browsing overload

and is routinely

by many information

system

users (Baker 1986b; Hiltz and Turoff 1985). The concept of browsing

has both scientific and popular

in a wide variety of literatures, media studies, organizational the concept literature.

appears

Previous

a search strategy

rather

including

infrequently,

browsing-related

rather

library

communication, and

research

than browsing

meanings,

studies, consumer

and information is considered

and appears

research,

mass

science. However, differently,

has mostly focused

in each

on browsing

as

per se, and has been limited to a specific

T h e Im p o r ta n c e

context

(e.g., libraries) or information

appreciation

of browsing

o f A c c e s s in g a n d B r o w s in g

source (e.g., books or databases).

as a fundamental

A deeper

behavior across various resources, situ-

ations, and contexts is needed. To the extent that browsing is a fundamental information-seeking

behavior,

9

human

it appears to have scientific significance, though

re-

search about it seems still in a primitive stage. The concepts and nature of browsing have not been systematically

studied and are thus not well understood.

this, there are at least five important

issues or problems

Because of

associated with research on

browsing.

but Not W ell Understood

A Common

Phenomenon

W e all experience browsing to different degrees in various contexts in order to make sense of the world shopping.

around

us, such as when we read newspapers

W e also browse to resolve an anomalous

seek information

in libraries

means to look through or randomly

(Random

or through

computers.

or glance at reading House Dictionary

by different groups of researchers

a screening

activity in consumer

technique research.

lead to the questions:

when we

use, b r o w s i n g

or goods for sale casually

1987). The word b r o w s i n g has been used a clear description

or definition,

assigned to it. It has been construed

search strategy in library studies and information research,

In its common

materials

often without

or with specific but different meanings

or go window

state of knowledge

in organization

literature,

and

an entertaining

All these different conceptualizations

W hat is the nature

as a

science, a viewing pattern in media

of browsing?

and W hat

lying dimensions of browsing that allow us to understand

of browsing are the under-

those different yet related

conceptualizations?

Confusion

between Browsing and Searching

Because what constitutes

browsing behavior and what characteristics

with it are not well understood, searching databases,

and browsing

considerable

arises. For example,

the term b r o w s i n g

confusion

of

is used in a very specific and limited sense, usually

to reading short lists of alphabetically

citations

and their associated

abstracts.

arranged

subject terms or reading

On the other hand, in the library setting,

there has been a tendency to see browsing havior, in contrast

the concepts

as Bates (1989) points out, in online

referring

as a casual, don't-know-what-to-do

to directed searching. Herner

what we call 'searching'

between

are associated

is, upon dissection,

be-

(1970, 414) states that "much of

primarily

browsing.

However,

tionally we tend to separate out searching when we think about browsing,

tradiplacing

10

C h a p te r

1

the search on a more rigorous

plane. In doing so, we are probably

deluding

selves, and mean levels of browsing rather than searching versus browsing." been suggested that a better conceptualization

of information

ourIt has

seeking or searching

is the level of browsing involved. Yet we do not have good vocabularies

to describe

and discuss various forms or levels of browsing.

A Bias toward Although

Specific, Direct Searching

browsing is a prevalent form of human behavior, usually associated with

library users as a means of searching for information, more highly value direct, searching, literature

precise searching

such as browsing,

a tendency to emphasize and

as opposed

has been common

(Greene 1977; Hancock-Beaulieu

to iterative,

1989; Hyman

users, their information these assumptions

assumptions

from researchers

needs, and the nature of information

seeking situations

for, and are output-oriented.

are specific (e.g., item-searching

are in an anomalous

state of knowledge

and their needs for information

and librarians

behavior),

and browsing

most end-users searching

-what

situation (Hildreth

and satisfaction.

in a verbal form (Taylor

is required

is known

Further,

Hildreth

cess rate of this sort of information

unskilled

that

search-

(at least for

not realistic. She sug-

need to browse on the basis of the view that as the results. the importance

recognized, its nature appears to be little understood ....

with

supports

and can be communicated-are

of the humanist's

of browsing is generally

Little is known of the suc-

seeking and still less of those factors which are

it and make it more productive"

search strategy

notes that

item, and that the process of

Stone (1982)

As Bawden (1986) points out, "Although

valid alternative

during the

(1987a)

used in delegating searching to intermediaries

the search process itself is as important

likely to encourage

1982). Their expres-

and discovery is more central to end-users'

scholars) the assumptions

gests the importance

in many cases users

may change dynamically 1987a).

are not going after a specific known

(involving browsing)

ing objectives humanities

activities

some information-

(Belkin, Oddy, and Brooks 1982a; 1982b)

are difficult to articulate

sion and interest in an information

about

needs, know exactly

Although

1968) or they do not have predefined search criteria (Hildreth

searching

people to browse

seeking. Until recently,

have been that users have static information

what they are looking

science

1972). This bias is due

partly to the fact that we do not know very well what motivates and partly to some unrealistic

exploratory

in library and information

(211). As browsing

(that is, it is no longer undervalued

users), two important

browse? and W hat is the relationship

questions

arise: W hat

of browsing

becomes a

or associated

motivates

people

to

to other types of information-

T h e Im p o r ta n c e

seeking behavior? W ithout alization

a better understanding

of information-seeking

New Issues Raised

by

contents

of databases

ment of technology mation

of browsing

(including

the emergence of diverse forms and

audiovisual

(e.g., hypermedia,

commonplace.

in end-users'

Research

materials),

and continuing

the

information

nature

of the

information-seeking

systems that

well-expressed

1987).

searching

load, browsing

training

1979; Oddy

that

existing has been

load from

as opposed

to

perceived

as a natural

and demands

less cognitive

as the most important

form of searching for (e.g., pictorial or audio

(Batley 1989).

and relations

seeking behavior design. Indeed,

patterns

information

(Antonoff

1991). Interactive

these impor-

suggest different implications

systems have not succeeded various

users'

information

for system

because

their de-

requirements

and

1989; Buckley and Long 1990; Shim and M ahoney

of the influences on browsing,

Such understanding

information

account

by technology,

and other types of information-

(Bates 1989; Ellis 1989). A prerequisite

and what the consequences

relevance-based

browsing

systems of all sorts will need to support various search strategies,

browsing

ter understanding

between

such as direct searching many

signers failed to take into

more

(e.g.,

search strategy to keyword

1977). M oreover,

As in many other aspects in life that are influenced

including

most

and a high cognitive

seeking that requires no training

others,

systems difficult to use

(in the sense of recognizing

has been put forward

tant differences

behavior

with

for direct searching

casual use (Tuori 1987) and for certain types of information databases)

Among

this issue when she

associated

seen to be a valid alternative

(Fox and Palay

means of information

previous

Browsing

differences

and conceptual

(1986b) addressed

problem

This has made many end-user

because those systems demand

specifying) is increasingly

behaviors.

(e.g., syntax)

have been designed

in advance.

users (M archionini

Borgman

searching

as end-user searching has

that there are significant

of mechanical

search logic) aspects of searching.

develop-

the W orld W ide W eb), browsing as an infor-

has shown

and intermediaries'

they differ in their knowledge

discussed

conceptu-

Technology

of microcomputers,

search strategy has assumed a greater importance

become

behavior,

11

behavior cannot be complete.

Information

Along with the proliferation

o f A c c e s s in g a n d B r o w s in g

criteria

browsing

of databases

for system evaluation.

in information

is the goal of using an information

diverse contents

what functions

serves,

of browsing may be.

will also have implications

evaluation

to such design is a bet-

become

retrieval

assumes

Traditional that

finding

system. As more applications

available

and

to users for direct access,

12

C h a p te r

1

databases are not only searched to find information information

or to gain general technology

(such as "surfing the W eb"). may not be adequate. critical

appropriate

skills or even for intrinsic entertainment

Thus, relevance judgments

Research on browsing

issues as how

but also browsed to learn about

to account

criteria in evaluating

based on the final output

may have useful suggestions for such

for such learning a system's support

effects and for browsing

how

to devise

activities, or its

"browsability."

Research Questions Part II sets out to explore the phenomenon coherent

conceptual

tualizations

framework

of browsing

better analytical

of browsing in an attempt to develop a

within which various interpretations

can be related. The purpose

language for understanding

man information-seeking

important

of this study is to provide a aspects of browsing

behavior. To develop a framework

lying dimensions of browsing for information

and concep-

as hu-

identifying the under-

and communication,

part II considers

the following research questions: 1. W hat is the nature of browsing? 2. W hy do people engage in browsing? 3. W hat are the underlying

dimensions

of the browsing process?

4. W hat types of browsing exist? 5. W hat influences browsing? 6. W hat are the consequences

of browsing?

General Approach

Parts I and II are based upon two related research projects (Chang 1995 and Chang and Rice 1993; M cCreadie were motivated

1997 and M cCreadie

and structured

ods are provided

and Rice 1999a and 1999b). Both

by a similar general method.

Specifics of the meth-

in their respective parts.

The general research method guiding both projects includes three basic steps: (1) developing-analyzing propose

and synthesizing

a preliminary

check the framework

the research literatures

framework;

(2) testing-conducting

and content

coding,

revising

coding accordingly, and for the access framework study to ensure theoretical revised framework process.

of related areas to

a main case study to

the framework

only, conducting

variance; and (3) refining-evaluating

to arrive at a refined framework.

and content

a follow-up case and assessing the

Figure 1.1 summarizes

this

T h e Im p o r ta n c e

o f A c c e s s in g a n d B r o w s in g

13

1. Framework Development

• •

R e v ie w

re s e a rc h

a n d u n d e rly in g

• •

lite ra tu re s .

Id e n tify a n d a n a ly z e

com m on

a s s u m p tio n s ,

a n d u n iq u e a c ro s s

D e v e lo p

d im e n s io n s ,

c o n c e p ts ,

P ro p o s e

p re lim in a ry

fra m e w o rk .

is s u e s o f a c c e s s

a n d b ro w s in g ,

lite ra tu re s .

a n d re la tio n s h ip s .

2. Framework Testing

• • • • •

S tu d y s a m p le

cases -

O p e ra tio n a liz e

access:

c o m p o n e n ts

A n a ly z e

tra n s c rip ts

A n a ly z e

o th e r m a te ria ls ,

E v a lu a te

In te rn e t c la s s ; b ro w s in g :

of access

a n d b ro w s in g

lib ra ry p a tro n s .

fra m e w o rk .

fo r c o n te n t.

p re lim in a ry

s u c h a s in te rv ie w s ,

fra m e w o rk

s e a rc h

lo g s .

fo r c o m p re h e n s iv e n e s s

a n d v a lid ity .

3. Framework Refinement

• • • •

C onduct E x te n d

fo llo w -u p

c a s e s tu d y (a c c e s s

a n d a d ju s t p re lim in a ry

P re s e n t

re fin e d fra m e w o rk .

D is c u s s

im p lic a tio n s .

o n ly ) to e n s u re

fra m e w o rk

th e o re tic a l

to re fle c t e m p iric a l

v a ria n c e .

re s u lts .

Figure 1.1 Framework

Development

Framework

Process

Development

The first step was an extensive review and analysis of the literatures

of several re-

search

to designing

areas. Allen's

information

(1996)

infrastructure

resent a broad

literatures society,"

of a user-centered

(2000)

development

approach

of the global

concept, and Choo's book (1995) on organizational

such an interdisciplinary

theory's

advocacy

systems, Borgman's

Literatures

range of perspectives,

accounting were

approach.

reviewed:

library

mass communication,

the likelihood

of characteristics.

studies,

organizational

scanning all take

of the selected research

increasing

for a wider range

information

information

of the developing

Concerning science,

communication,

areas rep-

a ccess,

six

"information

and economics

of

14

C h a p te r

information.

1

Concerning b r o w s i n g , six literatures were reviewed: library user studies,

end-user computing organizational

and information

science, consumer research, audience research,

research, and environmental

Divergent views were represented, in order

to account

under consideration

planning and architectural

including potentially

for as full an explanation

design.

conflicting perspectives,

as possible

of the phenomenon

and to expand the frame of thinking. Reconciliation

gent views raises the theoretical 1989). W e identified candidate

level and generalizability

of diver-

of the results (Eisenhardt

research areas most likely to cover the spectrum

of

related concerns and shed light on issues of access or browsing. For each research area, the focus on issues of access or browsing guided and limited the selection of which publications

and books to include in the review process.

W e note here that the particular

designation

of each research literature,

materials that are reviewed as part of each literature,

and the

may well be questioned.

example, it might be more current to group library studies and information into one category, or group them with "information nomics, and even end-user computing labeled "social informatics."

Further,

instance, there is an overlap between the library literature

catalogs

in the treatment

and assumptions a by-product

essential groupings

applications

are diffi-

in nature.

and information

For

science

such as online public access

while the various common

and unique perspectives

of each literature are interesting in themselves, that analysis is only

of our general intention

sible in order particular

of computer

(OPACs). However,

eco-

systems, all in the recently

among some literatures

cult to make, especially for those fields that are interdisciplinary

literature

science

society" and information

and information distinctions

For

to generate

regroupings framework.

to survey as much relevant literature

a comprehensive,

interdisciplinary

of some of these research literatures Still, we accept that

and labelings of the literatures

as pos-

framework.

Thus,

would not change the

some may disagree with

our general

and with what we list as unique perspec-

tives in specific literatures. W hile we tried to be comprehensive, lications,

although

it may well be that we missed some key pub-

we have tried to update

our prior work

to include the most

recent relevant books. However, the reviews here are more complete within the traditionalliteratures

of information

science, library studies, and information

society

than any prior study of access or browsing, and we also apply concepts and results from literatures

that are typically well outside these traditional

communication,

consumer research, audience research, and environmental

and architectural

areas, such as mass planning

design. It may well be, though, that some other research literatures

could provide additional

concepts, dimensions, and results that would slightly alter

T h e Im p o r ta n c e

or expand

our proposed

frameworks.

o f A c c e s s in g a n d B r o w s in g

15

W e invite the reader to explore these possi-

bilities, and adapt and improve our initial attempts. The next step was to create outlines of and notes on the publications, ing perspectives

or comments

on, and explanations

browsing. W e then generated databases ences and abstracts, capturing or browsing.

The databases

or questions

highlight-

about,

access or

(one for access, one for browsing) of refer-

from the notes and outlines key treatments served as an organizing

of access

and analytical tool, allowing

multiple runs at identifying and grouping categories, and seeking a balance between comprehensiveness

and parsimony in working toward identifying theoretical propo-

sitions on which to build frameworks

for understanding

access and browsing infor-

mation and communication.

Framework

Testing and Refinement

The purpose of the framework works

against

the behavior

testing stage was to compare the preliminary and perceptions

of real users addressing

arising in their everyday lives. These were evaluated (involving observations,

computer

validity and scope of the particular Testing

the

initial

review) through

theoretical

through

search logs, interviews, framework propositions

case studies generates

in-depth case studies

and surveys) to test the

and its theoretical (identified

propositions.

through

the

of the frameworks

or provide the opportunity

frameworks,

thus refining and extending the theory under development.

study that aims to be explanatory, study

as "an

empirical

enquiry

is the preferred

exploratory, that

literature

data that can either confirm the emergent

propositions

to Yin (1989), a case study approach

frame-

situations

According

strategy when designing a

or descriptive.

investigates

within its real-life context; when the boundaries

to revise or expand the

He defines a case

a contemporary

between phenomenon

phenomenon and context

are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used" (23). The case study approach (Eisenhardt

can provide description,

test theory, or generate theory

1989).

This method allows testing of the theoretical framework

and relies on replication

logic (Yin 1989). First, the main case study may have revealed inadequacies preliminary

framework,

both the theoretical

providing

framework

confirming the theoretical

propositions

of the framework,

of the theoretical

framework.

for the investigator

to refine

and data collection plans. Cases may yield evidence

for the validity of the framework. propositions

an opportunity

in the

of the framework,

thereby lending support

Cases may also yield evidence contradicting

the

thereby offering insight for refinement or extension

16

C h a p te r

Discussion

1

of Implications

Finally, each part presents its extended discusses the implications limitations

research

and potential

for future research.

development

of theories

and evaluation

about

communication

methods

dimensions practices,

has the potential

and

media and information to inform

aspects that have received attention

to the

the choice

of

seeking and use, and the systems. In addition,

policy issues and practice

consideration

and

as well as

to contribute

information,

that, from some perspectives

from

framework

of the framework

in studying information

of access or browsing have been omitted

applications

The results have the potential

design and use of communication a framework

and refined interdisciplinary

altogether,

such

by clarifying

and thus in various or by emphasizing

from multiple research literatures.

I Accessing Information

and Communication

2 Perspectives on Access in Six Research Literatures

Accessing information

and communication

may occur over a wide range of con-

ditions and phases, as noted in many research studies (including information

literatures,

seeking), information

retrieval, system design, and end-user computing), new technologies),

mass communication

tional communication and knowledge

"information

(including

cultural

(including surveillance, management

management),

and economics

such as those in library

science (including information society" (including analyses),

organiza-

of information

of information

systems,

(including

political

economy of information).

Library Studies

Libraries

function

to provide

access to information.

Although

only implicit for many years, the very point of cataloging ence, aside from preserving information information. information

(documents),

has been to facilitate access to

Over time, the ease with which a library patron and the range of accessible information

Over the last two decades in particular,

access issues were

or public service or refer-

could gain access to

have changed

the American

and expanded.

Library Association

creasingly focused on redefining the mission of libraries with attention access to information

(Galvin 1991). Recent recommendations

mission (American Library Association tion Literacy and Education Libraries

and Information

and Information

Science 1992), and a symposium

Commission

symposium

(U.S. National

on Informa-

Commission

sponsored

on

on Library

on Libraries and Information

by the Research

(Chiang and Elkington

as their current highest priority.

sive and worldwide

to broader

from the Lacy Com-

Science 1991), the W hite House Conference

Studies (U.S. National

Electronic Access to Information formation

1986), a national

for the 21st Century

has in-

Libraries

Group

on

1993) identify access to in-

Borgman (2000) summarizes

efforts to develop greater and more integrated

the exten-

global access. The

20

Chapter 2

current focus on access to information

highlights the need to investigate more fully

the processes of gaining access to information

and the influences and constraints

on

access.

Traditional

Library Approach:

The various

Access to Information

in Print

uses of access "refer to one or more aspects of providing

access to information,

or, in a fuller sense, to knowledge, to understanding .... of retrieval-based (Buckland

information

1991b, 77-78).

periodicals

services is concerned

Traditionally,

All of the provision and use with access to information"

libraries have provided

(D. Schiller 1989), and citations

information

means of

of enabling users to accede either to a source of information

(Hildreth

in print format or to information

access to books,

1987a), in other words, to

in print about information

in print

(citations). Cataloging

and reference services assist the library user in gaining access

to books, periodicals,

or citations.

terest in question standing

negotiation

that the information

or exhaustively

represented

Investigation

of reference services led to an in-

(Taylor 1968), which implicitly indicates to which

one seeks access may not be accurately

by a query statement.

interview

is part of a communicative

Dewdney

1986). Borgman

It implies also that the reference

process of information

(2000, 53) notes that dictionary

emphasize concepts of freedom, ability, permission, enter, communicate

an under-

seeking (Dervin and definitions

of access

liberty to obtain, make use of,

with, enter, pass, and exit. She defines access to information,

the context of digital libraries, as "connectivity

in

to a computer network and to avail-

able content, such that the technology is usable, the user has the requisite skills and knowledge,

and the content itself is in a usable and useful form" (57).

Buckland

(1991b) identified six general dimensions

(including both the general location

of access: (1) identification

as well as the specific resource),

(2) availabil-

ity (allowing inspection,

either through

object or representation),

(time, effort, discomfort,

social capital),

(4) provider's

cost, affected by allocators'

resources and social values, (5) understanding/cognitive

access (sufficient expertise

to understand

resource),

noted that information

and (6) acceptability

(credibility,

(3) user's price

counternormative).

systems as simple suppliers of information-as-thing

only the first four; information

systems as providers

require all six. He extended the understanding

He

require

of information-as-knowledge

of access to information

beyond the

traditional

printed books, periodicals, and citations by adding "access to evidence."

Buckland's

inclusion of access to evidence moves library studies beyond the limita-

tions of access to information essential

role libraries

access to knowledge

in print, and both underscores

have played

in preserving,

or representations

building

of knowledge.

and accounts for the upon,

and providing

Perspectives on Access

Other

conceptualizations

pervasiveness, information,

of access, particularly

to computer

affordable cost, usability, subsidization,

1995). These aspects of access to information

illustrate

tangible or usable form, though it is expanding tion or distribution

of information

Access to Knowledge: Information For academic libraries in particular,

that in library

studies (in

to include vehicles for the produc-

or representations

of information.

Literacy access issues have long been linked with scholof knowledge.

In recent years,

have identified the need to focus on teaching information

acy (Breivik and Gee 1989; U.S. National Science 1991)-the

(Borgman 2000; Keller

that is already available in some

arly practice, tracking evidence, and documentation academic librarians

include

successful retrieval of desired

and the ability of users to also be producers

general), access has meant access to information

networks,

21

Commission

skills that enable people to find, evaluate,

effectively to solve a problem

At the secondary school level, Kuhlthau's

pect of access: affect. Kuhlthau

Those whose experience

(1985; 1991) work investigates the pro-

and adds a rarely considered

but pervasive as-

lays out seven stages of the library research process,

each of which includes task, thoughts,

The user's experience

and use information

or make a decision.

cess of gaining access to information

assumes that individuals

liter-

on Libraries and Information

continually

feelings, actions, and strategies.

reshape their thinking through

can influence the expectations is congruent

Her work

experience.

for access to information.

with the organization

and content

of infor-

mation systems are likely to experience greater success in gaining access than those whose experience leads them to expectations to expectations

inconsistent

with what is available or

of failure to gain access, either of which serves to influence the ac-

cess process (Agada 1999; Chatman use of new information

1991). As a user's experience grows to involve

and communication

technologies,

with regard to access. The social and procedural

transitions

nological advances in providing access to information

his expectations

change

that accompany

tech-

raise significant challenges for

library service providers.

Transition

from Ownership

Traditional to published

books and periodicals

and networking a citation

to Access

library studies thinking assumes that access to information

as well as to citations. Technological

capabilities have raised the expectations

is frequently

means access

no longer satisfactory.

advances

of users such that access to

Users' expectations

have shifted in-

creasingly to demand full-text documents

and links to information

mat. These transitions

for the role of libraries, as they shift from

have implications

in electronic for-

22

Chapter 2

collection

warehouses

(M cCombs citation or from

to points

of access to information

1991), and for librarians,

database

intermediary

performing

searches

regardless

of location

as they redefine their professional

to full-text document to aiding

provider

users in carrying

role from

(pfaffenberger out their

1990)

own

online

for three categories of librarian

in this

searches (Via 1991). Tyckoson transition

(1991) reviews the implications

from ownership

Public service librarians

to access to information

are increasing

without

geographic

emphasis on document

boundary.

delivery, even when

the source can reside anywhere in the world. The current selection methods lection development

librarians,

tied to the assumption

a local collection, must shift to an access paradigm several levels of access to information. cable only to those materials in moderate

demand

Ownership

that materials

purchase

are housed in

that allows for selection among becomes a subset of access, appli-

in highest demand. Tyckoson

will require

of col-

predicts that materials

of right of access, while those in low

demand will be ordered as needed, perhaps through cooperative

collection develop-

ment. Libraries can afford neither to own nor to access materials not in demand. For technical services librarians,

transition

to a paradigm

of access means a reevaluation

of their functions. Their greatest challenge is to integrate large amounts tion into a local catalog representing This transition

in the library world carries with it implications

general and for education access librarians

for librarianship

require computer

to listening), research

of informa-

an array of materials from remote sources.

in particular.

expertise,

and problem-solving

for education

in

Intner (1991) argues that

communication

skills (with attention

skills, the ability to take risks, and the

ability to train others. All five new skills are required in addition

to the continued

need for knowledge

with one's insti-

of information

and how to find it, familiarity

tution and its people, and an understanding tion, she argues, access librarians roles, including organizational

of library systems and services. In addi-

have a new responsibility

to take on leadership

goal setting. These skills are based on the assumption

that access to information

is a right, based in a constitutional

a citizen. This assumption

is indicative of a view of the library as an integral part of

a democratic

Information

right to participate

as

society.

Democracy

Libraries have historically access to information

lich 1992). "Information intelligent citizenship"

been viewed as democratizing

is a major concern of the profession

agencies. Free and equal of librarianship

seeking is becoming more fundamental

(M archionini

1995,4).

(Froeh-

and strategic for

One quarter of the recommendations

Perspectives on Access

and petitions

adopted

by the W hite House Conference

Science concern access to information.

"The common

23

on Library and Information thread

of recommendations

in this section is the strong belief of Conference delegates that all public information must be freely and easily accessible to all Americans" on Libraries

and Information

public access to information

(U.S. National

Commission

Science 1992, App., 33). Some assume that general will reduce social and political inequities (pfaffenberger

1990). An inherent conflict lies between the library ethos of free public access and the reality of the cost of online searching. This conflict raises fears of contributing to an information

elite and the possibility that access to information

and reference

service will be based on ability to pay. In 1983, Commission

Carol

then Associate

Librarian

of Congress,

on Freedom and Equality of Access to Information.

ommendations,

published

mission proposed information

Nemeyer,

in 1986, sparked controversy,

created

Its report and rec-

in part because the com-

imposing user fees as a method for achieving equitable

in electronic formats. American Library Association

identifies charging for information

services as discriminatory

institutions.

(1991),

According

to Galvin

fessional goal. He argues that "additional

mean in an electronic information

exemplifies

and effective access

what access means and should

age.

Universal service, a concept developed by the early AT&T corporation, tutionalized

in the Communications

Act of 1934, explicitly

telephone service (dial tone) by all U.S. households ciple emphasizes

the importance

of reducing

access to the national communication losophy is maintained information

network

emphasizing

and technical

(Borgman 2000,54).

debated-for

access by providers

example, should the basic criterion

barriers

to

This basic phi-

and debates about the national and users to informa-

tion, services, and other users. However, the specific forms and boundaries

net, e-mail, and broadband/video

and insti-

stated that access to

was a social necessity. This prin-

economic

in current policy statements

infrastructure,

the amor-

access as a social and pro-

criteria for adequate

remain to be specified" (139) in order to understand

access to

policy specifically

in publicly supported

the controversy

phous state of the library world's concept of information

the

be expanded

dial tone? Yet Borgman

are hotly

to include the Inter-

(2000) emphasizes

that

even if a "global digital library"

becomes a reality, many people will still not have

access to the required technology

and systems, and many materials will never be in

electronic format. The tensions that come to the fore in considering libraries as democratizing raise the issue of barriers to access, including nomic barriers,

and confidentiality

agents

physical and language barriers,

eco-

concerns. For example, economic costs to users

24

Chapter 2

and to institutions

that provide information

ernment

in support

cutbacks

through

equipment

and software

as barriers to access. Gov-

for libraries as well as for investigative

agencies limit what is publicly exclusively

can function

electronic

available.

As more information

data sources, those without

and reporting

becomes available

access to the requisite

and the skills to make use of them will be barred

from

access. Some barriers simply add challenges. Some preclude access altogether.

Information

Science

Allen (1996, ch. 11) argues that information

science research

by post hoc evaluative

leading to unintended

methods

and results,

because, if the base system is not carefully crafted resources

before design begins, incremental

system. Analysis of the information systems reveals a progressive management

has been dominated

on the basis of user needs and

improvements

science literature

will not make a usable

on evaluation

shift in focus from a system-centered

perspective to a user perspective

consequences

of information perspective

to a

(Dervin and Nilan 1986; Su 1987).

Issues Related to Relevance Central to this shift in the development evance. Relevance, according

of theory and evaluation

is the notion of rel-

to Saracevic (1971; 1975) is a primitive concept intu-

itively having to do with the success of the communication

process. It is a notion of

the measure of the effectiveness of the contact between a source and a destination a communication

At least three different understandings tion retrieval Swanson

evaluation

1977):

in

process. of relevance have been applied in informa-

(Belkin 1981; Belkin and Vickery

(1) logical relevance

(judgment

1985; Saracevic

1975;

is based on the propositions

of

the request being included in, or logically deducible from, the text), (2) destination's relevance question

(judgment

is based on the relationship

and the retrieved

documents),

between the topics of the formal

and (3) situational

relevance

(judgment

is

based on the user's entire desire and need state at the time of receiving the text). A difference in one's understanding relevance judgment addition,

(Belkin and Vickery 1985; Saracevic 1975; Swanson

if the information

the user (Chatman and document

of relevance can easily lead to a difference in

1991; Schutz and Luckmann

1973), what does it matter if query

match?

In practice, the user makes the relevance judgment the output

1977). In

retrieved is not of significance in the everyday world of

of the information

based solely on evaluation

retrieval interaction-usually

bibliographic

of

data and

Perspectives on Access

perhaps an abstract. The potential the information

value of the information

is consumed-read,

relevance judgments

understood,

focus evaluation

cess. To evaluate information "ineffable concepts"

remains unknown

until

applied, used in some way. Thus,

on only one part of the search and use pro-

primarily on the basis of relevance is to fail to address

(Belkin 1981) such as need and motivation,

context, which are present prior to the user's interaction to account for access to the value of the information information,

25

for concepts such as satisfaction,

or background

and

with a system. Also, it fails or to ways of evaluating

the

or for the uses to which information

is put, all of which follow the point of interaction

between user and information

system.

User Focus There has been a general trend (Belkin 1980; Dervin 1989; Dervin and Nilan 1986; Dervin and Shields 1990; Paisley and Parker 1968; W ersig 1979) toward trieval process and toward

1965; Saracevic 1971; 1990; Taylor

focusing on the role of the user in the information an understanding

of information

(see, for example, Allen 1996; Berger and Luckmann 1974; Schutz and Luckmann

1973). Human-centered

mation seeking as a problem-solving (M archionini

use as socially situated

1966; Boulding

1961; Budd

models conceptualize

"infor-

activity that depends on communication

1995, 29). These include

(1) sense-making

re-

acts"

(Dervin 1992), whereby

people attempt to make sense of their current situation as they try to overcome gaps or obstacles; (2) anomalous

states of knowledge

(Belkin, Oddy and Brooks 1982a),

involving iterative and interactive dialogues between users and systems; (3) Taylor's (1962) multiple levels of information promised);

(4) Kuhlthau's

perspectives

develop and change through

tion, prefocus

exploration,

sure, and initiation design. From

needs (visceral, conscious,

formalized,

seven stages: task initiation,

focus formulation,

information

collection,

of writing; and (5) Allen's (1996) user-centered

this perspective

information

addressing an anomaly, discomfort,

topic selecsearch clo-

model of system

is seen as a tool to help the user in

problem, or gap in her life. Information

can provide one avenue of access to ways of reducing this gap, provided of conditions

com-

research (1993), which argues that cognitive and affective

systems a variety

of access have been met. Allen's (1996) general design principles em-

phasize the resources

users apply in expressing

their needs, which form the basis

for designing for usability. If designers know the resources needed for the task, and the resources held by user, they can create system features that augment and ensure user access to resources same information

to complete

systems can present

their information barriers

task. Simultaneously,

to access to information

the

and can

26

Chapter 2

contribute

to the widening

of the knowledge

gap between those who have access

and those who do not. For example, constrained

being able to even express one's information

by one's individual or collective knowledge structures, which in turn are

influenced/constrained knowledge

needs is influenced/

by one's knowledge

of what relevant informants

of the social situation

and conventions.

of the world, knowledge

know

(shared cognition),

of a language, and knowledge

There are also many constraints

designers access those users. For example, social constraints fluence system designers to select particular

informants,

and authorizations

standing users' information

(1997) analyzed 13 dispersed teams of six business

systems graduate

students,

each working

business plan for six weeks using only asynchronous group

decision

information personal

together

electronic

support

system, telephone,

and fax. She found

distribution

and interpretations

were "rampant,"

and collaborative

of need (Allen

on system designers' access to under-

needs, and thus the nature of the systems they create.

As another example, Cramton and information

in-

phrase questions in partic-

ular ways, and even choose the time and place for eliciting statements 1996, ch. 5). Thus there are many constraints

on how

relationships.

types: (1) failure to communicate

nicating the salience of information,

information,

a

that problems

of

influencing the interthe problems

into five

(2) difficulty in commu-

(3) unevenly distributed

ferences in speed of access to information, of silence (such as nonconfirmation

She categorized

contextual

to develop a

communication:

information,

and (5) difficulty interpreting

(4) dif-

the meaning

of e-mails or faxes, sometimes because the recip-

ient was ill or did not have access to the system). Access lurks implicitly in our definitions of request or query, in a user's ability to identify a need, in the very awareness that information trusting

that information

through

an information

useful in addressing

systems are available, and in

that need exists and is retrievable

system. It lurks in our assumptions

that a scientific docu-

ment presents form, content, and cognitive level that provide the user with access to the

value of information.

Access lurks in the social and cultural contexts of information

seeking (Durrance

1989), which are tied to the degree to which an individual

is an insider to a given

information

1984; Sproull, Kiesler,

and Zubrow

system's culture (Kiesler, Siegel, and M cGuire 1984) and therefore

mation potentially experience

to the rules required

available through

to gain access to the infor-

it. Users in different contexts may not always

the same degree of access. An expert (insider) in one setting may be a

novice or casual user (nonmember) reason gatekeepers

are so important

in another (Brown 1986; Cuff 1980). This is one (and will be discussed in more detail later): they

Perspectives on Access

can serve as intermediaries

between a subculture

27

and more general societal informa-

tion resources (Agada 1999).

Information

Society

Research on the "information 1986; Doctor

society" (for example, Bell 1973; Bellin 1993; Beniger

1991; 1992; Dordick

1987; Paisley 1980; Porat 1977; Ruben 1985;

Schement 1989; Schement and Lievrouw indicates,

from

understanding information

various

perspectives

1987; Siefert, Gerbner

and with

and Fisher 1989)

differing explanations,

a common

that developing societies are increasingly reliant on information services for the functioning

more, information

of their supporting

structures.

and

M ore and

is directly or indirectly the source of income, of decision making

in everyday life situations,

and, in turn, an important

determinant

of the quality of

life. Lievrouw (1994) argues that this is associated with a shift from an "informing" environment new

emphasizing

interactive

through

media.

mass media, to an "involving" Access to

communication-of

potential

resources

benefits

available

between

possibility.

information democratic,

appropriate

Given trust

and

to a need exists and lack of awareness

awareness,

knowledge.

the intersection Given procedural

between evaluating

and communication

are considered

1991) Information

potential

the necessary

(1976) Information Use Environment

benefits

foundation

for a

study the information

The

and referrals,

(a "set of elements by a group ... [and]

gatekeepers

in an African-American

(1991), Agada found that they emphasized

needs, coping information

information.

concept

is deemed relevant and useful" [74]) to

needs of 20 informal

As did Chatman

term and pragmatic

Needs Analysis Scheme and

access to, and use of information

determine the criteria by which information

run-arounds

access becomes

and weighing them against available resources. Public access to

which affect the availability,

formative

about

civil society.

(1986;

community.

we are able to know

to gain procedural

Agada (1999) applied Dervin's Taylor's

and what

access becomes the intersection

of the information

understanding-often

to gain access. Given ability, access becomes the intersection

privilege and struggle

knowledge,

and

or the gap between what we are able to know

of information

between trust that information of that

information

emphasizing

the source, then, becomes crucial.

Access becomes the intersection about

both

environment

gatekeepers

and believed

need do exist but are made inaccessible

rather than infrastructural

experienced "that

considerable

the information

to them

by 'outsiders'

shorteror trans-

bureaucratic

or resources who control

they the

28

Chapter 2

'system.'

Such perception

could benefit them"

may explain why they are unaware

(80). Some of the information

of many services that

may in fact have been physically

accessible but not accessible cognitively or practically, because of jargon or unreachable criteria. Nearly one quarter personal-neighbor, orientation, argued,

of their preferred

shared perspectives,

and Kline 1977; Fortner

(Chatman

1995; Genova

social norms, boundaries

and credibility. Thus, as Taylor

1991; Chen and Hernon and Greenberg

factors of one's Information

and include communication

sources were inter-

because of context, relevance,

trusthworthiness,

and others have found

the contextual

information

friend, or acquaintance-mostly

1979; Savolainen

Use Environments

skills, media preferences,

between "insiders"

1982; Ettema 1995),

are highly influential

motivation

and "outsiders,"

levels, interest,

and familiarity

with

sources. Harris and Dewdney's

(1994) study of battered women trying to use formal help

systems is a comprehensive to information.

and rigorous analysis of institutional

knowing

where

knowing

that relevant information

to locate

ate information,

it, delays in requesting

or obtaining

is needed, not

information,

not

is available, receiving inaccurate

or inappropri-

not existing (see also Doctor

1992; Durrance

and the information

1984). Julien's sion making

and social barriers

Barriers may include not knowing what information

(1999) study of adolescents'

found similar barriers

seeking information

and lack of awareness:

about career deci-

40 percent of the 400

twelfth graders didn't know where to go for help, and felt they had to go to too many different sources. Kerwin (1993) clearly distinguishes, however, between ignorance (not aware of, don't have) and ignoring (choosing not to confront or seek relevant

information).

Chatman

argue that these two situations gage in total information

access and communication

Allen's (1996) conceptualization

of information

avoiding as well as information M icrolevel

barriers

mation providers social isolation,

information, confusion

participation

the

(Fortner

1995).

clients and infor-

language problems finding information

helper,

or differences, that disqualifies

vague use of language,

inconsistency

of request

inwith

close exchange because they think they know expectations

1994; Julien 1999). Such experiences

and risk for the seeker, accumulating

between

lack of initiative,

for

helpers prematurely

interviews with 500 randomly

(1994)

seeking also recognizes information

exchanges

of service providers,

the client needs, or the seeker's

Dewdney

and Dewdney

Not everyone wants to en-

seeking. troublesome

because of misunderstandings,

causing

helper's mandate, what

include

distrust

the seeker from further attentiveness,

(1991) and Harris

are highly interrelated.

a problem

are mismatched

increase the frustration,

over interactions.

selected households,

(Harris

and

confusion,

Based on their structured

and telephone

interviews with

Perspectives on Access

160 community proposed

professionals

and help agency representatives,

a set of information-

or help-seeking

arise from the help seeker's situation;

principles:

Harris and Dewdney (1) information

by many factors; (3) people tend to seek information

that is most accessible; (4) peo-

from interpersonal

people like themselves;

seekers expect emotional

(5) information patterns

Claims for new technologies poor, powerful

and powerless,

Freire 1969; Furlong that

they widen

(Gillespie and Robins perspective

sources, especially from support;

and (6)

in seeking information. include that they can bridge gaps between rich and haves and have-nots

1989; Greenberger

existing

needs

(2) the decision to seek help or not is affected

ple tend first to seek help or information

people follow habitual

1989; Hudson

(for example, Downing

and Puffer 1989; Pfaffenberger

gaps, blocking

access to those

1988; Jansen

holds that new technologies

already

1989; Rubinyi

may enhance

or hinder

1989;

1990), or

without

access

1989). Another access to infor-

mation in a democracy

(Deetz 1989a; 1989b; Dervin 1980; 1989; Lievrouw

M urdock

1989), in the workplace

and Golding

29

(Deetz 1990; Garson

1994;

1988; Kraut

1989; U.S. Congress 1987; Zuboff 1988), or in a broader social or cultural context (Bourque and W arren wood

1987; Dervin and Shields 1990; Krendl, Broihier, and Fleet-

1989; Larose and M ettler

1990; W einberg

packaging information usage-sensitive

1989; M ulgan

1987). Increased

concentration

as entertainment,

1991; Pool 1983; U.S. Congress of media ownership,

selling and

the growing shift from access-based fees to

pricing, and high entry costs for global information/media

all indicate

that the information

society may be limiting, rather

democratic

and civil participation

(Lievrouw

1994). "Americans

to make active decisions about what information how much, and whether

systems

than increasing, will have to begin

they want, from whom,

the political empowerment

and for

that comes with active infor-

mation seeking is worth the personal effort" (356).

M ass Communication

The research perspectives considered

thus far look at access to information

ily from the viewpoint of an information or intermediary.

M ass communication

producer

or distributor

of information.

tribution,

and to the individuals

seeker or user, or an information

primarprovider

research adds another viewpoint-that Access to information

and institutions

that produce

mation, emerges as a significant factor in understanding Those who determine coverage for the nightly network

production

of the and dis-

and distribute

infor-

access to information. television news programs

set the agenda of interest for millions of viewers. The images we watch, the events we learn about, the details we attend to are all reliant on what is available. Given

30

Chapter 2

that the major source of news for the U.S. public is television, those who determine news coverage also determine what is available to find out about. In other words, they set the agenda for public concern agenda setting is unidirectional

and discourse.

Research

shows that media

and that lead stories shape the public agenda far

more powerfully than ordinary stories (Behr and Iyengar 1984). In other words, television news sets the agenda for public concern, rocally

influence what

information

television

but public concerns

do not recip-

news makes available.

news coverage and degree of detail, background,

Selection of

and coverage over time tend to

reflect social, political, and economic biases (Adams 1986). How can this occur? After all, journalists ity. Herman

and Chomsky

are taught a commitment

(1988) propose a propaganda

to impartial-

model of the performance

of the mass media in the United States to explain how the authors

view the media

as managing public opinion. They posit a set of news filters as influencing attention given an item, placement,

tone, repetitions,

filters include size, concentrated mass media firms; advertising of media on information and approved program)

and framework

ownership,

of analysis. The news

owner wealth, and profit orientation

of

as the primary income source of mass media; reliance

provided

by government,

business, and "experts"

funded

by agents of power; flak (negative responses to a media statement

as a means of disciplining

the media; and anticommunism

or

as a national

religion and control mechanism. These filters, they argue, allow the process to occur so naturally principles

that media news staff see themselves

are at work; therefore,

arise from the preselection and the adaptation

This

propaganda

Bagdikian

they suggest, "M ost

of right-thinking

biased choices in the media

people, internalized

of personnel to the constraints

ket, and political power"

as objective. Also, free-market

of ownership,

and broadcast

model

is not

inconsistent

with

arguments

put

forward

In short, a few massive corporations

media in consensus

building, in the context

those in power having access to establish

produce

of

of hegemonic

our culture (H. I. of the role of the

power constructs,

with

the agenda and define the terms of the

dialectic in play, and those not in power struggling to gain access. In operating

pretation

by

smaller number

including books, magazines, films, television, radio, and

Schiller 1989). It is also consistent with Hall's (1982) explanation

side the framework

mar-

now own and control virtually all major sources of published

information,

audio recordings.

organization,

(xii).

(1990) and H. I. Schiller (1981) that an increasingly

major corporations

preconceptions,

out-

of those in power, many also struggle to gain access to inter-

and debate, and thereby are limited in their opportunities

to political choices (M urdock

and Golding 1989).

to gain access

Perspectives on Access

Organizational

Communication

Organizations

receive stimuli, interpret

tion, generate

judgments,

processors,

and through

them, store, retrieve, and transmit

and solve problems, organizational

through

He integrates

these perspectives

which emphasizes

specifically reducing uncertainty by organizations,

the satisficing

and

symbolic

affected

through

and equivocality;

ranging

"irrational"

symbol; and (6) the role of information processing-to of information

organizations, ity. Choo's information

reinforce

or alter the organizational

structures

information

acquisition;

products/services

behavior,

(6) which in turn influences information organization

and services (2) and distribution

In considering

the literature

capacity of

economic

management (2) information

activ-

includes

(1)

acquisition

(which add value); and (3) information

(4) These both influence information

tion. Finally, (7) information

and

in organizational

to coordinate

information

tribution.

products

signal to highly political technology

in

use of in-

and shape the decision premises, change the

(1995) model of organizational

influences information

of information (5) the

sources, augment the information-processing

needs influence

(3)

of organizational

location;

from objective

information perception

behaviors

and

of

(2) the acquisition

and social limits; (4) the nature

by use, predictability,

in organizations,

requirements

decisions to act or to seek information;

information-processing

because of cognitive

formation

use perspective.

model of the organization,"

six basic issues: (1) the information-processing

of information

informa-

as information

Choo (1996) sum-

from an information

in his "information

organizations,

organizations,

individuals

systems and structures.

marizes the significant models of organizations

members

31

dis-

use, (5) which influences adaptive needs and information

and storage interacts

acquisi-

with information

(3).

on organizational

communication,

three research

areas stand out in their concern with issues of access to information.

Electronic

Surveillance in the W orkplace

Braverman

(1974) argues that modern

technologies

contribute

the labor force. W ith the de-skilling of collar positions white), the occasional and rank

(Braman

role played by access to information

1989), and the possibility

(Botan and M cCreadie

of constant

1993), access to information

is one form of access to power (Doctor In 1789, Jeremy Bentham

to the de-skilling of

of all colors (blue, pink, and in defining job category surveillance

gathered

through

of workers surveillance

1991).

(1969) advanced

a design for what he thought was the

ideal form for organizing human endeavors. The panopticon,

as the model is called,

32

Chapter 2

is designed to allow an observer (guard, manager, tower the capability

medical personnel)

in a central

of viewing at any time the activity of occupants

workers, patients) of the cells in the multisided building surrounding

(prisoners,

the tower. This

annular building is only one cell deep at any point, and each cell is constructed that light passes through

from the outward

tower. Thus, the activities of the occupants

such

face to the inner wall, which faces the are illuminated

to view from the tower.

The tower is shaded so that the observer is not also observed. As a result, cell occupants are at all times exposed to observation

from the tower, without knowledge

of

when or whether they are being observed. The panopticon

has since been used to illustrate

the power relationship

between

observed and observer, the major effect of which is that the one observed internalizes the constraints were continuous,

of the relationship, and thus

becomes

monitors

1977). Some analysts (Botan and M cCreadie pursued

study of the power relationship

technologies

his own behavior as if observation

the bearer

of his own discipline

1993; Gandy 1989; Zuboff 1988) have

played out in the workplace,

make possible the functioning

of an electronic

Congress

1987),

W ith the

system is in oper-

1983), any time truck drivers operate their vehicles (U.S.

1987), or any time a job applicant

(U.S. Congress

where new

panopticon.

capability of gathering data any time an electronic communication ation (Rice and Borgman

(Foucault

serious questions

submits to pre-employment

are raised regarding

screening

access and privacy

(Linowes 1989; Rule 1974) and the tension inherent between them. This tension between issues of access and privacy can similarly be considered in a spatial context as the tension between access and exposure (Archea 1977). The individual with access is able to monitor

the behavior of others, while exposure

to the extent to which others can monitor managerial

access to organizational

and exposing mended

members,

oneself to spontaneous

procedure

for fostering

or view the individual. especially through

information

greater

refers

Simultaneously, walking

around

and work activities, is a recom-

understanding

and openness

(Katzer and

Fletcher 1992). Similar tensions are evident between access and security, or access and control, issues that arise in the design and management Access to technology issues. Information domains,

leaders,

and influences and constraints sharing

culture,

in organizations language,

access to and use of the variability

M anagement

of Information

In general, information

and

of information

systems.

on access emerge as subsidiary

is inherently information

political,

resources,

and flow of information

influenced

by

via controlling

(Choo 1995).

Systems and M edia Choice

systems in the workplace

are designed to provide authorized

personnel with access to various kinds of information,

which the users may provide

Perspectives on Access

33

or which may be provided through other sources. Usually, the focus in the literature on management infringement

of information

systems is not on the employee and the potential

on her privacy, but rather on the function

from a management

perspective.

From that vantage

of an information

system

point, the access issues lean

more toward influences on and outcomes of media choice, how to control who has access and to what they can gain access, and on the organizational obtaining

or not obtaining

information.

Information

consequences

of

in this context can be in elec-

tronic format (computer data files, for example), in written form (reports or paper files), face-to-face (conversations

or group meetings), or in a range of other formats,

including new media such voice mail or telefacsimile transmissions and Lengel 1986; Randolph In the literature

on management

of information

to information

are frequently

media (Culnan

1984; 1985; Hiltz and Johnson

factor in whether

systems, concerns with access

more specifically concerns of access to equipment

search in this area indicates that perception important

(Berlo 1960; Daft

1978; Reinsch and Beswick 1990; Rice 1987).

or

1989; Rice and Shook 1988). Re-

of access to information

systems is an

or not an employee uses a system. Greater perceived

accessibility leads to greater likelihood

of use (Culnan

1983; 1985; O'Reilly

1982)

and increased accessibility also leads to increased system usage, which in turn tends to increase perceived accessibility, leading to more use (Culnan

1983) and to re-

ported increases in effectiveness (Rice and Shook 1988). Although system use alone is not sufficient to lead to more use, successful use (Hiltz and Johnson Christensen

1989).

and Bailey (1997) combined the managerial

with information

is stored, and as such is a necessary component

nicative act of information

constraints

acquisition"

in the commu-

(377). Their research showed that source

(here, accessibility of a manager

or of a library, though they review the

of hierarchical level, social influences, function, resource availability, etc.,

on accessibility of sources) and media characteristics both direct effects and interaction participants

media selection research

source research. "The source refers to the person or place in which

desired information

attributes

system use does tend to lead to more

(level of media richness) have

effects on information

acquisition

behavior. The

selected the richer medium in the less routine conditions, and the appro-

priate medium when the source was accessible; but these interacted,

such that for

routine tasks, when library access was restricted, they chose a richer medium, and for nonroutine

tasks, when manager access was restricted, they chose a leaner medium.

One implication of these results is that "organizational

factors leave junior managers

to contend with source restrictions that may result in suboptimal media selection for task demands, leading to information sary complication

acquisition

failures stemming from unneces-

of routine tasks and oversimplification

of novel tasks" (385).

34

Chapter 2

This area of study identifies several potential influences and constraints to information Horton

that

have not been as fully explored

elsewhere.

M archand

(1986) note that as much as one quarter of a knowledge worker's

be spent in inefficient information-seeking

activities.

Choo

(1995,

needs stimulate information

seeking, (2) which generates information

in turn creates new information lem situation

constraints

(5) organizational

and (6) managerial

in the literature

ing access to information.

1984),

roles (informational,

traits. However,

are related to using technology

most influences and

in the process of gainlanguage

query language (Culnan 1984), both of which are re-

lated to competence in using a system to gain information (Culnan

use, (3) which

These include access to a system's command

(Culnan 1985) or appropriate

sum-

information

needs. This cycle is in turn influenced by (4) prob-

(both internal and external),

decision, interpersonal),

and

time can

57-67)

marizes relevant research to propose a model whereby (1) managerial

time

on access

access to interaction

through

(Rice 1984), and access to online databases

(Rubinyi 1989). Response

computer-mediated

systems

(Hart and Rice 1991) are additional

factors. Access to accurate information which

individuals

might intentionally

1978). Access to networking, difference between

becomes an issue in an organizational

gaining

withhold

both interpersonal

access to information

1987). Improved access to information

or distort

context in

information

(O'Reilly

and technological,

can make the

or not (Albrecht

and Adelman

and communication

by a multiactor

system

also may mean increased span of control and quickness of control by central actors and decreased

control

of decision

making

by local actors

leaders in the field). "It follows that information-handling as a defining variable in organizational within

that structure"

study of three annual showed that personal provided important

(Buckland iterations

structure

1991b,

capability should be seen

and in the distribution

186). Solomon's

of a work-planning

communication,

(such as by military

(1997a)

ethnographic

process in a public agency

both from within

and outside the agency,

cues as to the timing and meaning of information,

processes of seeking and using information ear. Even among resource-poor

of power

were chaotic, interrupted,

groups, those better connected

as the actual and nonlin-

to communication

networks have been shown to be better able to take advantage of technological

aids

to access (Rubinyi 1989). Cognitive factors are implicitly considered in connection of information

potentially

retrieved

mation is useful in the workplace

(O'Reilly

with judging the quality

1982) or evaluating

whether

(Kanter 1977). Affective and interpersonal

inforfactors

are touched upon implicitly insofar as they are part of trusting colleagues as infor-

Perspectives on Access

mation sources (O'Reilly tance of an information the frustration

35

1978), the extent to which one's feelings influence accepsystem (Rice 1984), the degree to which they are related to

of dealing with information

overload (O'Reilly 1980), or the relative

costs and benefits of using a system (Hart and Rice 1991).

Knowledge M anagement M uch of the knowledge management a given world, transferable,

is universal

and objective, results from information

and enables problem

as Dervin (1976) distinguished

between conceptualizations

management

source created and sustained sense making

various authors

distinguish

that can be stored, manipulated,

between

through

scanning, browsing, use of information

giving way to a different construction of information

over, its material tributed

(social) cognition

conceptualization

knowledge.

"thing"

as a human

through

with others, enactand enactments.

called the human is (2) based on the con-

and separable

from, and privileged

identifies the potential

management

re-

1998). Cues used in

specific construction

This development

and knowledge

field of

(1997b) were extracted

called the posthuman"

and practice of individual

The knowledge management nizational

(Pemberton

systems, and interactions

as disembodied

carrier/marker.

is

as objec-

as an objective

and knowledge

to the work projects that led to further extractions

Hayles (1999) suggests that "a historically

ceptualization

knowledge

interaction

of information

in the interdisciplinary

and transmitted,

in the agency studied by Solomon

ing adaptations

processing,

solving (von Krogh and Roos 1996). However,

tive, subjective, and sense-making, knowledge

literature presumes that knowledge represents

of dis-

but also complicates

the

agency (4).

literature distinguishes between individual and orga-

Knowledge

may only exist through

social cognition,

and

organizations

and individuals may both influence the development

of knowledge

at each level (Corner, Kinicki, and Keats 1994; W alsh and Ungson

and maintenance

1991). Further, knowledge may be tacit, cultural, or not sayable for a variety of reasons (Boisot 1998; Choo explicit (Davenport what

1995; 1998; Polanyi

and Prusak

1998), such as know-how,

(Sanchez 1997). Knowledge

and competencies,

or exploration,

1997), or may be articulatable

may facilitate innovation,

know-why,

exploitation

and know-

of current

and experimentation

or

resources

(M arch 1999).

W ays to convert tacit knowledge to shared explicit knowledge include socialization, externalization,

combination,

In our terms, knowledge facilitate

and internalization

(Choo 1998).

may both facilitate retrieval of stored information

access to new information.

An overreliance

on exploitation,

and

while seem-

ingly highly efficient and effective, forecloses exposure to new information

and may

36

Chapter 2

result in organizational conceptualized

failure in dynamic environments.

as an asset that flows through

it needs to be brought

Finally, knowledge can be

production

to bear on decision-making

(1998) analyzes three ways that organizations

or as an asset stored until

processes (Boisot 1998). Choo

use information:

(1) sense making

(managing ambiguity), (2) knowledge creating (managing learning), and (3) decision making (managing

uncertainty).

are crucial for organizational

Choo argues that while all three information

survival, the literature

typically emphasizes

tion for decision making. Choo's overall model emphasizes mal channels,

and personal

and impersonal

uses

informa-

both formal and infor-

sources, for how organizations

store,

retrieve, share, and use information. Spender (1998) distinguished

four types of organizational

tainty) derived from an individual/social sion: (1) individual/explicit (3) social/explicit

dimension

is "conscious,"

is "objectified,"

tured and coherent discourse"

uncertainties.

access to greater

trolled solely by individuals, information-based

be reapplied

diversity

One of the

the organizational as responses

by mismanagement

and overcon-

when collective knowledge is scarce.

often implicit, throughout

the discussion

of gaining, providing

or controlling

of knowledge

moderate

and across organizations.

relations

as by increasing awareness of a problem and M ossholder pretation,

Information

between threats and action (Thomas,

within

seeking and acquisition Clark, Gioia 1993), such

or openness to change (Armenikas, Harris,

1993), or social support, which reduces uncertainty,

and reduces dependencies

man-

access to informa-

tion or knowledge, from individuals to other individuals, to the organization, the organization,

to

usually has no value when con-

that is, it is then no longer a public good. Further, this

sumption, especially by free riders, particularly

agement are considerations

struc-

a public good-that

within

of interpretations

collective knowledge

public good can be destroyed

Pervasive, though

collective knowledge.

is that it is inherently

by distribution-can

Paradoxically,

Of particu-

a "single, rigorously

(240), but it is also the most difficult to manage and

prime values of collective knowledge

system, and allows

dimen-

is "automatic,"

is "collective."

as it represents

foster because it is derived from, and requires,

is, is not diminished

(or uncer-

and an explicit/implicit

(2) individual/implicit

and (4) social/implicit

lar significance is objectified knowledge,

knowledge

(Albrecht and Adelman

supports inter-

1987; Johnson

1996).

Economics of Information

Information

differs from material goods in several highly consequential

as requiring few material resources; being expandable,

substitutable,

ways, such

transmittable,

Perspectives on Access

diffusable, shareable; and having a value highly dependent

on the user and the con-

text (Buckland 1991a; Cleveland 1985; Johnson

1996). The evaluation

tion depends

field,"

on the individual's

"information

accessible sources, directly or indirectly mediated or similarly, by one's "information In discussions

of information

as an economic

composed

and unmediated

use environment"

37

of informa-

of familiar (Johnson

and

1996),

(Taylor 1986; 1991).

good (for example, Arrow

1979;

Bates 1988; Hall 1981; M cCain 1988), questions arise regarding assessing the future value of information and allocation

as well as its present assessment, e.g., pricing, market processes,

of investments

it is for most commodities; until it is used (Arrow "upfront"

and benefits. The value of information

it is contextually

Its full value is not known

1979); this implies that assessment of information

costs and other information.

knowledge

determined.

is not fixed as

of potential

requires

Again, access lies at the intersection

benefits and knowledge

of potential

between

costs (Hardy 1982). In

addition, there is the possibility of ancillary value (for example, public dissemination of information through

of educational

another individual's

Information

or social value) to the individual

use of information,

user, to others

and to society (Bates 1988).

Public or Private Good

as

Another critical issue is the extent to which specific types of information

are a pub-

lic or a private good. Other costs, for example, time spent reading reviews, effort expended

in seeking a particular

unfamiliar

information

document,

system, or inconvenience

consult with a lawyer or contractor to the information,

information,

in gaining access. Access

and to ways of assessing the

are of interest.

Rights of informed participation

1988). It is also assumed that citizens have equitable

of

access to

and Golding 1989). Several analysts have argued that privatization

of information

(M urdock

of information

production

ernment

an

advice, and analysis to enable them to know their rights and to pursue

them (M urdock

glomerates

navigating

in being placed on hold waiting to

Implicit in the notion of democracy lies the assumption its citizens (Gandy

experienced

are all considerations

to the value of the information,

value of that information

Buying Citizenship

discomfort

and Golding 1989; H. I. Schiller 1981; 1989), ownership and dissemination

(Bagdikian 1990; Compaine

actions

operations

by powerful financial con-

1985; Dreier and W einberg 1979), and gov-

to selectively disseminate

information

(Braman

and Golding 1989; H. I. Schiller 1988) have tied information

1989; M urdock

access, and therefore

the ability to exercise political rights, to economic market forces.

38

Chapter 2

Summary

Understanding

the many factors involved in information

for a variety of perspectives.

access requires accounting

Indeed, even the same user in different situations

is

likely to view and be viewed differently. Dervin (1989) has warned and not necessarily Traditional

perpetuating

new theoretical

demonstrated from

of users are inventions though

of researchers

they may be for some.

categories, she argues, lead to reification of existing gaps between haves

and have-nots, neither

that categories

the users' own constructions,

patterns

of use and exposure.

understandings

in other, not unrelated,

a new perspective

nor new research

Gilligan's

or the replication

development)

(1982)

criticism

of research

of Kolhberg's

of Perry's (1981) studies by Belenky

et al. (1986) to reveal differences in perspectives of epistemological

As has been

fields of study, a reexamination

(for example,

studies of moral development,

They move us toward questions.

of men and women in the process

can result in a reinterpretation

of findings that

alters the identification

of some groups from outsiders or deviants to simply differ-

ent from the dominant

(Dervin 1980; Ettema and Kline 1977). Feminist analyses of

technology

in the lives of women

Lewis 1987; Treichler and W artella

(for example,

Jansen

1989; Kramarae

example of one perspective that has proven to differ from traditional (Kramarae

1988b)

analyses.

Other

1988a;

1986; Turkle 1988; W einberg 1987) serve as an

perspectives

(Deetz 1989a;

"malestream"

1992; Hall

1982;

1989; Slack 1984) view the issues from new analytical vantage points and thus have shed light on how technologies In other words,

and society are related.

the perspective

questions we ask, the interpretation

from which we carry out research of the findings, and therefore

we draw and the impact of our research

(Harding

access to information

relies on the perspective from which one

and communication

1991; Jansen

defines the

the conclusions 1989). If gaining

views an issue or on the questions one asks, then any study of issues related to access to information correlatively,

must make explicit what one can see from a given perspective what is invisible from that same perspective.

and,

That is one of the aims

of this part of the book. W ithin each of the research tion, a range of perspectives frame of information

literatures

that address issues of access to informa-

and points of focus emerge. For example, within the

science, evaluation

of information

systems and their use has

been carried out from a limited perspective, one that focuses on a narrowly scribed group with privileged access. Consideration library

studies, information

science, the "information

circum-

of access issues in research society,"

on

mass communica-

Perspectives on Access

tion, organizational

communication,

ness about the nature

of information

nologies and the potential

for management

such consideration

as an economic

of informed participation

power relationships

and policy decisions,

viewed. All are important

of information

raises aware-

and social good, new tech-

they bring for barriers or bridges to access, democratic

principles and the assumption access to information,

and economics

39

of citizens and their equal

and privacy issues and their implications

and the perspectives

in understanding

from which access is

access to information.

makes clear both the pervasiveness

In addition,

of issues of access and their

complexity. W e need, therefore, a framework

to guide an integration

of research across liter-

atures and processes that is applicable across situations and across technologies and systems. This framework

can serve to inform

further

research with sensitivity to

issues of access with implications for those with privileged access as well as for those struggling to gain access to information. tive development

and evaluation

The remainder of part I presents the forma-

of such a framework.

3 Common Concepts Across Research Liferatures

This chapter addresses five questions,

based on the prior reviews of the six research

literatures: 1. W hat are the underlying

conceptualizations

of inform ation?

2. W hat are com m on concerns about access-related

issues?

3. W hat are com m on facets of the inform ation-seeking 4. W hat are the roles of m ediation

and technology

in accessing inform ation?

5. W hat are the com m on influences and constraints

Conceptualizations

Inform ation

process?

on access to inform ation?

of Inform ation

is a concept that is used in m ultiple ways in everyday language as well

as in the research literature

(see Belkin 1978; Belkin and Robertson

1976; Buckland

1991a; Case 2000; Fox 1983; Hayes 1993; Levitan 1980; M achlup 1983;

Schem ent

(1991b)

1993;

provides

com ponents

W ellisch

ceptualizations

transform ed,

(1) process

(2) knowledge

rather,

inform ation-as-thing knowledge

depends

including

Neveling

how

(change of what

(an im parted

of being inform ative;

tion; a tangible entity). Buckland inform ation;

and

and philosophical

1975).

Buckland

discussion

inform ation

of the can be

or varied over tim e. He identifies three m ajor con-

change in beliefs, level of uncertainty; with the attribute

W ersig

of inform ation,

of inform ation:

process),

1972;

the m ost extensive

and dim ensions

lim ited, reduced,

intangible

perhaps

and M ansfield

intangible

an intangible

som eone

knows,

an

or its representation;

entity), and (3) thing (objects

an expression,

description,

or representa-

does not present these as opposing

definitions

of

they are three form s, states, or elem ents. The extent to which becom es

inform ation-as-process

on the situation,

and

then

inform ation-as-

which involves access, cognitive

skills, and

prior knowledge

(Buckland 1991b). Thus becom ing inform ed varies greatly by per-

son, inform ation

system , identified attributes

of the object, and object. Case (2001)

42

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Conceptualizations

of Information

Conceptualization

Description

Assumptions

Thing (commodity/ resource)

A message, a commodity, something that can be produced, purchased, replicated, distributed, sold, traded, manipulated, passed along, controlled

Assumes sender to receiver Assumes receiver makes of message what sender intends

Data in environment

Objects, artifacts, sounds, smells, events, visual and tactile phenomena, activities, phenomena of nature

Accounts for unintentional communication

Representation of knowledge

Documents, books, periodicals, some visual and auditory representations Abstractions of information (e.g., citations, indexes)

Assumes printed document is primary representation of knowledge Assumes primacy of scientifidtechnical knowledge

Part of process of communication

Part of human behavior in process of moving through time/space to make sense of world

Assumes meanings are in people, not in words Assumes human behavior is basis of understanding of the process

suggests

that

significant

different assumptions

differences

about

ity of the information, observable), what

broad

hoping for notions

of information

Here, we identify

through

four

common

of information and

conceptual, the range of

across

about

information

the six

3.1 summarizes

assumptions

from

(2) util-

dimensions

access. Table

underlying

(material,

and illustrate

to shed light on assumptions

conceptualizations

are derived

of the user or communicator,

of the information

or accuracy.

by information

literatures,

have implications lowing

(3) physicality

and (4) truth

is meant

research

in definitions

(1) intentionality

derived

that

the folfrom

the

literatures.

Information Some

as Thing

literatures

Buckland tributed,

1991a),

information

a commodity

manipulated,

ization is consistent some material

(Commodity/Resource)

emphasize

passed

as a thing

(see reVIews by Bates

that can be produced, along, controlled,

traded,

with a model of sending information

purchased,

and understand

also allow for value to be added

as a message (encoded

the message as intended

as the information

dis-

and sold. This conceptual-

form) from sender to receiver. It may include

receiver will interpret

replicated,

1988;

an assumption

into

that the

by the sender. It may

is disseminated

or exchanged.

Common Concepts

Inform ation

as Data in the Environm ent

Other literatures ronm ent,

43

tend to view inform ation

available for interaction

m ore broadly, to include data in the envi-

with hum an inform ation-processing

capabilities.

This category includes objects, artifacts,

sounds, sm ells, visual and tactile phenom -

ena, activities, events, or the phenom ena

of nature. As Buckland

it is easy to assum e that all com m unication is inform ed

also by perceptions

is intentional.

another m akes about an individual's

ing observed,

In practice, however, one

of things that are com m unicated

The discoveries one m akes in the process of browsing

of the individual

(1990) points out,

character

serve as additional

exam ples

(see part II), or the inferences

or perform ance

(Archea 1977), particularly

unintentionally.

based on observation

when the individual is unaware of unintentional

of be-

com m unication

avail-

able in the environm ent. Choo (1995, 3) argues that the environm ent ing organizations

with access to inform ation,

m ation that the organization

are com plex,

but rather as a potential field of infor-

is enacted by the organization

as an easily identifiable and bounded

velopm ent

turbulent,

and m anagem ent

set of fixed inform ation.

and constantly

are (1) connecting

changing. Thus, inform ation

com ponents

(ability to access knowledge

sharing (exchanging and integrating and (3) structuring

rather than existing Indeed, m odern envi-

becom es a m uch m ore significant organizational

than physical and fiscal assets. The three prim ary m anagem ent

inform ation

of this inform ation and inform ation),

(creating m eaning from organizing, associating,

and interpreting

boundaries

cess objective inform ation

but also m anage

bols, and foster knowledge

creation throughout

(Buckland

as Representation

(Haeckel and Nolan 1993).

view inform ation

insights, intuitions,

as a representation

(Lievrouw

of, or pointer to, knowledge and scholarly

is the

prim ary

of a representation

books, and periodicals.

has been based on the assum ption representation

is

about where or how to pursue a representa-

such as in docum ents,

this view of inform ation m ent

inform ation

publication

1988). Card catalogs or data-

bases of citations to scientific docum ents illustrate an abstraction

tion of inform ation,

im ages, and sym -

the organization.

of scientific m ethod

a clear exam ple of this conceptualization

providing

do not m erely pro-

of Knowledge

1991b). The tradition

of knowledge,

(2)

core processes),

Choo (1995, 13) em phasizes, then, that successful organizations

Som e researchers

de-

factor

and understanding

data), both within and across organizational

Inform ation

as provid-

m ust pro actively seek, access, and search. So, as W eick

(1979) argues, the environm ent

ronm ents

should not be considered

of knowledge.

Traditionally,

that the printed

Recent

years

have

docuseen

a

44

Chapter 3

proliferation

of alternatives to print, such as representations

on video- or audiotape,

videodisc, CD-ROM ,

of knowledge available

Internet, or other electronic and com -

puter m edia. Representations

include, or often have associated with them , "m etadata,"

or data

about data (Borgm an 2000, 69; Dem psey and Heery 1998). Access to inform ation requires access to m etadata,

which m ay be grouped

content, form , genre, title, author, external

inform ation

are encoded

into intrinsic

such as where the resources

or displayed, their history, ownership,

are located, required

in what form they

techniques

genre, evaluation,

cost, access rights) as m anifested in the "Dublin

criteria.

Borgm an

(2000, 73-79)

cription

(annotations,

versions,

location,

("aboutness,"

groups

hyperlinks, storage

classification

m etadata

rem oval,

software

requirem ents,

usable network (condition,

codes and descriptors,

authority

data),

com pression

and

display resolution),

life cycle, restoration

user com m unities,

of (1) des-

(acquisition,

rights,

(3) intellectual

access

autom atic

organization

abstracting,

patterns

(grouping or organizing

scaling,

security

so that

providers

and (6) preservation

can create

and

and privacy, m anagem ent

actions). These m eta data categories

both form alized in som e way, and allowed to be expanded ticular

Core" m etadata

control), (5) technical specifications (hardware

form ats,

standards,

usage

and tools,

into the categories

indexes), (2) adm inistration

and

of access by groups of users), (4) intellectual m aterials, association,

data (about the

what resources exist) and extrinsic data (about

need to be

and custom ized for parm aterials

with

universal

access points, users can access system s knowing there are both com m on and specific conceptualizations resources,

of the resources and they are potentially

and institutions

can organize the m aterials

able to discover relevant

and support

the association

and retrieval of m aterials.

Inform ation

as Part of Com m unication

Usually, inform ing com m unication

occurs through

system s. Inform ation

and users com m unicate

Process

com m unication; interaction

a set of interpreters,

understanding

to the cognitive content.

behavior

system s are

with each other (Allen 1996). An inform ation

bring together

hum an

thus inform ation

is a dialogue in which inform ants

guides, and interm ediaries

in the com m unication

m ake sense of one's world (Atwood are in people rather than in words

Som e literatures

device m ay

who add their own

conceptualize

process of m oving through

as part of

space/tim e

to

and Dervin 1982). From this view, m eanings or data (Berlo 1960), and knowledge

is what

users do with data rather than what data do to users (Budd 1987). For exam ple, participants

in the agency studied by Solom on (1997c) did not conceive of separate

stages of inform ation,

inform ation

was just all of a piece, em bedded work. They captured

related

inform ation

to personal

use their

related to the person's role and work task, and som e-

is that understanding

and interpreted

Conceptualizations

seeking. Inform ation

in sense m aking while trying to accom plish

strategies.

ior in the inform ation-seeking intended

45

and processed m eaning through cognitive, affective, and action

styles, which were som ewhat what

search, or inform ation

Common Concepts

An assum ption

of this conceptualization

m ust be based on observation

and sense-m aking

by the participants

processes,

of hum an

of

behav-

and on the m eanings

(Agada 1999; Chatm an

1991).

of Access to Inform ation

Table 3.2 sum m arizes

how the reseach literatures

conceptualize

access to inform a-

tion in six broad categories.

Access to Knowledge The m ost com m on

categorization

(Budd 1987; Davenport and application, inform ation

becom es a linked network

represents

to inform ation

is access to knowledge

of knowledge

a larger, holistic network.

in an organizational

context.

can be sent and received as intended knowledge

and its representations

and Prusak 1998; Gandy 1993). Inform ation,

through

use

(Allen 1996), so specific

O'Reilly

(1978) discusses access

This usually assum es that a m essage

by the sender and that the m essage, or the

derived from it, m ight influence decisions m ade within the organization.

He argues that em ployees

m ight intentionally

m anipulate

withholding

it) to serve the ends of the sender, particularly

subordinate

to a superior

can occur as a function and procedures,

within

the organization.

structures,

1980). The result is that the individual

(including

when directed from a

"Psychopathic

of a social or technological

subsystem

inform ation

m anipulation"

system , im posed through

or m em bership

selection

m ethods

rules

(Singer

is unable to correct errors, adding an addi-

tional barrier to gaining access to knowledge. In the contexts

of libraries

of access to knowledge (Chen and Hernon Blair and M aron 1991),

and data

experience,

science, the m ost fam iliar exam ples

docum ents

such as books and periodicals

1982; D. Schiller 1989), citations 1985; Borgm an (Borgm an

when put to use, potential in support

and inform ation

include printed

databases

to docum ents of citations

1989). These are representations building blocks for new knowledge.

of facts (Buckland or through

1989),

and

other

and Rice

of knowledge

and,

Access to evidence

1990) can be gained either through

use of print

(Bates 1986b; (Hart

representations

observation

and

of knowledge.

46

Chapter 3

Table 3.2 Conceptualizations

of Access to Inform ation Im plications

Category

Exam ples

Knowledge

M essage sent, inform ation Observation,

flow

Can lead to decision m aking, control

visual sources,

over inform ation

Docum ents, num erical

books, periodicals, or digital data, data-

life Can lead to power, influence, to

bases, citations

socioeconom ic

Analysis, advice, interpretation,

equity, funds, legal advantage,

debate, answers,

participation

education

opportunities: in dem ocratic

society and citizenship Technology

and

m edia

flow, to

quality of life, quality of work

evidence

Range of technologies com puter,

telephone,

and m edia: m ovies, books,

newspapers,

m agazines,

Inform ation

delivery system s,

system s that generate,

m usic, TV

Assum es that access to technologies

leads to access to

inform ation Assum es an infrastructure

store, create

or com m and

software,

program m ing

language,

Linking technologies: com m unication,

of how

to use Can lead to access to m ultiple data sources, autom atic

Use of system interactive,

of

support Assum es knowledge

inform ation Interface

activities

of surveillance,

increased

m ethods control,

creativity

networking

Com pounding

technologies

effect: access to

one technology

can increase

future access, experience, advantage Com m unication

M aking

sense of things: content,

com prehension,

Assum es com m unication com petence

retention,

explanation

Requires

M aking

relevance

accuracy,

use of inform ation: relevance, form at,

level,

broader

Can lead to social, political

decision m aking

participation

Connectivity

for dem ocracy,

Com m unication

com petence

m eaning of

with im plications equity, power

relations Com pounding

effect: access likely

to lead to greater com petence, access

Common Concepts

47

Table 3.2 (continued) Category Control

Exam ples

Im plications

Over who has access to what to

Assum es power and control are

whose advantage

associated

Over the agenda, term s of debate,

knowledge

content,

organization,

with inform ation

Com pounding

design,

and

effect: those who

program

control access m ore likely to

Over processes and flows of

decide, design in favor of others

inform ation

m ost like them

Over production

of culture

Goods/

Inform ation

as social, econom ic

Assum es potential

com m odities

good with value, costs, benefits

good, social value

Distribution

Value not known

availability

of control capacities, of resources

New m arkets

for inform ation

until used

Com pounding

effect: potential

for econom ic

barriers and paths

to be reinforced

industry

for public

by social

dynam ics (Knowledge

Services: governm ental,

of

Can influence right to participate

com m uni-

as citizen

and ability to

cation, inform ation

exercise) rights

Advocacy

Com pounding

Privacy

in need often least likely to

effect: those m ost

obtain services

Typically, use than

the literature on am ount

unpredictable However,

presents

accessibility

or quality

potential

value

as a greater influence on inform ation

of the inform ation,

of retrieved

because

inform ation

Choo's research (1995) shows that environm ent

of scanned inform ation, accessibility

and am biguity

or quality of inform ation

The pursuit

of knowledge

tions for the well-being

of situation

of access costs and

(Rice and

Shook

turbulence,

strategic use

all interact to influence whether

is the greater influence.

as part of the com m unication

of the individual

process carries im plica-

or a society, such as access to education

(Hiltz 1986) or access to answers to questions

(Doctor

1992; Paris 1988; Pfaffen-

berger 1990). Access to advice on, or analysis of, political or econom ic influence the degree to which an individual and Golding 1989). Access to knowledge ing or distributing through

interactive

arly or popular

inform ation,

can participate

boards,

press or on the Internet.

issues m ay

as a citizen (M urdock

can also be understood

such as through

m edia or bulletin

1988).

as access to creat-

the m ass m edia (Bagdikian

or through

publication

1990),

in the schol-

48

Chapter 3

Access to inform ation Gandy

as knowledge

1993), decision-m aking

can lead to political power (Doctor

power

(Bram an

ship activities (Gandy 1988; Palm quist opportunities equity.

(Bram an

1989; Doctor

Such access can determ ine

erativeness

of organizations

and Prusak (Palm quist

1998).

1988), and citizen-

1992). It can also influence socioeconom ic 1992), including funds, legal advantage,

the sustainability,

in their

Further,

1989; Gandy

1992;

attem pt

innovativeness,

to m anage

such access can influence

knowledge the quality

and

and coop(Davenport of work

life

1992; U.S. Congress 1987; Zuboff 1988) and, indeed, the quality of life

in general. Inform ation m obilization

is the organizational

"m eta-resource

that coordinates

of the other assets in order for the organization

to perform "

the

(Choo

1995, xi).

Access to Technology

and M edia

For som e, access to inform ation

necessarily im plies or requires access to technology,

or m ay not extend before or beyond the point of interaction system . For others, technology

with the technological

is, at the very least, an issue of m ajor concern

gaining access to inform ation

(Bourque

and W arren

1987; Culnan

1988; 1993; Hiltz and Johnson

1989; Rice 1988; D. Schiller 1989; W einberg

W hat m ight seem to be easily accessible to the m ajority tion m ay be contributing different

physical

digitaldividenetwor The technology

(sight,

hearing,

handling

com puter

as the telephone of com puters,

that allow us to gather inform ation

side of Jupiter. Inform ation

copying,

technology,

perform ance,

and library.

or television

telescopes, and com m uni-

including

access to inform ation

veying inform ation,

som etim es

m eans

books, m agazines,

m usic,

1980; Greenberger

system s for generating,

inform ation

photo-

and Puffer 1989;

in these exam ples, som eone else serves as an inform ation

som e refer m ore explicitly to access to inform ation

of inform ation

on (Bates 1986b; Borgm an M ore generally,

(Dorr

what is available and technology

delivery system . Therefore,

on the far

pen and paper,

Access to technology

and Fiore 1967). Ordinarily,

has created or produced

(Pool 1983; Rakow

in general, includes any m eans of inform a-

inform ation-as-thing,

system s,

Innis 1951; M cLuhan

representations

http://www.

about explosions

access to a range of m edia such as m ovies, newspapers, academ ic

access to those with etc.-see

k .org).

1988) or as specialized as the com bination

tion processing,

use of hands,

m ay be as com m onplace

cation technologies

1987).

of the Internet user popula-

to the digital divide by preventing

abilities

in

1985; Gandy

storing,

in offices, libraries,

1989; Budd 1987; O'Reilly system s/technology

intentionally

and m ore

distributing

governm ent

inform ation agencies,

as or

and so

1982; Sparck Jones 1988).

include (1) com m unication

or less directly),

(con-

(2) retrieval-based

Common Concepts

inform ation

services (user retrieves inform ation-as-thing

observation

(not otherwise

land clearly distinguishes M archionini form ation greater

am ount

(Buckland

from inform ation

have altered inform ation

of inform ation, form ats,

1991b).

Buck-

technology.

Conceptual

easier access across tim e and space, varying

changes include

tools, higher levels of interactivity, and greater

Access to technology lance, isolation

support

and focused interfaces

m ore diverse inform ation

for and expectations

action, flexibility, and creativity (Kram arae It is a com m on,

but m istaken,

representing,

inform ation

or surveil-

opportunities

for inter-

that access to technology

is necessarily

(Gillespie and Robins 1989; M urdock

ing 1989). It is true that technological

seeking.

1988).

assum ption

equivalent to access to inform ation

less

and intellectual

of m onitoring

but also to increased

and

and com m unication

about

can lead to an increased likelihood

and standardization,

(m ore abstract,

different ways of organizing,

m ore powerful

in-

seeking. Physical changes include

and a different range of user actions

and accessing inform ation,

resources,

or retrieved)

a system ), and (3)

(1995) devotes a chapter to discussing how com puter-m ediated

technologies

user-adaptable physical).

com m unicated

inform ation

through

49

developm ents

and Gold-

have the potential

to im prove

access. For exam ple, digitizing new and old m aterials can im prove access in a variety of ways: (1) creates m ultiple copies, including ability to m ake copies on dem and, (2) increases access points, so that people who would not otherwise a physical

site (a m useum

m anipulability

or library)

(such as recovering

and (4) the related other docum ents

can experience

recording

digital m eta data

tracks,

(indexes,

for retrieval and interpretation.

as well, involving

zoom ing,

keywords) However,

copyright,

changing

features), with

there are disadvantages (2) sm all hues and

(4) required technolog-

unlike paper and eyesight, (5) cost (e.g., scanning is expensive),

and (7) required sophisticated

digital library will m aintain nondigital

(3) increases

can be associated

issues of (1) legal evidence and signatures,

shadings lost, (3) short life span, increasing incom patibility, ical interface,

be able to visit

the m aterials,

docum ents

indexing and descriptive m etadata.

digital docum ents,

digitized docum ents,

(6)

Thus a

and pointers to

(Borgm an 2000, 67).

Since television program m ing the user has the option

is under the user's control

of selecting from

am ong

existing

only to the extent that program s,

television

is

m ore likely to establish an agenda of interest for a viewer rather than to address a specific preexisting

need or question.

W hen

delivery system , such as an online database, for, and select, a database

that m atches

using a m ore interactive

inform ation

the user m ust first have user privileges

both the content

and the com prehension

level of her search, then be able to navigate the interface or the com m and of the

system ,

and

understand

the nature

of the results

language

(such as abstracts

or

50

Chapter 3

bibliom etric

descriptors)

(Culnan

1985). On the Internet,

the interaction

even m ore com plex. The user m ust have access to technology and phone line or network on the Internet, to inform ation or bulletin

connection),

and to knowledge

to com m unication

(a com puter,

of how to navigate the Net. In addition,

with a critical m ass of m em bers

1989) and is sufficiently experienced

ing and excluding

distribution,

and com patibility

and the Net to

and interact effectively. Cataloging

and index-

access, often in invisible ways, by both provid-

term s and other m etadata

m aterial,

access

electronic lists

(W illiam s, Rice, and Rogers

in use of both the technology

be able to search, upload, download, ing term s both increase and narrow

Institutional,

m odem ,

software, to an account

is enhanced when the user also knows of appropriate

boards

can be

and technological

to search on (Borgm an

2000,

choices related to preservation,

have significant im plications

108).

licensing,

for access to content

over tim e (Borgm an 2000, 200-205.) Use of a system is not equivalent to accessing inform ation Ives 1986; Dervin

1989; Gerstberger

Singer 1980). Certainly, access to inform ation of a particular

user at a particular

Dervin 1980). A library patron

1989;

relevant to the context and situation

point in tim e cannot be assum ed (Chatm an

1991;

m ight successfully use an online catalog to identify

m aterials in the collection relevant to a particular m ay be in use elsewhere or otherwise unavailable. m ation/com m unication

(Baroudi, Olson, and

and Allen 1968; Hiltz and Johnson

technologies

situation, but the actual m aterials Thus access to and use of infor-

does not autom atically

m ean having access to

inform ation.

Access to Com m unication Access to inform ation if com m unication

is som etim es viewed as access to com m unication,

is understood

as sense m aking, or m oving through

particularly tim e/space to

m ake sense of one's world (Dervin 1976; Dervin and Nilan 1986). Access to inform ation thus includes access to content, to com prehension, appropriate Solom on

tim ing of interaction

(Bates 1993; Dorr

1997a). Gaining access to such com prehension

only when com m unication

is relevant to the individual

or audience m em ber (Harris and Dewdney "tacit"

because no one else com pletely

or even to

or understanding inform ation

1994). Thus, inform ation

understands

even because, as everyone in the situation

to retention,

1980; Hill 1984; Rice 1988;

som ething

already understands

occurs

seeker, user, m ay rem ain

(Spender 1998) or som ething,

it does

not need to be said (Boisot 1998). Such access relies on a view of relevance that is determ ined not by m atching query statem ents with bibliographic

references, but by m atching the applicability

of what

Common Concepts

is ascertained Chatm an

to the everyday

life of the individual

(Agada

1999; Bodker

51

1989;

1991; Dervin 1980; Freire 1969). For exam ple, the form at in which com -

m unication

occurs is likely to influence the ability of the interactants

or m ake sense of inform ation.

to understand

If one is unable to see, a printed docum ent is not very

useful. Also, different individuals

learn or understand

better from different perspec-

tives than others (Belenky et al. 1986; Kolb 1984) or using different kinds of intelligence than those generally valued and encouraged Access to inform ation

in schools (Gardner

can also im ply access to connectivity

works (Crane 1969; Dervin 1980; Doctor 1992; Granovetter and Borgm an

1983; Rice and Love 1987).

hum an-com puter

interaction

faces between com puters m unication

M archionini

or interpersonal

18) argues that

inter activity, and inter-

and hum ans. Indeed, he refers to the "interface"

as a com -

channel, the design of which requires a deep understanding

and system s, and an appropriate Com m unication

com petence

of hum ans

balance between the two. is required for participation

and political spheres of society (Gandy 1988; M urdock who gain access and who participate

in the social, econom ic,

and Golding 1989). Those

regularly are likely also to gain experience with

such system s and processes, thereby im proving petence and increasing opportunities

further

their com m unication

com -

and skills for access in the future. The converse

is also true, and the im pact of such deficiencies tends to com pound ing to a growing knowledge

net-

1973; Hiltz 1986; Rice (1995,

research analyzes interactions,

1983).

over tim e, lead-

gap or digital divide.

Access to Control Access to inform ation

can be understood

of content (Bates 1993; Doctor

as access to control

1992; Johnson

1996; M ulgan

of participation

and

1991). The holder of

a TV rem ote control, for exam ple, gets to decide which channel to watch, how long to stay with that channel, the volum e level, or whether to browse through nels at a leisurely pace, stopping through

to evaluate the offerings of a channel,

the channels until som ething eyecatching

controlling

the chanor to whiz

stops the process, som etim es also

what is available for others.

Of course, the perspective from which one views the issues influences expectations for those im plications.

For exam ple, Doctor

how political and econom ic

(1991) identified polar positions

system s are likely to change in relation

Luddite analysis (W ebster and Robins 1986) foresees the centralization of control

and a widening

analyses (for exam ple, m ation

and subsequent

gap between the advantaged

decentralization

of power.

A

of the tools

and disadvantaged.

Cherry 1985) posit the decentralization

as to

to control.

of control

Other of infor-

52

Chapter 3

Access to control can im ply control over who gains access to what inform ation whose advantage is an ongoing through

(Bram an 1989). In the workplace,

concern,

including

work m onitoring,

who

whether

control over inform ation

has access to what

overt or not (Gandy 1989; Garson

and its arrangem ent

flows

types of inform ation, 1988; U.S.

Congress 1987). This control is som etim es directly useful to, and controlled user. The work environm ent

to

by, the

also leaves the individual exposed

to view by others and, at the sam e tim e, provides to access to observe the environm ent and activities within it (Archea 1977) as well as to obtain and contribute the public good of collective knowledge m onitored

inform ation

of individuals

could lead to the exclusion of certain individuals

from potential

Corporations by gathering

em ploym ent

ucts, and by gathering

inform ation

inform ation

against such inform ation's

or classes

in a particular

about the potential

about com peting

becom ing

that

(Doctor 1992; Gandy 1993).

often go to great lengths to gain advantage

and protecting

to

(Spender 1998). Som e are concerned

corporations

available to the com petition.

tution is in the business of creating inform ation,

m arket

buyers of their prodand protecting W hen the insti-

such as the entertainm ent

or pub-

lishing businesses, then access to control can m ean control of culture (H. I. Schiller 1981;

1989) and of what

such institutions sources

inform ation

is available

grows sm aller with takeovers

of inform ation

or perspectives

for others. As the num ber

and consolidations,

on any particular

issue m ay be available

(Bagdikian 1990; H. I. Schiller 1989). M edia system s thereby contribute consensus

in support

determ ining

what

of dom inant

or hegem onic

to cover on the nightly

am ong viewers (Protess and M cCom bs In political

term s, access to control

with regard to inform ation. likely to favor institutions intentionally

attem pt

(Hall 1982),

or, by

of interest

1991). can also m ean access to influencing

Bram an (1989) has docum ented

or unconsciously

status and approach

constructs

to building

news, they set the agenda

over the individual.

cess, criteria for acceptance,

of

fewer and fewer

that legal decisions are

In social services, the provider

to m aintain

and provision

policy

control

of inform ation,

m ay

over the interview depending

of the help seeker (Agada 1999; Harris

pro-

on the social

and Dewdney

1994).

Gandy (1993) argues that access to m ultiple data sources can lead to the creation of new data sets that can be applied to control future access to insurance m ent, for exam ple.

In gathering

inform ation

about the individual

or em ploy-

that would

otherwise be available, and of which the individual m ay not have knowledge, to inform ation

by institutions

what is already an im balanced

that gives them control over individuals relationship.

not

access

com pounds

Common Concepts

National

regulations,

laws, and philosophies

on access to inform ation reports

im pose different political constraints

and com m unication.

For exam ple, Borgm an

that Kedzie (1997) found a strong relationship

and indicators

(2000,239)

between Internet

diffusion

of dem ocracy within different countries. But she concludes, after not-

ing the centralized

control

of traditional

various countries, that "the availability not guarantee

53

freedom

that individuals'

m edia as well as com puter of a global inform ation

of speech or access to inform ation"

dependence

on institutions

user privileges, identity,

and accounts,

m edia), whether national

or corporate,

(that control,

content,

networks,

networks

infrastructure

in

does

(240). She also notes authorize,

and m onitor

specific resources,

and

is increasing rather than decreasing.

Access to Goods, Com m odities Access to inform ation

can be understood

goods or com m odities.

From this perspective, access can carry with it costs, benefits,

and value (Bates 1988; Chatm an

to im ply access to econom ic

or social

1991; Culnan 1984; Hart and Rice 1991; M cCain

1988). According to M ulgan (1991), control is never acquired without cost. In fact, Bates (1993) argues that social, econom ic, constrain

and political costs serve to control

access to inform ation.

Inform ation

behaves uniquely com pared

with other com m odities

place. For exam ple, the general principles

of supply and dem and

cost or value do not hold when applied to inform ation. rem ains unknown characteristics enforced,

until it is "consum ed"

necessary

and public good externalities

(Arrow 1979). Inform ation

stem from characteristics

lack of rivalry (inform ation

zero cost) in consum ption

laws provide legal avenues for corporations products,

inform ation

typically depreciate

social acceptance and value of M ozart's Access to inform ation

depreciates

consum ers

can be

copyright

(Bates 1988). How-

as it becom es obsolete

over tim e: consider

the rise in the

m usic after his death.

as a public good, inform ation such as through

and schools. However,

be

unique to infor-

(Hall 1981). Although

can influence or redistribute

sidized by the governm ent,

cannot

to control and benefit from their infor-

(Hall 1981), it does not necessarily

itory libraries,

goods violate

is not necessarily depleted for

rem ains infinitely reproducible

ever, while the value of inform ation

Because of its potential

as they relate to

The value of inform ation

som e as it is used by others) and lack of exclusivity (additional served at potentially

in the m arket-

to achieve social efficiency in that ownership

m ation use, in particular,

m ation

or

incom e, wealth, production

or status.

is frequently

libraries, especially governm ent

sub-

depos-

m ore such research has been contracted

to

54

Chapter 3

private agencies, curtailing

free public access because m any libraries have not been

able to afford the purchase

price now im posed

and Schiller 1988). However,

privatization

as a result of privatization

of inform ation

viewed as having led to new m arkets for the inform ation Yet a m ove toward of ancillary

privatization

of inform ation

social value, the additional

production

(Schiller

can also be

industry.

sources m ay lim it consideration

value to society of use of inform ation,

assessing value overall (Bates 1988). Ordinarily

in the m arketplace,

in

those com m odi-

ties that have the greatest likelihood of being consum ed are those that are produced, so "M arkets

for inform ation

goods which

are both costly and infrequently

chased ... will suffer the greatest distortion 1981, 157). Those with lim ited resources m ation

in term s of potential

econom ic,

others who start from a position

from asym m etrical

inform ation"

pur(Hall

stand to gain m ore from access to inforsocial, and political im provem ent

of greater advantage

they are also less likely to possess resources

than do

(Gandy 1988). Yet because

such as awareness

of sources of infor-

m ation or the ability to express their needs clearly, they are less likely to gain access. As Chatm an

(1991) points out, the reasons for this are com plex but include factors

such as ability to anticipate to inform ation

benefits, which is partially reliant on a belief that access

truly of value to the life of the individual is likely.

Other potential costs of seeking or gaining access to inform ation spent weighing the costs and potential out the process, or the uncertainty

include the tim e

benefits of a search, the tim e it takes to carry

or discom fort

inherent

in carrying

out an un-

fam iliar process. Other potential costs fall in the category of risk: risk of losing tim e, m oney, or face. A countervailing

cost to all the above is the potential

explicit and im plicit, to the individual access to needed inform ation. inform ation

that would

or organization

incurred

cost, both

in doing without

Im plicit cost is likely when one rem ains unaware

carry value in a given situation.

im plies also resources, such as m otivation,

fam iliarity,

Consideration

of

of costs

patience, procedural

knowl-

edge, tim e, or awareness of the range of sources available or of one's right to access. In addition,

one m ust operate in a social environm ent

to and use of inform ation,

that supports effective access

to benefit from the access (Doctor 1991).

Access to (Knowledge of and Ability to Exercise) Rights Im plicit in the idea of access to inform ation

is that it leads an inform ed

citizenry to

enjoy or exercise certain rights, such as the right of participation

in the political pro-

cess, as well as even supposedly

not everyone

know about,

inalienable

rights. However,

or is able to enjoy, their rights. Thus access to knowledge

does

about, or

Common Concepts

access to the ability to exercise, one's rights, is a com m on

55

(though usually im plicit)

them e across the literatures. In som e instances those rights are supposedly accessible through including

governm ent

always known,

services (Gandy 1988). However,

and necessary inform ation

various services,

the range of rights is not

about locations

and procedures

is often

difficult to obtain if access is not com m on am ong m em bers of one's social network (Chatm an

1991). Som etim es, access is m ost effectively gained through

outside one's network, with an individual or entity with whom /which (infrequent

or indirect) ties (Granovetter

to rights through tation,

1973). Particularly

interactions one has weak

with regard to access

political channels, access includes the right of advocacy, interpre-

or debate. Those without

privileged access are left to struggle for access to

even being able to raise questions or issues of concern in their lives (Hall 1982). Another right of com m on concern across the literatures is the right to privacy. Of equal consequence,

and occasionally

in conflict with privacy rights, are security or

ownership rights. This tension can be illustrated in considerations

of caller ID. Is the

caller's right to security from revealing his telephone num ber m ore im portant

than

the privacy rights of the call's recipient, who m ay use the device to avoid intrusion by telephone m arketers?

These issues are potentially

com pounded

when considered

in the context of a huge network like the Internet, which facilitates the right to interconnect. Privacy rights can also be thought

Facets of the Inform ation-Seeking

Process

Directly or indirectly, all the literatures with the inform ation-seeking cess includes a problem to address rational,

considered

or question

(situation)

the inform ation-seeking

pro-

and an attem pt to find inform ation

(strategies),

directed search for inform ation

tion. According to M archionini

here have in com m on a concern

process. Traditionally,

or question

the problem

of as the right not to interconnect.

often

assum ing

an intentional,

on the part of an individual

(1995), inform ation

or organiza-

seeking depends on interactions

am ong the seeker (who has m ental m odels about the dom ains and the system ), setting, task (a m anifestation

of problem /need),

knowledge

dom ains, system , and out-

com es (feedback from the system , which typically alters the seeker's knowledge and influences the conceptualization

of the problem , task, and subsequent

ities). In his m odel, the inform ation-seeking opportunistic

behaviors,

ognize/accept,

(2) define problem ,

process

involving the following

search activ-

is a m ix of system atic

and

steps (his figure 3.3, 50): (1) rec-

(3) select source, (4) form ulate

query, (5) execute

56

Chapter 3

query, (6) exam ine results, (7) extract inform ation, transitions

(8) reflect/stop-all

with m any

and feedback loops, som e occurring in parallel.

Because considerations

of access to inform ation

in som e literatures

focus on what

occurs prior to a search (context) and what occurs as a result of a search (outcom es), the traditional

range of the inform ation-seeking

process is extended

in this discus-

sion to include four facets (see table 3.3): (1) the context or background the need for inform ation

in which

arises, (2) the problem or situation that is to be addressed,

(3) the strategies applied in seeking access, and (4) the use of inform ation m ulation

or for-

of a new situation that occurs in the outcom es facet. Because these facets

are not necessarily sequential and m ay be iterative, we avoid the m ore fam iliar term ,

phases. It appears rare for a research literature

to consider the inform ation-seeking

cess in its entirety, despite a few exceptions wald

1995).

In those

literatures

that

pro-

(Borgm an 1999; Dervin 1992; Sonnen-

explicitly

address

the inform ation-seeking

process, the focus seem s to fall prim arily on the strategies facet, with som e attention to situation

and occasional treatm ent

of the context in which access to inform ation

is sought or of outcom es (the latter two generally being treated m ore im plicitly than explicitly).

Context Facet The context of access can be understood user operates, an inform ation m ation

as the larger picture in which the potential

system is developed and operates, and potential infor-

m ay becom e available.

Context

includes all the precursors

seeking, such as the social, political, econom ic, educational, ronm ent of the individual (Borgm an 2000; Johnson including the user's dem ographic and cultural background

and experiential

situation, organization,

and the social, intellectual,

(Allen 1996). From other perspectives, it also includes the

and the potential

or concrete stage it or its potential

inform ation

or change content

(M archionini Inform ation

abstract

possible, perm issions to access

or process, social and com m unication

self-confidence

system is owned,

itself in whatever

exists. The setting includes physical constraints,

lighting, tim e, cost, num ber, and type of participants

pants,

envi-

1996; Rice 1987; W ilson 1997),

econom ic, political, and cultural context in which an inform ation developed, and operated;

to inform ation

and fam iliarity

relations

with the situation,

am ong partici-

and organizational

role

1995,47). is typically highly tim e-dependent:

"Inform ation

rect at the tim e m ay well be regarded as m isinform ation

believed to be cor-

at som e later tim e-or

versa" (Buckland 1991b, 111). The context of tim e includes the opportunity

vice cost of

Common Concepts

57

Table 3.3 Facets of the Inform ation-Seeking

Process

Facet

Description

Exam ples

Context

The larger picture in which the

Precursors

potential

Social, political,

user operates

operates,

system is developed

and potential

and

inform ation

experi-

Econom ic,

political,

cultural

context of developm ent, ownership

exists Situation

seeking

econom ic,

ential context of individual

The larger picture in which the inform ation

to inform ation

The particular

set of circum stances

Gap, visceral need, discom fort,

from which a need for inform ation

anom alous

anses

inform ation

Awareness

(however vague) of a

need, conscious

Experience particular

need for inform ation

state of knowledge, and standing

need

with

set of circum stances:

relative status, perspective,

cogni-

tive, affective, physical resources Range of system choices Strategies

The dynam ic process of addressing the situation,

both planned

and

need, plan of action,

query statem ent, Interaction Inform al

redirecting

of understanding

problem

statem ent

with system evaluation

Iterations

Bridges, barriers, encountered

blocks, helps

on way to address

situation Learning,

refining, reconfiguring,

reiteration Resources:

knowledge

of range of

system choices, knowledge costs/benefits Outcom es

of

need for inform ation

serendipitous Form alized

Focusing, clarifying, expanding,

of pursuing

of search

Retrieval and use of inform ation

Access to the value or benefit of

Evaluation

using inform ation

Possibility of new situation

Broader understanding tion requires accounting

of evaluafor use,

and relevance to both context and situation

58

Chapter 3

spending tim e in a particular

way, inform ation's

of not obtaining inform ation

at the appropriate

becom ing outdated,

tim e, poor feedback between system

and user because of slow response tim e, preventing inform ation,

associated

costs such as travel

faster but less reliable system (Buckland

subsequent

and frustration,

users from accessing and switching

Groups exist within the social and value structures

and what sets of alternative

or accessible. (People are always em bedded guishing between individual

of organizations,

groups,

other

work

inform ation-seeking

groups)

diate com petition

situation

(Allen

inform ation

and inform ation

tion to accounting

actions are understood

to be available

in social contexts, which m akes distin-

can constrain

behaviors

sources of organizational

so organiza-

how groups per-

and social influences on inform ation-seeking

difficult.) Thus, one's organizational

(whether m anagem ent, the accessibility

1996).

There

behavior

occupational

one has to various

are m any

new

options

in a rapidly changing environm ent

growth

for the background

to a

1991b; van House 1983).

tional influences determ ine how groups behave in given situation, ceive situations,

consequences

(Christensen

for

of im m e-

and Bailey 1997). In addi-

and experience

the user brings to a search,

the context facet of the inform ation-seeking

process also accounts for factors of par-

ticular concern in the m ass com m unication

literature,

tion of inform ation through

distributed

nam ely, creation and produc-

via m ass m edia channels or diffused (Rogers 1983)

a wide range of channels of com m unication.

Borgm an (2000) identifies five developing contexts

of a global inform ation

structure. Each of these im plicitly involves issues of accessing inform ation m unication:

(1) from m eta data to data (providing

as well as m etadata); m ents, institutions,

(2) from independent resources,

form ats and term inologies); tures and networked

requiring

group processes (inform ation

m ultilingual

browsing);

environcom m on

(using m ultim edia (4) from individual

feato

and use, because they are highly socially sit-

across interdependent

1990; M ajchrzak

global system s (requiring

data exchange,

involve groups of users in various form s of collaboration,

including virtual team s working Kraut and Galegher

supporting

creation

and com full content

to linked system s (distributed

interoperability,

(3) from searching to navigation

environm ents,

uated and com m unicative,

access to m ultim edia

infra-

language

translation

2000, 161;

or som e kinds of standardized

indexing, widely varying capabilities

world, m ore universal character

tasks-Borgm an

et al. 1999); and (5) from local system s to

at users' access sites around

or the

sets such as the 16-bit unicode).

Situation Facet Situation

refers to the particular

set of circum stances

from which a need for infor-

m ation arises, along with the awareness, however unclear, that inform ation

m ay be

Common Concepts

useful in addressing

the situation.

The focus of m ost of the literature

situation

facet is that of the user or inform ation

directed

search

awareness

for inform ation,

and intentionality.

atic situation

relaxes

an argum ent

needs to be addressed,

It refers also to the awareness

in regard to the particular and Taylor am ong

(1984)

11 continuous

initial

state understood/not

upon,

(7) assum ption

is required

dim ensions:

needs are a result of

(1) design/discovery,

(2)

(4) goals specific/am biguous,

(5)

(6) assum ptions (8) pattern

analysis applicable/not

seeker

agreed

upon/not

fam iliar/new,

applicable,

agreed

(9) risk great/not

and (11) im position

inter-

Taylor (1986) identified six general criteria that influence user selection

of inform ation:

"ease of use, noise reduction,

and cost savings"

quality,

In a given situation,

an inform ation

seeker m ay have varying expertise in the sub-

of appropriate

system s; resources

political, physical, and tim e constraints;

For exam ple, a college librarian in literature

finds him self

seeking inform ation

published

in journals

on an educational carried

with

adequate

background

however,

facing a different

m edical treatm ent

to overcom e

potential

and status to gain access easily.

easily. The sam e librarian, find adequate

tim e savings,

of the range of system s available to address the situation; expe-

rience with the operation

ered extensively

adaptability,

(Choo 1995, 39).

ject area; knowledge

works,

that inform ation

are part of this facet.

problem

understood,

challenged,

that inform ation

(3) sim ple/com plex,

explicit/im plicit,

great, (10) em pirical

econom ic,

propose

explained,

and standing of an inform ation

set of circum stances

well-structured/ill-structured,

nal/external.

(Belkin 1980), infor-

need. These term s all refer

or inkling that som ething in a process of sense m aking or problem

or expanded.

interactions

of full

need (Taylor 1968), problem -

or inform ation

to take care of the som ething. The experience

M acM ullin

the assum ption

state of knowledge

1996), discom fort,

solving or supporting supported,

the

Included here are concepts expressed in the literature

(W ersig 1979), anom alous

to the awareness

regarding

seeker engaged in an intentional,

but recent work

as a gap (Dervin 1983), visceral need and conscious

m ation field (Johnson

59

and

m atter cov-

by the library where he

experience situation,

for his child recently diagnosed

to gain

access

such as how to with a neurologi-

cal difficulty, m ay find him self a novice with little or no experience. Som e inform ation

needs arise from failures

collective. If they are individual, tures, inappropriate

or am biguous

influences,

processes,

or com binations

either individual knowledge

social influences, or a com bination

collective, they can arise from inadequate com m unication

of perception,

they can arise from inadequate

inappropriate of the three

knowledge

structures,

or am biguous

of the two. If

inadequate

group

social and organizational

(Allen 1996, ch. 4). Other

needs arise from a need to associate alternative

or

struc-

decisions with potential

inform ation outcom es.

60

Chapter 3

These, too, can be individual alternative

or collective. If individual,

selection and evaluation

inadequate

or conflicting

inadequate

knowledge

the needs associated with

are driven by inadequate

knowledge

structures,

social signals, or both. If collective, they are driven by

structures,

conflicting organizational

inappropriate

or inadequate

values, or com binations

group

processes,

of the three.

Strategies Facet The strategies facet represents the dynam ic process of addressing the situation includes both planned

and unplanned

actions,

eries. Although the entire process is potentially to be repeated,

evaluated,

directions,

interactions,

iterative, this is the stage m ost likely

revised, redefined, retried, adapted,

or replayed. This is

the facet in which the user focuses, clarifies, expands, reconfigures, understanding

and

or discov-

or redefines her

of the situation, what is needed to address the situation,

and how to

go about addressing the situation. Psychological and cognitive styles m ay playa role here. For exam ple, Julien (1999) found three prim ary styles am ong adolescents seeking career inform ation: inform ation),

(1) rational

(using m ultiple sources, basing actions on prior

(2) intuitive (little purposive

and (3) dependent

seeking, relating decision to enjoym ent),

(passive, no sense of personal responsibility).

identifies ten patterns of browsing that m ay be considered and Chatm an

(1991) note that the strategies used by the urban poor were related

m ostly to short-term inform ation

needs and lack of trust in outsiders.

The dynam ic nature

seeking in general, and this facet of the process in particular,

lead to adaptation tial user encounters

or correction

of the anom alous

state of knowledge

developing

action, a query statem ent,

a form alized

or a problem

of the situation

criteria, rem oved

m ay well

as the poten-

statem ent,

need (Taylor

1968), a plan of

in short a m ore structured

rep-

and what is required to address it.

On the other hand, the underlying strategy m ay seem highly irrational largely situational.

of

bridges, barriers, blocks, or helps (Dervin 1983) along the way.

The user m oves toward

resentation

(Part II of this book

strategies.) Agada (1999)

Decisions

are often m ade without

or m ay be

reference to predeterm ined

and once data elem ents are defined, others m ay be added while few are (Solom on

1997a). That is, inform ation

associated with decisions-it even actual inform ation)

"accretes."

sought and used is

The act of inform ation

retroactively

seeking itself (not

often serves to justify decisions already m ade rather than

to provide a basis for decision m aking (Feldm an and M arch 1981; Solom on 1997a). Solom on

(1997c) concludes

that "sense m aking involves m ovem ent

and space until a point of satisfaction diverts attention"

(l13S)-satisfying,

through

tim e

is reached, tim e runs out, or som ething else not optim izing; expanding

or contracting

to

Common Concepts

61

fit tim e or resource lim its; brushed aside by m ore pressing issues; avoiding sharing because it would violate previous com m itm ents

or confidences, or be in conflict with

one's own self-interest, or lead to loss of credit or sounding foolish-resulting "self-construction

of inform ation

poverty"

(1136). "Sources of inform ation

so m uch selected as defined as appropriate reasons

related

to W eick's

properties

in the

organizationally

of organizational

are not

for a constellation

sense m aking"

of

(Solom on

1997b,1112). Often, for exam ple, inform al com m unication written

is valued m uch m ore than form al

sources because it is perceived as m ore current,

can be questioned,

can be

evaluated on the basis of associated nonverbal cues, m ay be associated with sources of power, and can provide forum s for extracting

and enacting cues, evaluating plau-

sibility and social im pacts, and creating group identities. So, one's reference group and recent consequences

playa

large part in organizational

For exam ple, in Solom on's study (1997a, 1105-1106), priority-ranked

were quickly added, "followed

and processing,

and then attem pted

cies, and m issing inform ation.

inform ation

sharing.

projects that had not been

by laborious

inform ation

gathering

use, which identified inconsistencies,

The repeated jum p to an answer without

inaccuraanalysis of

the question led to costly attem pts to m ake sense when the answer and the question did not satisfactorily

m atch."

Thus, Solom on concludes

that inform ation

can both lim it and focus future action, especially when inform ation lection is not grounded

in an understanding

an autom ated database.

seeking and col-

of the potential biases of past decisions.

It is in this strategies facet that the inform ation inform ation

system s

seeker is likely to interact with the

system , whether that system is a college adm issions office, a restaurant, teller m achine, a library, an interoffice m essage system , or an online

That very interaction

m ay require the user to evaluate his m ental m odel

of the system and thereby change or adjust the expectations action. In the course of negotiating

encounter new data that raise new questions (Kuhlthau or the interaction,

he holds for that inter-

strategies, the user m ay learn som ething new or

or redefine the situation

1985), reevaluate the search

and start over again in form ulating

strategies (Johnson and Rice 1987). Part of the evaluation

process of the strategies facet includes weighing the costs

and benefits of pursuing

the search. This can be influenced by resources available,

such as m otivation,

tim e, convenience, tolerance for uncertainty,

cation, or a world view that sees the potential or less likely. Such inform al evaluation

the situation

as m ore

of the potential risks and value is facilitated

if the user already has a clear understanding ness of the range

for addressing

or delayed gratifi-

of the problem situation and an aware-

of system choices available

to address

the situation.

A m ore

62

Chapter 3

form al evaluation

is not possible until access is gained and the inform ation

is used

and evaluated.

Outcom es

Facet

Outcom es

include retrieval and actual use or consum ption

evaluation

and possible redefinition

facet of the inform ation-seeking

and reiteration

and

of the process. The outcom es

is rarely exam ined

explicitly in research

seeking, except for extensive focus on precision,

satisfaction.

Several inform ation

scientists

(Belkin and Vickery 1985; Dervin and Nilan called for including outcom es

as well as

process, though im plied in discussions of access to

the value or benefit of using inform ation, on inform ation

of inform ation

in evaluating

and

recall, relevance,

com m unication

researchers

1986; Tague and Schultz 1989) have inform ation

also pointed out practical difficulties in attem pting

retrieval services but have

to do so. In the literature

m edia, however, som e studies do explicitly exam ine how m ediated (and, by im plication,

inform ation)

halyi 1990; Radway

1984) or how it is adopted,

on m ass

com m unication

is used in everyday life (Kubey and Csikszentm iadapted,

and reinvented

(Johnson

and Rice 1983; 1987; Rice and Rogers 1980; Rogers 1983). Outcom es citation)

include both product

m ay playa

secondary

and process. The product

role as an object evaluated

the system . Process outcom es

(docum ent,

feedback,

to assess the success of

m ay be the affective experience

of conducting

search, or changes in the user's problem definition or expectations,

the

such as what one

can do in the process of searching, such as realizing one now has the ability to sort lists, produce form ation,

high-quality

output,

and m anipulate

find associations

am ong otherwise

the system interfaces (M archionini

on the potential consequences

disparate

1995, 15). Constraints

of new electronic environm ents

for inform ation

ing range from physical, econom ic, and technical to intellectual property, the legal authority alterations ways

of different representations

as well as the essence of a docum ent

by different

users),

and whether

resource or as a right (M archionini The organizational

distortion,

and com m itm ent

power

collusion

from

between

controlling

that can be hyperlinked is viewed

field probably

in different

as a com m odity/

(Glauser 1984; M orrison inform ation

coalitions,

inform ation,

provides

the m ost pervasive

seeking is associated with satisfac-

social integration,

insufficient access to organizational increased

copyright,

1995).

com m unication

achievem ent,

seek-

(both in term s of copies and digital

inform ation

coverage of outcom es. For exam ple, inform ation tion, perform ance,

in-

socialization,

im balances

m essage

1993a; 1993b). Alternatively,

is associated

inform ation

reduced

with loss of control,

in inform ation hoarding,

distribution,

decreased

accounta-

Common Concepts

bility, and m ultiple

dem ands

toward

som e inform ation

m ation

distribution

(Sm ithson

on attention

takes

away

from

can have m ultiple

1989). Inform ation

directed

For exam ple,

directed

elsewhere,

throughout

system s and institutions

with, and m ayor

as, users' experiences.

1996). As attention

attention

consequences

access to feedback about service provision, m ay not correspond

(Johnson

63

infor-

the organization

m ay have better or worse

and what they do have access to m ayor

m ay not provide the sam e kinds of feedback lowered

levels of accessibility

decrease user dem and, thus ironically increasing a library's

to books m ay

sustain ability (Buckland

1991b, ch. 13). M ost literatures

assum e that decreasing ignorance

as likely benefit of access to inform ation. always reduce ignorance.

However,

It can increase ignorance

Kellerm an

through

and Reynolds

environm ental

by identifying

1990; M arch

m ore alternatives;

biases

toward

(Feldm an and M arch Jones 1990; Swinehart

decision justification,

inform ation

foster groupthink sim plifying,

(Eisenberg

1989; W eick

and Dutton

solving rather than situation

(Janis 1971); be susceptible and

sym bolizing

1981); be constrained

1987; M arch

to

rationality

by available resources,

1994); be used to em phasize problem

assessm ent and assum ptions

(Nutt 1984); and increase

because of overload

free system s and m aterials im plies im proved

(O'Reilly

of authoritativeness,

of source, and accuracy. This is because com m ercial

institutions

staff and expertise to assess and enforce these attributes in order to m eet their custom ers' (Borgm an

2000,

1980).

access. However,

can also m ean m ore difficult access to the evaluation

business

1979). As

m ay increase uncertainty

1968); reinforce centrally held beliefs in threat or crisis situ-

confidence even while reducing perform ance

future

and 1984;

1981); delay or foreclose the decision process (Saunders and

ations (Staw, Sandelands,

ing these criteria

or to m a-

m ay have m ultiple

of am biguity

1994; Sm ithson

additional

confirm ing,

leading to satisficing (Hickson

Often providing

enactm ent,

flexible interpretation

(1996, 77) sum m arizes,

personal

dem ands

1996; Singer 1980). Further, ignorance

benefits, such as sim plifying

Johnson

seeking m ay not

(Kerwin 1993), and ignorance

fostered to reduce inform ation-processing

nipulate actors (Johnson

wider com m itm ent

inform ation

by widening the scope of aware-

ness about what is known socially but not personally m ay be intentionally

is necessarily a desired as well

it

integrity

not only have the

but also depend on achiev-

requirem ents

and thus obtain

196). In free system s, the costs of assessing the

m aterials are borne by the user, who has no econom ies of scale in creating or finding these m etadata. Including

outcom es

in evaluating

for relevance to both the situation

the inform ation-seeking

interaction

accounts

and the context of the user. If, indeed, the value

64

Chapter 3

Table 3.4 Potential Interactions of M ediation with Access Potential

Examples with System

Examples with User

Intensifying

Acceleration, embedding of difficulties (crazy systems) Increase in surveillance potential Increase in capability to match data from different sources Increase interactive capabilities

Potential for those with access to gain further advantage, and those without, further disadvantage Compounding of power balances/imbalances (panoptic potential) Potential for greater access

Compensating

Facilitates convenience in system of otherwise limited availability (time, distance, scheduling) Facilitates access when system design is limited (e.g., interface, indexing, organization)

Facilitates boundary spanning for those otherwise limited in space, time, mobility, flexibility Facilitates ease of use when procedural or cognitive knowledge, or experience are limited Facilitates interaction across interpersonal and structural bounds

of information outcomes

cannot

learning,

a new search, tation

process

focusing,

reinventing,

iterations

together,

by, and influencing,

M ediation

and Technology

and mediation

ate, transmit,

and process

personally indicates

receive,

visual,

auditory,

expanded,

or enhanced

by human

intermediaries

(Ruben

on access to information:

has the potential it can intensify

thus generating for adap-

olfactory,

in the literature

or compensate.

by media,

or tactile or inter-

of the literature

influences Table

on

abilities to cre-

gustatory,

1993, 2 2 7 ) . Analysis

for two primary

being

facet.

individual

technologically

may

tie the information-

or strategies

as issues or concerns

for

process

the facets and potentially

occurs when our natural

are extended,

that mediation

the situation,

facet. Outcomes

situation,

arise frequently

M ediation

and retrieval

and serve as the catalyst

among

the context,

to account

access to value. Outcomes

or redirecting strategies

the loop

access to information.

messages

including

of the strategies

closing

influenced

Technology

of the information-seeking

for the entire process,

or they may influence

and further

seeking

until it is used, then it is necessary

or use in the evaluation

in order to account include

be known

or constraints

3.4 summarizes

the

Common Concepts

two prim ary potential interactions of intensifying

and com pensating

65

of m ediation with access, and includes exam ples potential

for both the inform ation

system and a

user seeking access.

Potential Interactions Lievrouw

Between M ediation

and Technology

(1994) argues that technology establishes an "inform ation

with regard to access to inform ation.

The m ore traditional

nologies (such as the m ass m edia), because of a num ber nom ies of scale, tend to operate in an "inform ing m eans

that

inform ation

sources to m ultiple this environm ent

is dissem inated

broadcast/m ass

is m ediated not only by technology

ists, announcers, com m unication m unication with

colum nists, librarians, technologies

num ber

of

m edia). Inform ation

in

such as producers,

or m useum curators.

radio,

journal-

Newer point-to-point

tend to be less expensive than traditional

interm ediaries

or sm all groups, (although

and are som ewhat

bulletin

boards

lists by list owners, and so on). These technologies, com puter

equipped

with a m odem

ducive to an "interactive" Lievrouw

a lim ited

This

m ass com -

system s to operate, are m ore likely to be used by individuals to interact

other individuals

hum an

environm ent."

(television, newspapers,

or books, for exam ple) but also by hum an gatekeepers

tech-

of factors including eco-

inform ation

as m essages from

receivers (the fam iliar

environm ent"

com m unication

are m ediated

by sysops, m ailing

frequently relying on a personal

and com m unication

inform ation

less likely to require

environm ent

software,

(Culnan

are m ore con-

and M arkus

1987;

1994; Sproull and Kiesler 1991; Zuboff 1988), in which the inform ation

seeker is frequently

a participant

others on a network,

Intensifying

in the interactive

process of com m unicating

with

bulletin board, m ailing list, users' group, or e-m ail system .

Potential

The intensifying potential of m ediation

operates when selected characteristics

user or the system are intensified with use of the m ediation. and Prusak (1993) note that the potential decrease centralization

of organizational

through broader access to inform ation

of the

For exam ple, M cGee inform ation

system s to

com m unication

m ight

also reduce an organization's

overall focus on strategic issues, as local tactical and

operational

salient to local units with increased

issues are m ore

(1980) points out the potential an inform ation accom m odate

for technology

control.

Singer

to accelerate or em bed difficulties of

system . Consider, for exam ple, a com m ent such as, "No, we can't your request-the

com puter

isn't set up that way"; one (technologi-

cal) system is intensified over another (social) system .

66

Chapter 3

In the context

of the workplace,

veillance capabilities panoptic potential technologies

(Gandy

technology

1993; M arx

has the potential

to intensify

and Sherizen 1986; Zuboff

(Botan and M cCreadie

1993) of com m unication

increases both the likelihood

sur-

1988). The

and inform ation

that surveillance will be carried out and

the capability for m atching of data from different sources (such as insurance records and em ploym ent

histories) to produce

a new set of data that would not otherwise

exist (Gandy 1993), leading to the exclusion of classes of individuals or groups from eligibility to participate The intensifying

in the workplace

potential

increase the possibilities

for access to inform ation

with the advent of the printing public availability

of com m unity

Network)

in Santa

Through

project

or in society.

m ay also be positive. For exam ple,

can

(Frenkel 1989), as was the case

press or the telephone

or, m ore recently, with the

online system s such as the PEN (Public Electronic

M onica

(Rogers,

PEN, all citizens, including

Collins-Jarvis,

Santa M onica's

and the potential

for participation

and

Schm itz

1994).

significant hom eless popula-

tion, can gain access to a wide range of opportunities tion, advocacy,

technologies

for inform ation, in the political

com m unicaprocess. If we

return to the exam ple of m atching data, other possible outcom es of new sets of data are the ability to provide m edical treatm ents.

crucial services or avoid dangerous

In the workplace,

used to "inform ate"

activities

feedback

interactions

from inform ation

to the benefit of workers

am ong

system s can be

and custom ers

(Zuboff

1988). W hether the intensifying on the perspective

of a particular

m ediation

from which it is considered.

argues that technologies

facilitate corporate

is positive or negative depends

For exam ple,

H. I. Schiller (1989)

control of culture. From the perspective

of those with concerns for the rights of individuals,

this m ay seem to indicate a dan-

ger. On the other hand, from the corporate

perspective, this m ay be in keeping with

a long-range

service to custom ers

m arketing

plan to im prove

and m ay, indeed,

appear very desirable.

Com pensating M ediation

Potential

and technology

are often viewed as com pensating

tions or barriers

to access, spanning

physical,

cognitive,

social,

or

other

boundaries constraints

for potentiallim ita-

of tim e or space, or overcom ing on

access to

inform ation

and

com m unication. Technologies lim itations

can bring inform ation

or lim itations

im posed

work schedule that is incom patible

to those unable to travel because of physical

through

responsibilities

with hours of operation

such as child care or a of a particular

inform a-

Common Concepts

67

tion system . It is not long ago that one had to arrange to visit a financial institution during banking hours in order to carry out sim ple transactions

such as the deposit-

ing or cashing of checks. Now, because of the spread of ATM m achines, safety concerns m ay present a barrier, hours of operation transactions

although

no longer lim it when such

can be carried out, even when the user is thousands

of m iles away from

the hom e institution. Sim ilarly, m ediation

can com pensate

for lim itations

in procedural

the user or for a system design that is less than transparent. to a library. Depending

on the need and experience

m ation sought m ay require as little m ediation interface

(online catalog)

ing to find the location ing a lengthy interview

a typical visit

as a few m inutes with a technological located m ap of the build-

source. It m ight be m ore com plex, requir-

with the reference librarian,

online databases with the librarian

Consider

of

of the user, access to the infor-

and a glance at a conveniently

of an inform ation

knowledge

an extended

acting as interm ediary,

to locating inform ation

search of several

then again, with guidance

from the librarian,

directions

sources available in the build-

ing, and additional

guidance in filling out requests for interlibrary

loans. Follow-up

m ay be required for those item s that are supposed to be on the shelf but are not, and for ideas on how to track down needed sources that are on loan. In other words, specific m ediations M ediation barriers

can com pensate

and technology

can com pensate

to access to inform ation.

tion, individuals

for som e lim itations,

m ay overcom e

For exam ple, interpersonal

but not for others.

also for interpersonal

or structural

in com puter-m ediated

com m unica-

barriers

such as shyness to interact

with others when they would be far less likely to do so face-to-face 1987). Think of the increased

access for those with lim ited hearing

with the offering of telecom m unications In an organizational com puter-m ediated the perspective

context,

upward

com m unication

of the m ailroom

m eans to convey that brilliant spective of the CEO, however,

(Rice and Love brought

com m unication

than in traditional

clerk, this m ay appear

is far m ore likely through face-to-face desirable.

idea to the head of the corporation. who is deluged with hundreds

contexts.

Influences and Constraints

on Access

Factors

identity,

such as survival,

extraction

of cues

"structure

and

From

At last he has a From the per-

of e-m ail m essages

daily, she m ay long for the days when a closed door and a good secretary som e quiet work tim e, and hierarchical

about

for the deaf and disabled (TDD).

assured

status helped to filter inform ation.

history,

relations

support

what,

with

where,

the environm ent, when,

why,

and

and how

68

Chapter 3

inform ation

behaviors are em ployed in sense m aking"

several decades researchers m ation

available

from

(Solom on 1997b, 1109). For

have been aware that the quantity

or quality of infor-

less im portant

to users than is the

degree of ease with which they gain access to the inform ation

(Taylor 1968). M ost

studies interested ily on physical Gerstberger

a system is frequently

in access, such as to inform ation access or access to other individuals

(Culnan

1983; 1984;

and Allen 1968; Hart and Rice 1991; Hiltz and Johnson

Shook 1988). Buckland's (1) personal

system s, have focused prim ar-

sum m ary

of m otivations

values and m otivations,

(professional,

physical,

social),

and

Buckland couches the allocation, nitive, econom ic,

political,

15.4, 161). Providers users'-depending

for becom ing inform ed

(2) inform ation (3) cultural

provision,

includes

needed for various situations

influences

and

social pressures.

and use of inform ation

and m anagerial

1985;

1989; Rice and

contexts

system s in cog-

(see, for exam ple,

his figure

thus have their own values and m otivations-distinct

on aspects such as com m ercial/free,

sponsorships,

from

policy, and

political influence. In general, the research straints

literatures

on access to inform ation:

discuss six categories

physical,

and political (Rice 1987), sum m arized Two broad,

integrative

dim ensionality

concepts

cognitive,

social,

in table 3.5.

reflect this increasing

of influences and constraints.

environm ent"

of influences and con-

affective, econom ic,

awareness

The concept

of the m ulti-

of an "inform ation

use

(Taylor 1991) addresses the contexts in which specific groups of indi-

viduals operate and how these contexts influence inform ation

behavior and choices.

Inform ation

of inform ation

behavior

includes the flow, use, and perception

a group. An inform ation (2) their organizational possible

resolutions

use environm ent

they are faced with,

m ation

in problem -solving

related

concept

is the

is characterized

and environm ental

and (4) their typical handling

inform ation

attitudes toward inform ation

and knowledge

include

the dom ains,

general

intelligence,

system /m edium ,

how knowledge

is organized,

m ents, professional

com plex

of

prior experience with con-

(M archionini

and special knowledge

and the inform ation-seeking

available

and resources

1995, 11). Cognitive and skills relating

to

process itself (such as

experience with types of reasoning,

norm s and strategies,

of infor1991). A

system s, books, and other people),

seeking and acquisition,

that influence how we seek and use inform ation factors

one's

and

dom ains, specific and general

cognitive skills (including self-reflection and m onitoring), and system s (including com puter

1992; Taylor

infrastructure,"

knowledge, m ental m odels for system s and knowledge

tent dom ains

by (1) groups of people,

settings, (3) the types of problem s

activities (Katzer and Fletcher

"personal

within

the task require-

and appropriate

strategies

and

Common Concepts

resources)

(M archionini

tenacity,

tolerance

social interaction

1995, ch. 4). Attitudes

for am biguity and m edia"

include

and uncertainty,

"m otivation,

curiosity,

69

confidence,

and preferences

for

(61).

Physical Influences/Constraints

Geography

and Dem ographics

Physical access to inform ation

is described in sev-

eral different ways. Som e assum e that those who live in rural areas find access to inform ation

m ore difficult than those in urban

dispute this (Larose and M ettler potential

of telecom m unications

geographic

and dem ographic

flexibility in transcending

areas (Hudson

1989). It is com m only and telecom m uting

lim itations

geographic

1988), while others

agreed, however,

to access to inform ation,

constraints

that the

can serve to ease som e of the and can add to

to access in the context of em ploy-

m ent (Kraut 1989) and beyond.

Environm ent inform ation ronm ent

and Ergonom ics flow network

regulates

distribution

gard to the workplace functions.

The environm ent

(Archea

can be thought

of and access to inform ation,

or other environm ents

The very way in which

of as part of the

1977). The physical arrangem ent

of the envi-

particularly

inform ation

is organized

can influence

(Budd 1987), as discussed in part II of this book. W ithin the environm ent, entation

of furniture,

partitions,

for inform ation

of or interaction

that is m ost likely to be accessible through

with others. The sam e considerations

source of inform ation

alternatively, interactions

Space

is one that requires

listening,

observation

is very noisy, and the access is ham pered;

if it is very quiet, one has easier access to one's own or others' spoken (whether directly or indirectly).

Space can serve physically to influence or constrain

along dim ensions obstruction.

accounts

apply to the environm ent

when relying on senses other than sight. If the environm ent prim ary

access the ori-

sources of light, and so on, determ ine what is visu-

ally or audibly accessible and what is hidden. In this regard, environm ent principally

with re-

in which m ore than one individual

of distance and proxim ity,

Distance

and proxim ity

access to and interpretation

access to inform ation

openness and security, and clarity or

arise as physical influences or constraints

of inform ation

on

(Archea 1977; Davis 1984; Reinsch and

Beswick 1990; Rice and Aydin 1991). In general, that which is closer in space, especially if it is visible, is m ore likely to be accessible (Rice 1988) and, in particular, proxim ity

to a system tends to increase likelihood

of its use (Hiltz and Johnson

70

Chapter 3

Table 3.5 Influences/Constraints

on Access to Inform ation

Influence/ Constraint Physical

Im plications

Exam ples/Com ponents Geography,

Can lead to perceived

dem ographics

Environm ent:

arrangem ent,

orientation

Space: distance/proxim ity,

open/secure,

Display: m edium ,

Cognitive

form at,

inform ation-

Awareness:

identifying

of

geographical

flexibility,

m atching

between user and

system , between user and representation of inform ation

procedures

Literacy: verbal, quantitative, Facility/skill:

by physical abilities,

lim itations,

Requires

need

of m eans of addressing,

rights, entitlem ents,

technical

Leads to questioning: query statem ent

system , com m and

notion

protocol

tion of need for inform ation,

M atching

of user and system : content

of relevance

and language,

m ental m odel and ex-

learning style, organization

Influenced

of

as valid representa-

language,

pectations,

or

of system

com plex power relations

capabilities

Understanding:

availability

likelihood

use Influenced

clear/obstructed processing

convenience,

by educational,

notion

biologi-

cal, social background/experience

of inform ation Affective

Attitude

toward

com puting,

Econom ic

inform ation

seeking,

Influenced

by perceived

dependability,

interacting

Confidence/fear/trust

Influenced

Com fort/discom fort

ceived control

M otivation

ence, resources,

level

Benefits: profitability, solutions,

affluence,

public good externalities,

ancillary

by relative status, perover situation,

of inform ation:

privacy, security concerns

Influences com pounding

social value

experi-

fam iliarity

Can lead to control content,

convenience,

availability

effect, rein-

Costs: price, m oney, tim e, inconve-

forcing link between socioeconom ic

nience, discom fort,

class and inform ational

going without,

Influenced

Value, potential

om ies of scale, class m em bership,

known

for value added: not

until inform ation

is used

educational

by m arket

class

risk (loss of m oney, tim e, face)

forces, econ-

and social background,

policy Social

Cultural

norm s: privilege, struggle

Class m em bership Social networks, Education:

and background electronic

learning,

networks

skill level,

com m unication

and

expert/novice,

with system , situation

fam iliarity

to

and inform ational

class effect influences

access to privilege/lack Influences whether

technology Experience:

socioeconom ic Com pounding

com petence Com petence:

Influences type of inform ation which one has access, linking

over tim e

individual

to use access to inform ation effectively

is able

Common Concepts

71

Table 3.5 (continued) Influence/ Constraint Political

1989).

Examples/Components

Implications

Power, including knowledge, with special implications in democracy Control: of information flow, of individuals, of public debate, of policy Equity, participation: ability to understand and be understood

Influences individual's ability to exercise political rights and power Influenced by communication competence, resources, social environment, existence of a right, and awareness of that right

However,

it cannot

access necessarily

follow

play, such as timing, W hether

one another

information

or locked

such as security

thus reducing differently,

clearance,

perceived

however,

and thereby

ing openness to facilitate indirectly,

information

self-contained

tasks

organizational

structures,

access to a

anxiety,

another

user

of assistance

1973;

influence

accessible Thus,

while also limiting, and downward relations structures

1978),

(includ-

serve both

though

usually Exam-

outsourcing,

units, lateral

relations,

slack resources,

and Rice 1987).

networks,

on must

of the consequences.

specialized

1974; Johnson

sym-

and constraint

upward

1983; O'Reilly

full knowledge

such as hierarchies,

within

through

argues that organizations

organizational

and vision,

relations

of meaning

by superior-subordinate

unit integration,

mission

structure-its

its informal

information

access (Kanter

(Galbraith

organizational

a major

1985). Internal

include

sources

and diffusion.

and without

systems,

influence

appropriate

as do others,

of making

and to constrain unintentionally,

area might

structure,

2000)-as

its creation

(Jablin

only with

or suffer performance

and the structuring

is heavily influenced

and trust)

Closed can

this is to con-

in order to gain access. In an open

considers

and formal

(1996),

dilemma

ples of such structuring teams,

or available

about

access.

boundaries,

Johnson

and delegating

flow of information

may come in to

the user will likely need resources,

or embarrassed,

(Rice and Gattiker

access to information.

available

If the latter,

of space

its positional

the inherent

and information

access to information. way to think

to ease in locating

perceived

and across organizational bols and jargon

another

access. The same open

conceptualization

structure,

proximity

1984). Other factors

a key, or a password

leading

increasing

A broader

filtering,

(Culnan

is publicly

area or system.

area, one might feel uncomfortable

manage

physical

ease of use, and experience.

of as secure. Therefore,

sider whether

physical

that

a space is open or closed can influence

also be thought

secured

be assumed

and markets,

and

M acrolevel also heavily

72

Chapter 3

influence access to inform ation, egy (Johnson

1996). Indeed, theories

fundam entally

1989; Nohria

and contents

in order

course, obstructions ical capabilities

com pared

structure

are

costs) of access to infor-

to those of the m arket (Bradach and Eccles

of a system and the needs or capabilities

for one to gain access to inform ation

of the user

(Culnan

1985).

Of

can arise in m ultiple form s, not all of them physical. The phys-

for those in wheelchairs

hand, if the sam e inform ation or uploaded

or delivered through

to a com puter

played (heavily determ ined

is physically

can be provided through

an interm ediary,

Along som ewhat

network

On the other

such as over the

clear path is accessible.

the sam e lines, the form in which inform ation

is dis-

by the interface) m ust also m atch the needs of the poten-

sources of inform ation

tactile, olfactory)

obstructed.

m ediation,

to which the sam e user has access,

an alternative,

tial user for access to occur. Browsing for inform ation, the potential

and m arket

of the user, however, can influence what is accessible. For exam ple,

m uch inform ation

Display

of organizational

strat-

and Eccles 1992; Powell 1990).

The features

telephone,

internal or com petitive

about the relative costs (such as transaction

m ation within an organization

m ust m atch

often as an intentional

for scanning

for exam ple,

be on display in som e m anner

or consideration

by the potential

requires that (visual, aural,

user (see part II).

Sim ilarly, the m edium m ust m atch the physical abilities of the user; print is an inappropriate

physical display of the inform ation

or com puter

reader,

inform ation.

Alternatively,

m unication

situations

or an audiotape,

for blind users. In that case, a hum an

m ight provide

adequate

what is displayed or displayable

access to the sam e

in organizational

com -

(such as clothing, decor, acceptable talking distance, sym bols

of status) also influence access (Davis 1984).

Cognitive Influences/Constraints

Awareness addressing

To gain access to inform ation, the situation

Dewdney 1994; M ulgan district's

are available

(Chatm an

1991; Gandy

1991). In order to pursue inform ation

budget, for exam ple,

pared and published.

a user m ust be aware that the m eans of 1988; Harris

and

about a local school

a citizen m ust first be aware that budgets are pre-

An additional

com ponent

of this factor is awareness that as a

citizen one is entitled to request copies of such budgets and that it is one's right to attend and participate also to procedural

in m eetings of the school board of directors. Awareness refers

knowledge,

or awareness

steps to take to gain access to inform ation

of how to m ove forward

or of what

(Budd 1987; Rice 1988). Awareness,

Common Concepts

therefore,

includes awareness

one's rights and entitlem ents

of m eans of addressing

the situation,

awareness

with regard to access to that inform ation,

ness of how to proceed in the inform ation-seeking

73

of

and aware-

process. Awareness

also m eans

the ability to identify tacit knowledge and to create shared cognition of that knowledge (Polanyi 1997). Som e inform ation contradictory

Literacy

m ay be too overwhelm ing,

disconnected,

(Harris and Dewdney 1994; W ilensky 1968).

Because print represents

a significant proportion

of displayed

inform a-

tion, one's reading or literacy level is likely to influence access to inform ation. the diffusion rate of technological form ation,

or

technological

m ediation

as the prim ary

m eans of access to in-

literacy becom es a m ajor influence or constraint

Current research m easuring prose, docum ent, and quantitative 1993) indicates that nearly one half of the U.S. population, lacks literacy skills adequate

for functioning

access, at best, to traditional

sources of inform ation.

Facility and Skill Level

system influences the inform ation

on access.

literacy (Kirsch et al. age sixteen and older,

in the workplace

The facility or skill level required

Given

and thus has lim ited

to use an inform ation

seeker's ability to access inform ation.

This exper-

tise includes general cognitive skills, expertise in the content dom ain, with the particular

source, m edium ,

and m ediated, num eric)

or system , expertise

in inform ation

seeking (unm ediated

and across types of online system s such as reference, full-text, and

(M archionini

1995). It is also likely that both past experience

and the

design of the system will influence that level. Included are skill levels in navigating an interface or interface protocol

(Rice 1988) and using the com m and

language of

a system (Culnan 1985).

M atching

M atching

between system and user is necessary along other dim ensions

of cognitive influence. For exam ple, the needs of the user and the offerings of a system m ust m atch with regard to content and language. If the system is designed or program m ed

with a m odel of a user that is not at all representative

operates, or if the user's m ental m odel or expectations m atch is not adequate.

A sim ple exam ple that arises frequently

m unity college library occurs when a potential find either highly technical

inform ation

of how the user

for a system are off base, the in a county com -

user enters the library expecting to

or the latest popular

novel. Because the

library's collection is built to support the two-year college curriculum is likely to be disappointed and system is not adequate.

only, the user

in either search, indicating that the m atch between user

74

Chapter 3

Access is sim ilarly influenced

or constrained

according

the system and user with regard to inform ation styles (Borgm an

1989; Gardner

lend them selves

processing,

logical m aturation

learning,

1983; Kolb 1984). Learning

far m ore successfully to processing

ing by doing rather

to how well m atched

or intelligence

styles of som e users

visual inform ation

than by reading. Also, learners

are

or to learn-

develop through

an epistem o-

process (Perry 1970), and they m ay do so differentially according

to factors such as gender (Belenky et al. 1986; Gilligan 1982; Jansen extent that higher m ental functions

are socially form ed

1989). To the

and culturally

transm itted

(Vygotsky 1978), hum an cognitive processes differ according to cultural phenom ena (Luria 1976). A classroom straint

is an ideal illustration

on access to inform ation

of the potential

of such a m atch

Freire 1969). Students who learn m ore readily through

doing than through

or listening will be m ore likely to grasp the inform ation as a workshop

than in a reading

influence or con-

or its lack (Belenky et al. 1986;

and lecture form at.

reading

at hand if the class is run

Thus the degree of m atching

between what the user needs and can m ake use of m ost effectively, and what and how the system m akes available its resources, which the interaction Another provide

m ajor form of m atching

or obtain

tion-processing

can strongly influence the degree to

leads to access. is the extent to which the m edium

access to inform ation

and com m unication

needs of the task (Daft and Lengel 1986; Johnson

and Beswick 1990) and the individual

(Dervin 1980; Scham ber

Understanding

that a need for inform ation

One's

level of understanding knowledge address

certainly

understanding

of that gap, problem atic influence

it (Budd 1987; Dervin

ing the need for inform ation the situation.

1980).

situation,

of gaining

1996; Reinsch

1994).

exists and the

or anom alous

understanding

of the dom ain

or identify-

of interest,

of the dom ain

to

given

of interest

will

is truly accessible in the sense that it is intelligible to the

user, as every user is a novice in m any dom ains

and is also likely to be

expert in at least one (Cuff 1980). Even given an understanding

of the need that is

closer to conscious than to visceral need (Taylor 1968), and a well-developed standing

state of

access to inform ation

Closely tied to understanding

is the understanding

The level of cognitive

influence what inform ation potential

the likelihood

chosen to

m atches the inform a-

of the dom ain, additional

under-

cognitive factors influence access.

Affective Influences/Constraints

Attitudes

Less has

access. Em otions,

been written

about

feelings, and thoughts

affective

influences

are im portant

and

constraints

and changing

factors,

on as

Common Concepts

people seek to understand tion of students

a situation

as they attem pt

dents' own attitudes

(Kuhlthau

1993; Solom on

inform ation

or experiences influence their attem pts "stupid"

seeking and sharing (Dewhirst

(Rice 1988), or about an inform ation ability (Culnan

1997a). Observa-

to find their way in a library reveals that the stu-

about their com petence

to gain access. M any are afraid of feeling or appearing tudes toward

75

system 's convenience

1985), or availability

(Culnan

or inadequate.

1971), toward

Atti-

com puting

(Culnan 1984), depend-

1983) m ay all influence one's deci-

sions about whether or not to pursue access in a given situation.

Personal attributes

such as creativity and high growth needs are associated with different inform ationseeking patterns

(Varlejs 1986). An experience of "flow" (a balance am ong control,

challenge, intuition,

and enjoym ent)

accessing inform ation

than

with

voicem ail (Trevino and W ebster

Confidence, Fear, Trust com ponents

m ay be associated

others,

such as electronic

Technology

be m ore

an inform ation

likely to feel apprehensive

with seeking inform ation or unsure

as they

1983). Those in the past

approach

influences how inform ation

is exchanged

user pursues

source facilitates

the behavior

and supply of resources. Trust between interand interpreted

(O'Reilly

the process. Affective influences enable

of others or to m anipulate

into feeling fearful, unworthy, reveal inform ation

and threatened,

about them selves or their financial situations

or providing

can include obsessiveness, rationality,

others

(Hochschild

1983).

or teachers to m anipulate

others

into feeling confident and capable of gaining access to inform ation. obtaining

som e to

m essages or the inform ation

thereby m aking them m ore likely to

In som e instances, it m ay be the job of librarians

toward

1978),

access, and how willingly an interm ediary

flow. It is the job of collection agency em ployees, for exam ple, to m anipulate

attitudes

another

seeker perceives herself to be in control of a situation. This in turn is

how willingly a potential or inform ation

of

situation. Confidence and fear are related to the degree to which

related to relative status, experience,

m anipulate

instead

attitudes m ay influence, also, further affective

such as confidence, fear, self-efficacy, or trust (Hochschild

inform ation-seeking

actants

m essaging

1992).

who have had less than optim al experiences m ay

m ore with som e m edia for

access to inform ation

M otivations

or

and com m unication

defensiveness, avoidance of responsibility,

ten-

dency to blam e, risk aversion, preference for am biguity so as not to foreclose future actions, anxiety and arousal over im plications expertise, insufficient shared trust, expectation professional

standards,

1954; Eisenberg

of new inform ation,

and loss of status in revealing ignorance

1984; Feldm an and M arch

distrust of others'

of future interaction

1981; Kuhlthau

and Ashford 1995; Sm ithson 1993; Staw, Sandelands,

and reciprocity,

(Allen 1969; Blau

1991; Sm ith, Carroll,

and Dutton

1981).

76

Chapter 3

Com fort/Discom fort

Because every inform ation-seeking

rare for any user to m ove absolutely

com fortably

situation

through

the process

1991). For som e, affective influences are sufficient to preclude search process, or they m ay easily becom e frustrated search without fam iliar

gaining

is unique, it is

their taking

or discouraged

setting or situation,

in using a fam iliar

or content

dom ain

on the

and give up the

access. Users are m ore likely to experience

with a fam iliar situation

(Kuhlthau

com fort

system or protocol,

in a

or in dealing

(Cuff 1980).

Econom ic Influences/Constraints

Benefits

Econom ic

anticipated

influences

and

constraints

include

benefits, costs, and value. Anticipated

weighed against the anticipated,

three

basic com ponents:

and realized benefits of access are

real, and perceived costs of access. Benefits can take

m any form s, such as profitability

or, m ore abstract,

that is used to address or seek a solution

gaining access to inform ation

to a problem atic

situation

and that then

increases one's sense of self-efficacy. Benefits also include public good externalities, the additional repeated

benefits to the public good derived from inform ation's

use (Hall 1981), and ancillary social value, the additional

derived from inform ation's

availability

From another perspective, distributing

inform ation.

benefit of determ ining corporate

(Bagdikian

This includes potential

benefits, along with the

for others. As the num ber

and film and video production

potential

of

grows sm aller

and the range of ideas represented

leading perhaps

clusive access to an enorm ous

or

such as television and radio broadcast-

1990), the num ber of perspectives lim ited,

financial

is available

owners of sources of inform ation

becom e dangerously

value to society

it is beneficial to gain access to creating, producing,

publishing,

or

or use (Bates 1988).

what inform ation

ing, book and periodical

availability

to a very sm all group's

can

gaining ex-

to influence and shape our culture

(H. I.

Schiller 1989).

Costs

Som e costs are explicitly m onetary.

For exam ple,

com m ercial

online data-

base searches involve various fees. In som e instances these costs are absorbed system , in som e they are offset through

m echanism s

such as selling advertising

or space, and in others the costs are passed along to the inform ation vidual or organization). free on the Internet;

Som e previously

the Internet

com m ercial

databases

is an exciting m arketplace

by the tim e

seeker (indi-

are now available

to follow to see which

of these and other business m odels will prevail. To watch television, a viewer either pays for program m ing

through

purchasing

advertised

products

or pays for pro-

Common Concepts

gram m ing

m ore directly through

cable fees or subscriber

donations;

77

m uch less fre-

quently do viewers pay for viewing specific program s. Other costs m ay be less quantifiable. the costs of tim e, inconvenience, gain access to inform ation, determ ine

in advance

For exam ple, it m ay be difficult to quantify

and annoyance

especially

(M arch

experienced

as the potential

1994; Rice and Shook

1988). Reinsch

(1990), for exam ple, show that a variety of dim ensions deciding upon which m edium

while attem pting

to

benefits m ay be difficult to and Beswick

of cost com e into play when

to use (e-m ail or voice m ail) for different situations.

For som e, tim e spent waiting m ay also represent loss of incom e as well as the tim ely usefulness

of the inform ation,

and therefore

social cost. There m ay be social, personal, som e kinds of knowledge,

keeping

represents

both a quantifiable

and organizational

tacit what

could otherwise

becom e

tional m em ory (Boisot 1998). Of course, gaining access to inform ation form ation

about appropriate

has costs (Johnson

Clear goals and the m otivation

Chatham

and Anderson

1991). However,

anticipated

if they are not im m ediately (Chatm an

affective constraints

1991). M otivation

sufficient im port to outweigh

a com fortable tionships,

situation.

m ay also influ-

gratification,

nonelites

tend

so the benefits of access to

obvious, m ay be less likely to be trusted or can serve as a balancing

the uncertainty,

influence against

or need for inform ation lack of confidence,

is m ore likely to generate

M otivational

worldview

benefits. For exam ple,

in a search. The situation

fact, a feeling of discom fort

m ay be m ore willing to take on

the individual's

he is likely to anticipate

to function with an em phasis on im m ediate inform ation,

1987).

to achieve them exem plify a balance against costs

(Budd 1987), so that those with greater m otivation access costs (Chatm an

organiza-

requires in-

sources and channels, which itself requires access and

1996; O'Reilly,

ence how accurately

and a

costs to articulating

or m otivate

m ay be of

or discom fort.

In

a search than is

factors can include econom ic or political rela-

or health and fam ily concerns,

for exam ple. They are influenced

also by

the user's perceived need for and store of resources. Any consideration without

inform ation,

situation,

ultim ate

or of not gaining access to inform ation

solve a problem ,

can be described

Value

of costs also m ust take into account the potential

application

necessary to address a

or carry out a new project. This is one type of cost that

as risk (Culnan

1984).

If one weighs the costs against potential objective

cost of doing

of access to inform ation

value of that inform ation.

fits and, in the case of inform ation,

benefits and pursues the search, the

is to gain access to the underlying

Value requires the ability to anticipate

or

bene-

is not fixed (Bates 1988) and requires use of the

78

Chapter 3

inform ation

itself (Arrow

ized or understood.

1979). Use, however,

does not assure that value is real-

Access to the value of inform ation

requires the belief that such

access is likely (Dervin 1989) and requires a m atch between expectations, abilities and what is offered. Value can be accessed by individuals

needs, and

as well as by

social groups (fam ilies, work groups, or athletic team s). The need for access can be m ore urgent when the potential

for value added is greatest (M urdock

and Golding

1989).

Social Influences/Constraints

Cultural Norm s

According to Hall (1982), there are two social groups with regard

to access: those with privileged access and the power to signify term s of the debate, and those who m ust struggle to gain access. For those am ong the latter group, not only can it be difficult to gain access to relevant inform ation,

but such inform ation

m ay not exist at all. This occurs because others who are likely to be oblivious to issues of im port to the latter group set the agenda and select what is to be reported on, debated,

discussed,

which technologies

researched,

or questioned.

are developed, sold, and im plem ented

norm s about rationality

and being inform ed

access and use (Feldm an and M arch in access to inform ation, within

organizations

and expectations

Cultural

also influence

(Bram an 1989). Sym bolic

foster levels and rituals of inform ation

1981). To understand

they m ust be considered

the role of technologies

in the light of local social fields

(Perin 1991), the organization's

(Dewhirst

norm s

inform ation-sharing

norm s

1971; M iller and Jablin 1991), the larger social context

and processes (Slack 1984), or as a social phenom enon its host society (Doctor 1991). The socialization

that shapes and is shaped by

process in organizations

and other

groups not only helps to establish the norm s for accessing, sharing, and using inform ation

but also the value of seeking and providing

feedback

(say, about

perfor-

m ance) (Ashford and Tsui 1991; M iller and Jablin 1991).

Class M em bership

and Background

One's class m em bership

act as a social influence or constraint

on access to inform ation

has the potential

to

(Agada 1999; Harris

and Dewdney

1994). Often one's social class influences the range of em ploym ent

opportunities,

which in turn influences the range of inform ation

access. This is illustrated about

the likelihood

1991) and are therefore patterns,

am ong

the poor,

who dem onstrate

of success in unfam iliar m ore likely to continue

and occupations.

endeavors

to which one has lower expectations

or situations

(Chatm an

in the m ost fam iliar surroundings,

Fam ily, ethnic background,

and gender can also influ-

Common Concepts

ence or constrain likelihood

access. The fam ily's use of m edia is the strongest predictor

that one will take advantage

m edia including

books,

dem ic perform ance

m agazines,

of access to inform ation

television,

m useum s,

through

newspapers,

79

of the

a range of video, aca-

(Greenberg and Heeter 1987), or com puter-m ediated

com m uni-

cation (Doctor 1991). Also, those who grow up in fam ilies in which m em bers seek out inform ation

are m ore likely to be aware of inform ation

system s and of their

rights with regard to access to inform ation.

Social Networks technologies instances,

Social networks influence who has access to what inform ation

(Albrecht and Adelm an

access to inform ation

encounters

or conversations

exception

with

is when an inform ation

not norm ally

or not frequently

such a case, the individual weaker ties (Granovetter Sim ilarly, participation

1987; Gandy

com es about others

(Archea

1991). In m any

through

unplanned

et al. 1990). The

that requires inform ation

needed am ong the individual's

social networks.

is m ore likely to gain access to inform ation

1973) than through

In

through

those with whom he is m ore fam iliar.

in m ultiplex ties (overlap across different kinds of networks) and freedom

from local dependencies,

the cost of loyalty, stability, and responsiveness. em phasize

1977; Kraut

seeker is in a situation

increases variety, innovativeness,

erature

1988; M ulgan

serendipitously,

or

the network

The organizational

roles of the boundary

spanner

though

at

and library lit-

and environm ental

scanner (Choo 1995; Choo and Auster 1993), who strongly influence how the environm ent

is "enacted"

and thus what inform ation

is sought, how it is interpreted,

and what actions are taken (W eick 1979). Influences of social networks to inform ation

are exem plified in considering

which scholarly work is shared inform ally m ediated

by com puter

networks-W eedm an

on access

the invisible college (Crane 1969), in

through

interpersonal

networks

(even if

1999) long before it appears

in pub-

lished form . Social networks

also influence the environm ent

in which inform ation,

sible, is perceived or used. Social and work networks and thereby one's expectations

and use of system s to access inform ation

Aydin 1991). Because of greater access, trust, and contextuality, inform ation

from known

interpersonal

settings (Harris and Dewdney

requires

and Bruns 1992). In order to gain

(Doctor 1991), even given access to inform ation,

a social and m edia environm ent

effective use of that access (Haythornthwaite Access through

(Rice and

people tend to seek

sources in both social and organizational

1994; M cKinnon

access to the benefit of inform ation the individual

once acces-

can influence one's attitudes

one's social network

that enables and supports

and W ellm an 1998; W illiam son

to advice, analysis, interpretation,

1998).

and debate

80

Chapter 3

I:: Q) "" u I::

o

-U

Q)

::l

-

'"'"

Common Concepts

81

82

Chapter 3

is often required to m ake the best use of access and to participate 1999; Grainovetter

Education

1983; M urdock

One's educational

as a citizen (Agada

and Golding 1989).

background

includes learning,

skill level, and com -

petence as well as form al schooling. An individual with a higher level of education is likely to encounter

fewer constraints

in part because educational

to influence one's social network com petence.

in attem pting

to gain access to inform ation,

level not only influences access directly but also is likely and levels of com m unication

One who has learned to cope with new situations

and technological or problem s is m ore

likely to have developed the skills necessary to do so again. Learning and skill level are both cum ulative,

particularly

with regard to access to inform ation

(Budd 1987).

Again, however, there are exceptions according to the situation from which the need for inform ation

arises. Higher education

other kinds of inform ation,

Com petence

such as practical

Given awareness

the situation,

can preclude

knowledge

or m anual expertise.

of the m eans of addressing

com petence in expression

of or access to

and the right to address

as well as in print and technological

com es into play. Those m ore able to express their need for inform ation

literacy are m ore

likely to gain access (Budd 1987; Gandy 1988; Taylor 1968). Both com m unication com petence

(Gandy 1988) and technological

access to inform ation. is true of education, varies by situation

Experience

Com petence

com petence

com pounds

can influence or constrain

over tim e and use (Doctor 1991). As

the degree to which com petence

influences or constrains

One's level of experience and expertise will be situation-

specific. Repeated

access

(Cuff 1980).

use, especially

successful

use, and often physical

and dom ainuse (Hayles

1999), is likely to increase one's level of expertise with any given system as well as with system use in general (Rice 1988). Fam iliarity inform ation techniques

system increase the likelihood to gain access to inform ation

and successful past use of an

of a user's having developed appropriate (Culnan 1984).

Political Influences/Constraints

Power

Lim itations

patory dem ocracy

to access to inform ation

who it favors. In a dem ocratic tion

to counter

carry grave im plications

for a partici-

(Gandy 1988). Power influences policy, how it is developed, and

those who

society, an inform ed

would

develop

citizenry is in a stronger

policy unfairly.

As Buckland

posi(1990)

Common Concepts

explains, rather

Francis

Bacon, around

that ignorance

weakness,

1600, wrote

is a source of weakness.

is therefore

not that knowledge Knowledge,

a source of power. Conversely,

access to inform ation,

thereby

lim iting

others'

is power

being the opposite

83

but of

power can be used to lim it

access to knowledge,

a source of

on access to inform ation

can be used

power.

Control

Political influences and constraints

to control inform ation, telecom m unications

such as through

m ation. Control of the m arketplace control of cultural institutions, of public debate

or privacy laws (M ulgan 1991),

access to inform ation

through

m onitoring

the

system s and flows of infor-

can also influence access to inform ation

through

which can serve as a vehicle for control of the course

or the setting of the public agenda.

controls

em ploym ent

copyright

policies, or control of inform ation

about the individual

individual's

workplace

Questions

arise as to who

in the form of data gathered perform ance

or

through

pre-

screening, which m ay require blood or urine sam ples from the prospec-

tive em ployee.

Equity and Participation interpretation, resources

Dem ocracy

requires equitable

access to advice, analysis,

and debate as well as to som e goods and services that are necessary

for citizenship

(M urdock

and Golding

require not only access to inform ation

1989). Equity and participation

but also access to the right and the m eans

to inform others (Dervin 1989). Levels of com m unication influence one's ability to use inform ation

com petence

can thereby

resources to im prove one's quality of life

(Gandy 1988).

Sum m ary

Tables 3.6 and 3.7 sum m arize

the m ajor com m on

issues, and influences and con-

straints, that em erge from the review of the six research literatures.

4 Unique Aspects Across Research Literatures, and a Preliminary Framework of Access

Unique Aspects Across Research Literatures

This chapter identifies som e assum ptions m ation and com m unication lim inary fram ework

and prim ary issues about accessing infor-

unique to each research literature,

and proposes a pre-

based on the com m on and unique aspects.

Library Studies The literature of library studies tends to view the issue of access to inform ation the perspective of the user, a shift from an earlier focus on the institution or the inform ation

system (stacks, online catalog, com m ercial database).

the users studied are those seeking print inform ation ing, using subject headings inform ation.

A further

inform ation-seeking

or key words

to represent

process as m ovem ent (Atwood

through

the reality of the need for toward

understanding

such as to Internet searching and m ultim edia that areas such as library studies, inform ation of inform ation)

the

space and tim e in an attem pt

and Dervin 1982). In recent years, library

studies has m oved outside the library context and beyond traditional

(and even econom ics

In general,

in the setting of a library build-

shift is m oving the perspective

to m ake sense of one's world

from

(library)

print sources,

m aterials. These changes are a reason science, and inform ation

are converging

dem ocracy

into a field called by som e

social inform atics. This focus on users carries its own lim itations,

however, particularly

to an issue of significant concern in library studies-inform ation lim itations

dem ocracy.

are tied to the failure to account for the contexts, situations,

tial strategies

of nonusers

and therefore

for providing

needs of a broader segm ent of the population,

as it applies The

and poten-

services appropriate

to the

despite library studies' historical con-

cern with freedom of speech, as applied to collection developm ent

and protection

of

86

C h a p te r 4

patrons'

circulation

individuals

records. For exam ple, Chatm an

seeking em ploym ent,

who are likely to trust and attend

personal sources of inform ation, or scientific publications. inform ation,

not to written announcem ents,

To account theoretically

the field of library

seeking inform ation, and organizational

Inform ation

for factors involved in access to

studies needs to broaden

what inform ation

m eans

contexts of inform ation

only to inter-

especially scholarly

(Chatm an

thinking

about who is

1987), and the cultural

seeking (Durrance

1989).

Science

In inform ation

science, research tends to focus on the nature

(Belkin 1978; Belkin and Robertson citations to and abstracts Brownstein

(1991) writes of working-class

of inform ation

itself

1976) and on how elite users go about seeking

of highly technical or scientific docum ents

(Bam ford and

1986). In studies of the latter, the facets of the inform ation-seeking

cess under consideration

are generally lim ited to situation

pro-

and strategies. In partic-

ular, the focus is generally lim ited to cognitive processes, from query form ulation through retrieval of a list of bibliographic of the inform ation-seeking

references to print docum ents.

process is based principally on a narrow

evance, derived from m atching

Evaluation

definition of rel-

of a query statem ent with citations.

This research area does attend to issues related to reducing or otherwise addressing "anom alous However,

states of knowledge"

(Belkin, Oddy, and Brooks 1982a;

as defined, an anom alous

understanding

of the situation

state of knowledge

first, that a query statem ent

one's need for inform ation, of relevance is an acceptable

of this research area is based on is a reasonable

and second, that the research m easure

access to a citation or bibliographic to inform ation,

user

than is often the case am ong those facing challenges

or questions in their everyday lives. The approach several assum ptions:

1982b).

assum es far greater

of perform ance.

representation

area's narrow

In addition,

of

definition

it assum es that

reference is an adequate representation

of access

and that it is sufficient to account for cognitive processes as the pri-

m ary source of influence or constraint

on the inform ation-seeking

process and on

access to inform ation. Critics have suggested that those designing system s need to explore hum an behavior m ore fully, to include influences in addition part, to help avoid unintentionally of inform ation

to the cognitive (Brown 1986), in

creating barriers to access (Budd 1987). M odels

retrieval need to account for differential access (Borgm an 1989) and

differential levels of experience

(Cuff 1980; Daniels 1986; Kling 1980). Others sug-

gest a need to account for the contexts within which a particular situation

and a need for inform ation

(Chatm an

user encounters

a

1991; Dervin and Nilan 1986) and,

U n iq u e As p e c ts a n d P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

at the other end of the inform ation-seeking of inform ation

process, to account for the evaluation

that is retrieved and used, especially as it m ay apply to gaps, chal-

lenges, needs, or questions encountered Chatm an

87

in everyday life (Belkin and Vickery 1985;

1987; 1991; Tague and Schultz 1989). According to M archionini

(1995,

27-28), a central assum ption

in inform ation-seeking

research is that "life is active,

analog, and accum ulative ....

W e learn by 'bum ping

into the environm ent.'"

ther, because life is analog-continuous and physical structures

Inform ation

and periodic-we

that lim it and focus the flow of inform ation.

Society

The literature

on the "inform ation

access to inform ation to inform ation,

society"

and new technologies

as access to technologies,

(Dordick

issues associated

dem ocracy.

process, this perspective is m ore likely than others to account but not necessarily

or strategies facets.

This perspective tends to rely on a num ber of assum ptions, is experiencing

including

(Rogers 1986). In term s of the

for the context and general outcom es of access to inform ation, for the situation

This litera-

with the diffusion of innovations,

that influence access to inform ation

inform ation-seeking

of technology to

1987; Slack 1984) and com m erce (Schem ent and

Curtis 1995) and related social issues such as inform ation ture also addresses

tends to view

through which one can gain access

power, or control. The focus is on the relationship

hum an com m unication

technologies

Fur-

have to develop m ental

a revolutionary

cance of inform ation,

transform ation

com puters,

because of the overwhelm ing

telecom m unications

(Bell 1973; Beniger 1986). These assum ptions

including that society

networks,

raise issues of power and distribution

of privilege in society, such as, for exam ple, that class m em bership the type of inform ation factor in determ ining 1989). In addition,

m ay determ ine

to which one has access, and that inform ation the im pact of new technologies

technology

signifi-

and digitization

policy is a

on specific classes (Bram an

tends to be viewed as a social phenom enon

that

shapes and is shaped by the host society (Doctor 1991). Com m unication

and tech-

nological com petence

with tim e

(or the lack thereof) are related and com pounded

and practice (or lack of them ). Personal privacy is becom ing a central issue because of increased is pitted

accessibility

through

against organizational

online inform ation

and national

services and databases,

security, and m arketing

and

and service

interests. As is true in library studies, the focus of this perspective on inform ation racy assum es a com m itm ent fits as well as equitable

to equitable

distribution

distribution

of inform ation

of the benefits of inform ation

dem oc-

and its beneage technology

88

C h a p te r 4

(Bourque and W arren technology

m akes inform ation

that technology M ettler

1987; Doctor 1991). There is a tendency to assum e also that available

equally, plentifully,

can span space and tim e (Hudson

and universally,

1989), and in so doing, expand access and inform ation

Critics assert that a m echanistic such a m odel of com m unication than as social phenom ena

because it presents

technologies

(Sproull, Kiesler, and Zubrow

that technology

sally is m isleading

flow (Hiltz 1986).

m odel prevails (Jansen 1989) and argue against as causal rather

(Slack 1984). Som e call instead for general cultural analy-

ses of uses of technologies assum ption

and

1988; Kraut 1989; Larose and

provides

and irresponsible

inform ation

1984) or argue that the

equally, plentifully,

and univer-

(Gillespie and Robins 1989; Lievrouw

1994).

M ass Com m unication The literature

of m ass com m unication

strongly focused on the context which the inform ation set the cultural

of access to inform ation,

and Chom sky

and distributed

(Com paine

1985; Herm an

1988), and that the focus of inquiry belongs on the production

of inform ation

(Innis 1951; M cLuhan Others

especially the context in

agenda or context for others. This view assum es that who controls

(Bagdikian

1990; Coser, Kadushin,

To som e degree, this view also assum es a position

through

is m ost

system operates and how those who control the system then

the m edia influences what is produced

distribution

that explores access to inform ation

assum e

and Fiore 1967; M eyrowitz

that

hegem ony

and

and Powell 1982).

of technological

determ inism

1985).

serves to explain

cultural

consensus

building

the m edia (Gitlin 1980). It is easy to oppose an argum ent that is part of the

public agenda. It is far m ore difficult, however, to change the term s and logic of the debate, particularly

without

place (Hall 1982). Further, the consequent

narrowed

privileged access to establishing there is concern that privatization

range of access, threatens

Schiller 1981; 1989). An additional audience

Organizational

and (H. I.

view assum es that taking the perspective of the

provided through

m ay change the under-

the m edia (Radway

1984).

Com m unication

Issues of access to inform ation m unication

of inform ation,

the rights of individuals

m em ber and how she m akes use of inform ation

standing of the inform ation

the term s in the first

of concern in the literature

tend to focus on m anaging

and physical access to inform ation

inform ation;

of organizational

that is, on inform ation

system s, or to inform ation

sages or data. Unlike the other literatures,

organizational

com flow

in the form of m es-

com m unication

research

U n iq u e As p e c ts a n d P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

som etim es considers the benefits of lim itin g a c c e s s , such as to m anagerial proprietary

or confidential inform ation,

zational structures. the workplace

by m eans of gatekeepers

89

tim e or to

and other organi-

Privacy and security issues, and the influence of technology

and its functions,

Several assum ptions

are also of concern.

prevail with regard

tional com m unication.

on

to access to inform ation

in organiza-

The first is that given physical access to inform ation

or m essages, access to inform ation sum ption is that the environm ent

system s

necessarily follows (Allen 1969). A second as-

and setting playa

role in determ ining

inform ation

behavior (M ick, Lindsey, and Callahan

1980), including that interpersonal

ior depends on exposure of inform ation

about oneself to others and access to infor-

m ation

about others because of relative spatial location

(Archea 1977). This view

assum es each person to be at the center of a dynam ic field of inform ation continuously

adjusting

to the surrounding

research that conceptualizes begin com m itm ents,

m anagem ent

and establish

guistic acts. Thus organizational

behav-

behavior,

field. Choo (1995) reviews theory and as conversations-to

action contexts m em bers

create, m anage, and

and possibilities,

participate

in recurring

through

lin-

conversational

networks. Som e assum e that m anagem ent

styles drive applications

of technology

1988), and that technology can facilitate a panoptic relationship in issues of privacy, m onitoring, 1989; Zuboff

1988). Tension

and security (Botan and M cCreadie between

the assum ptions

(Garson

already of concern 1993; Gandy

that m ore inform ation

is

better and that privacy issues are of concern is indicative of other tensions that arise in issues related to access to inform ation, dem ocracy and privatization

such as the tension between inform ation

of inform ation.

Som e critics argue that an obsolete understanding and power inform ation

relations

prevents

our seeing the corporate

and processes of public decision m aking

tion any restriction

of the flow of inform ation

and are m et by those who raise concerns or worker

of com m unication

alienation

(D. S. Congress

dom ination

processes

of available

(Deetz 1992). Others

in a dem ocratic

about national

ques-

society (Allen 1988)

security, privacy rights,

1987). The assum ption

that access to infor-

m ation necessarily and causally follows from physical or system access has not been supported

(Culnan

additional

influences and constraints

1984),

thereby

perception

of availability

the argum ent

for investigating

on access, such as the relationship

and use of a system (Culnan

between the ability to form ulate 1985). The assum ption

strengthening

1983), or the relationship

a query and the perception

that m ore inform ation

between

of accessibility (Culnan

is better has been challenged by the

90

C h a p te r 4

argum ent that the m ajor problem for m anagers is not lack of data but reducing the equivocality

in inform ation

(Daft and Lengel 1986).

Econom ics of Inform ation The prim ary foci with regard to access to inform ation

in the literature on econom ics

of inform ation

include the free m arket

considerations

of cost, benefit, and value; and again, privacy and control (M cCain

1988). The notion through

and privatization;

inform ation

dem ocracy;

of value requires the study of the inform ation-seeking

to the value of inform ation

in a given situation

tive offers explicit considerations

(M ulgan

1991, 172). This perspec-

of the weighing of social as well as econom ic costs

and benefits, which provides an im portant constraints

on access to inform ation.

addition to understanding

influences and

A political perspective em phasizes distribution

of control capacities and the availability

of resources such as com petence

rather than sim ple access to inform ation

(M ulgan 1991).

Assum ptions com m odity,

of this perspective

are that inform ation

but that inform ation

and that inform ation

can be viewed as a thing!

is tied to the ability of the individual to par-

ticipate fully as a citizen and the ability of the institution

1981). Som e proponents

and tim e

is unlike other goods and services (Arrow 1979;

Bates 1988); that access to inform ation

m arket;

process

to the outcom es facet, in order to determ ine whether the user gains access

to succeed in the econom ic

carries with it the potential

for public good (Hall

of this perspective assum e that when som e goods and ser-

vices are necessary resources for citizenship victim to the vicissitudes of the m arketplace

activities, then political rights can fall (M urdock

and Golding 1989; Schem ent

and Curtis 1995). Som e critics see as untenable the notion of inform ation m odity rather than as part of the hum an com m unication

as a com -

process (Budd 1987).

Sum m ary Table 4.1 sum m arizes

the prim ary

area, m aking

som e of what

explicit

issues, foci, and assum ptions has im plicitly

research areas with regard to their treatm ent

of each research

led to differences am ong

of issues of access to inform ation.

the We

note, of course, that other research areas can also offer perspectives that contribute to an understanding m ental psychology

of access to inform ation. and learning

ences and constraints

on access to inform ation.

fem inist research perspectives, nom enon

In particular,

research

in develop-

theory can provide insight into identifying

also underscore

These research the argum ent

influ-

areas, along with

for viewing the phe-

of interest from a variety of perspectives in an effort to account for a full

U n iq u e As p e c ts a n d P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

Table

91

4.1

Unique Perspectives

by Research

Literature

Research Literature

Primary Issues, Foci

Assumptions

Library

How users seek

Documents

documents

Subject headings

studies

Information

in library democracy

address questions

Bibliographic

represent

of users

reality

sources meet needs for infor-

mation Information

Elite users seeking

Access to citation

sCience

citations

tion

to technical,

scientific documents

Relevance

Nature

of performance

of information

equals access to informa-

as defined is acceptable

ASK or query statement sentation

measure

is reasonable

repre-

of need for information

Cognitive processes are sufficient focus of mqmry Information

Relationship

society

technology

of

Society is experiencing

to human

communication

Relationship

Information

ior and societal context

democracy

that

of technology

to human

behav-

is appropriate

focus

of inquiry

Privacy

Technology

can make information

equally, plentifully, M ass media

a transformation

will change social structure

Access to control

over

W ho owns and runs the media determines what is produced

and disseminated

distribution

Access to control

over production

Cultural

bution is appropriate

information

production,

agenda setting

Organizational

Information

communication

Privacy/security

access to information

Physical access

M ore information

flow

available

and universally

and distri-

focus of inquiry

Physical access to information

sources equals

is usually better

Issues of privacy are of concern Economics information

of

Free market,

Information,

privatization

ates differently from other goods and com-

Information

democracy

Cost, benefit, value

if viewed as commodity,

oper-

modities Individuals

require access to information

participate

fully as citizens

to

92

C h a p te r 4

theoretical

understanding.

They also support

the need for sensitivity

to issues of

privilege with regard to access.

A Prelim inary

Fram ework

This section integrates lim inary fram ework

of Access

the analyses of com m on

Because each research literature odological

approaches,

and constraints,

and unique perspectives into a pre-

of access. has its own foci, theoretical

a com prehensive

and im plications

understanding

concerns, and m eth-

of the concerns, influences

of access to inform ation

will com e only from com -

bining the insights, both com m on and unique, across m ultiple literatures. and 3.7 showed that no literature is covered

explicitly covers all of these issues, and no issue

by all of the six literatures.

research literatures

Tables 3.6

The present

has identified several overlapping

integration

of reviews of six

dim ensions of the general con-

cept of access to inform ation. First, there are several conceptualizations environm ent,

representation

of knowledge,

of inform ation

itself (thing, data in the

and part of the com m unication

Each of these focuses on different aspects of inform ation sum ptions

about the nature of participants,

Second, several conceptualizations across various literatures com m odities,

technology,

and leads to different im plications

(concerning

and

participation).

goods,

dem ocratic

appear

com m unication,

goods/

usually

a lim ited

other im portant

concern

This broader

with

control,

different aspects of the access

as m ediators,

and econom ic value)

power, com pounding Third,

focus on different aspects of a general inform ation-seeking tion, strategies, and outcom es).

content, and m eaning.

of access to inform ation

and rights). Each of these em phasizes

process (such as form of knowledge, technologies

ancillary

and m akes different as-

com m unication,

of the notion

(knowledge,

one or two com ponents,

effects, public

the research

perspectives

process (context,

schem e substantially

factors in accessing inform ation,

process).

situa-

extends what is

necessarily

overlooking

from im plicit design obstacles to

assessing the value of retrieved inform ation. Fourth,

a variety

of influences

access to inform ation

of these influences and constraints, endeavor

affect the nature

and extent

of

(physical, cognitive, affective, econom ic, social, and political).

Few system designs, institutional

obscured

and constraints

structures, m aking

for all participants.

about the relationship

or research

approaches

attend

access a m uch m ore com plicated

Im plications

to all and

vary from false assum ptions

of system use to access, physical access to evaluation,

and

U n iq u e As p e c ts a n d P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

com pounding

effects of com petence

has unique assum ptions considered

and social networks.

93

And fifth, each literature

and concepts that can both highlight specific concerns not

by other literatures

and lim it our understanding

the physical form of inform ation,

of access (ranging from

cognitive processes, industry control, and tensions

between privacy and freedom ). Figure 4.1 shows one slice of this m ultidim ensional access to inform ation, the process

using the two dim ensions

of seeking to gain access to inform ation:

process (horizontal

and constraints,

relationship

is intended

on access to inform aam ong the influences

and although context and situation generally precede strategies and

outcom es in the phases of the inform ation-seeking ther linear nor sequential tion-seeking

for understanding

(1) the inform ation-seeking

axis), and (2) influences and constraints

tion (vertical axis). No hierarchical

com m on

fram ework

that em phasize hum an behavior in

process, the process itself is nei-

and is likely to be iterative. At any stage in the inform a-

process, any of the influences or constraints

issues and concerns identified in the literature

two basic dim ensions

of the prelim inary

fram ework

As the user seeks to gain access to inform ation,

m ay com e into play. Other can be considered

once the

are clarified.

she encounters

influences and con-

straints on access that m ay be deeply em bedded

in the context. For exam ple, in the

context

m ight contribute

phase, social influences and constraints

that a given individual inform ation

generally

operates

to the likelihood

in a m ilieu that views inform ation

and

system s as accessible, thereby influencing the user to see access to infor-

m ation in general as a viable possibility. In the situation phase, social influences and constraints a particular constraints vidual's

m ight again contribute set of circum stances

knowing

and need for inform ation.

Social influences and

the range of inform ation

to the likelihood

understand

of the sam e user with

m ight, in the strategies phase, contribute

them . Finally, at the outcom es tribute

to the degree of fam iliarity

to the likelihood

of the indi-

sources available and how to navigate

phase, social influences and constraints

that the individual

m ight con-

can m ake use of the inform ation

and apply it) and gain access to the value of inform ation

(i.e.,

retrieved

or

apply what is found to revising the search strategies, refram ing the question, reconfiguring the tentative

understanding

of the situation,

and returning

to other com -

ponents of the search process. This initial fram ework inform ation-seeking various

literatures.

evaluation

approach

aim s to identify

process, em phasizing Potential

a full range of factors factors both com m on

uses of such a fram ework

for system s designers, im plem enters

would

involved

in the

and unique across be as a diagnostic

and m anagers,

and users.

94

C h a p te r 4

In flu e n c e s /C o n s tr a in ts P h y s ic a l •

G e o g r a p h ic a l,

•

E n v ir o n m e n t

•

S pace,

d e m o g r a p h ic s

d is p la y

C o g n itiv e •

U n d e r s ta n d in g

•

A w a re n e s s

•

F a c ility ,

•

M a tc h in g

s k ill

A ffe c tiv e •

A ttitu d e

•

M o tiv a tio n

•

C o n fid e n c e l

fearl

tr u s t

E c o n o m ic •

B e n e fits

•

C o s ts

•

V a lu e

S o c ia l •

C u ltu r a l

•

C la s s

n o rm s

•

E d u c a tio n

•

N e tw o r k s

•

E x p e r ie n c e

b a c k g ro u n d

P o litic a l •

Power

•

C o n tr o l

•

E q u ity ,

p a r tic ip a tio n

~---------T----------l---------------~ q o n te x t

S it~ a tio n

S tr * e g ie s

O u tc o m ,s

~----------~----------~--------------~ F a c e ts

o f th e

In fo r m a tio n - S e e k in g

P ro c e s s

Figure 4.1 Prelim inary

Fram ework

for Understanding

Access to Inform ation

and Com m unication

U n iq u e As p e c ts a n d P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

W hat issues seem to be m ost hidden, m issing, or underem phasized, ticular

inform ation-seeking

from research

com ponents?

W hat

several literatures?

additional

and in what par-

the m ost

dim ensions

fram ework

are needed to fully capture

access to inform ation

and com m unication

attention

com m only

To what extent are theories of access com prehensive

their coverage? Testing of this m ultidim ensional

rounding

issues attract

and theory precisely because they are considered

95

across

or biased in

would indicate whether

the issues and perspectives in any particular

situation.

sur-

5

A Research Approach: Access

A case study approach

provided a rich store of data against which to test how well

the initial framework

developed from the literature

access to information

and communication

reviews reflected dimensions

of

for real users in situations from their own

lives. An initial pilot study was followed by a primary case study. Content coding of survey documents framework

provided

a basis for adjusting

the coding process and the

slightly, and for verifying the dimensions of the framework

the literature.

These results were used to revise the framework.

case study of a very different population of the revised framework,

derived from

Finally, a follow-up

was used to test the boundary

conditions

leading to a final refined framework.

The Pilot and Primary Case Studies A small pilot study, based on reports from 21 students enrolled in January

1995, led

the way to a more extensive main case study. Both studies relied on the same setting, a one-credit course on how to use the Internet. Convenience investigator However,

determined

and access of the

selection of the setting for the pilot and main case studies.

using case studies to enhance theory building relies on theoretical

than statistical

sampling,

likely to replicate

and the goal of theoretical

or extend

the emergent

theory

sampling (Eisenhardt

opportunities

to replicate results or extend theoretical

the approach

to sampling.

is to choose cases 1989). Therefore,

variance appropriately

The case sample for the initial pilot study included backgrounds,

students

rather

guide

from a variety of

ranging in age from late teens to retired adults, who enrolled in a five-

week course on how to gain access to information study was used to refine the operational

procedures

using the Internet.

This pilot

and the actual survey form.

The sample for the main case study was similar. The investigator

taught

both

classes. Written surveys were assigned as part of a one-credit five-week introduction

98

C h a p te r 5

to using the Internet offered between August and December 1995. The course was offered at a community college in its early days of Internet use. The course predated popular

and widespread

access to the World Wide Web and easy availability

of

graphic interface access to the Internet, so students were searching for information using text-based search tools through serial connections tions were primitive and frustration

almost exclusively. Condi-

was common.

Participants included 38 students ranging in age from 17 to 82 years. Educational levels of the participants

also ranged widely, from completion

of tenth grade to

graduate degrees, including Ph.D.s, an M.D. degree, and degrees in law. Twenty-one men and 17 women, all of the students enrolled, responded to the survey. Although students were not graded on their surveys, they were required to submit their notes, search logs, and surveys in order to complete

requirements

for the course and

receive a grade. The researcher asked that students document five searches on topics, questions, problems, or issues of their choosing as the final assignment for the course. The only limitation

in their selection of a topic was that their investigation

One student

submitted

reports

on seven searches,

matter to them.

two students

submitted

six

searches each, 21 students submitted five searches each one submitted four searches, three submitted three searches each, four submitted two searches each, and six submitted one search each. This represented a total of 38 participants

and 151 searches.

Students were not limited to using the Internet for their searches, though most chose that medium. Sense-Making Methodology To garner the perceptions

and to gain accounts of the behavior of users, partici-

pants, as part of their course assignment, documented an expanded

interview protocol

"sense making"

their experiences, guided by

designed initially as part of the methodology

(Dervin 1983). Several assumptions

of

underlie the sense-making ap-

proach, which has been developed to study the human process of making sense of everyday life and which is built on a set of theoretically study. The core assumption

aspect of reality (Dervin 1992). This assumption phase of the preliminary set of circumstances this as an anomalous

framework,

is consistent

is a fundamental with the situation

which posits that an individual encounters

from which a need for information

a

arises. Others characterize

state of knowledge (Belkin 1980), a gap (Dervin 1983), a vis-

ceral or conscious need (Taylor 1968), a problematic discomfort.

derived methods for such

of sense making is that discontinuity

The assumption

of discontinuity

situation

(Wersig 1979), or

underlies several additional

assump-

A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

tions of sense making, which are again consistent with the proposed framework

preliminary

of this study. Consistent with both the preliminary framework

the assumption

of discontinuity,

99

and with

the sense-making approach assumes human actors

in the process of making sense of their worlds. Both the sense-making approach and the preliminary framework

depict the facets of the information-seeking

process as a

process rather than as a condition. The process is iterative and is not hierarchical. The data are elicited from the perspective of the actor rather than the observer. Sense making guided the protocol for interviews with respondents. applied here, the micromoment

The method

time-line interview, asks the respondent

to recon-

struct a real situation in terms of what happened in the situation, then describe each step in detail. Dervin's interview protocol was expanded here to account for influences and constraints

on access to information

situation or need for information

and for the context from which the

arises.

Interview Protocol The 21 participants

of the pilot study were asked to describe and reflect on their

experiences with seeking information

about an issue of their choosing in the context

of that course. They were asked to report on anything that facilitated or blocked their gaining access to the information

they sought. Responses indicated that par-

ticipants experienced difficulty with the conceptual nature of what this study seeks. Many of the participants

reported nothing unless they gained access to information

and then were more concerned with what they found than with the process of finding it. Therefore, a more structured survey protocol was used in the main case study in an effort to lead participants

to report on the entire search process whether or not

they found what they sought, increasing the likelihood of eliciting user-defined influences and constraints According

on access.

to the survey protocol,

as detailed

by Dervin

(1983), participants

selected a real situation, challenge, or question of interest or import to them, about which they were seeking information.

As they searched, they kept notes on their

movements through time, space, and problems. The researcher requested that they keep notes on their thoughts and feelings along the way, on their decisions, on their challenges, and on their discoveries. Afterwards,

in response to the survey, they

detailed in writing each step in the search, reporting

on what happened

along the

In response to the survey and for each step of each search, participants

described

way. what questions

arose at the time, what issues came up that led to their seeking

to find out, learn, come to understand,

unconfuse,

make sense of, seek access to

100

C h a p te r 5

Table 5.1 Interview Protocol Indicator Category and Associated Influences/Constraints Context

Influences/constraints

Situation

Influences/constraints

Strategies

Influences/constraints

Outcomes

Interview Questions What set of circumstances led to your interest in this topic/ question/problem? Include anything you think helps explain this. Did anything contribute to the set of circumstances behind your selecting this topic/question/problem? What? Did anything hinder you in the set of circumstances behind your selecting this topic/question/problem? What? What were you trying to do when you selected this topic/ question/problem? Did you see yourself as blocked or hindered when you asked this question? How? Is there anything else you can think of that explains why you selected this question? Did anything help you arrive at this topic/question/problem? What? Did you experience any difficulty in arriving at this topic/ question/problem? What? Did this issue/question stand alone or was it related to other questions? How? How easy did it seem to get an answer? Why? How important was getting an answer? Please explain. Did the importance ever change? How? Why? Did you get an answer? When? Was the answer complete or partial? In what way? How did you get an answer? What approaches did you try in seeking an answer? Please describe the approaches whether or not you got an answer. Did you get new questions? What were they? Did anything help you in looking for an answer? What? How did it help? Did anything make it difficult for you to look for an answer? What? How did it make things difficult? What did you do with what you found? What did you do if you didn't find what you were looking for? Did it help you? How? Did it make things difficult? How? Was it worth trying to find? How or how not?

A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

101

Table 5.1 (continued) Indicator Category and Associated Influences/Constraints

Interview Questions Did this (what you found or what you did if you didn't find anything) lead to any other questions, problems, ideas, changes? What were they? Did anything help you in making use of what you found or deciding what to do next? What? How did it help? Did anything hinder you from making use of what you found or deciding what to do next? What? How did it hinder you?

Influences/constraints

information.

For each question,

guide presented compounding

partICIpants

effect of one's context

according

to the survey

refers repeatedly

to the

(Braman 1989; Budd 1987; 1987; Mulgan 1991; Murdock

and background

1991; Gandy 1988; Greenberg

Doctor

responded

in table 5.1. Finally, because the literature and Heeter

1989), participants were asked to respond to general questions (see 5.2) about themselves and their households to provide additional context

and Golding table

indicators. Field Notes, In addition,

Search Logs, E-mail Messages to draw on multiple

notes based on the discussions file of physical artifacts and teacher.

and questions

included

and questions

outs of their search logs and turned ther, the investigator students. augment

evidence

were reviewed

captured

observations

categories.

categories

and established between

discussions,

generated

print-

analysis

These additional

other than mediative

categories

interview

protocol.

influences

and All

and with an eye to iden-

data sources corroborated

to the written

Furwith

and the e-mail inter-

and were used to corroborate

of the written

with established

for selecting this approach

e-mail interactions

and assignments,

a

student

them in as part of their class assignment.

ings derived from analysis of the responses The reasons

Students

the text of access-related

from the content

a set of field

on the access-related

of each class period.

in the case study database

for consistency

tifying additional additional

of the class meetings

The field notes, search log printouts

actions were included

gathered

such as search logs and e-mail interactions

Field notes

successes, difficulties,

data sources, the investigator

the find-

surveys and suggested

no

and constraints.

were as follows:

• It seeks to elicit from the participants their perceptions or behavior in terms and categories defined and determined by the user rather than the researcher.

102

C h a p te r 5

Table 5.2 Background Questions Question

Responses

How long have you lived in

X

Years:

County?

How many people 18 years of age or older live in your household, including yourself?

Adults:

How many children (people under 18) live in your household? What are their ages?

Children: Ages:

Are you employed outside the house?

Yes

No

Are you retired from your employment?

Yes

No

If yes, what kind of job do (did) you have? At what kind of place do (did) you work?

Kind of job: Kind of workplace:

What category describes the yearly income of your household?

$9,999 or less $10,000 to $19,999 $20,000 to $29,999 $30,000 to $39,999 $40,000 to $49,999 $50,000 or more

What kind of job does/did your parents have the last time you lived at home?

Mother's job: Father's job:

What is the last grade of school you completed?

Primary: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Secondary: 7 8 9 10 11 College: 13 14 15 16 Postgraduate: 17+

What year were you born? T h e in fo r m a tio n

12

19_

o n th is s h e e t is c o n fid e n tia l a n d w ill h a v e n o b e a r in g o n y o u r c la s s g r a d e .

• The overall aim of Dervin's research agenda parallels the aims of this study (namely, to seek to understand phenomena related to human use of information in the context of real lives), and the sense-making methodological approach has been developed in a programmatic research effort active since 1972 . • Perhaps most important, the combination of data collection methods and consequent production of multiple types of data for analysis constitute a triangulated approach, strengthening substantiation of theoretical propositions. The participants'

written

access to information tematic

data

accounts). face-to-face

(through

accounts

based

interaction

on a situation

content

The interviews

of their reported

analysis)

followed provided

experiences

of their choosing

and rich descriptive

the same protocol the interviewer

in seeking to gain provided data

as the written

with

additional,

both

sys-

(their written survey, but the nonverbal

cues

A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

and the opportunity

for interaction,

103

adding richness to the data of the follow-up

study. In addition, the field notes, search logs, and e-mail interactions another view on the data and the constructs

provided yet

of the framework.

The Initial Framework The preliminary

framework

represents

the theoretical

propositions

derived from

review and analysis of the literature. The two dimensions of the framework ten theoretical

categories:

influences/constraints

four facets of the information-seeking

include

process and six

on access. Among the first tasks in the framework

testing

phase was establishing

operational

preliminary

and expanding the interview protocol. An aim of the initial

framework

definitions for each of the ten categories of the

test was to revise the operationalizations

to develop explicit

categories

and to

achieve high reliability in assigning text to categories. The researcher carried out the initial coding. A second trained coder analyzed samples of the texts of the written responses to the interview protocol to check for and improve on intercoder reliability, thereby contributing

to establishing how well the empirical data fit the theoret-

ical categories and whether the data suggested additional

categories.

Content Analysis One requirement exhaustive

of content analysis is that the categories be mutually exclusive and

(Babbie 1986; Budd, Thorp, and Donohew

initial categories of the preliminary tions based on the categories, was operationalized ments of mutual "other"

framework

components,

the theoretical

proposi-

and examples developed earlier. Each

as described in the following exclusivity

1967; Kerlinger 1986). The

represented

and exhaustiveness,

sections. To meet the requirethe set included

an additional

category for each axis of the framework.

The universe of content was the written responses to the interview protocol submitted by the students as part of their 151 search reports. The unit of analysis for the content analysis was individual searches that the user had carried out in attempting to address or investigate a question, an issue, a topic, or a problem. The texts were organized

and analyzed

using Nud'>ist (Non-Numerical

Indexing Searching and Theorizing) coding of the responses framework.

according

software. The program to the categories

the individual participant.

Data

identified in the preliminary

For each of the 27 questions per document,

to facets and to influences and constraints.

Unstructured

allowed direct content

coders assigned responses

This unit of analysis is smaller than

This was necessary, given that influences and constraints

104

C h a p te r 5

Table 5.3 Operational

Definitions of Categories for Content Analysis

Category

Definition

Examples

Physical influences/ constraints

Physiological abilities or limitations of a user; environmental, spatial, and display characteristics of representations of information or of a space or system through or in which one might find information

Geography and demographics (Hudson 1988; Larose and Mettler 1989); arrangement (Budd 1987); orientation in an environment (Archea 1977); spatial proximity (Hiltz and Johnson 1989), security, or obstruction (Culnan 1985; Rice 1988); display (Chang and Rice 1993; Daft and Lengel 1986)

Cognitive influences/ constraints

User's understanding, awareness, literacy, facility or skill level, and information-processing style with regard to the situation and content, and with regard to the systems, procedures, and means available to address the situation NOT formal education, competence, or experience

Understanding (Cuff 1980; Dervin 1980); awareness of means and procedures (Budd 1987; Chatman 1991; Gandy 1988; Rice 1988); technical, quantitative, verbal literacy or facility (Culnan 1985; Kirsch et al. 1993); learning, skill level, informationprocessing style (Budd 1987; Gardner 1983; Kolb 1984)

Affective influences/ constraints

User's feelings about self, system, and situation in informationseeking process NOT motivation

Attitudes about self (Hochschild 1983), about computing (Rice 1988), about system (Culnan 1983; 1984; 1985); confidence/fear/trust in relation to situation and others (O'Reilly 1978); comfort/discomfort about situation, about process (Cuff 1980)

Economic influences/ constraints

Benefits, costs, and value (potential and realized) of information to user or provider; motivation to overcome costs, derive benefits NOT power relationships NOT emotion itself, only its costs, benefits

Profitability, affluence, solutions, public good externalities (Hall 1981); ancillary social value (Bates 1988); financial costs as well as costs of inconvenience, time, annoyance weighed against motivation (Budd 1987; Chatman 1991) or the cost of doing without information, including risk of loss (Culnan 1984) or the potential for value added (Murdock and Golding 1989)

Social influences/ constraints

Cultural norms, class membership and background, social networks, education and communicative competence, and experience with regard to particular situation NOT literacy or technical facility

Privilege and struggle (Hall 1982); background and networks (Chatman 1991; Crane 1969; Doctor 1991; Gandy 1988; Granovetter 1983; Greenberg and Heeter 1987; Mulgan 1991); formal education, competence

A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

105

Table 5.3 (continued) Category

Definition

Examples in expression (Budd 1987; Cuff 1980; Doctor 1991; Gandy 1988; Taylor 1968); experience and familiarity with situation (Culnan 1984; Rice 1988)

Political influences/ constraints

Power and control relationships of actors, institutions, equity and participation NOT financial aspects

Control over how power is applied (Mulgan 1991); over participation as a citizen (Gandy 1988; Murdock and Golding 1989); over information flow (Mulgan 1991); over individuals

Context facet

Background and frame of reference of the potential user; background in which an information system operates

The individual's overall range of background experiences; overall climate of a system's ownership, development, operation

Situation facet

The particular set of circumstances from which a need for information arises, the awareness of those circumstances, and the awareness (however vague) of that need

Gap (Dervin 1983), visceral need and conscious need (Taylor 1968), problematic situation (Wersig 1979), anomalous state of knowledge (Belkin 1980), discomfort, or information need

Strategies facet

The dynamic process of addressing the situation, including a more structured representation of the situation and what is required to address it; interaction with a system; informal evaluation and iterations

Bridges, barriers, blocks, helps encountered on way to address situation (Dervin 1983); a more formalized need (Taylor 1968) and plan of action; query statement or problem statement; reevaluation (Johnson and Rice 1987); new questions (Kuhlthau 1985)

Outcomes facet

Retrieval and use of information; evaluation, possibly leading to new situation, iterations

Consumption or use of information (Kubey and Csikszentmihalyi 1990; Tague and Schultz 1989); adoption, adaptation, reinvention (Johnson and Rice 1983; 1987; Rice and Rogers 1980)

106

C h a p te r 5

for an individual

can affect access differently in different situations.

the level of expertise or degree of experience for one situation while the same individual may approach

For example,

may be extensive,

another situation as a novice. Participants'

reports on each search were coded with respect to facets of the information-seeking process and influences/constraints the theoretically

on access. This process of assigning evidence to

derived categories provided frequency counts of instances of cate-

gories across the units of analysis. Operational

Definitions

Table 5.3 shows the experimental sitions represented components,

operational

in the preliminary

framework.

They are based on the categories,

and examples developed so far.

As noted, a number

of cues for content

analysis might be ambiguous

clear guidelines on where to assign particular reasonably

definitions for the theoretical propo-

without

terms. Experience, for example, could

be assigned to cognitive rather than social. The rules of content analysis

require mutual exclusivity. Experience is assigned here to the social category, given the focus of this research on the behavior of nonelites, whose experience might more likely be based on the workplace, demic. Motivation

the family, or social networks

than on the aca-

is assigned to economic influences and constraints

because it bal-

ances potential costs of access. First Coding The first pass at coding identified several difficulties. First, it became evident that although straints

mediation

had been considered

on access to information,

an influence/constraint

independently

it was reported

and was therefore

of the influences and con-

in participants'

responses

as

added as a seventh influence/constraint.

Second, a number of the interview documents included responses that were so brief (or missing altogether) to the "other"

as to be impossible to code meaningfully,

categories. Third, the first test of intercoder

a need to assign coding

in a more

rigorous

fashion,

so were assigned

reliability pointed

requiring

more

out

explicit

operationalizations. Because many of the responses indicated more than one influence or constraint, procedures

for the first pass at coding allowed for the assigning of more than one

influence/constraint

category

to a single response.

revealed that such an unstructured

approach

Intercoder

reliability

testing

made consistency in coding extremely

unlikely. When the data were recoded, therefore, each response was coded according to one facet of the information-seeking

process and one influence/constraint

on

A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

107

Table 5.4 Summary of Changes in Coding Procedures Resulting from Initial Coding Procedure

Initial Coding

Subsequent Coding

Assigning mediative responses

Not assigned or assigned to secondary category

Established as category and assigned accordingly

Assigning blank or monosyllable

Not assigned

Assigned to other

Assigning to category

Responses assigned to as many or few categories as were represented

Responses assigned to one facet and one influence/ constraint

Assigning multiple categories

Responses assigned to as many or few categories as were represented

Responses assigned to predominant influence/constraint (one only)

Outcomes facet and operational definitions

Retrieval and use of information; evaluation, possibly leading to new situation, iterations

Retrieval and use of information; evaluation, possibly leading to new situation

access to information.

In the latter instance,

if more than one influence/constraint

were evident, the response was coded for the predominant meant that each of the 151 documents constraint

codings.

Finally,

the operational

refined slightly to delete "iterations," definition

of strategies.

Therefore,

that report to outcomes, to strategies.

of the outcomes

was already

identified

facet was

as part of the

if a search led to a new situation,

but assigned iterations

That

and 27 influence/

coders assigned

of a search on the original situation

Table 5.4 lists the changes. responses

that fit into existing of the operational

provided

categories

definitions.

tation were not explicitly ences and constraints, health,

definition

which

The first pass at coding also identified participants'

influence/constraint.

yielded 27 facet codings

additional

additional

cues for coding. In other words,

instances

of influences

but that had not been explicitly For example,

identified

although

memory,

in the operational

definition

or constraints

spelled out as part curiosity,

and expec-

for cognitive

influ-

that category could clearly account for them. Similarly, travel,

and body were not initially listed under physical influences

but they belong in that category. each influence/constraint

Table

5.5 indicates

based on the literature

and constraints,

the categories

identified

along with the additions

for

for each

category. A few additions

"Timeliness,"

took

more

for example,

than

was

a moment's

briefly

assigned

thought

to place appropriately.

to physical.

Ultimately,

it was

108

C h a p te r 5

Table 5.5 Additions

to Operational

Influence/ Constraint

Definitions

Examples/Components

Additions

Physical

Ability or limitation Geography, demographics Arrangement Orientation in environment Proximity Security/obstruction Display

Health, body Locations, destinations Space Path, route Equipment Printout, download Format

Cognitive

Understanding Awareness Literacy, facility Learning style, information cessmg Style Skill level

Decision, confusion, curiosity Expectation, surprise, interest Exploration, experimentation Attention, confusion

pro-

Syntax, language, specificity Questions, answers Remembering, forgetting

Affective

Attitudes Confidence Feat/trust Comfort/discomfort Feelings

Laughter Funny, humor

Economic

Benefits Costs Value Motivation

Difficulty/ease, effort Timeliness, time, waiting Worth, usefulness, waste Persistence

Social

Cultural norms Background Networks Education Communication Experience

Work, job, career Social activities (dancing, music) Life events competence

Control Power Equity

Participation Government

Mediative (added after coding # I)

Not in initial list of influences/ constraints

Intensifying, compensating Connecting, links

Other

Anticipated possibility of new category-only mediative

No answer Nothing, no, yes

Political

functions potential

A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

moved to economic "Surprise"

because of its relationship

109

to value, benefit, and motivation.

was assigned to cognitive because it assumes expectation,

but assigning

it to affective had been considered. The facets of the information-seeking however, require careful re-readings examples

process did not require additions. They did, of the operational

belonged in which category.

between

questions

generated

definitions to clarify which

One of the difficulties was the distinction

from a search that constituted

new situations

and

questions that shed new light on the original situation. The former example belongs in outcomes, the latter in strategies. Very little appeared that did not fit comfortably in an identified category. Aside from "no answer," only addition to the "other" tions to the operational

"nothing,"

definitions.

Recoding and Intercoder

Reliability Testing

Following the first pass at coding, the recommended applied

to the operational

assigned constraint.

definitions.

In addition,

one facet of the information-seeking Ten interview

documents

changes and additions for each response,

process

ments, representing

were coders

and only one influence/

served as the basis for inter coder reliability

testing. The second coder trained on two of the ten documents, intercoder

"no," and "yes," the

category was "dumb luck." Table 5.5 shows the addi-

leaving eight docu-

a sample of roughly 5 percent of the total as the sample for

reliability testing. Results from this sample were compared with the pri-

mary coder's coding of the same interviews. The confusion matrices in tables 5.6 and 5.7 summarize the results. The numbers in the cells represent

how the two coders assigned categories. When both coders

Table 5.6 Confusion Matrix of Initial Coding: Facets of the Information-Seeking Process Coder 2

Context

Context

11

3

0

0

1

15

Situation

3

35

2

1

5

46

Strategies

1

3

63

12

5

84

Outcomes

0

0

3

65

4

72

Other

0

5

0

0

16

21

Total

15

46

68

78

31

238

~

Situation

Strategies

Outcomes

Other

Total

110

C h a p te r 5

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A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

assigned

a response

to the same category,

intersect. For example, cell 1,1 represents a response which

to the context

coder

response

category.

# 1 assigned

to the situation

is added where like categories

11 instances in which both coders assigned

Cell 1,2, however,

a response category.

a number

111

to context,

represents

but coder

three instances

#2 assigned

in

the same

Ideally, all coding would fall along the diagonal

from cell 1,1 to cell 5,5. The Holsti formula

(Wimmer

and Dominick

1991, 173) yielded reliability

ficients of .80 for facets of the information-seeking

process

and .67 for influences/

constraints.

These results were less than ideal, even when taking

complexity

of the coding scheme. Scott's pi, which corrects

coders by chance,

was also applied.

pi =.73,

and for influences/constraints

revealed

some initial conceptual

Coding

Clarifications

Analysis

entries in the confusion

matrix)

the coding process, the question

than

between process

of the allowed

that needed clarification.

areas

of disagreement

identification

(the

off-diagonal

of several patterns

guided development

of differ-

of further clarifications

shown in table 5.8. First, if there was enough information

even for monosyllabic for facets

for agreement

responses, rather

the

pi = .59. In both cases, the initial coding

and answer to categorize

influence/constraint

into account

For facets of the information-seeking

ambiguities

ences between coders. These patterns

coef-

the facet of the information-seeking

then coders assigned the response

than to "other."

for influences/constraints.

in

from

process,

to the facet or

This condition

arose more frequently

This

because

is likely

the

questions

Table 5.8 Coding Clarifications Based on Intercoder Reliability Testing Condition

Action

If question cues sufficient to assign response

Assign response to facet, not other

If more than one influence/constraint evident and they are of equal importance

Assign response to influence/ constraint first mentioned

If reference to knowledge of availability or to expectation

Assign to cognitive, not economic

If reference to human or electronic intermediary

Assign to mediative

If nature of ease or difficulty not specified If nature of ease or difficulty specified

Assign to economic Assign to category specified

If reference to human or electronic networks

Assign to social

If reference to lock outs for lack of authorization If reference to lock outs for lack of connection

Assign to political Assign to mediative

112

C h a p te r 5

themselves frequently provided enough information

to be able to assign responses

to facets but not enough to be able to assign for influences/constraints. more than one influence/constraint

coders assigned the response to the influence/constraint response. Third, expectation

Second, if

were present and of equal importance, that appeared

then

first in the

and knowledge of what was available on a given ques-

tion or topic were assigned to cognitive, not economic. Fourth, mediative influences and constraints handouts,

included human, electronic, or other intermediary,

such as books,

and posters. Fifth, when the nature of ease or difficulty was not specified,

coders assigned the response to economic. If the ease or difficulty was attributed another influence/constraint, of attribution.

to

however, coders assigned the response to the category

Sixth, coders assigned networks, whether electronic or interpersonal,

as social influences/constraints.

Finally, coders

locked out of systems for lack of password

assigned reports

or authorization

of users'

being

as political influences/

constraints. Intercoder according

Reliability

ill

Recoding

to the additions

All interview

to the operational

according to the additions to the operational ducing nearly diagonal confusion cients were far more encouraging.

responses

definitions.

(151) were recoded

Coders were retrained

definitions and the clarifications, pro-

matrices. This time intercoder Holsti's

reliability coeffi-

formula yielded .95 for facets of the

information-seeking

process and .96 for influences/constraints.

For facets of the

information-seeking

process, pi was .93, and for influences/constraints,

pi

=

.94.

These coefficients reflect reliable coding for the content analysis. The coding structure, definitions, and procedure demonstrated Follow-up Case Study: Framework Because this research approach understanding

sufficient validity and reliability.

Refinement

uses the case study method to build a theoretical

of access to information,

and because such an approach

to theory

building relies on theoretical sampling, the follow-up case study was selected to be significantly different from the pilot and main case studies, to extend theoretical variance. This allowed the framework, refined and extended based on analysis of the data from the main case study, to be retested to compare it against the behavior and perceptions

of participants

from outside the traditionally

elite contexts

of most

related research. Participants

in the follow-up case study were enrolled in a program

prepare them to enter or reenter the work force. The program,

designed to

Support,

aims to

A R e s e a r c h Ap p r o a c h : Ac c e s s

113

work toward job training and placement with individuals on public assistance and thereby serves individuals who are likely to have been outside populations ally served by institutional names of participants

information

systems. The program's

tradition-

director provided

willing to be interviewed.

In this case, the same question protocol was administered view rather than as a written survey. Three arguments

as a face-to-face inter-

drove the decision to inter-

view rather than to elicit written responses to the interview protocol: 1. As no course assignment was required of this group, participants likely to complete an interview than a written assignment.

were more

2. Some participants in this group may have had limited resources, such as time or facility in reading and writing. The interview approach was therefore more likely to allow for all participants to respond. 3. The additional data source was designed to contribute to a more complete understanding of access to information and further tested the validity and comprehensiveness of the framework. The investigator conducted the face-to-face interviews with one participant

at a time

during the summer of 1996. Interview length ranged from 40 minutes to two hours. The four extensive interviews were tape-recorded Results were analyzed and compared develop a refined theoretical framework

and transcribed.

against the revised framework for understanding

and used to

access to information.

6

Results: Testing the Framework of Access

All categories of the framework

occurred in the interview responses. Although

number of responses were assigned to "other,"

these represented

a

empty or mono-

syllabic responses rather than new categories not accounted for by the framework. Examining

intersections

of categories

demonstrated

tween (1) facets of the information-seeking

a significant relationship

be-

process, and (2) influences/constraints

on access to information. Frequencies and Examples This section reports frequencies for the individual facets of the information-seeking process and for the individual influences/constraints, (summarized

in table 6.1). The percentages

along with examples of each

represent the proportion

responses assigned to any category except "other."

of the total

For facets, the total frequency

was 3,729; for influences and constraints, 2,988. The difference in frequencies of the two categories reflects the fact that although it was often possible to identify the facet of the information-seeking

process based on a brief or monosyllabic response,

such coding was less possible in assigning influences and constraints, more often placed in the "other"

which were

category and thus not included in computing the

percentages. Facets of the Information-Seeking

Process

Of the facets of the information-seeking

process, strategies occurred most frequently

and context least frequently. Of the 3,729 non-"other"

responses, 347, or 9 percent,

represented context; 884, or 24 percent, represented situation; 1,572, or 42 percent, represented Context

strategies; and 926, or 25 percent, represented outcomes. Context is the background

or the background

and frame of reference of the potential

in which an information

user

system operates. It generally implies

116

C h a p te r 6

Table 6.1 Summary of Frequencies and Examples from Main Study Category

Frequency

Percent

F a c e t s o f t h e I n fo r m a t i o n - S e e k i n g

Example

P r ocess

Context

347

9

Situation

884

24

I hoped to learn about alternative treatments for cancer and possibly clinical trials that might be appropriate for me.

Strategies

1,572

42

I tried selecting what seemed to be the most likely telnet sites based on the names of the site. Once connected, I worked through the menus in attempting to find the most likely locations for the information. Much of this was trial-and-error in the beginning.

Outcomes

926 3,729

25

I found nothing.

100

Total

The primary topic that I selected was esophageal cancer, since I was diagnosed with this condition in June and have undergone radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and reconstructive surgery over the past five months.

I n fl u e n c e s / C o n s t r a i n t s

Physical

286

Cognitive

1,034

Affective Economic Social Political

Mediative

Total

9.5

The aspect that it was all graphical made it easier to receive answers. It made it easier to understand the search.

35

It seems to me with more knowledge of commands and accessing these listings they would be at my disposal. As a newcomer I found it [the system] discouraging, hard to use, and not all it's hyped up to be. Without the knowledge it is no good.

135 575 511

4.5 19 17

I was intimidated

66

2

381

13

2,988

100

so far as to what is on line.

Time is all that hindered my searches. I wanted to try to talk to people with my same interests one-on-one for more information. To protect myself as a potential home buyer. And to be fully knowledgeable of my rights, options, and the real estate market. I first had problems with my home computer in responding to the system, but after speaking to fellow students I was able to connect.

T e s tin g th e F r a m e w o r k

phenomena

that predate

the situation

varied. Some were relatively

that arises from them. Reports

simple and spoke to a current context.

more of the past and provided tion What set of circumstances

o f Ac c e ss

greater detail, as illustrated

117

of contexts

Others revealed

in responses

to the ques-

led to your interest in this topic/question/problem?

When I was eighteen, I found my father was trying to get me involved in what I considered to be major fraud. Trying to move out, and having no girl friends willing to move out of home, I found myself living with my boyfriend. Soon we discovered I was pregnant; then we broke up and now he is nowhere to be found. In the midst of all of this I became a statistic as an unwed mother receiving public assistance. So I picked women on welfare as my research topic. Several responses indicated

represented

circumstances

pressing issues of daily life. In general, the context

in the lives of the respondents

in seeking information

and using an information

and their frames of reference

system, for example,

The primary topic that I selected was esophageal cancer, since I was diagnosed with this condition in June and have undergone radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and reconstructive surgery over the past five months. Implicit

in the reports

participants

electronic

search

in a classroom

tools

explicitly in the responses,

to the Internet.

using monochromatic

tools that required

of the user to be able to navigate

considerable

the information

Situation information awareness

monitors

knowledge

system.

They

and texton the part

This context

rarely

but it was a shared context for the participants

that did affect them in other facets of the information-seeking their reports

system most of the

in this data set. Most used

and a serial connection

or lab situation

based information-seeking appeared

of the information

used as the basis for the searches reported

primitive worked

was the context

process,

especially

on strategies. The situation

is the particular

arises. It includes

set of circumstances

also the awareness

of that need. Some examples

from which a need for

of those circumstances

of the situation

and the

facet were procedural

in

nature: We were trying to learn how to playa bunch of new songs by Pink Floyd for our friends this past weekend. We needed sheet music, and money was limited, so the only logical solution was to surf the Internet. Others had longer-range

goals in mind:

The topic I searched was grants, as in money for college. Many were interested

in health and wellness issues, either for themselves

friends or relatives could be affected:

or because

118

C h a p te r 6

We are continuing to monitor our cholesterol, since there is a tendency for it to rise too much. So, we are interested in anything related to cholesterol, especially factors that affect HDL and LDL cholesterol.

Strategies

The strategies facet includes the dynamic process of addressing the situ-

ation, a more structured

representation

of the situation,

and what is required

address it. Interaction with a system or systems, informal evaluation,

to

and new ques-

tions that lead to iterations are also part of strategies. Examples of responses assigned to the strategies facet are descriptions of a course of action, comments

on what helped or hindered progress, or reflections on what

might have been a more effective strategy. The differences were, for the most part, cued by the questions

themselves.

What

approaches

did you try in seeking an

answer? and How did you get an answer? tended to elicit the descriptions

of the

process. Comments on helps or hindrances usually appeared in response to Did anything make it difficult for you to look for an answer? or Did anything help you in looking for an answer? Reflections on improvements

generally were offered in re-

sponse to questions such as What did you do if you didn't find what you were looking for? or Did the ease or difficulty change? How? Why? Courses

of action ranged

from the simple and familiar

to the complex

and

sophisticated: I used a Boolean search in Veronica to locate files and books. In some cases I retrieved thousands of files through insufficiently specific searches. I remedied this with extensions ... or by using more specific searches.

Comments

on helps and hindrances

instruction,

experience, and persistence:

I found the instruction and handouts when I helped fellow classmates.

revealed a number of examples that included

easy to understand.

It helped me understand

even more

The ease and difficulty changed when I decided to be more specific about what team I wanted information about.

Reflections on possible improvements

to a search strategy seemed to focus on plan-

ning and syntax: Not finding anything taught me that I should have been better prepared. I should have had the descriptors from the Medline search. I should have researched the descriptors used in Index Medicus; I should have had the names of some researchers and sites that are doing research. These may have helped me with authors and keyword searches.

Since most participants

chose to tryout

the search tools introduced

in class, these

data may reflect an unusually high frequency of mediative difficulties. It is likely that

T e s tin g th e F r a m e w o r k

reports

o f Ac c e ss

119

of a wider range of strategies, not limited to the tools of the classroom,

would ordinarily

appear. In fact, as discussed later in this chapter, the actual fre-

quencies of strategies intersecting with mediative influences and constraints

do sig-

nificantly exceed expected frequencies. Outcomes

The final facet of the information-seeking

retrieval and use of information,

process, outcomes, includes

and evaluation. Retrieval, use, and evaluation can

lead to new situations. As discussed earlier, most of the emphasis in studying information seeking has been on the situation and strategies facets. Little has been considered in the literatures with regard to context and outcomes, yet 34 percent of the responses in this study fall in those facets. In response to the question What did you do with what you found? comments ranged from terse to detailed: Read it, and just smiled. I wrote the lyrics down, combined them into my version and got them calli graphed on posterboard and hung them up in my room. All the information I have gathered, I have used to my advantage to continue working on personal photography projects. I have realized that my future in photography has already been changed, because new, young photographers are already showing their work on the Internet and gaining recognition and getting jobs. I need to learn all that I can about the Internet to possibly have a gallery site for myself.

Outcomes are of particular

interest with regard to the nature of information

as a

thing or commodity.

By having failed to account for the use of information-the

actual outcomes-we

have neglected to account for a major portion of access to the

value of information.

In many instances, outcomes reflected a level of satisfaction

with the search, as expressed by the respondent.

Ordinarily,

this was in response to

questions about whether or not the search had been worthwhile.

Satisfaction, there-

fore, was frequently expressed in terms of economic influences and constraints. Influences and Constraints The influences and constraints

on access to information

and communication

from the extensive review of the literature that laid the groundwork inary framework

derived

for the prelim-

included physical, cognitive, affective, economic, social, and polit-

ical. In the course of carrying out the initial coding, the data illustrated the need for one more category-mediative

influences and constraints. This was not particularly

surprising in that one of the questions posed, prior to data analysis, was how to account for mediative functions in access to information.

Mediation

had been dis-

cussed extensively in the literature and was identified as a dimension of access. The question was whether it should be included as an influence/constraint

or whether it

120

C h a p te r 6

was a separate dimension that interacted with other phenomena participants'

responses, it seemed clear that mediation

to other influences and constraints

operates in a manner similar

on access to information.

tion for mediative influences/constraints

of access. Given the

The operational

is the extension, expansion,

defini-

enhancement,

or limitation of natural individual abilities through interaction with technological human intermediaries

(Ruben 1993). Examples include intensification

sation (Lievrouw 1994); acceleration, (Rogers, Collins-Jarvis,

or

and compen-

embedding of difficulty (Singer 1980); linking

and Schmitz 1994); and facilitation

As was true of the facets of the information-seeking

(D. Schiller 1989).

process, nearly everything as-

signed to "other" represented no response or responses so terse as to make it impossible for the coder to determine constraints appeared constraints Physical

a meaningful

assignment.

No new influences or

emerged from the data, and all categories derived from the literature in the responses. Discussion and examples of each of the influences and on access to information The physiological

follow.

abilities or limitations

mental, spatial, and display characteristics

of a user, along with environ-

of representations

of information

space or system through or in which one might find information, egory of physical influences and constraints physical influences and constraints

or of a

make up the cat-

on access to information.

Examples of

showed up in response to a variety of questions.

Some had to do with display features: The aspect that it was all graphical understand the search.

made it easier to receive answers.

It made it easier to

Others were more literal, referring to physical presence or distance: I spend a great deal of time with computers and have an interest in the effects of being so close to the terminal screen.

An interesting aspect of assigning influences and constraints is that in some instances the designation

applies

to participants'

discussions

of their search procedures,

whereas in other instances the focus is on the topic of the search. Physical influences and constraints,

for example, cover the gamut from reference to physical health or

difficulties and limitations, to electronic space. A number of the participants

selected

topics related to health or physical activity: I need to lose weight and I like to dance.

or to virtual physical space or limitation: Since my e-mail box is small ... I figured that by opening another account I wouldn't worry about not having enough room for any important information.

have to

T e s tin g th e F r a m e w o r k

Physical

influences

and constraints

sponses. The comments the operational trations

from participants

definition

of physical

examples

and examples

influences

such as references

destinations. Health

and body, for example, on participants'

Cognitive

Cognitive

awareness,

literacy,

Participants

to equipment;

Several

the basis for estab-

to the products

of an elec-

and to travel, such as locations

route, and format-appeared

were implied

or

in the litera-

under ability or limitation.

arrangement,

influences

or orientation

Path and

in the environment,

and constraints

and content,

to cognitive

commented

include

the user's understanding,

or skill level, and information-processing

style with

and with regard to the system, procedures,

means available to address the situation. referred principally

in the responses.

that provided

with

Specific illus-

meanings.

facility

regard to the situation

of the re-

were included under other explicitly listed subcategories.

route could fall under geography, depending

appeared

and downloads;

The other examples-path,

121

were, for the most part, consistent derived from the literature.

in the literature

tronic search, namely, printouts ture but for the framework

in 286, or 9.5 percent,

and constraints

had not been addressed

lishing the categories,

occurred

o f Ac c e ss

More than 1,000 responses,

and

or 35 percent,

influences or constraints.

on what made the process harder

or easier:

The difficulty of syntax for connection and subscribing made it a little difficult. I realize that not all systems are the same, but I was unaware of what to even type after that didn't work. Cognitive

influences/constraints

trying to accomplish

appeared,

also, in reports of what respondents

were

in their searches:

It seems to me with more knowledge of commands and accessing these listings they would be at my disposal. As a newcomer I found it [the system] discouraging, hard to use, and not all it's hyped up to be. Without the knowledge it is no good. In general, descriptions ipants'

then, cognitive

influences

of the topic or problem

interactions

Again, comments

appeared

from participants

were consistent

that served as the basis for developing

specifics from the responses discussed in the literature ple, was discussed

in

of the partic-

with the operational

As was the case with physical influences

what was available,

most frequently

with the system.

tion and with the literature the framework.

and constraints

of the search and in explanations

were added to examples

but were included

of the category,

under literacy and facility, expectation and so on. The comments

the categories

and constraints,

under subcategories.

definiof

although

most had been

Syntax, for exam-

was part of awareness

of

affirmed the validity of this category

122

C h a p te r 6

as defined. The high frequency of responses that fell under this category gave it further support. Affective

The user's feelings about herself, the system, and the situation

information-seeking

in the

process fall under affective influences and constraints.

Exam-

ples include attitudes, confidence, fear or trust, and comfort or discomfort.

Partic-

ipants mentioned

affect in only 4.5 percent,

or 135, of the responses.

Since the

surveys in this study represent reports submitted to a teacher in an academic environment, it is possible that participants

were less likely than the general population

to report on their feelings. They appeared more comfortable procedures

with reporting on their

and the cognitive aspects of their decisions on how to proceed.

Affect influenced the importance

of a search as well as the strategies a participant

tried. His attitudes towards himself were influential, but the search experience also influenced the view of self: It was very important for me to get an answer because I am afraid of this specific disease and want to know all I can about it. How could I get so lost? I am an intelligent individual who holds a responsible position my company and if this is so simple, where the X%#$@ am I?

Not much appeared in the responses as additions to this category-only and its expressions,

humor

such as laughter, emerged from the data as new components.

Again, it is worth asking if affective influences and constraints independent

in

category or if they are more appropriately

ences and constraints.

truly represent

an

a subset of economic influ-

Affect, though clearly influential in the information-seeking

process, usually occurs as a cost, a benefit, a motivator,

or an indicator of the value

of the search and its outcome. Economic

The benefits, costs, and value (both potential and realized) of informa-

tion to the user or provider, and the motivation fits, constitute

to overcome costs and derive bene-

the economic influences and constraints.

such as time, inconvenience, ences and constraints.

Other nonfinancial

costs,

or annoyance, are also considered to be economic influ-

Nineteen percent, or 575, of the responses represented

eco-

nomic influences and constraints. Many of the examples illustrated the benefits the user sought through the search: Wanted to shop around to save money, and this search provided price through the state insurance department. Competing in today's job market is quite an awakening. you know what I mean.

a way to find the lowest

It makes the "clue phone"

ring, if

T e s tin g th e F r a m e w o r k

Others illustrated

o f Ac c e ss

123

costs or benefits of a system:

Time is all that hindered my searches. It hindered it in that these are not the fastest systems and take a lot of time to transfer information. [The Internet] seemed to be the way to go for immediate info on this subject. No waiting for correspondence on the mailing lists. No waiting at the library for a book. Just punch in the relevant data and you'll get something!! Others commented the unique nature

on the value of what they found or failed to find and revealed

of information

as an economic

entity. It is affected by timeliness,

and the user has no access to the value of the information

until he consumes

it.

Difficult. So much information to use and some of it out of date. Until I attempted to get the information some of it was unusable. It was not worth the aggravation and frustration I experienced. As noted,

the distinction

straints

is not entirely

nomena

do influence

examples influences Social

and economic

influences

and con-

simply supported

access to information.

Time and timeliness that motivation

Again,

were evident

additions

pheto the

in the literature,

is a valid subcategory

of economic

and constraints.

Cultural

norms,

class membership

and communicative

situation works

affective

clear. Aside from that, the data affirm that economic or constrain

were not surprising.

and persistence

cation

between

compose

of interest

competence,

social influences and activity,

and background,

and experience

and constraints.

such as shared

Social networks

interest

in musical

acquaintances.

Seventeen percent, or 511, of the responses

or constraints.

Examples

constraints,

including

illustrated

networks,

the various components

experience,

social networks,

edu-

with regard to a particular

background,

include

groups

net-

or social

reflected social influences of social influences and and education:

Exploring NASA is fundamental to my interests in the space program because I have worked for NASA in the past and have a son who is an astronaut. I like to dance. I have friends that are promoters and djs, and I have been to many raves. I tried to find out the dates of upcoming raves. One of the board members, who is a social worker at a continuing care retirement community, needs this information and asked me for help. Networks,

both interpersonal

ments on social influences education,

and electronic,

and constraints.

may reflect the setting

featured

The frequency

prominently of another

in the comcomponent,

of the case study in that all participants

enrolled

in a course. Again, both the frequency

referred

to in the examples

of occurrence

were

and the components

affirmed the validity of social influences and constraints

124

C h a p te r 6

and illustrated that, for the most part, the operational quately accounted for the phenomena

of social influences and constraints

The additions from the comments-work, life planning and events-were

definition and examples adeon access.

job, and career; social activities; and

illustrative. Work, job, and career fell in the realm

of social influences and constraints

when the concern on the part of the individual

was how to prepare for or select a career. Political

Political influences and constraints

actors and institutions.

include power relationships

They also include equity and participation

Although political influences and constraints any other influence or constraint

were mentioned

of the

as a citizen.

less frequently than

(66 times, or 2 percent), this may result less from

the prevalence of such influences and constraints from the classroom setting of this particular

on access to information

and than

case study. In other words, it is possi-

ble that if the interview protocol had been administered

in a workplace rather than

in a classroom, more of the situations would have focused on workplace structures, proprietary

information,

participation

and access through status. Examples referred to rights of

in political processes and to failure to gain access to certain databases

or sites because of lack of authorization.

The first example explains what the par-

ticipant was trying to accomplish in her search: To protect myself as a potential home buyer. And to be fully knowledgeable of my rights, options, and the real estate market. I tried to track down users of e-mail. No such luck. This is because most of the sites I was trying to reach have installed fire walls, because of their size in the industry; [they were] designed to do the job they did on me. In both of these examples, the participants could lead to advancement institutions participants

were looking for information

in life. They illustrate power relationships

as well as participation

that

of actors and

rights. The data from the follow-up case study,

of which fall outside the realm of those with privileged access to infor-

mation, may shed light on the extent to which political influences and constraints pervade the process outside of a classroom setting. Mediative

Based on Ruben's (1993) definition of mediated communication,

tive influences and constraints limitation

include the extension, expansion,

of natural individual abilities through

human intermediaries.

interaction

media-

enhancement,

or

with technological

or

A teacher, a librarian, a friend, a gopher menu, or a book all

qualify as mediative influences or constraints.

Thirteen percent, or 381, of the re-

sponses made reference to mediative influences or constraints. human, print, and technological

guidance or connectivity:

Examples include

T e s tin g th e F r a m e w o r k

I first had problems with my home computer to fellow students I was able to connect.

in responding

o f Ac c e ss

125

to the system, but after speaking

I e-mailed my teacher asking for some help, and she e-mailed me back an address and I tried it to see if it worked. It did. The textbook helped in giving me preliminary sites to look through. From there, there were some references in the files I downloaded. Not many people can sit down and come up with ftp sites off the top of their head, so a textbook or small guide is very handy for things of this nature.

As noted earlier, this category was added in response to the data. Earlier on, mediation was identified as a potentially intensifying or compensating in relation to access to information. constraints

phenomenon

It was not clear until mediative influences and

appeared frequently in the interviews that this was properly a category

under influences and constraints. ences and constraints

The data provided evidence that mediative influ-

occur with considerable

frequency. It is possible, however,

that the frequency in this case study is higher because of the classroom

setting.

Again, the theoretically extreme, follow-up case study sheds light on this question. Addressing the Research Questions What have the data shown so far about the research questions under consideration in this chapter? All categories of the framework

were represented

that they do capture or organize participants' situations

and individuals.

However,

in the data, and this suggests

perceptions of access, certainly across

as noted, although participants

were free to

use and report on any setting, most carried out their searches using tools of the Internet introduced

in class. Thus, the follow-up case study, in which participants

were interviewed outside a classroom setting, will shed further light on whether the framework

applies across settings.

As noted also, mediative influences and constraints were added to the framework to better reflect participants'

responses and to improve the ability of the framework

to capture or organize participants'

perceptions of access to information.

mediative influences and constraints, tions to the framework,

Aside from

however, the data suggested no further addi-

with the exception that they did extend each of the cate-

gories beyond what was identified by a review of the literature. Category Intersections For every response, coders assigned one facet of the information-seeking and one influence/constraint. access to information

process

Since we have been looking at the two dimensions of

identified in the literature that best reflect human behavior, it

126

C h a p te r 6

seemed reasonable to investigate whether the two dimensions operate independently or not. Excluding those intersections that included one or more "other" the matrix produced 2,985 instances of intersections

responses,

between facets and influences/

constraints. A chi-square goodness-of-fit test applied to these intersections indicated a significant association

between the rows (facets of the information-seeking

cess) and columns (influences/constraints

on access to information)

pro-

(chi-square

=

472, d.f.=18, p .p

..;

i: :

V)

M

;;:

'"

~

V)

N

-;

0 "\

'" Q)

'"

U Q)

.~

,....,

"'"

l::l'

.Ll

i: :

-;

u

00

\D

0 "\

0

( 'j

"':

V)

"'"

( 'j

0';

N

\0

....

"':

"l

"l

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0

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"':

\D

N

00

00

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N

0

0

0

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0

....

0

0

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"'" c::

0';

~

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0

M

0

N

r--:

0';

0

M

>.Ll

::l •... u

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>--

.."

::l •... C J ")

0..

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Q) ""

•...

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u

211

212

C h a p te r 9

Table

9.3

Factors

Influencing

Browsing,

Factor In d ivid u a l

by Research

Library

Informa-

Con-

User Studies

tion Science

sumer Research

Audience Research

tional Research

Design

Organiza-

X

X

X X

X

X

X

C h a r a c te r is tic s

Purpose/motive Goal

X

Plan

Y

Knowledge

X X

Experience

X X X

Y Y

X X

Interest Mood/emotion Expectation

Y

X X

Y

y

Time/money C o n te xtu a l

Literature

X

X

X

Xb Xb

F a c to r s -E n vir o n m e n t

Atmosphere

y

Uncertainty

Y

Interface

X X

Display Organizational

X X

X

Y

Xb

structure C o n te xtu a l

F a c t o r s - C o m p u t e r - S p e c i fi c

X X X X X

Language Modality Screen size Speed Feedback C o n te xtu a l

X X X

Representations

X

=

X

F a c to r s -O b je c t/R e s o u r c e

Real things Other

X X X

attributes

dimensions

explicitly

a. In environmental b. In informal

X

discussed;

scanning

communication

X

Y

Y

X

Y

=

literature. literature.

dimensions

X implicitly

assumed.

xa

Y

213

P e r s p e c tive s o n B r o w s in g

Table 9.4 Consequences of Browsing, by Research Literature Library User Studies

Consequence Serendipitous finding Modification of information requirements Finding the target information Learning Disorientation Information overload

Consumer Research

Audience Research

Organizational Research

Design

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

Cost of time Enjoyment Information gathermg Opinion leadership Impulse buying Monitoring/surveillance X =

Information Science

X X

X

X

X

X

X X X

dimensions explicitly discussed.

2. The ability to sample as easily as one wishes 3. The reduced directly interact

burden of specifying what is needed or intended (individuals may with informational stimuli that are potentially useful to them)

4. The linking of information stimuli (or making associations), which is manifested in or constrained by the underlying organizational structure (or paths) of the items browsed On the other seeking context, expectation future mation

of motivations

even in a situation

presumed.

to recreational

where

The

browsing.

emphasis

However,

in consumer

for browsing

undirected

(i.e., information)

is taking

place, an or in the

is placed

browsing

recreational

and media audience

in the information-

in the course of browsing on instrumental

Indeed, most researchers

science field agree that information

and goal-oriented. browsing

in terms

to gain something

is often

opposed

hand,

browsing

as

in the library and infor-

seeking in general tends to be purposive browsing research.

is as important

as instrumental

214

C h a p te r 9

Table 9.5 Evaluation of Successful Browsing, by Research Literature Library User Studies

Information Science

X

X

Consumer Research

Organizational Research

Audience Research

Design

C r ite r io n

Effectiveness Efficiency Satisfaction

X

y

y

y

M ea surem ent

No. of books checked out that were not known beforehand (circulation statistics) No. of unknown items found or used (self-report data) Target items found (search accuracy) Time spent (search efficiency) X

=

X

X

X

X

dimensions explicitly discussed; Y

The presumptions

in the literature

to reflect the paradigmatic troversy

regarding

sequences

validity.

Further,

both of which

the user's motivation

What

most researchers

is needed

in which the browsing

is to evaluate

adopt experiments

ing,"

"making

dimension,

an examination,"

or read,"

movement, "skimming."

"without

to the immediate

into account.

to behavioral

of browsing.

First,

characteristics.

Such

such as "looking Second,

there

which is related to why people engage in browsing

order to buy, or borrow,

and surveys as

that they lack ecological

are not connected

which is related

can refer to physical

the con-

activities are taking place (Dervin and

1986). Future research needs to take this limitation

characteristics

tend

in terms of the user's

Based on these reviews, we can identify six general dimensions there is a b e h a v i o r a l dimension,

in browsing

and lead to the con-

especially

are subject to the criticism

That is, the users under investigation

events or environments Nilan

about

of the specific literatures

from the user's perspective,

to browse.

methodologies,

biases

dimensions implicitly assumed.

the value of browsing.

of browsing

motivations

=

prior intention

over,"

"inspect-

is a m o t i v a t i o n a l

behavior,

such as "in

of buying,"

or "with-

P e r s p e c tive s o n B r o w s in g

out purpose."

Third, there is a c o g n i t i v e dimension, which is related to the mental

state of the browser. knowledge."

215

One such aspect is knowledge,

for instance,

"without

real

Fourth, there is an o b j e c t o r r e s o u r c e dimension, referring to the object

of browsing, which can be physical items (e.g., goods) or symbolic information/text (e.g., headlines). behavior

Fifth, there is a c o n t e x t

dimension,

indicating

is taking place, such as in a store or a library.

dimension suggests that a specific and physical arrangement

where

browsing

Sixth, the o r g a n i z a t i o n within a context (i.e., a

separate room and its display in a library or in a public space) may be associated with more browsing

or successful browsing. These definitions suggest that, behav-

iorally, browsing is examining be characterized knowledge,

rize the concepts

the concept of browsing is multidimensional. identified in this chapter.

in each literature.

in each literature. browsing.

from absence, vagueness to explicit presence of,

purpose, or intention.

In conclusion,

browsing

or inspecting or looking over a resource, and it can

on a continuum

Four tables summa-

Table 9.2 shows some dimensions

Table 9.3 lists factors influencing browsing

Table 9.4 provides a cross-literature

Table 9.5 summarizes

the criteria

look at the consequences

and measurements

successful browsing suggested in each literature.

of

identified

for evaluation

of of

10 A

Preliminary Framework of Browsing

This chapter provides descriptions

of various constructs

used in part II, elaborating

and defining dimensions important

to an understanding

of browsing in various con-

texts. It presents a taxonomy ing incorporating

of browsing and proposes a summary model of brows-

this taxonomy.

M archionini's

model

information-seeking

of

browsing

considers

five

interactions

among

factors of "task, domain, setting, user characteristics

rience, and system content and interface"

defined (as through

and expe-

(1995, 107). The object is characterized,

first, by the extent to which it is easily specified with singular attributes plex of multiple attributes,

the

and second, by whether

those attributes

or is a com-

are externally

a system's display or index) or exist within the mind of the user.

Browsing would be maximal when the attributes

are ambiguous,

both in the system

and in the user's mind. Third, the extent to which the system organizes the objects, and fourth, the extent to which the system provides feedback to the user also influence the level of browsing. Fifth, the user's personal information lytical or browsing

strategy,

states) and the particular

situation

effect on extent of interactivity So, for example, internal

definition,

(M archionini browsing involves

1995,

entry points,

scanning

infrastructure

search tactics, cognitive

influence the level of browsing

(ana-

and emotional through

their

and extent of cognitive demand. is associated

high organization, 111, his table

with

high external

low inter activity,

6.2). Linear

scanning

definition,

known

and low cognitive occurs when

effort

a user is

a list or when a user is within the object's local area. Selective scanning partitioning

sections

of the search

space

(e.g., looking

at an article's

reference list or searching every third track on a CD), perhaps to assess coverage or general accuracy. Observing is associated with low external and fuzzy internal definition, low organization

and feedback,

involve multiple

and subsequent

high cognitive effort. This approach

senses and defer most to environmental

initiatives,

might

so identifying

218

C h a p te r 1 0

the relevant between

neighborhood

are "navigate"

is an important

browsing

seeking, heavily influenced in resources

with

weak

first step in "observe"

browsing.

(what might be called incremental

by system feedback)

structuring,

and most

and "monitor" successful

information

browsing

when

In

(useful

associations

are

stimulated). M archionini's

model is somewhat

similar to our proposed model, and indeed was

influenced to some extent by our previous work (Chang and Rice 1993). Here, we extend this general approach

Behavioral

Although library

and provide some more specific components.

Characteristics

the term b r o w s i n g is usually applied to "the actions of moving about a

and dipping

into books, picking out bits and pieces of information

of all

kinds" (Cove and W alsh 1988, 31), the notion of browsing has been construed

as a

shopping

to a

search

activity, a viewing pattern,

strategy.

and a screening

In the most fundamental

browsing share a central characteristic:

technique

sense, these various

in addition interpretations

of

they are s c a n n i n g processes.

Scan: (v.) 1. to examine closely, esp. in search; 2. to look at quickly without

careful reading.

(n.) an act of scanning, esp. a searching look ( L o n g m a n D i c t i o n a r y o f C o n t e m p o r a r y E n g l i s h 1978,991). Scan v b ...

to examine

by point-by-point

observation

oughly by checking point by point and often repeatedly hastily, casually, or in search of a particular

or checking

...

to investigate

thor-

... to glance from point to point often

item (M erriam-W ebster

1993, 1041).

Scanning From a behavioral an individual

perspective,

moves through

senses of scanning-the approaches

close examination

to looking through

of information

browsing

is characterized

an information

by the act of scanning as

or a physical environment.

or the quick glance-reflect

a surrounding

The two

two different

or a resource in which multiple layers

or objects are presented; scanning implies multiplicity

of the scanned

object. Various

descriptions

of scanning behavior,

based on the second meaning

term, include skimming, glancing, or looking around. Although common form of scanning discussed in the literature,

of the

looking is the most

scanning does not have to be

visual and may involve more than one sensory faculty (including auditory, olfactory, and tactile sensations). Indeed, the immediacy of sensory involvement has been used as a criterion

to differentiate

different types of browsing

eries," organized in different ways (Overhage and Harman

systems called "brows1965). For example, the

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

im m ediacy

of sensory contact

com pared

in browsing

to browsing m icroform s

W hile scanning for orientation, other environm ental

to acquaint

containing

a printed

or skim m ing. W hen Lancaster

resource encountered Once the probable

which serves and to fam il-

m ovem ents

of browsing

of potential

of the resource

so that com parisons

and whether

(1993) explicitly describes a general algorithm

can

to use the resource.

for browsing, which con-

sists of four elem ents: (1) m aking glim pses, (2) connecting

attributes,

connections,

glim pses,"

and (4) evaluating

scanning.

resources is found, scanning within a po-

tential resource for assessm ent tends to be m ore thorough the quality

in the

between resources such that one

m ay lead to another. This is a kind of exploratory

location

be m ade regarding

signposts, or

seem s less hasty than scanning as glancing

(1978) describes the m echanics

library, he talks about the individual's

is good,

by quick glances observable

within new surroundings,

the individual with the range of a resource environm ent resources,

219

im ages of docum ents.

characterized

scanning in exploration

iarize her with the potential

O'Connor

collection

which serves to identify landm arks,

cues, is typically

from head rotation,

through

o f B r o w s in g

the search. By "m aking

(3) evaluating he m ay well

m ean scanning. Further, instead of discussing browsing as a search strategy, he construes it as a sam pling tween the individual's and the attributes characterizes

strategy. In sam pling, internal representations

as O'Connor

suggests, overlaps be-

of an anom alous

state of knowledge

of external resources are evaluated. Assessm ent through sam pling

typical browsing activity such as looking through

at the shelf or exam ining

a num ber of books

a num ber of item s in order to decide what to borrow

or

purchase. The concept

of sam pling

for selecting "worthwhile

and useful inform ation"

analogous to the original m eaning of browsing, such as in a deer's "grazing" ior (Cove and W alsh notion

of browsing

tronic inform ation,

1988). In the literature,

in scanning TV program s,

it has been used in describing reading m aterials

or com m ercial products. Two im plications

is

behavthe

at the shelf, elec-

can be derived from

this last type of scanning. Sam pling im plies o n g o i n g a s s e s s m e n t . Assessm ent is a step before the individual decides whether or not to seek the item (in the case of looking at representations)

or

to utilize the resource (in the case of looking at the item itself). Sam pling depends on what is m ade accessible and how it is organized and displayed for exam ination. For instance, ongoing assessm ent is easier when walking through the library stacks than when browsing an online catalog, in which it is hindered by the size and speed of screen; in addition,

online browsing is dependent

com puter

which in turn puts an extra dem and on the user.

procedures,

upon the user's knowledge

of

220

C h a p te r

10

Sam pling im plies c o n t r o l o f e x p o s u r e . Sam pling im plies interaction individual

and the resource.

m aking an alternative

Random ness

in scanning

refers to the possibility

choice of route for the next m ove within

tim e during the interaction.

between the of

a relatively short

For exam ple, the difference between a card catalog and

shelf displays lies in the depth of detail or the higher possibility of sam pling attributes that one m ight exam ine in the shelf condition. over exposure

to resources

hom e shopping program s

during scanning

Thus, the individual's

is im portant.

control

In this sense, watching

on TV does not provide as great a potential for browsing

because viewers cannot m ove where they want to go, com pared with in-store shopping. Browsing is possible in any inform ation

system in which the user has active

and relatively rapid control of the item s she wishes to exam ine as well as initiative over and control of the depth of penetration

(Overhage and Harm an

1965).

M ovem ent The m ost general form of browsing behavior is scanning a resource in a m anner that allows continuous

m ovem ent,

whether

m ent at will is an overt characteristic posure to new inform ation

random

or structured.

Continuous

m ove-

of scanning behavior. In such m ovem ent, ex-

or objects is m ade possible and thus allows learning/

discovery to occur. One extrem e m oves toward directed

along this dim ension a specific destination

m ovem ent,"

when

between is "m ovem ent tination

is interrupted

m ovem ent

the person

by unexpected without

can be considered

m ovem ent,"

m oves without

by interruption,"

to a new destination

by interruption

is "directed

when the person

(place or object). The other extrem e is "una specific destination.

when m ovem ent

inform ation returning

toward

In

a specific des-

stim uli, which m ight lead the to the original. Such m ovem ent

as varying by degree of interruption

and can be

m easured by the tim e spent on the detour activities or the num ber of interim stops. Since the scanning process im plies control of m ovem ent in which people steadily receive inform ation ping program s

by the person, activities

from m oving im ages (e.g., hom e shop-

on TV rather than window-shopping

behavior) would thus not be

considered pure scanning activities. Although

in m any cases scanning and m ovem ent

are observable,

they are difficult to judge, especially when only eye m ovem ent behavioral

characteristics

in other cases,

is involved. Thus,

are necessary but not sufficient for the concept of brows-

ing to be useful. Judged by behavior alone, browsing cannot be practically or m eaningfully

differentiated

from

m ore

deliberate

viewing, or other types of inform ation-seeking

efforts such

as searching,

reading,

behavior or, for that m atter, m ind-

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

o f B r o w s in g

221

lessness. Rather, teleological questions including people's motives, goals, and knowledge must be asked to derive adequate In this sense, browsing behavioral

information-seeking

behavior

eye movement

without

of motivations

than

activities. a (strictly)

the presence

of human

(relying on recognition

query formulation),

motives are not browsing

M archionini's

search),

manipulation

instead

ering or learning

(5) developing

(reducing an anomalous

a more

formal

(either specific knowledge

aware of associated

approaches

motives depicted

people engage in communication

Yet, the complexity ing into account

by M cGuire activities

different layers of human motivation

structured,

strategy (6) discov-

or becoming

to environmental

malls). (1974) may explain,

(such as looking

such as surveillance,

of human motivation

domains),

and responding

in general, why

through

seeking entertainment,

needs to be examined

lower levels of goals or immediate

types of motivation

state of knowl-

information-seeking

not formally

or knowledge),

(such as in museums and shopping

fulfill high-level functions

of initial formal

gap, inspecting retrieved terms in order to devise a more

(browsing retrieved results to identify the relevant knowledge

The human

(1995, 103) review

in a scientific area), (3) shifting or sharing cognitive and physical

(4) clarifying a problem

edge, closing a knowledge

invitations

as people

a process (such as while driving a car, searching book-

shelves, or keeping up-to-date

contextual

contexts

scanning activities such as

for browsing includes (1) developing an overview of physical or con-

ceptual space, (2) monitoring

entation

scanning

rather

occurs within meaningful

activity. In this sense, nonpurposeful

and thus are not included for further discussion.

load

of various

as a cognitive

Characteristics

conduct purposeful random

descriptions

be viewed

concept.

M otivational

Human

should

purposes.

a journal)

to

and learning.

in more detail, takThus, we may have

for browsing. At the highest level, two general

are extrinsic and intrinsic motives; either can be a cognitive ori-

or an affective orientation.

Further,

a continuum

of well- to ill-defined

goals (with, at one extreme, no goal) can be placed at the lower level of a human motivation

hierarchy.

M otivation

(Purpose)

At the highest level, human motives for browsing ing to the extent to which browsers trinsically

motivated

behaviors

can be broadly

described accord-

are aware of or expect a desired outcome.

are behaviors

for which

the controlling,

In-

external

222

10

C h a p te r

contingencies

have not yet been identified,

contingencies

or are without

that is, they lack any apparent

expectations

about the presence of extrinsic

(Deci and Ryan 1985, 186). Curiosity-based ples of intrinsically

motivated

vivid evidence that curiosity range of exploratory, compelling external

incentives

or reward

lication

behaviors

The psychology

literature

leads people (especially children)

manipulatory,

and experimental

is expected

behaviors

are instrumental

or has been identified.

solving and task-oriented

browsing

or buying a gift for a friend's

has provided

to engage in a wide

behaviors,

or goals and by being active and natural motivated

rewards

and play are classic exam-

and satisfying in its own right. Both are characterized

hand, extrinsically

problem

behavior.

reward

whereas

play is

by the absence of

(122). On the other

in that a desired outcome

Information-seeking

browsing

for

(such as finding a full citation of a pub-

birthday)

are typical extrinsically

motivated

behaviors. Further,

based on the kind of gratifications

types of motivation

tive motives (M cGuire ing for obtaining

where

people

seeking or information ing activities

that

two

into cognitive motives and affec-

1974). Information-related

information)

browsing

behaviors

(i.e., brows-

tend to be influenced by cognitive motives. They are

more likely to take place in the information in a library

one may derive from browsing,

or purpose can be categorized

seeking and retrieval context,

look for information.

They are driven

such as

by information

use. Affective motives tend to lead one to engage in brows-

are recreational

in nature

(i.e., browsing

for fun). Although

cognitive aspects can also be gratified in such browsing, its focus is not informationdriven. Note, however, that both cognitive and affective gratification as a result of a single browsing

can be present

activity ( d . Bloch, Ridgway, and Sherrell989;

Joen

1990). It tends to be a matter of degree rather than a dichotomy. Thus, although

the literature

reviewed about library user and consumer

behavior suggests two distinct types of motivation recreational-they

are not mutually

ping, one may gain information

exclusive. For example,

about a product

shopping

for browsing-informational during in-store

and shop-

that one plans to buy in the future

while simply looking around in the store for fun. Similarly, one may scan the shelves in a public library to look for some fiction for recreational end and feel that such information-related tive gains from seemingly nonpurposive browsing a fundamental

reading

activity is enjoyable. or affect-oriented

human behavior important

over the week-

Indeed, the cogni-

scanning activities make

to even serious creative endeav-

ors such as scientific innovation. Being able to make such distinctions tertaining

allows us to ask: W hat makes browsing

and what makes information-oriented

Answers to questions

en-

browsing successful or satisfactory?

like these may suggest different system design requirements.

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

o f B r o w s in g

223

Goal The browser

may carry out but not necessarily

person intends to accomplish the person's depending

interaction

express a goal. A goal is what the

in the scanning activities. For example,

with

a resource

can

be learning

on the nature of task to be accomplished,

semidefined

a goal during

or selecting.

or ill defined with respect to the content and path of a resource.

W ell- or Ill-Defined Goals goal: knowing

At one extreme along this continuum

what one wants,

is the well-defined

how to find it, and where to get it. If one knows

what to find and how to find it but does not know the exact location scanning may be observed during the location W hen

Further,

such a goal can be well defined,

the person's

anomalous

of the item,

of the item.

state of knowledge

extends

to the question

of

what paths to follow in order to find that specific item, he may also engage in scanning activity to explore the possible paths that may lead to the item, apart from any information

or communication

content. On the other hand, in many cases, one may

engage in scanning activity on familiar paths because one knows that there are usually some things of interest along these paths, but one does not have a specific search criterion

to begin with or does not know

something

exactly what to look for until one sees

along the way. Scanning in a path-specific

specific or nonspecific

content,

such as scanning

locate a specific article or to look for something serendipitous

findings, which mayor

situation

in a search for either

a journal's

table of contents

of interest, is often associated with

may not relate to the original goal, are perhaps

useful only for future needs, but are still of interest or importance At another information

extreme,

to

to the browser.

one may have only a general goal in mind (e.g., find some

on this topic to write a report, or get a gift for a friend's birthday) with-

out having specific ideas of what to look for, how and where to look for something of interest or use. In this situation, content-specific

Non-content-specific ing behavior

scanning activity includes a distinct type of habitual

that takes place within

one's surveillance purpose,

scanning activity may be observed for such non-

search.

need or curiosity

neither looking for specific contents

that one may engage in such habitual of a goal, browsing behavior

a familiar

search path as a function

(e.g., scanning

newspapers

behavior without

that appears

to fulfill a specific

nor any search paths). To the extent being aware of the presence

of this type may become an ongoing,

of the browser

without

brows-

to be purposeless

intrinsically

(e.g., window

motivated shopping

one walks home along a street, having a radio or TV on in the background). a learning

perspective,

have lifelong unanswered

one explanation

for such habitual

as

From

activities is that people

questions regarding events taking place in a culture, which

224

10

C h a p te r

drive them to learn from situation

to situation;

across people, refer to what are com m only

these lifelong concerns,

called personal interests. To the extent

that the very experience of a scanning process is em phasized, browsing that is goal-free, and experiencing

varying

it includes a type of

the scanning process is considered

sat-

isfactory in itself (Friedberg 1991). In m ost instances,

browsing

has been characterized

by the presence

of an ill-

defined goal associated with a situation in which one's initial search criteria are only partially

known

or vaguely defined. Such search criteria

related in term s of what to look for or path-related look. Although

uncertainty

about the location

can be either content-

in term s of how and where to

of an item is not usually associated

with browsing, scanning in locating an item does provide a condition

in which acci-

dental learning m ay take place because of exposure to other item s in the neighborhood of the targeted item , especially when the targeted item is surrounded item s according searcher's

to som e sort of classified organization,

categorization

is not m atched

by sim ilar

or by new item s when the

by the categorization

or structure

of the

resource space.

Non-Goal-Directed

On the other hand, one distinct type of purposeful

activity, which can be characterized

as non-goal-directed

nally induced. Perceptual readings of an environm ent

or a resource in which one is

present is an exam ple of such scanning activity. Several researchers how cultural institutions

scanning

behavior, is m ainly exter-

have described

such as libraries and m useum s (Carr 1991), grocery stores,

or shopping m alls (Friedberg 1991) are purposefully this type. An im portant

designed to invite browsing of

question that is closely related to creativity and serendipi-

tous findings is whether turns into a goal-directed

and how unplanned,

non-goal-directed

browsing

activity

activity.

Cognitive Characteristics

Inform ation

structures

or resource

(what a browser wants to find or interact with) can be broadly

are designed to facilitate access to contents. Thus, the object

gorized into two com ponents:

contents

gible goods such as m usic recordings literature looking

and structure.

or abstract

Contents

cate-

refers to any tan-

concepts or inform ation

such as

on activity theory or a stock price quote. W hen one scans contents, one is for "know-what,"

"know-how." of the structure

Analogically,

in contrast

to when

one scans to learn structure

contents are the destinations

for

to which one goes. Paths

are how one gets there. Note that what a browser wants to find is

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

o f B r o w s in g

225

not to be confused with what a browser actually finds or interacts with. For exam ple, one m ay want to find a specific publication out how to use the system (path/structure),

(content) and fail, instead finding

which m ay be useful in influencing

future searches. Scanning activities differ depending on how fam iliar one is with or how m uch knowledge

one has about the destination

(object), where it is and how

to get there.

Browser's

Knowledge

(Contents vs. Structure)

Two types of a browser's gain from browsing

knowledge

are relevant.

closely related to the browser's

about how and what she can accom plish

The first type is e x p e r t i s e knowledge,

the shopping context, product-related

system users, this is dom ain knowledge; in

knowledge; in TV viewing, knowledge about

program s

on TV; and in the organization,

nizational

resources (e.g., people in the organization,

The second type of knowledge

inform ation-seeking

which is

knowledge about the contents of an object or a sub-

ject sought. For library and inform ation

to the knowledge

or

is p a t h w a y

of system structure behavior

knowledge about social events and orga-

aries who have m ore knowledge

knowledge,

or search paths.

of interm ediaries

users with high expertise knowledge

their expertise). which is closely related Research

and end-users

that com pares

indicates

tend to browse m ore com pared

that end-

to interm edi-

of search paths or system structures.

Bloch and

Richins (1983) found that consum er browsing is positively related to the degree of self-perceived knowledge concerning the product class; the m ore product knowledge a user has, the m ore frequently

browsing

takes place with respect to the product.

Both types of knowledge can be affected by the browser's

experience over tim e. For

exam ple, one m ay learn both the search paths or structure of a database and its contents because of frequent use. Indeed, one usually needs to know the search paths in order to know

the contents.

And som e system s m ake search paths and contents

explicit to browsers while som e don't. As a user's knowledge the experience

of using an environm ent

user's expectations-will evaluation

is accum ulated

from

over tim e, a closely related concept-the

also change over tim e. Expectations

affect the subsequent

of any hum an endeavor.

Another type of knowledge, edge, or knowledge

not directly related to a resource, is l o c a t i o n knowl-

of where the item or resource sought is located. Consider the

following exam ple of looking for an item in the library. In order to see whether there is a record,

organized

a

library

holds a specific item , one needs to know

by

author,

subject, or title, which allows one to search by that category. Having the

idea that one needs to search library catalogs and knows how to search in them is

226

C h a p te r

10

path knowledge.

The question

of where the card catalogs or online catalog term i-

nals are physically located requires location knowledge.

One's physical m ovem ents

on the way to the library catalogs allow exposure to other resources, such as newbook displays, to which one m ayor

m ay not respond.

In other cases, one goes

directly to the catalog site. Then after getting the inform ation,

one needs to know

where the item is located in the library stacks and how to get there. It is possible that one rem em bers the exact location of the item needed in a library or departm ent store; in this case, there will be no scanning

activity involved.

M ore

often, one

knows the path along which the item is placed (e.g., on a specific shelf or on the newspaper racks), in which case locating the item entails scanning the neighborhood along the path. In the process of scanning the neighborhood, to other resources (in the case of traditional

the searcher is exposed

library stacks, books on a sim ilar sub-

ject), which in turn increases the possibility that serendipity m ay occur. Note, however, that in a full-text com puter m ay be irrelevant

system , knowledge

because the com puter

about the location of an item

will bring up the full text of the item

requested (as well as other item s not as relevant). Nevertheless,

in a m aterial world,

there is always a need to know where things are located. Because the environm ent

is not static (e.g., reshelving changes the location

of an

item , new item s are added along the old path, new interfaces and m enus structures are im plem ented),

the individual's

knowledge

varying in degree. Thus, the individual's

about a resource is often incom plete,

knowledge

about contents

and paths as

well as location determ ines the types of browsing activities he m ay engage in as well as the extent to which he m ay browse. Discussing a schem atic view of inform ation-seeking

behavior in which a search is

categorized according to whether it is active or passive and whether it is directed or undirected,

Bates (1986a, 92) considers browsing an active but undirected

search in

that the person "is com m itting

actions in an effort to acquire inform ation,

inform ation-seeking

are not directed to any readily specifiable inform a-

behaviors

but the

tion." She states further that "the searcher cannot say what is being sought because there is no particular preparatory

thing that is wanted."

Inform ation

in essence. The kind of inform ation

seeking of this type is

needed is, in Bates' words,

"the

kind we do not know we need" or even know that it exists; however, it is im portant and "valuable

for our survival"

To Bates, the "exploratory passive searches-either

(93).

paradigm "

is suited to browsing

directed or undirected;

as such and not to

passive searches (e.g., "keeping m y

eyes open for ... " or "open to whatever im pinges on m y awareness")

m ay be con-

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

o f B r o w s in g

ceived as other types of browsing equivalent to indicative and invitational respectively. The passive directed information son knows what is wanted monitoring

function

undirected

ing is "receptive," invitational

seeking is invitational

externally

browsing

induced

than an information-seeking

Bates suggests another

"gathering"

technique.

search begins when one has something

behavior.

or "acquiring"

seek-

In this sense, activity rather

It does not begin with a search activity; a

kind of information

is the kind we know we need. Thus,

seek for that information

online retrieval

systems are designed for. However,

in an active directed search such as most there is a third kind of infor-

the kind we know we do not need now but may need in the future.

It is important

to note that all these different types of human information-seeking

behavior may take place spontaneously.

Because the human mind is capable of par-

allel processing, when we keep our eyes open for something to whatever want.

process. The passive

specifiable to look for.

we purposefully

mation,

(92). Such a

in that the form of information

information-seeking

is an information

browsing,

seeking is indicative in that "the per-

and is alert for it if it should come along"

can be an ongoing information-gathering

information

227

impinges

on our awareness

In other words,

while scanning

of interest, we are open

and are more likely to discover what we

a resource,

one can purposively

look for a

specific thing while being on the lookout

for something

along. Although

seeking and each goal accomplished

each type of information

occur in sequence in time and space, the possibility long-term

goals by scanning

may explain

of interest when it comes may

of fulfilling multiple, near- and

why people

engage in such browsing

activities.

Planning The accomplishment in human

of a goal can be planned

information-seeking

important

aspect of browsing.

intentional,

rational

or unplanned.

is addressed

Planning,

which

by individuals'

is often considered

information

although

and because

retrieval, people may accomplish

of how to achieve them browsing

by taking

can be a planned

a sequential,

revision driven by feedback

browsing

Because people often have multiple goals or long-term environment,

(1987) and is an

cognitive abilities, social factors, resources,

and thus may involve considerable

in an information

The role of planning

by Suchman

process, is subject to continuous

loops and is constrained and context,

behavior

advantage

(Allen 1996, ch. 7). as well as short-term

there is an inherent some goals without of the situations

activity, it is often a situated

goals

uncertainty

in

an advance plan they are in. Thus, action (Suchman

228

10

C h a p te r

1987). In a situated action, one explores things without

a plan, interacting

with the

resource and letting one thing (or idea) suggest another or taking advantage

of the

resources available in the context within which the activity is situated. Applying search theory to a search task in which m ultiple targets were contained in a set of false targets, Janes (1989, 12) concludes that "a sem iadaptive (one which uses inform ation a nonadaptive

search plan

gained during the process of searching) outperform s

plan, which does not take advantage

finding suggests that the inform ation-seeking

of such inform ation."

process is better construed

Janes's as a situ-

ated learning process (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989). W hat characterizes ical scanning inform ation

behavior

is a vague idea of what is to be found and where to find

that is potentially

of interest. In this sense, it is probably

state that no inform ation-seeking This situation

browsing activities. However,

although

O'Connor

m indfulness

num ber

resource

to

and preplanned.

often associated with aspect

of researchers

discovery is not blind luck but rather

to what the external

in this

a result of

has to offer (Carr

1991;

1988).

Based on the preceding

discussion,

as having two m ain dim ensions: (knowledge,

reasonable

accidental discovery is an im portant

it is only one aspect. An increasing

area stress that such accidental the patron's

tasks can be fully anticipated

tends to bring about the notion of serendipity

of browsing,

typ-

the concept

(1) m otivation

of browsing

(purpose, goal), and (2) cognition

plan) in a scanning process, with subdim ensions:

be either active inform ation

seeking or passive inform ation

can be directed or undirected;

can be construed

(a) the purpose

gathering;

can

(b) the goal

(c) the knowledge can be knowing what is needed or

that what is being sought is not known;

and (d) the plan can be either explicitly

designed or not.

Resources

Two of the criteria differentiating

one type of browsing from another with respect

to a resource are (1) form (things them selves vs. their representations), (content vs. structure)

and (2) focus

of the resource sought or scanned.

Form : The Thing Itself and Its Representation A representation

is a surrogate

for the thing itself. Representation

converts

intangible into the tangible. "Indexes, abstracts, physical and m athem atical

the

m odels,

classification schem es, statistical sum m aries, and catalog entries are all exam ples of representations

of objects"

(Buckland

1991b,

124). Com pared

to surrogates

like

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

catalogs,

things themselves,

potentially

show (though

resentations) surrogates

and

allow

such as books or documents,

some attributes browsers

of information

the structure"

(M archionini

structures

229

have more attributes

to

may be made more explicit in the rep-

some sensory

does not. "The representational

organizations

o f B r o w s in g

experiences

structure

that

browsing

of an interface

and the physical mechanisms 1995, 44). For example,

required

their

refers to the to manipulate

in a book, representational

include linear book pages, chapter divisions, tables or figures, footnotes,

tables of contents,

and indexes. These interface

strain search potentials. the "entry point,"

which may be accomplished

that provide information examination

(M archionini

However,

structures

both facilitate

One initial challenge for browsing randomly

objects for examination

through

or through

representations

iterative opportunistic

1995, 101).

the thing sought can be the information

contained

physical location need not be a printed journal or document unit in a computer-based

and con-

is identifying/selecting

information

system. Although

in an article whose

but may be a full-text

the thing itself, in most

cases, refers to a physical object in the material world that occupies a single physical space and thus a single category in a classified arrangement, of as a particular human

manifestation

history. The possibility

of retrieval media available at a particular of separating

people perceive, seek, and use information Although

it can be conceived

(Rice 1987).

real objects occupy physical space, which makes comparison

tiple items more difficult, they are readily accessible to the browser spontaneity

time in

content from media changes the way

for the browser to examine the item's attributes

of mul-

and thus offer

according

to his own

criteria. Real objects, having more spatial cues (shape, color, texture, physical placement), make browsing easier to follow and aid later memory recall of the information. On the other hand, a physical card catalog can bring together as possible in one physical place for browsing some attributes

as many items

and may allow easier comparison

of

between different kinds of items (books) that are physically separate

from one another on the actual shelves. As a special case of the difference between tions, textual

information

surrogates/representations gested in chapter

the thing itself and its representa-

itself can be the object sought or browsed. of such textual information

9, browsing

library

The typical

are library catalogs. As sug-

stacks has different effects than

browsing

library catalogs. In online catalogs it is possible to have different levels of representation, arrange

such as a citation, information

a full M ARC record, or an abstract.

It is also possible to

in online catalogs in different ways to allow various kinds of

browsing to take place (e.g., by classifications,

by title, by subject headings), which

230

C h a p te r 1 0

m ay not be possible in browsing library stacks because of the physical constraints of the m aterial world. The differences between browsing

physical item s and representations

im portant

im plications

(Lancaster

1978). These differences also raise the question

for the concepts

of virtual,

m ay have

digital, and paperless libraries of what happens when

what was previously physical is now online, since the role of physical m ovem ent and authentic

activity (in contrast to cognitive activity) m ay have substantial

cognition

and learning (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989).

Focus: Content

effects on

and Structure/Path

One m ay scan contents

or paths, depending

on one's knowledge

about one's pur-

pose and goal as well as on the resource and interface involved. Indeed, it seem s that m ost system s em phasize content-based is path-focused.

As inform ation

structures

from system to system , path-based since inform ation

browsing. In reality, scanning for orientation are increasingly

browsing

seeking and evaluation

com plex and m ay vary

activities m ay becom e com m onplace,

depend very m uch on what contents and

paths are available and m ade explicit to users. The literature

shows that television viewers engage in zapping for orientation

see what is available and for evaluation

before selecting a particular

to

channel or pro-

gram . In the case of wayfinding or hypertext browsing, the presence of m aps or relational graphics neighborhood,

helps users to see relations

between

the current

position

and its

and to decide what path to take to reach the desired destination.

The efficiency and effectiveness of a search relies on a determ ination what and where the destination plex environm ent,

is but also of how to get there. In a large-scale, com -

the nature of the process is as im portant

ditional inform ation

not only of

retrieval system s, little attention

(Bates 1986a, c). W ith new technology

as the result. Yet, in tra-

has been paid to such issues

such as hyperm edia,

where search paths are

m ade m ore explicit to system users via m aps or graphics, this is technically feasible and desirable. Belkin, M archetti, ciated with the "browsing

of the resource,

(3) not understanding

(2) not finding appropriate

one's location

ture, and (4) not being able to m ove appropriately They also propose

asso-

task." These problem s include (1) not knowing the struc-

tures, nodes, and relationships points to the resource,

and Cool (1993) identify several problem s

in the resource struc-

within the resource

som e suggestions for system support

structure.

to cope with these prob-

lem s, including a structured

display of the resource with an explanation

and a display of interaction

history as well as the display and im m ediate

ity of all traversals within the structure.

entry

of link types availabil-

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

Contextual

"W hen the context

of cognition

is ignored, it is impossible

in the environment,

zation of mental processes"

in artifacts

(Hutchins,

One of the two distinct situations

that is out of perceptual

driven by the sight of a resource libraries and museums 1991). During

in which one attempts

to find an intended

is driven by the internal

awareness.

is when

institutions

designed to invite the attention

two important

factors

re-

goal of finding a

The other situation

(Bell 1991). Thus, cultural

are purposefully scanning,

to see the contribution

and in other people to the organi-

cited in Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989).

source takes place when the individual

(Carr

231

Factors

of the structure

resource

o f B r o w s in g

she is such as

of visitors

influence the visibility of a

resource: d i s p l a y o r i n t e r fa c e d e s i g n , and the s t r u c t u r e o f o r g a n i za t i o n . M oreover, the duration

of a scanning activity is also influenced by economic resources such as

time or money available.

Interface

(Display)

Although

interface normally

communication

refers to the point where a user and an information/

system interact, more generally interface refers to the contact point

between the user and a resource. The issues of interface are primarily related to the layout or displays of a spatial unit, whether a physical space or an electronic space. Since one characteristic

of browsing is being able to gain access to and move about

in a space as easily as possible, interface design affects scanning and movement

be-

havior to a great extent. For example, in an organization,

hallways are primary interfaces for social brows-

ing, and their layout influences the frequency and quality of members'

social inter-

actions (Kraut et al. 1990). In the library, shelf paths are the interfaces of collection browsing.

Collections

documents

arranged

that are not grouped by geography)

by related concepts

(e.g., government

are not as brows able as classified bookshelves

(Boll, 1985). In this sense, a good interface should bring related items together and facilitate the browser's As to the computer

association. interface, Tuori (1987) suggests that a system is more brows-

able if it does not create a great demand knowledge

of organizational

(file) structure,

on users for specification

and the language used to communicate

with the system as well as modality of interaction.

For instance, there is a major dif-

ference between scanning and movement in a computer (1971) and Hancock-Beaulieu

and that in a library. Apted

(1989) note that browsing

ment is more like "specific browsing"

of intention,

(although

in a computer

environ-

this may be true in fewer instances

10

232

C h a p te r

with

hypermedia,

the Internet,

and graphical

library requires only a vague specification something

that is not even necessary

users have to adjust dures,"

browsers),

browsing

of topic ("general purposive

for a random

their ideas from

whereas

browsing"),

walk. In computer

"shelf arrangement"

in a

browsing,

to "computer

proce-

which are often not transparent.

Furthermore,

scanning via the computer

interface is not the same as scanning via

a physical interface; the former is mainly a cognitive activity, whereas the latter also involves physical movement

such as walking

paring various versions of an electronic metaphor,

or head rotation.

library catalog

For example,

com-

system using the browsing

Borgman et al. (1995) report that adding the feature of "browsing

phys-

ically adjacent items" seemed to confuse the children who were the subjects in their experiments.

One explanation

might be that movement

gives people a sense of place, multisensory ification,

which may not be obtainable

Koppelman perience

1992). Still, little is known

in a physical

setting

to explore

stimulation, in electronic about

is different

is needed

browsing

in physical places) for understanding

ior in electronic information cal applications,

that

the implications

human

grat-

(Salomon

and

and how such spatial exin electronic

of such physical

system environments

environments. movement

information-seeking

(or

behav-

in all areas that have technologi-

including browsing library stacks, in-store shopping, organizational

scanning, and communication

Organization

environments

whether

from

Research

in a physical setting also

and sociaVrecreational

as well as wayfinding.

(Structure)

Organizational

arrangement

and physical proximity

of what is displayed influences

the type and level as well as the ease of browsing.

Organizational

Arrangement

The alphabetical

sequence of journal displays makes

them easy to scan, but items placed next to each other alphabetically cals shelf sometimes

do not present an apparent

linear physical structure,

logical connection.

the classified arrangement

of library stacks makes associa-

tive browsing easier by bringing logically related items together. both types of arrangement by descriptor

by limited alternative

terms) that can be made available without

in an online database. zational

are constrained

structure

On the other hand, search paths (e.g.,

such physical constraints

as

Thus, one design issue is to determine what types of organi-

can be best used to facilitate browsing.

Another issue is whether the user/browser.

on a periodiW ith a similar

and how the organizational

In many instances,

the problem

structure

is made explicit to

of entry point arises because the

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

organizational

structure

is not transparent

o f B r o w s in g

233

to the browser. This is a problem

cially to those who do not have knowledge

of how m any layers of inform ation

espeare

in the system , what is available, and how to get to where they want to go.

Physical Proxim ity proxim ity,

There are two im portant

aspects of the concept

one related to "depth of penetration"

effort principle."

of physical

and the other related to the "least

First, the display of item s in a physical place often allows im m edi-

ate access to the item s for further inspection

and thus increases the possibility for

the browser to do sam pling. The possibility of sam pling at various depths of detail m akes an im portant versus browsing

difference in term s of the consequences of browsing real objects

representations.

In the latter

case of representations,

one often

needs to take an extra step to locate the item 's physical place in order to "try it on" or to m ake a value judgm ent. browsing

This extra

(e.g., to gain orientation

appointm ent,

which

m ay not

step often leads to a different kind of

to find the location

occur when

instance, when the item identified through expected

shelf). Although

able, a person surrounded

of an item ) or leads to disin a physical

a representation

context

(for

is not actually on the

the user m ay still find that the needed item is not availby other item s will tend to look around the neighborhood

to see what else is available, som ething online interaction

scanning

that is less likely to happen in the case of

that has not been designed to support browsing. During interac-

tion with form al online retrieval system s, typically either one gets what one wants or not; there are no extra attention-catching related contents.

m essages available on the screen about

However, W eb pages on the Internet have radically changed this

experience (Erdelez 1996), allowing users to encounter novel inform ation providing too m any distracting

and peripheral

as well as

im ages and links.

M aking a trip to a library or a shopping m all costs tim e and energy. People m ay take advantage

of physical proxim ity

to look around the neighborhood

even when

their purpose is to accom plish a specific goal. They m ay engage in a kind of opportunistic

browsing

unexpected

to see what is there and m ay find som ething

before they encounter

that is useful but

it.

Feedback: Form and Extent Browsing as an interactive,

iterative process depends on whether

and what kinds

of feedback are available. In som e instances, feedback is instant and effective. For exam ple, if a person's that knowledge feedback

knowledge can be conceived as a database,

one m ay browse

store by engaging in a face-to-face com m unication

allowing instant

and can easily change to whatever

topics either com m unication

partner

234

C h a p te r

10

C o n te x t In flu e n c e s

D im e n s io n s

C onsequences

B e h a v io r

B e h a v io r

S e re n d ip ity

S c a n n in g M o tiv a tio n

F in d in g

M o tiv a tio n

~ ~

C o g n itio n

G oal

----+

C o g n itio n

D is o rie n ta tio n

K n o w le d g e R e s o u rc e

R e s o u rc e

O v e rlo a d

Focus L e a rn in g

t

t Ite ra tio n

w ith c h a n g e

Figure 10.1 Preliminary Framework of Browsing

Table 10.1 Dimensions and Subdimensions in a General M odel of Browsing Contextual

Behavioral

Resource

M otivational

Cognitive

Structure (organization)

Scanning

Form (item/ representation)

Purpose

Knowledge

Interface (display)

M ovement

Focus (content/path)

Goal

Plan

Feedback Economic factors

wishes,

making

menu-based repeated make

"choice

system

searches

the system

of alternative

requiring

may make

the iterative

difficult to browse

talking

with Star Trek's

general

plays a role in browsing,

the process patibility fluences,

1996).

of perceiving with

one's

much

process

or ineffective

Dr. Spock in his excessively

easier.

On the other

and

more time-consuming, for browsing

hand,

a

step by step for and thus

purposes,

logical moments.

such as

Evaluating

in

as users must decide on what they receive during

the resource,

biases

and assessment

routes"

the user to specify each command

in terms of relevance,

expectations

of both the form

and

with

(representation)

prior knowledge,

one's

relevant

com-

social

and the content

in-

(Allen

P r e lim in a r y F r a m e w o r k

Table

235

10.2

Tentative

Taxonomy

of Browsing Extremes

Dimension Purpose

(e.g., recreational

Intrinsic

or informational)

•....•Extrinsic

Goal (e.g., learning or selecting)

Nondirected

Content

Nonspecific

(e.g., physical item or information)

Structure

(e.g., physical pathway

Location

Table

o f B r o w s in g

(e.g., position

or meta-information)

Non-path-specific Nonspecific

on a shelf or a list)

•....•Directed •....•Specific •....•Path-specific

•....•Specific

10.3

Using a M otivational

Dimension-Goal-to

Analyze Situations

Domain

W ell-Defined

Library

Find a book by an

Find books on a

Find something

author

subject

interesting

Find an item of a

Find an item in a

Find something

brand of a category

category

cleaning

Shopping

Goal

(e.g., Tide detergent)

Semidefined

Goal

Ill-defined Goal

for

(e.g., soap)

(e.g., any liquid detergent)

TV

Choose specific

Choose a specific

W atch whatever

channel and

channel

catches the eye or ear

program Organizational

Talk to particular

Talk to someone

Talk unexpectedly

communication

person at specific

sometime

in a hallway

time (formal meeting)

Table

(infor-

mal conversation)

lOA

Interaction

Between Goal and Resource/Content

Search Path/Structure W ell-Defined

Resource W ell-Defined

Content

Ill-Defined Content

Goal

Ill-Defined

Goal

Know how and what to

Know what but not how to

look for

look for

Know how but not what to

Unsure about what and

look for

how to look for

236

C h a p te r 1 0

In the literature, (2) orientation

feedback. Relevance feedback is content-related

a list of citations), displaying

two common forms of feedback are (1) relevance feedback, and

whereas

orientation

the semantic structure

to "the depth of penetration" citation with abstract,

feedback

(such as displaying

is structure/path-related

of a database).

(such as

The extent of feedback is related

or level of brows ability, ranging from citation

only,

M ARC format, all the way to full text, with or without

pic-

tures or sounds.

Economic Factors The term e c o n o m i c is used here to refer to time and money or the degree of effort that one needs to put forth in order to accomplish

one's goal or purpose. The time

available influences the level of browsing in terms of time spent. Timing of feedback also influences the extent to which one may browse. The money involved, such as online charges or money available during shopping, may also be an influential factor. The effort is confined by the limitation

of people's energy and attention

as other factors such as the perceived importance mentioned optimal

as well

or usefulness of the resource. As

earlier, the least-effort principle suggests that people do not always seek

results. Given the fact that browsing

what will be found, it is conceivable

often takes place without

that it will be encouraged

knowing

when one is not

required to invest much effort to do it.

M odels and Examples

For a quick reference of the dimensions a preliminary

framework

the possible relationships 10.1 summarizes

among influences, dimensions,

the subdimensions

Table 10.2 lists the common again based on the literature aspect of the motivational browsing

discussed in this chapter, figure 10.1 shows

of browsing derived from the literature

and consequences.

under each component

dimensions

analysis. It depicts

identified under the browsing component,

review. Table

dimension-goal-to

10.3 gives an example

of using one

analyze various situations in which

behavior takes place. Table lOA shows the possible interaction

two dimensions

to form the prototypes

Table

of the general model.

of browsing behavior.

between

11 A

Research Approach: Browsing

The difficulties associated pressed in the INTREX proposed

with the em pirical

investigation

of browsing

project in which a series of experim ents

(Overhage and Harm an

on browsing

of such a seem ingly undirected

activity problem atic.

diaries, user choices between alternatives,

estim ates

or costs involved in browsing

sources for data collection. user's account of browsing

Licklider

inform ation particular

(1965) suggests that researchers

activities and define the conditions

throughout

seeking in general (Belkin et al. 1990; Roberts

behavior

look at the

or courses of action the literature

of people's goals and m otives during the processes of

(Ayris 1986; Boll 1985; O'Connor

of browsing conditions,

and subjective

have all been suggested as

within the dom ain of browsing. The one thing consistent is a call for the investigation

m easurem ent, Questionnaires,

record keeping, personal of probabilities

was

1965). The authors noted that the absence of nor-

m ative data on browsing habits in existing libraries m ade description, or evaluation

were ex-

1982) and browsing in

1993). Thus, the design of this study

focuses on the identification

of browsing

activities and the

including goals and m otives, that lead people to engage in those activi-

ties. It seeks to answer the following

two questions:

W hat is the nature

of brows-

ing? and W hat m otivates people to browse? Given the am biguity and com plexity angulation

m ethodology

(Eisenhardt

of the topic, this research lends itself to a tri1989). In this research,

this entails em pirical

studies of real persons in real situations using m ultiple m ethods. The em pirical study is m ainly exploratory and the subsequent

in nature. The hope is that the results of this em pirical study new m odel will aid in the developm ent

of m eaningful

hypothe-

ses for testing in the future. The aim for this research is to create a useful and robust fram ework prelim inary revised

for helping us understand taxonom y

in chapter

of browsing

browsing behavior in various situations. based on the literature

12 to reflect the insights

derived

from

analysis (chapter the case studies.

The 10) is The

238

Chapter 11

following

sections provide

the sources of the data and describe the data analysis

m ethods and procedures.

Data

The data for the em pirical part of this study is based on 33 cases selected from the 150 cases collected

in a research

project

initiated

Saracevic (1991) at the School of Com m unication, (SCILS), Rutgers University,

entitled

by Nicholas Inform ation

Belkin and Tefko and Library Studies

"Design Principles for Third-Generation

On-

line Public Access Catalogs: Taking Account of Users and Library Use." The project "aim s to discover what people attem pt to do in libraries ... and why, and how these activities relate to their m ore general goals and other characteristics degree of success in their inform ation sake of convenience, research was supported

this project

activities"

is referred

No. R197 A80263-88

OCLC October

1988-M arch

and by an External

The next sections describe the rationale

instrum ents

of Education,

College Library TechResearch

Award

from

1991. and the field sites in which the data were

collected, and the data collection procedures tions of the research

to here as the OPACs Project. This

by the U.S. Departm ent

nology Awards

and their

(Belkin et al. 1990, 69). For the

design, m ethodology

of the project. M ore detailed descripfor acquiring

the data, and the survey

of the OPACs project appear in Belkin et al. (1990).

Data Sources The data used in the current

study were collected for the OPACs Project in four

library settings during 1989-1990.

The project is characterized

by a research design

that takes into account the goals and general context of library users, and by a triangulation m ethodology gate people's

using questionnaires,

generic inform ation

provide an appropriate

behavior

observations,

and interviews to investi-

in real-life situations.

Library

settings

context for the current study for the following reasons:

1. Library users are heterogeneous in term s of socioeconom ic variables, knowledge and experience, purpose of visit, and other variables of interest. 2. Library environm ents encourage a variety of inform ation seeking, retrieval, and use behavior by providing a wide range of inform ation resources and facilities (varying within and across libraries). 3. The library encounter and activities are representative of other, sim ilar real-life situations in which people m ay find them selves (e.g., reading newspapers or journals at hom e).

A Research Approach: Browsing

The four settings in which data were collected represent

239

three types of libraries:

the academ ic library (two settings), the public library (one setting), and the special library (one setting). The first of the academ ic libraries, labeled L, serves as an academ ic support

unit for science and m edicine. The other academ ic library functions

as an academ ic

support

unit for the social sciences and hum anities.

users for these facilities include students, are depository

The targeted

faculty, and staff. Both academ ic libraries

libraries and are also open to users outside the academ ic com m unity.

Chang

participated

am ong

the two for inclusion.

in the data collection

from the one academ ic

The public

library,

labeled

library

chosen

W , serves as a public

resource located in a county of New Jersey and is open to any resident of its service area. The special library, labeled F, is a research library and an inform ation for a banking com pany,

providing

inform ation

services for the com pany's

center em ploy-

ees. All four libraries have online public access catalogs available to their users and use standard Classification

classification

schem es, such as Library of Congress or Dewey Decim al

System s to arrange

nized alphabetically

books on the shelves. Other

(e.g., journals

teria (e.g., current journals

and newspapers)

are separately

issues, or rental books are separately

m aterials

or according

are orga-

to som e other cri-

placed from bound journals that are back

displayed from other types of m aterials whose

use is not charged for). In this study, only a subset of data from each of the three libraries was used.

Data Collection Research

Procedures

subjects were self-selected

to the extent

of their visit and agreed to participate. entered patrons'

the library

and explained,

today?"

m aterials

were recruited.

return the books, read m aterials

Thus,

is the purpose

at libraries

W , F, L were

of your visit

and then whose purpose involved

of their own, and so on, were not included.

was then approached

about

who

(i.e., to study

people who cam e to the library

26 percent,

to

If the

the next person who walked

and interviewed

som eone who was qualified and agreed to participate rates

a patron

he would be willing to partici-

did not agree or was not qualified to participate,

into the library

approached

their purpose

of this project

then asked, "W hat

Only those who first agreed to participate

using library

patron

The interviewer

first, the purpose

use of the library) and next asked whether

pate. If he agreed, the interviewer

that they stated

in the sam e m anner was recruited.

65 percent

and

until

The response 50 percent,

respectively. A financial

incentive

was given to subjects for their participation.

search interview followed by a brief self-reported

questionnaire

A brief pre-

was adm inistered

to

240

Chapter 11

discover the general background pate. During the presearch

of the individual

as soon as she agreed to partici-

interview, the interviewer

that brought you to the library today?"

asked, "Specifically what is it

to elicit m ore description

about the purpose

of her visit and recorded the answer on the pre search interview form . In addition to questions

regarding

the patron's

naire asked the patron

general background,

the brief presearch

question-

to state the types of library m aterial she intended to use.

The patron was then followed around from about 3 m eters away and her behaviors and location in the library were noted. If the patron wanted to use the OPACs, she was directed to the designated online pre- and postsearch tionnaire

term inal

questions were captured. A postsearch

followed by a sem istructured

com pleted

whatever

in which search logs with answers to

protocols.

The interviewer

would

interview

describe to the patron

activity he observed her doing based on what was recorded

ques-

once the subject

she had to do during that visit. The postsearch

lows the following

her intention

self-reported

interview was adm inistered

foleach

in the field log, asked

with that activity, how successful she was in realizing that intention,

and why she felt that way about it. For exam ple, the interview would use the protocols: "I observed you do [an actual behavior]; what was your intention

with that

activity?" and "How successful were you with that activity?" The subject then com m ented

on her intentions

served. The interviewer particular

and evaluated

the success of the specific behaviors

also asked the patron

success rating

by prom pting

ob-

to state the reasons why she gave a

with the question:

"W hy do you feel that

way about it?" In cases where OPACs were used, successive screens were played back to the patron, interviewed

in the sam e m anner.

The resultant scripts,

and each screen recording was treated as a separate activity and

data include

structured

and

observation

open-end

logs, audiotapes

questionnaire

data,

from interviews,

and com puter

search

tranlogs

(when users used the online public access catalog in the library).

Data Collection Instrum ents Four kinds of instrum ents

were used to collect data: the activity recordings,

search logs, interview

form s, and questionnaires.

naires. The presearch

questionnaire

explored

the user's purpose

types of resources intended for use. The postsearch reasons that brought

questionnaire

of the m aterials

tion, occupation,

questions

of the quan-

found during the visit, and the im por-

tance of their success in achieving their purpose. The postsearch included biographical

for the visit and inquired about the

the users to the library, their overall evaluation

tity, value, and im portance

OPACs

There were two set of question-

about the individuals,

questionnaire

also

such as their level of educa-

age, and experience in using libraries, com puters,

and library cat-

A Research Approach: Browsing

241

alogs. The original sam ple sizes from the W , F, L libraries are 38, 24, and 40 cases, respectively.

Eleven cases were random ly

selected from each of the three libraries,

so 33 cases out of the 102 cases from the three libraries were used for this study.

Analysis M ethods

and Procedures

Analysis M ethods This em pirical study is guided but not lim ited by the prelim inary as proposed

in chapter

tified and analyzed within the whole spectrum engage. That is, in order to understand kinds of inform ation-seeking fied and exam ined. resource interacted

theoretical

m odel

10. In this em pirical research, browsing activities were idenof library activities in which people

what constitutes

activities or non browsing

Specifically, subjects'

scanning

browsing

behavior,

other

activities were also identi-

behavior

and m otivation,

the

with, and cognitive aspects as suggested in the prelim inary

the-

oretical m odel were looked for in order to verify and clarify those constructs prelim inary

m odel by establishing

As in part I, content m erative develop

the em pirical evidence.

analysis was used (W im m er

and synthetic classification

m ethods

the coding schem es inductively

dim ensions conducted involved,

and categories

and m otivation

behavioral

characteristics

based tentatively

9 and 10. A content

the subjects'

library

Enuand

on the

analysis was

activities, the resources

behind a given activity, as recorded

in observation

logs

logs were analyzed to uncover the

of browsing and the resources involved by content analy-

library activities, as stated in the transcript

as well in the sentence:

"I observed you do such and such [repeat the data in the observation was your intent with that activity?" gories. Pre- and postinterviews

in order to derive behavior

by content

W hat is the purpose

analysis of the data in response

of your visit today? at the entrance

with that activity? during the postinterview

logs]; what

and resource cate-

were analyzed to reveal m otivational

aspects of browsing

your intention

1991).

were used to identify categories

of interview. The field observation

sis of the patron's

and Dom inick

and, iteratively,

identified in chapters

to identify and categorize

and transcripts

in the

interview

and cognitive

to the questions and W hat was

to identify them es across

cases and to derive goal categories in relation to a given activity.

Analysis Procedures The analysis was conducted

in three stages. In the first stage, 10 cases across the

libraries were selected for analysis to develop initial coding schem es. In the second stage, the coding schem es were then applied to 23 new cases across the libraries. The coding schem es were m odified as m ore and m ore of these 23 cases were added for

242

analysis

Chapter 11

through

the iterative

process

of data

analysis. The procedures

used for

analysis are as follows. Identification

of Units for Analysis

1. Each case was seen as being com posed of a sequence of m ovem ents. M ovem ents are distinguishable by the interviewer's question: "First I observed you to go ... ; what was your intent with that activity?" or "Next, I saw you go ... ; what was your intent?" W ithin a m ovem ent, there are episodes. Each episode constitutes the basic unit to be analyzed and is defined as a set of activities conducted toward either an identified intention or, with som e identified objects, as perceived by the interviewer. Thus, an episode is first identified by m ovem ent between physical or logical places in a library setting. These m ovem ents were recorded in the observation logs as "Going to X," where X represents som e area in the library such as the New Nonfiction area, Fiction area, Current Journals Room , bookshelf 363s, and so on. A new episode within a m ovem ent begins when either the goal or the object under consideration changes and it is distinguishable by a question sim ilar to m ovem ent: "I observed you do ... ; what was your intent with that activity?" 2. All episodes within a case were num bered sequentially and each num ber was used as a reference point in later analysis. An exam ple legend used for an episode is W 014# 1, where W indicates the type of library, 014 is the case num ber, # 1 represents the first m ovem ent, and indicates the first intention or object within the m ovem ent. The relationships between case, m ovem ent, and episode can be described as follows. A case is com posed of one or m ore m ovem ents, which are indicated by either a physical place or a logical place. A m ovem ent is com posed of one or m ore episodes, which are defined by either a goal or an object. 3. For each case, the episodes that were considered browsing in its m ost general sense, as discussed in chapter 10, were first identified. That is, the episodes that involved "scanning a library resource" were considered potential browsing activities to be further analyzed. Scanning is operationalized as looking or m oving through a resource. A resource is som ething that people use to solve problem s, to cope with difficulty, to pass tim e, or to entertain them selves. In a library context, it m ay refer to individual item s in a collection or library collections as a whole, including books, journals, and reference tools. It m ay also refer to facilities such as CD-ROM or com puterized catalogs, or other search aids such as signs and floor m aps. Thus, although m any inform ation-seeking behaviors were observed in the library setting, som e of these behaviors had no direct connection to the activity of scanning and so were not included for further analysis. Talking with people (a librarian, a friend), using a copy m achine, or looking at one's notebook, are exam ples of activities that were not included. Content Analysis 4. The next step was to describe the characteristics of each episode involving scanning a resource with respect to those theoretical dim ensions discussed in chapter 10, based on the observation logs and interview data. Take W 004 as an exam ple.

A Research Approach: Browsing

In the observation

logs of W 004#1,

Go directly to New NonFiction

243

the following was recorded:

area.

Scan the shelf, select a book, look at the jacket, put back.

This instance was then described as characterized by direct m ovem ent to a known location, and involving looking through a series of books on the shelf, selecting an item , and exam ining jacket of the item . The behavioral characteristics were direct m ovem ent, looking, selecting, and exam ining. The resource involved was books. Location knowledge was im plied. In the transcript, the interviewer asks, "The first thing that I saw you do was go right over to the nonfiction area and browse. Looks like you selected a book from the shelf, looked at jacket in the front of the book, and you kept it at that point. Can you tell m e what your intention was then?" The user responds: "W ell, I guess as soon as I began looking at the book and after seeing the jacket and the subject, I decided that it m ight be a book that I would like to read." From the dialogue, the subject's goal was "to find" biographies to read, as also reflected in next two following episodes. The object was "biographies." 5. Com m onalities across episodes that corresponded to theoretical dim ensions were then identified. In the observation logs, the next two episodes were Scan, look at cover, return.

Scan, look at front pages, keep it.

The sam e behavioral characteristics were noted. That is, looking at the shelf, selecting a book, and exam ining part of the book. The resource involved was books. In the transcript, the interviewer asks, "Okay, you continued to browse there, you selected a book, looked at the cover and put it back on the shelf, selected another, looked at the jacket, and found a book, and you kept it. W hat was your intention at that point?" (#1